4754-2 cover 10/25/01 1:37 PM Page 1

Your Official Red Hat® Linux® Guide to Security and Optimization ® ®

Reviewed and approved by the experts at Red Hat, this comprehensive ®

guide delivers the know-how you need to improve the performance of
your Red Hat Linux system—and protect it from attacks and break-ins. ®
Red Hat Linux expert Mohammed Kabir starts by showing you how to P R E S S™
tune the kernel and filesystems and optimize network services, from

and Optimization
Red Hat Linux Security
speeding up Web servers to boosting the performance of Samba. He then Mohammed J. Kabir
explains how to secure your Red Hat Linux system, offering hands-on
techniques for network and Internet security as well as in-depth coverage
of Linux firewalls and virtual private networks.
Complete with security utilities and ready-to-run scripts on CD-ROM,
this official Red Hat Linux guide is an indispensable resource.
C D - R O M F E AT U R E S

Security tools, including

Proven Red Hat Linux Performance and Security Solutions
cgichk.pl, gShield, IP

®
■ Upgrade and configure your hardware to boost performance Filter, John the Ripper,
■ Customize the kernel and tune the filesystem for optimal results L i d s, L S O F, N e s s u s,
■ Use JFS and LVM to enhance the filesystem reliability and manageability Netcat, Ngrep, Nmap,
■ Tweak Apache, Sendmail, Samba, and NFS servers for increased speed OpenSSH, OpenSSL,
■ Protect against root compromises by enabling LIDS and Libsafe in the Po s t f i x , S A I N T t r i a l
kernel version, SARA, Snort,
■ Use PAM, OpenSSL, shadow passwords, OpenSSH, and xinetd to enhance Swatch, tcpdump,
network security Tripwire Open Source

®
■ Set up sensible security on Apache and reduce CGI and SSI risks Linux Edition, Vetescan,
■ Secure BIND, Sendmail, ProFTPD, Samba, and NFS servers and Whisker
■ Create a highly configurable packet filtering firewall to protect your
network Scripts from the book
■ Build a secure virtual private network with FreeS/WAN
Plus a searchable
■ Use port scanners, password crackers, and CGI scanners to locate vulner-
abilities before the hackers do e-version of the book

M OHAMMED J. K ABIR is the founder and CEO of Evoknow, Inc., a company Reader Level
Intermediate to
specializing in customer relationship management software development. TOO L S ON
Advanced TY C
His books include Red Hat Linux 7 Server, Red Hat Linux Administrator’s I

D
UR
Handbook, Red Hat Linux Survival Guide, and Apache Server 2 Bible. Shelving Category

-R
SEC
Networking

OM
Reviewed and Approved by the Experts at Red Hat $49.99 USA
$74.99 Canada S E C U R I T Y TO O L S
ISBN 0-7645-4754-2 £39.99 UK incl.VAT ON CD-ROM
Linux Solutions from the Experts at Red Hat
54999 Cover design by
Michael J. Freeland
www.redhat.com Kabir
Cover photo ©
www.hungryminds.com ®
H. Armstrong Roberts ® P R E S S™
9 780764 547546 7 8 5 5 5 5 04474 6
014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page i

Red Hat Linux

Security and
Optimization
Mohammed J. Kabir

Hungry Minds, Inc.

New York, NY ● Indianapolis, IN ● Cleveland, OH

014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page ii

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is a trademark of Hungry Minds, Inc.

014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page iii

Credits
ACQUISITIONS EDITOR PROJECT COORDINATOR
Debra Williams Cauley Maridee Ennis

PROJECT EDITOR GRAPHICS AND PRODUCTION

Pat O’Brien SPECIALISTS
Karl Brandt
TECHNICAL EDITORS Stephanie Jumper
Matthew Hayden Laurie Petrone
Sandra “Sam” Moore Brian Torwelle
Erin Zeltner
COPY EDITORS
Barry Childs-Helton QUALITY CONTROL TECHNICIANS
Stephanie Provines Laura Albert
Andy Hollandbeck
EDITORIAL MANAGER Carl Pierce
Kyle Looper
PERMISSIONS EDITOR
RED HAT PRESS LIAISON Carmen Krikorian
Lorien Golaski, Red Hat
Communications Manager MEDIA DEVELOPMENT SPECIALIST
Marisa Pearman
SENIOR VICE PRESIDENT, TECHNICAL
PUBLISHING PROOFREADING AND INDEXING
Richard Swadley TECHBOOKS Production Services

VICE PRESIDENT AND PUBLISHER

Mary Bednarek

About the Author

Mohammed Kabir is the founder and CEO of Evoknow, Inc. His company specializes
in open-source solutions and customer relationship management software develop-
ment. When he is not busy managing software projects or writing books, he enjoys
traveling around the world. Kabir studied computer engineering at California State
University, Sacramento. He is also the author of Red Hat Linux Server and Apache
Server Bible. He can be reached at [email protected].
014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page iv
014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page v

This book is dedicated to my wife, who proofs my writing, checks my facts,

and writes my dedications.
014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page vi

Preface
This book is focused on two major aspects of Red Hat Linux system administration:
performance tuning and security. The tuning solutions discussed in this book will
help your Red Hat Linux system to have better performance. At the same time, the
practical security solutions discussed in the second half of the book will allow you
to enhance your system security a great deal. If you are looking for time saving,
practical solutions to performance and security issues, read on!

How This Book is Organized

The book has five parts, plus several appendixes.

Part I: System Performance

This part of the book explains the basics of measuring system performance, cus-
tomizing your Red Hat Linux kernel to tune the operating system, tuning your
hard disks, and journaling your filesystem to increase file system reliability and
robustness.

Part II: Network and Service Performance

This part of the book explains how to tune your important network services,
including Apache Web server, Sendmail and postfix mail servers, and Samba and
NFS file and printer sharing services.

Part III: System Security

This part of the book covers how to secure your system using kernel-based Linux
Intrusion Detection System (LIDS) and Libsafe buffer overflow protection mecha-
nisms. Once you have learned to secure your Red Hat Linux kernel, you can secure
your file system using various tools. After securing the kernel and the file system,
you can secure user access to your system using such tools as Pluggable
Authentication Module (PAM), Open Source Secure Socket Layer (OpenSSL), Secure
Remote Password (SRP), and xinetd.

Part IV: Network Service Security

This part of the book shows how to secure your Apache Web server, BIND DNS
server, Sendmail and postfix SMTP server, POP3 mail server, Wu-FTPD and
ProFTPD FTP servers, and Samba and NFS servers.
vi
014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page vii

Preface vii

Part V: Firewalls
This part of the book shows to create packet filtering firewall using iptables, how to
create virtual private networks, and how to use SSL based tunnels to secure access
to system and services. Finally, you will be introduced to an wide array of security
tools such as security assessment (audit) tools, port scanners, log monitoring and
analysis tools, CGI scanners, password crackers, intrusion detection tools, packet
filter tools, and various other security administration utilities.

Appendixes
These elements include important references for Linux network users, plus an
explanation of the attached CD-ROM.

Conventions of This Book

You don’t have to learn any new conventions to read this book. Just remember the
usual rules:

◆ When you are asked to enter a command, you need press the Enter or the
Return key after you type the command at your command prompt.
◆ A monospaced font is used to denote configuration or code segment.

◆ Text in italic needs to be replaced with relevant information.

Watch for these icons that occasionally highlight paragraphs.

The Note icon indicates that something needs a bit more explanation.

The Tip icon tells you something that is likely to save you some time and
effort.
014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page viii

viii Red Hat Linux Security and Optimization

The Caution icon makes you aware of a potential danger.

The cross-reference icon tells you that you can find additional information
in another chapter.

Tell Us What You Think of This Book

Both Hungry Minds and I want to know what you think of this book. Give us your
feedback. If you are interested in communicating with me directly, send e-mail
messages to [email protected]. I will do my best to respond promptly.
014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page ix

Acknowledgments
While writing this book, I often needed to consult with many developers whose
tools I covered in this book. I want to specially thank a few such developers who
have generously helped me present some of their great work.
Huagang Xie is the creator and chief developer of the LIDS project. Special
thanks to him for responding to my email queries and also providing me with a
great deal of information on the topic.
Timothy K. Tsai, Navjot Singh, and Arash Baratloo are the three members of the
Libsafe team who greatly helped in presenting the Libsafe information. Very special
thanks to Tim for taking the time to promptly respond to my emails and providing
me with a great deal of information on the topic.
I thank both the Red Hat Press and Hungry Minds teams who made this book a
reality. It is impossible to list everyone involved but I must mention the following
kind individuals.
Debra Williams Cauley provided me with this book opportunity and made sure I
saw it through to the end. Thanks, Debra.
Terri Varveris, the acquisitions editor, took over in Debra’s absence. She made
sure I had all the help needed to get this done. Thanks, Terri.
Pat O’Brien, the project development editor, kept this project going. I don’t know
how I could have done this book without his generous help and suggestions every
step of the way. Thanks, Pat.
Matt Hayden, the technical reviewer, provided numerous technical suggestions,
tips, and tricks — many of which have been incorporated in the book. Thanks, Matt.
Sheila Kabir, my wife, had to put up with many long work hours during the few
months it took to write this book. Thank you, sweetheart.

ix
014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page x
014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page xi

Contents at a Glance
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Part I System Performance

Chapter 1 Performance Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Chapter 2 Kernel Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 3 Filesystem Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Part II Network and Service Performance

Chapter 4 Network Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Chapter 5 Web Server Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Chapter 6 E-Mail Server Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Chapter 7 NFS and Samba Server Performance . . . . . . . . . . 141

Part III System Security

Chapter 8 Kernel Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Chapter 9 Securing Files and Filesystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Chapter 10 PAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Chapter 11 OpenSSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Chapter 12 Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Chapter 13 Secure Remote Passwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Chapter 14 xinetd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Part IV Network Service Security

Chapter 15 Web Server Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

Chapter 16 DNS Server Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Chapter 17 E-Mail Server Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Chapter 18 FTP Server Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Chapter 19 Samba and NFS Server Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page xii

Part V Firewalls

Chapter 20 Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

Chapter 21 Firewall Security Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

Appendix A IP Network Address Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . 589

Appendix B Common Linux Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Appendix C Internet Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Appendix D Dealing with Compromised Systems . . . . . . . . . . 661
Appendix E What’s On the CD-ROM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669

End-User License Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691

014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page xiii

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Part I System Performance

Chapter 1 Performance Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Measuring System Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Monitoring system performance with ps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Tracking system activity with top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Checking memory and I/O with vmstat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Running Vtad to analyze your system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Chapter 2 Kernel Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Compiling and Installing a Custom Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Downloading kernel source code (latest distribution) . . . . . . . . . . 11
Creating the /usr/src/linux symbolic link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Selecting a kernel-configuration method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Using menuconfig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Compiling the kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Booting the new kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Running Demanding Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Chapter 3 Filesystem Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Tuning your hard disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Tuning ext2 Filesystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Changing the block size of the ext2 filesystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Using e2fsprogs to tune ext2 filesystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Using a Journaling Filesystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Compiling and installing ReiserFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Using ReiserFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Benchmarking ReiserFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Managing Logical Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Compiling and installing the LVM module for kernel . . . . . . . . . . 54
Creating a logical volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Adding a new disk or partition to a logical volume . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Removing a disk or partition from a volume group . . . . . . . . . . . 65
014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page xiv

xiv Contents

Using RAID, SAN, or Storage Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Using Linux Software RAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Using Hardware RAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Using Storage-Area Networks (SANs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Using Storage Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Using a RAM-Based Filesystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Part II Network and Service Performance

Chapter 4 Network Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Tuning an Ethernet LAN or WAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Using network segmentation technique for performance . . . . . . . 77
Using switches in place of hubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Using fast Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Using a network backbone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Understanding and controlling network traffic flow . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Balancing the traffic load using the DNS server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
IP Accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
IP accounting on a Linux network gateway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Chapter 5 Web Server Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Compiling a Lean and Mean Apache . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Tuning Apache Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Controlling Apache processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Controlling system resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Using dynamic modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Speeding Up Static Web Pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Reducing disk I/O for faster static page delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Using Kernel HTTP daemon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Speeding Up Web Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Using mod_perl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Using FastCGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Installing and configuring FastCGI module for Apache . . . . . . . . 115
Using Java servlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Using Squid proxy-caching server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Chapter 6 E-Mail Server Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Choosing Your MTA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Tuning Sendmail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Controlling the maximum size of messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Caching Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Controlling simultaneous connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Limiting the load placed by Sendmail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
014754-2 FM.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page xv

Contents xv

Saving memory when processing the mail queue . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Controlling number of messages in a queue run . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Handling the full queue situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Tuning Postfix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Installing Postfix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Limiting number of processes used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Limiting maximum message size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Limiting number of messages in queue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Limiting number of simultaneous delivery to a single site . . . . . 135
Controlling queue full situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Controlling the length a message stays in the queue . . . . . . . . . . 136
Controlling the frequency of the queue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Using PowerMTA for High-Volume Outbound Mail . . . . . . 136
Using multiple spool directories for speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Setting the maximum number of file descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Setting a maximum number of user processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Setting maximum concurrent SMTP connections . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Monitoring performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Chapter 7 NFS and Samba Server Performance . . . . . . . . . . 141
Tuning Samba Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Controlling TCP socket options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Tuning Samba Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Tuning NFS Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Optimizing read/write block size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Setting the appropriate Maximum Transmission Unit . . . . . . . . . 149
Running optimal number of NFS daemons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Monitoring packet fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Part III System Security

Chapter 8 Kernel Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Using Linux Intrusion Detection System (LIDS) . . . . . . . . . 155
Building a LIDS-based Linux system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Administering LIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Using libsafe to Protect Program Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Compiling and installing libsafe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
libsafe in action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Chapter 9 Securing Files and Filesystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Managing Files, Directories, and
User Group Permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Understanding file ownership & permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Changing ownership of files and directories using chown . . . . . . 181
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Changing group ownership of files and

directories with chgrp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Using octal numbers to set file and directory permissions . . . . . 182
Using permission strings to set access permissions . . . . . . . . . . 185
Changing access privileges of files and
directories using chmod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Managing symbolic links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Managing user group permission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Checking Consistency of Users and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Securing Files and Directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Understanding filesystem hierarchy structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Setting system-wide default permission model using umask . . . . 201
Dealing with world-accessible files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Dealing with set-UID and set-GID programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Using ext2 Filesystem Security Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Using chattr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Using lsattr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Using a File Integrity Checker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Using a home-grown file integrity checker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Using Tripwire Open Source, Linux Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Setting up Integrity-Checkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Setting up AIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Setting up ICU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Creating a Permission Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Setting configuration file permissions for users . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Setting default file permissions for users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Setting executable file permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Chapter 10 PAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
What is PAM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Working with a PAM configuration file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Establishing a PAM-aware Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Using Various PAM Modules to Enhance Security . . . . . . . 248
Controlling access by time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Restricting access to everyone but root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Managing system resources among users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Securing console access using mod_console . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Chapter 11 OpenSSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Understanding How SSL Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Symmetric encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Asymmetric encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
SSL as a protocol for data encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Understanding OpenSSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Uses of OpenSSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Getting OpenSSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
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Installing and Configuring OpenSSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

OpenSSL prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Compiling and installing OpenSSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Understanding Server Certificates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
What is a certificate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
What is a Certificate Authority (CA)? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Commercial CA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Self-certified, private CA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Getting a Server Certificate from a Commercial CA . . . . . . 273
Creating a Private Certificate Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Chapter 12 Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Understanding User Account Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Securing User Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Using shadow passwords and groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Checking password consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Eliminating risky shell services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Using OpenSSH for Secured Remote Access . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Getting and installing OpenSSH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Configuring OpenSSH service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Connecting to an OpenSSH server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Managing the root Account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Limiting root access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Using su to become root or another user . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Using sudo to delegate root access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Monitoring Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Finding who is on the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Finding who was on the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Creating a User-Access Security Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Creating a User-Termination Security Policy . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Chapter 13 Secure Remote Passwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Setting Up Secure Remote Password Support . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Establishing Exponential Password System (EPS) . . . . . . . 314
Using the EPS PAM module for password authentication . . . . . . 315
Converting standard passwords to EPS format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Using SRP-Enabled Telnet Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Using SRP-enabled Telnet clients
from non-Linux platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Using SRP-Enabled FTP Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Using SRP-enabled FTP clients
from non-Linux platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
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Chapter 14 xinetd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

What Is xinetd? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Setting Up xinetd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Getting xinetd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Compiling and installing xinetd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Configuring xinetd for services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Starting, Reloading, and Stopping xinetd . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Strengthening the Defaults in /etc/xinetd.conf . . . . . . . . . 334
Running an Internet Daemon Using xinetd . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Controlling Access by Name or IP Address . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Controlling Access by Time of Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Reducing Risks of Denial-of-Service Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Limiting the number of servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Limiting log file size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Limiting load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Limiting the rate of connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Creating an Access-Discriminative Service . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Redirecting and Forwarding Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Using TCP Wrapper with xinetd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Running sshd as xinetd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Using xadmin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

Part IV Network Service Security

Chapter 15 Web Server Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

Understanding Web Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Configuring Sensible Security for Apache . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Using a dedicated user and group for Apache . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Using a safe directory structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Using appropriate file and directory permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Using directory index file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Disabling default access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Disabling user overrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Using Paranoid Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Reducing CGI Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Information leaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Consumption of system resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Spoofing of system commands via CGI scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Keeping user input from making system calls unsafe . . . . . . . . . 361
User modification of hidden data in HTML pages . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Wrapping CGI Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
suEXEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
CGIWrap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Hide clues about your CGI scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
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Reducing SSI Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

Logging Everything . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Restricting Access to Sensitive Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Using IP or hostname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Using an HTTP authentication scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Controlling Web Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Content Publishing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Using Apache-SSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Compiling and installing Apache-SSL patches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Creating a certificate for your Apache-SSL server . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Configuring Apache for SSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Testing the SSL connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Chapter 16 DNS Server Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Understanding DNS Spoofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Checking DNS Configuring Using Dlint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Getting Dlint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Installing Dlint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Running Dlint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Securing BIND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Using Transaction Signatures (TSIG) for zone transfers . . . . . . . . 405
Running BIND as a non-root user . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Hiding the BIND version number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Limiting Queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Turning off glue fetching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
chrooting the DNS server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Using DNSSEC (signed zones) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Chapter 17 E-Mail Server Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
What Is Open Mail Relay? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Is My Mail Server Vulnerable? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Securing Sendmail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Controlling mail relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Enabling MAPS Realtime Blackhole List (RBL) support . . . . . . . . 425
Sanitizing incoming e-mail using procmail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Outbound-only Sendmail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Running Sendmail without root privileges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Securing Postfix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Keeping out spam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Hiding internal e-mail addresses by masquerading . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Chapter 18 FTP Server Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Securing WU-FTPD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Restricting FTP access by username . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Setting default file permissions for FTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
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Using a chroot jail for FTP sessions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

Securing WU-FTPD using options in /etc/ftpaccess . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Using ProFTPD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Downloading, compiling, and installing ProFTPD . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Configuring ProFTPD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Monitoring ProFTPD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Securing ProFTPD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Chapter 19 Samba and NFS Server Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Securing Samba Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Choosing an appropriate security level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Avoiding plain-text passwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Allowing access to users from trusted domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Controlling Samba access by network interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Controlling Samba access by hostname or IP addresses . . . . . . . 478
Using pam_smb to authenticate all users
via a Windows NT server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Using OpenSSL with Samba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Securing NFS Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Using Cryptographic Filesystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487

Part V Firewalls

Chapter 20 Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

Packet-Filtering Firewalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Enabling netfilter in the kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Creating Packet-Filtering Rules with iptables . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Creating a default policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Appending a rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Listing the rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Deleting a rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Inserting a new rule within a chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Replacing a rule within a chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Creating SOHO Packet-Filtering Firewalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Allowing users at private network access
to external Web servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Allowing external Web browsers access to a Web server
on your firewall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
DNS client and cache-only services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
SMTP client service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
POP3 client service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Passive-mode FTP client service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
SSH client service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Other new client service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
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Creating a Simple Firewall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Creating Transparent, proxy-arp Firewalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Creating Corporate Firewalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Purpose of the internal firewall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Purpose of the primary firewall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Setting up the internal firewall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Setting up the primary firewall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Secure Virtual Private Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Compiling and installing FreeS/WAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Creating a VPN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Stunnel: A Universal SSL Wrapper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Compiling and installing Stunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Securing IMAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Securing POP3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Securing SMTP for special scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Chapter 21 Firewall Security Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Using Security Assessment (Audit) Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Using SAINT to Perform a Security Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
SARA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
VetesCan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Using Port Scanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Performing Footprint Analysis Using nmap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Using PortSentry to Monitor Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Using Nessus Security Scanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Using Strobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Using Log Monitoring and Analysis Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Using logcheck for detecting unusual log entries . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Swatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
IPTraf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
Using CGI Scanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
Using cgichk.pl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
Using Whisker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
Using Malice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Using Password Crackers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
John The Ripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Crack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Using Intrusion Detection Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Tripwire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
LIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Using Packet Filters and Sniffers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
Snort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
GShield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
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xxii Contents

Useful Utilities for Security Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . 575

Using Netcat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Tcpdump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
LSOF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Ngrep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586

Appendix A IP Network Address Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . 589

Appendix B Common Linux Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Appendix C Internet Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Appendix D Dealing with Compromised Systems . . . . . . . . . . 661
Appendix E What’s On the CD-ROM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669

End-User License Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691

024754-2 Pt1.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page 1

Part I
System Performance
CHAPTER 1
Performance Basics
CHAPTER 2
Kernel Tuning
CHAPTER 3
Filesystem Tuning
024754-2 Pt1.F 11/5/01 1:16 PM Page 2
034754-2 Ch01.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page 3

Chapter 1

Performance Basics
IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Assessing system performance accurately

◆ Taking your system’s pulse with ps
◆ Measuring system activity with top
◆ Checking memory, input, and output with vmstat
◆ Analyzing with Vtad

RED HAT LINUX is a great operating system for extracting the last bit of performance
from your computer system, whether it’s a desktop unit or a massive corporate net-
work. In a networked environment, optimal performance takes on a whole new
dimension — the efficient delivery of security services — and the system administra-
tor is the person expected to deliver. If you’re like most system administrators,
you’re probably itching to start tweaking — but before you do, you may want to
take a critical look at the whole concept of “high performance.”
Today’s hardware and bandwidth — fast and relatively cheap — has spoiled many
of us. The long-running craze to buy the latest computer “toy” has lowered hard-
ware pricing; the push to browse the Web faster has lowered bandwidth pricing
while increasing its carrying capacity. Today, you can buy 1.5GHz systems with
4GB of RAM and hundreds of GB of disk space (ultra-wide SCSI 160, at that) with-
out taking a second mortgage on your house. Similarly, about $50 to $300 per
month can buy you a huge amount of bandwidth in the U.S. — even in most metro-
politan homes.
Hardware and bandwidth have become commodities in the last few years — but
are we all happy with the performance of our systems? Most users are likely to agree
that even with phenomenal hardware and bandwidth, their computers just don’t
seem that fast anymore — but how many people distinguish between two systems
that seem exactly the same except for processor speed? Unless you play demanding
computer games, you probably wouldn’t notice much difference between 300MHz
and 500MHz when you run your favorite word processor or Web browser.
Actually, much of what most people accept as “high performance” is based on
their human perception of how fast the downloads take place or how crisp the video
on-screen looks. Real measurement of performance requires accurate tools and
repeated sampling of system activity. In a networked environment, the need for such
measurement increases dramatically; for a network administrator, it’s indispensable. 3
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4 Part I: System Performance

Accordingly, this chapter introduces a few simple but useful tools that measure and
monitor system performance. Using their data, you can build a more sophisticated per-
ception of how well your hardware actually performs. When you’ve established a reli-
able baseline for your system’s performance, you can tune it to do just what you want
done — starting with the flexibility of the Red Hat Linux operating system, and using
its advantages as you configure your network to be fast, efficient, and secure.

Measuring System Performance

A good introduction to the use of Linux tools to measure and monitor system per-
formance is to start with ps, top, vmstat, and Vtad. These programs are easy to
find, easy to use, and illustrate the kinds of information an administrator needs to
keep an eye on.

Monitoring system performance with ps

Having a realistic idea of what’s running is always the first step in monitoring sys-
tem performance. The ps Linux utility monitors the processes that are running on
your system; you can tell the utility how many (or how few) to monitor.
The ps utility shows not only each process, but also how much memory it’s
using — as well as how much CPU time, which user owns the process, and many
other handy bits of data. A sample of the ps command’s output looks like this:

PID TTY TIME CMD

4406 pts/1 00:00:00 su
4407 pts/1 00:00:00 bash
4480 pts/1 00:00:00 ps

Here ps reports that three programs are running under the current user ID: su,
bash, and ps itself. If you want a list of all the processes running on your system,
you can run ps aux to get one. A sample of the ps aux command’s output (abbre-
viated, of course) looks like this:

USER PID %CPU %MEM VSZ RSS TTY STAT START TIME COMMAND
root 1 0.1 0.1 1324 532 ? S 10:58 0:06 init [3]
root 2 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW 10:58 0:00 [kflushd]
root 3 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW 10:58 0:00 [kupdate]
root 4 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW 10:58 0:00 [kpiod]
root 5 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW 10:58 0:00 [kswapd]
root 6 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW< 10:58 0:00 [mdrecoveryd]
root 45 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW 10:58 0:00 [khubd]
root 349 0.0 0.1 1384 612 ? S 10:58 0:00 syslogd -m 0
root 359 0.0 0.1 1340 480 ? S 10:58 0:00 klogd
rpc 374 0.0 0.1 1468 576 ? S 10:58 0:00 portmap
[Remaining lines omitted]
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Chapter 1: Performance Basics 5

Sometimes you may want to run ps to monitor a specific process for a certain
length of time. For example, say you installed a new Sendmail mail-server patch
and want to make sure the server is up and running — and you also want to know
whether it uses more than its share of system resources. In such a case, you can
combine a few Linux commands to get your answers — like this:

watch --interval=n “ps auxw | grep process_you_want_to_monitor”

For example, you run watch --interval=30 “ps auxw | grep sendmail. By
running the ps program every 30 seconds you can see how much resource sendmail
is using.
Combining ps with the tree command, you can run pstree, which displays a
tree structure of all processes running on your system. A sample output of pstree
looks like this:

init-+-apmd
|-atd
|-crond
|-identd---identd---3*[identd]
|-kflushd
|-khubd
|-klogd
|-kpiod
|-kswapd
|-kupdate
|-lockd---rpciod
|-lpd
|-mdrecoveryd
|-6*[mingetty]
|-named
|-nmbd
|-portmap
|-rhnsd
|-rpc.statd
|-safe_mysqld---mysqld---mysqld---mysqld
|-sendmail
|-smbd---smbd
|-sshd-+-sshd---bash---su---bash---man---sh---sh-+-groff---grotty
| | `-less
| `-sshd---bash---su---bash---pstree
|-syslogd
|-xfs
`-xinetd
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6 Part I: System Performance

You can see that the parent of all processes is init. One branch of the tree is cre-
ated by safe_mysqld, spawning three mysqld daemon processes. The sshd branch
shows that the sshd daemon has forked two child daemon processes — which have
open bash shells and launched still other processes. The pstree output was gener-
ated by one of the sub-branches of the sshd daemon.

Tracking system activity with top

This utility monitors system activity interactively. When you run top from a shell
window or an xterm, it displays all the active processes and updates the screen
(using a user-configurable interval). A sample top session is shown here:

12:13pm up 1:15, 2 users, load average: 0.05, 0.07, 0.01

48 processes: 47 sleeping, 1 running, 0 zombie, 0 stopped
CPU states: 1.1% user, 2.1% system, 0.0% nice, 96.7% idle
Mem: 387312K av, 96876K used, 290436K free, 27192K shrd, 36040K buff
Swap: 265064K av, 0K used, 265064K free 34236K cached
PID USER PRI NI SIZE RSS SHARE STAT %CPU %MEM TIME COMMAND
6748 kabir 15 0 1032 1032 832 R 0.9 0.2 0:00 top
1 root 0 0 532 532 468 S 0.0 0.1 0:06 init
2 root 0 0 0 0 0 SW 0.0 0.0 0:00 kflushd
3 root 0 0 0 0 0 SW 0.0 0.0 0:00 kupdate
4 root 0 0 0 0 0 SW 0.0 0.0 0:00 kpiod
5 root 0 0 0 0 0 SW 0.0 0.0 0:00 kswapd
6 root -20 -20 0 0 0 SW< 0.0 0.0 0:00 mdrecoveryd
45 root 0 0 0 0 0 SW 0.0 0.0 0:00 khubd
349 root 0 0 612 612 512 S 0.0 0.1 0:00 syslogd
359 root 0 0 480 480 408 S 0.0 0.1 0:00 klogd
374 rpc 0 0 576 576 484 S 0.0 0.1 0:00 portmap
390 root 0 0 0 0 0 SW 0.0 0.0 0:00 lockd
391 root 0 0 0 0 0 SW 0.0 0.0 0:00 rpciod
401 rpcuser 0 0 768 768 656 S 0.0 0.1 0:00 rpc.statd
416 root 0 0 524 524 460 S 0.0 0.1 0:00 apmd
470 nobody 0 0 720 720 608 S 0.0 0.1 0:00 identd
477 nobody 0 0 720 720 608 S 0.0 0.1 0:00 identd
478 nobody 0 0 720 720 608 S 0.0 0.1 0:00 identd
480 nobody 0 0 720 720 608 S 0.0 0.1 0:00 identd
482 nobody 0 0 720 720 608 S 0.0 0.1 0:00 identd
489 daemon 0 0 576 576 500 S 0.0 0.1 0:00 atd
504 named 0 0 1928 1928 1152 S 0.0 0.4 0:00 named
535 root 0 0 1040 1040 832 S 0.0 0.2 0:00 xinetd
550 root 0 0 1168 1168 1040 S 0.0 0.3 0:00 sshd
571 lp 0 0 888 888 764 S 0.0 0.2 0:00 lpd
615 root 0 0 1480 1480 1084 S 0.0 0.3 0:00 sendmail
650 root 0 0 744 744 640 S 0.0 0.1 0:00 crond
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Chapter 1: Performance Basics 7

657 root 0 0 912 912 756 S 0.0 0.2 0:00 safe_mysqld

683 mysql 0 0 1376 1376 1008 S 0.0 0.3 0:00 mysqld
696 xfs 0 0 2528 2528 808 S 0.0 0.6 0:00 xfs
704 mysql 0 0 1376 1376 1008 S 0.0 0.3 0:00 mysqld

By default, top updates its screen every second — an interval you can change by
using the d seconds option. For example, to update the screen every 5 seconds, run
the top d 5 command. A 5- or 10-second interval is, in fact, more useful than the
default setting. (If you let top update the screen every second, it lists itself in its
own output as the main resource consumer.) Properly configured, top can perform
interactive tasks on processes.
If you press the h key while top is running, you will see the following output
screen:

Proc-Top Revision 1.2

Secure mode off; cumulative mode off; noidle mode off
Interactive commands are:
space Update display
^L Redraw the screen
fF add and remove fields
oO Change order of displayed fields
h or ? Print this list
S Toggle cumulative mode
i Toggle display of idle processes
I Toggle between Irix and Solaris views (SMP-only)
c Toggle display of command name/line
l Toggle display of load average
m Toggle display of memory information
t Toggle display of summary information
k Kill a task (with any signal)
r Renice a task
N Sort by pid (Numerically)
A Sort by age
P Sort by CPU usage
M Sort by resident memory usage
T Sort by time / cumulative time
u Show only a specific user
n or # Set the number of process to show
s Set the delay in seconds between updates
W Write configuration file ~/.toprc
q Quit
Press any key to continue
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8 Part I: System Performance

Using the keyboard options listed in the output shown here, you can

◆ Control how top displays its output

◆ Kill a process or task (if you have the permission)

Checking memory and I/O with vmstat

The vmstat utility also provides interesting information about processes, memory,
I/O, and CPU activity. When you run this utility without any arguments, the output
looks similar to the following:

procs memory swap io system cpu

r b w swpd free buff cache si so bi bo in cs us sy id
0 0 0 8 8412 45956 52820 0 0 0 0 104 11 66 0 33

◆ The procs fields show the number of processes

■ Waiting for run time (r)
■ Blocked (b)
■ Swapped out (w)
◆ The memory fields show the kilobytes of
■ Swap memory
■ Free memory
■ Buffered memory
■ Cached memory
◆ The swap fields show the kilobytes per second of memory
■ Swapped in from disk (si)
■ Swapped out to disk (so)
◆ The io fields show the number of blocks per second
■ Sent to block devices (bi)
■ Received from block devices (bo)
◆ The system field shows the number of
■ Interrupts per second (in)
■ Context switches per second (cs)
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Chapter 1: Performance Basics 9

◆ The cpu field shows the percentage of total CPU time as

■ User time (us)
■ System time (sy)
■ Idle (id) time

If you want vmstat to update information automatically, you can run it as

vmstat nsec, where nsec is the number of seconds you want it to wait before
another update.

Running Vtad to analyze your system

Vtad is a Perl-based system-analysis tool that uses the /proc filesystem to deter-
mine system configuration. You can download Vtad from the following Web
address:

www.blakeley.com/resources/vtad

Vtad periodically checks your system performance and prescribes remedies. It

uses a default ruleset that provides the following analysis:

◆ Compare /proc/sys/kernel/shmmax with /proc/meminfo/Mem (physical

memory)
If the shared memory takes up less than 10 percent of physical memory,
Vtad recommends that you increase your system’s shared memory — usu-
ally to 25 percent for a typical system. Doing so helps Web servers like
Apache perform file caching.
◆ Compare the /proc/sys/fs/file-max value against
/proc/sys/fs/inode-max

You’re warned if the current values are not ideal. Typically, the Linux ker-
nel allows three to four times as many open inodes as open files.
◆ Check the /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_local_port_range file to confirm
that the system has 10,000 to 28,000 local ports available.
This can boost performance if you have many proxy server connections to
your server.

The default ruleset also checks for free memory limits, fork rates, disk I/O
rates, and IP packet rates. Once you have downloaded Vtad, you can run
it quite easily on a shell or xterm window by using perl vtad.pl com-
mand. Here is a sample output of the script.
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10 Part I: System Performance

Checking recommendations for /proc/sys/fs/file-max /proc/sys/kernel/osrelease

/proc/sys/kernel/shmmax /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_local_port_range
apache/conf/httpd.conf/MaxRequestsPerChild
Sun May 20 11:15:14 2001 RED (/proc/sys/kernel/shmmax)
shmmax-to-physical-memory ratio here 0.1
REMEDY: raise shmmax (echo 8030208 > /proc/kernel/shmmax)
VTad 1.0b2 running on Linux 2.2
Sun May 20 11:15:14 2001 RED (/proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_local_port_range)
range of local IP port numbers here 28000
REMEDY: echo 32768 61000 > /proc/sys/net/ip_local_port_range
Checking /proc/meminfo/MemFree /proc/meminfo/SwapFree /proc/net/snmp/Ip
/proc/stat/cpu /proc/stat/disk /proc/stat/processes /proc/sys/fs/file-nr
/proc/sys/fs/inode-nr every 30 seconds.

Summary
Knowing how to measure system performance is critical in understanding bottle-
necks and performance issues. Using standard Red Hat Linux tools, you can mea-
sure many aspects of your system’s performance. Tools such as ps, top, and vmstat
tell you a lot of how a system is performing. Mastering these tools is an important
step for anyone interested in higher performance.
044754-2 Ch02.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page 11

Chapter 2

Kernel Tuning
IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Configuring kernel source

◆ Compiling a new kernel
◆ Configuring LILO to load the new kernel
◆ Allocating file handles for demanding applications

IF YOU HAVE INSTALLED THE BASIC Linux kernel that Red Hat supplied, probably it
isn’t optimized for your system. Usually the vendor-provided kernel of any OS is a
“generalist” rather than a “specialist” — it has to support most installation scenarios.
For example, a run-of-the-mill kernel may support both EIDE and SCSI disks (when
you need only SCSI or EIDE support). Granted, using a vendor-provided kernel is
the straightforward way to boot up your system — you can custom-compile your
own kernel and tweak the installation process when you find the time. When you
do reach that point, however, the topics discussed in this chapter come in handy.

Compiling and Installing

a Custom Kernel
Thanks to the Linux kernel developers, creating a custom kernel in Linux is a piece
of cake. A Linux kernel is modular — the features and functions you want can be
installed individually (as modules). Before you pick and choose the functionality of
your OS, however, you build a kernel from source code.

Downloading kernel source code

(latest distribution)
The first step to a customized kernel is to obtain a firm foundation — the stable
source code contained in the Linux kernel.

1. Download the source code from www.kernel.org or one of its mirror sites
(listed at the main site itself).
11
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12 Part I: System Performance

2. Extract the source in the /usr/src directory.

Kernel source distributions are named linux-version.tar.gz, where
version is the version number of the kernel (for example, linux-2.4.1.
tar.gz).

In this chapter, I assume that you have downloaded and extracted (using the
tar xvzf linux-2.4.1.tar.gz command) the kernel 2.4.1 source dis-
tribution from the www.kernel.org site.

Creating the /usr/src/linux symbolic link

When you extract the kernel source (as discussed in the previous section), a new
directory is created. This new directory must be symbolically linked to
/usr/src/linux. (A symbolic link is a directory entry that points another directory
entry to another existing directory.) The source code expects the /usr/src/linux
symbolic link entry to point to the real, top-level source code directory. Here is how
you create this symbolic link:

1. Run the ls -l command.

The result shows where /usr/src/linux currently points. The -> in the
ls output points to linux-2.4.0. Typically, /usr/src/linux is a symbolic
link to the current source distribution of the kernel. For example, on my
system, ls -l reports this:
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 11 Feb 13 16:21 linux -> linux-
2.4.0

Distribution versus kernel — what’s the “real” version?

New Linux users often get confused when the version numbers of the distribution and
the kernel mismatch. Why (they ask) do I keep talking about Linux 2.4 when what they
see on the market is (apparently) 7.x? The answer lies in the nature of the open-
source concept: Working independently, various programmers have developed the
basic kernel of Linux code in diverse directions — like variations on a theme. Each
variation has a series of distributions and a body of users to whom it is distributed.
Thanks to popular, easy-to-recognize distributions like Red Hat Linux, many
newcomers think distribution 7.x of Linux is the “only” — or the “latest” — version (and
that everything in it is uniformly “version 7.x” as if it were marketed by Microsoft or
Apple). These days (and in this book) I try to overturn that mistaken notion; when I
refer to Linux 2.4, I say “Linux kernel 2.4, in distribution 7.x” to be as clear as possible.
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Chapter 2: Kernel Tuning 13

drwxrwxrwx — not rwxrwxrwx — is in the ls -l output.

2. Run one of these commands:

■ If /usr/src/linux is a symbolic link, run the rm -f linux command.
This removes the symbolic link.
■ If /usr/src/linux is a directory, run the command mv linux
linux.oldversion (oldversion is the version number of the current
kernel).
This renames the old kernel source directory, clearing the way for the
installation of the new kernel source.
3. Run the command ln -s /usr/src/linux-2.4.1 linux.
This creates a new symbolic link, linux, that points to the
/usr/src/linux-2.4.1 directory.

4. Change your directory path to /usr/src/linux.

At this point you have the kernel source distribution ready for configuration.
Now you are ready to select a kernel configuration method.

Selecting a kernel-configuration method

You can configure a Linux kernel by using one of three commands:

◆ make config. This method uses the bash shell; you configure the kernel
by answering a series of questions prompted on the screen. (This approach
may be too slow for advanced users; you can’t go back or skip forward.)
◆ make menuconfig. You use a screen-based menu system (a much more
flexible method) to configure the kernel. (This chapter assumes that you
use this method.)
◆ make xconfig. This method, which uses the X Window system (a Linux
graphical interface), is geared to the individual user’s desktop environ-
ment. I do not recommend it for server administrators; the X Window sys-
tem is too resource-intensive to use on servers (which already have
enough to do).
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14 Part I: System Performance

If this isn’t the first time you are configuring the kernel, run make mrproper
from the /usr/src/linux directory to remove all the existing object files
and clean up the source distribution. Then, from the /usr/src/linux
directory — which is a symbolic link to the Linux kernel (in this example,
/usr/src/linux-2.4.1) — run the make menuconfig command to
configure Linux.

Using menuconfig
When you run the make menuconfig command, it displays a list of submenus in a
main menu screen. The result looks like this:

Code maturity level options --->

Loadable module support --->
Processor type and features --->
General setup --->
Memory Technology Devices (MTD) --->
Parallel port support --->
Plug and Play configuration --->
Block devices --->
Multi-device support (RAID and LVM) --->
Networking options --->
Telephony Support --->
ATA/IDE/MFM/RLL support --->
SCSI support --->
I2O device support --->
Network device support --->
Amateur Radio support --->
IrDA (infrared) support --->
ISDN subsystem --->
Old CD-ROM drivers (not SCSI, not IDE) --->
Input core support --->
Character devices --->
Multimedia devices --->
File systems --->
Console drivers --->
Sound --->
USB support --->
Kernel hacking --->
---
Load an Alternate Configuration File
Save Configuration to an Alternate File
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Chapter 2: Kernel Tuning 15

In the preceding list, ---> indicates a submenu, which you may also find within
a top-level submenu (such as Network device support menu).

◆ Use Up and Down arrow keys on your keyboard to navigate the sub-
menus. Press the Enter key to select a menu.
◆ Press the space bar to toggle a highlighted option on or off.

