Advanced Research Methods (ARM)

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Sampling Design

Lecture - 5
 Sampling

 Sampling is that part of statistical practice

which is concerned with the selection of
individual observations intended to yield some
knowledge about a population of concern,
especially for the purposes of statistical
inference.
 …

Sampling is the process

of selecting a small number of elements
from a larger defined target group
of elements such that
the information gathered
from the small group will allow judgments
to be made about the larger groups
Basics of Sampling Theory

Population

Element
Defined target
population
Sampling unit

Sampling frame
 Selection of Elements

 Population

 Population Element

 Sampling

 Census
 Definitions
 Population: The target population is the collection of
elements or objects that possess the information sought
by the researcher and about which inferences are to be
made. The target population should be defined in terms
of elements, sampling units, extent, and time.
 An element is the object about which or from which

the information is desired, e.g., the respondent.

 A sampling unit is an element, or a unit containing

the element, that is available for selection at some

stage of the sampling process. E.g. organization
 Extent refers to the geographical boundaries.

 Time is the time period under consideration.

 What is a Good Sample?

 Accurate: absence of bias

 Precise estimate: sampling error

 Sampling Error

Sampling error is any type of bias

that is attributable to mistakes
in either drawing a sample or
determining the sample size
 Sampling Methods

Probability Nonprobability
sampling sampling
 Steps in Sampling Design

 What is the relevant population?

 What are the parameters of interest?
 What is the sampling frame?
 What is the type of sample?
 What size sample is needed?
 How much will it cost?
 Define the Population

Determine the Sampling Frame

Select Sampling Technique(s)

Determine the Sample Size

Execute the Sampling Process

Concepts to Help Understand
Probability Sampling
 Standard error

 Confidence interval

 Central limit theorem

 Classification of Sampling
Techniques

Sampling Techniques

Nonprobability Probability
Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques

Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Other Sampling

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Techniques
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Non-Probability
Sampling Designs

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Nonprobability Sampling Methods

Convenience sampling relies

upon convenience and access
Judgment sampling relies upon belief
that participants fit characteristics
Quota sampling emphasizes representation
of specific characteristics
Snowball sampling relies upon respondent
referrals of others with like characteristics
 Nonprobability Sampling

Reasons to use
 Procedure satisfactorily meets the sampling
objectives
 Lower Cost
 Limited Time
 Not as much human error as selecting a
completely random sample
 Total list population not available
 Nonprobability Sampling

 Convenience Sampling
 Purposive Sampling
 Judgment Sampling
 Quota Sampling
 Snowball Sampling
 Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of

convenient elements. Often, respondents are selected
because they happen to be in the right place at the right
time.

 use of students, and members of social organizations

 mall intercept interviews without qualifying the
respondents
 department stores using charge account lists
 “people on the street” interviews
 Judgmental Sampling

Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience

sampling in which the population elements are selected
based on the judgment of the researcher.

 test markets
 purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing
research
 expert witnesses used in court
 Quota Sampling
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental
sampling.
 The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of

population elements.
 In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on

convenience or judgment.

Population Sample
composition composition
Control
Characteristic Percentage Percentage Number
Sex
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
____ ____ ____
100 100 1000
 Snowball Sampling

In snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents

is selected, usually at random.

 After being interviewed, these respondents are asked

to identify others who belong to the target population
of interest.
 Subsequent respondents are selected based on the
referrals.
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Probability Sampling
Designs

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 Probability Sampling Designs

 Simple random sampling

 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Proportionate
 Disproportionate
 Cluster sampling
 Double sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

 Each element in the population has a known and equal

probability of selection.
 Each possible sample of a given size (n) has a known and
equal probability of being the sample actually selected.
 This implies that every element is selected independently
of every other element.
 Systematic Sampling
 The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and
then picking every ith element in succession from the sampling
frame.
 The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the population
size N by the sample size n and rounding to the nearest integer.
 When the ordering of the elements is related to the characteristic
of interest, systematic sampling increases the representativeness
of the sample.
 For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population and a
sample of 1,000 is desired. In this case the sampling interval, i, is
100. A random number between 1 and 100 is selected. If, for
example, this number is 23, the sample consists of elements 23,
123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.
 Stratified Sampling

