CHAPTER 1

FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.1 FUNCTIONS: a quick revie
De!i"i#i$".
A function f is a rule that associates a unique output with each input. If the input is denoted
by x, then the output is denoted by f(x) [ read f of x]
onsider ! x " x # ) x ( f
!
+ , the output of f are obtained by substitutin$ nu%erical
&alues for x.
'or exa%ple,
( ! ) ! ( " ) ! ( # ) ! ( f
) ! ) ) ( " ) ) ( # ) ) ( f
! ) * ( f
!
!
+
+

If we use t or x+h as input, the output will be,

+ +
+ + + +
+
) ! x " x # ( ,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,, ) x ( f ) h x ( f
,,, ,,,,,,,,,, ! ) h x ( " ) h x ( # ) h x ( f
! t " t # ) t ( f
!
!
!
E%a&'(e 1
If f(x) - .x /), find0
a. f(!)
b. the &alue of 1 if f(1) - #
c. f(x
!
)
d. f()2x)
Solution
a. f(!) -
-
- )3
b. f(1) - #
.1 / ) - #
-
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
1 -
!
)
c. f(x
!
) -
d. f()2x) -
-
- 4 / .x
1.1.1 -ra') $! !u"c#i$"*
5raph of so%e basic functions

!
y
x
x=y
y=x
2
y
x
y=1/x
y
x
y=x
3
y
x
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
1.1.. D$&ai" a"+ ra"/e
If y-f(x), then the set of all possible inputs (x2&alues) is called the do%ain of f, and the set
of outputs (y2&alues) that result when x &aries o&er the do%ain is called the ran$e of f.
6 7
f 8an$e

9o%ain odo%ain
:he do%ain and ran$e of a function can be obtained by s1etchin$ the $raph or usin$
al$ebraic approach.
If f and $ are two fuctions with 9f and 9$ respecti&ely, then
$ f $ f
$ f $ f
9 9 9 . b
9 9 9 . a

+
; * ) x ( $ 0 x < 9 9 9 . d
9 9 9 . c
$ f
$
f
$ f f$


1.1...1 D$&ai" a"+ ra"/e $! '$(,"$&ia( !u"c#i$"
E%a&'(e .
'ind the do%ain and ran$e of the followin$ functions
) x ! x ) x ( f . c
! x ) x ( f . b
3 x ! ) x ( f . a
!
!
+
+
+
#
y
x
2
x
#
x y
y
x
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
Solution
a. f(x)- !x + 3
-ra')ica( a''r$ac)
=1etch the $raph of y - !x + 3

It is clear that ) , ( 8 ) , ( 9
f f

A(/e0raic a''r$ac)
y - !x+3. y is defined for all &alues of x, thus ) , ( 9
f

!
3 y
x
3 y x !
3 x ! y

+
x is defined for all &alues of y. :hus ) , ( 8
f

) , ! ( 8 ) , ( 9
%ethod $raphical use to easier is it question this 'or . b
f f

c. >y co%pletin$ the square
!
!
!
) ) x (
] ) ) ) ) x [(
] ) x ! x [ ) x ( f

+
+
and s1etch the $raph

:hus ) * , ( 8 ) , ( 9
f f

"
y
0 1
x
5
-5/2
x
y
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
1.1.... D$&ai" a"+ ra"/e $! ra+ica( !u"c#i$"
E%a&'(e 1
'ind the do%ain and ran$e of the followin$ functions
!
x ? ) x ( f . d
) x ! ) x ( f . c
x ! ) x ( f . b
! x ) x ( f . a

+


Solution
! x ) x ( f . a
-ra')ica( &e#)$+

) , * ( 8 ) , ! ( 9
f f


A(/e0raic a''r$ac)
! x y
y is only defined if x2! @ *, that is x @ !. :hus ) , ! ( 9
f

! y x
! x y
! x y
!
!
+


x is defined for all &alues of y. =ince ) , * [ 8 thus , * ! x y
f

b. 5raphical %ethod or al$ebraic approach can be use
Ans0 ) , * ( 8 ) ! , ( 9
f f

c. 5raphical %ethod or al$ebraic approach can be use
Ans0 ) , ! ( 8 ) , ) ( 9
f f

3
x
y
* !
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
d. 5raphical %ethod or al$ebraic approach can be use
Ans0 ] # , * [ 8 ] # , # [ 9
f f