CODE MATURITY LEVEL OPTIONS

The very first submenu, Code maturity level options, is the first one to set. This
option instructs the menuconfig program to hide or display experimental kernel
features. Though often interesting to the programmer, experimental features are not
yet considered mature (stable) code.
Selecting Prompt for development and/or incomplete code/drivers (by pressing
the spacebar to put an asterisk between the square brackets next to the option) dis-
plays many experimental — potentially unreliable — features of the latest kernel.
Then they show up in other submenu options. If you don’t plan to implement these
risky options, why display them?
Making this call is harder than it may seem. Experimental features could offer
interesting new capabilities; at the same time, you don’t want to put anything
unreliable on your system. So here’s the rule that I use:

◆ Don’t select this option if the system is

■ A production server
■ The only system in your home or organization

Use only mature code if a system must be reliable.

◆ If the machine you’re configuring isn’t critical to your home or business,

you can enable this option to experiment with new kernel features.

Any organization that depends on Linux should have at least one separate
experimental Linux system so administrators can try new Linux features
without fearing data losses or downtime.
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16 Part I: System Performance

LOADABLE MODULE SUPPORT

Loadable module support should have all options selected by default, because you
will take advantage of Linux kernel’s modular design.
In this chapter, I show you how you can build certain features in two forms:

◆ Modules

When you compile a feature as a kernel module, it is only loaded when

needed.

The make menuconfig based kernel configuration interface shows this

option as [M] next to a feature when you use the space bar to select the
option.

◆ Within the kernel binary

When you choose to compile a feature part of the kernel, it becomes part
of the kernel image. This means that this feature is always loaded in the
kernel.

The make menuconfig based kernel configuration interface shows this

option as [*] next to a feature when you use the space bar to select the
option.

HARDWARE
Think of kernel as the interface to your hardware. The better it is tuned to your
hardware, the better your system works. The following hardware-specific options
provide optimal configuration for your system.

Because most Linux users run Intel hardware, I focus on Intel-specific

options throughout the chapter. I also assume that you use fairly modern
hardware (less than two years old).
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Chapter 2: Kernel Tuning 17

CPU SUPPORT Linux kernel can be configured for the Intel x86 instruction set on
these CPUs:

◆ “386” for
■ AMD/Cyrix/Intel 386DX/DXL/SL/SLC/SX
■ Cyrix/TI486DLC/DLC2
■ UMC 486SX-S
■ NexGen Nx586

Only “386” kernels run on a 386-class machine.

◆ “486” for
■ AMD/Cyrix/IBM/Intel 486DX/DX2/DX4
■ AMD/Cyrix/IBM/Intel SL/SLC/SLC2/SLC3/SX/SX2
■ UMC U5D or U5S
◆ “586” for generic Pentium CPUs, possibly lacking the TSC (time stamp
counter) register.
◆ “Pentium-Classic” for the Intel Pentium.

◆ “Pentium-MMX” for the Intel Pentium MMX.

◆ “Pentium-Pro” for the Intel Pentium Pro/Celeron/Pentium II.

◆ “Pentium-III” for the Intel Pentium III.

◆ “Pentium-4” for the Intel Pentium 4

◆ “K6” for the AMD K6, K6-II and K6-III (also known as K6-3D).

◆ “Athlon” for the AMD Athlon (K7).

◆ “Crusoe” for the Transmeta Crusoe series.

◆ “Winchip-C6” for original IDT Winchip.

◆ “Winchip-2” for IDT Winchip 2.

◆ “Winchip-2A” for IDT Winchips with 3dNow! capabilities.

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18 Part I: System Performance

You can find your processor by running the command cat /proc/cpuinfo in
another window. The following code is a sample output from this command.

processor : 0
vendor_id : GenuineIntel
cpu family : 6
model : 8
model name : Pentium III (Coppermine)
stepping : 1
cpu MHz : 548.742
cache size : 256 KB
fdiv_bug : no
hlt_bug : no
f00f_bug : no
coma_bug : no
fpu : yes
fpu_exception : yes
cpuid level : 2
wp : yes
flags : fpu vme de pse tsc msr pae mce cx8 sep mtrr pge mca cmov pat
pse36 mmx fxsr sse
bogomips : 1094.45

The first line in the preceding code shows how many processors you have in the
system. (0 represents a single processor, 1 is two processors, and so on.) “Model
name” is the processor name that should be selected for the kernel.

Choosing a specific processor prevents this kernel from running on an x86

system without the same processor. If you compile the kernel to support the
default x386 processor, just about any modern x86 machine (386 or higher)
can run the kernel but not necessarily as efficiently as possible. Unless you
are compiling the kernel for wide use, choosing a particular CPU is best.

Follow these steps to select the appropriate CPU support:

1. Select the Processor type and features submenu from the main menu.
The first option in the submenu is the currently chosen processor for your
system. If the chosen processor isn’t your exact CPU model, press the
enter key to see the list of supported processors.
2. Select the math emulation support.
If you use a Pentium-class machine, math emulation is unnecessary. Your
system has a math co-processor.
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Chapter 2: Kernel Tuning 19

If you don’t know whether your system has a math co-processor, run the cat
/proc/cpuinfo and find the fpu column. If you see ‘yes’ next to fpu, you have a
math coprocessor (also known as an fpu, or floating-point unit).

If you have a Pentium Pro; Pentium II or later model Intel CPU; or an Intel
clone such as Cyrix 6x86, 6x86MX AMD K6-2 (stepping 8 and above), and
K6-3, enable the Memory Type Range Register (MTRR) support by choosing
the Enable MTRR for PentiumPro/II/III and newer AMD K6-2/3 systems
option. MTRR support can enhance your video performance.

3. If you have a system with multiple CPUs and want to use multiple CPUs
using the symmetric multiprocessing support in the kernel, enable the
Symmetric multi-processing (SMP) support option.

When you use SMP support, you can’t use the advanced power manage-
ment option.

MEMORY MODEL This tells the new kernel how much RAM you have or plan on
adding in the future.
The Intel 32-bit address space enables a maximum of 4GB of memory to be used.
However, Linux can use up to 64GB by turning on Intel Physical Address Extension
(PAE) mode on Intel Architecture 32-bit (IA32) processors such as Pentium Pro,
Pentium II, and Pentium III. In Linux terms, memory above 4GB is high memory.
To enable appropriate memory support, follow these steps:

1. From the main menu, select Processor type and features submenu
2. Select High Memory Support option.

To determine which option is right for your system, you must know the
amount of physical RAM you currently have and will add (if any).
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20 Part I: System Performance

You have three choices:

■ If you never plan on getting more than 1GB for your machine, you
don’t need high memory support. Choose the off option.
■ If the machine will have a maximum of 4GB of RAM and currently has
1GB or more, choose the 4GB option.
■ If the machine has more than 4GB of RAM now and you plan on
adding more in the future, choose the 64GB option.

When the new kernel is built, memory should be auto-detected. To find how
much RAM is seen by the kernel, run cat /proc/meminfo, which displays output
as shown below.

Mem: 393277440 308809728 84467712 0 64643072 111517696

Swap: 271392768 0 271392768
MemTotal: 384060 kB
MemFree: 82488 kB
MemShared: 0 kB
Buffers: 63128 kB
Cached: 108904 kB
Active: 5516 kB
Inact_dirty: 166516 kB
Inact_clean: 0 kB
Inact_target: 16 kB
HighTotal: 0 kB
HighFree: 0 kB
LowTotal: 384060 kB
LowFree: 82488 kB
SwapTotal: 265032 kB
SwapFree: 265032 kB

In the preceding list, MemTotal shows the total memory seen by kernel. In this
case, it’s 384060 kilobytes (384MB). Make sure your new kernel reports the amount
of memory you have installed. If you see a very different number, try rebooting the
kernel and supplying mem=“nnnMB” at the boot prompt (nnn is the amount of
memory in MB). For example, if you have 2GB of RAM, you can enter
mem=“2048MB” at the LILO prompt. Here’s an example of such a prompt:

Lilo: linux mem=”2048MB”

DISK SUPPORT Hard disks are generally the limiting factor in a system’s perfor-
mance. Therefore, choosing the right disk for your system is quite important.
Generally, there are three disk technologies to consider:
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Chapter 2: Kernel Tuning 21

◆ EIDE/IDE/ATA

EIDE/IDE/ATA are the most common disk drives.

■ They’re cheaper than the other two types.
■ They’re slower than the other two types, so they’re usually used in
home or desktop environments where massive disk I/O isn’t common.
Fortunately, EIDE disks are becoming faster.
◆ SCSI

SCSI rules in the server market. A server system without SCSI disks is
unthinkable to me and many other server administrators.
◆ Fiber Channel

Fiber Channel disk is the hottest, youngest disk technology and not widely
used for reasons such as extremely high price and interconnectivity issues
associated with fiver technology. However, Fiber Channel disks are taking
market share from SCSI in the enterprise or high-end storage area networks.
If you need Fiber Channel disks, you need to consider a very high-end disk
subsystem such as a storage area network (SAN) or a storage appliance.

Choosing a disk for a system (desktop or server) becomes harder due to the buzz-
words in the disk technology market. Table 2-1 explains common acronyms.

TABLE 2-1: COMMON DISK TECHNOLOGY

Common Terms Meaning Standard Name

IDE Integrated Disk Electronics. ATA -1

ATA AT Attachment. ATA is the superset of the
IDE specifications.
Fast-IDE or Fast-ATA Second generation IDE. ATA-2
EIDE Enhanced IDE. It provides support ATA-3
for larger disks, more disks
(4 instead of 2), and for other
mass storage units such as tapes
and CDs.
UltraDMA/33 or UDMA/33 Using fast direct memory access ATA-4
(DMA) controller, this type of disk
provides faster and more CPU
non-intensive transfer rates.
Continued
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22 Part I: System Performance

TABLE 2-1: COMMON DISK TECHNOLOGY (Continued)

Common Terms Meaning Standard Name

ATAPI ATA Packet Interface. It’s a protocol

used by EIDE tape and CD-ROM
drives, similar in many respects to
the SCSI protocol.
SCSI or narrow SCSI Small Computer System Interface. SCSI-1
The initial implementation of SCSI
was designed primarily for narrow
(8-bit), single-ended, synchronous
or asynchronous disk drives and
was very limited relative to today’s
SCSI. It includes synchronous and
asynchronous data transfers at
speeds up to 5MB per second.
Fast SCSI or Fast-10 Fast SCSI uses 10 MHz bus instead SCSI-2
of 5 MHz bus used in narrow SCSI.
On an 8-bit (narrow) SCSI-bus, this
increases the theoretical maximum
speed from 5MB per second to 10MB
per second. A 16-bit (wide) bus can
have a transfer rate up to 20MB
per second.
Ultra or Fast-20 SCSI Synchronous data transfer option, SCSI-3
which enables up to 20 MHz data
clocking on the bus. 40MB per
second for 16-bit (wide) bus
(Ultra Wide SCSI).
Ultra 2 or Fast-40 SCSI Synchronous data transfer option, SCSI-3
which enables up to 40 MHz data
clocking on the bus. 80MB per
second for 16-bit (wide) bus
(Ultra2 Wide SCSI)
Ultra 3 or Ultra160 160MB per second for wide bus. SCSI-3
or Fast-80

Most people either use IDE/EIDE hard disks or SCSI disks. Only a few keep both
types in the same machine, which isn’t a problem. If you only have one of these
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Chapter 2: Kernel Tuning 23

two in your system, enable support for only the type you need unless you plan on
adding the other type in the future.
If you use at least one EIDE/IDE/ATA hard disk, follow these steps:

1. Select the ATA/IDE/MFM/RLL support option from the main menu and
enable the ATA/IDE/MFM/RLL support option by including it as a module.
2. Select the IDE, ATA, and ATAPI Block devices submenu and enable the
Generic PCI IDE chipset support option.
3. If your disk has direct memory access (DMA) capability, then:
■ Select the Generic PCI bus-master DMA support option.
■ Select the Use PCI DMA by default when available option to make use
of the direct memory access automatically.

Chapter 3 details how to tune EIDE/IDE/ATA disks with hdparam.

You see a lot of options for chipset support. Unless you know your chipset
and find it in the list, ignore these options.

If you use at least one SCSI disk, follow these steps:

1. Select the SCSI support submenu and choose SCSI support from the sub-
menu as a module.
2. Select the SCSI disk support option as a module.
3. Select support for any other type of other SCSI device you have, such as
tape drive or CD.
4. Select the SCSI low-level drivers submenu, and then select the appropriate
driver for your SCSI host adapter.
5. Disable Probe all LUNs because it can hang the kernel with some SCSI
hardware.
6. Disable Verbose SCSI error reporting.
7. Disable SCSI logging facility.
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24 Part I: System Performance

If you will use only one type of disks (either EIDE/IDE/ATA or SCSI), disabling
support in the kernel for the other disk type saves memory.

PLUG AND PLAY DEVICE SUPPORT If you have Plug and Play (PNP) devices in
your system, follow these steps to enable PNP support in the kernel:

1. Select the Plug and Play configuration submenu.

2. Select all options in the submenu to enable Plug and Play hardware
support.

BLOCK DEVICE SUPPORT To enable support for block devices in the kernel, fol-
low these steps:

1. Select the Block devices submenu.

2. Select the appropriate block devices you have.
For most systems, the Normal PC floppy disk support is sufficient.

If you want to use RAM as a filesystem, RAM disk support isn’t best. Instead,
enable Simple RAM-based filesystem support under File systems submenu.

3. If a regular file will be a filesystem, enable the loopback device support.

A loopback device, such as loop0, enables you to mount an ISO 9660 image
file (CD filesystem), then explore it from a normal filesystem (such as ext2).

NETWORK DEVICE SUPPORT To enable network device support in the kernel,

select the Network device support submenu and choose the Network device support
option for your network.
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Chapter 2: Kernel Tuning 25

◆ If you connect your system to an Ethernet (10 or 100 Mbps), select the
Ethernet (10 or 100 Mbps) submenu, choose Ethernet (10 or 100 Mbps)
support, and implement one of these options:
■ If your network interface card vendor is listed in the Ethernet (10 or
100 Mbps) support menu, select the vendor from that menu.
■ If your PCI-based NIC vendor isn’t listed in the Ethernet (10 or 100
Mbps) support menu, select your vendor in the EISA, VLB, PCI and on-
board controllers option list.

If you don’t find your PCI NIC vendor in the Ethernet (10 or 100 Mbps) sup-
port menu or the EISA, VLB, PCI and on-board controllers option list, choose
the PCI NE2000 and clones support option.

■ If your ISA NIC vendor isn’t listed in the Ethernet (10 or 100 Mbps)
support menu, select your vendor in the Other ISA cards option.

If you don’t find your ISA NIC vendor in the Ethernet (10 or 100 Mbps) sup-
port menu or the Other ISA cards option list, choose the NE2000/NE1000
support option.

◆ If you have at least one gigabit (1000 Mbps) adapter, choose the Ethernet
(1000 Mbps) submenu and select your gigabit NIC vendor.
◆ If you have the hardware to create a wireless LAN, select the Wireless LAN
support and choose appropriate wireless hardware.

USB SUPPORT If you have at least one USB device to connect to your Linux sys-
tem, select the USB support and choose the appropriate options for such features as
USB audio/multimedia, modem, and imaging devices.

UNIVERSAL SYSTEM OPTIONS

These configuration options apply for servers, desktops, and laptops.

NETWORKING SUPPORT Even if you don’t want to network the system, you must
configure the networking support from the General setup submenu using the
Networking support option. (Some programs assume that kernel has networking
support. By default, networking support is built into the kernel.)
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26 Part I: System Performance

Check the Networking options submenu to confirm that these options are
enabled; enable them if they aren’t already enabled:

◆ TCP/IP networking

◆ Unix domain socket support

PCI SUPPORT Most modern systems use PCI bus to connect to many devices. If
PCI support isn’t enabled on the General setup submenu, enable it.

SYSTEM V IPC AND SYSCTL SUPPORT Inter Process Communication (IPC) is a

mechanism that many Linux applications use to communicate with one another. If
the System V IPC option isn’t enabled on the General setup submenu, enable it.
The sysctl interface is used to dynamically manipulate many kernel parameters.
If the Sysctl support option isn’t enabled on the General setup menu, enable it.

CONSOLE SUPPORT The system console is necessary for a Linux system that
needs to be managed by a human, whether the system is a server, desktop, or lap-
top. The system console

◆ Receives all kernel messages and warnings

◆ Enables logins in single-user mode

To customize console support, apply these options:

◆ Choose the Console drivers submenu, then select the VGA text console
option.
◆ If you want to choose video mode during boot up, apply these steps:
■ Select Video mode selection support option
■ Enter vga=ask option to the LILO prompt during the boot up process
You can add this option to the /etc/lilo.conf file and rerun LILO using the
/sbin/lilo command.

CHARACTER DEVICE SUPPORT You need virtual terminals on the console to

access your system via shell programs. Select virtual terminal support from the
character devices submenu.

◆ Select the character devices submenu and enable Virtual terminals option.
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Chapter 2: Kernel Tuning 27

Most users want to enable the Support for console on virtual terminal
option.

◆ If you have serial devices (such as mouse or external terminal devices) to

attach to a serial port, enable serial port support using the Standard/generic
(8250/16550 and compatible UARTs) serial support option.

FILESYSTEM SUPPORT It is generally a good idea to enable only the following

filesystems support in the kernel:

◆ Second Extended Filesystem (ext2)

This is the default filesystem for Linux.

◆ ISO 9660 CD

This is the filesystem for most CD-ROMs.

◆ /proc

This is the pseudo filesystem used by the kernel and other programs.

These should be enabled by default. To ensure that these filesystems are supported,
select the File systems submenu and choose these filesystem types from the list.

DESKTOP/LAPTOP SYSTEM OPTIONS

If you are running Linux on desktop or a laptop system, you want such capabilities
as printing, playing music, and using the The X Window System. Hence, the set-
tings discussed here enable the kernel level options needed for such goals.

MOUSE SUPPORT If you have a non-serial, non-USB mouse such as bus-mouse

or a PS/2 mouse or another non-standard mouse, follow these steps:

1. Select the Character devices submenu, followed by the Mice submenu.

2. Select the appropriate mouse support.

PARALLEL PORT SUPPORT To use a parallel port printer or other parallel port
devices, you must enable parallel port support from the Parallel port support sub-
menu from the main menu. Follow these steps:

1. Choose the parallel port support.

2. Choose Use FIFO/DMA if available from the PC-style hardware option.
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28 Part I: System Performance

MULTIMEDIA SUPPORT Most multimedia include sound. To enable sound from

your Linux system:

1. Select the Sound submenu.

2. Choose the appropriate sound card for your system.

If you have audio/video capture hardware or radio cards, follow these steps to
enable support:

1. Select the Multimedia devices submenu.

2. Choose Video For Linux to locate video adapter(s) or FM radio tuner(s)
you have on your system.

JOYSTICK SUPPORT Joystick support depends on the Input core support. Follow
these steps for joystick support:

1. Select Input core support submenu, then enable input core support.
2. Choose Joystick support, then select the Character devices menu.
3. On the the Joysticks submenu, choose the appropriate joystick controller
for your joystick vendor.

POWER MANAGEMENT SUPPORT Laptop users need to enable power manage-

ment for maximum battery life. For power management, select these options:

◆ Select the General setup submenu and choose the Power Management
support option.
◆ If your system has Advanced Power Management BIOS, choose Advanced
Power Management BIOS support.

DIRECT RENDERING INFRASTRUCTURE (DRI) FOR THE X WINDOW SYSTEM If

you have a high-end video card (16 MB or more video memory and chip-level sup-
port of direct rendering), find whether it can take advantage of the DRI support now
available in the X Window System.

1. Choose the Character devices submenu and select Direct Rendering

Manager (XFree86 DRI support) option.
2. If you see your video card listed, select it to enable the DRI support.
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Chapter 2: Kernel Tuning 29

PCMCIA/CARDBUS SUPPORT To enable PCMCIA/CardBus support, follow these

steps:

1. Select the PCMCIA/CardBus support submenu from the General setup

submenu.
2. Select the CardBus support option.

To use PCMCIA serial devices, follow these steps:

1. Enable PCMCIA device support from the Character devices submenu.

2. Select either
■ PCMCIA serial device support
■ CardBus serial device support

If you have PCMCIA network devices, follow these steps to support them:

1. Select the PCMCIA network device support option from the Network
device support submenu.
2. Select appropriate vendor from the list.

PPP SUPPORT Most desktop or laptop systems use the Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) for dialup network communication.
To enable PPP support, select the PPP (point-to-point protocol) support option
from the Network device support submenu.

SERVER OPTIONS
Usually, a server system doesn’t need support for such features as sound, power
management, multimedia, and infrared connectivity, so you shouldn’t enable any
of these features in the kernel.
A few very important kernel configuration options can turn your system into a
highly reliable server. These options are discussed in the following sections.

LOGICAL VOLUME MANAGEMENT SUPPORT Logical volume is a new feature to

Linux and can be very useful for a server system with multiple disks. Follow these
steps to enable LVM support:

1. Select the Multi-device support (RAID and LVM) submenu.

2. Choose the Logical volume manager (LVM) support option.
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30 Part I: System Performance

Chapter 3 explains how to use logical volume management.

SOFTWARE RAID SUPPORT If you will use software RAID for your server, follow
these steps to enable it:

1. Select the Multi-device support (RAID) submenu.

2. Choose the RAID support option.
3. Choose the type of RAID you want to use:
■ Linear (append) mode
■ RAID-0 (striping)
■ RAID-1 (mirroring of similar size disks)
■ RAID 4/5

PSEUDO TERMINAL (PTY) SUPPORT If you use the server to enable many users to
connect via SSH or telnet, you need pseudo terminal (PTY) support. Follow these
steps:

1. Enable PTY support from the Character device submenu by selecting the
Maximum number of Unix98 PTYs in use (0-2048) option.
By default, the system has 256 PTYs. Each login requires a single PTY.
2. If you expect more than 256 simultaneous login sessions, set a value
between 257 and 2048.

Each PTY uses at least 2 MB of RAM. Make sure you have plenty of RAM for
the number of simultaneous login sessions you select.

REAL-TIME CLOCK SUPPORT FOR SMP SYSTEM If you use multiple CPU (enabled
Symmetric Multi Processing support), enable the enhanced Real Time Clock (RTC)
so that it’s set in an SMP-compatible fashion. To enable RTC, enable Enhanced Real
Time Clock Support option from the Character devices submenu.
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Chapter 2: Kernel Tuning 31

IP PACKET FILTERING (FIREWALL) OPTIONS

Although there are many other options that you can configure in the kernel, the
options discussed so far should be a good start for a lean, mean custom kernel for
your system. Save the configuration you have created and proceed to compile the
kernel as discussed in the following sections.
If you your server will use the firewall features of Linux, see Chapter 20.

Compiling the kernel

Compiling a configured kernel requires checking source code dependencies, then
compiling the kernel and module images. The source dependency checks make sure
that all source code files are available for the features that you choose. The image
creation process compiles the source code and builds binaries for the kernel and the
modules.

CHECKING SOURCE DEPENDENCIES

Before you can compile the kernel, you need to ensure that all the source depen-
dencies are in good shape.
To do that, you can run the make depend command from /usr/src/linux as root.
This command

◆ Performs dependency checks

◆ Prepares the source for image compilation

If you get any error messages from the preceding command, you might have
a source distribution integrity problem. In such cases, you must download a
new copy of the latest stable kernel source and reconfigure it from the
beginning.

After you have run this command, you are ready to compile the kernel and its
modules.

COMPILING IMAGES AND MODULES

The kernel compilation involves building an image (binary) file of

◆ The kernel itself

◆ The necessary kernel modules images

The following sections explain how to compile both the kernel image and the
modules images.
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32 Part I: System Performance

COMPILING THE KERNEL IMAGE To create the kernel image file, run the make
bzImage command from /usr/src/linux as root.

Depending on your processor speed, the compile time can vary from a few
minutes to hours. On my Pentium III 500 MHz system with 384MB of RAM,
the kernel compiles in less than five minutes.

Once the make bzImage command is finished, a kernel image file called bzImage
is created in a directory specific to your system architecture. For example, an x86
system’s new kernel bzImage file is in /usr/src/linux/arch/i386/boot.

COMPILING AND INSTALLING THE MODULES In the process of the kernel con-
figuration, you have set up at least one feature as kernel modules and, therefore,
you need to compile and install the modules.
Use the following commands to compile and install the kernel modules.

make modules
make modules_install

If you are compiling the same version of the kernel that is currently running
on your system, first back up your modules from /lib/modules/x.y.z
(where x.y.z is the version number of the current kernel). You can simply run
cp -r /lib/modules/x.y.z /lib/modules/x.y.z.current (by
replacing x.y.z with appropriate version number) to create a backup module
directory with current modules.

Once the preceding commands are done, all new modules will be installed in a
new subdirectory in the /lib directory.

Booting the new kernel

Before you can boot the new kernel, it must be installed.

This is a very important step.You must take great care so you can still boot
the old kernel if something goes wrong with the new kernel.
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Chapter 2: Kernel Tuning 33

Now you can install the new kernel and configure LILO to boot either kernel.

INSTALLING THE NEW KERNEL

The Linux kernel is kept in /boot directory. If you open your /etc/lilo.conf file
and look for a line like image=/path/to/kernel, then you see that this usually is
something like image=/boot/vmlinuz-x.y.z (where x.y.z is the version number).
Copy the new kernel using the cp /usr/src/linux/arch/i386/boot/bzImage
/boot/vmlinuz-x.y.z (don’t forget to replace x.y.z. with the version number).
For example, to install a new 2.4.1 kernel, the copy command is

cp /usr/src/linux/arch/i386/boot/bzImage /boot/vmlinuz-2.4.1

CONFIGURING LILO
LILO is the boot loader program and it must be configured before you can boot the
new kernel.
Edit the LILO configuration file called /etc/lilo.conf as follows:

1. Copy the current lilo section that defines the current image and its
settings.
For example, Listing 2-1 shows a sample /etc/lilo.conf file with a sin-
gle kernel definition. As it stand right now, lilo boots the kernel labeled
linux (because default = linux is set).

Listing 2-1: /etc/lilo.conf

boot=/dev/hda
map=/boot/map
install=/boot/boot.b
prompt
timeout=50
message=/boot/message
linear
default=linux
image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.4.0-0.99.11
label=linux
read-only
root=/dev/hda1

2. Copy the following lines and append to the end of the current
/etc/lilo.conf file.

image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.4.0-0.99.11
label=linux
read-only
root=/dev/hda1
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34 Part I: System Performance

3. Change the image path to the new kernel image you copied. For example,
if you copied the new kernel image
/usr/src/linux/arch/i386/boot/bzImage to the /boot/vmlinuz-
2.4.1 directory, then set image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.4.1.

4. Change the label for this new segment to linux2. The resulting file is
shown in Listing 2-2.

Listing 2-2: /etc/lilo.conf (updated)

boot=/dev/hda
map=/boot/map
install=/boot/boot.b
prompt
timeout=50
message=/boot/message
linear
default=linux
image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.4.0-0.99.11
label=linux
read-only
root=/dev/hda1
image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.4.1
label=linux2
read-only
root=/dev/hda1

5. Run /sbin/lilo to reconfigure lilo using the updated /etc/lilo.conf

file.

Never experiment with new kernel from a remote location. Always restart
the system from the system console to load a new kernel for the first time.

REBOOTING NEW KERNEL

After installing the new kernel, follow these steps to reboot for the first time:

1. Reboot the system from the console, using the /sbin/shutdown -r now
command.
During the reboot process, you see the lilo prompt.
2. At the lilo prompt, enter linux2.
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Chapter 2: Kernel Tuning 35

The default, linux, would load the old kernel.

With the new label linux2 associated with the new kernel, your system
attempts to load the new kernel. Assuming everything goes well, it should
boot up normally and the login prompt should appear.
3. At the login prompt, log in as root from the console.
4. When you are logged in, run the uname -a command, which should dis-
play the kernel version number along with other information.
Here’s a sample output:
Linux rhat.nitec.com 2.4.1 #2 SMP Wed Feb 14 17:14:02 PST
2001 i686 unknown

I marked the version number in bold. The #2 reflects the number of times
I built this kernel.

Run the new kernel for several days before making it the default for your system.
If the kernel runs for that period without problems — provided you are ready to
make this your default kernel — simply edit the /etc/lilo.conf file, change
default=linux to default=linux2, and rerun /sbin/lilo to reconfigure lilo.

To keep default=linux, simply switch label=linux2 to label=linux,

then remove the old kernel image-definition from the /etc/lilo.conf file or
change the label of the old kernel’s image-definition file to something else.
You must run /sbin/lilo after you modify /etc/lilo.conf file.

Running Demanding Applications

A lean kernel is a candidate for demanding applications that make heavy use of
your resources. Such applications are often not suitable for resource configurations.
Multi-threaded mail servers have a couple of common problems. Follow these
steps to fix them:

◆ Running out of filehandles.

Thousands of files can be opened from the message queue. These steps
allow extra filehandles to accomodate them:
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36 Part I: System Performance

1. Determine the number of filehandles for the entire system.

To find the number of filehandles, run the cat /proc/sys/fs/file-
max command. You should see a number like 4096 or 8192.

2. To increase the number of filehandles (often called file descriptors), add

the following lines in your /etc/rc.d/rc.local script (replace nnnn with
the number of filehandles you need):
echo nnnn > /proc/sys/fs/file-max

The following line makes the system-wide filehandles total 10240

(10K):
echo 10240 > /proc/sys/fs/file-max

◆ Starting too many threads

Using too many threads will reach the system’s simultaneous process
capacity. To set per process filehandle limit, follow these steps:
1. Edit the /etc/security/limits.conf file and add the following lines:
* soft nofile 1024
* hard nofile 8192

The preceding code makes the filehandle limit 8192.

2. Make sure that /etc/pam.d/system-auth has a line like the following:
session required /lib/security/pam_limits.so

This ensures that a user can open up to 8,192 files simultaneously

when she logs in. To see what kind of system resources a user can con-
sume, run ulimit -a (assuming you use the bash shell). Here’s a sam-
ple output:
core file size (blocks) 1000000
data seg size (kbytes) unlimited
file size (blocks) unlimited
max locked memory (kbytes) unlimited
max memory size (kbytes) unlimited
open files 1024
pipe size (512 bytes) 8
stack size (kbytes) 8192
cpu time (seconds) unlimited
max user processes 12287
virtual memory (kbytes) unlimited

In the preceding code, the open files (filehandles) and max user
processes line are bold. To enable users to run fewer processes, (about
8192 at most), add the following lines in /etc/security/limits.conf file.
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Chapter 2: Kernel Tuning 37

* soft nproc 4096

* hard nproc 8192

This setting applies to both processes and the child threads that each
process opens.

You can also configure how much memory a user can consume by using soft
and hard limits settings in the same file. The memory consumption is con-
trolled using such directives as data, memlock, rss, and stack. You can also
control the CPU usage of a user. Comments in the file provide details on how
to configure such limits.

Summary
Configuring a custom kernel suits your system needs. A custom kernel is a great
way to keep your system lean and mean, because it won’t have unnecessary kernel
modules or potential crashes due to untested code in the kernel.
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054754-2 Ch03.F 11/5/01 9:03 AM Page 39

Chapter 3

Filesystem Tuning
IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Tuning your hard disks

◆ Tuning your ext2 filesystem
◆ Using a ReiserFS journaling filesystem
◆ Using logical volume management
◆ Using a RAM-based filesystem for high-speed access

A WISE ENGINEER ONCE TOLD ME that anyone you can see moving with your naked
eye isn’t fast enough. I like to spin that around and say that anything in your com-
puter system that has moving parts isn’t fast enough. Disks, with moving platters,
are the slowest devices, even today. The filesystems that provide a civilized inter-
face to your disks are, therefore, inherently slow. Most of the time, the disk is the
bottleneck of a system.
In this chapter, you tune disks and filesystems for speed, reliability, and easy
administration.

Tuning your hard disks

SCSI and IDE are the most common types of hard disk today. SCSI disks and the
SCSI controllers are much more expensive because they provide more performance
and flexibility. IDE or the enhanced version of IDE called EIDE drives are more
commonplace in the personal and disk I/O non-intensive computing.

SCSI PERFORMANCE
If you have a modern, ultra-wide SCSI disk set up for your Red Hat Linux system,
you are already ahead of the curve and should be getting good performance from
your disks. If not (even if so), the difference between SCSI and IDE is useful to
explore:

◆ SCSI disk controllers handle most of the work of transferring data to and
from the disks; IDE disks are controlled directly by the CPU itself. On a
busy system, SCSI disks don’t put as much load on the CPU as IDE
39
drives add.
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40 Part I: System Performance

◆ SCSI disks have wider data transfer capabilities, whereas IDE disks are still
connected to the system via 16-bit bus.

If you need high performance, SCSI is the way to go. Buy brandname SCSI
adapters and ultra-wide, 10K-RPM or larger SCSI disks and you have done
pretty much all you can do to improve your disk subsystem.

Whether you choose SCSI or IDE disks, multiple disks are a must if you are seri-
ous about performance.

◆ At minimum, use two disks — one for operating systems and software, the
other for data.
◆ For Web servers, I generally recommend a minimum of three disks. The
third disk is for the logs generated by the Web sites hosted on the
machine. Keeping disk I/O spread across multiple devices minimizes wait
time.

Of course, if you have the budget for it, you can use fiber channel disks or a
storage-area network (SAN) solution. Enterprises with high data-storage
demands often use SANs. A less expensive option is a hardware/software
RAID solution, which is also discussed in this chapter.

EIDE PERFORMANCE
You can get better performance from your modern EIDE drive. Before doing any
tinkering and tuning, however, you must determine how well your drive is per-
forming. You need a tool to measure the performance of your disk subsystem. The
hdparam tool is just right for the job; you can download the source distribution of
this tool from metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/hardware/ and compile and
install it as follows:

1. Use su to navigate to root.

2. Extract the source distribution in a suitable directory such as
/usr/local/src.

For example, I ran the tar xvzf hdparm-3.9.tar.gz command in

/usr/local/src to extract the hdparam version 3.9 source distribution.
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 41

3. Change to the newly created subdirectory and run the make install
command to compile and install the hdparam binary and the manual page.
The binary is by default installed in /usr/local/sbin directory. It’s
called hdparam.

Back up your data before using hdparam. Because hdparam enables you to
change the behavior of your IDE/EIDE disk subsystem — and Murphy’s Law
always lurks in the details of any human undertaking — a misconfiguration
could cause your system to hang. Also, to make such an event less likely,
experiment with hdparam in single-user mode before you use it. You can
reboot your system and force it into single-user mode by entering linux
single at the lilo prompt during bootup.

After you have installed the hdparam tool, you are ready to investigate the
performance of your disk subsystem. Assuming your IDE or EIDE hard disk
is /dev/hda, run the following command to see the state of your hard disk
configuration:

hdparam /dev/hda

You should see output like the following:

/dev/hda:
multcount = 0 (off)
I/O support = 0 (default 16-bit)
unmaskirq = 0 (off)
using_dma = 0 (off)
keepsettings = 0 (off)
nowerr = 0 (off)
readonly = 0 (off)
readahead = 8 (on)
geometry = 2494/255/63, sectors = 40079088, start = 0

As you can see, almost everything in this default mode is turned off; changing
some defaults may enhance your disk performance. Before proceeding, however, we
need more information from the hard disk. Run the following command:

hdparm -i /dev/hda
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42 Part I: System Performance

This command returns information like the following:

/dev/hda:
Model=WDC WD205AA, FwRev=05.05B05, SerialNo=WD-WMA0W1516037
Config={ HardSect NotMFM HdSw>15uSec SpinMotCtl Fixed DTR>5Mbs FmtGapReq }
RawCHS=16383/16/63, TrkSize=57600, SectSize=600, ECCbytes=40
BuffType=DualPortCache, BuffSize=2048kB, MaxMultSect=16, MultSect=16
CurCHS=16383/16/63, CurSects=16514064, LBA=yes, LBAsects=40079088
IORDY=on/off, tPIO={min:120,w/IORDY:120}, tDMA={min:120,rec:120}
PIO modes: pio0 pio1 pio2 pio3 pio4
DMA modes: mdma0 mdma1 *mdma2 udma0 udma1 udma2 udma3 udma4

The preceding command displays the drive identification information (if any)
that was available the last time you booted the system — for example, the model,
configuration, drive geometry (cylinders, heads, sectors), track size, sector size,
buffer size, supported DMA mode, and PIO mode. Some of this information will
come in handy later; you may want to print this screen so you have it in hard copy.
For now, test the disk subsystem by using the following command:

/usr/local/sbin/hdparm -Tt /dev/hda

You see results like the following:

/dev/hda:
Timing buffer-cache reads: 128 MB in 1.01 seconds = 126.73 MB/sec
Timing buffered disk reads: 64 MB in 17.27 seconds = 3.71 MB/sec

These actual numbers you see reflect the untuned state of your disk subsystem.
The -T option tells hdparam to test the cache subsystem (that is, the memory,
CPU, and buffer cache). The -t tells hdparam to report stats on the disk (/dev/hda),
reading data not in the cache. Run this command a few times and figure an aver-
age of the MB per second reported for your disk. This is roughly the performance
state of your disk subsystem. In this example, the 3.71MB per second is the read
performance, which is low.
Now improve the performance of your disk. Go back to the hdparam -i
/dev/hda command output and look for MaxMultSect value. In this example, it’s
16. Remember that the hdparam /dev/hda command showed that multcount value
to be 0 (off). This means that multiple-sector mode (that is, IDE block mode) is
turned off.
The multiple sector mode is a feature of most modern IDE hard drives. It enables
the drive to transfer multiple disk sectors per I/O interrupt. By default, it’s turned
off. However, most modern drives can perform 2, 4, 8, or 16 sector transfers per I/O
interrupt. If you set this mode to the maximum possible value for your drive (the
MaxMultiSect value), you should see your system’s throughput increase from 5 to
50 percent (or more) — while reducing the operating system overhead by 30 to 50
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 43

percent. In this example, the MaxMultiSect value is 16, so the -m option of the
hdparam tool to set this and see how performance increases. Run the following
command:

/usr/local/sbin/hdparm -m16 /dev/hda

Running the performance test using the hdparam -tT /dev/hda command
demonstrates the change. For the example system, the change looks like this:

/dev/hda:
Timing buffer-cache reads: 128 MB in 1.01 seconds = 126.73 MB/sec
Timing buffered disk reads: 64 MB in 16.53 seconds = 3.87 MB/sec

The performance of the drive has gone up from 3.71MB per second to 3.87MB
per second. Not much, but not bad. Probably your drive can do better than that if
your disk and controller are fairly new. You can probably achieve 20 to 30MB per
second.
If hdparam reported that your system’s I/O support setting is 16-bit, and you
have a fairly new (one or two years old) disk subsystem, try enabling 32-bit I/O
support. You can do so by using the -c option for hdparam and selecting one of its
three values:

◆ 0 enables default 16-bit I/O support

◆ 1 enables 32-bit support

◆ 3 enables 32-bit support with a special synchronization sequence required

by many IDE/EIDE processors. (This value works well with most systems.)

Set the options as follows:

/usr/local/sbin/hdparm -m16 -c3 /dev/hda

The command uses the -m16 option (mentioned earlier) and adds -c3 to enable
32-bit I/O support. Now running the program with the -t option shows the follow-
ing results:

/dev/hda:
Timing buffered disk reads: 64 MB in 8.96 seconds = 7.14 MB/sec

The performance of the disk subsystem has improved — practically doubled — and
you should be able to get even more.

◆ If your drive supports direct memory access (DMA), you may be able to
use the -d option, which enables DMA mode.
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44 Part I: System Performance

◆ Typically, -d1 -X32 options or -d1 -X66 options are used together to
apply the DMA capabilities of your disk subsystem.
■ The first set of options (-d1 -X32) enables the multiword DMA mode2
for the drive.
■ The next set of options (-d1 -X66) enables UltraDMA mode2 for drives
that support UltraDMA burst timing feature.
These options can dramatically increase your disk performance. (I have
seen 20MB per second transfer rate with these options on various new
EIDE/ATA drives.)
◆ -u1 can boost overall system performance by enabling the disk driver to
unmask other interrupts during the processing of a disk interrupt. That
means the operating system can attend to other interrupts (such as the
network I/O and serial I/O) while waiting for a disk-based data transfer to
finish.

hdparam offers many other options — but be careful with them. Most of them can
corrupt data if used incorrectly. Always back up your data before playing with the
hdparam tool. Also, after you have found a set of options to work well, you should
put the hdparam command with options in the /etc/rc.d/rc.local script so that
they are set every time you boot the system. For example, I have added the follow-
ing line in the /etc/rc.d/rc.local file in one of my newer Red Hat Linux
systems.

hdparm -m16 -c3 -u1 -d1 -X66 /dev/hda

Tuning ext2 Filesystem

For years the ext2 filesystem has been the de facto filesystem for Linux. It isn’t the
greatest filesystem in the world but it works reasonably well. One of the ways you
can improve its performance is by changing the default block size from 1024 to a
multiple of 1024 (usually no more than 4096) for servers with mostly large files.
Here’s how you can change the block size.

Changing the block size of the ext2 filesystem

To find out what kind of files you have on an ext2 partition, do the following:

1. Use su to navigate to root; change to the top directory of the ext2

partition.
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 45

2. Run the following command (actually a small, command-line script using

find and the awk utility). The script displays all files, their sizes, and the
size of the entire partition — both total and average.
find . -type f -exec ls -l {} \; | \
awk ‘BEGIN {tsize=0;fcnt=1;} \
{ printf(“%03d File: %-060s size: %d bytes\n”,fcnt++, $9,
$5); \
tsize += $5; } \
END { printf(“Total size = %d\nAverage file size = %.02f\n”,
\
tsize, tsize/fcnt); }’

3. After you know the average size of the filesystem, you can determine
whether to change the block size. Say you find out your average file size
is 8192, which is 2 × 4096. You can change the block size to 4096, pro-
viding smaller, more manageable files for the ext2 filesystem.
4. Unfortunately, you can’t alter the block size of an existing ext2 filesystem
without rebuilding it. So you must back up all your files from the file-
system and then rebuild it using the following command:

/sbin/mke2fs /dev/partition -b 4096

For example, if you have backed up the /dev/hda7 partition and want to
change the block size to 4096, the command would look like this:

/sbin/mke2fs /dev/hda7 -b 4096 command.

