Elementary Principles of

Chemical Engineering

Processes and Process

Variables

Prepared by: Dianne Plummer &

Jan-Cherie Campbell-Fraser

Topics

Unit Operations vs. Operations

Process, Process Streams & Process
Variables

Density
Specific Volume
Specific Gravity
Mole and Mass fractions
Concentration
Temperature
Pressure

Processes and Process Variables

Unit Operations vs. Operations

A Unit operation is a basic step in a process.

For example in milk processing
homogenization,
pasteurization,
chilling
packaging
These are each unit operations which are connected to create the overall
process or an operation.

An operation may have many unit operations and may

even cross industries or process lines. It involves the
day-to-day running of the process
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Processes and Process Variables

Examples of unit operations

An evaporator in a sugar plant

A crusher in a cement plant
A distillation column in a petroleum refinery
Filtration in water treatment
Centrifuge in bauxite plant
Heat exchangers (cooling tower)
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Processes and Process Variables

Classification of unit operations based on

function and phase

Operations involving solids

Mechanical size separation
Size reduction
Conveying of solids

Operations involving liquids

Pumping
Storage

Processes and Process Variables

Classification of unit operations based on

function and phase contd

Operations involving transfer of material from one

phase to another

Leaching (solid to liquid)

Extraction (liquid to liquid)
Gas absorption (fluid to solid)

Heat transfer and evaporation (fluid to vapour)

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Processes and Process Variables

Process: any operation causing physical or

chemical change in a substance or mixtures
of substances.
Process Streams:
Inputs or feeds
Output or products
Recycle streams

Processes and Process Variables

Process Variables: parameters describing processes

Mass and Volumetric flowrates

Temperature
Pressure
Density and Specific Volume
Chemical Composition
Mole fraction
Mass fraction
Concentration

Molar flow rate

Mass flow rate

Non- Observable Process Parameters

Enthalpy
Internal Energy
Entropy
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Processes and Process Variables

Density is the ratio of mass per unit volume.

mass kg g lb

3 ; 3 ; 3
volume m cm ft

Specific Volume of any compound is the inverse of

the volume.

Processes and Process Variables

Specific Gravity is the ratio of two densities that

of the substance of interest to that of a reference
substance.
The reference substance for liquids and solids is
almost always waters at 40C.

lb / ft
g / cm
kg / m
SG

lb / ft g / cm kg / m
3

ref

ref

ref

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Processes and Process Variables

Density of water in the different units

ref / H 2O 1.00 cm3

g

ref / H 2O 1000 mkg3

ref / H 2O 62 .43 ftlb3

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Class Activity 5mins.

1.

2.

3.

An unknown liquid substance has a mass of

18.5 g and occupies a volume of 23.4 ml
(milliliter). Calculate the density in kg/m3
The density of titanium is 4507 kg/m3 Calculate
the mass titanium if the volume is 0.17 m3.
The density of iron is 7850 kg/m3. Calculate the
specific gravity of iron relative to water if the
density of water is 1000 kg/m

MOLES

Gram-mole (gmol): the amount of a

species such that its mass in grams
numerically equals its molecular weight.
Kilogram-mol (kgmol): the amount of a
species such that its mass in kilograms
numerically equals its molecular weight.
Pound-mole (lbmol) the amount of a
species such that its mass in pound
mass numerically equals its molecular
weight.
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Example

Consider oxygen which has a molecular

weight 32 atomic mass units.
Therefore 1gmol of oxygen has a mass
of 32g.
1kgmol of oxygen has a mass of 32kg
1lbmol has a mass of 32lbm

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Processes and Process Variables

Mole and Mass (weight) Fractions

Mole fraction is simple the moles f a particular

substance divided by the total number of mole present.
Similarly Mass (weight) fraction is the mass of the
substance divided by all the substances present.
Mole fraction of A= Moles of A
Total moles
Mass fraction of A = Mass of A
Total moles

Mole and mass percent are the representative fraction time 100
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Mass and Moles

m = mass of a quantity of material

mA = mass of a particular species (either
as a pure material or within a mixture)
n = number of moles of a material
nA= number of moles of a particular
chemical species (either as a pure
material or within a mixture)
MWA = the molecular weight of a
particular chemical species
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Classwork

Common table sugar is sucrose,

C12H24O12. Calculate:
How many lbmol of sucrose are in a bag
that has a mass of 100lbm
How many kgmol?