1.1...1 D$&ai" a"+ ra"/e $! e%'$"e"# a"+ ($/ !u"c#i$"

:he do%ain of f(x) - a
x
is
) , (
:he ran$e of f(x) - a
x
is
) , * (
:he do%ain of f(x) - x lo$
a
is
) , * (
:he ran$e of f(x) - x lo$
a
is
) , (
1.1...2 D$&ai" a"+ ra"/e $! a0*$(u#e va(ue a"+ ra#i$"a( !u"c#i$"
E%a&'(e 2
'ind the do%ain and ran$e of the followin$ functions
) x
#
) x ( f . b
) x ) x ( f . a

+
Solution
a. It is easier to use $raphical %ethod

(
y
-1
x
x
y=a
x
y=x
y=log
a
x
y
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
) , * ( 8 ) , ( 9
f f

b.
) x
#
) x ( f

-ra')ica( Me#)$+

) , * ( ) * , ( 8 ) , ) ( ) ) , ( 9
f f

A(/e0raic Me#)$+
) x
#
y

y is defined for all &alues of x except x - )

:hus, ) , ) ( ) ) , ( 9
f

) x
#
y

y
y #
x
y # yx
# y yx
# ) ) x ( y
+

+


x is defined for all &alues of y except y - *
:hus, ) , * ( ) * , ( 8
f

1.1.1 C$&'$*i#e !u"c#i$"*
De!i"i#i$"
4
y
x
0 1
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
5i&en functions f and $, the co%position of f with $, denoted by
$ f
, is the function
defined by
(
$ f
)(x) - f($(x))
:he do%ain of fo$ is defined to consist of all x in the do%ain of $ for which $(x) is in the
do%ain of f.
E%a&'(e 3
Aet # x ) x ( f
!
+ and x ) x ( $ , 'ind
f $ . b
$ f . a

Solution
# x
# ) x (
) x ( f
)) x ( $ ( f $ f . a
!
+
+

# x
) # x ( $
)) x ( f ( $ f $ . b
!
!
+
+

E%a&'(e 4
'ind
#
x ) x ( h , x B ) ) x ( $ , x ) x ( f if ) x )( h $ f (
Solution
! B #
#
x
)


)) x ( $ ( f
))) x ( h ( $ ( f ) x )( h $ f (

Piecei*e !u"c#i$"*
:he absolute &alue function f(x) - CxC is an exa%ple of a function that is defined piecewise
in the sense that the for%ula of f chan$es dependin$ on the &alue of x.
.
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
E%a&'(e 5
=1etch the $raph

'

<

* x if x
* x if x
x
Solution
E%a&'(e 6
=1etch the $raph

'

< <

) x x
) x ) x )
) x *
) x ( f
!
Solution
E%a&'(e 7
f(x)-*
!
x ) ) x ( f
f(x)-x
x
y
) )
*
?
y
y-CxC
x
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
A function f is defined by

'

>

) x if x
) x if x )
) x ( f
!
D&aluate f(*), f()), f(!) and s1etch the $raph
Solution
f(*) - ) f()) - * f(!) - "

x
E%erci*e 1.1
). If f(x) - #2 3x, find
a) f(2!)
b) f(x
#
)
c) f(!x + ))
d) the &alue of p so as f(p) - )
!. 'ind the do%ain and ran$es of the followin$ functions
x 4 ) x ( f ) l x 4 ) x ( f ) f
x )( f(x) 1)
x 3
) x
f(x) e)
x x f(x) E)
! x
(
f(x) d)
# x f(x) i) # "x x f(x) c)
! x ) f(x) h) 3 x f(x) ) b
x 4 ) x ( f ) $ # x . ) x ( f ) a
!
!
!