Changing the block size to a higher number than the default (1024) may yield
significant performance in raw reading speed by reducing number of seeks, poten-
tially faster fsck session during boot, and less file fragmentation.
However, increasing the block size blindly (that is, without knowing the average
file size) can result in wasted space. For example, if the average file size is 2010
bytes on a system with 4096 byte blocks, each file wastes on an average 4096 –
2010 = 2086 bytes! Know your file size before you alter the block size.

Using e2fsprogs to tune ext2 filesystem

To tune the ext2 filesystem, install the e2fsprogs utility package as follows:

1. Download the e2fsprogs-version.src.rpm (replace version with the lat-

est version number) source distribution from www.rpmfind.net. I down-
loaded the e2fsprogs-1.19-0.src.rpm package. You can also get the
source from the e2fsprogs project site at e2fsprogs.sourceforge.net.
When the download is complete, su to root.
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46 Part I: System Performance

2. Run the rpm -ivh e2fsprogs-version.src.rpm command to extract the

source into a /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/ directory. The source RPM drops
an e2fsprogs-version.tar.gz file.
Use the tar xvzf e2fsprogs-version.tar.gz command to extract the
file and create a subdirectory called e2fsprogs-version.
3. Change to the new subdirectory e2fsprogs-version.
4. Run mkdir build to create a new subdirectory and then change to that
directory.
5. Run ../configure script to configure the source tree.
6. Run the make utility to create the binaries.
7. Run make check to ensure that everything is built correctly.
8. Run the make install command to install the binaries.

After you have installed the e2fsprogs utilities you can start using them as dis-
cussed in the following section.

USING THE TUNE2FS UTILITY FOR FILESYSTEM TUNING

You can use the tune2fs utility to tune various aspects of an ext2 filesystem.
However, never apply the ext2 utilities on a mounted ext2 and always back up
your data whenever you are modifying anything belonging to a filesystem. In the
following section I discuss the tune2fs utility (part of the e2fsprogs package) to
tune an unmounted ext2 filesystem called /dev/hda7. If you at least one of the set-
tings discussed below, don’t forget to change the partition name (/dev/hda7) with
an appropriate name. First let’s take a look at what tune2fs shows as the current
settings for the unmounted /dev/hda7. Run the following command:

/sbin/tune2fs -l /dev/hda7

The output should be like the following:

tune2fs 1.19, 13-Jul-2000 for EXT2 FS 0.5b, 95/08/09

Filesystem volume name: <none>
Last mounted on: <not available>
Filesystem UUID: 5d06c65b-dd11-4df4-9230-a10f2da783f8
Filesystem magic number: 0xEF53
Filesystem revision #: 1 (dynamic)
Filesystem features: filetype sparse_super
Filesystem state: clean
Errors behavior: Continue
Filesystem OS type: Linux
Inode count: 1684480
Block count: 13470471
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 47

Reserved block count: 673523

Free blocks: 13225778
Free inodes: 1674469
First block: 1
Block size: 1024
Fragment size: 1024
Blocks per group: 8192
Fragments per group: 8192
Inodes per group: 1024
Inode blocks per group: 128
Last mount time: Thu Feb 15 17:51:19 2001
Last write time: Thu Feb 15 17:51:51 2001
Mount count: 1
Maximum mount count: 20
Last checked: Thu Feb 15 17:50:23 2001
Check interval: 15552000 (6 months)
Next check after: Tue Aug 14 18:50:23 2001
Reserved blocks uid: 0 (user root)
Reserved blocks gid: 0 (group root)
First inode: 11
Inode size: 128

The very first setting I would like for you to understand is the error behavior.
This setting dictates how kernel behaves when errors are detected on the filesystem.
There are three possible values for this setting:

◆ Continue

The default setting is to continue even if there is an error.

◆ Remount-ro (readonly)

◆ Panic

The next setting, mount count, is the number of time you have mounted this
filesystem.
The next setting shows the maximum mount count (20), which means that after
the maximum number of read/write mode mounts the filesystem is subject to a fsck
checking session during the next boot cycle.
The last checked setting shows the last date at which an fsck check was performed.
The check interval for two consecutive fsck sessions. The check interval is only used if
the maximum read/write mount count isn’t reached during the interval. If you don’t
unmount the filesystem for 6 months, then although the mount count is only 2, the
fsck check is forced because the filesystem exceeded the check interval. The next fsck
check date is shown in next check after setting. The reserved block UID and GID set-
tings show which user and group has ownership of the reserved portion of this filesys-
tem. By default, the reserved portion is to be used by super user (UID = 0, GID = 0).
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48 Part I: System Performance

On an unmounted filesystem such as /dev/hda7, you can change the maximum

read/write mount count setting to be more suitable for your needs using the -c
option with tune2fs. For example, /sbin/tune2fs -c 1 /dev/hda7 forces fsck
check on the filesystem every time you boot the system. You can also use the -i
option to change the time-based fsck check enforcement schedule. For example, the
/sbin/tune2fs --i7d /dev/hda7 command ensures that fsck checks are enforced
if the filesystem is remounted in read/write mode after a week. Similarly, the
/sbin/tune2fs --i0 /dev/hda7 command disables the time-based fsck checks.

USING THE E2FSCK UTILITY FOR CHECKING

AND REPAIRING FILESYSTEM
If you have a corrupt ext2 filesystem, you can use the e2fsck utility to fix it. To
check a partition using e2fsck, you must unmount it first and run the
/sbin/e2fsck /dev/device command where /dev/device is your disk drive. For
example, to force fsck check on a device called /dev/hda7, I can use the
/sbin/e2fsck -f /dev/hda7 command. Such as check may display output as
shown below.

e2fsck 1.19, 13-Jul-2000 for EXT2 FS 0.5b, 95/08/09

Pass 1: Checking inodes, blocks, and sizes
Pass 2: Checking directory structure
Pass 3: Checking directory connectivity
Pass 4: Checking reference counts
Pass 5: Checking group summary information
/dev/hda7: 12/1684256 files (0.0% non-contiguous), 52897/3367617 blocks

The e2fsck utility asks you repair questions, which you can avoid by using the
-p option.

Using a Journaling Filesystem

A journaling filesystem is simply a transaction-based filesystem. Each filesystem
activity that changes the filesystem is recorded in a transaction log. In the event of
a crash, the filesystem can replay the necessary transactions to get back to a stable
state in a very short time. This is a technique that many database engines such as
IBM DB2 and Oracle use to ensure that system is always in a known and recover-
able state.
The problem with ext2 filesystem is that in the unfortunate event of a crash, the
filesystem can be in such an unclean state that it may be corrupt beyond any
meaningful recovery. The fsck program used to check and potentially repair the
filesystem often can’t do much to fix such problems. With a journaling filesystem,
such a nightmare is a thing of the past! Because the transaction log records all the
activities in the filesystem, a crash recovery is fast and data loss is minimum.
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 49

A journaling filesystem doesn’t log data in the log; it simply logs meta-data
related to disk operations so replaying the log only makes the filesystem
consistent from the structural relationship and resource allocation point of
view. Some small data loss is possible. Also, logging is subject to the media
errors like all other activity. So if the media is bad, journaling won’t help
much.

Journaling filesystem is new to Linux but has been around for other platforms.
There are several flavors of experimental journaling filesystem available today:

◆ IBM developed JFS open source for Linux.

JFS has been ported from AIX, IBM’s own operating system platform, and
still not ready for production use. You can find more information on JFS
at http://oss.software.ibm.com/developerworks/opensource/jfs.
◆ Red Hat’s own ext3 filesystem which is ext2 + journaling capabilities.

It’s also not ready for prime time. You can download the alpha release of
ext3 ftp site at ftp://ftp.linux.org.uk/pub/linux/sct/fs/jfs/.
◆ ReiserFS developed by Namesys is currently included in the Linux kernel
source distribution. It has been used more widely than the other journal-
ing filesystems for Linux. So far, it is leading the journaling filesystem
arena for Linux.
◆ I discuss how you can use ReiserFS today in a later section. ReiserFS was
developed by Hans Reiser who has secured funding from commercial
companies such as MP3, BigStorage.com, SuSe, and Ecila.com. These
companies all need better, more flexible filesystems, and can immediately
channel early beta user experience back to the developers. You can find
more information on ReiserFS at http://www.namesys.com.
◆ XFS journaling filesystem developed by Silicon Graphics, Inc. (SGI).

You can find more information on XFS at http://oss.sgi.com/

projects/xfs/. XFS is a fast, solid 64-bit filesystem, which means that it
can support large files (9 million terabytes) and even larger filesystems
(18 million terabytes).

Because ReiserFS is included with Linux kernel 2.4.1 (or above), I discuss how
you can use it in the following section.
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50 Part I: System Performance

As of this writing the ReiserFS filesystem can’t be used with NFS without
patches, which aren’t officially available for the kernel 2.4.1 o above yet.

Compiling and installing ReiserFS

Here’s how you can compile and install ReiserFS (reiserfs) support in Linux kernel
2.4.1 or above.

1. Get the latest Linux kernel source from http://www.kernel.org and

extract it in /usr/src/linux-version directory as root, where version is
the current version of the kernel. Here I assume this to be 2.4.1.
2. Run make menuconfig from the /usr/src/linux-2.4.1.
3. Select the Code maturity level options submenu and using spacebar select
the Prompt for development and/or incomplete code/drivers option. Exit
the submenu.
4. Select the File systems submenu. Using spacebar, select Reiserfs support to
be included as a kernel module and exit the submenu.

Don’t choose the Have reiserfs do extra internal checking option under
ReiserFS support option. If you set this to yes, then reiserfs performs exten-
sive checks for internal consistency throughout its operation, which makes it
very slow.

5. Ensure that all other kernel features that you use are also selected as usual
(see Tuning kernel for details).
6. Exit the main menu and save the kernel configuration.
7. Run the make dep command to as suggested by the menuconfig program.
8. Run make bzImage to create the new kernel. Then run make modules and
make modules_install to install the new modules in appropriate location.
9. Change directory to arch/i386/boot directory. Note, if your hardware
architecture is Intel, you must replace i386 and possibly need further
instructions from a kernel HOW-TO documentation to compile and install
your flavor of the kernel. I assume that most readers are i386-based.
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 51

10. Copy the bzImage to /boot/vmlinuz-2.4.1 and edit the /etc/lilo.conf

file to include a new configuration such as the following:
image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.4.1
label=linux2
read-only
root=/dev/hda1

11. Run the /sbin/lilo command to reconfigure LILO and reboot your sys-
tem. At the lilo prompt enter linux2 and boot the new kernel. If you have
any problem, you should be able to reboot to your standard linux kernel,
which should be default automatically.
12. After you have booted the new kernel, you are ready to use ReiserFS
(reiserfs).

Using ReiserFS
Because ReiserFS (reiserfs) is still under the “experimental” category, I highly rec-
ommend restricting it to a non-critical aspect of your system. Ideally, you want to
dedicate an entire disk or at least one partition for ReiserFS and use it and see how
you like it.
To use ReiserFS with a new partition called /dev/hda7, simply do the following:

1. As root, ensure that the partition is set as Linux native (83) by using
fdisk or another disk-partitioning tool.

2. Create a ReiserFS (reiserfs) filesystem on the new partition, using the

/sbin/mkreiserfs /dev/hda7 command.

3. Create a mount point for the new filesystem. For example, I can create a
mount point called /jfs, using the mkdir /jfs command.
4. Mount the filesystem, using the mount -t reiserfs /dev/hda7 /jfs
command. Now you can access it from /jfs mount point.

Benchmarking ReiserFS
To see how a journaling filesystem stacks up against the ext2 filesystem, here’s a
little benchmark you can do on your own.

I assume that you have created a brand new ReiserFS filesystem on

/dev/hda7 and can mount it on /jfs.To do this benchmark, you must not
store any data in this partition. So back up everything you have in /jfs
because you erase everything on /jfs in this process.
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52 Part I: System Performance

Create a shell script called reiserfs_vs_ext2.bash in your /tmp directory, as

shown in Listing 3-1.

Listing 3-1: /tmp/reiserfs_vs_ext2.bash

#!/bin/bash
#
# This script is created based on the file_test script
# found in the home-grown benchmark found at http://www.namesys.com
#
if [ $# -lt 6 ]
then
echo Usage: file_test dir_name device nfiles size1 size2 log_name
exit
fi
TESTDIR=$1
DEVICE=$2
LOGFILE=$6
/bin/umount $TESTDIR
/sbin/mkreiserfs $DEVICE
mount -t reiserfs $DEVICE $TESTDIR
echo 1. reiserfs 4KB creating files ...
echo “reiserfs 4KB create” $3 “files of size: from “ $4 “to” $5 > $LOGFILE
(time -p ./mkfile $TESTDIR $3 $4 $5)>> $LOGFILE 2>&1
echo done.
sync
df >> $LOGFILE
/bin/umount $TESTDIR
/sbin/mke2fs $DEVICE -b 4096
mount -t ext2 $DEVICE $TESTDIR
echo 2. ext2fs 4KB creating files ...
echo “ext2fs 4KB create” $3 “files of size: from “ $4 “to” $5 >> $LOGFILE
(time -p ./mkfile $TESTDIR $3 $4 $5)>> $LOGFILE 2>&1
echo done.
sync
df >> $LOGFILE
/bin/umount $TESTDIR

Download a small C program called mkfile.c in /tmp. This program, devel-

oped by the ReiserFS team, is available at www.namesys.com/filetest/mkfile.c.
From the /tmp directory, compile this program using the gcc -o mkfile mkfile.c
command. Change the permission of the reiserfs_vs_ext2.bash and mkfile
program, using the chimed 755 reiserfs_vs_ext2.bash mkfile command.
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 53

Now you are ready to run the benchmark test. Run the following command from
the /tmp directory as root:

./reiserfs_vs_ext2.bash /jfs /dev/hda7 100000 1024 4096 log

You are asked to confirm that you want to lose all data in /dev/hda7. Because
you have already emptied this partition for testing, specify yes and continue. This
test creates 100,000 files that range in size from 1K to 4K, in both the ReiserFS
(reiserfs) and ext2 filesystems by creating each of these two filesystem in
/dev/hda7 in turn. The results are recorded in the /tmp/log file. Here is a sample
/tmp/log file:

reiserfs 4KB create 100000 files of size: from 1024 to 4096

real 338.68
user 2.83
sys 227.83
Filesystem 1k-blocks Used Available Use% Mounted on
/dev/hda1 1035660 135600 847452 14% /
/dev/hda5 4134868 2318896 1605928 60% /usr
/dev/hda7 13470048 332940 13137108 3% /jfs
ext2fs 4KB create 100000 files of size: from 1024 to 4096
real 3230.40
user 2.87
sys 3119.12
Filesystem 1k-blocks Used Available Use% Mounted on
/dev/hda1 1035660 135608 847444 14% /
/dev/hda5 4134868 2318896 1605928 60% /usr
/dev/hda7 13259032 401584 12183928 4% /jfs

The report shows that to create 100K files of size 1K–4K, Reiserfs (reiserfs)
took 338.68 real-time seconds while ext2 took 3230.40 real-time seconds. So the
performance is nice.
Although journaling filesystem support is very new to Linux, it’s gotten a lot of
attention from the industry interested in using Linux in the enterprise, so journal-
ing filesystems will mature in a fast track. I recommend that you use this flavor of
the journaling filesystem on an experimental level and become accustomed to its
sins and fancies.
Now lets look at another enterprising effort in the Linux disk management called
Logical Volume Management or LVM for short. LVM with journaling filesystems
will ensures Linux’s stake in the enterprise-computing world. Good news is that
you don’t have to have a budget of the size of a large enterprise to get the high reli-
ability and flexibility of a LVM based disk subsystem. Lets see how you can use
LVM today.
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54 Part I: System Performance

Managing Logical Volumes

Logical Volume Management (LVM) and its journaling filesystems ensure Linux a
significant place in the enterprise-computing world. You don’t need the budget of a
large enterprise to get the high reliability and flexibility of an LVM-based disk sub-
system. Here’s how you can use LVM today.
Traditionally, installing Linux meant partitioning the hard drive(s) into
/ (root), /usr, /home, and swap space. Problems cropped up if you ran out of disk
space in one of these partitions. In most cases, the system administrator would then
create a /usr2 (or /home2) partition and tweak the scripts — or create symbolic links
to fool the programs into using the new space. Although this practice creates
unnecessary busy work and makes the system more “customized,” it has been
acceptable in the administrative scenarios of small-to-mid-size systems. However, a
larger, enterprise-class environment sets a different standard; such disk administra-
tion wastes too many resources, which dictatces a different solution: Grow the
needed partitions (such as /usr and /home) by adding new disk media without
changing the mount points. This is possible by means of a concept called logical
volumes, now available to anyone using Linux.
Think of logical volumes as a high-level storage layer that encapsulates the
underlying physical storage layer. A logical volume can consist of at least one phys-
ical disk — sometimes several — made available as a single mount point such as
/usr, /home, or /whatever. The benefit is easier administration. Adding storage to
a logical volume means simply adding physical disks to the definition of the vol-
ume; reducing the storage area is a matter of removing physical disks from the log-
ical volume.

You can find out more about LVM at http://sistina.com/lvm/.

Compiling and installing the LVM module for

kernel
The latest Linux kernel 2.4.1 (or above) source distribution ships with the LVM
source code. Enabling LVM support is a simple matter of compiling and installing a
new kernel, as follows:

1. su to root and change directory to the top-level kernel source directory

(for example, /usr/src/linux-2.4.1). Run make menuconfig to config-
ure the kernel.
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 55

2. Select the Multi-device support (RAID and LVM) support submenu.

Press the spacebar once to include Multiple devices driver support
(RAID and LVM) support in the kernel; then select Logical volume
manager (LVM) support as a kernel module. Save the kernel configura-
tion as usual.
3. Compile and install the kernel as usual (see Kernel Tuning chapter for
details).
4. Run /sbin/modprobe lvm-mod to load the LVM kernel module. To verify
that this module is loaded properly, run the /sbin/lsmod command and
you should see the module listed as one of the loaded kernel modules. Add
the following lines in /etc/modules.conf to automatically load the lvm-
mod module when needed in the future.
alias block-major-58 lvm-mod
alias char-major-109 lvm-mod

5. Create a script called /etc/rc.d/init.d/lvm (as shown in Listing 3-2), to

start and stop LVM support automatically (during the boot and shutdown
cycles respectively).

Listing 3-2: /etc/rc.d/init.d/lvm

!/bin/bash
#
# lvm This shell script takes care of
# starting and stopping LVM-managed
# volumes.
#
# chkconfig: - 25 2
# description: LVM is Logical Volume Management
# Source function library.
. /etc/rc.d/init.d/functions
[ -f /sbin/vgscan ] || exit 0
[ -f /sbin/vgchange ] || exit 0
RETVAL=0
start() {
# Start LVM.
gprintf “Starting LVM: “
/sbin/vgscan;
/sbin/vgchange -ay
}
stop() {
# Stop LVM.

Continued
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56 Part I: System Performance

Listing 3-2 (Continued)

gprintf “Shutting down LVM: “
/sbin/vgchange -an
}
restart() {
stop
start
}
# See how we were called.
case “$1” in
start)
start
;;
stop)
stop
;;
restart)
restart
;;
*)
echo “Usage: lvm {start|stop|restart}”
exit 1
esac
exit $?

6. Create two symblock links to the /etc/rc.d/init.d/lvm script, using

the following commands:

ln -s /etc/rc.d/init.d/lvm /etc/rc.d/rc3.d/S25lvm
ln -s /etc/rc.d/init.d/lvm /etc/rc.d/rc3.d/K25lvm

Creating a logical volume

In this example, assume that you have two hard disks called /dev/hda and
/dev/hdc — and that each one has a free partition: /dev/hda7 (for /dev/hda) and
/dev/hdc1 (for /dev/hdb). You want to create an LVM using these two partitions.

1. Run the /sbin/fdisk /dev/hda command. Using fdisk commands, tog-

gle the appropriate partition’s ID to 8e (Linux LVM). The following listing
shows the example (edited for brevity) fdisk session to change the ID for
a partition called /dev/hda7. The necessary user input is shown in bold
letters.
Command (m for help): p
Disk /dev/hda: 255 heads, 63 sectors, 2494 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 bytes
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 57

Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System

/dev/hda1 * 1 131 1052226 83 Linux
/dev/hda2 262 2494 17936572+ f Win95
/dev/hda5 262 784 4200934+ 83 Linux
/dev/hda6 785 817 265041 82 Linux swap
/dev/hda7 818 2494 13470471 83 Linux
Command (m for help): t
Partition number (1-7): 7
Hex code (type L to list codes): 8e
Changed system type of partition 7 to 8e (Linux LVM)
Command (m for help): p
Disk /dev/hda: 255 heads, 63 sectors, 2494 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 bytes
Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System
/dev/hda1 * 1 131 1052226 83 Linux
/dev/hda2 262 2494 17936572+ f Win95
/dev/hda5 262 784 4200934+ 83 Linux
/dev/hda6 785 817 265041 82 Linux swap
/dev/hda7 818 2494 13470471 8e Linux LVM
Command (m for help): w
The partition table has been altered!

Do this step for the /dev/hdc1 partition.

2. Run the /sbin/pvcreate /dev/hda7 /dev/hdc1 command to create two
physical volumes.
3. Run the /sbin/vgcreate big_disk /dev/hda7 /dev/hdc1 command to
create a new volume group called big_disk. The command shows the fol-
lowing output:
vgcreate -- INFO: using default physical extent size 4 MB
vgcreate -- INFO: maximum logical volume size is 255.99
Gigabyte
vgcreate -- doing automatic backup of volume group “big_disk”
vgcreate -- volume group “big_disk” successfully created and
activated

4. To confirm that the volume group is created using the /dev/hda7 physical
volume, run the /sbin/pvdisplay /dev/hda7 command to display stats
as shown below:
--- Physical volume ---
PV Name /dev/hda7
VG Name big_disk
PV Size 12.85 GB / NOT usable 2.76 MB [LVM: 133
KB]
PV# 1
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58 Part I: System Performance

PV Status available
Allocatable yes
Cur LV 0
PE Size (KByte) 4096
Total PE 3288
Free PE 3288
Allocated PE 0
PV UUID 2IKjJh-MBys-FI6R-JZgl-80ul-uLrc-PTah0a

As you can see, the VG Name (volume group name) for /dev/hda7 is
big_disk, which is exactly what we want. You can run the same command
for /dev/hdc1 as shown below:
--- Physical volume ---
PV Name /dev/hdc1
VG Name big_disk
PV Size 3.91 GB / NOT usable 543 KB [LVM: 124
KB]
PV# 2
PV Status available
Allocatable yes
Cur LV 0
PE Size (KByte) 4096
Total PE 1000
Free PE 1000
Allocated PE 0
PV UUID RmxH4b-BSfX-ypN1-cfwO-pZHg-obMz-JKkNK5

5. You can also display the volume group information by using the
/sbin/vgdisplay command, which shows output as follows:

--- Volume group ---

VG Name big_disk
VG Access read/write
VG Status available/resizable
VG # 0
MAX LV 256
Cur LV 0
Open LV 0
MAX LV Size 255.99 GB
Max PV 256
Cur PV 2
Act PV 2
VG Size 16.75 GB
PE Size 4 MB
Total PE 4288
Alloc PE / Size 0 / 0
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 59

Free PE / Size 4288 / 16.75 GB

VG UUID VMttR1-Tl0e-I4js-oXmi-uE1e-hprD-iqhCIX

In the preceding report, the total volume group size (VG Size) is roughly
the sum of the two physical volumes we added to it.
6. Run the /sbin/lvcreate --L10G -nvol1 big_disk command to create a
10GB logical volume called /dev/big_disk/vol1, using the big_disk volume
group.

You use disk striping and then use -i option to specify the number of phys-
ical volumes to scatter the logical volume and -I option to specify the
number of kilobytes for the granularity of the stripes. Stripe size must be
2^n (n = 0 to 7). For example, to create a striped version of the logical
volume( using the two physical volumes you added in the volume group
earlier), you can run the /sbin/lvcreate -i2 -I4 -L10G -nvol1
big_disk command. I don’t recommend striping because currently you
can’t add new physical volumes to a striped logical volume, which sort of
defeats the purpose of LVM.

7. Decide whether to use a journaling filesystem (such as reiserfs) or ext2 for

the newly created logical volume called vol1. To create a reiserfs filesys-
tem, run the /sbin/mkreiserfs /dev/big_disk/vol1 command, or to
create an ext2 filesystem run the /sbin/mke2fs -b 4096
/dev/big_disk/vol1 command. If you want to use a different block size,
change 4096 to be 1024, or 2048, or your custom block size as needed. I
prefer to create the reiserfs filesystem when using logical volumes.
8. Create a mount point called /vol1, using the mkdir /vol1 command.
Then mount the filesystem, using the mount /dev/big_disk/vol1 /vol1
command. You may have to add -t reiserfs option when mounting a
reiserfs filesystem. Run df to see the volume listed in the output. Here’s a
sample output:

Filesystem 1k-blocks Used Available Use% Mounted on

/dev/hda1 1035660 243792 739260 25% /
/dev/hda5 4134868 2574004 1350820 66% /usr
/dev/big_disk/vol1 10485436 32840 10452596 1% /vol1

You are all set with a new logical volume called vol1. The LVM package includes
a set of tools to help you manage your volumes.
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60 Part I: System Performance

USING PHYSICAL VOLUME MANAGEMENT UTILITIES

Several utilities can manage physical volumes used for your logical volumes.

◆ The /sbin/pvscan utility enables you to list all physical volumes in your
system.
◆ The /sbin/pvchange utility enables you to change attributes of a physical
volume.
◆ The /sbin/pvcreate utility enables you to create a new physical volume.

◆ /sbin/pvdata displays debugging information for a physical volume.

◆ /sbin/pvdisplay displays attribute information for a physical volume.

◆ The /sbin/pvmove utility enables you to move data from one physical
volume to another within a volume group.
For example, say that you have a logical volume group called vol1 consist-
ing of a single volume group called big_disk, which has two physical vol-
umes /dev/hda7 and /dev/hdc1. You want to move data from /dev/hda7 to
/dev/hdc1 and remove /dev/hda7 with a new disk (or partition). In such
case, first ensure that /dev/hdc1 has enough space to hold all the data from
/dev/hda7. Then run the /sbin/pvmove /dev/hda8 /dev/hdc1 command.

This operation takes a considerable amount of time (depending on data)

and also shouldn’t be interrupted.

USING VOLUME GROUP MANAGEMENT UTILITIES

To manage a volume group, which consists of at least one physical volume, you can
use the following utilities:

◆ The vgscan utility enables you to list all the volume groups in your
system.
◆ The /sbin/vgcfgbackup utility backs up a volume group descriptor area.

◆ The /sbin/vgcfgrestore utility restores a volume group descriptor area.

◆ The /sbin/vgchange utility changes attributes of a volume group. For

example, you can activate a volume group by using -a y option and use
the -a n option to deactivate it.
◆ The /sbin/vgck utility checks a volume group descriptor area
consistency.
◆ The /sbin/vgcreate utility enables you to create a new volume group.
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 61

◆ The /sbin/vgdisplay utility displays volume group information.

◆ The /sbin/vgexport utility makes an inactive volume group unknown to

the system so that you can remove physical volumes from it.
◆ The /sbin/vgextend utility enables you to add physical volumes to a
volume group.
◆ The /sbin/vgimport utility enables you to import a volume group that
has been previously exported using the vgexport utility.
◆ The /sbin/vgmerge utility enables you to merge two volume groups.

◆ The /sbin/vgmknodes utility enables you to create volume group directo-

ries and special files.
◆ The /sbin/vgreduce utility enables you to reduce a volume group by
removing at least one unused physical volume from the group.
◆ The /sbin/vgremove utility enables you to remove a volume group that
doesn’t have any logical volume and also is inactive. If you have a vol-
ume group that has at least one logical volume, you must deactivate and
remove it first.
◆ The /sbin/vgrename utility enables you to rename a volume group.

◆ The /sbin/vgscan utility scans all disks for volume groups and also
builds the /etc/lvmtab and other files in /etc/lvmtab.d directory,
which are used by the LVM module.
◆ The /sbin/vgsplit utility enables you to split a volume group.

USING LOGICAL VOLUME MANAGEMENT UTILITIES

The following utilities enable you to manage logical volumes:

◆ The /sbin/lvchange utility enables you to change attributes of a logical

volume. For example, you can activate a logical volume group using -a y
option and deactivate it using -a n option. Once it’s deactivated, you may
have to use the vmchange command before you can activate the volume
group.
◆ The /sbin/lvcreate utility enables you to create a new logical volume
using an existing volume group.
◆ The /sbin/lvdisplay utility enables you display attributes of a logical
volume.
◆ The /sbin/lvextend utility enables you to extend the size of a logical
volume.
◆ The /sbin/lvreduce utility enables you to change the size of an existing,
active logical volume.
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62 Part I: System Performance

◆ The /sbin/lvremove utility enables you to remove an inactive logical

volume.
◆ The /sbin/lvrename utility enables you to rename an existing logical
volume.
◆ The /sbin/lvscan utility enables you to locate all logical volumes on
your system.

USING LOGICAL VOLUME MANAGER UTILITIES

The following utilities give you control of the logical volume management module
itself.

◆ The /sbin/lvmchange utility enables you to change the attribute of the

logical volume manager. You shouldn’t need to use this utility in normal
operation.
◆ The /sbin/lvmcreate_initrd utility enables you to a bootable initial
RAM disk using a logical volume.
◆ The /sbin/lvmdiskscan utility enables you to scan all storage devices in
your system that can be used in logical volumes.
◆ The /sbin/lvmsadc utility enables you to collect read/write statistics of a
logical volume.
◆ The /sbin/lvmsar utility enables you to report read/write statistics to a
log file.

Adding a new disk or partition to a logical volume

After a logical volume has been in use for a while, eventually you have to add new
disks to it as your system needs more space. Here I add a new disk partition
/dev/hdc2 to the already created logical volume called /dev/big_disk/vol1.

1. su to root and run /sbin/pvscan to view the state of all your physical
volumes. Here’s a sample output.
pvscan -- reading all physical volumes (this may take a
while...)
pvscan -- ACTIVE PV “/dev/hda7” of VG “big_disk” [12.84 GB
/ 2.84 GB free]
pvscan -- ACTIVE PV “/dev/hdc1” of VG “big_disk” [3.91 GB /
3.91 GB free]
pvscan -- total: 2 [16.75 GB] / in use: 2 [16.75 GB] / in no
VG: 0 [0]
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 63

2. Run /sbin/vgdisplay big_disk to learn the current settings for the

big_disk volume group. Here’s a sample output:

--- Volume group ---

VG Name big_disk
VG Access read/write
VG Status available/resizable
VG # 0
MAX LV 256
Cur LV 0
Open LV 0
MAX LV Size 255.99 GB
Max PV 256
Cur PV 2
Act PV 2
VG Size 16.75 GB
PE Size 4 MB
Total PE 4288
Alloc PE / Size 0 / 0
Free PE / Size 4288 / 16.75 GB
VG UUID p3N102-z7nM-xH86-DWw8-yn2J-Mw3Y-lshq62

As you can see here, the total volume group size is about 16 GB.
3. Using the fdisk utility, change the new partition’s system ID to 8e (Linux
LVM). Here’s a sample /sbin/fdisk /dev/hdc session on my system.
Command (m for help): p
Disk /dev/hdc: 255 heads, 63 sectors, 1583 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 bytes
Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System
/dev/hdc1 1 510 4096543+ 8e Linux LVM
/dev/hdc2 511 1583 8618872+ 83 Linux
Command (m for help): t
Partition number (1-4): 2
Hex code (type L to list codes): 8e
Changed system type of partition 2 to 8e (Linux LVM)
Command (m for help): p
Disk /dev/hdc: 255 heads, 63 sectors, 1583 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 bytes
Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System
/dev/hdc1 1 510 4096543+ 8e Linux LVM
/dev/hdc2 511 1583 8618872+ 8e Linux LVM
Command (m for help): v
62 unallocated sectors
Command (m for help): w
The partition table has been altered!
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64 Part I: System Performance

4. Run /sbin/mkreiserfs /dev/hdc2 to create a reiserfs filesystem, but if

you have been using ext2 filesystems for the logical volume, use the
/sbin/mke2fs /dev/hdc2 command instead.

5. Run /sbin/pvcreate /dev/hdc2 to create a new physical volume using

the /dev/hdc2 partition.
6. Run /sbin/vgextend big_disk /dev/hdc2 to add the partition to the
big_disk volume group. To verify that the disk partition has been added
to the volume group, run the /sbin/vgdisplay /dev/big_disk com-
mand. You should see output like the following:
--- Volume group ---
VG Name big_disk
VG Access read/write
VG Status available/resizable
VG # 0
MAX LV 256
Cur LV 1
Open LV 0
MAX LV Size 255.99 GB
Max PV 256
Cur PV 3
Act PV 3
VG Size 24.97 GB
PE Size 4 MB
Total PE 6392
Alloc PE / Size 4608 / 18 GB
Free PE / Size 1784 / 6.97 GB
VG UUID VMttR1-Tl0e-I4js-oXmi-uE1e-hprD-iqhCIX

In this report, the volume group size has increased to about 25GB because
we added approximately 8GB to 16GB of existing volume space.
7. You must unmount the logical volumes that use the volume group. In my
example, I can run umount /dev/big_disk/vol1 to unmount the logical
volume that uses the big_disk volume group.

If you get a device busy error message when you try to unmount the
filesystem, you are either inside the filesystem mount point or you have at
least one user (or program) currently using the filesystem. The best way to
solve such a scenario is to take the system down to single-user mode from
the system console, using the /etc/rc.d/rc 1 command and staying out
of the mount point you are trying to unmount.
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 65

8. Increase the size of the logical volume. If the new disk partition is (say)
8GB and you want to extend the logical volume by that amount, do so
using the /sbin/lvextend -L +8G /dev/big_disk/vol1 command. You
should see output like the following:
lvextend -- extending logical volume “/dev/big_disk/vol1” to
18 GB
lvextend -- doing automatic backup of volume group “big_disk”
lvextend -- logical volume “/dev/big_disk/vol1” successfully
extended

9. After the logical volume has been successfully extended, resize the filesys-
tem accordingly:
◆ If you use a reiserfs filesystem, you can run

/sbin/resize_reiserfs -f /dev/big_disk/vol1

If the filesytem is already mounted, run the same command without

the -f option.
◆ If you use the ext2 filesystem, you can use the following command to
resize both the filesystem and the volume itself.:
/sbin/e2fsadm -L +8G /dev/big_disk/vol1

10. You can mount the logical volume as usual.

For example, (if you use reiserfs filesystems for the disks, the following
command mounts the logical volume as a reiserfs filesystem:

mount /dev/big_disk/vol1 /vol1 -t reiserfs

If you use an ext2 filesystem, use -t ext2 instead.

Removing a disk or partition from a volume group

Before you remove a disk from a logical volume, back up all the files. Now say that
you have a logical volume called /dev/big_disk/vol1 which is made up of
/dev/hda7, /dev/hdc1, and /dev/hdc2. Now you want to remove /dev/hda7
because it’s too slow (or for some other reason). Here’s how you can do so.

Every time I reduced a logical volume to a smaller size, I had to recreate the
filesystem. All data was lost. The lesson? Always back up the logical volume
first.
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66 Part I: System Performance

1. Move the data on the physical volume /dev/hda7 to another disk or par-
tition in the same volume group. If /dev/hdc1 has enough space to keep
the data, you can simply run the /sbin/pvmove /dev/hda7 /dev/hdc1
command to move the data. If you don’t have the space in either you
must add a disk to replace /dev/hda7 if you want to save the data.
2. Remove the physical volume /dev/hda7 from the volume group, using the
following command:
/sbin/vgreduce big_disk /dev/hda7

3. Reduce the size of the logical volume /dev/big_disk/vol1. To reduce it

by 2GB, first reduce the filesystem size:
◆ If you use reiserfs filesystem, run the following commands:

/sbin/resize_reiserfs -s -2G /dev/big_disk/vol1

/sbin/lvreduce -L -1G /dev/big_disk/vol1

◆ If you use ext2 filesystem for the logical volume, run the following
command:

/sbin/e2fsadm -L -2G /dev/big_disk/vol1 .

LVM when matured and supported as a mainstream disk management solution

under Linux, increases storage reliability and eases storage administration under
Linux’s belt of capabilities; thus, making good inroads towards enterprise comput-
ing. Because the enterprise IT managers are already looking at Linux, the technolo-
gies that are required by them are likely to be fast tracked automatically because of
commercial interests. Supporting Linux for the enterprise is going to be a big busi-
ness in the future, so technologies like LVM will mature quickly. Being on the front
with such technology today, ensures that your skill set is high on demand. So don’t
put off LVM if it isn’t yet mainstream in Linux; it’s simply coming to a job near you.

Using RAID, SAN, or Storage

Appliances
No storage-management discussion can be complete with talking about Redundant
Array of Independent Disks (RAID), Storage-Area Networks (SANs), or the storage
appliance solutions available today. Most of these solutions involve vendor-specific
hardware that isn’t Linux-specific, so I won’t go in-depth on those issues.

Using Linux Software RAID

I have never got around to using the software RAID capabilities of Linux because
something about a software RAID bothers me. I just can’t convince myself to play
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 67

with software RAID because I have used hardware RAID devices extensively and
found them to be very suitable solutions. In almost all situations where RAID is a
solution, someone is willing to pay for the hardware. Therefore, I can’t recommend
software RAID as a tested solution with anywhere near the confidence I have in
hardware RAID.

Using Hardware RAID

Hardware RAID has been around long enough to become very reliable and many
hardware raid solutions exist for Linux. One of my favorite solutions is IBM’s
ServerRAID controller that can interface with IBM’s external disk storage devices
such as EXP 15 and EXP 200. Similar solutions are available from other vendors.
A hardware RAID solution typically uses ultra-wide SCSI disks and an internal
RAID controller card for Linux. (Most RAID vendors now support native Linux
drivers.)
No matter which RAID (hardware or software) you use, you must pick a RAID
level that is suitable for your needs. Most common RAID levels are 1 and 5. RAID 1
is purely disk mirroring. To use disk mirroring RAID 1 with 100 GB of total space,
you need 200 GB of disk space.
RAID 5 is almost always the best choice. If you use N devices where the smallest
has size S, the size of the entire array is (N-1)*S. This “missing” space is used for
parity (redundancy) information. (Use same-size media to ensure that your disk
space isn’t wasted.)

Using Storage-Area Networks (SANs)

Storage-Area Networking (SAN) is the new Holy Grail of storage solutions.
Companies like EMC, IBM, Compaq, and Storage Networks are the SAN experts.
Typically, a SAN solution consists of dedicated storage devices that you place in a
fiver channel network and the storage is made available to your Linux systems via
dedicated switching hardware and fiber channel interface cards. Generally speak-
ing, SAN is for the enterprise world and not yet ready for the small- to mid-range
organizations.
If you co-locate your Linux systems in a well known data center such as those
provided by large ISPs like Exodus, Global Center, and Globix, chances are you will
find SAN as a value-added service. This may be one way to avoid paying for the
expensive SAN hardware and still have access to it. I know of Storage Networks
who provide such services in major ISP locations. They also have fiber rings
throughout the US, which means you can make your disks in New York appear in
California with negligible latency.

Using Storage Appliances

Storage appliances are no strangers to network/system administrators. Today, you
can buy dedicated storage appliances that hook up to your 10 or 100 or 1000 Mb
Ethernet and provide RAIDed storage services. These devices are usually remote
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68 Part I: System Performance

managed using Web. They are good for small- to mid-range organizations and
often very easy to configure and manage.

Using a RAM-Based Filesystem

If you are creating storage space for a small system, a temporary, small filesystem
in RAM — a ramfs for short — can provide high-speed access. This filesystem is rela-
tively small because (by default) the maximum RAM that a ramfs can use is one-
half the total RAM on your system. So if you have 2GB RAM, a ramfs can use only
1GB. Because I haven’t yet seen systems with more than 4GB of RAM, even 2GB
ramfs is really small compared to today’s large disk-based filesystems. The ramfs is
perfect for many small files that must be accessed fast. For example, I use a ramfs
for a set of small images used in a heavily accessed Web site.
To use a ramfs, you must enable ramfs support in the kernel:

1. Get the latest Linux kernel source from www.kernel.org and then (as
root) extract it into the /usr/src/linux-version directory, (where ver-
sion is the current version of the kernel). Here I assume this to be 2.4.1.

2. Select the File systems submenu. Using the spacebar, select Simple
RAM-based file system support to be included as a kernel module and
exit the submenu.
3. Ensure that all other kernel features that you use are also selected as usual
(see “Tuning the kernel” for details).
4. Exit the main menu and save the kernel configuration.
5. Run the make dep command to as suggested by the menuconfig program.
6. Run make bzImage to create the new kernel. Then run make modules and
make modules_install to install the new modules in appropriate
locations.
7. Change directory to arch/i386/boot directory. Note, if your hardware
architecture is Intel, you must replace i386 and possibly need further
instructions from a kernel HOW-TO documentation to compile and install
your flavor of the kernel. I assume that most readers are i386-based.
8. Copy the bzImage to /boot/vmlinuz-2.4.1 and edit the
/etc/lilo.conf file to include a new configuration such as the
following:
image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.4.1
label=linux3
read-only
root=/dev/hda1
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 69

9. Run the /sbin/lilo command to reconfigure LILO and reboot your sys-
tem. At the lilo prompt, enter linux3 and boot the new kernel. If you
have any problem, you should be able to reboot to your standard Linux
kernel, which should be default automatically.
10. After you have booted the new kernel, you are now ready to use the
ramfs capability. Create a directory called ramdrive by using the mkdir
/ramdrive command.