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Mixture Composition

The most common expression of

composition is concentration cA which is
the number of moles of species per
volume of mixture.
cA = moles of A / volume of mixture
= nA /V
= molar flowrate of A / volumetric
flowrate of mixture
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Mixture Composition
Mass fraction of A = xA
= mass of A / total mass of mixture
= mA/m
Mole fraction of A = yA
= mole of A / total mole of mixture
= nA/n
Mole % of A =100 * yA
Mass % of A = 100* xA

Prepared by: Jan-Cherie

Campbell-Fraser

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Classwork

The volumetric flowrate of HCl from a

manufacturing process is 11,600L/hr and
the average concentration of HCl in that
stream is 0.014M or 0.014gmol/L
Calculate how many gmol HCl are in 88m3
Calculate how many gmol of HCl are
flowing from the process per minute
(molar flowrate) When the volumetric flow
is 11,600L
Prepared by: Jan-Cherie
Campbell-Fraser

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Processes and Process Variables

Concentration

Mass concentration of a component is a mass of a

component per unit volume of mixture

Mole concentration of a component is a mole of a component
per unit volume of mixture
Molarity of a solution the value of the molar conc. Of the
solute expressed in g-mole solute/litre solution. (e.g. A 2molar solution of A contains 2 mol A/litre soln.)
Parts per million, ppm /parts per billion, ppb is a methods
of expressing concentration of extremely dilute solutions

By definition
ppmi = yi x 106 = mg/L
ppbi = yi x 109 = g/L
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Processes and Process Variables

Temperature of a body is a measure of its the thermal state
considered in reference to its power to transfer heat to other
bodies.

There are four common measures of temperature

1.
2.

Those based on relative scales (Fahrenheit and Celsius)

Those based on an absolute scale (Rankine and Kelvin)

T(K) = T(0C) + 273.15

T(0R) = T(0F) +429.67
T(0R) = 1.8 * T(0R)
T(K) = 1.8 * T(0C) + 32
T(K) = (T(0C) + 32) * 9/5
T(0C) = T(K) *5/9 - 32

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Processes and Process Variables

Conversion between Temperature intervals

T(K) = T(0C)
T(0R) = T(0F)
T(0R) = 1.8 * T(K)
T(0F) = 1.8 * T(0C)

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Class Activity
Convert the following:
Convert 435K to C
Convert 1425C to F
Convert 71R to K

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Processes and Process Variables

Pressure is defined as the normal (perpendicular)

force per unit area.
p

F mgh

p0 gh p0
A
A

Units: N/m2 (Pascal, Pa), lbf/in2, dynes/cm2

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Processes and Process Variables

Consider a fluid contained in a closed vessel with a

hole of area A for the fluid to flow through.

The fluid pressure may be defined as F/A where F is the

minimum force that have to be exerted on a frictionless plug
in the hole in order to inhibit flow of fluid.
However, in order to compensate for atmospheric pressure,
we will look at a vertical column with height, h (m) a
uniform cross section A (m2)
Then suppose that the fluid has density, (kg/m3) and that a
pressure P0 (N/m2) is exerted on the upper surface of the
column.
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Processes and Process Variables

The pressure P of the fluid at the base of the column

is called hydrostatic pressure of the fluid.

By definition it is the force F exerted on the base
divided by the base area A.
Where F is the force on the top surface of the fluid
plus the weight of the fluid.
Hydrostatic Pressure P F 1 F ( N ) W ( N )
o
f
A A(m 2 )
P Po gh

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Processes and Process Variables

In stead of expressing pressure as force per unit area,

it may be expressed as a head of a particular fluid.

(the height of a hypothetical column of this fluid that would exert the given pressure at its the base if
the pressure at the top of the column were zero).

Therefore you can speak of 14.7psi or equivalently

33.9 ft of water (33.9ft H2O) or 76 cm of mercury
(76 cm Hg).
The relationship between the pressure (force/area)
and the corresponding head Ph (height of fluid) is
given by:

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Processes and Process Variables

force
P
P0 gh
area
where Po 0
P fluid gPh (head of fluid)

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Processes and Process Variables

Atmospheric, Absolute and Gauge Pressure
The earths atmosphere can be considered a
very tall column of fluid (air).
The pressure at the bottom of that column is
atmospheric pressure.
At sea level, Patm is typically 760 mm Hg (or
760 torr). By definition, 760 torr = 1 atm.
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Processes and Process Variables

Absolute vs. Gauge Pressure

The absolute pressure of a fluid is its pressure

relative to a perfect vacuum where P = 0

The gauge pressure is its pressure relative to
atmospheric pressure.
(It is called that because many pressure gauges,
such as the Bourdon gauge shown on p. 57 of the
text, are calibrated to read 0 when P = Patm.)
Therefore, Pgauge = Pabsolute Patm
Unless told otherwise given pressure are in absolute
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Processes and Process Variables

Reading Assignment

Read section 3.4c (pressure measurement)

Before you leave Chapter 3 ensure you know
How a manometer works and how to derive and use
eqs.(3.4-5) (3.4-7)
The difference between the temp. of 200C and the
temp. interval of 200C and how to convert both
temperatures and temperature intervals among the
four most common temperature scales.

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