+

+
+

+ +
+ +

Answer0
)*
y
1
1
y =1-x
y = x
2
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
3
!
) d
! x )* ) c
x 3 # ) b
)# ) a . )
#

1.. LIMITS
If the &alues of f(x) can be %ade as close as we li1e to A by ta1in$ &alues of x sufficiently
close to a (but not equal to a), then we write
A ) x ( f li%
a x

which is read the li%it of f(x) as

x approaches a is A
1...1 Fi"+i"/ (i&i#* !r$& /ive" /ra')
E%a&'(e 18
Fa1e a conEecture($uess) about the &alue of the li%it
) ) x
x
li% ) a
* x
+

x
x sin
li% ) b
* x
Solution
a)
x 2*.*) 2*.**) 2*.***) 2*.****) * *.****) *.***) *.**)
f(x) ).??"?.4 ).???3** ).????3* ).?????3 !.*****3 !.****3 !.***3**
o
Gence we conEecture that
!
) ) x
x
li%
* x

+

))
y
2
x
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
b)
x(radians)
x
x sin
H).* *..")"4
H*.? *..4*#(
H*.. *..?(4*
H*.4 *.?!*#)
H*.( *.?")*4
H*.3 *.?3..3
H*." *.?4#33
H*.# *.?.3*4
H*.! *.??##3
H*.) *.??.##
H*.*) *.????.
:he data in the table su$$est that )
x
x sin
li%
* x

And it is consistent with the $raph of f(x)

o
1.... C$&'u#i"/ Li&i#*
9a*ic 'r$'er#ie* $! (i&i#*
Pr$'er#ie* E%a&'(e*
c c li% . a
a x

! ! li%
a x

n n
a x
a x li% . b

. ! x li%
# #
! x

)!
y
x
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
) x ( $ li% ) x ( f li% )] x ( $ ) x ( f [ li% . c
a x a x a x
t t
)!
# #
x li% x li% ] x x [ li%
!
# x
!
# x
!
# x

+
t +

) x ( $ li% ). x ( f li% )] x ( $ ). x ( f [ li% . d
a x a x a x

"
) ) # ( )
) x # ( li% . x li% ) x # ( x li%
!
) x
!
) x
!
) x

+
+ +

* ) x ( $ li% ,
) x ( $ li%
) x ( f li%
) x ( $
) x ( f
li% . e
a x
a x
a x
a x

4
"

# x li%
x ! li%
# x
x !
li%
!
! x
! x
!
! x

) x ( f li% c )] x ( cf [ li% . f
a x a x

)"
) 4 ( !
) " x ( li% ! ) " x ( ! li%
# x # x

+ +

* ) x ( f li%
e$er int positi&e n , ) x ( f li% ) x ( f li% . $
a x
n
a x
n
a x

#
.)
) 3) x 4 x ! ( li% 3) x 4 x ! li%
"
"
#
! x
" #
! x

+ + + +

If
*
*
) x ( $
) x ( f
li%
a x

, then the function f(x) and $(x)need to be si%plified by factoriIation or

by %ultiplyin$ with their conEu$ates.
E%a&'(e 11
9eter%ine
# x #
! x x
li%
!
) x

+

Solution
=i%plify and factoriIe, we obtain
)
#
! )

#
) ! x (
li%
) ) x ( #
) ) x )( ! x (
li%
# x #
! x x
li%
) x
) x
!
) x

)#
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
E%a&'(e 1.
9eter%ine
? x
# x
li%
? x

S$(u#i$"
=i%plify by %ultiplyin$ the nu%erator and deno%inator by the conEu$ate of # x
(
)



? x
# x
li%
? x

1...1 T)e re(a#i$"*)i' 0e#ee" $"e:*i+e+ (i&i#* a"+ #$ *i+e+ (i&i#*

:he two sided li%its of a function f(x) exists at a if and only if both of the one2sided li%its
exist at a and ha&e the sa%e &alueJ that is,
A ) x ( f li%
a x

if and only if
) x ( f li% A ) x ( f li%
a x a x
+


E%a&'(e 11
3 ) # x ! ( li%
) x
+

exist because
3 ) # x ! ( li% ) # x ! ( li%
) x ) x
+ +
+

1...2 I"!i"i#e (i&i#*
). If the function f increases without li%it when x approaches a, then
+

) x ( f li%
a x

)"
* a
y
x
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
!. If the function f decreases without li%it when x approaches a, then

) x ( f li%
a x
#. If
+
+

) x ( f li%
a x
and

) x ( f li%
a x
$r

+

) x ( f li%
a x
and
+

) x ( f li%
a x

then

) x ( f li%
a x
". If a@*,
+

+
a x
)
li% . a
a x

a x
)
li% . b
a x
3. If the function f approaches A when x increases without li%it, then
A ) x ( f li%
x