11. Mount the ramfs filesystem by using the mount -t ramfs none
/ramdrive command.

You are all set to write files to /ramdrive as usual.

When the system is rebooted or you unmount the filesystem, all contents
are lost. This is why it should be a temporary space for high-speed access.
Because ramfs is really not a block device, such programs as df and du can’t
see it. You can verify that you are really using RAM by running the cat
/proc/mounts command and look for an entry such as the following:
none /ram ramfs rw 0 0

You can specify options using -o option when mounting the filesystem just
like mounting a regular disk-based filesystem. For example, to mount the
ramfs filesystem as read-only, you can use -o ro option. You can also spec-
ify special options such as maxsize=n where n is the number of kilobytes to
allocate for the filesystem in RAM; maxfiles=n where n is the number of all
files allowed in the filesystem; maxinodes=n where n is the maximum
number of inodes (default is 0 = no limits).

If you run a Web server, you should find many uses for a RAM-based filesystem.
Elements such as common images and files of your Web site that aren’t too big can
be kept in the ramfs filesystem. You can write a simple shell script to copy the con-
tents from their original location on each reboot. Listing 3-3 creates a simple script
for that.
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70 Part I: System Performance

Listing 3-3: make_ramfs.sh

#!/bin/sh
#
# Simply script to create a ramfs filesystem
# on $MOUNTPOINT (which must exists).
#
# It copies files from $ORIG_DIR to $MOUNTPOINT
# and changes ownership of $MOUTPOINT to
# $USER and $GROUP
#
# Change values for these variables to suit
# your needs.
MOUNTPOINT=/ram
ORIG_DIR=/www/commonfiles
USER=httpd
GROUP=httpd
MOUNTCMD=/bin/mount
CHOWN=/bin/chown
CP=/bin/cp
echo -n “Creating ramfs filesytem in $MOUNTPOINT “;
$MOUNTCMD -t ramfs none $MOUNTPOINT
echo “done.”;
echo -n “Copying $ORIG_DIR to $MOUNTPOINT ... “;
$CP -r $ORIG_DIR $MOUNTPOINT
echo “done.”;
echo -n “Changing ownership to $USER:$GROUP for $MOUNTPOINT ...”;
$CHOWN -R $USER:$GROUP $MOUNTPOINT
echo “done.”;

To use this script on your system, do the following:

1. Create this script, make_ramfs.sh in /usr/local/scripts directory.

Create the /usr/local/scripts directory if you don’t have one.
2. Edit /etc/rc.d/rc.local file and append the following line to it:
/usr/local/scripts/make_ramfs.sh

3. Create a directory called ram using the mkdir /ram command. If you keep
the files you want to load in RAM in any other location than /www/com-
monfiles, then modify the value for the ORIG_DIR variable in the script.
For example, if your files are in the /www/mydomain/htdocs/common
directory, then set this variable to this directory.
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Chapter 3: Filesystem Tuning 71

4. If you run your Web server using any other username and group than
httpd, then change the USER and GROUP variable values accordingly. For
example, if you run Apache as nobody (user and group), then set
USER=nobody and GROUP=nobody.

5. Assuming you use Apache Web server, create an alias in your httpd.conf
file such as the following:
Alias /commonfiles/ “/ram/commonfiles/”

Whenever Apache Web server needs to access /commonfiles/*, it now uses the
version in the RAM, which should be substantially faster than the files stored in the
original location. Remember, the RAM-based version disappears whenever you
reboot or unmount the filesystem. So never update anything there unless you also
copy the contents back to a disk-based directory.

If you have mounted a ramfs filesystem using a command such as mount -t

ramfs none /ram and copied contents to it and later reran the same mount
command, it wipes out the contents and remounts it. The /proc/mounts
file shows multiple entries for the same mount point, which causes problem
in unmounting the device. If you must regain the memory for other use, you
must reboot. Watch for this problem to be fixed in later Linux releases.

Summary
In this chapter you learned about how to tune your disks and filesystems. You
learned to tune your IDE/EIDE drives for better performance; you learned to
enhance ext2 performance along with using journaling filesystems like ReiserFS,
logical volume management, and RAM-based filesystems.
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Part II
Network and Service Performance
CHAPTER 4
Network Performance
CHAPTER 5
Web Server Performance
CHAPTER 6
E-Mail Server Performance
CHAPTER 7
NFS and Samba Server Performance
064754-2 Pt2.F 11/5/01 1:16 PM Page 74
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Chapter 4

Network Performance
IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Tuning your network

◆ Segmenting your network

◆ Balancing the traffic load using round-robin DNS

◆ Using IP accounting

THE NETWORK DEVICES (such as network interface cards, hubs, switches, and routers)
that you choose for your network have a big effect on the performance of your net-
work so it’s important to choose appropriate network hardware. Because network
hardware is cheap today, using high performance PCI-based NIC or 100Mb switches
is no longer a pipe dream for network administrators. Like the hardware, the high-
speed bandwidth is also reasonably cheap. Having T1 connection at the office is no
longer a status symbol for network administrators. Today, burstable T3 lines are
even available in many places. So what is left for network tuning? Well, the very
design of the network of course! In this chapter I discuss how you can design high-
performance networks for both office and public use. However, the Ethernet Local
Area Network (LAN) tuning discussion is limited to small- to mid-range offices
where the maximum number of users is fewer than a thousand or so. For larger-
scale networks you should consult books that are dedicated to large networking
concepts and implementations. This chapter also covers a Web network design that
is scalable and can perform well under heavy load.

Tuning an Ethernet LAN or WAN

Most Ethernet LANs start with at least one hub. Figure 4-1 shows a typical, small
Ethernet LAN.

75
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76 Part II: Network and Service Performance

PC PC

HUB

PC PC

Figure 4-1: A small Ethernet LAN

As the company grows bigger, the small LAN started to look like the one shown
in Figure 4-2.

PC PC PC PC

HUB HUB

PC PC PC PC

MAC PC

HUB

PC MAC

Figure 4-2: A small but growing Ethernet LAN

As the company prospers, the number of people and the computers grow and
eventually you have a network that looks as shown in Figure 4-3.
In my experience, when a network of cascading Ethernet hubs reaches about 25
or more users, typically it has enough diverse users and tasks that performance
starts to degrade. For example, I have been called in many times to analyze net-
works that started degrading after adding only a few more machines. Often those
“few more machines” were run by “network-heavy” users such as graphic artists
who shared or downloaded huge art and graphics files throughout the day as part
of their work or research. Today it’s even easier to saturate a 10Mb Ethernet with
live audio/video feeds (or other apps that kill network bandwidth) that office users
sometimes run on their desktops. So it’s very important to design a LAN that can
perform well under a heavy load so everyone’s work gets done fast.
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Chapter 4: Network Performance 77

Marketing & Sales Department Development & Production Department

Management & Administration

Figure 4-3: A not-so-small Ethernet LAN

Although commonly used, Ethernet hubs are not the best way to expand a LAN
to support users. Network expansions should be well planned and implemented,
using appropriate hardware; the following sections discuss how you can do that.

Using network segmentation technique

for performance
The network shown in Figure 4-3 has a major problem. It’s a single Ethernet seg-
ment that has been put together by placing a group of hubs in a cascading fashion,
which means that all the computers in the network see all the traffic. So when a
user from the production department copies a large file from another user next to
her in the same department, a computer in the marketing department is deprived of
the bandwidth to do something else. Figure 4-4 shows a better version of the same
network.

Marketing & Sales Department

Development & Production Department

eth0

Network: 192.168.3.0
Network
Gateway
eth1
Management & Administration

eth2

Network: 192.168.2.0
Network: 192.168.1.0

Figure 4-4: A segmented Ethernet LAN

Here the departments are segmented in the different IP networks and intercon-
nected by a network gateway. This gateway can be a Red Hat Linux system with IP
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78 Part II: Network and Service Performance

forwarding turned on and a few static routing rules to implement the following
standard routing policy:

IF source and destination of a packet is within the same network THEN

DO NOT FORWARD the network traffic to any other attached networks
ELSE IF
FORWARD the network traffic to the appropriate attached network only
END

Here’s an example: John at the marketing department wants to access a file from
Jennifer, who works in the same department. When John accesses Jennifer’s shared
drive, the IP packets his system transmits and receives aren’t to be seen by anyone
in the management/administration or development/production departments. So if
the file is huge, requiring three minutes to transfer, no one in the other department
suffers network degradation. Of course marketing personnel who are accessing the
network at the time of the transfer do see performance degrade. But you can reduce
such degradation by using switching Ethernet hardware instead of simple Ethernet
hubs (I cover switches in a later section).
The network gateway computer in Figure 4-4 has three Ethernet interface (NIC)
cards; each of these cards is connected to a different department (that is, network).
The marketing and sales department is on a Class C (192.168.3.0) network, which
means this department can have 254 host computers for their use. Similarly, the
other departments have their own Class C networks. Here are the steps needed to
create such a setup.

There are many ways to do this configuration. For example, instead of using
different Class C networks to create departmental segments, you can use a
set of Class B subnets (or even a set of Class C subnets, depending on the
size of your departments). In this example, I use different Class C networks to
make the example a bit simpler to understand.

1. For each department in your organization, create a Class C network.

Remember that a Class C network gives you a total of 254 usable IP
addresses. If your department size is larger than 254, then you should
consider breaking up the department into multiple networks or use a Class
B network instead. In this example, I assume that each of your depart-
ments has fewer than 254 computers; I also assume that you have three
departmental segments as shown in Figure 4-4 and you have used
192.168.1.0, 192.168.2.0, and 192.168.3.0 networks.

2. On your Red Hat Linux system designated to be the network gateway, turn
on IP forwarding.
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Chapter 4: Network Performance 79

■ Run /sbin/sysctl -w net.ipv4.ip_forward=1 command as root

■ Add this command at the end of your /etc/rc.d/rc.local script so
that IP forwarding is turned on whenever you reboot your system.

You may already have IP forwarding turned on; to check, run the cat
/proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward command. 1 means that IP forward-
ing is on and 0 means that IP forwarding is turned off.

3. Create /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0, /etc/

sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth1, and /etc/sysconfig/
network-scripts/ifcfg-eth2 files, as shown here:

# Contents of ifcfg-eth0 file

DEVICE=eth0
BROADCAST=192.168.1.255
IPADDR=192.168.1.254
NETMASK=255.255.255.0
NETWORK=192.168.1.0
ONBOOT=yes

# Contents of ifcfg-eth1 file

DEVICE=eth1
BROADCAST=192.168.2.255
IPADDR=192.168.2.254
NETMASK=255.255.255.0
NETWORK=192.168.2.0
ONBOOT=yes

# Contents of ifcfg-eth2 file

DEVICE=eth2
BROADCAST=192.168.3.255
IPADDR=192.168.3.254
NETMASK=255.255.255.0
NETWORK=192.168.3.0
ONBOOT=yes

4. Connect the appropriate network to the proper Ethernet NIC on the gate-
way computer. The 192.168.1.0 network should be connected to the
eth0, 192.168.2.0 should be connected to eth1, and 192.168.3.0
should be connected to eth2. Once connected, you can simply restart the
machine — or bring up the interfaces, using the following commands from
the console.
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80 Part II: Network and Service Performance

/sbin/ifconfig eth0 up
/sbin/ifconfig eth1 up
/sbin/ifconfig eth2 up

5. Set the default gateway for each of the networks. For example, all the
computers in the 192.168.1.0 network should set their default route to
be 192.168.1.254, which is the IP address associated with the eth0
device of the gateway computer.
That’s all there is to isolating each department into its own network. Now
traffic from one network only flows to the other when needed. This
enables the bandwidth on each department to be available for its own use
most of the time.

Using switches in place of hubs

When a large LAN is constructed with a set of cascading hubs to support many
computers, the bandwidth is shared by all of the computers. If the total bandwidth
is 10 Mbps, the entire network is limited to that amount. However, this can easily
become a serious bottleneck in a busy network where large files are often accessed
or audio/video streams are common. In such a case an Ethernet switch can work
like magic.
The major difference between an Ethernet hub and switch is that each port on a
switch is its own logical segment. A computer connected to a port on an Ethernet
switch has a full bandwidth to it and need not contend with other computers for
collisions. One of the main reasons you purchase a switch over a hub is for its
address-handling capabilities. Whereas a hub doesn’t look at the address of a data
packet and just forwards data to all devices on the network, a switch should read
the address of each data packet and correctly forward the data to the intended
recipients. If the switch doesn’t correctly read the packet address and correctly for-
ward the data, it has no advantage over a hub. Table 4-1 lists the major differences
between hub and switch.

TABLE 4-1: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AN ETHERNET HUB AND A SWITCH

Hub Switch

Total network bandwidth is limited to Total network bandwidth is determined by the

the speed of the hub; that is, A 10Base-T number of ports on the switch; that is, a 12 port
hub provides 10Mb bandwidth, no matter 100Mb switch can support up to 1200 Mbps
how many ports. bandwidth — this is referred to as the switch’s
maximum aggregate bandwidth.
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Chapter 4: Network Performance 81

Hub Switch

Supports half duplex communications Switches that support full duplex

limiting the connection to the speed of communications offer the capability to double
the port; that is, 10Mb port provides a the speed of each link; that is, from 100Mb
10Mb link. to 200Mb.
Hop count rules limit the number of Enables users to greatly expand networks; there
hubs that can be interconnected are no limits to the number of switches that
between two computers. can be interconnected between two computers.
Cheaper than switches Slightly more expensive than hubs.

No special hardware is needed on the devices that connect to an Ethernet switch.

The same network interface used for shared media 10Base-T hubs works with an
Ethernet switch. From that device’s perspective, connecting to a switched port is
just like being the only computer on the network segment.

One common use for an Ethernet switch is to break a large network into seg-
ments. While it’s possible to attach a single computer to each port on an
Ethernet switch, it’s also possible to connect other devices such as a hub. If
your network is large enough to require multiple hubs, you could connect
each of those hubs to a switch port so that each hub is a separate segment.
Remember that if you simply cascade the hubs directly, the combined net-
work is a single logical Ethernet segment.

Using fast Ethernet

The traditional Ethernet is 10 Mbps, which simply isn’t enough in a modern busi-
ness environment where e-mail-based communication, Internet access, video con-
ferencing, and other bandwidth-intensive operations are more commonplace. The
100 Mbps Ethernet is the way to go. However, 100 Mbps or “fast” Ethernet is still
expensive if you decide to use fast switches, too. I highly recommend that you
move towards a switched fast Ethernet. The migration path from 10 Mbps to 100
Mbps can be expensive if you have a lot of computers in your network. Each com-
puter in your network must have 100 Mbps-capable NIC installed, which can be
expensive in cost, staff, and time. For a large LAN with hundreds of users, upgrade
one segment at a time. You can start by buying 10 (ten) 100 Mbps dual-speed NIC
for machines and, thus, support your existing 10 Mbps and upcoming 100 Mbps
infrastructure seamlessly.
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82 Part II: Network and Service Performance

The fast Ethernet with switching hardware can bring a high degree of perfor-
mance to your LAN. Consider this option if possible. If you have multiple depart-
ments to interconnect, consider an even faster solution between the departments.
The emerging gigabit Ethernet is very suitable for connecting local area networks
to form a wide area network (WAN).

Using a network backbone

If you are dealing with a mid-size network environment where hundreds of com-
puters and multiple physical locations are involved, design the network backbone
that carries network traffic between locations. Figure 4-5 shows one such network.

Gigabit Switch
Location A or Fiber Switch Location B

Gigabit Switch
Location D or Fiber Switch Location C

Figure 4-5: A WAN with a gigabit/fiber switched backbone

Here the four locations A, B, C, and D are interconnected using either a gigabit
or fiver switched backbone. A large bandwidth capacity in the backbone has two
benefits:

◆ It accommodates worst-case scenarios. A typical example is when the

entire WAN is busy because most of the computers are transmitting and
receiving data to and from the network. If the backbone is 10 Mb (or even
100 Mb), performance can degrade — and user perception of the slowdown
varies widely.
◆ It makes your network amenable to expansion. For example, if location
A decides to increase its load, the high bandwidth available at the back-
bone can handle the load.
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Chapter 4: Network Performance 83

Fiber optics work very well in enterprise networks as a backbone infrastruc-

ture. Fiber offers exceptional performance for high-bandwidth applications,
and is extremely reliable and secure. Fiber isn’t susceptible to many of the
sources of interference that can play havoc with copper-based cabling sys-
tems. Fiber is also considered to be more secure because it can’t be tapped
unless you cut and splice the fiber strands — a task that is virtually impossible
without detection. If you need to connect a set of buildings within a corpo-
rate complex or academic campus, then fiber optics offers the very best solu-
tion. While it’s possible to use fiber optics to connect PCs and printers in a
LAN, only organizations with serious security concerns and extremely data-
intensive applications regularly do so. Fiber-optic networks are expensive to
implement, and their installation and maintenance demand a higher level of
expertise. At a time when we can achieve 100 Mbps speed over copper
cabling, it’s seldom cost-effective to use fiber optics for a small office network.

If you have mission-critical applications in your network that are accessed

via the backbone, you must consider adding redundancy in your backbone
so that if one route goes down because of an equipment failure or any other
problem, an alternative path is available. Adding redundancy doesn’t come
cheap, but it’s a must for those needing a high uptime percentage.

Understanding and controlling

network traffic flow
Understanding how your network traffic flows is the primary key in determining
how you can tune it for better performance. Take a look at the network segment
shown in Figure 4-6.
Here three Web servers are providing Web services to the Internet and they
share a network with an NFS server and a database server. What’s wrong with this
picture? Well, several things are wrong. First of all, these machines are still using
dumb hub instead of a switch. Second of all, the NFS and database traffic is com-
peting with the incoming and outgoing Web traffic. If a Web application needs
database access, it generates database requests, in response to a Web request from
the Internet, which in turn reduces from the bandwidth available for other incom-
ing or outgoing Web requests, thus, effectively making the network unnecessarily
busy or less responsive. How can you solve such a problem? Using a traffic con-
trol mechanism, of course! First determine what traffic can be isolated in this net-
work. Naturally, the database and NFS traffic is only needed to service the Web
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84 Part II: Network and Service Performance

servers. In such a case, NFS and database traffic should be isolated so that they
don’t compete with Web traffic. Figure 4-7 shows a modified network diagram for
the same network.

Router

Load Balancing Device

(e.g. CISCO Local Director)

Internet

Web Server 1 NFS Server

Web Server 2 Hub

Web Server 3 Database Server

Figure 4-6: An inefficient Web network

Router
Internet

Load Balancing Hardware

NFS Server Web Server 1

Switch Web Server 2 Switch

Database Server Web Server 3

Figure 4-7: An improved Web network

Here the database and the NFS server are connected to a switch that is connected
to the second NIC of each Web server. The other NIC of each Web server is connected
to a switch that is in turn connected to the load balancing hardware. Now, when a
Web request comes to a Web server, it’s serviced by the server without taking away
from the bandwidth of other Web servers. The result is a tremendous increase in net-
work efficiency, which trickles down to more positive user experience.
After you have a good network design, your tuning focus should be shifted to
applications and services that you provide. In many cases, depending on your
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Chapter 4: Network Performance 85

network load, you may have to consider deploying multiple servers of the same
kind to implement a more responsive service. This is certainly true for the Web. In
the following section I show you a simple-to-use load-balancing scheme using a
DNS trick.

Balancing the traffic load using the DNS server

The idea is to share the load among multiple servers of a kind. This typically is used
for balancing the Web load over multiple Web servers. This trick is called round-
robin Domain Name Service.
Suppose you have two Web servers, www1.yourdomain.com (192.168.1.10) and
www2.yourdomain.com (192.168.1.20), and you want to balance the load for
www.yourdomain.com on these two servers by using the round-robin DNS trick.
Add the following lines to your yourdomain.com zone file:

www1 IN A 192.168.1.10
www2 IN A 192.168.1.20
www IN CNAME www1
www IN CNAME www2

Restart your name server and ping the www.yourdomain.com host. You see the
192.168.1.10 address in the ping output. Stop and restart pinging the same host,
and you’ll see the second IP address being pinged, because the preceding configura-
tion tells the name server to cycle through the CNAME records for www. The www.
yourdomain.com host is both www1.yourdomain.com and www2.yourdomain.com.
Now, when someone enters www.yourdomain.com, the name server sends the
first address once, then sends the second address for the next request, and keeps
cycling between these addresses.
One of the disadvantages of the round-robin DNS trick is that the name server
can’t know which system is heavily loaded and which isn’t — it just blindly cycles.
If a server crashes or becomes unavailable for some reason, the round-robin DNS
trick still returns the broken server’s IP on a regular basis. This could be chaotic,
because some people get to the sites and some won’t.
If your load demands better management and your server’s health is essential to
your operation, then your best choice is to get a hardware solution that uses the
new director products such as Web Director (www.radware.com/), Ace Director
(www.alteon.com/), or Local Director (www.cisco.com/). I have used both Local
Director and Web Director with great success.

IP Accounting
As you make headway in tuning your network, you also have a greater need to
determine how your bandwidth is used. Under Linux, you can use the IP account-
ing scheme to get that information.
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86 Part II: Network and Service Performance

IP accounting on a Linux system that isn’t a network gateway?

Yes, technically you can do it. If your system is not a gateway — it doesn’t do IP
forwarding and /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward is set to 0 — you can run IP
accounting if you place the NIC in promiscuous mode, use the /sbin/ifconfig
eth0 up promisc command, and then apply IP accounting rules. For the sake of
network efficiency (and your sanity), however, I highly recommend that you try IP
accounting on a Linux network gateway system instead.

Knowing how your IP bandwidth is used helps you determine how to make
changes in your network to make it more efficient. For example, if you discover
that one segment of your network has 70 percent of its traffic going to a different
segment on average, you may find a way to isolate that traffic by providing a direct
link between the two networks. IP accounting helps you determine how IP packets
are passed around in your network.
To use IP accounting, you must configure and compile the kernel with network
packet-filtering support. If you use the make menuconfig command to configure
the kernel, you can find the Network packet filtering (replaces ipchains)
feature under the Networking optionssubmenu. Build and install the new kernel
with packet filtering support (See the Tuning Kernel chapter for details on compil-
ing and installing a custom kernel).

IP accounting on a Linux network gateway

Here I assume that you want to have a network gateway among three networks —
192.168.1.0 (eth0), 192.168.2.0 (eth1), and 207.183.15.0 (eth2). Here, the first
two networks are your internal department and the third one is the uplink network
to your Internet service provider.
Now you want to set up IP accounting rules that tell you how many packets
travel between the 192.168.1.0 network and the Internet. The IP accounting rules
that you need are as follows:

/sbin/iptables -A FORWARD -i eth2 -d 192.168.1.0/24

/sbin/iptables -A FORWARD -o eth2 -s 192.168.1.0/24

Here the first states that a new rule be appended (-A) to the FORWARD chain such
that all packets destined for the 192.168.1.0 network be counted when the pack-
ets travel via the eth2 interface of the gateway machine. Remember, the eth2 inter-
face is connected to the ISP network (possibly via a router, DSL device, or Cable
modem). The second rule states that another rule be appended to the FORWARD chain
such that any IP packet originated from the 192.168.1.0 network and passing
through the eth2 interface be counted. These two rules effectively count all IP
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Chapter 4: Network Performance 87

packets (whether incoming or outgoing) that move between the 192.168.1.0 net-
work and the Internet. To do the same for the 192.168.2.0 network, use the fol-
lowing rules:

/sbin/iptables -A FORWARD -i eth2 -d 192.168.2.0/24

/sbin/iptables -A FORWARD -o eth2 -s 192.168.2.0/24

After you have set up the preceding rules, you can view the results from time to
time by using the /sbin/iptables -L –v -n command. I usually open an SSH ses-
sion to the network gateway and run /usr/bin/watch –n 3600 /sbin/iptables
-L –v -n to monitor the traffic on an hourly basis.
If you are interested in finding out what type of network services are requested
by the departments that interact with the Internet, you can do accounting on that,
too. For example, if you want to know how much of the traffic passing through the
eth2 interface is Web traffic, you can implement a rule such as the following:

/sbin/iptables -A FORWARD -o eth0 -m tcp -p tcp --dport www

This records traffic meant for port 80 (www port in /etc/services). You can
add similar rules for other network services found in the /etc/services files.

Summary
The state of your network performance is the combined effect of your operating
system, network devices, bandwidth, and the overall network design you choose to
implement.
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Chapter 5

Web Server Performance

IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Controlling Apache

◆ Accelerating Web performance

THE DEFAULT WEB SERVER software for Red Hat Linux is Apache — the most popular
Web server in the world. According to Apache Group (its makers), the primary mis-
sion for Apache is accuracy as an HTTP protocol server first; performance (per se)
is second. Even so, Apache offers good performance in real-world situations — and
it continues to get better. As with many items of technology, proper tuning can give
an Apache Web server excellent performance and flexibility. In this chapter, I focus
on Apache tuning issues — and introduce you to the new kernel-level HTTP daemon
(available for the 2.4 and later kernels) that can speed the process of Web design.
Apache architecture makes the product extremely flexible. Almost all of its pro-
cessing — except for core functionality that handles requests and responses — hap-
pens in individual modules. This approach makes Apache easy to compile and
customize.

In this book (as in my other books), a common thread running through all of
the advice that bears repeating: Always compile your server software if you
have access to the source code. I believe that the best way to run Apache is to
compile and install it yourself. Therefore my other recommendations in this
section assume that you have the latest distribution of the Apache source
code on your system.

Compiling a Lean and Mean Apache

Compiling an efficient server means removing everything you don’t need and
retaining only the functions you want Apache to perform. Fortunately, the module-
based Apache architecture makes an efficient — and highly customized — installa-
tion relatively easy. Here’s how: 89
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90 Part II: Network and Service Performance

1. Know what Apache modules you currently have; decide whether you
really need them all. To find out what modules you currently have
installed in Apache binary code (httpd), run the following command
while logged in as root:
/usr/local/apache/bin/httpd –l

Change the path (/usr/local/apache) if you have installed Apache in

another location. This command displays all the Apache modules cur-
rently compiled in the httpd binary. For example, the default Apache
installation compiles the following modules:
Compiled-in modules:
http_core.c
mod_env.c
mod_log_config.c
mod_mime.c
mod_negotiation.c
mod_status.c
mod_include.c
mod_autoindex.c
mod_dir.c
mod_cgi.c
mod_asis.c
mod_imap.c
mod_actions.c
mod_userdir.c
mod_alias.c
mod_access.c
mod_auth.c
mod_setenvif.c
suexec: disabled; invalid wrapper /workspace/h1/bin/suexec

If you installed a default Apache binary, you can also find out what mod-
ules are installed by default by running the configuration script using the
following command:
./configure --help

This command displays command-line help, which are explained in

Table 5-1.

TABLE 5-1: THE OPTIONS FOR THE CONFIGURE SCRIPT

Option Meaning
--cache-file=FILE Cache test results in FILE
--help Print this message
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 91

Option Meaning
--no-create Do not create output files
--quiet or --silent Do not print ‘checking...’ messages
--version Print the version of autoconf that created configure
Directory and filenames:
--prefix=PREFIX Install architecture-independent files in PREFIX
[/usr/local/apache2]
--exec-prefix=EPREFIX Install architecture-dependent files in EPREFIX [same
as prefix]
--bindir=DIR User executables in DIR [EPREFIX/bin]
--sbindir=DIR System admin executables in DIR [EPREFIX/sbin]
--libexecdir=DIR Program executables in DIR [EPREFIX/libexec]
--datadir=DIR Read-only architecture-independent data in DIR
[PREFIX/share]
--sysconfdir=DIR Read-only single-machine data in DIR [PREFIX/etc]
--sharedstatedir=DIR Modifiable architecture-independent data in DIR
[PREFIX/com]
--localstatedir=DIR Modifiable single-machine data in DIR [PREFIX/var]
--libdir=DIR Object code libraries in DIR [EPREFIX/lib]
--includedir=DIR C header files in DIR [PREFIX/include]
--oldincludedir=DIR C header files for non-GCC in DIR [/usr/include]
--infodir=DIR Info documentation in DIR [PREFIX/info]
--mandir=DIR man documentation in DIR [PREFIX/man]
--srcdir=DIR Find the sources in DIR [configure dir or ...]
--program-prefix=PREFIX Prepend PREFIX to installed program names
--program-suffix=SUFFIX Append SUFFIX to installed program names
--program-transform- Run sed PROGRAM on installed program names
name=PROGRAM
--build=BUILD Configure for building on BUILD [BUILD=HOST]
--host=HOST Configure for HOST
--target=TARGET Configure for TARGET [TARGET=HOST]
--disable-FEATURE Do not include FEATURE (same as --enable-
FEATURE=no)
--enable-FEATURE[=ARG] Include FEATURE [ARG=yes]
Continued
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92 Part II: Network and Service Performance

TABLE 5-1: THE OPTIONS FOR THE CONFIGURE SCRIPT (Continued)

Option Meaning
--with-PACKAGE[=ARG] Use PACKAGE [ARG=yes]
--without-PACKAGE Do not use PACKAGE (same as --with-PACKAGE=no)
--x-includes=DIR X include files are in DIR
--x-libraries=DIR X library files are in DIR
--with-optim=FLAG Obsolete (use OPTIM environment variable)
--with-port=PORT Port on which to listen (default is 80)
--enable-debug Turn on debugging and compile-time warnings
--enable-maintainer-mode Turn on debugging and compile-time warnings
--enable-layout=LAYOUT Use the select directory layout
--enable-modules= Enable the list of modules specified
MODULE-LIST
--enable-mods- Enable the list of modules as shared objects
shared=MODULE-LIST
--disable-access Host-based access control
--disable-auth User-based access control
--enable-auth-anon Anonymous user access
--enable-auth-dbm DBM-based access databases
--enable-auth-db DB-based access databases
--enable-auth-digest RFC2617 Digest authentication
--enable-file-cache File cache
--enable-dav-fs DAV provider for the filesystem
--enable-dav WebDAV protocol handling
--enable-echo ECHO server
--enable-charset-lite Character set translation
--enable-cache Dynamic file caching
--enable-disk-cache Disk caching module
--enable-ext-filter External filter module
--enable-case-filter Example uppercase conversion filter
--enable-generic- Example of hook exporter
hook-export
--enable-generic- Example of hook importer
hook-import
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 93

Option Meaning
--enable-optional- Example of optional function importer
fn-import
--enable-optional- Example of optional function exporter
fn-export
--disable-include Server-Side Includes
--disable-http HTTP protocol handling
--disable-mime Mapping of file-extension to MIME
--disable-log-config Logging configuration
--enable-vhost-alias Mass -hosting module
--disable-negotiation Content negotiation
--disable-dir Directory request handling
--disable-imap Internal imagemaps
--disable-actions Action triggering on requests
--enable-speling Correct common URL misspellings
--disable-userdir Mapping of user requests
--disable-alias Translation of requests
--enable-rewrite Regex URL translation
--disable-so DSO capability
--enable-so DSO capability
--disable-env Clearing/setting of ENV vars
--enable-mime-magic Automatically determine MIME type
--enable-cern-meta CERN-type meta files
--enable-expires Expires header control
--enable-headers HTTP header control
--enable-usertrack User-session tracking
--enable-unique-id Per-request unique IDs
--disable-setenvif Base ENV vars on headers
--enable-tls TLS/SSL support
--with-ssl Use a specific SSL library installation
--with-mpm=MPM Choose the process model for Apache to use:
MPM={beos threaded prefork
spmt_os2 perchild}

Continued
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94 Part II: Network and Service Performance

TABLE 5-1: THE OPTIONS FOR THE CONFIGURE SCRIPT (Continued)

Option Meaning
--disable-status Process/thread monitoring
--disable-autoindex Directory listing
--disable-asis As-is filetypes
--enable-info Server information
--enable-suexec Set UID and GID for spawned processes
--disable-cgid CGI scripts
--enable-cgi CGI scripts
--disable-cgi CGI scripts
--enable-cgid CGI scripts
--enable-shared[=PKGS] Build shared libraries [default=no]
--enable-static[=PKGS] Build static libraries [default=yes]
--enable-fast- Optimize for fast installation [default=yes]
install[=PKGS]
--with-gnu-ld Assume the C compiler uses GNU lD [default=no]
--disable-libtool-lock Avoid locking (might break parallel builds)
--with-program-name Alternate executable name
--with-suexec-caller User allowed to call SuExec
--with-suexec-userdir User subdirectory
--with-suexec-docroot SuExec root directory
--with-suexec-uidmin Minimal allowed UID
--with-suexec-gidmin Minimal allowed GID
--with-suexec-logfile Set the logfile
--with-suexec-safepath Set the safepath
--with-suexec-umask Amask for suexec’d process

2. Determine whether you need the modules that you have compiled in
Apache binary (httpd). By removing unnecessary modules, you achieve a
performance boost (because of the reduced size of the binary code file)
and — potentially, at least — greater security.
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 95

For example, if you plan never to run CGI programs or scripts, you can
remove the mod_cgi module — which reduces the size of the binary file
and also shuts out potential CGI attacks, making a more secure Apache envi-
ronment. If can’t service CGI requests, all CGI risk goes to zero.To know which
modules to keep and which ones to remove, know how each module func-
tions; you can obtain this information at the www.apache.org Web site.
Reading the Apache documentation for each module can help you deter-
mine whether you have any use for a moduleot.

Make a list of modules that you can do without and continue to the next
step.
3. After you decide which default modules you don’t want to keep, simply
run the configuration script from the top Apache directory, specifying the
--disable-module option for each module you want to remove. Here’s
an example:
./configure --prefix=/usr/local/apache \
--disable-cgi \
--disable-imap \
--disable-userdir \
--disable-autoindex \
--disable-status

In this list, the configure script must install Apache in /usr/local/

apache, using the --prefix option; it’s also told to disable the CGI
module (mod_cgi), the server-side image-mapping module (mod_imap),
the module that supports the user/public_html directory (mod_userdir),
the automatic directory-indexing module (mod_autoindex), and the
server-status module (mod_status).
4. After you have run the appropriate configuration command in the previ-
ous step, you can run the make; make install commands to build and
install the lean and mean Apache server.

Tuning Apache Configuration

When you configure an Apache source using the configure script with the
-- prefix option, this process specifies the primary configuration file as the
httpd.conf file (stored in the conf directory of your Apache installation directory).
The httpd.conf file consists of a set of Apache directives, some of which are
designed to help you fine-tune Apache performance. This section covers those
Apache directives.
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96 Part II: Network and Service Performance

Controlling Apache processes

Use the following directives to control how Apache executes in your system. Using
these directives also gives you control of how Apache uses resources on your sys-
tem. For example, you can decide how many child server processes to run on your
system, or how many threads you should enable Apache to use on a Windows
platform.
A few things to remember when configuring these directives:

◆ The more processes you run, the more load your CPUs must handle.

◆ The more processes you run, the more RAM you need.
◆ The more processes you run, the more operating-system resources (such as
file descriptors and shared buffers) you use.

Of course, more processes could also mean more requests serviced — hence more
hits for your site. So set these directives by balancing experimentation, require-
ments, and available resources.

StartServers

StartServers is set to 3 by default, which tells Apache to start three child servers
as it starts.

Syntax: StartServers number

Default setting: StartServers 3
Context: Server config

You can start more servers if you want, but Apache is pretty good at increasing
the number of child processes as needed based on load. So, changing this is not
required.

SENDBUFFERSIZE
This directive sets the size of the TCP send buffer to the number of bytes specified.

Syntax: SendBufferSize bytes

Context: Server config

On a high-performance network, you may increase server performance if

you set this directive to a higher value than the operating-system defaults.
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 97

LISTENBACKLOG
This directive defends against a known type of security attack called denial of ser-
vice (DoS) by enabling you to set the maximum length of the queue that handles
pending connections.

Syntax: ListenBacklog backlog

Default setting: ListenBacklog 511
Context: Server config

Increase this value if you detect that you are under a TCP SYN flood attack
(a type of DoS attack); otherwise you can leave it alone.

TIMEOUT
In effect, the Web is really a big client/server system in which the Apache server
responds to requests. The requests and responses are transmitted via packets of
data. Apache must know how long to wait for a certain packet. This directive con-
figures the time in seconds.

Syntax: TimeOut number

Default setting: TimeOut 300
Context: Server config

The time you specify here is the maximum time Apache waits before it breaks a
connection. The default setting enables Apache to wait for 300 seconds before it
disconnects itself from the client. If you are on a slow network, you may want to
increase the time-out value to decrease the number of disconnects.
Currently, this time out setting applies to:

◆ The total amount of time it takes to receive a GET request

◆ The amount of time between receipt of TCP packets on a POST or PUT

request
◆ The amount of time between ACKs on transmissions of TCP packets in
responses
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98 Part II: Network and Service Performance

MAXCLIENTS
This directive limits the number of simultaneous requests that Apache can service.

Syntax: MaxClients number

Default setting: MaxClients 256
Context: Server config

When you use the default MPM module (threaded) the number of simultaneous
request is equal to the value of this directive multiplied by the value of the
ThreadsPerChild directive. For example, if you have MaxClients set to default (256)
and ThreadsPerChild set to default (50) the Apache server can service a total of
12800 (256 x 50) requests. When using the perfork MPM the maximum number of
requests is limited by only the value of MaxClients. The default value (256) is the
maximum setting for this directive. If you wish to change this to a higher number,
you will have to modify the HARD_SERVER_LIMIT constant in mpm_default.h file
in the source distribution of Apache and recompile and reinstall it.

MAXREQUESTSPERCHILD
This directive sets the number of requests a child process can serve before getting
killed.

Syntax: MaxRequestsPerChild number

Default setting: MaxRequestsPerChild 0
Context: Server config

The default value of 0 makes the child process serve requests forever. I do not
like the default value because it allows Apache processes to slowly consume large
amounts of memory when a faulty mod_perl script or even a faulty third-party
Apache module leaks memory. If you do not plan to run any third-party Apache
modules or mod_perl scripts, you can keep the default setting or else set it to a rea-
sonable number. A setting of 30 ensures that the child process is killed after pro-
cessing 30 requests. Of course, new child processes are created as needed.

MAXSPARESERVERS
This directive lets you set the number of idle Apache child processes that you want
on your server.

Syntax: MaxSpareServers number

Default setting: MaxSpareServers 10
Context: Server config
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 99

If the number of idle Apache child processes exceeds the maximum number
specified by the MaxSpareServers directive, then the parent process kills off the
excess processes. Tuning of this parameter should only be necessary for very busy
sites. Unless you know what you are doing, do not change the default.

MINSPARESERVERS
The MinSpareServers directive sets the desired minimum number of idle child
server processes. An idle process is one that is not handling a request. If there are
fewer idle Apache processes than the number specified by the MinSpareServers
directive, then the parent process creates new children at a maximum rate of 1 per
second. Tuning of this parameter should only be necessary on very busy sites.
Unless you know what you are doing, do not change the default.

Syntax: MinSpareServers number

Default setting: MinSpareServers 5
Context: Server config

KEEPALIVE
The KeepAlive directive enables you to activate/deactivate persistent use of TCP
connections in Apache.

Syntax: KeepAlive On | Off

Default setting: KeepAlive On
Context: Server config

Older Apache servers (prior to version 1.2) may require a numeric value
instead of On/Off when using KeepAlive This value corresponds to the
maximum number of requests you want Apache to entertain per request. A
limit is imposed to prevent a client from taking over all your server
resources. To disable KeepAlive in the older Apache versions, use 0 (zero)
as the value.

KEEPALIVETIMEOUT
If you have the KeepAlive directive set to on, you can use the KeepAliveTimeout
directive to limit the number of seconds Apache will wait for a subsequent request
before closing a connection. After a request is received, the timeout value specified
by the Timeout directive applies.

Syntax: KeepAliveTimeout seconds

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100 Part II: Network and Service Performance

Default setting: KeepAliveTimeout 15

Context: Server config

KEEPALIVETIMEOUT
If you have the KeepAlive directive set to on, you can use the KeepAliveTimeout
directive to limit the number of seconds Apache will wait for a subsequent request
before closing a connection. After a request is received, the timeout value specified
by the Timeout directive applies.

Syntax: KeepAliveTimeout seconds

Default setting: KeepAliveTimeout 15
Context: Server config

Controlling system resources

Apache is flexible in enabling you to control the amount of system resources (such
as CPU time and memory) it consumes. These control features come in handy for
making your Web server system more reliable and responsive. Often a typical hack
attempts to make a Web server consume all available system resources until the
system becomes unresponsive — in effect, halted. Apache provides a set of directives
to combat such a situation.

RLIMITCPU
The RLimitCPU directive enables you to control the CPU usage of Apache children-
spawned processes such as CGI scripts. The limit does not apply to Apache children
themselves or to any process created by the parent Apache server.

Syntax: RLimitCPU n | ‘max’ [ n | ‘max’]

Default setting: Not set; uses operating system defaults

Context: Server config, virtual host

The RLimitCPU directive takes the following two parameters:The first parameter
sets a soft resource limit for all processes and the second parameter, which is
optional, sets the maximum resource limit. Note that raising the maximum resource
limit requires that the server be running as root or in the initial startup phase.For
each of these parameters, there are two possible values:

◆ n is the number of seconds per process.

◆ and max is the maximum resource limit allowed by the operating system.
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RLIMITMEM
The RLimitMEM directive limits the memory (RAM) usage of Apache children-
spawned processes such as CGI scripts. The limit does not apply to Apache chidren
themselves or to any process created by the parent Apache server.

Syntax: RLimitMEM n | ‘max’ [ n | ‘max’]

Default setting: Not set; uses operating system defaults

Context: Server config, virtual host

The RLimitMEM directive takes two parameters. The first parameter sets a soft
resource limit for all processes, and the second parameter, which is optional, sets
the maximum resource limit. Note that raising the maximum resource limit requires
that the server be started by the root user. For each of these parameters, there are
two possible values:

◆ n is the number of bytes per process

◆ max is the maximum resource limit allowed by the operating system

RLIMITNPROC
The RLimitNPROC directive sets the maximum number of simultaneous Apache
children-spawned processes per user ID.