 A two-step process in which the population is partitioned

into subpopulations, or strata.
 The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively
exhaustive in that every population element should be
assigned to one and only one stratum and no population
elements should be omitted.
 Next, elements are selected from each stratum by a
random procedure, usually SRS.
 A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase
precision without increasing cost.
 Stratified Sampling
 The elements within a stratum should be as homogeneous as
possible, but the elements in different strata should be as
heterogeneous as possible.
 Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of the stratification
process by being easy to measure and apply.
 In proportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample drawn
from each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of that
stratum in the total population.
 In disproportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample from
each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of that stratum and
to the standard deviation of the distribution of the characteristic of
interest among all the elements in that stratum.
 Cluster Sampling
 The target population is first divided into mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive subpopulations, or clusters.
 Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a probability
sampling technique such as SRS.
 For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the
sample (one-stage) or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically
(two-stage).
 Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous as possible, but
clusters themselves should be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally,
each cluster should be a small-scale representation of the population.
 In probability proportionate to size sampling, the clusters are
sampled with probability proportional to size. In the second stage, the
probability of selecting a sampling unit in a selected cluster varies
inversely with the size of the cluster.
 Types of Cluster Sampling
Fig. 11.3 Cluster Sampling

One-Stage Two-Stage Multistage

Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Cluster Probability

Sampling Proportionate
to Size Sampling
 Sample vs. Census
Conditions Favoring the Use of
Type of Study Sample Census

1. Budget Small Large

2. Time available Short Long

3. Population size Large Small

4. Variance in the characteristic Small Large

5. Cost of sampling errors Low High

6. Cost of nonsampling errors High Low

7. Nature of measurement Destructive Nondestructive

8. Attention to individual cases Yes No

 Sample Sizes Used in Marketing
Research Studies
Table 11.2

Type of Study Minimum Size Typical Range

Problem identification research 500 1,000-2,500

(e.g. market potential)
Problem-solving research (e.g. 200 300-500
pricing)

Product tests 200 300-500

Test marketing studies 200 300-500

TV, radio, or print advertising (per 150 200-300

commercial or ad tested)
Test-market audits 10 stores 10-20 stores

Focus groups 2 groups 4-12 groups

Factors to Consider in Sample Design

Research objectives Degree of accuracy

Resources Time frame

Knowledge of
target population Research scope

Statistical analysis needs

 Determining Sample Size

 How many completed questionnaires do we need

to have a representative sample?
 Generally the larger the better, but that takes
more time and money.
 Answer depends on:
 How different or dispersed the population is.
 Desired level of confidence.
 Desired degree of accuracy.
 Common Methods for Determining
Sample Size

 Common Methods:
 Budget/time available
 Executive decision
 Statistical methods
 Historical data/guidelines
 Factors Affecting Sample Size for Probability
Designs

 Variability of the population characteristic

under investigation
 Level of confidence desired in the estimate
 Degree of precision desired in estimating the
population characteristic
Probability Sampling and
Sample Sizes

For a simple sample size calculator, click here:

http://www.surveysystem.com/sscalc.htm
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Research Design

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 Measurement

 Selecting observable empirical events

 Using numbers or symbols to represent aspects

of the events

 Applying a mapping rule to connect the

observation to the symbol
 What is Measured?

 Objects:
 Things of ordinary experience
 Some things not concrete
 Properties: characteristics of objects
 Characteristics of Data

 Classification
 Order
 Distance (interval between numbers)
 Origin of number series
 Data Types

Order Interval Origin

Nominal none none none

Ordinal yes unequal none

Interval yes equal or none

unequal
Ratio yes equal zero
 Sources of Measurement
Differences
 Respondent
 Situational factors
 Measurer or researcher
 Data collection instrument
 Validity

 Content Validity

 Criterion-Related Validity
 Predictive
 Concurrent

 Construct Validity
 Reliability

 Stability
 Test-retest
Equivalence
 Parallel forms
 Internal Consistency
 Split-half
 KR20
 Cronbach’s alpha
 Practicality

 Economy

 Convenience

 Interpretability
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MEASUREMENT
SCALES

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 What is Scaling?

 Scaling is assigning numbers to indicants of the

properties of objects
 Types of Response Scales

 Rating Scales
 Ranking Scales
 Categorization
 Types of Rating Scales
 Simple category • Numerical
 Multiple choice,
• Multiple rating
single response
 Multiple choice,
• Fixed sum
multiple response • Stapel
 Likert scale • Graphic rating
 Semantic differential
 Rating Scale Errors to Avoid

 Leniency
 Negative Leniency
 Positive Leniency
 Central Tendency
 Halo Effect
 Types of Ranking Scales

 Paired-comparison

 Forced Ranking

 Comparative
 Dimensions of a Scale

 Unidimensional

 Multidimensional
 Scale Design Techniques

 Arbitrary scaling
 Consensus scaling
 Item Analysis scaling
 Cumulative scaling
 Factor scaling
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Thank you for your

kind attention
Go forth and research….
….but be careful out there.