+
(. If the function f approaches F when x decreases without li%it, then
F ) x ( f li%
x


4. 'or n@*
*
x
)
li% . a
n
x

1
]
1

+
*
x
)
li% . b
n
x

1
]
1

.. If

1
]
1

) x ( $
) x ( f
li%
x
, then we need to si%plify the function by di&idin$ the nu%erator
and the deno%inator by the hi$hest power of x
E%a&'(e 11
)3
x
y
* a
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
)
x
"
)
x
#
)
li%
x
"
x
x
x
#
x
x
li%
" x
# x
li% . a
x
x x

+


)

*
)

x
"
x
)
x
#
)
li%
x
"
x
x
x
#
x
x
li%
" x
# x
li% . b
!
!
x
! !
! !
!
x
!
x

+


?. :he line x - a is a &ertical asy%ptote of the $raph if
t
+

) x ( f li%
a x
or
t

) x ( f li%
a x
)*. :he line y - b is a horiIontal asy%ptote of the $raph if
b ) x ( f li%
x

+
or
b ) x ( f li%
x


E%a&'(e 12
) x
#
) x ( f

+
) x
!
) x ( f li%
) x

) x
!
) x ( f li%
) x
hence, x - ) is the &ertical asy%ptote
)(
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
and y - * is the horiIontal asy%ptote.
E%erci*e 1..
). 5i&en )* x x . ) x ( f
! #
+ + and " x ! x ) x ( $
#
+ , deter%ine
) x ( $ li%
) x ( $
) x ( f
li%
! x x
+
(FA: ).#, Farch !**")
Ans0 )(
!. a. Aet ,
x # x
x ? x
) x ( h
! #
#

find
) x ( h li% ) x ( h li%
x # x

(FA: ).#,Kct !**")

b. 'ind
4 x
! x #
li%
!
x

+

Ans0 a. ) b. #
#. D&aluate the followin$ li%its
)! x " x
" x
li% . a
!
!
! x
+

4 "
3 4
x
x # x !
x " x 3
li% . b

(FA: )"?, Farch !**!)
Ans0
#
3 2
b.
!
)
. a
". 'ind the equations of the horiIontal and &ertical asy%ptotes of the cur&e
) x
x # x !
y
!
!

(FA: )"?, Farch !**!)

Ans0
! y , ) x t
)4
y
x
0 1
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
3. 5i&en

'

>
< <

# x , x .
# x * , x !
* x , x
) x ( $
!
a. 5i&e the do%ain of $(x) in the inter&al for%.
b. 'ind the followin$ li%itsJ
) x ( $ li% ) i
* x
) x ( $ li% ) ii
! x
) x ( $ li% ) iii
# x
) x ( $ li% ) i&
x
(FA: )"?, Farch !**!)
Ans0
) , # ( ) # , ( . a
b. *,", does not exist,
1.1 CONTINUITY
De!i"i#i$"
A function f is said to be continuous at x - c if the followin$ conditions are satisfied0
). f(c) is defined
!.
) x ( f li%
c x
exists.
#.
) c ( f ) x ( f li%
c x

E%a&'(e 13
9eter%ine whether the followin$ functions are continuous at x - !.

'

'

! x "
! x ,
! x
" x
) x ( h
! x #
! x ,
! x
" x
) x ( $
! x
" x
) x ( f
! !
!
Solution
:he function f is undefined at x - ! so f(x) is not continuous
:he function $ is defined at x - ! , that is $(!) - #
).
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
"
! x li%
) ! x (
) ! x )( ! x (
li%
! x
" x
li% ) x ( $ li%
! x
! x
!
! x ! x

) x ( $ li%
! x
$(!), therefore $(x) is not continuous at x - !
:he function h is defined at x - ! , that is h(!) - "
"
! x li%
) ! x (
) ! x )( ! x (
li%
! x
" x
li% ) x ( h li%
! x
! x
!
! x ! x

" ) ! ( h ) x ( h li%
! x

, therefore h(x) is continuous at x - !.