Syntax: RLimitNPROC n | ‘max’ [ n | ‘max’]

Default setting: Unset; uses operating system defaults

Context: Server config, virtual host

The RLimitNPROC directive takes two parameters. The first parameter sets the
soft resource limit for all processes, and the second parameter, which is optional,
sets the maximum resource limit. Raising the maximum resource limit requires that
the server be running as root or in the initial startup phase. For each of these para-
meters, there are two possible values:

◆ n is the number of bytes per process

◆ max is the maximum resource limit allowed by the operating system

If your CGI processes are run under the same user ID as the server process,
use of RLimitNPROC limits the number of processes the server can launch
(or “fork”). If the limit is too low, you will receive a “Cannot fork process” type
of message in the error log file. In such a case, you should increase the limit
or just leave it as the default.
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102 Part II: Network and Service Performance

LIMITREQUESTBODY
The LimitRequestBody directive enables you to set a limit on the size of the HTTP
request that Apache will service. The default limit is 0, which means unlimited. You
can set this limit from 0 to 2147483647 (2GB).

Syntax: LimitRequestBody bytes

Default setting: LimitRequestBody 0
Context: Server, virtual host, directory, .htaccess

Setting a limit is recommended only if you have experienced HTTP-based denial

of service attacks that try to overwhelm the server with large HTTP requests. This is
a useful directive to enhance server security.

LIMITREQUESTFIELDS
The LimitRequestFields directive allows you to limit number of request header
fields allowed in a single HTTP request. This limit can be 0 to 32767 (32K). This
directive can help you implement a security measure against large request based
denial of service attacks.

Syntax: LimitRequestFields number

Default setting: LimitRequestFields 100
Context: Server config

LIMITREQUESTFIELDSIZE
The LimitRequestFieldsize directive enables you to limit the size (in bytes) of a
request header field. The default size of 8190 (8K) is more than enough for most sit-
uations. However, if you experience a large HTTP request-based denial of service
attack, you can change this to a smaller number to deny requests that exceed the
limit. A value of 0 sets the limit to unlimited.

Syntax: LimitRequestFieldsize bytes

Default setting: LimitRequestFieldsize 8190
Context: Server config

LIMITREQUESTLINE
The LimitRequestLine directive sets the limit on the size of the request line. This
effectively limits the size of the URL that can be sent to the server. The default limit
should be sufficient for most situations. If you experience a denial of service attack
that uses long URLs designed to waste resources on your server, you can reduce the
limit to reject such requests.
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 103

Syntax: LimitRequestLine bytes

Default setting: LimitRequestLine 8190
Context: Server config

Using dynamic modules

Apache loads all the precompiled modules when it starts up; however, it also pro-
vides a dynamic module-loading and -unloading feature that may be useful on cer-
tain occasions. When you use the following dynamic module directives, you can
change the list of active modules without recompiling the server.

CLEARMODULELIST
You can use the ClearModuleList directive to clear the list of active modules and
to enable the dynamic module-loading feature. Then use the AddModule directive to
add modules that you want to activate.

Syntax: ClearModuleList
Default setting: None
Context: Server config

ADDMODULE
The AddModule directive can be used to enable a precompiled module that is cur-
rently not active. The server can have modules compiled that are not actively in
use. This directive can be used to enable these modules. The server comes with a
preloaded list of active modules; this list can be cleared with the ClearModuleList
directive. Then new modules can be added using the AddModule directive.

Syntax: AddModule module module ...

Default setting: None
Context: Server config

After you have configured Apache using a combination of the mentioned direc-
tives, you can focus on tuning your static and dynamic contents delivery mecha-
nisms. In the following sections I show just that.

Speeding Up Static Web Pages

Although everyone is screaming about dynamic Web contents that are database-
driven or served by fancy application servers, the static Web pages still are there. In
fact, static Web pages aren’t likely to be completely replaced by dynamic content in
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104 Part II: Network and Service Performance

the near future. Some dynamic contents systems even create dynamically and peri-
odically generated static Web pages as cache contents for faster delivery. Because
serving a static page usually is faster than serving a dynamic page, the static page
is not going away soon. In this section I improve the speed of static page delivery
using Apache and the new kernel HTTP module.

Reducing disk I/O for faster static page delivery

When Apache gets a request for a static Web page, it performs a directory tree
search for .htaccess files to ensure that the requested page can be delivered to the
Web browser. For example, say that an Apache server running on www.nitec.com
receives a request such as http://www.nitec.com/training/linux/sysad/
intro.html. Apache performs the following checks:

/.htaccess
%DocRoot%/.htaccess
%DocRoot%/training/.htaccess
%DocRoot%/training/linux/.htaccess
%DocRoot%/training/linux/sysad/.htaccess

where %DocRoot% is the document root directory set by the DocumentRoot direc-
tive in the httpd.conf file. So if this directory is /www/nitec/htdocs, then the
following checks are made:

/.htaccess
/www/.htaccess
/www/nitec/.htaccess
/www/nitec/htdocs/.htaccess
/www/nitec/htdocs/training/.htaccess
/www/nitec/htdocs/training/linux/.htaccess
/www/nitec/htdocs/training/linux/sysad/.htaccess

Apache looks for the .htaccess file in each directory of the translated (from the
requested URL) path of the requested file (intro.html). As you can see, a URL that
requests a single file can result in multiple disk I/O requests to read multiple files.
This can be a performance drain for high-volume sites. In such case, your best
choice is to disable .htaccess file checks altogether. For example, when the follow-
ing configuration directives are placed within the main server section (that is, not
within a VirtualHost directive) of the httpd.conf file, it disables checking for
.htaccess for every URL request.

<Directory />
AllowOverride None
</Directory>
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 105

When the preceding configuration is used, Apache simply performs a single disk
I/O to read the requested static file and therefore gain performance in high-volume
access scenarios.

Using Kernel HTTP daemon

The new Linux 2.4 kernel ships with a kernel module called khttpd, which is a ker-
nel-space HTTP server. This kernel module can serve static contents, such as an
HTML file or an image, faster than Apache. This is because the module operates in
kernel space and directly accesses the network without needing to operating in
user-space like other Web servers, such as Apache. However, this module isn’t a
replacement for Apache or any other Web server, because it can only serve static
contents. It can intercept the request for static contents and pass through requests
that it can’t service to a Web server such as Apache running on the same machine.
You can learn more about this module at www.fenrus.demon.nl. I only recom-
mend this module for those who need a dedicated static contents server such as an
image server.

Speeding Up Web Applications

Dynamic contents for the Web are typically generated three ways: server-side
scripts/applications, client-side scripts, or a combination of both server-side
scripts/applications and client-side scripts. The client-side scripts have nothing to
do with your Linux server and therefore are not covered in this chapter. However,
the server-side scripts/applications run on the Linux server, so their performance
problems are addressed in this section.
Typically, Perl and Java are the primary languages for Web contents develop-
ment under the Linux platform. Perl is more common than Java because the Java
run-time environment has had a lot of performance problems in Linux platforms
(although these are likely to be resolved in the near future). In this section I focus
primarily on Perl-based Web application performance.
Perl-based Common Gateway Interface (CGI) script is the granddaddy of server-
side Web scripting. However, as Web matured, the number of people browsing the
Web grew, the shortcomings of CGI scripts became evident. Here are the primary
reasons CGI scripts don’t cut it any more:

◆ A CGI script is started every time a request is made, which means that if
the Apache server receives 100 requests for the same script, there are 100
copies of the same script running on the server, which makes CGI a very
unscalable solution.
◆ A CGI script can’t maintain persistent connection to a back-end data-
base, which means a connection needs to be established every time a
script needs to access a database server. This effectively makes CGI scripts
slow and resource hungry.
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106 Part II: Network and Service Performance

◆ CGI scripts are often hacks that are quickly put together by a system-
inexperienced developer and therefore poses great security risks.

Unfortunately, many Web sites still use CGI scripts because they are easy
to develop and often freely available. Stay away from CGI scripts and use
more scalable and robust solutions such as the mod_perl, mod_fastcgi,
or even Java servlets (discussed in the following sections).

Using mod_perl
The Apache mod_perl module alone keeps Perl in the mainstream of Web develop-
ment. This module for Apache enables you to create highly scalable, Perl-based
Web applications that can apply the following facts:

◆ A scalable Web application isn’t a CGI script. A mod_perl-based script

isn’t a CGI script. A mod_perl-based script isn’t invoked for every URL
request for that script. A new process isn’t created every time a mod_perl
script is requested, which enables the platform to be scalable and robust.
◆ A scalable Web application can apply persistent store and database
connections. A mod_perl-based script can apply shared memory or keep
persistent connections opened to local or remote database servers.

Fortunately, switching your Perl-based CGI scripts to mod_perl isn’t hard at all.
In the following section I show how you can install mod_perl for Apache and also
develop performance-friendly mod_perl scripts.

INSTALLING MOD_PERL

1. Extract mod_perl-x.y_z.tar.gz (where x.y_z is the latest version num-

ber for mod_perl source distribution) using the tar xvzf mod_perl-
x.y_z.tar.gz command in the parent directory of your Apache source
distribution. If you have extracted the Apache source distribution in
/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/apache_x.y.z directory, then you must
extract the mod_perl source distribution in the /usr/src/redhat/
SOURCES directory.

2. Change directory to mod_perl-x.y_z and run

perl Makefile.PL
APACHE_SRC=../apache_x.y.z/src \
DO_HTTPD=1 \
USE_APACI=1 \
PREP_HTTPD=1 \
EVERYTHING=1
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 107

3. Run the make; make install commands to build mod_perl binaries and
Perl modules.
4. Change directory to ../apache_x.y.z and run:
./configure –prefix=/usr/local/apache \
--activate-module=src/modules/perl/libperl.a

If you want to enable or disable other Apache modules, make sure you
add the appropriate --enable-module and --disable-module options in
the preceding command line. For example, the following configuration
creates a very lean and mean Apache server with mod_perl support:
./configure --prefix=/usr/local/apache \
--disable-module=cgi \
--disable-module=imap \
--disable-module=userdir \
--disable-module=autoindex \
--disable-module=status \
--activate-module=src/modules/perl/libperl.a

5. Run the make; make install commands to build and install the Apache
Web server.

CONFIGURING MOD_PERL
Here’s how you can configure mod_perl for Apache:

1. First determine where you want to keep your mod_perl scripts.

Keep your mod_perl scripts outside your document root tree (that is, the
directory pointed by DocumentRoot directive). This ensures that the
mod_perl script source isn’t accidentally exposed to the world. Also
ensure that the file permissions for the mod_perl script directory is set
only for the Apache Web server user. For example, for a Web site whose
DocumentRoot is set to /www/mysite/htdocs, the ideal mod_perl script
directory can be /www/mysite/perl-bin. After you have determined
what this directory is, create a file in this directory called startup.pl (or
use any other name) that contains the following lines:
#!/usr/bin/perl
# If you installed perl in another location
# make sure you change /usr/bin/perl to appropriate
# path.

use strict;

# extend @INC to include the new mod_perl script

# location(s)
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108 Part II: Network and Service Performance

use lib qw(/www/mysite/perl-bin);

# Following line is required.

1;

To keep your mod_perl scripts in multiple locations, simply type in the

additional path in the use lib line. For example, to add another
mod_perl script location called /www/mysite/stable/perl-bin, you can
simply change the last line in the preceding script so it reads as follows:
use lib qw(/www/mysite/perl-bin /www/mysite/stable/perl-bin);

2. Tell Apache to execute the startup script (called startup.pl in the previ-
ous step) when it starts. You can do that by adding the following directive
in the httpd.conf file.
PerlRequire /www/mysite/perl-bin/startup.pl

3. If you know that you are using a set of Perl modules often, you can pre-
load them by adding use modulename () line in the startup.pl script
before the 1; line. For example, if you use the CGI.pm module (yes, it
works with both CGI and mod_perl scripts) in many of your mod_perl
scripts, you can simply preload it in the startup.pl script, as follows:
use CGI ();

Here’s an example of my startup.pl script.

#!/usr/bin/perl

# CVS ID: $Id$

use strict;

# extend @INC if needed

use lib qw(/www/release/perl-bin
/www/beta/perl-bin
/www/alpha/perl-bin);

use CGI ();

CGI->compile(‘:all’);

use Apache ();

use Apache::DBI ();

1;

I have added CGI->compile(‘:all’); line after use CGI (); line because
CGI.pm doesn’t automatically load all its methods by default; instead, it
provides the compile() function to force loading of all methods.
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 109

4. Determine how you want to make your mod_perl scripts available in your
Web site. I prefer specifying a <Location> directive for each script, as in
the following example:
<Location /cart>
SetHandler perl-script
PerlHandler ShoppingCart
</Location>

Here a mod_perl script called ShoppingCart.pm is set up as the request

handler for the /cart URL segment. For example, if a Web site called
www.domain.com uses the preceding configuration, all requests for
www.domain.com/cert are serviced by the ShoppingCart.pm script. This
script must reside in a standard Perl path (that is, be part of @INC) or it
must be in the path specified in the startup.pl using the use lib line.
For example, suppose your startup.pl script has the following line:
use lib qw(/www/mysite/perl-bin);

Then the ShoppingCart.pm script can reside in /www/mysite/perl-bin

directory. As mentioned before, all requests to /cart are serviced by this
script. For example, /cart/abc or /cart/whatever are serviced by this
script. If you want to run a different script, say Calc.pm, for a sublocation
of this URL such as /car/calc, then you must specify another
<Location> directive as follows:

<Location /cart/calc>
SetHandler perl-script
PerlHandler Calc
</Location>

Now all requests such as www.domain.com/cart/calc or www.domain.

com/cart/calc/whatever, and so on, are serviced by the Calc.pm script.

Use of the <Location> directive to associate a mod_perl script with a URL

has the added side effect of enabling you to hide the actual script name so it
never appears in the URL. For example, when someone accesses
www.domain.com/cart in the current example, s/he has no idea that the
Apache server is actually executing a script called ShoppingCart.pm in
the /www/mysite/perl-bin directory. This is nice in the sense that it
enables you to hide details of your system from prying eyes.
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110 Part II: Network and Service Performance

Also, if you wanted to keep a sublocation called /cart/static to be ser-

viced by the default Apache handler, you can simply use the following
configuration:
<Location /cart/static>
SetHandler default-handler
</Location>

This setting makes sure that any request to www.domain.com/cart/

static (or to a sublocation) is serviced by the default Apache handler.

Now all you need is mod_perl scripts to try out your new mod_perl-enabled
Apache server. Because mod_perl script development is largely beyond the scope of
this book, I provide a basic a test script called HelloWorld.pm (shown in Listing 5-1).

Listing 5-1: HelloWorld.pm

#!/usr/bin/perl -w
# CVS ID: $Id$Id:
package HelloWorld;
# A simple mod_perl script that says “Hello World”
# and displays the process ID of the Apache child
# process and a count of (similar) requests served by it.
#
use strict;
use Apache::Constants qw(:common :response);
use CGI;
my $counter = 0;
sub handler{
my $r = shift;
my $query = new CGI;
print $query->header(-type => ‘text/html’);
print “Hello World <br>”;
print “Apache child server PID : $$ <br>”;
print “Similar requests processed by this server is: “,
$counter++, “<br>”;
return DONE;
}
1;

You can put the HelloWorld.pm in a location specified by the use lib line your
startup.pl script and create a configuration such as the following in httpd.conf.

<Location /test>
SetHandler perl-script
PerlHandler HelloWorld
</Location>
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 111

After you have the preceding configuration, start or restart the Apache server
and access the HelloWorld.pm script using http://your.server.com/test. You
should see the “Hello World” message, the PID of the Apache child server, and a
count of how many similar requests this child server has served so far.
If you run this test (that is, access the /test URL) with the default values for the
MinSpareServers, MaxSpareServers, StartServers, MaxRequestsPerChild,
MaxClients directives, you may get confused. Because your default settings are
likely to cause Apache to run many child servers and because Apache chooses the
child server per /test request, you may find the count to go up and down as your
subsequent /test requests are serviced by any of the many child servers. If you
keep making requests for the /test URL, eventually you see that all child servers
are reporting upwards count until it dies because of the MaxRequestsPerChild
setting. This is why it’s a good idea to set these directives as follows for testing
purposes:

MinSpareServers 1
MaxSpareServers 1
StartServers 1
MaxRequestsPerChild 10
MaxClients 1

Restart the Apache server and access /test and you see that Apache services each
10 of your requests using a single child server whose count only increases.
Use of mod_perl scripts within your Apache server ensures that your response
time is much better than CGI equivalent. However, heavy use of mod_perl scripts
also creates some side-effects that can be viewed as performance problems, which I
cover in the next section.

SOLVING PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS RELATED TO A HEAVY

MOD_PERL ENVIRONMENT
When you start using many mod_perl scripts, you see that your Apache child
server processes become larger in size. You can view this using the top command.
As long as you have plenty of RAM you should be fine. However, no one ever has
too much RAM. So it’s a good idea to avoid relying on having lots of memory as
the solution. Instead, Here’s how you can address this problem more effectively.
If you find that Apache child processes are larger due to many mod_perl scripts
that are getting loaded in them, consider having a dedicated script server that only
serves dynamic contents. Figure 5-1 shows how this can work.
When a user requests the home page of a site called www.domain.com, the
Apache server responsible for static pages returns the index.html page to the
client. The page contains embedded links for both static and dynamic contents. The
figure shows two such links: login and privacy. When the end-user clicks on the
login link it requests http://myapps.domain.com/login, which is a different
Apache server than the www.domain.com server. In fact these two should be two
different Linux systems in the ideal world. However, not everyone can afford to
split the dynamic and static contents like this, so it isn’t appropriate for everyone.
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112 Part II: Network and Service Performance

1
http://www.domain.com/index.html Static Page Server

Welcome to DOMAIN.COM
Contents of index.html page
Click login to enter our intranet. 2
See our privacy policy for details.

<a href=http://myapps.domain.com/login>login</a>

<a href=http://www.domain.com/privacy.html>privacy</a>

3
login Static Page Server

4 Dynamic Page Server

Dynamically Generated Page
http://myapps.domain.com

Figure 5-1: Separating static and dynamic (mod_perl script-generated) contents

If you must keep the mod_perl and static contents on the same Linux system
running Apache, you still can ensure that fat Apache child processes aren’t serving
static pages. Here’s a solution that I like:

1. Compile and install the mod_proxy module for your Apache Web server
2. Copy your existing httpd.conf file to httpd-8080.conf and modify the
Port directive to be Port 8080 instead of Port 80. Remove all
mod_perl-specific configurations from httpd.conf so that all your
mod_perl configurations are in httpd-8080.conf file.

3. Modify the httpd.conf file to have the following proxy directives:

ProxyPass /myapps http://127.0.0.1:8080/myapps

You can change myapps to whatever you like. If you do change this, make
sure you change it in every other location that mentions it. Here we are
telling the Apache server serving static pages that all requests to /myapps
URL are to be serviced via the proxy module, which should get the
response from the Apache server running on the same Linux system
(127.0.0.1 is the local host) but on port 8080.
4. Add the following configuration in httpd-8080.conf to create a
mod_perl script location.

<Location /myapps>
SetHandler perl-script
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 113

PerlHandler MyApp1
</Location>

Don’t forget to change MyApp1 to whatever your script name is.

Now start (or restart) the Apache server (listening on port 80) as usual using the
apachectl command. However, you must start the Apache on port 8080 using the
/usr/local/apache/bin/httpd –f /usr/local/apache/conf/httpd-8080.
conf command. This assumes that you have installed /usr/local/apache directory; if
that isn’t so, make sure you change the path. Now you have two Apache parent
daemons (which run as root) running two sets of children — where one set services
the static pages and uses the proxy module to fetch the dynamic, mod_perl script
pages using the ProxyPass directive. This enables you to service the static pages
using a set of child servers that aren’t running any Perl code whatsoever. On the
other hand, the server on port 8080 services only dynamic requests so you effec-
tively have a configuration that is very performance-friendly.
Scripts running under mod_perl run fast because they are loaded within each
child server’s code space. Unlike its CGI counterpart, a mod_perl script can keep
persistent connection to an external database server — thus speeding up the gener-
ation of database-driven dynamic content. However, a new problem introduces
itself if you run a very large Web server. When you run 50 or 100 or more Apache
server processes to service many simultaneous requests, it’s possible for Apache to
eventually open up that many database connections and keep each connection per-
sist for the duration of each child. Say that you run a Web server system where you
run 50 Apache child processes so that you can service about 50 requests per second
and you happen to have a mod_perl-based script that opens a database connection
in the initialization stage. As requests come to your database script, eventually
Apache manages to service such requests using each of its child processes and thus
opening up 50 database connections. Because many database servers allocate
expensive resources on a per-connection basis, this could be a major problem on
the database side. For example, when making such connections to an IBM
Universal Database Server (UDB) Enterprise Edition running on a remote Linux sys-
tem, each Apache child has a counter-part connection related process on the data-
base server. If such environment uses load balancing hardware to balance incoming
requests among a set of mod_perl-enabled Apache Web server there is likely to be
a scenario when each Web server system running 50 Apache child processes have
all opened up connection to the database server. For example, if such an environ-
ment consists of 10 Web servers under the load-balancing hardware, then the total
possible connections to the database server is 10 x 50 or 500, which may create an
extensive resource load on the database server.
One possible solution for such a scenario is to find a way to have the database
time-out any idle connections, make the mod_perl script code detect a stale con-
nection, and have it reinitiate connection. Another solution is to create a persistent
database proxy daemon that each Web server uses to fetch data from the database.
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114 Part II: Network and Service Performance

Fortunately, FastCGI or Java Servlets have more native solution for such prob-
lems and should be considered for heavily used database-driven applications.
Here’s another performance-boosting Web technology called FastCGI.

Using FastCGI
Like mod_perl scripts, FastCGI applications run all the time (after the initial load-
ing) and therefore provide a significant performance advantage over CGI scripts.
Table 5-2 summarizes the differences between a FastCGI application and mod_perl
script.

TABLE 5-2: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A FASTCGI APPLICATION AND MOD_PERL

SCRIPTS

Topic FastCGI Applications Mod_perl Scripts

Apache platform dependent No. FastCGI applications can Yes. Only Apache supports
run on non-Apache Web mod_perl module
servers, such as IIS and
Netscape Web Server.
Perl-only solution No. FastCGI applications can be Yes
developed in many languages,
such as C, C++, and Perl.
Runs as external process Yes No
Can run on remote machine Yes No
Multiple instances of the Typically a single FastCGI Number of instances of
application/script are run application is run to respond mod_perl script equal to
to many requests that are the number of child
queued. However, if the load Apache server processes.
is high, multiple instances of
the same application are run
Wide support available Yes. However, at times I get Yes. There are many
the impression that FastCGI mod_perl sites on the
development is slowing down, Internet and support via
but I can’t verify this or back Usenet or Web is
this up available.
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 115

Topic FastCGI Applications Mod_perl Scripts

Database connectivity Because all requests are sent Because each Apache
to a single FastCGI application, child process runs the
you only need to maintain a mod_perl script, each
single database connection child can potentially have
with the back-end database a database connection to
server. However, this can the back-end database.
change when Apache FastCGI This means you can
process manager spawns potentially end up with
additional FastCGI application hundreds of database
instances due to heavy load. connections from even a
Still, the number of FastCGI single Apache server
instances of an application is system.
likely to be less than the number
of Apache child processes.

Like mod_perl, the Apache module for FastCGI, mod_fastcgi, doesn’t come
with the standard Apache distribution. You can download it from www.fastcgi.
com. Here’s how you can install it.

Installing and configuring FastCGI module for

Apache
I assume that you have installed the Apache source distribution in /usr/src/
redhat/SOURCES/apache_x.y.z (where x.y.z is the latest version of Apache). To
install the mod_fastcgi module for Apache, do the following:

1. Su to root.
2. Extract the mod_fastcgi source distribution using the tar xvzf
mod_fastcgi.x.y.z.tar.gz command. Then copy the mod_fastcgi
source directory to the /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/apache_x.y.z/
src/modules/fastcgi directory.

3. Configure Apache using the configuration script (configure) with the

following option:
--active-module=src/modules/fastcgi/libfastcgi.a
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116 Part II: Network and Service Performance

If you already compiled Apache with many other options and would like
to retain them, simply run the following command from the
/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/apache_x.y.z directory.

./config.status --activate-
module=src/modules/fastcgi/libfastcgi.a

4. Run the make; make install command from the same directory to com-
pile and install the new Apache with mod_fastcgi support.
5. You are ready to configure Apache to run FastCGI applications. First
determine where you want to keep the FastCGI applications and scripts.
Ideally, you want to keep this directory outside the directory specified in
the DocumentRoot directive. For example, if your set DocumentRoot to
/www/mysite/htdocs, consider using /www/mysite/fast-bin as the
FastCGI application/script directory. I assume that you will use my advice
and do so. To tell Apache that you have created a new FastCGI applica-
tion/script directory, simply use the following configuration:
Alias /apps/ “/www/mysite/fast-bin/”
<Directory “/www/mysite/fast-bin”>
Options ExecCGI
SetHandler fastcgi-script
</Directory>

This tells Apache that the alias /apps/ points to the /www/mysite/fast-
bin directory — and that this directory contains applications (or scripts)
that must run via the fastcgi-script handler.
6. Restart the Apache server and you can access your FastCGI
applications/scripts using the http://www.yourdomain.com/fast-
bin/appname URL where www.yourdomain.com should be replaced with
your own Web server hostname and appname should be replaced with the
FastCGI application that you have placed in the /www/mysite/fast-bin
directory. To test your FastCGI setup, you can simply place the following
test script (shown in Listing 5-2) in your fast-bin directory and then
access it.

Listing 5-2: testfcgi.pl

#!/usr/bin/perl -w
#
# CVS ID: $Id$Id:
use strict;
use CGI::Fast qw(:standard);
# Do any startup/initialization steps here.
my $counter = 0;
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 117

#
# Start the FastCGI request loop
#
while (new CGI::Fast) {
print header;
print “This is a FastCGI test script” . br;
print “The request is serviced by script PID: $$” . br;
print “Your request number is : “, $counter++, br;
}
exit 0;

When you run the script in Listing 5-2, using a URL request such as
http://www.yourserver.com/fast-bin/testfcgi.pl, you see that the
PID doesn’t change and the counter changes as you refresh the request
again and again. If you run ps auxww | grep testfcgi on the Web
server running this FastCGI script, you see that there is only a single
instance of the script running and it’s serving all the client requests. If the
load goes really high, Apache launches another instance of the script.

FastCGI is a great solution for scaling your Web applications. It even enables
you to run the FastCGI applications/scripts on a remote application server. This
means you can separate your Web server from your applications and thus gain bet-
ter management and performance potentials. Also, unlike with mod_perl, you
aren’t limited to Perl-based scripts for performance; with FastCGI, you can write
your application in a variety of application programming languages, such as C,
C++, and Perl.
Quite interestingly, Java has begun to take the lead in high-performance Web
application development. Java used to be considered slow and too formal to write
Web applications, even only a few years ago. As Java has matured, it has become a
very powerful Web development platform. With Java you have Java Servlets, Java
Server Pages, and many other up and coming Java technologies that can be utilized
to gain high scalability and robustness. Java also gives you the power to create dis-
tributed Web applications easily.

Using Java servlets

For some unknown reason, Java on Linux platform did not get a great start. It’s
slowly coming around and the Java run-time environment and development tools
are more stable. Even so, complex multithreaded Java servlets still don’t always
work well under Linux when the same code works just fine under other Java-
friendly operating systems (such as Solaris or Windows 2000).
Using Java Servlets with back-end database applications is really ideal. You can
implement a master Java servlet that acts as a database connection pool and keeps
a given set of connections to the back-end database server. When another servlet
needs a connection to the database, it can get it from the connection pool server
and return it after it has finished using the connection. This provides a much more
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118 Part II: Network and Service Performance

managed database pooling than both mod_perl or mod_fastcgi approach discussed

earlier. If you are thinking about why I keep referring to database connectivity,
then you have not developed major Web software yet. Just about every major Web
software development requires back-end database connectivity, so I often consider
a platform good or bad according to how well (and easily) it allows management of
such resources. Java servlets definitely win this one over mod_perl or
mod_fastcgi.
To find more information on Java servlets on Apache, check the http://java.
apache.org/ Web site.
Now that you know many ways to speed up your static and dynamic Web con-
tents, consider speeding up your access to someone else’s contents. This is typically
done by setting up a proxy server with caching capability. In the following section
I cover Squid, which is just that.

Using Squid proxy-caching server

Squid is an open-source HTTP 1.1-compliant, proxy-caching server that can
enhance your users’ Web-browsing experience. You can download the latest, stable
Squid source distribution from www.squid-cache.org.
Ideally, you want to run the proxy-caching server with two network interfaces.

◆ One interface connects it to the Internet gateway or the router

◆ One interface connects it to the internal network.

Disabling IP forwarding on the proxy-caching system ensures that no one

can bypass the proxy server and access the Internet directly.

Here’s how you can install and configure it for your system.

COMPILING AND INSTALLING SQUID PROXY-CACHING SERVER

1. Su to root and extract the source distribution using the tar xvzf suid-
version.tar.gz (where version is the latest version number of the
Squid software).
2. Run the ./configure --prefix=/usr/local/squid command to config-
ure Squid source code for your system.
3. Run make all; make install to install Squid in the
/usr/local/squid directory.
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 119

CONFIGURING SQUID PROXY-CACHING SERVER

After you have installed Squid, you have to configure it.
Here’s how you can configure Squid.

1. Create a group called nogroup, using the groupadd nogroup command.

This group is used by Squid.
2. Run the chown -R nobody:nogroup /usr/local/squid command to
give the ownership of the /usr/local/squid directory and all its subdi-
rectories to nobody user and the group called nogroup.
This enables Squid (running as nobody user) to create cache directories
and files and write logs.
3. Decide which port you want to run the proxy-cache on. Most sites run
proxy-cache on 8080, so I use that value here.
4. Add the following line in the squid.conf file:
http_port 8080

This tells Squid to listen to port 8080 for proxy requests.

If you prefer a different port, use it here. Don’t use a port that is already
in use by another server. Ideally, you want to use port numbers above
1024 to avoid collision with standard services, but if you know you aren’t
running a Web server on port 80 and want to run your proxy-cache on
that port you can do so. A quick way to check whether a port is available
is to run telnet localhost portnumber command (where portnumber
is the port number you want to use for proxy-cache). If you get a connec-
tion failure message, the port is currently not in use.
5. Define where you want to keep the cache data. Define the following line
in the squid.conf.
cache_dir ufs /usr/local/squid/cache 100 16 256

This tells Squid to store the cache data in /usr/local/squid/cache. If

you have a very large user base that is going to use this proxy-cache, it’s
a very good idea to have multiple cache directories spanning over differ-
ent disks. This reduces disk I/O-related wait because multiple, independent
disks are always faster than a single disk.
5. Create an access control list (ACL) that enables your network access to the
proxy-cache selectively.
By default, Squid doesn’t allow any connection from anywhere; this secu-
rity feature uses a simple approach: Deny everyone, allow only those who
should have access. For example, if your network address is 192.168.1.0
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120 Part II: Network and Service Performance

with subnet 255.255.255.0, then you can define the following line in
squid.conf to create an ACL for your network.

acl local_net src 192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0

6. Add the following line just before the http_access deny all line.
http_access allow local_net

This tells Squid to enable machines in local_net ACL access to the proxy-
cache using the following line in squid.conf.
7. Tell Squid the username of the cache-manager user. If you want to use
[email protected] as the cache-manager user account, define
the following line in the squid.conf file:
cache_mgr webmaster

8. Tell Squid which user and group it should run as. Add the following lines
in squid.conf
cache_effective_user nobody
cache_effective_group nogroup

Here, Squid is told to run as the nobody user and use permissions for the group
called nogroup.
Save the squid.conf file and run the following command to create the cache
directories.

/usr/local/squid/squid –z

Now you can run the /usr/local/squid/bin/squid & command to start Squid
for the first time. You can verify it’s working in a number of ways:

◆ Squid shows up in a ps –x listing.

◆ Running client www.nitec.com dumps Web-page text to your terminal.

◆ The files cache.log and store.log in the directory

/usr/local/squid/logs show Squid to be working.

◆ Running squid –k check && echo “Squid is running” tells you when
Squid is active.

Now for the real test: If you configure the Web browser on a client machine to
use the Squid proxy, you should see results. In Netscape Navigator, select Edit →
Preferences and then select Proxies from within the Advanced category. By select-
ing Manual Proxy Configuration and then clicking View, you can specify the IP
address of the Squid server as the http, FTP, and Gopher proxy server. The default
proxy port is 3128; unless you have changed it in the squid.conf file, place that
number in the port field.
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 121

You should be able to browse any Web site as if you don’t use a proxy. You can
double-check that Squid is working correctly by checking the log file
/usr/local/squid/logs/access.log from the proxy server and making sure the
Web site you were viewing is in there.

TWEAKING SQUID TO FIT YOUR NEEDS

Now that you have Squid up and running, you can customize it to fit your needs.
At this point it isn’t restricting your users from accessing any sites. You can define
rules in your squid.conf file to set access control lists and allow or deny visitors
according to these lists.

acl BadWords url_regex foo bar

By adding the preceding line, you have defined an ACL rule called BadWords
that matches any URL containing the words foo or bar. This applies to
http://foo.deepwell.com/pictures and http://www.thekennedycompound.
com/ourbar.jpg because they both contain words that are members of BadWords.
You can block your users from accessing any URLs that match this rule by
adding the following command to the squid.conf file:

http_access deny BadWords

Almost every administrator using word-based ACLs has a story about not
examining all the ways a word can be used. Realize that if you ban your users
from accessing sites containing the word “sex,” you are also banning them
from accessing www.buildersexchange.com and any others that may
have a combination of letters matching the forbidden word.

Because all aspects of how Squid functions are controlled within the squid.conf
file, you can tune it to fit your needs. For example, you can enable Squid to use
16MB of RAM to hold Web pages in memory by adding the following line:

cache_mem 16 MB

By trial and error, you may find you need a different amount.

The cache_mem isn’t the amount of memory Squid consumes; it only sets
the maximum amount of memory Squid uses for holding Web pages, pic-
tures, and so forth. The Squid documentation says you can expect Squid to
consume up to three times this amount.
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122 Part II: Network and Service Performance

By using the line:

emulate_httpd_log on

you arrange that the files in /var/log/squid are written in a form like the Web
server log files. This arrangement enables you to use a Web statistics program such
as Analog or Webtrends to analyze your logs and examine the sites your users are
viewing.
Some FTP servers require that an e-mail address be used when one is logging in
anonymously. By setting ftp_user to a valid e-mail address, as shown here, you
give the server at the other end of an FTP session the data it wants to see:

ftp_user [email protected]

You may want to use the address of your proxy firewall administrator. This
would give the foreign FTP administrator someone to contact in case of a
problem.

If you type in a URL and find that the page doesn’t exist, probably that page
won’t exist anytime in the near future. By setting negative_ttl to a desired num-
ber of minutes, as shown in the next example, you can control how long Squid
remembers that a page was not found in an earlier attempt. This is called negative
caching.

negative_ttl 2 minutes

This isn’t always a good thing. The default is five minutes, but I suggest reduc-
ing this to two minutes or possibly one minute, if not disabling it all together. Why
would you do such a thing? You want your proxy to be as transparent as possible.
If a user is looking for a page she knows exists, you don’t want a short lag time
between the URL coming into the world and your user’s capability to access it.
Ultimately, a tool like Squid should be completely transparent to your users. This
“invisibility” removes them from the complexity of administration and enables
them to browse the Web as if there were no Web proxy server. Although I don’t
detail that here, you may refer to the Squid Frequently Asked Questions at http://
squid.nlanr.net/Squid/FAQ/FAQ.html. Section 17 of this site details using
Squid as a transparent proxy.
Also, if you find yourself managing a large list of “blacklisted” sites in the
squid.conf file, think of using a program called a redirector. Large lists of ACL
rules can begin to slow a heavily used Squid proxy. By using a redirector to do this
same job, you can improve on Squid’s efficiency of allowing or denying URLs
according to filter rules. You can get more information on Squirm — a full-featured
redirector made to work with Squid — from http://www.senet.com.au/squirm/.
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Chapter 5: Web Server Performance 123

The cachemgr.cgi file comes in the Squid distribution. It’s a CGI program that
displays statistics of your proxy and stops and restarts Squid. It requires only a few
minutes of your time to install, but it gives you explicit details about how your
proxy is performing. If you’d like to tune your Web cache, this tool can help.
If you are interested in making Squid function beyond the basics shown in this
chapter, check the Squid Web page at http://squid.nlanr.net/.

Summary
In this chapter, you explored tuning Apache for performance. You examined the
configuration directives that enable you to control Apache’s resource usage so it
works just right for your needs. You also encountered the new HTTP kernel module
called khttpd, along with techniques for speeding up both dynamic and static
Web-site contents. Finally, the chapter profiled the Squid proxy-cache server and
the ways it can help you enhance the Web-browsing experience of your network
users
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Chapter 6

E-Mail Server Performance

IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Tuning sendmail

◆ Using Postfix

◆ Using PowerMTA for high performance

SENDMAIL IS THE DEFAULT Mail Transport Agent (MTA) for not only Red Hat Linux
but also many other Unix-like operating systems. Therefore, Sendmail is the most
widely deployed mail server solution in the world. In recent years, e-mail has taken
center stage in modern business and personal communication — which has
increased the demand for reliable, scalable solutions for e-mail servers. This
demand helped make the MTA market attractive to both open-source and commer-
cial software makers; Sendmail now has many competitors. In this chapter, I show
you how to tune Sendmail and a few worthy competing MTA solutions for higher
performance.

Choosing Your MTA

A default open-source Sendmail installation works for most small-to-midsize orga-
nizations. Unless you plan to deal with a very high volume of e-mails per day, you
are most likely fine with the open-source version of Sendmail.
Choosing the right MTA may be dependent on another factor: administration.
Although Sendmail has been around for decades, it’s still not well understood by
many system administrators. The configuration files, the M4 macros, the rule sets
are a lot for a beginning or even an intermediate-level system administrator. There
is no great Web-based management tool for the open-source version; there are no
Apache-like, directive-oriented configuration options. The complexity of managing
Sendmail often forces system administrators to leave it in its out-of-the-box state.
As a result, many Sendmail sites simply run the default options — which are often
minimal and not well suited to any specific organization’s needs. The complexity of
Sendmail also made it the ideal target for many security attacks over the years.
Left to itself, Sendmail also has performance problems. If it’s running as root, a
master Sendmail process forks its child processes so they service incoming or out-
going mail requests individually. Creating a new process for each request is an
125
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126 Part II: Network and Service Performance

expensive — and old — methodology, though it’s only a big problem for sites with
heavy e-mail load.
So consider the administrative complexity, potential security risks, and perfor-
mance problems associated with Sendmail before you select it as your MTA. Even
so, system administrators who have taken the time to learn to work with Sendmail
should stick with it because Sendmail is about as flexible as it is complex. If you
can beat the learning curve, go for it.
These days, open-source Sendmail has major competitors: commercial Sendmail,
qmail, and Postfix. Commercial Sendmail is ideal for people who love Sendmail and
want to pay for added benefits such as commercial-grade technical support, other
derivative products, and services. Postfix and qmail are both open-source products.

A LOOK AT QMAIL
The qmail solution has momentum. Its security and performance are very good.
However, it also suffers from administration complexity problems. It isn’t an easy
solution to manage. I am also not fond of qmail license, which seems to be a bit
more restrictive than most well known open-source projects. I feel that the qmail
author wants to control the core development a bit more tightly than he probably
should. However, I do respect his decisions, especially because he has placed a
reward for finding genuine bugs in the core code. I have played with qmail a short
time and found the performance to be not all that exciting, especially because a
separate process is needed to handle each connection. My requirements for high
performance were very high. I wanted to be able to send about a half million
e-mails per hour. My experiments with qmail did not result in such a high number.
Because most sites aren’t likely to need such a high performance, I think qmail is
suitable for many sites but it didn’t meet either my performance or administration
simplicity requirements. So I have taken a wait-and-see approach with qmail.

A LOOK AT POSTFIX
Postfix is a newcomer MTA. The Postfix author had the luxury of knowing all the
problems related to Sendmail and qmail. So he was able to solve the administration
problem well. Postfix administration is much easier than both Sendmail and qmail,
which is a big deal for me because I believe software that can be managed well can
be run well to increase productivity.
Some commercial MTA solutions have great strength in administration — and
even in performance. My favorite commercial outbound MTA is PowerMTA from
Port25.
In this chapter, I tune Sendmail, Postfix, and PowerMTA for performance.

Tuning Sendmail
The primary configuration file for Sendmail is /etc/mail/sendmail.cf, which
appears very cryptic to beginners. This file is generated by running a command
such as m4 < /path/to/chosen.mc > /etc/mail/sendmail.cf, where
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Chapter 6: E-Mail Server Performance 127

/path/to/chosen.mc file is your chosen M4 macro file for the system. For example,
I run the following command from the /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/sendmail-
8.11.0/cf/cf directory to generate the /etc/mail/sendmail.cf for my system:

m4 < linux-dnsbl.mc > /etc/mail/sendmail.cf

The linux-dnsbl.mc macro file instructs m4 to load other macro files such as
cf.m4, cfhead.m4, proto.m4, version.m4 from the /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/
sendmail-8.11.0/cf/m4 subdirectory. Many of the options discussed here are
loaded from these macro files. If you want to generate a new /etc/mail/
sendmail.cf file so that your changes aren’t lost in the future, you must change
the macro files in cf/m4 subdirectory of your Sendmail source installation.
If you don’t have these macro files because you installed a binary RPM distribu-
tion of Sendmail, you must modify the /etc/mail/sendmail.cf file directly.
In any case, always back up your working version of /etc/mail/sendmail.cf
before replacing it completely using the m4 command as shown in the preceding
example or modifying it directly using a text editor.
Now, here’s what you can tune to increase Sendmail performance.

Controlling the maximum size of messages

To control the size of e-mails that you can send or receive via Sendmail, use the
MaxMessageSize option in your mc file as follows:

# maximum message size

define(‘confMAX_MESSAGE_SIZE’,’1000000’)dnl

After regenerating the /etc/mail/sendmail.cf file using the m4 command, you

will have the following line in the /etc/mail/sendmail.cf file

O MaxMessageSize=1000000

This tells Sendmail to set the maximum message size to 1,000,000 bytes (approx.
1MB). Of course, you can choose a different number to suit your needs. Any mes-
sage larger than the set value of the MaxMessageSize option will be rejected.

Caching Connections
Sendmail controls connection caches for IPC connections when processing the
queue using ConnectionCacheSize and ConnectionCacheTimeout options.
It searches the cache for a pre-existing, active connection first. The Connection-
CacheSize defines the number of simultaneous open connections that are permitted.
The default is two, which is set in /etc/mail/sendmail.cf as follows:

O ConnectionCacheSize=2
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128 Part II: Network and Service Performance

You can set it in your mc file using the following:

define(‘confMCI_CACHE_SIZE’, 4)dnl

Here, the maximum number of simultaneous connections is four. Note that set-
ting this too high will create resource problems on your system, so don’t abuse it.

Setting the cache size to 0 will disable the connection cache.

The ConnectionCacheTimeout option specifies the maximum time that any

cached connection is permitted to remain idle. The default is

O ConnectionCacheTimeout=5m

Which means that maximum idle time is five minutes. I don’t recommend
changing this option.

CONTROLLING FREQUENCY OF THE MESSAGE QUEUE

Typically, when Sendmail is run as a standalone service (that is, not as a xinetd-run
service), the -q option is used to specify the frequency at which the queue is
processed. For example, the /etc/sysconfig/sendmail file has a line such as the
following:

QUEUE=1h

This line is used by the /etc/rc.d/init.d/sendmail script to supply the value for the
-q command line option for the Sendmail binary (/usr/sbin/sendmail).
The default value of 1h (one hour) is suitable for most sites, but if you frequently
find that the mailq | wc -l command shows hundreds of mails in the queue, you
may want to adjust the value to a smaller number, such as 30m (30 minutes).

CONTROLLING MESSAGE BOUNCE INTERVALS

When a message can’t be delivered to the recipient due to a remote failure such as
“recipient’s disk quota is full” or “server is temporarily unavailable,” the message is
queued and retried and finally bounced after a timeout period. The bounce timeout
can be adjusted by defining the following options in your mc file:

define(‘confTO_QUEUERETURN’, ‘5d’)dnl
define(‘confTO_QUEUERETURN_NORMAL’, ‘5d’)dnl
define(‘confTO_QUEUERETURN_URGENT’, ‘2d’)dnl
define(‘confTO_QUEUERETURN_NONURGENT’, ‘7d’)dnl
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Chapter 6: E-Mail Server Performance 129

These options result in the following configuration lines in /etc/mail/

sendmail.cf:

O Timeout.queuereturn=5d
O Timeout.queuereturn.normal=5d
O Timeout.queuereturn.urgent=2d
O Timeout.queuereturn.non-urgent=7d

Here, the default bounce message is sent to the sender after five days, which is
set by the Timeout.queuereturn (that is, the confTO_QUEUERETURN option line in
your mc file). If the message was sent with a normal priority, the sender receives this
bounce message within five days, which is set by Timeout.queuereturn.normal
option (that is, the confTO_QUEUERETURN_NORMAL in your mc file).
If the message was sent as urgent, the bounce message is sent in two days, which
is set by Timeout.queuereturn.urgent (that is, the confTO_QUEUERETURN_URGENT
option in the mc file).
If the message is sent with low priority level, it’s bounced after seven days,
which is set by the Timeout.queuereturn.non-urgent option (that is, the
confTO_QUEUERETURN_NONURGENT option in the mc file).
If you would like the sender to be warned prior to the actual bounce, you can use
the following settings in your mc file:

define(‘confTO_QUEUEWARN’, ‘4h’)dnl
define(‘confTO_QUEUEWARN_NORMAL’, ‘4h’)dnl
define(‘confTO_QUEUEWARN_URGENT’, ‘1h’)dnl
define(‘confTO_QUEUEWARN_NONURGENT’, ‘12h’)dnl

When you regenerate your /etc/mail/sendmail.cf file with the preceding

options in your mc file, you will get lines such as the following:

O Timeout.queuewarn=4h
O Timeout.queuewarn.normal=4h
O Timeout.queuewarn.urgent=1h
O Timeout.queuewarn.non-urgent=12h

Here, the default warning (stating that a message could not be delivered) message
is sent to the sender after four hours. Similarly, senders who use priority settings
when sending mail can get a warning after four hours, one hour, and 12 hours for
normal-, urgent-, and low-priority messages respectively.

CONTROLLING THE RESOURCES USED FOR BOUNCED MESSAGES

As mentioned before, a message is tried again and again for days before it is
removed from the queue. Retrying a failed message takes resources away from the
new messages that the system needs to process. Probably a failed message will fail
for a while, so trying to resend it too quickly is really a waste of resources.
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130 Part II: Network and Service Performance

You can control the minimum time a failed message must stay in the queue
before it’s retried using the following line in your mc file:

define(‘confMIN_QUEUE_AGE’, ‘30m’)dnl

This results in the following line in your /etc/mail/sendmail.cf file after it’s
regenerated.

O MinQueueAge=30m

This option states that the failed message should sit in the queue for 30 minutes
before it’s retried.
Also, you may want to reduce the priority of a failed message by setting the fol-
lowing option in your mc file:

define(‘confWORK_TIME_FACTOR’, ‘90000’)

This will result in the following option in your /etc/mail/sendmail.cf file

after it’s regenerated.

O RetryFactor=90000

This option sets a retry factor that is used in the calculation of a message’s pri-
ority in the queue. The larger the retry factor number, the lower the priority of the
failed message becomes.

Controlling simultaneous connections

By default, Sendmail enables an unlimited number of connections per second. It
accepts as many connections as possible under Linux. If you run Sendmail in a sys-
tem that isn’t just a mail server, this unlimited connection capability may not be
suitable, because it takes system resources away from your other services. For
example, if you run a Web server on the same machine you run Sendmail on, you
may want to limit the SMTP connections to an appropriate value using the follow-
ing option line in your mc file:

define(confCONNECTION_RATE_THROTTLE’, ‘5’)dnl

This command creates the following configuration option in /etc/mail/

sendmail.cf file after you regenerate it.

O ConnectionRateThrottle=5

Now Sendmail will accept only five connections per second. Because Sendmail
doesn’t pre-fork child processes, it starts five child processes per second at peak
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Chapter 6: E-Mail Server Performance 131

load. This can be dangerous if you don’t put a cap in the maximum number of chil-
dren that Sendmail can start. Luckily, you can use the following configuration
option in your mc file to limit that:

define(‘confMAX_DAEMON_CHILDREN’, ‘15’)dnl

This command creates the following configuration option in /etc/mail/

sendmail.cf file after you regenerate it.

O MaxDaemonChildren=15

This limits the maximum number of child processes to 15. This throttles your
server back to a degree that will make it unattractive to spammers, since it really
can’t relay that much mail (if you’ve left relaying on).

Limiting the load placed by Sendmail

You can instruct Sendmail to stop delivering mail and simply queue it if the system
load average gets too high. You can define the following option in your mc file:

define(‘confQUEUE_LA’, ‘5’)dnl

This command creates the following configuration option in /etc/mail/

sendmail.cf file after you regenerate it.

O QueueLA=5

Here, Sendmail will stop delivery attempts and simply queue mail when system
load average is above five. You can also refuse connection if the load average goes
above a certain threshold by defining the following option in your mc file:

define(‘confREFUSE_LA’, ‘8’)dnl

This command creates the following configuration option in /etc/mail/

sendmail.cf file after you regenerate it.

O RefuseLA=8

Here, Sendmail will refuse connection after load average goes to eight or above.
Note that locally produced mail isn’t still accepted for delivery.

Saving memory when processing the mail queue

When Sendmail processes the mail queue, the program’s internal data structure
demands more RAM — which can be a problem for a system with not much memory
to spare. In such a case, you can define the following option in your mc file:
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132 Part II: Network and Service Performance

define(‘confSEPARATE_PROC’, ‘True’)dnl

This command creates the following configuration option in /etc/mail/

sendmail.cf file after you regenerate it.

O ForkEachJob=True

This command forces Sendmail to fork a child process to handle each message in
the queue — which reduces the amount of memory consumed because queued mes-
sages won’t have a chance to pile up data in memory.
However, all those individual child processes impose a significant performance
penalty — so this option isn’t recommended for sites with high mail volume.

If the ForkEachJob option is set, Sendmail can’t use connection caching.

Controlling number of messages in a queue run

If you want to limit the number of messages that Sendmail reads from the mail
queue, define the following option in your mc file:

define(‘confMAX_QUEUE_RUN_SIZE’,’10000’)

This command creates the following configuration option in the /etc/mail/

sendmail.cf file after you regenerate it.

O MaxQueueRunSize=10000

Here, Sendmail will stop reading mail from the queue after reading 10,000 mes-
sages. Note that when you use this option, message prioritization is disabled.

Handling the full queue situation

The Sendmail queue directory (specified by the QueueDirectory option in
/etc/mail/sendmail.cf file or the QUEUE_DIR option in your mc file) is at its best
if you keep it in a disk partition of its own. This is especially true for a large mail
site. The default path for the queue is /var/spool/mqueue. A dedicated queue disk
partition (or even a full disk) will enhance performance by itself.
To avoid running out of queue space in a high e-mail volume site, set a limit so
Sendmail refuses mail until room is available in the queue. You can define the fol-
lowing option in your mc file for this purpose:
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Chapter 6: E-Mail Server Performance 133

define(‘confMIN_FREE_BLOCKS’, ‘100’)dnl

This command creates the following configuration option in /etc/mail/

sendmail.cf file after you regenerate it:

O MinFreeBlocks=100

This setting tells Sendmail to refuse e-mail when fewer than 100 1K blocks of
space are available in the queue directory.

Tuning Postfix
Postfix is the new MTA on the block. There is no RPM version of the Postfix distri-
bution yet, but installing it is simple. I show the installation procedure in the
following section.

Installing Postfix
Download the source distribution from www.postfix.org site. As of this writing
the source distribution was postfix-19991231-pl13.tar.gz. When you get the
source, the version number may be different; always use the current version num-
ber when following the instructions given in this book.

1. Su to root.
2. Extract the source distribution in /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES directory
using the tar xvzf postfix-19991231-pl13.tar.gz command. This
will create a subdirectory called postfix-19991231-pl13. Change to the
postfix-19991231-pl13 directory.

If you don’t have the latest Berkeley DB installed, install it before continuing.
You can download the latest Berkeley DB source from ww.sleepycat.com.

3. Run the make command to compile the source.

4. Create a user called postfix using the useradd postfix -s /bin/true
-d /dev/null command.

5. Create a file called /etc/aliases with the following line:

postfix: root
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134 Part II: Network and Service Performance

6. Run the sh INSTALL.sh to installation command to configure and install

the Postfix binaries. Simply accept the default values.
7. Browse the /etc/postfix/main.cf and modify any configuration option
that needs to be changed.

You can skip Step 8 to get started quickly.

8. Decide whether to keep the Posfix spool directory (/var/spool/

postfix/maildrop).configured in one of the following ways:

a World-writeable
This is the default.
b Sticky (1733)
c More restricted (mode 1730)
Because the maildrop directory is world-writeable, there is no need to run
any program with special privileges (set-UID or set-GID), and the spool
files themselves aren’t world-writeable or otherwise accessible to other
users. I recommend that you keep the defaults.

Now you can start your Postfix as follows:

postfix start

The first time you start the application, you will see warning messages as it cre-
ates its various directories. If you make any changes to configuration files, reload
Postfix:

postfix reload

Limiting number of processes used

You can control the total number of concurrent processes used by Postfix using the
following parameter in the /etc/postfix/main.cf file.
default_process_limit = 50

Here, Postfix is enabled to run a total of 50 concurrent processes (such as smtp

client, smtp server, and local delivery). You can override this setting in the
/etc/postfix/master.cf file by changing the maxproc column for a service. For
example, to receive 100 messages at a time, you can modify the /etc/postfix/
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Chapter 6: E-Mail Server Performance 135

master.cf file to have the maxproc column set to 100 for smtp service as shown
below.

# ==========================================================================
# service type private unpriv chroot wakeup maxproc command + args
# (yes) (yes) (yes) (never) (50)
# ==========================================================================
smtp inet n - n - 100 smtpd

Limiting maximum message size

You can set the maximum message size to using the following parameter in the
/etc/postfix/main.cf file.

message_size_limit = 1048576

Here, the maximum message size is set to 1048576 bytes (1MB).

Limiting number of messages in queue

To control the number of active messages in the queue, use the following parame-
ter in the /etc/postfix/main.cf file:

qmgr_message_active_limit = 1000

This sets the active message limit to 1000.

Limiting number of simultaneous

delivery to a single site
It is impolite and possibly illegal to flood too many concurrent SMTP connections
to any remote server. Some sites such as AOL, Yahoo!, and Hotmail may require you
to sign an agreement before you can use a high number of connections to these
sites. Postfix enables you to limit the number of concurrent connections that it
makes to a single destination using the following parameter:
default_destination_concurrency_limit = 10

This tells Postfix to set a limit of to 10 on concurrent connections to a single site.

Controlling queue full situation

If your server handles lots of mail and you often find that the queue space is nearly
full, consider adding the following parameter in the /etc/postfix/main.cf file:

queue_minfree = 1048576
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136 Part II: Network and Service Performance

Here, Postfix will refuse mail when the queue directory (that is, the disk partition
the queue directory is in) is 1048576 bytes (1MB) in size.

Controlling the length a message

stays in the queue
You need to bounce a message after repeated attempts at delivery. The length of
time a failed message remains in the queue can be set in the /etc/postfix/
main.cf file using the following parameter:

maximal_queue_lifetime = 5

Here, Postfix will return the undelivered message to the sender after five days of
retries. If you would like to limit the size of the undelivered (bounce) message sent
to the sender, use the following parameter:

bounce_size_limit = 10240

Here, Posfix returns 10240 bytes (10K) of the original message to the sender.

Controlling the frequency of the queue

To control the frequency of the queue runs, use the following parameter in the
/etc/postfix/main.cf file:

queue_run_delay = 600

Here the parameter specifies that queues may run every 600 seconds (10 minutes).

Using PowerMTA for High-Volume

Outbound Mail
PowerMTA from Port25 is a multithreaded, highly scalable commercial MTA
designed for high-volume, outbound mail delivery. You can download an RPM
binary package from their Web site at www.port25.com. However, you do need to
fill out their evaluation request form to get the license key needed to start the eval-
uation process. They send the evaluation license key via e-mail within a reasonable
timeframe (usually in the same day).
After you have the binary RPM package and the license key, you can install it
using the rpm -ivh pmta-package.rpm command, replacing pmta-package.rpm
with the name of the RPM file you downloaded from the Port25 Web site. The RPM
package that I downloaded, for example, was called PowerMTA-1.0rel-
200010112024.rpm.
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Chapter 6: E-Mail Server Performance 137

After RPM is installed, configure it by following these steps:

1. Edit the /etc/pmta/license file and insert the evaluation license data
you received from Port25 via e-mail.
2. Edit the /etc/pmta/config file and set the postmaster directive to an
appropriate e-mail address.
For example, replace #postmaster [email protected] with something like
postmaster [email protected].

3. If you use Port25’s Perl submission API to submit mail to the PowerMTA
(pmta) daemon, then change directory to /opt/pmta/api and extract the
Submitter-1.02.tar.gz (or a later version) by using the tar xvzf
Submitter-1.02.tar.gz command.

4. Change to the new subdirectory called Submitter-1.02 and run the fol-
lowing Perl commands — perl Makefile.PL; make; make test; make
install — in exactly that sequence. Doing so installs the Perl submitter
API module.

To start the PowerMTA (pmta) server, run the /etc/rc.d/init.d/pmta start

command to start the service. Thereafter, whenever you reconfigure the server by
modifying the /etc/pmta/config file, make sure you run the /usr/sbin/pmta
reload command.
Because PowerMTA is a multithreaded application, many threads are listed as
processes if you run commands such as ps auxww | grep pmta. Don’t be alarmed
if you see a lot of threads; PowerMTA can launch up to 800 threads under the Linux
platform.

Using multiple spool directories for speed

Power MTA can take advantage of multiple spool directories using the spool direc-
tive in /etc/pmta/config file. For example, you can have

spool /spooldisk1
spool /spooldisk2
spool /spooldisk3

Here, PowerMTA is told to manage spooling among three directories. Three dif-
ferent fast (ultra-wide SCSI) disks are recommended for spooling. Because spooling
on different disks reduces the I/O-related wait for each disk, it yields higher perfor-
mance in the long run.

Setting the maximum number of file descriptors

PowerMTA uses many file descriptors to open many files in the spool directories;
to accommodate it, you need a higher descriptor limit than the default set by Linux.
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138 Part II: Network and Service Performance

You can view the current file-descriptor limits for your system by using the cat
/proc/sys/fs/file-max command.

Use the ulimit -Hn 4096 command to set the file descriptor limit to 4096
when you start PowerMTA from the /etc/rc.d/init.d/pmta script.

Setting a maximum number of user processes

PowerMTA also launches many threads, so you must increase the maximum num-
ber of processes that can run under a single user account. You can set that limit in
the /etc/rc.d/init.d/pmta script by adding a line such as the following:

ulimit -Hu 1024

Here, PowerMTA is enabled to launch 1,024 threads.

Setting maximum concurrent SMTP connections

PowerMTA enables you to limit how many concurrent SMTP connections can
access a specific domain; you do so in the /etc/pmta/config file. The default
maximum is set by a wildcard domain-container directive that looks like this:

<domain *>
max-smtp-out 20 # max. connections *per domain*
bounce-after 4d12h # 4 days, 12 hours
retry-after 60m # 60 minutes
log-resolution no
log-connections no
log-commands no
log-data no
</domain>

Here the max-smtp-out directive is set to 20 for all (*) domains. At this setting,
PowerMTA opens no more than 20 connections to any one domain. If, however,
you have an agreement with a particular domain that allows you to make more
connections, you can create a domain-specific configuration to handle that excep-
tion. For example, to connect 100 simultaneous PowerMTA threads to your friend’s
domain (myfriendsdomain.com), you can add the following lines to the /etc/
pmta/config file:

<domain myfriendsdomain.com>
max-smtp-out 100
</domain>
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Chapter 6: E-Mail Server Performance 139

Don’t create such a configuration without getting permission from the other
side. If the other domain is unprepared for the swarm of connecitons, you
may find your mail servers blacklisted.You may even get into legal problems
with the remote party if you abuse this feature.

Monitoring performance
Because PowerMTA is a high-performance delivery engine, checking on how it’s
working is a good idea. You can run the /usr/sbin/pmta show status command
to view currently available status information. Listing 6-1 shows a sample status
output.

Listing 6-1: Sample output of /usr/sbin/pmta status

PowerMTA v1.0rel status on andre.intevo.com on 2001-01-07 00:30:30

Traffic ------------inbound------------ ------------outbound-----------

rcpts msgs kbytes rcpts msgs kbytes
Total 221594 221594 5230009.5 221174 221174 4884289.7
Last Hour 0 0 0.0 0 0 0.0
Top/Hour 138252 138252 3278106.9 131527 131527 3339707.1
Last Min. 0 0 0.0 0 0 0.0
Top/Min. 7133 7133 69948.1 3002 3002 62914.8

Connections active top maximum Domain cached pending

Inbound 0 3 30 Names 4844 0
Outbound 1 698 800
Spool in use recycled
SMTP queue rcpts domains kbytes Files 659 1000
340 11 9629.0 Init. complete

Status running Started 2001-01-05 13:48:50 Uptime 1 10:41:40

Here, in the Top/Hour row, PowerMTA reports that it has sent 131,527 messages
in an hour. Not bad. But PowerMTA can do even better. After a few experiments, I
have found it can achieve 300-500K messages per hour easily — on a single PIII Red
Hat Linux system with 1GB of RAM.
PowerMTA is designed for high performance and high volume. Its multithreaded
architecture efficiently delivers a large number of individual e-mail messages to
many destinations.
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140 Part II: Network and Service Performance

Summary
Sendmail, Postfix, and PowerMTA are common Mail Transport Agents (MTAs).
They can be fine-tuned for better resource management and higher performance.
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Chapter 7

NFS and Samba Server

Performance
IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Tuning Samba
◆ Tuning NFS server

A HIGHLY TUNED SAMBA or NFS server has the following characteristics:

◆ Its hardware is optimal. A typical client/server system falls short of opti-

mal because of three hardware bottlenecks:
■ Disk drives. Any component with moving parts always moves too slow
compared to information, which moves at the speed of electric
impulses. Fortunately, fast, modern hardware is relatively cheap. You
can buy 10,000-RPM ultra-wide SCSI disk drives without paying an
arm and a leg.
■ CPU. As with single-user systems, the basic principle that governs CPU
selection is the faster the better — and thanks to Intel and friends, 1GHz
CPUs are available in the PC market.
◆ Network cabling. Unfortunately, now-obsolescent 10MB Ethernet is still
the norm in most organizations. 100MB Ethernet is still not deployed
everywhere. I have used a PIII 500 MHz Samba system with 10 local,
ultra-wide, 10K RPM drives on three disk controllers on a 100MB Ethernet
to service over 100 users who included office administrators (small file
and infrequent access users), engineers (frequent file access users), and
graphics artists (large file users). My biggest worry was controlling the
temparature of the server because the 10K RPM drives heated up fast. I
had to use many small fans as disk bay covers to cool the server.
◆ Its server configuration is optimal. And that means a lot of careful
attention to settings, usually on the part of the system administrator.
Unfortunately, there is no easy way to formulate the ideal configuration
for your Samba or NFS server. Each implementation has its own needs;
the best method is trial and error. This chapter shows many configuration
options that can help make your trial-and-error experiments effective. 141
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142 Part II: Network and Service Performance

Tuning Samba Server

This section shows how you can tune the Samba server for best performance.

Controlling TCP socket options

The Samba server uses TCP packets to communicate with the clients. You can
enhance the performance by adding the following parameter in the /etc/samba/
smb.conf file.

socket options = TCP_NODELAY SO_RCVBUF=8192 SO_SNDBUF=8192

The TCP_NODELAY option tells the Samba server to send as many packets as nec-
essary to keep the delay low. The SO_RCVBUF and SO_SNDBUF options set the send
and receive window (buffer) size to 8K (8192 bytes), which should result in good
performance. Here we are instructing the Samba server to read/write 8K data before
requesting an acknowledgement (ACK) from the client side.

USING OPPORTUNISTIC LOCKS (OPLOCKS)

When a client accesses a file from a Samba server, it doesn’t know whether the file is
accessed by others who may change the file contents. However, if the Samba server
somehow could tell the client that it has exclusive access to a file, the client can then
cache the file contents and thus increase performance. To enable a client to locally
cache a file, the server uses opportunistic locks (oplocks). If you have the following
parameter set in the /etc/samba/smb.conf file for a share, the server can grant an
oplock for clients, which should result in about 30 percent or more performance gain.

oplocks = true

Newer versions of Samba (2.0.5 or later) support a new type of opportunistic lock
parameter called level2 oplocks. This type of oplock is used for read-only access.
When this parameter is set to true, you should see a major performance gain in con-
current access to files that are usually just read. For example, executable applications
that are read from a Samba share can be accessed faster due to this option.
Samba also has a fake oplocks parameter that can be set to true to grant
oplocks to any client that asks for one. However, fake oplocks are depreciated and
should never be used in shares that enable writes. If you enable fake oplocks for
shares that clients can write to, you risk data corruption.
Note that when you enable oplocks for a share such as the following:

[pcshare]
comment = PC Share
path = /pcshare
public = yes
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Chapter 7: NFS and Samba Server Performance 143

writable = yes
printable = no
write list = @pcusers
oplocks = true

you may want to tell Samba to ignore oplock requests by clients for files that are
writeable. You can use the veto oplock files parameter to exclude such files. For
example, to exclude all files with doc extension from being oplocked, you can use

veto oplock files = /*.doc/

CONTROLLING THE WRITE-AHEAD BEHAVIOR

If you run the Samba server on a system where disk access is comparable to network
access speed, you can use the read size parameter. For example,

read size = 16384

When the amount of data transferred is larger than the specified read size
parameter, the server either begins to write data to disk before it receives the whole
packet from the network or to write to the network before all data has been read
from the disks.

CONTROLLING THE WRITE SIZE

The maximum size of a single packet is controlled by a network option called
Maximum Transport Unit (MTU), which is set in network configuration. The default
value is 1500; you can check the MTU value set for a network interface by running
the ifconfig command. Now, if Samba transmits data in a smaller size than the
MTU, throughput is reduced. The max xmit parameter controls the write size that
Samba uses when writing data to the network. The default value of this parameter
is set to 65,536, which is the maximum value. You can set it to anything between
2048 to 65,536. However, on slow networks this value may not be optimal. On slow
networks, use a small value like 2048 for better performance; on high-speed net-
works, leave the default as is.

CONTROLLING RAW READS

When the read raw parameter is set, the Samba server reads a maximum of 65,536
bytes in a single packet. However, in some instances setting this parameter may
actually reduce performance. The only sure way to tell whether read raw = yes
helps your Server or not is to try using Samba while setting read raw = no. If you
see a performance drop, enable it again.

CONTROLLING RAW WRITES

When the write raw parameter is set, the Samba server writes a maximum of
65,536 bytes in a single packet. However, in some instances setting this parameter
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144 Part II: Network and Service Performance

may actually reduce performance. The only sure way to tell whether write raw =
yes helps your Server or not is to try using Samba while setting write raw = no.
If you see a performance drop, enable it again.

SETTING THE LOG LEVEL APPROPRIATELY

Setting the log level parameter to anything above two will reduce performance
greatly because each log entry is flushed to disk. I recommend that you set log
level to one.

CACHE CURRENT DIRECTORY PATH

Setting the getwd cache = yes parameter enables caching of current directory
path which avoids time-consuming tree traversal by the server.

AVOIDING STRICT LOCKING AND SYNCHRONIZATION FOR FILES

There are a few strict parameters that are best avoided.

◆ If you set the strick locking parameter to yes, then Samba server will
perform lock checks on each read/write operation, which will severely
decrease performance. So don’t use this option; especially on Samba
shares that are really remote NFS-mounted filesystems.
◆ If you set the strict sync parameter to yes, the Samba server will write
each packet to disk and wait for the write to complete whenever the client
sets the sync bit in a packet. This will cause severe performance problems
when working with Windows clients running MS explorer or other pro-
grams like it, which set the sync bit for every packet.

AUTOMATICALLY CREATING USER ACCOUNTS

Although this isn’t a performance option, it saves you a lot of administrative hassle,
so it is included here. When you want Windows users or other Linux-based Samba
clients to access your Samba server, you need user accounts for each client. If the
Samba resource you want to offer to these clients can be shared using a single
account, you can simply create a user account called myguest using the useradd
myguest command and set guest account = myguest in the global section of the
/etc/samba/smb.conf file. Then you can use the guest ok = yes parameter in the
appropriate resource section to enable guest access for that resource. For example:

[printers]
comment = All Printers
path = /var/spool/samba
browseable = no
guest ok = no
printable = yes
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Chapter 7: NFS and Samba Server Performance 145

Here, all the printers managed by Samba are accessible via guest accounts.
However, it isn’t often desirable to use guest accounts to access shares. For exam-
ple, enabling guest access to a user’s home directory isn’t desirable for the obvious
reasons.
Unfortunately, maintaining Linux user accounts for all your Windows users can
be a tough task, especially because you must manually synchronize the addition
and removal of such users. Fortunately, if you use domain-level security you can
automate this process using the following parameters in the global section:

add user script = /usr/sbin/useradd %u -g smbusers

delete user script = /usr/sbin/userdel %u

Whenever a Windows user (or a remote Samba client) attempts to access your
Samba server (using domain level security), it creates a new user account if the pass-
word server (typically the Primary Domain Controller) authenticates the user. Also,
the user account is removed if the password server fails to authenticate the user.
This means that if you add a new user account in your Windows 2000/NT domain
and your Samba server uses a Windows 2000/NT server for domain-level security,
the corresponding Linux account on the Samba server is automatically managed.

Tuning Samba Client

If you use Windows clients such as Windows 9x and Windows 2000/NT to access
the Samba server, consult your operating system guide to determine if you can
increase the performance of the TCP/IP stack used.

Tuning NFS Server

The primary bottleneck in an NFS environment is the disk I/O speed of the NFS
server. The disk I/O speed is dependent on what kind of disk subsystem you use with
your NFS server. For example, running an NFS server using IDE disks doesn’t yield
great performance versus running a server with ultra-wide, SCSI disks that have high
RPM rates. The maximum number of I/O operations per second will dictate how well
your NFS server performs. I have used an Intel Xeon 500 system with 10 ultra-wide
SCSI disks in RAID 5 as an NFS server for about 50 users with great success.
After you have decided on a good disk subsystem, such as a RAID 5 using an
array of 10K RPM ultra-wide SCSI disks with a disk controller that has a large built-
in disk cache, your next hardware bottleneck is the network itself. Isolating high-
bandwidth traffic into its own network is a good way to reduce performance loss.
So I recommend that you connect your NFS servers to your NFS clients using a
dedicated 100 Mb Ethernet of its own. Create an NFS backbone, which only moves
NFS packets. This will result in a high-performance NFS network.
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146 Part II: Network and Service Performance

Optimizing read/write block size

The default read and write block size for NFS is 4096 bytes (4KB), which may not
be optimal for all situations. You can perform a test to determine whether changing
the block size will help you or not. Here’s how you perform such a test.
This test assumes that you have an NFS server running on a Linux system and
also have a Linux-based NFS client system. The test also assumes that the client
mounts a filesystem called /mnt/nfs1 from the NFS server.

1. Su to root on the NFS client machine.

2. You need to know the total amount of memory your system has. You
should know this by default because it’s your system, but if you don’t
remember too well, you can run the cat /proc/meminfo command to
view the memory information for your system. This will display similar to
what is shown below:
total: used: free: shared: buffers: cached:
Mem: 263720960 260456448 3264512 30531584 228245504
6463488
Swap: 271392768 6209536 265183232
MemTotal: 257540 kB
MemFree: 3188 kB
MemShared: 29816 kB
Buffers: 222896 kB
Cached: 6312 kB
BigTotal: 0 kB
BigFree: 0 kB
SwapTotal: 265032 kB
SwapFree: 258968 kB

3. The total amount of system memory is shown under the column heading
total:; divide this number by 1,048,576 (1024x1024) to get the total
(approximate) memory size in megabytes. In the preceding example, this
number is 251MB.
Interestingly, total memory is never reported accurately by most PC sys-
tem BIOS, so you must round the number based on what you know about
the total memory. In my example, I know that the system should have
256MB of RAM, so I use 256MB as the memory size in this test.

If you have RAM > 1GB, I recommend using 512MB as the RAM size for this
experiment. Although you may have 1GB+ RAM, pretend that you have
512MB for this experiment.
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Chapter 7: NFS and Samba Server Performance 147

4. Change directory to a currently mounted /mnt/nfs1 NFS file directory.

Run the du command to see whether you have at least 512MB (2 x total
RAM) of free space available on the NFS directory. If you don’t, you can’t
continue with this experiment. I assume that you do have such space
available.
5. We want to measure the write performance of your current NFS setup. So
we will write a 512MB (16KB/block x 32,768 blocks) file called 512MB.dat
in the /mnt/nfs1 directory using the following command:
time dd if=/dev/zero \
of=/mnt/nfs1/512MB.dat \
bs=16k count=32768

This command runs the time command, which records execution time of
the program named as the first argument. In this case, the dd command
is timed. The dd command is given an input file (using if option) called
/dev/zero. This file is a special device that returns a 0 (zero) character
when read. If you open this file for reading, it keeps returning a 0 character
until you close the file. This gives us an easy source to fill out an output
file (specified using the of option) called /mnt/nfs1/512MB.dat; the dd
command is told to use a block size (specified using bs option) of 16KB and
write a total of 32,768 blocks (specified using the count option). Because
16KB/block times 32,768 blocks equal 512MB, we will create the file we
intended. After this command is executed, it prints a few lines such as the
following:
32768+0 records in
32768+0 records out
1.610u 71.800s 1:58.91 61.7% 0+0k 0+0io 202pf+0w

Here the dd command read 32,768 records from the /dev/zero device and
also wrote back the same number of records to the /mnt/nfs1/512MB.dat
file. The third line states that the copy operation took one minute and
58.91 seconds. Write this line in a text file as follows:
Write, 1, 1.610u, 71.800s, 1:58.91, 61.7%

Here, you are noting that this was the first (1st) write experiment.
6. We need to measure the read performance of your current NFS setup. We
can simply read the 512MB file we created earlier and see how long it
takes to read it back. To read it back and time the read access, you can
run the following command:
time dd if=/mnt/nfs1/512MB.dat \
of=/dev/null \
bs=16k count=32768
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148 Part II: Network and Service Performance

Here the dd command is timed again to read the /mnt/nfs1/512MB.dat

file as input, then output the file contents to /dev/null, which is the
official bottomless bit bucket for Linux. Like before, record the time used
in the same file you wrote the read performance record. For example, the
read test using the preceding command displayed the following output on
my system.
Record the third line as follows:
Read, 1, 1.970u, 38.970s, 2:10.44, 31.3%

Here, you are noting that this was the first (1st) read experiment.
7. Remove the 512MB.dat file from /mnt/nfs1 and umount the partition
using the umount /mnt/nfs1 command. The unmounting of the NFS
directory ensures that disk caching doesn’t influence your next set of tests.
8. Repeat the write and read back test (Steps 5 - 7) at least five times. You
should have a set of notes as follows:
Read, 1, 1.971u, 38.970s, 2:10.44, 31.3%
Read, 2, 1.973u, 38.970s, 2:10.49, 31.3%
Read, 3, 1.978u, 38.971s, 2:10.49, 31.3%
Read, 4, 1.978u, 38.971s, 2:10.49, 31.3%
Read, 5, 1.978u, 38.971s, 2:10.49, 31.3%

Write, 1, 1.610u, 71.800s, 1:58.91, 61.7%

Write, 2, 1.610u, 71.801s, 1:58.92, 61.7%
Write, 3, 1.610u, 71.801s, 1:58.92, 61.7%
Write, 4, 1.610u, 71.801s, 1:58.92, 61.7%
Write, 5, 1.611u, 71.809s, 1:58.92, 61.7%

9. Calculate the average read and write time from the fifth column (shown in
bold).

You have completed the first phase of this test. You have discovered the average
read and write access time for a 512MB file. Now you can start the second phase of
the test as follows:

1. Unmount the /mnt/nfs1 directory on the NFS client system using the
umount /mnt/nfs1 command.

2. Modify the /etc/fstab file on the NFS client system such that the
/mnt/nfs1 filesystem is mounted with the rsize=8192, wsize=8192
options as shown below:
nfs-server-host:/nfs1 /mnt/nfs1 nfs \
rsize=8192, wsize=8192 0 0
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Chapter 7: NFS and Samba Server Performance 149

3. Mount the /mnt/nfs1 directory back using the mount /mnt/nfs1

command.
4. Perform Steps 4 to 9 of the previous experiment.
5. Compare the read and write access averages between phase 1 and phase 2
of the test. If the results in phase 2 (this part) of the test looks better,
the changing of the read and write blocks have increased your NFS
performance. If not, remove the rsize=8192, wsize=8192 options from
the line in /etc/fstab. Most likely, the read and write block size change
will increase NFS performance. You can also experiment with other block
sizes. It’s advisable that you use multiples of 1024 in block size because
1024 is the actual filesystem block size. Also, don’t use larger numbers
above 8192 bytes.

If the block size change works for you, keep the rsize=8192, wsize=8192 (or
whatever you find optimal via further experiment) in the /etc/fstab line for the
/mnt/nfs1 definition.

Setting the appropriate Maximum

Transmission Unit
The Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) value determines how large a single packet
transmission can be. If the MTU is set too small, NFS performance will suffer greatly.
To discover the appropriate MTU setting, do the following:

1. su to root on the NFS client system.

2. Run the tracepath nfsserver/2049 command where nfsserver is your
NFS server’s hostname. The command will report the MTU for the path.
3. Check out the current MTU that the network interface uses to access the
NFS server. You can simply run the ifconfig command list information
about all your up and running network interfaces.
4. If you see that your MTU setting for the appropriate network interface is
not the same as the one reported by the tracepath command, use
ifconfig to set it using the mtu option. For example, the ifconfig eth0
mtu 512 command sets the MTU for network interface eth0 to 512 bytes.

Running optimal number of NFS daemons

By default, you run eight NFS daemons. To see how heavily each nfsd thread is
used, run the cat /proc/net/rpc/nfsd command. The last ten numbers on the
line in that file indicate the number of seconds that the nfsd thread usage was at
that percentage of the maximum allowable. If you have a large number in the top
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150 Part II: Network and Service Performance

three deciles, you may want to increase the number of nfsd instances. To change
the number of NFS daemons started when your server boots up, do the following:

1. su to root.
2. Stop nfsd using the /etc/rc.d/init.d/nfs stop command if you run it
currently.
3. Modify the /etc/rc.d/init.d/nfs script so that RPCNFSDCOUNT=8 is set
to an appropriate number of NFS daemons.
4. Start nfsd using the /etc/rc.d/init.d/nfs start command.

CONTROLLING SOCKET INPUT QUEUE SIZE

By default, Linux uses a socket input queue of 65,535 bytes (64KB). If you run 8
NFS daemons (nfsd) on your system, each daemon gets 8K buffer to store data in
the input queue. Increase the queue size to at least 256KB as follows:

1. su to root.
2. Stop nfsd using the /etc/rc.d/init.d/nfs stop command if you run it
currently.
3. Modify the /etc/rc.d/init.d/nfs script so that just before the NFS dae-
mon (nfsd) is started using the daemon rpc.nfsd $RPCNFSDCOUNT line,
the following lines are added:
echo 262144 > /proc/sys/net/core/rmem_default
echo 262144 > /proc/sys/net/core/rmem_max

4. Right after the daemon rpc.nfsd $RPCNFSDCOUNT line, add the following
lines:
echo 65536 > /proc/sys/net/core/rmem_default
echo 65536 > /proc/sys/net/core/rmem_max

5. Restart NFS daemon using the /etc/rc.d/init.d/nfs start command.

Now each NFS daemon started by the /etc/rc.d/init.d/nfs script uses 32K
buffer space in the socket input queue.

Monitoring packet fragments

The Linux kernel controls the number of unprocessed UDP packet fragments it can
handle using a high to low range. When unprocessed UDP packet fragment size
reaches the high mark (usually 262,144 bytes or 256KB), the kernel throws away the
incoming packet fragments. In other words, when UDP packet fragments reach the
high mark, packet loss starts. The loss of packet fragments continues until the total
unprocessed fragment size reaches a low threshold (usually 196,608 bytes or 192KB).
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Chapter 7: NFS and Samba Server Performance 151

Because NFS protocol uses fragmented UDP packets, the preceding high to low
threshold used by Linux matters in NFS performance.

◆ You can view the current value of your high threshold size; run

cat /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ipfrag_high_thresh

◆ You can change the high values by running

echo high-number > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ipfrag_high_thresh

◆ You can view the low threshold value by running

cat /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ipfrag_low_thresh

◆ To change the low number, run

echo low-number > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ipfrag_low_thresh

Summary
In this chapter you learned to tune the Samba and NFS servers.
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114754-2 Pt3.F 11/5/01 9:04 AM Page 153

Part III
System Security
CHAPTER 8
Kernel Security
CHAPTER 9
Securing Files and Filesystems
CHAPTER 10
PAM
CHAPTER 11
OpenSSL
CHAPTER 12
Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH
CHAPTER 13
Secure Remote Passwords
CHAPTER 14
Xinetd
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Chapter 8

Kernel Security
IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Using Linux Intrusion Detection System (LIDS)

◆ Libsafe
◆ Protecting stack elements

THIS CHAPTER PRESENTS kernel- or system-level techniques that enhance your over-
all system security. I cover the Linux Intrusion Detection System (LIDS) and Libsafe,
which transparently protect your Linux programs against common stack attacks.

Using Linux Intrusion Detection

System (LIDS)
The root is the source of all evil. Probably this statement only makes sense to
Unix/Linux system administrators. After an unauthorized root access is confirmed,
damage control seems very hopeless, or at least is at the intruder’s mercy.
In a default Red Hat Linux system, several subsystems are typically unprotected.

◆ Filesystem. The system has many important files, such as /bin/login,

that hackers exploit frequently because they aren’t protected. If a hacker
breaks in, he can access the system in the future by uploading a modified
login program such as /bin/login. In fact, files (that is, programs) such
as /bin/login shouldn’t change frequently (if at all) — therefore, they
must not be left unprotected.
◆ Running processes. Many processes run with the root privileges, which
means that when they are exploited using tricks such as buffer overflow
(explained in the “Using libsafe to Protect Program Stacks” section), the
intruder gains full root access to the system.