I"#er&e+ia#e:;a(ue #)e$re&
If f is continuous on a closed inter&al [a,b] and 1 is any nu%ber between f(a) and f(b),
inclusi&e, then there is at least one nu%ber x in the inter&al [a,b] such that f(x)-1.
:he followin$ consequences of Inter%ediate2Lalue theore% can be use in approxi%atin$
roots
T)e$re&
If f is continuous on [a,b], and if f(a) and f(b) are nonIero and ha&e opposite si$ns, then
there is at least one solution of the equation f(x)-* in the inter&al (a,b).
E%erci*e 1.1
). 5i&en

'

>
< +
<

" x )*
" x # # 1x
# x x
) x ( $
!
)?
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
'ind the &alue of 1 if $(x) is continuous at x-#, hence, deter%ine whether the function is
continuous at x-"
(FA: ).#, Farc !**")
Ans0 1 - !, $(x) is not continuous at x - #
!. Aet

'

+
<
< +

! x c x !
! x * x
* x )
!
x
) x ( f
!
i) 9eter%ine whether f(x) is continuous at x-*
ii) 'ind the &alue of c such that f(x) is continuous at x-!
(FA: ).#, Kct !**")
Ans0 not continous, c - .
#. onsider the function

'

>
+
< +

( x #
( x ) # x
) x ! ) x
! x x
) x ( f
:est the continuity at x - 2! and x - (
(FA: )"?, =ept !**))
Ans0 not continuous at x - 2! , continuous at x - (
". 'ind the &alue of % so that the function $ is continuous

'

+
+

2# x %
2# x
# x
( x x
) x ( $
!
(FA: )!), Kct !***)
Ans0 23
1.2 LIMITS a"+ CONTINUITY !$r TRI-ONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
T)e$re&
If c is any nu%ber in the natural do%ain of the stated tri$ono%etric function, then
c cot x cot li% c sec x sec li% c csc x csc li%
c tan x tan li% c cos x cos li% c sin x sin li%
c x c x c x
c x c x c x




T)e$re& <T)e *quee=i"/ #)e$re&>.
!*
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
Aet f, $ and h be functions satisfyin$
) x ( h ) x ( f ) x ( $
for all x in so%e open
inter&al containin$ the nu%ber c, with the possible exception that the inequalities
need not hold at c. If $ and h ha&e the sa%e li%it as x approaches c, say
A ) x ( h li% ) x ( $ li%
c x c x


then f also has this li%it as x approaches c, that is,
A ) x ( f li%
c x

Mote0 In the %ethod of squeeIin$, the function f has a li%it A at a nu%ber c by trappin$
the function between two other functions $ and h
:he squeeIin$ theore% is useful to proof the followin$ theore%
T)e$re&
*
x
x cos )
li% ) b )
x
x sin
li% ) a
* x * x

E%a&'(e 14
x 3 sin
x # sin
li% ) c
x
x ! sin
li% ) b
x
x tan
li% ) a
* x * x * x
Solution
)
) ) )( ) (
)
x cos
)
.
x
x sin
( li%
x
x tan
li% ) a
* x * x

!
) ) )( ! (
)
x !
x ! sin
( li% !
x
x ! sin
li% ) b
* x * x

!)
h(x)
f(x)
g(x)
L
y
x
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
)
3

) ) ( 3
) ) ( #

)
x 3
x 3 sin
3
x #
x # sin
#
( li%
x 3 sin
x # sin
li% ) c
* x * x

E%a&'(e 15
'ind the li%it

,
_

) x
) x
cos li%
!
) x
Solution
=ince cosine function is continuous e&erywhere
0
! cos
) x li% cos
) x
) ) x )( ) x (
cos li%
) x
) x
cos li%
) x
) x
!
) x

,
_

,
_

E%erci*e 1.2
'ind the li%its of the followin$ functions
)
x
!
sin( li% !. )
x
)
cos( li% . )
x x + +
h !
sinh
li% ".
x # !
x
sin li% . #
* h x +

,
_

!
* x * x
sin
li% (.
sin#
li% . 3

+

!
!
* x * x
x #
x sin
li% ..
x
sinx
li% . 4


x . sin
x ( sin
li% )*.
x 3
sinx
li% . ?
* x * x
+
tanh
h
li% )!.
sin#x
tan4x
li% . ))
* h * x
Answer0
* !. ) . )
!!
C)a'#er 1 Fu"c#i$", Li&i#* a"+ C$"#i"ui#,
!
)
".
!
#
. #
+ (. # . 3
#
)
.. ) . 4
"
#
)*. * . ?
) )!.
#
4
. ))
!#