155
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156 Part III: System Security

LIDS enhances system security by reducing the root user’s power. LIDS also
implements a low-level security model — in the kernel — for the following purposes:

◆ Security protection

◆ Incident detection

◆ Incident-response capabilities

For example, LIDS can provide the following protection:

◆ Protect important files and directories from unauthorized access on your

hard disk, no matter what local filesystem they reside on.
◆ Protect chosen files and directories from modifications by the root user, so
an unauthorized root access doesn’t turn an intruder into a supervillain.
◆ Protect important processes from being terminated by anyone, including
the root user. (Again, this reduces root user capabilities.)
◆ Prevent raw I/O operations from access by unauthorized programs.

◆ Protect a hard disk’s master boot record (MBR).

LIDS can detect when someone scans your system using port scanners — and
inform the system administrator via e-mail. LIDS can also notify the system admin-
istrator whenever it notices any violation of imposed rules — and log detailed mes-
sages about the violations (in LIDS-protected, tamper-proof log files). LIDS can not
only log and send e-mail about detected violations, it can even shut down an
intruder’s interactive session

Building a LIDS-based Linux system

The Linux Intrusion Detection System (LIDS) is a kernel patch and a suite of admin-
istrative tools that enhances security from within the Linux operating system’s kernel.
LIDS uses a reference monitor security model, putting everything it refers to — the
subject, the object, and the access type — in the kernel. If you want more information
about this approach, the LIDS project Web site is www.lids.org/about.html.
A LIDS-enabled Linux system runs a customized kernel, so you must have the
latest kernel source from a reliable kernel site, such as www.kernel.org. After you
have downloaded and extracted the kernel in /usr/src/linux, download the LIDS
patch for the specific kernel you need. For example, if you use kernel 2.4.1, make
sure you download the LIDS patch from the LIDS project Web site. Typically, the
LIDS patch and administrative tool package is called lids-x.x.x.y.y.y.tar.gz,
where x.x.x represents the LIDS version number and y.y.y represents the kernel
version (for example, lids-1.0.5-2.4.1).
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Chapter 8: Kernel Security 157

I use LIDS 1.0.5 for kernel 2.4.1 in the instructions that follow. Make sure you
change the version numbers as needed. Extract the LIDS source distribution
in the /usr/local/src directory using the tar xvzf lids-1.0.5-
2.4.1.tar.gz command from the /usr/local/src directory. Now you
can patch the kernel.

Make sure that /usr/src/linux points to the latest kernel source distrib-
ution that you downloaded.You can simply run ls -l /usr/src/linux to
see which directory the symbolic link points to. If it points to an older kernel
source, remove the link using rm -f /usr/src/linux and re-link it using
ln -s /usr/src/linux-version /usr/src/linux, where version is
the kernel version you downloaded. For example, ln -s /usr/src/
linux-2.4.1 /usr/src/linux links the latest kernel 2.4.1 source to
/usr/src/linux.

Patching, compiling, and installing the kernel with LIDS. Before you can use
LIDS in your system you need to patch the kernel source, then compile and install
the updated kernel. Here is how you can do that:

1. As root, extract the LIDS patch package in a suitable directory of your

choice.
I usually keep source code for locally compiled software in the /usr/
local/src directory. I assume that you will do the same. So from the
/usr/local/src directory, run the tar xvzf lids-1.0.5-2.4.1.tar.gz
command. Doing so creates a new subdirectory called lids-1.0.5-2.4.1.
2. Change directory to /usr/src/linux and run the patch -p < /usr/
local/src/lids-1.0.5-2.4.1.patch command to patch the kernel
source distribution.
3. Run the make menuconfig command from the /usr/src/linux directory
to start the menu-based kernel configuration program.

Instead of using make menuconfig command, you can also use the make
config command to configure the kernel.
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158 Part III: System Security

4. From the main menu, select the Code maturity level options submenu
and choose the Prompt for development and/or incomplete code/
drivers option by pressing the spacebar key; then exit this submenu.

5. Select the Sysctl support from the General setup submenu; then exit
the submenu.
6. From the main menu, select the Linux Intrusion Detection System
submenu.

This submenu appears only if you have completed Steps 4 and 5, at the
bottom of the main menu; you may have to scroll down a bit.

7. From the LIDS submenu, select the Linux Intrusion Detection System
support (EXPERIMENTAL) (NEW) option.

You see a list of options:

(1024) Maximum protected objects to manage (NEW)
(1024) Maximum ACL subjects to manage (NEW)
(1024) Maximum ACL objects to manage (NEW)
(1024) Maximum protected proceeds (NEW)
[ ] Hang up console when raising a security alert (NEW)
[ ] Security alert when executing unprotected programs
before sealing LIDS (NEW)
[ ] Try not to flood logs (NEW)
[ ] Allow switching LIDS protections (NEW)
[ ] Port Scanner Detector in kernel (NEW)
[ ] Send security alerts through network (NEW)
[ ] LIDS Debug (NEW)

The default limits for managed, protected objects, ACL subjects/objects, and
protected processes should be fine for most systems. You can leave them
as is.

■ If you want LIDS to disconnect the console when a user violates a

security rule, select the Hang up console when raising a security
alert option.
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Chapter 8: Kernel Security 159

■ If you want to issue a security alert when a program is executed before

LIDS protection is enabled, select the Security alert when
executing unprotected programs before sealing LIDS option.

LIDS is enabled during bootup (as described later in the chapter), so it’s likely
that you will run other programs before running LIDS. When you select this
option, however, you can also disable execution of unprotected programs
altogether using the Do not execute unprotected programs
before sealing LIDS option. I don’t recommend that you disable
unprotected programs completely during bootup unless you are absolutely
sure that everything you want to run during boot (such as the utilities and
daemons) is protected and doesn’t stop the normal boot process.

8. Enable the Try not to flood logs (NEW) option.

Leave the default 60-second delay between logging of two identical entries.
Doing so helps preserve your sanity by limiting the size of the log file. The
delay will ensure too many log entries are not written too fast.

9. Select Allow switching LIDS protections option if you want to enable

switching of LIDS protection. If you do, you can customize this further by
selecting the value for the following options:
■ Number of attempts to submit password

■ Time to wait after a fail (seconds)

■ Allow remote users to switch LIDS protections

■ Allow any program to switch LIDS protections

■ Allow reloading config. file

These are my preferences:

[*] Allow switching LIDS protections (NEW)
(3) Number of attempts to submit password (NEW)
(3) Time to wait after a fail (seconds) (NEW)
[*] Allow remote users to switch LIDS protections (NEW)
[ ] Allow any program to switch LIDS protections (NEW)
[*] Allow reloading config. file (NEW)
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160 Part III: System Security

10. Select the Port Scanner Detector in kernel option and the Send
security alerts through network option. Don’t change the default
values for the second option.
11. Save your kernel configuration and run the following commands to
compile the new kernel and its modules (if any).
make depend
make bzImage
make modules
make modules_install

If you aren’t compiling a newer kernel version than what is running on the
system, back up the /bin/modules/current-version directory
(where current-version is the current kernel version). For example, if
you are compiling 2.4.1 and you already have 2.4.1 running, then run the
cp -r /lib/modules/2.4.1 /lib/modules/2.4.1.bak command
to back-up the current modules. In case of a problem with the new kernel,
you can delete the broken kernel’s modules and rename this directory with
its original name.

12. Copy the newly created /usr/src/linux/arch/i386/boot/bzImage kernel

image to /boot/vmlinuz-lids-1.0.5-2.4.1 using the cp /usr/src/
linux/arch/i386/boot/bzImage /boot/vmlinuz-lids-1.0.5-2.4.1
command.
13. In the /etc/lilo.conf file, add the following:
image=/boot/vmlinuz-lids-1.0.5-2.4.1
label=lids
read-only
root=/dev/hda1

If /dev/hda1 isn’t the root device, make sure you change it as appropriate.
14. Run /sbin/lilo to reconfigure LILO.
When the LILO is reconfigured, the kernel configuration is complete.

COMPILING, INSTALLING, AND CONFIGURING LIDS

After configuring the kernel, you can proceed with the rest of your LIDS
configuration.
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Chapter 8: Kernel Security 161

Here’s how to compile and install the LIDS administrative program lidsadm.

1. Assuming that you have installed the LIDS source in the /usr/local/src
directory, change to /usr/local/src/lids-1.0.5-2.4.1/lidsadm-1.0.5.
2. Run the make command, followed by the make install command.
These commands perform the following actions:
■ Install the lidsadm program in /sbin.
■ Create the necessary configuration files (lids.cap, lids.conf,
lids.net, lids.pw) in /etc/lids.

3. Run the /sbin/lidsadm -P command and enter a password for the LIDS
system.
This password is stored in the /etc/lids/lids.pw file, in RipeMD-160
encrypted format.
4. Run the /sbin/lidsadm -U command to update the inode/dev numbers.
5. Configure the /etc/lids/lids.net file. A simplified default
/etc/lids/lids.net file is shown in Listing 8-1.

Listing 8-1: /etc/lids/lids.net

MAIL_SWITCH= 1
MAIL_RELAY=127.0.0.1:25
MAIL_SOURCE=lids.sinocluster.com
MAIL_FROM= [email protected]
MAIL_TO= root@localhost
MAIL_SUBJECT= LIDS Alert

■ The MAIL_SWITCH option can be 1 or 0 (1 turns on the e-mail alert

function, 0 turns it off). Leave the default (1) as is.
■ Set the MAIL_RELAY option to the IP address of the mail server that
LIDS should use to send the alert message.
If you run the mail server on the same machine you are configuring
LIDS for, leave the default as is. The port number, 25, is the default
SMTP port and should be left alone unless you are running your mail
server on a different port.
■ Set the MAIL_SOURCE option to the hostname of the machine being
configured. Change the default to the appropriate hostname of your
system.
■ Set the MAIL_FROM option to an address that tells you which system the
alert is coming from. Change the default to reflect the hostname of
your system.
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162 Part III: System Security

You don’t need a real mail account for the from address. The MAIL_TO
option should be set to the e-mail address of the administrator of the sys-
tem being configured. Because the root address, root@localhost, is the
default administrative account, you can leave it as is. The MAIL_SUBJECT
option is obvious and should be changed as needed.

6. Run the /sbin/lidsadm -L command, which should show output like the
following:
LIST
Subject ACCESS TYPE Object
-----------------------------------------------------
Any File READ /sbin
Any File READ /bin
Any File READ /boot
Any File READ /lib
Any File READ /usr
Any File DENY /etc/shadow
/bin/login READ /etc/shadow
/bin/su READ /etc/shadow
Any File APPEND /var/log
Any File WRITE /var/log/wtmp
/sbin/fsck.ext2 WRITE /etc/mtab
Any File WRITE /etc/mtab
Any File WRITE /etc
/usr/sbin/sendmail WRITE /var/log/sendmail.st
/bin/login WRITE /var/log/lastlog
/bin/cat READ /home/xhg
Any File DENY /home/httpd
/usr/sbin/httpd READ /home/httpd
Any File DENY /etc/httpd/conf
/usr/sbin/httpd READ /etc/httpd/conf
/usr/sbin/sendmail WRITE /var/log/sendmail.st
/usr/X11R6/bin/XF86_SVGA NO_INHERIT RAWIO
/usr/sbin/in.ftpd READ /etc/shadow
/usr/sbin/httpd NO_INHERIT HIDDEN

This step reveals what’s protected by default.

Because you aren’t likely to have /home/xhg (the home directory of the
author of LIDS), you can remove the configuration for it using the
/sbin/lidsadm -D -s /bin/cat -o /home/xhg command. You can
leave everything else as is, making changes later as needed.
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Chapter 8: Kernel Security 163

7. Add the following line to the /etc/rc.d/rc.local file to seal the kernel
during the end of the boot cycle:
/sbin/lidsadm -I

8. Enter lids at the LILO prompt.

This step reboots the system and chooses the LIDS-enabled kernel.

When the system boots and runs the /sbin/lidsadm -I command from the
/etc/rc.d/rc.local script, it seals the kernel and the system is protected by LIDS.

Administering LIDS
After you have your LIDS-enabled Linux system in place, you can modify your ini-
tial settings as the needs of your organization change. Except for the
/etc/lids/lids.net file, you must use the /sbin/lidsadm program to modify
the LIDS configuration files: /etc/lids/lids.conf, /etc/lids/lids.pw, and
/etc/lids/lids.cap.

◆ The /etc/lids/lids.conf file stores the Access Control List (ACL)

information.
◆ The /etc/lids/lids.cap file contains all the capability rules for the
system.
You can enable or disable a specific capability on the system by editing
this file, using the /sbin/lidsadm command. Put a plus sign ( + ) in front
of a capability’s name to enable it; use a minus sign ( - ) to disable.
◆ The /etc/lids/lids.net file configures the mail setup needed for
e-mailing security alerts. You can use a regular text editor such as vi,
emacs, or pico to edit this file.

When LIDS must stop for system-administration tasks, do the following:

◆ Use the /sbin/lidsadm -S -- -LIDS or the /sbin/lidsadm -S --

-LIDS_GLOBAL command.

◆ Provide the LIDS password to switch off LIDS.

After you make changes in a LIDS configuration file (using the lidsadm com-
mand), reload the updated configuration into the kernel by running the /sbin/
lidsadm -S -- + RELOAD_CONF command.
To add a new ACL in the /etc/lids/lids.conf file, use the /sbin/lidsadm
command like this:

/sbin/lidsadm -A [-s subject] [-t | -d | -i] -o object -j TARGET

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164 Part III: System Security

In the preceding line of code

◆ The -A option tells the /sbin/lidsadm program to add a new ACL.

◆ The -s subject option specifies a subject of the ACL.

A subject can be any program (for example, /bin/cat).

When you don’t specify a subject, the ACL applies to everything.

◆ The -t, -d, and -i options aren’t typically needed.

◆ The -o object option specifies the name of the object, which can be one
of the following:
■ File
■ Directory
■ Capability
Each ACL requires a named object.
◆ The -j TARGET option specifies the target of the ACL.
■ When the new ACL has a file or directory as the object, the target can
be READ, WRITE, APPEND, DENY, or IGNORE.
■ If the object is a Linux capability, the target must be either INHERIT or
NO_INHERIT. This defines whether the object’s children can have the
same capability.

PROTECTING FILES AND DIRECTORIES

You can use lidsadm to protect important files and directories. LIDS provides the
following types of protection for files and directories

◆ READ: Makes a file or directory read-only

◆ WRITE: Allows modifications of the file or directory

◆ IGNORE: Ignores all other protections that may be set for a

file or directory

◆ APPEND: Allows adding to the file

◆ DENY: Denies all access to the file or directory

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Chapter 8: Kernel Security 165

MAKING FILES OR DIRECTORIES READ-ONLY To make a file called /path/

filename read-only so that no one can change it, run the following command:

/sbin/lids -A -o /path/filename -j READ

To make a directory called /mypath read-only, run the following command:

/sbin/lids -A -o /mypath -j READ

No program can write to the file or directory. Because you don’t specify a
subject in any of the preceding commands, the ACL applies to all programs.

DENYING ACCESS TO A FILE OR DIRECTORY To deny access to a file called

/etc/shadow, run the following command:

/sbin/lids -A -o /etc/shadow -j DENY

After you run the preceding command and the LIDS configuration is reloaded,
you can run commands such as ls -l /etc/shadow and cat /etc/shadow to
check whether you can access the file. None of these programs can see the file
because we implicitly specified the subject as all the programs in the system.
However, if a program such as /bin/login should access the /etc/shadow file,
you can allow it to have read access by creating a new ACL, as in the following
command:

/sbin/lids -A -s /bin/login -o /etc/shadow -j READ

ENABLING APPEND-ONLY ACCESS Typically, programs need append-only access

only to critical system logs such as /var/log/messages or /var/log/secure. You
can enable append-only mode for these two files using the following commands:

/sbin/lids -A -o /var/log/messages -j APPEND

/sbin/lids -A -o /var/log/secure -j APPEND

ALLOWING WRITE-ONLY ACCESS To allow a program called /usr/local/

apache/bin/httpd to write to a protected directory called /home/httpd, run the
following commands:

/sbin/lids -A -o /home/httpd -j DENY

/sbin/lids -A -s /usr/local/apache/bin/httpd -o /home/httpd -j READ
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166 Part III: System Security

DELETING AN ACL To delete all the ACL rules, run the /sbin/lidsadm -Z com-
mand. To delete an individual ACL rule, simply specify the subject (if any) and/or
the object of the ACL. For example, if you run /sbin/lidsadm -D -o /bin com-
mand, all the ACL rules with /bin as the object are deleted. However, if you run
/sbin/lidsadm -D -s /bin/login -o /bin, then only the ACL that specifies
/bin/login as the subject and /bin as the object is deleted.

Specifying the -Z option or the -D option without any argument deletes all
your ACL rules.

USING MY PREFERRED FILE AND DIRECTORY PROTECTION SCHEME Here’s my

preferred file and directory protection scheme.

# Make the /boot directory or partition read-only

/sbin/lidsadm -A -o /boot -j READ
# Make the system library directory read-only
# This protects the lib/modules as well
/sbin/lidsadm -A -o /lib -j READ
# Make the root user’s home directory read-only
/sbin/lidsadm -A -o /root -j READ
# Make the system configuration directory read-only
/sbin/lidsadm -A -o /etc -j READ
# Make the daemon binary directory read-only
/sbin/lidsadm -A -o /sbin -j READ
# Make the other daemon binary directory read-only
/sbin/lidsadm -A -o /usr/sbin -j READ
# Make the general binary directory read-only
/sbin/lidsadm -A -o /bin -j READ
# Make the other general binary directory read-only
/sbin/lidsadm -A -o /usr/bin -j READ
# Make the general library directory read-only
/sbin/lidsadm -A -o /usr/lib -j READ
# Make the system log directory append-only
/sbin/lidsadm -A -o /var/log -j APPEND
# Make the X Windows binary directory read-only
/sbin/lidsadm -A -o /usr/X11R6/bin -j READ

Apart from protecting your files and directories using the preceding technique,
LIDS can use the Linux Capabilities to limit the capabilities of a running program
(that is, process). In a traditional Linux system, the root user (that is, a user with
UID and GID set to 0) has all the “Capabilities” or ability to perform any task by
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Chapter 8: Kernel Security 167

running any process. LIDS uses Linux Capabilities to break down all the power of
the root (or processes run by root user) into pieces so that you can fine-tune the
capabilities of a specific process. To find more about the available Linux
Capabilities, see the /usr/include/linux/capability.h header file. Table 8-1
lists all Linux Capabilities and their status (on or off) in the default LIDS
Capabilities configuration file /etc/lids/lids.cap.

TABLE 8-1: LIST OF LINUX CAPABILITIES

# Capability Name Meaning Status in

/etc/lids/lids.cap

0 CAP_CHOWN Allow/disallow the changing Allow

of file ownership
1 CAP_DAC_OVERRIDE Allow/disallow override of Allow
all DAC access restrictions
2 CAP_DAC_READ_SEARCH Allow/disallow override of Allow
all DAC restrictions regarding
read and search
3 CAP_FOWNER Allow/disallow the following Allow
restrictions: (1) that the effective
user ID shall match the file owner
ID when setting the S_ISUID and
S_ISGID bits on a file; (2) that
the effective group ID shall match
the file owner ID when setting
that bit on a file
4 CAP_FSETID Allow/disallow access when the Allow
effective user ID does not equal
owner ID
5 CAP_KILL Allow/disallow the sending of Allow
signals to processes belonging
to others
6 CAP_SETGID Allow/disallow changing of Allow
the GID
7 CAP_SETUID Allow/disallow changing of the UID Allow
8 CAP_SETPCAP Allow/disallow the transferring and Allow
removal of current set to any PID
Continued
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168 Part III: System Security

TABLE 8-1: LIST OF LINUX CAPABILITIES (Continued)

# Capability Name Meaning Status in

/etc/lids/lids.cap

9 CAP_LINUX_IMMUTABLE Allow/disallow the modification Disallow

of immutable and append-only
files
10 CAP_NET_BIND_SERVICE Allow/disallow binding to ports Disallow
below 1024
11 CAP_NET_BROADCAST Allow/disallow broadcasting/ Allow
listening to multicast
12 CAP_NET_ADMIN Allow/disallow network Disallow
administration of the following
tasks: (1) interface configuration;
(2) administration of IP firewall;
(3)masquerading and accounting;
(4) setting debug option on sockets;
(5) modification of routing tables;
(6) setting arbitrary process / process
group ownership on sockets;
(7) binding to any address for
transparent proxying; (8) setting
Type Of Service (TOS); (9) setting
promiscuous mode; (10) clearing
driver statistics; (11) multicasting;
(12) read/write of device-specific
registers
13 CAP_NET_RAW Allow/disallow use of raw sockets Disallow
14 CAP_IPC_LOCK Allow/disallow locking of shared Allow
memory segments
15 CAP_IPC_OWNER Allow/disallow IPC ownership checks Allow
16 CAP_SYS_MODULE Allow/disallow insertion and removal Disallow
of kernel modules
17 CAP_SYS_RAWIO Allow ioperm(2)/iopl Disallow
(2) to access CAP_SYS_CHROOT
chroot(2)

18 CAP_SYS_CHROOT Allow/disallow chroot system call Disallow

19 CAP_SYS_PTRACE Allow/disallow ptrace Allow
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Chapter 8: Kernel Security 169

# Capability Name Meaning Status in

/etc/lids/lids.cap

20 CAP_SYS_PACCT Allow/disallow configuration Allow

of process accounting
21 CAP_SYS_ADMIN Allow/disallow various system Allow
administration tasks
22 CAP_SYS_BOOT Allow/disallow reboot Allow
23 CAP_SYS_NICE Allow/disallow changing of process Allow
priority using the nice command
24 CAP_SYS_RESOURCE Allow/disallow setting of system Allow
resource limit
25 CAP_SYS_TIME Allow/disallow setting of system time Allow
26 CAP_SYS_TTY_CONFIG Allow/disallow pseudo terminal (TTY) Allow
configuration
27 CAP_MKNOD Allow/disallow the privileged aspects Allow
of mknod() system call
28 CAP_LEASE Allow/disallow taking of leases Allow
on files
29 CAP_HIDDEN Allow/disallow hiding of a process Allow
to rest of the system
30 CAP_INIT_KILL Allow/disallow programs the Allow
capability of killing children
of the init process (PID = 1)

The default settings for the Linux Capabilities that appear in Table 8-1 are stored
in the /etc/lids/lids.cap file, as shown in Listing 8-2.

Listing 8-2: /etc/lids/lids.cap

+0:CAP_CHOWN
+1:CAP_DAC_OVERRIDE
+2:CAP_DAC_READ_SEARCH
+3:CAP_FOWNER
+4:CAP_FSETID
+5:CAP_KILL
+6:CAP_SETGID
+7:CAP_SETUID
Continued
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170 Part III: System Security

Listing 8-2 (Continued)

+8:CAP_SETPCAP
-9:CAP_LINUX_IMMUTABLE
-10:CAP_NET_BIND_SERVICE
+11:CAP_NET_BROADCAST
-12:CAP_NET_ADMIN
-13:CAP_NET_RAW
+14:CAP_IPC_LOCK
+15:CAP_IPC_OWNER
-16:CAP_SYS_MODULE
-17:CAP_SYS_RAWIO
-18:CAP_SYS_CHROOT
+19:CAP_SYS_PTRACE
+20:CAP_SYS_PACCT
-21:CAP_SYS_ADMIN
+22:CAP_SYS_BOOT
+23:CAP_SYS_NICE
+24:CAP_SYS_RESOURCE
+25:CAP_SYS_TIME
+26:CAP_SYS_TTY_CONFIG
+27:CAP_MKNOD
+28:CAP_LEASE
+29:CAP_HIDDEN
+30:CAP_INIT_KILL

The + sign enables the capability; the - sign disables it. For example, in the pre-
ceding listing, the last Linux Capability called CAP_INIT_KILL is enabled, which
means that a root-owned process could kill any child process (typically daemons)
created by the init process. Using a text editor, enable or disable the Linux
Capabilities you want.

PROTECTING YOUR SYSTEM USING LIDS-MANAGED

LINUX CAPABILITIES
You can use LIDS-provided capabilities to protect your system. Here you learn how
to use the Linux Capabilities managed by LIDS.

PROTECTING DAEMONS FROM BEING KILLED BY ROOT Typically, the init

process starts daemon processes such as the Sendmail mail transport agent and
Apache Web server. If you want to protect them from being killed by the root user,
modify the CAP_INIT_KILL settings in /etc/lids/lids.cap to the following:

-30:CAP_INIT_KILL

After you have reloaded the LIDS configuration (using the /sbin/lidsadm -S --
+ RELOAD_CONF command) or rebooted the system and sealed the kernel (using the
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Chapter 8: Kernel Security 171

/sbin/lidsadm -I command in the /etc/rc.d/rc.local script) you (as root)

can’t kill the init children. This ensures that even if your system is compromised and
an intruder has gained root privileges, he can’t kill the daemons and replace them
with his Trojan versions.

HIDING PROCESSES FROM EVERYONE By default, the CAP_HIDDEN capability is

turned on in the /etc/lids/lids.cap configuration file. This can hide a process
from everyone using the following command (/path/to/binary is the fully quali-
fied path to the executable that you want to hide when running):

lidsadm -A -s /path/to/binary -t -o CAP_HIDDEN -j INHERIT

For example, to hide the Apache server process /usr/local/apache/bin/httpd

when running, simply run the following command:

lidsadm -A -s /usr/local/apache/bin/httpd -t -o CAP_HIDDEN -j INHERIT

This labels the process as hidden in the kernel and it can’t be found using any
user-land tools such as ps, top, or even by exploring files in the /proc filesystem.

DISABLING RAW DEVICE ACCESS BY PROCESSES Normally, only special

processes need access to raw devices. So it’s a good idea to disable accesses to raw
devices and enable as needed, which conforms to the overall security concept of
close all, open only what you need.
The raw device access is controlled using the CAP_SYS_RAWIO capability, which
is disabled by default in the /etc/lids/lids.cap configuration file. If the capa-
bility were enabled, processes could access such raw block devices as

◆ ioperm/iopi

◆ /dev/port

◆ /dev/mem

◆ /dev/kmem

For example, when this capability is off (as in the default) the /sbin/lilo
program can’t function properly because it needs raw device-level access to the
hard disk.
But some special programs may want this capability to run properly, such as
XF86_SVGA. In this case, we can add the program in the exception list like this:

lidsadm -A -s /usr/X11R6/bin/XF86_SVGA -t -o CAP_SYS_RAWIO -j INHERIT

This makes XF86_SVGA have the capability of CA_SYS_RAWIO while other programs
are unable to obtain CAP_SYS_RAWIO.
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172 Part III: System Security

DISABLING NETWORK-ADMINISTRATION TASKS By default, the CAP_NET_ADMIN

capability is turned off, which means that a network administrator (typically the
root user) can no longer do the following network administration tasks:

◆ Configuring Ethernet interface

◆ Administering IP firewall, masquerading, and accounting

◆ Setting debug option on sockets

◆ Modifying routing tables

◆ Setting arbitrary process or process group ownership on sockets

◆ Binding to any address for transparent proxying

◆ Setting Type Of Service (TOS)

◆ Setting promiscuous mode

◆ Clearing driver statistics

◆ Multicasting

◆ Reading/writing device-specific registers

The default setting (this capability is turned off) is highly recommended. For one
of the preceding tasks, simply take down LIDS temporarily using the /sbin/
lidsadm -S -- -LIDS command.

PROTECTING THE LINUX IMMUTABLE FLAG FOR FILES The ext2 filesystem has
an extended feature that can flag a file as immutable. This is done using the chattr
command. For example, the chattr +i /path/to/myfile turns /path/to/myfile
into an immutable file. A file with the immutable attribute can’t be modified or
deleted or renamed, nor can it be symbolically linked. However, the root user can
change the flag by using the chattr -i /path/to/myfile command. Now, you
can protect immutable files even from the super user (root) by disabling the
CAP_LINUX_IMMUTABLE capability.

The CAP_LINUX_IMMUTABLE capability is disabled by default in

/etc/lids/lids.cap.

DETECTING SCANNERS If you have enabled the built-in port scanner during
kernel compilation as recommended in the Patching, compiling, and installing the
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Chapter 8: Kernel Security 173

kernel with LIDS section, you can detect port scanners. This scanner can detect
half-open scan, SYN stealth port scan, Stealth FIN, Xmas, Null scan, and so on. The
detector can spot such tools as Nmap and Satan — and it’s useful when the raw
socket (CAP_NET_RAW) is disabled.

When CAP_NET_RAW is turned off, some common scanners available to

users (most of which are based on sniffing) don’t work properly. But the
kernel-based scanner provided by LIDS is more secure to begin with — it
doesn’t use any socket. You may want to consider using the LIDS-supplied
scanner in tandem with (or instead of ) turning off the raw socket.

RESPONDING TO AN INTRUDER
When LIDS detects a violation of any ACL rule, it can respond to the action by the
following methods:

◆ Logging the message. When someone violates an ACL rule, LIDS logs a
message using the kernel log daemon (klogd).
◆ Sending e-mail to appropriate authority. LIDS can send e-mail when a
violation occurs. This feature is controlled by the /etc/lids/lids.net
file.
◆ Hanging up the console. If you have enabled this option during kernel
patching for LIDS (as discussed in Step 9 in the section called “Patching,
compiling, and installing the kernel with LIDS”), the console is dropped
when a user violates an ACL rule.

Another similar system to LIDS is the OpenWall project (www.openwall.com/

linux/). The OpenWall project has some security features that differ from those of
LIDS — one of the OpenWall patches (for example) makes the stack area of a process
nonexecutable. Take a look at this work-in-progress project.

Using libsafe to Protect

Program Stacks
Process stacks are vulnerable to buffer overflow — and you can bet that hackers
know it. Exploitation of that vulnerability makes up a significant portion of secu-
rity attacks in recent years.
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174 Part III: System Security

You can address this problem by including a dynamically loadable library called
libsafe in the kernel. The libsafe program has distinctive advantages:

◆ libsafe works with existing binary programs.

◆ libsafe doesn’t require special measures such as:

■ Operating-system modifications
■ Access to the source code of defective programs
■ Recompilation or offline processing of binaries
◆ libsafe can be implemented system-wide and remain transparent to users.

The libsafe solution is based on a middleware software layer that intercepts all
function calls made to library functions that are known to be vulnerable. In response
to such calls, libsafe creates a substitute version of the corresponding function to
carry out the original task — but in a manner that contains any buffer overflow within
the current stack frame. This strategy prevents attackers from “smashing” (overwrit-
ing) the return address and hijacking the control flow of a running program.
libsafe can detect and prevent several known attacks, but its real benefit is that
it can prevent yet unknown attacks — and do it all with negligible performance
overhead.
That said, most network-security professionals accept that fixing defective (vul-
nerable) programs is the best solution to buffer-overflow attacks — if you know that
a particular program is defective. The true benefit of using libsafe and other alter-
native security measures is protection against future buffer overflow attacks on
programs that aren’t known to be vulnerable.

libsafe doesn’t support programs linked with libc5. If a process pro-

tected by libsafe experiences a segmentation fault, use the ldd utility to
determine whether the process is linked with libc5. If that is the case, then
either recompile/re-link the application with libc6 (that is, glibc) or
download a newer version that has been linked with libc6. Most applica-
tions are offered with a libc6 version.

One known source of vulnerability in some programs is their use of easily

exploited functions in the C programming language. libsafe currently monitors
the unsafe C functions listed in Table 8-2.
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Chapter 8: Kernel Security 175

TABLE 8-2: LIST OF UNSAFE C FUNCTIONS MONITORED BY LIBSAFE

C Function Potential Damage

strcpy(char *dest, const char *src) May overflow the dest buffer
strcat(char *dest, const char *src) May overflow the dest buffer
getwd(char *buf) May overflow the buf buffer
gets(char *s) May overflow the s buffer
[vf]scanf(const char *format, ...) May overflow its arguments
realpath(char *path, char resolved_path[]) May overflow the path buffer

[v]sprintf(char *str, const char May overflow the str buffer

*format, ...)

Compiling and installing libsafe

The source code for libsafe is available for download at the following Web
address:

www.research.avayalabs.com/project/libsafe

To use libsafe, download the latest version (presently 2.0) and extract it into
the /usr/local/src directory. Then follow these steps:

1. As root, change directory to /usr/local/src/libsafe and run make to

compile libsafe.
If you get error messages, consult the INSTALL file for help.
2. After you have compiled libsafe, install the library using the make
install command.

3. Before you can use libsafe, you must set the LD_PRELOAD environment
variable for each of the processes you want to protect with libsafe. Simply
add the following lines to your /etc/bashrc script:
LD_PRELOAD=/lib/libsafe.so.1
export LD_PRELOAD

4. Modify the /etc/cshrc script to include the following line:

setenv LD_PRELOAD /lib/libsafe.so.1
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176 Part III: System Security

After adding libsafe protection for your processes, use your programs as you
would normally. libsafe transparently checks the parameters for supported unsafe
functions. If such a violation is detected, libsafe takes the following measures:

◆ The entire process group receives a SIGKILL signal.

◆ An entry is added to /var/log/secure. The following is an example of

such an entry:
Feb 26 13:57:40 k2 libsafe[15704]: Detected an attempt to
write across stack boundary.
Feb 26 13:57:40 k2 libsafe[15704]: Terminating
/users/ttsai/work/security.D0_2/test/t91
Feb 26 13:57:40 k2 libsafe[15704]: scanf()

For greater security, the dynamic loader disregards environmental variables such
as LD_PRELOAD when it executes set-UID programs. However, you can still use
libsafe with set-UID programs if you use one of the following two methods:

◆ Append the path to libsafe.so.1 to /etc/ld.so.preload instead of

using the LD_PRELOAD environment variable.

If you use /etc/ld.so.preload, install libsafe.so.1 on your root

filesystem, for instance in /lib, as is done by the default installation. Using a
directory that isn’t available at boot time, such as /usr/local/lib causes
trouble at the next reboot. You should also remove libsafe from
/etc/ld.so.preload when installing a new version. First test it using
LD_PRELOAD. Then — and only if everything is okay — you can put it back
into /etc/ld.so.preload.

◆ If you have a version of ld.so that’s more recent than 1.9.0, you can set
LD_PRELOAD to contain only the base name libsafe.so.1 without having
to include the directory.
If you use this approach, the file is found if it’s in the shared library path
(which usually contains /lib and /usr/lib).

Because the search is restricted to the library search path, this also works
for set-UID programs.
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Chapter 8: Kernel Security 177

Add the following lines to the /etc/bashrc script:

LD_PRELOAD=libsafe.so.1
export LD_PRELOAD

Add the following line to the /etc/csh.cshrc script.

setenv LD_PRELOAD libsafe.so.1

This line makes libsafe easier to turn off if something goes wrong.

After you have installed libsafe and appropriately configured either LD_PRELOAD
or /etc/ld.so.preload, libsafe is ready to run. You can monitor processes with
no changes.
If a process attempts to use one of the monitored functions to overflow a buffer
on the stack, the following actions happen immediately:

◆ A violation is declared.

◆ A message is output to the standard error stream.

◆ An entry is made in /var/log/secure.

◆ A core dump and a stack dump are produced (provided the corresponding
options are enabled) during compilation. (See the libsafe/INSTALL file.)

Programs written in C have always been plagued with buffer overflows. Two
reasons contribute to this:

◆ Many functions provided by the standard C library (such as those listed in

the introduction) are unsafe.
◆ The C programming language doesn’t automatically check the bounds of
references to arrays and pointers.

Many programs experience buffer overflows — which makes them vulnera-

ble, without exception, to security attacks. Programmers should check
explicitly to ensure that these functions can’t overflow any buffers — but
too often they omit such checks.
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178 Part III: System Security

libsafe in action
libsafe uses a novel method to detect and handle buffer-overflow attacks. Without
requiring source code, it can transparently protect processes against stack-smashing
attacks — even on a system-wide basis — by intercepting calls to vulnerable library
functions, substituting overflow-resistant versions of such functions, and restricting
any buffer overflow to the current stack frame.
The key to using libsafe effectively is to estimate a safe upper limit on the size
of buffers — and to instruct libsafe to impose it automatically. This estimation
can’t be performed at compile time; the size of the buffer may not yet be known
then. For the most realistic estimate of a safe upper limit, calculate the buffer size
after the start of the function that makes use of the buffer. This method can help
you determine the maximum buffer size by preventing such local buffers from
extending beyond the end of the current stack frame — thus enabling the substitute
version of the function to limit how many times a process may write to the buffer
without exceeding the estimated buffer size. When the return address from that
function (which is located on the stack) can’t be overwritten, control of the process
can’t be commandeered.

Summary
LIDS is a great tool to protect your Linux system from intruders. Since LIDS is a
kernel level intrusion protection scheme, it is hard to defeat using traditional hack-
ing tricks. In fact, a sealed LIDS system is very difficult to hack. Similarly, a system
with Libsafe support can protect your programs against buffer overflow attacks,
which are the most common exploitations of weak server software. By implement-
ing LIDS and Libsafe on your system, you are taking significant preventive mea-
sures against attacks. These two tools significantly enhance overall system security.
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Chapter 9

Securing Files and

Filesystems
IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Managing files, directories, and permissions

◆ Using groups for file security
◆ Using ext2 security features
◆ Checking file integrity

FILES are at the heart of modern computing. Virtually everything you do with a com-
puter these days creates, accesses, updates, or deletes files in your computer or on a
remote server. When you access the Web via your PC, you access files. It doesn’t mat-
ter if you access a static HTML page over the Web or run a Java Servlet on the server,
everything you do is about files. A file is the most valuable object in computing.
Unfortunately, most computer users don’t know how to take care of their files.
For example, hardly anyone takes a systematic, process-oriented approach to stor-
ing files by creating a manageable directory hierarchy. Often over the past decade I
have felt that high schools or and colleges should offer courses to teach everyone to
manage computer files.
Although lack of organization in file management impedes productivity, it isn’t
the only problem with files. Thanks to many popular personal operating systems
from one vendor, hardly anyone with a PC knows anything about file security.
When users migrate from operating systems such as MS-DOS and Windows 9x,
they are 100 percent unprepared to understand how files work on Linux or other
Unix/Unix-like operating systems. This lack of understanding can became a serious
security liability, so this chapter introduces file and directory permissions in terms
of their security implications. I also examine technology that helps reduce the secu-
rity risks associated with files and filesystems.

Managing Files, Directories, and

User Group Permissions
If a user creates, modifies, or deletes a file that doesn’t have appropriate file per- 179
missions and a malicious user from inside (or a hacker from outside) can get hold
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180 Part III: System Security

of the file, the result is a probable security problem for the user or the system. It’s
very important that everyone — both user and system administrator — understand
file permissions in depth. (If you already do, you may want to skim or skip the next
few sections.)

Understanding file ownership & permissions

Every file on a Linux system is associated with a user and a group. Consider an
example:

-rw-rw-r — 1 sheila intranet 512 Feb 6 21:11 milkyweb.txt

The preceding line is produced by the ls –l milkyweb.txt command on my

Red Hat Linux system. (You may already know that the ls program lists files and
directories.) The –l option shows the complete listing for the milkyweb.txt file.
Now consider the same information in a tabular format in Table 9-1.

TABLE 9-1: OUTPUT OF AN EXAMPLE LS –1 COMMAND

Information Type ls Output

File access permission -rw-rw-r —

Number of links 1

User (file owner) Sheila

Group Intranet

File size (in bytes) 512

Last modification date Feb 6

Last modification time 21:11

Filename milkyweb.txt

Here the milkyweb.txt file is owned by a user called sheila. She is the only
regular user who can change the access permissions of this file. The only other user
who can change the permissions is the superuser (that is, the root account). The
group for this file is intranet. Any user who belongs to the intranet group can
access (read, write, or execute) the file under current group permission settings
(established by the owner).
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 181

To become a file owner, a user must create the file. Under Red Hat Linux, when
a user creates a file or directory, its group is also set to the default group of the user
(which is the private group with the same name as the user). For example, say that
I log in to my Red Hat Linux system as kabir and (using a text editor such as vi)
create a file called todo.txt. If I do an ls –l todo.txt command, the following
output appears:

-rw-rw-r — 1 kabir kabir 4848 Feb 6 21:37 todo.txt

As you can see, the file owner and the group name are the same; under Red Hat
Linux, user kabir’s default (private) group is also called kabir. This may be con-
fusing, but it’s done to save you some worries, and of course you can change this
behavior quite easily. Under Red Hat Linux, when a user creates a new file, the fol-
lowing attributes apply:

◆ The file owner is the file creator.

◆ The group is the owner’s default group.

As a regular user, you can’t reassign a file or directory’s ownership to someone

else. For example, I can’t create a file as user Kabir and reassign its ownership to a
user called Sheila. Wonder why this is so? Security, of course. If a regular user can
reassign file ownership to others, someone could create a nasty program that
deletes files, changes the program’s ownership to the superuser, and wipes out the
entire filesystem. Only the superuser can reassign file or directory ownership.

Changing ownership of files and

directories using chown
As a superuser, you can change the ownership of a file or directory using the chown
command:

chown newuser file or directory

For example:

chown sheila kabirs_plans.txt

This command makes user sheila the new owner of the file kabirs_plans.txt.
If the superuser would also like to change the group for a file or directory, she
can use the chown command like this:

chown newuser.newgroup file or directory

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182 Part III: System Security

For example:

chown sheila.admin kabirs_plans.txt

The preceding command not only makes sheila the new owner, but also resets
the group of the file to admin.
If the superuser wants to change the user and/or the group ownership of all the
files or directories under a given directory, she can use the –R option to run the
chown command in recursive mode. For example:

chown -R sheila.admin /home/kabir/plans/

The preceding command changes the user and group ownership of the
/home/kabir/plans/ directory — and all the files and subdirectories within it.
Although you must be the superuser to change the ownership of a file, you can
still change a file or directory’s group as a regular user using the chgrp command.

Changing group ownership of files

and directories with chgrp
The chgrp command enables you to change the group ownership of a file or direc-
tory if you are also part of the new group. This means you can change groups only
if you belong to both the old and new groups, as in this example:

chgrp httpd *.html

If I run the preceding command to change the group for all the HTML files in a
directory, I must also be part of the httpd group. You can find what groups you are
in using the groups command without any argument. Like the chown command,
chgrp uses –R to recursively change group names of files or directories.

Using octal numbers to set file

and directory permissions
Although octal numbers are my favorite method for understanding file and direc-
tory access permissions, I must warn you that this approach involves converting
octal digits to binary bits. If you feel mathematically challenged, you can skip this
section; the next section explains the same permissions using a somewhat simpler
concept: the access string.
Since octal numbers are useful in an accurate explanation of access permissions,
a small memory refresher is in order. The octal number system uses eight digits in
the same way the decimal system uses ten; the familiar decimal digits are 0-9, the
corresponding octal digits are 0–7. This difference has a practical use: In the binary
system of ones and zeros that underlies computer code, each octal digit can repre-
sent three binary bits. Table 9-2 shows the binary equivalent for each octal digit.
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 183

TABLE 9-2: OCTAL DIGITS AND THEIR BINARY EQUIVALENTS

Octal Binary

0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111

This table demonstrates the relative efficiency of the octal system. An

administrator has to set permissions for many different files and directo-
ries; this compact numeric system puts a practical limit on the number of
bits required in a representation of any one file/directory permission.

When any of these digits is omitted, the space next to the leftmost digit is
considered a zero.

Table 9-3 shows a few example permission values that use octal digits.

TABLE 9-3: EXAMPLE PERMISSION VALUES USING OCTAL DIGITS

Permission Value Explanation

0400 Only read (r) permission for the file owner. This is equivalent to
400, where the missing octal digit is treated as a leading zero.

0440 Read (r) permission for both the file owner and the users in the
group. This is equivalent to 440.
Continued
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184 Part III: System Security

TABLE 9-3: EXAMPLE PERMISSION VALUES USING OCTAL DIGITS (Continued)

Permission Value Explanation

0444 Read (r) permission for everyone. This is equivalent to 444.

0644 Read (r) and write (w) permissions for the file owner. Everyone
else has read-only access to the file. This is equivalent to 644; the
number 6 is derived by adding 4 (r) and 2 (w).
0755 Read (r), write (w), and execute (x) permissions for the file owner
and read (r) and execute (x) permissions to the file for everyone
else. This is equivalent to 755; the number 7 is derived by adding
4 (r) + 2 (w) + 1 (x).
4755 Same as 755 in the previous example, except this file is set-UID.
When an executable file with set-UID permission is run, the
process runs as the owner of the file. In other words, if a file is
set-UID and owned by the user gunchy, any time it’s run, the
running program enjoys the privileges of the user gunchy. So if a
file is owned by root and the file is also set to set-UID, anyone
who can run the file essentially has the privileges of the superuser.
If anyone but root can alter a set-UID root file, it’s a major
security hole. Be very careful when setting the set-UID bit.
2755 Like 755 but also sets the set-GID bit. When such a file is
executed, it essentially has all the privileges of the group to which
the file belongs.
1755 Like 755 but also sets the sticky bit. The sticky bit is formally
known as the save text mode. This infrequently used feature tells
the operating system to keep an executable program’s image in
memory even after it exits. This should reduce the startup time of
a large program. Instead of setting the sticky bit, recode the
application for better performance when possible.

To come up with a suitable permission setting, first determine what access the user,
the group, and everyone else should have and consider if the set-UID, set-GID, or
sticky bit is necessary. After you have determined the need, you can construct each
octal digit using 4 (read), 2 (write), and 1 (execute), or construct a custom value by
adding any of these three values. Although using octal numbers to set permissions
may seem awkward at the beginning, with practice their use can become second
nature.
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 185

Using permission strings to set access permissions

One alternative to using octal digits for setting permissions is a method (supposedly
simpler) that uses a special version of an access string called a permission string. To
create a permission string, specify each permission type with one character (shown
in parentheses), as in the following example:

◆ Whom does the permission affect? You have the following choices:
■ u (user)

■ g (group)

■ o (others)

■ a (all)

◆ What permission type should you set? You have the following choices:
■ r (read)

■ w (write)

■ x (execute)

■ s (set-UID or set-GID)

■ t (sticky bit)

◆ What is the action type? Are you setting the permission or removing it?
When setting the permissions, + specifies an addition and – specifies a
removal.
For example, a permission string such as u+r allows the file owner read
access to the file. A permission string such as a+rx allows everyone to
read and execute a file. Similarly, u+s makes a file set-UID; g+s makes it
set-GID.

Changing access privileges of files

and directories using chmod
The chmod (change mode) utility can change permission modes. Both the octal and
the string method work with this nifty utility, as in this example:

chmod 755 *.pl

The preceding command changes permissions for files ending with the extension
.pl. It sets write and execute permissions for each .pl file (7 = 4 [read] + 2 [write]
+ 1 [execute]) and grants them to the file’s owner. The command also sets the files
as readable and executable (5 = 4 [read] + 1 [execute]) by the group and others.
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186 Part III: System Security

You can accomplish the same using the string method, like this:

chmod a+rx,u+w *.pl

Here a+rx allows read (r) and execute (x) permissions for all (a), and u+w allows
the file owner (u) to write (w) to the file.
Remember these rules for multiple access strings:

◆ Separate each pair of values by a comma.

◆ No space is allowed between the permissions strings.

If you want to change permissions for all the files and subdirectories within a
directory, you can use the –R option to perform a recursive permission operation.
For example:

chmod -R 750 /www/mysite

Here the 750 octal permission is applied to all the files and subdirectories of the
/www/mysite directory.
The permission settings for a directory are like those for regular files, but not
identical. Here are some special notes on directory permissions:

◆ Read-only access to a directory doesn’t allow you to cd into that direc-

tory; to do that, you need execute permission.
◆ Execute-only permission can access the files inside a directory if the fol-
lowing conditions exist:
■ You know their names.
■ You can read the files.
◆ To list the contents of a directory (using a program such as ls) and also
cd into a directory, you need both read and execute permissions.

◆ If you have write permission for a directory, you can create, delete, or
modify any files or subdirectories within that directory — even if someone
else owns the file or subdirectory.

Managing symbolic links

Apart from the regular files and directories, you encounter another type of file quite
frequently — links (files that point to other files). A link allows one file or directory
to have multiple names. Two types of links exist:

◆ Hard

◆ Soft (symbolic)
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 187

Here I discuss the special permission issues that arise from links.

CHANGING PERMISSIONS OR OWNERSHIP OF A HARD LINK

If you change the permission or the ownership of a hard link, it also changes the
original file’s permission. For example, take a look at the following ls –l output:

-rw-r — r — 1 root 21 Feb 7 11:41 todo.txt

Now, if the root user creates a hard link (using the command line Len todo.txt
plan) called plan for todo.txt, the ls –l output looks like this:

-rw-r — r — 2 root 21 Feb 7 11:41 plan

-rw-r — r — 2 root 21 Feb 7 11:41 todo.txt

As you can see, the hard link, plan, and the original file (todo.txt) have the
same file size (as shown in the fourth column) and also share the same permission
and ownership settings. Now, if the root user runs the following command:

chown sheila plan

It gives the ownership of the hard link to a user called sheila; will it work as
usual? Take a look at the ls –l output after the preceding command:

-rw-r — r — 2 sheila root 21 Feb 7 11:41 plan

-rw-r — r — 2 sheila root 21 Feb 7 11:41 todo.txt

As you can see, the chown command changed the ownership of plan, but the
ownership of todo.txt (the original file) has also changed. So when you change
the ownership or permissions of a hard link, the effect also applies to the original
file.

CHANGING PERMISSIONS OR OWNERSHIP OF A SOFT LINK

Changing the ownership of a symbolic link or soft link doesn’t work the same way.
For example, take a look at the following ls –l output:

lrwxrwxrwx 1 sheila root 8 Feb 7 11:49 plan -> todo.txt

-rw-r — r — 1 sheila root 21 Feb 7 11:41 todo.txt

Here you can see that the plan file is a symbolic (soft) link for todo.txt. Now,
suppose the root user changes the symbolic link’s ownership, like this:

chown kabir plan

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188 Part III: System Security

The ls –l output shows the following:

lrwxrwxrwx 1 kabir root 8 Feb 7 11:49 plan -> todo.txt

-rw-r — r — 1 sheila root 21 Feb 7 11:41 todo.txt

The question is, can user kabir write to todo.txt using the symbolic link
(plan)? The answer is no, unless the directory in which these files are stored is
owned by kabir. So changing a soft link’s ownership doesn’t work in the same way
as with hard links. If you change the permission settings of a soft link, however, the
file it points to gets the new settings, as in this example:

chmod 666 plan

This changes the todo.txt file’s permission as shown here in the ls –l listing:

-rw-rw-rw- 1 kabir kabir 25 Feb 7 11:52 plan

-rw-r — r — 1 sheila root 21 Feb 7 11:41 todo.txt

So be cautious with links; the permission and ownership settings on these spe-
cial files are not intuitive.

Managing user group permission

Linux user groups are defined in the /etc/group file. A user group is a comma-
separated user list that has a unique group ID (GID) number. For example:

lazyppl:x:666:netrat,mkabir,mrfrog

Here the user group called lazyppl has three users (netrat, mkabir, mrfrog) as
members.
By default, Red Hat Linux supplies a number of user groups, many of which
don’t even have a user as a member. These default groups are there for backward
compatibility with some programs that you may or may not install. For example,
the Unix-to-Unix Copy (uucp) program can use the uucp group in /etc/group, but
probably you aren’t going to use uucp to copy files over the Internet. You are more
likely to use the FTP program instead.

Don’t delete these unused groups.The likelihood of breaking a program is

high if you do.
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 189

USING RED HAT’S PRIVATE USER GROUPS

When you create a new user using the useradd command, Red Hat Linux automat-
ically creates a group in the /etc/group file. This group has the exact same name
as the user and the only member in that group is the user herself. For example, if
you create a user called mrfrog using the useradd mrfrog command, you see this
entry in the /etc/group file:

mrfrog:x:505:

This group is used whenever mrfrog creates files or directories. But you may
wonder why mrfrog needs a private user group like that when he already owns
everything he creates. The answer, again, has security ramifications: The group pre-
vents anyone else from reading mrfrog’s files. Because all files and directories cre-
ated by the mrfrog user allow access only to their owner (mrfrog) and the group
(again mrfrog), no one else can access his files.

CREATING USER GROUPS TO DEPARTMENTALIZE USERS

If several people need access to a set of files or directories, a user group can control
access. For example, say that you have three users: mrfrog, kabir, sheila who need
read, write, and execute access to a directory called /www/public/htdocs directory.
You can create a user group called webmaster using groupadd webmaster, which
creates the following entry in the /etc/group file:

webmaster:x:508:

You can modify this line so it looks like this:

webmaster:x:508:mrfrog,kabir,sheila

Now you can change the /www/public/htdocs directory permission, using the
chown :webmaster /www/public/htdocs.

If you want to change the group ownership for all subdirectories under the
named directory, use the -R option with the chown command.

Now the three users can access files in that directory only if the file-and-directory
permissions allow the group users to view, edit, and delete files and directories. To
make sure they can, run the chmod 770 /www/public/htdocs command. Doing so
allows them read, write, and execute permission for this directory. However, when
any one of them creates a new file in this directory, it is accessible only by that per-
son; Red Hat Linux automatically sets the file’s ownership to the user and group
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190 Part III: System Security

ownership to the user’s private group. For example, if the user kabir runs the touch
myfile.txt command to create an empty file, the permission setting for this file is
as shown in the following line:

-rw-rw-r-- 1 kabir kabir 0 Dec 17 17:41 myfile.txt

This means that the other two users in the webmaster group can read this file
because of the world-readable settings of the file, but they can’t modify it or remove
it. Because kabir wants to allow them to modify or delete this file, he can run the
chgrp webmaster myfile.txt command to change the file’s group permission as
shown in the following line:

-rw-rw-r-- 1 kabir webmaster 0 Dec 17 17:42 myfile.txt

Now everyone in the webmaster group can do anything with this file. Because
the chgrp command is cumbersome to run every time someone creates a new file,
you can simply set the SGID bit for the directory by using the chmod 2770
/www/public/htdocs command. This setting appears as the following when the ls
-l command is run from the /www/public directory.

drwxrws--- 2 bin webmaster 4096 Dec 17 17:47 htdocs

If any of the webmaster members creates a file in the htdocs directory, the com-
mand gives the group read and write permissions to the file by default.

When you work with users and groups, back up original files before making
any changes. This saves you a lot of time if something goes wrong with the
new configuration. You can simply return to the old configurations by
replacing the new files with old ones. If you modify the /etc/group file
manually, make sure you have a way to check for the consistency of informa-
tion between the /etc/group and /etc/passwd files.

Checking Consistency
of Users and Groups
Many busy and daring system administrators manage the /etc/group and
/etc/passwd file virtually using an editor such as vi or emacs. This practice is
very common and quite dangerous. I recommend that you use useradd, usermod,
and userdel commands to create, modify, and delete users and groupadd, groupmod,
and groupdel to create, modify, and delete user groups.
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 191

When you use these tools to manage your user and group files, you should end up
with a consistent environment where all user groups and users are accounted for.
However, if you ever end up modifying these files by hand, watch for inconsistencies
that can become security risks or at least create a lot of confusion. Also, many system
administrators get in the habit of pruning these files every so often to ensure that no
unaccounted user group or user is in the system. Doing this manually every time is
very unreliable. Unfortunately, no Red Hat-supplied tool exists that can ensure that
you don’t break something when you try to enhance your system security. This
bugged me enough times that I wrote a Perl script called chk_pwd_grp.pl, shown in
Listing 9-1, that performs the following consistency checks:

◆ Check for duplicate username and UID in the /etc/passwd file.

◆ Check for invalid GID in the /etc/passwd file.
◆ Check for duplicate group and GID in the /etc/group file.
◆ Check for unused, non-standard groups in the /etc/group file.
◆ Check for nonexistent users in /etc/group who don’t exist in
/etc/passwd.

Listing 9-1: The chk_pwd_grp.pl script

#!/usr/bin/perl
# Purpose: checks /etc/passwd and /etc/group for inconsistencies
# and produces report
# Features
# - checks for duplicate username and UID in /etc/passwd file.
# - checks for invalid GID in /etc/passwd file.
# - checks for duplicate group and GID in /etc/group file.
# - checks for unused, non-standard groups in /etc/group file.
# - checks for non-existent users in /etc/group who don’t exist
# in /etc/passwd
#
# Written by: Mohammed J. Kabir ([email protected])
# CVS Id: $id$
#
use strict;
use constant DEBUG => 0;
my $PASSWD_FILE = ‘/etc/passwd’;
my $GROUP_FILE = ‘/etc/group’;
# Groups that are supplied by Red Hat by default are considered
# okay even if they don’t get used in /etc/passwd
my %DEFAULT_GROUP = (
root => 1, bin => 1,
Continued
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192 Part III: System Security

Listing 9-1 (Continued)

adm => 1, tty => 1,
kmem => 1, wheel => 1,
man => 1, games => 1,
nobody => 1, users => 1,
pppusers => 1, popusers => 1,
daemon => 1, sys => 1, rpc => 1,
disk => 1, lp => 1, mem => 1,
mail => 1, news => 1, uucp => 1,
gopher => 1, dip => 1, ftp => 1,
utmp => 1, xfs => 1, floppy => 1,
slipusers => 1, rpcuser => 1,
slocate => 1
);
# Get information from the passwd file
my ( $userByUIDRef,
$uidByGIDRef,
$uidByUsernameRef) = get_user_info($PASSWD_FILE);
# Get information from the group file
my ( $groupByGIDRef,
$groupByUsernameRef,
$groupByUserListRef,
$groupBySizeRef) = get_group_info($GROUP_FILE,
$userByUIDRef,
$uidByGIDRef,
$uidByUsernameRef);
# Make report using information from both passwd and group files
my $report = make_group_report(
$userByUIDRef,
$uidByGIDRef,
$groupByGIDRef,
$groupByUsernameRef,
$groupByUserListRef,
$groupBySizeRef);
# Print report
print $report;
# Exit program
exit 0;
# subroutine blocks
sub get_user_info {
#
# Read the passwd file and create multiple hashes needed
# for analysis
#
my $passwdFile = shift;
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 193

# Open file
open(PWD, $passwdFile) || die “Can’t read $passwdFile $!\n”;
# Declare variables
my (%userByUIDHash, %uidByGIDHash,
%uidByUsernameHash, $user,$uid,$gid);
# Set line count
my $lineCnt = 0;
# Parse the file and stuff hashes
while(<PWD>){
chomp;
$lineCnt++;
# Parse the current line
($user,undef,$uid,$gid) = split(/:/);
# Detect duplicate usernames
if (defined $userByUIDHash{$uid} &&
$user eq $userByUIDHash{$uid}) {
warn(“Warning! $passwdFile [Line: $lineCnt] : “ .
“multiple occurance of username $user detected\n”);
# Detect
} elsif (defined $userByUIDHash{$uid}) {
warn(“Warning! $passwdFile [Line: $lineCnt] : “ .
“UID ($uid) has been used for user $user “ .
“and $userByUIDHash{$uid}\n”);
}
$userByUIDHash{$uid} = $user;
$uidByGIDHash{$gid} = $uid;
$uidByUsernameHash{$user} = $uid;
}
close(PWD);
return(\%userByUIDHash, \%uidByGIDHash, \%uidByUsernameHash);
}
sub get_group_info {
my ($groupFile, $userByUIDRef, $uidByGIDRef, $uidByUsernameRef) = @_;
open(GROUP, $groupFile) || die “Can’t read $groupFile $!\n”;
my (%groupByGIDHash,
%groupByUsernameHash,
%groupByUserListHash,
%groupBySizeHash,
%gidByGroupHash,
$group,$gid,
$userList);
my $lineCnt = 0;
while(<GROUP>){
chomp;
$lineCnt++;
Continued
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194 Part III: System Security

Listing 9-1 (Continued)

# Parse the current line
($group,undef,$gid,$userList) = split(/:/);
# Detect duplicate GID
if (defined $groupByGIDHash{$gid}) {
warn(“Warning! $GROUP_FILE [Line: $lineCnt] : “ .
“duplicate GID ($gid) found! Group: $group\n”);
} elsif (defined $gidByGroupHash{$group}){
warn(“Warning! $GROUP_FILE [Line: $lineCnt] : “ .
“duplicate group name ($group) detected.\n”);
}
$groupByGIDHash{$gid} = $group;
$gidByGroupHash{$group} = $gid;
foreach my $user (split(/,/,$userList)) {
# If user doesn’t exist in /etc/passwd file
if (! defined $uidByUsernameRef->{$user}) {
warn(“Warning! $GROUP_FILE [Line: $lineCnt] : user $user “ .
“does not exist in $PASSWD_FILE\n”);
}
$groupByUsernameHash{$user} = $gid;
$groupByUserListHash{$gid} = $userList;
DEBUG and print “Total members for $group = “,
scalar (split(/,/,$userList)), “\n”;
$groupBySizeHash{$group} =
scalar (split(/,/,$userList))
}
}
close(PWD);
return(\%groupByGIDHash,
\%groupByUsernameHash,
\%groupByUserListHash,
\%groupBySizeHash);
}
sub make_group_report {
my ($userByUIDRef,
$uidByGIDRef,
$groupByGIDRef,
$groupByUsernameRef,
$groupByUserListRef,
$groupBySizeRef) = @_;
my $report = ‘’;
my ($totalGroups,
$groupName,
$totalPrivateGroups,
$totalPublicGroups);
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 195

# Get total user count in /etc/passwd

my $totalUsers = scalar keys %$userByUIDRef;
foreach my $gid (sort keys %$groupByGIDRef) {
$totalGroups++;
$groupName = $groupByGIDRef->{$gid};
DEBUG and print “Group: $groupName\n”;
# If group has members listed in the /etc/group file
# then list them
if ($groupByUserListRef->{$gid} ne ‘’) {
$totalPublicGroups++;
# Maybe this is a private user group?
} elsif (defined $uidByGIDRef->{$gid}) {
$totalPrivateGroups++;
# This is a default user group or an empty group
} elsif (! defined $DEFAULT_GROUP{$groupName}) {
warn(“Warning! $GROUP_FILE : Non-standard user group “ .
“$groupByGIDRef->{$gid} does not have “ .
“any member.\n”);
}
}
# Now check to see if /etc/passwd has any user with
# invalid group
foreach my $gid (keys %$uidByGIDRef){
if (! defined $groupByGIDRef->{$gid}) {
warn(“Warning! $PASSWD_FILE : user “ .
“$userByUIDRef->{$uidByGIDRef->{$gid}} “.
“belongs to an invalid group (GID=$gid)\n” );
}
}
# Create report
$report .=<<REPORT;
Total users : $totalUsers
Total groups : $totalGroups
Private user groups : $totalPrivateGroups
Public user groups : $totalPublicGroups
GROUP\t\tTOTAL
=====\t\t=====
REPORT
foreach my $group (reverse
sort {$groupBySizeRef->{$a} <=> $groupBySizeRef->{$b}}
keys %$groupBySizeRef) {
$report .= sprintf(“%s\t\t%2d\n”,
$group,
$groupBySizeRef->{$group});
Continued
134754-2 Ch09.F 11/5/01 9:04 AM Page 196

196 Part III: System Security

Listing 9-1 (Continued)

}
$report .= “\n”;
return $report;
}
# End of chk_pwd_grp.pl script

Before I modify /etc/passwd or /etc/group using the Red Hat-supplied utili-

ties or manually (yes, I am guilty of this habit myself), I simply run the preceding
script to check for warning messages. Here is a sample output of the perl
chk_pwd_grp.pl command:

Warning! /etc/passwd [Line: 2] : UID (0) has been used for user hacker and root
Warning! /etc/group [Line: 3] : user xyz does not exist in /etc/passwd
Warning! /etc/group : Non-standard user group testuser does not have any member.
Warning! /etc/passwd : user hacker belongs to an invalid group (GID=666)
Total users : 27
Total groups : 40
Private user groups : 14
Public user groups : 11
GROUP TOTAL
===== =====
daemon 4
bin 3
adm 3
sys 3
lp 2
disk 1
wheel 1
root 1
news 1
mail 1
uucp 1

I have many warnings as shown in the first few lines of the above output. Most
of these warnings need immediate action:

◆ The /etc/passwd file (line #2) has a user called hacker who uses the
same UID (0) as root.
This is definitely very suspicious, because UID (0) grants root privilege!
This should be checked immediately.
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 197

◆ A user called xyz (found in /etc/group line #3) doesn’t even exist in the
/etc/passwd file.

This means there is a group reference to a user who no longer exists. This
is definitely something that has potential security implications so it also
should be checked immediately.
◆ A non-standard user group called testuser exists that doesn’t have any
members.
A non-standard user group is a group that isn’t one of the following:
■ /etc/group by default

■ a private user group

◆ User hacker belongs to an invalid group whose GID is 666.

◆ The script also reports the current group and account information in a
simple text report, which can be very useful to watch periodically.

I recommend that you create a small script called cron_chk_pwd_grp.sh, as

shown in Listing 9-2, in the /etc/cron.weekly directory.

Listing 9-2: The cron_chk_pwd_grp.sh script

#!/bin/sh
# Standard binaries
MAIL=/bin/mail
RM=/bin/rm
PERL=/usr/bin/perl
# Change the path
SCRIPT=/path/to/chk_pwd_grp.pl
TMP_FILE=/tmp/$$
# Change the username
ADMIN=root@localhost
# Get the date and week number
DATE=`/bin/date “+%m-%d-%Y [Week: %U]”`
# Run the script and redirect output
#(STDOUT and STDERR) to $TMP_FILE
$PERL $SCRIPT > $TMP_FILE 2>&1;
# Send the script report via email to ADMIN user
$MAIL -s “User and Group Consistency Report $DATE “ \
$ADMIN < $TMP_FILE;
# Delete the temporary file
$RM -f $TMP_FILE;
# Exit
exit 0;
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198 Part III: System Security

◆ Change the SCRIPT=/path/to/chk_pwd_grp.pl line to point to the

appropriate, fully qualified path of the chk_pwd_grp.pl script.
◆ Change the ADMIN=root@localhost to the appropriate e-mail address.

Now you receive an e-mail report from the user and group consistency checker
script, chk_pwd_grp.pl, on a weekly basis to the e-mail address used for ADMIN.

Securing Files and Directories

A few steps can ensure the security of files and directories on your system. The
very first step is to define a system-wide permission setting; next step is to identify
the world-accessible files and dealing with them as appropriate; the third step is to
locate set-UID and set-GID and dealing with them as appropriate. All of these steps
are discussed in the following sections.

Before you can enhance file and directory security, establish the directory
scheme Red Hat Linux follows.This helps you plan and manage files and
directories.

Understanding filesystem hierarchy structure

Red Hat follows the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) maintained at the
www.pathname.com/fhs/ Web site. According to the FHS Web site, the FHS defines
a common arrangement of the many files and directories in Unix-like systems that
many different developers and groups such as Red Hat have agreed to use. Listing
9-3 shows the FHS that Red Hat Linux uses.

Listing 9-3: FHS used in Red Hat Linux

/ (root partition)
|
|---dev (device files)
|---etc (system configuration files)
| |---X11 (X Window specific)
| +---skel (Template files for user shells)
|
|---lib (library files)
|---proc (kernel proc Filesystem)
|---sbin (system binaries)
|---usr (userland programs)
| |---X11R6
| |---bin (user executables)
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 199

| |---dict (dictionary data files)

| |---doc (documentation for binaries)
| |---etc (configuration for binaries)
| |---games (useless, boring games)
| |---include (c header files)
| |---info (documentation for binaries)
| |---lib (library files for binaries)
| |---libexec (library files)
| |---local (locally installed software directory)
| | |---bin
| | |---doc
| | |---etc
| | |---games
| | |---info
| | |---lib
| | |---man
| | |---sbin
| | +---src
| |
| |---man (manual pages)
| |---share (shared files such as documentation)
| +- src (linux source code)
|
|---var
| |---catman
| |---lib
| |---local
| |---lock (lock directory)
| |---log (log directory)
| |---named
| |---nis
| |---preserve
| |---run
| +--spool (spool directory)
| | |---anacron
| | |---at
| | |---cron
| | |---fax
| | |---lpd
| | |---mail (received mail directory)
| | |---mqueue (mail queue)
| | |- news
| | |---rwho
| | |---samba
Continued
134754-2 Ch09.F 11/5/01 9:04 AM Page 200

200 Part III: System Security

Listing 9-3 (Continued)

| | |---slrnpull
| | |---squid
| | |---up2date
| | |---uucp
| | |---uucppublic
| | |---vbox
| | +---voice
| +---tmp
|
+---tmp (temporary files)

The FHS-based directory structure is reasonably simple. I have provided a brief

explanation of what the important directories are all about in the preceding listing.
FHS requires that the /usr directory (usually a disk partition by itself) be mounted
as read-only, which isn’t the case with Red Hat Linux. If /usr is read-only, it
enhances system security greatly because no one can modify any binaries in
/usr/bin or /usr/local/bin directories (if /usr/local is a subdirectory of /usr
and not a separate partition itself).
However, mounting /usr as read-only has one major inconvenience: If you plan
to add new software to your system, you probably will write to /usr or one of its
subdirectories to install most software. This is probably why the Red Hat-supplied
default /etc/fstab file doesn’t mount /usr as read-only. Here’s what I recommend:

◆ If you make your system available on the Internet, seriously consider

making the /usr partition read-only.
◆ Because it’s an industry standard not to modify production systems, you
can enforce the read-only /usr rule for yourself and others. Fully config-
ure your system with all necessary software and test it for a suitable
period of time; reconfigure if necessary. Then run the system for another
test period with /usr set to read-only. If you don’t see any problem with
any of your software or services, you should be able to enforce a read-
only /usr in your production system.
◆ To make the /usr read-only, modify the /etc/fstab file. Edit the file and
comment out the line that mounts /usr using default mount options. This
line in my /etc/fstab looks like this:
LABEL=/usr /usr ext2 defaults 1 2

◆ After you have commented this line out by placing a # character in front
of the line, you can create a new line like this:
LABEL=/usr /usr ext2 ro,suid,dev,auto,nouser,async 1 2
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 201

◆ The new fstab line for /usr simply tells mount to load the filesystem
using ro,suid,dev,auto,nouser, and async mount options. The defaults
option in the commented-out version expanded to rw,suid,dev,auto,
nouser, and async. Here you are simply replacing rw (read-write) with ro
(read-only).
◆ Reboot your system from the console and log in as root.

◆ Change directory to /usr and try to create a new file using a command
such as touch mynewfile.txt in this directory. You should get an error
message such as the following:
touch: mynewfile.txt: Read-only filesystem

◆ As you can see, you can no longer write to the /usr partition even with a
root account, which means it isn’t possible for a hacker to write there
either.

Whenever you need to install some software in a directory within /usr, you
can comment out the new /usr line and uncomment the old one and reboot the
system. Then you can install the new software and simply go back to read-only
configuration.

If you don’t like to modify /etc/fstab every time you write to /usr, you
can simply make two versions of /etc/fstab called /etc/fstab.usr-ro
(this one has the read-only, ro,flag for /usr line) and /etc/fstab/usr-rw
(this one has the read-write, rw, flag for the /usr line) and use a symbolic
link (using the ln command) to link one of them to /etc/fstab as
desired.

Setting system-wide default permission

model using umask
When a user creates a new file or directory, Linux uses a mask value to determine
the permission setting for the new file or directory. The mask value is set using a
command called umask. If you run the umask command by itself, you see the current
creation mask value. The mask value is stored as an octal number; it’s the comple-
ment of the desired permission mode. For example, a mask value of 002 makes
Linux create files and directories with permission settings of 775. Similarly, a mask
value of 777 would result in a permission setting of 000, which means no access.
You can set the default umask value for all the users in /etc/profile. For
example, the default /etc/profile includes the following line, which determines
umask settings for users.
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202 Part III: System Security

if [ `id -gn` = `id -un` -a `id -u` -gt 14 ]; then

umask 002
else
umask 022
fi

This script segment ensures that all users with UID > 14 get a umask setting of
002 and users with UID < 14, which includes root and the default system accounts
such as ftp and operator, get a umask setting of 022. Because ordinary user UID
starts at 500 (set in /etc/login.defs; see UID_MIN) they all get 002, which trans-
lates into 775 permission setting. This means that when an ordinary user creates a
file or directory, she has read, write, and execute for herself and her user group
(which typically is herself, too, if Red Hat private user groups are used) and the rest
of the world can read and execute her new file or change to her new directory. This
isn’t a good idea because files should never be world-readable by default. So I rec-
ommend that you do the following:

◆ Modify /etc/profile and change the umask 002 line to umask 007, so
that ordinary user files and directories have 770 as the default permission
settings. This file gets processed by the default shell /bin/bash. The
default umask for root is 022, which translates into a 755 permission
mode. This is a really bad default value for all the users whose UID is less
then 14. . Change the umask to 077, which translates a restrictive (that is,
only file owner access) 700 permission mode. The modified code segment
in /etc/profile looks like this:
if [ `id -gn` = `id -un` -a `id -u` -gt 14 ]; then
umask 077
else
umask 007
fi

◆ Modify the /etc/csh.login file and perform the preceding change. This
file is processed by users who use /bin/csh or /bin/tcsh login shells.

If you use the su command to become root, make sure you use the su -
command instead of su without any argument. The - ensures that the new
shell acts like a login shell of the new user’s (that is, root.) In other words,
using the - option, you can instruct the target shell (by default it’s bin/bash
unless you changed the shell using the chsh command) to load appropriate
configuration files such as /etc/profile or /etc/csh.login.
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 203

Dealing with world-accessible files

After you have made sure that the default permission mode for new files and direc-
tories is properly configured as discussed in the preceding text, you can remove
problematic files and directories. Any user on the system can access a world-
accessible file or directory. The best way to handle world-readable, world-writeable,
and world-executable files or directories is to not have any of them.
Unfortunately, you may need some world-readable files and world-executables
directories when creating public directories for user Web sites or other shared disk
concepts. However, world-writeable files and directories and world-executable files
should be avoided completely. You can regularly find these files and directories by
using a script, as shown in Listing 9-4.

Listing 9-4: The find_worldwx.sh

!/bin/sh
# Purpose: to locate world-writable files/dir and
# world-executable files# Written by Mohammed J. Kabir
# Standard binaries
FIND=/usr/bin/find
CAT=/bin/cat
RM=/bin/rm
MAIL=/bin/mail
# Get the date and week number
DATE=`/bin/date “+%m-%d-%Y [Week: %U]”`
# Starting path
ROOT_DIR=/
ADMIN=root@localhost
# Temp directory
TMP_DIR=/tmp
WORLD_WRITABLE=-2
WORLD_EXEC=-1
TYPE_FILE=f
TYPE_DIR=d
TYPE_LINK=l
RUN_CMD=-ls
OUT_FILE=$$.out
# Find all world-writable files/directories (that is, not
# symbolic links
echo “List of all world-writable files or directories” > $OUT_FILE;
$FIND $ROOT_DIR -perm $WORLD_WRITABLE ! -type $TYPE_LINK \
$RUN_CMD >> $OUT_FILE;
echo >> $OUT_FILE;
echo “List of all world-executable files” >> $OUT_FILE;
$FIND $ROOT_DIR -perm $WORLD_EXEC -type $TYPE_FILE \
Continued
134754-2 Ch09.F 11/5/01 9:04 AM Page 204

204 Part III: System Security

Listing 9-4 (Continued)

$RUN_CMD >> $OUT_FILE;
# Send the script report via email to ADMIN user
$MAIL -s “World-wx Report $DATE “ $ADMIN < $OUT_FILE;
$RM -f $OUT_FILE;
exit 0;

When you run this script as a cron job from /etc/cron.weekly, it sends e-mail
to ADMIN every week (so don’t forget to change root@localhost to a suitable
e-mail address), listing all world-writeable files and directories, as well as all world-
executable files. An example of such an e-mail report (slightly modified to fit the
page) is shown in the following listing:

From root sun Dec 17 21:27:56 2000

Date: sun, 17 Dec 2000 21:27:56 -0500
From: root <[email protected]>
To: [email protected]
subject: World-wx Report 12-17-2000 [Week: 51]
List of all world-writable files or directories
14625 4 drwxrwxrwt 11 root root 4096 Dec 17 21:24 /tmp
17422 0 -rw-rw-rw- 1 root root 0 Dec 17 20:53 /tmp/deadletter
44648 4 drwxrwxrwx 2 root root 4096 Dec 17 20:53 /tmp/rootkit
List of all world-executable files
104581 8 -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 7151 Oct 17 11:50 /tmp/hack.o
4554 4 -rwxr-xr-x 1 root webmaste 1716 Dec 12 22:50 /tmp/x86.asm

When you receive such e-mails, look closely; spot and investigate the files and
directories that seem fishy (that is, out of the ordinary). In the preceding example,
the rootkit directory and the hack.o in /tmp would raise a red flag for me; I would
investigate those files immediately. Unfortunately, there’s no surefire way to spot
suspects — you learn to suspect everything at the beginning and slowly get a work-
ing sense of where to look. (May the force be with you.)
In addition to world-writeables, two other risky types of files exist that you
should keep an eye open for: SUID and SGID files.

Dealing with set-UID and set-GID programs

An ordinary user can run a set-UID (SUID) program with the privileges of another
user. Typically, SUID programs run applications that should be run as root — which
poses a great security risk. Listing 9-5 shows an example that illustrates this risk: a
simple Perl script called setuid.pl.

Listing 9-5: The setuid.pl script

#!/usr/bin/perl
# Purpose: demonstrate set-uid risk
134754-2 Ch09.F 11/5/01 9:04 AM Page 205

Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 205

#
use strict;
# Log file path
my $LOG_FILE = “/var/log/custom.log”;
# Open log file
open(LOG,”>>$LOG_FILE”) || die “Can’t open $LOG_FILE $!\n”;
# Write an entry
print LOG “PID $$ $0 script was run by $ENV{USER}\n”;
# Close log file
close(LOG);
# Exit program
exit 0;
This script simply writes a log entry in /var/log/custom.log file and exits.
When an ordinary user runs this script she gets the following error message:
Can’t open /var/log/custom.log Permission denied

The final line of Listing 9-5 shows that the /var/log/custom.log cannot be opened,
which is not surprising. Because the /var/log directory isn’t writeable by an ordi-
nary user; only root can write in that directory. But suppose the powers-that-be
require ordinary users to run this script. The system administrator has two dicey
alternatives:

◆ Opening the /var/log directory for ordinary users

◆ Setting the UID of the script to root and allowing ordinary users to run it

Because opening the /var/log to ordinary users is the greater of the two evils,
the system administrator (forced to support setuid.pl) goes for the set-UID
approach. She runs the chmod 5755 setuid.pl command to set the set-uid bit
for the script and allow everyone to run the script. When run by a user called
kabir, the script writes the following entry in /var/log/custom.log:

PID 2616 ./setuid.pl script was run by kabir

As shown, the script is now enabling the ordinary user to write to

/var/log/custom.log file. A malicious user (typically not someone from inside
your organization, but an outsider who managed to break into an ordinary user
account) looks for set-UID programs and checks for a way to exploit them.
Going back to the simple example, if the user account called kabir is hacked by
one such bad guy, he can run a command such as find / -type f -perm -04000
-ls to locate set-UID programs such as setuid.pl. Upon finding such a program,
the hacker can look for a way to gain root access.
You may be thinking (correctly) that because setuid.pl is a Perl script, the
hacker could easily study the source code, find out why a set-UID script was
required, and plan an attack. But don’t trust your C programs either; Listing 9-6
shows the source code of a small C program called write2var.c.
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206 Part III: System Security

Listing 9-6: The write2var.c source file

/*
Purpose: to demonstrate set-uid issue
Written by Mohammed J. Kabir
*/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
FILE *out;
char *str;
// Try to allocate 128 bytes of memory to store fqpn of log
if ( (str = malloc(128)) == NULL)
{
fprintf(stderr,
“Cannot allocate memory to store filename.\n”);
return 0;
}
// Assign filename to allocated memory (string)
strcpy(str, “/var/log/test.log”);
// Try to open the log file for writing
if (( out = fopen(str, “a+”)) == NULL )
{
fprintf(stderr, “Cannot open the log file.\n”);
return 1;
}
// Write to log
fputs(“Wrote this line\n”,out);
fclose(out);
// Done
return 0;
}

When this C program is compiled (using the gcc -o test write2var.c com-
mand), it can run as ./go from the command-line. This program writes to
/var/log/test.log if it’s run as root, but must run as a set-UID program if an
ordinary user is to run it. If this program is set-UID and its source code isn’t
available, the hacker can simply run the strings ./go command — or run the
strace ./go command to investigate why a set-UID program was necessary — and
try to exploit any weakness that shows up. For example, the strings go command
shows the following output:

/lib/ld-linux.so.2
__gmon_start__
134754-2 Ch09.F 11/5/01 9:04 AM Page 207

Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 207

libc.so.6
strcpy
__cxa_finalize
malloc
fprintf
__deregister_frame_info
fclose
stderr
fopen
_IO_stdin_used
__libc_start_main
fputs
__register_frame_info
GLIBC_2.1.3
GLIBC_2.1
GLIBC_2.0
PTRh
Cannot allocate memory to store filename.
/var/log/test.log
Cannot open the log file.
Wrote this line

Notice the line in bold; even a not-so-smart hacker can figure that this program
reads or writes to /var/log/test.log. Because this is a simple example, the
hacker may not be able to do much with this program, but at the least he can cor-
rupt entries in the /var/log/test.log file by manually editing it.Similarly, a set-
GID (SGID) program can run using its group privilege. The example ls -l output in
the following listing shows a setuid and setgid file.

-rwsr-x--- 1 root root 0 Dec 18 00:58 /tmp/setuid

-rwxr-s--- 1 root root 0 Dec 18 00:57 /tmp/setgid

Both the set-UID and the set-GID fields are represented using the s character
(shown in bold for emphasis). Listing 9-7 shows a script called find_suid_sgid.sh
that you can run from /etc/cron.weekly; it e-mails you an SUID/SGID report
every week.

Listing 9-7: The find_suid_sgid.sh script

#!/bin/sh
# Purpose: to locate world-writable files/dir and
# world-executable files
# Written by Mohammed J. Kabir
# Standard binaries
FIND=/usr/bin/find
Continued
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208 Part III: System Security

Listing 9-7 (Continued)

CAT=/bin/cat
RM=/bin/rm
MAIL=/bin/mail
# Get the date and week number
DATE=`/bin/date “+%m-%d-%Y [Week: %U]”`
# Starting path
ROOT_DIR=/
ADMIN=root@localhost
# Temp directory
TMP_DIR=/tmp
WORLD_WRITABLE=-2
WORLD_EXEC=-1
TYPE_FILE=f
TYPE_DIR=d
TYPE_LINK=l
RUN_CMD=-ls
OUT_FILE=$$.out
# Find all world-writable files/directories (that is, not
# symbolic links
echo “List of all world-writable files or directories” > $OUT_FILE;
$FIND $ROOT_DIR -perm $WORLD_WRITABLE ! -type $TYPE_LINK \
$RUN_CMD >> $OUT_FILE;
echo >> $OUT_FILE;
echo “List of all world-executable files” >> $OUT_FILE;
$FIND $ROOT_DIR -perm $WORLD_EXEC -type $TYPE_FILE \
$RUN_CMD >> $OUT_FILE;
# Send the script report via email to ADMIN user
$MAIL -s “World-wx Report $DATE “ $ADMIN < $OUT_FILE;
cat $OUT_FILE;
$RM -f $OUT_FILE;

Remember to change ADMIN=root@localhost to a suitable e-mail address for you.

Using ext2 Filesystem

Security Features
So far I have been discussing various risky system features such as world-writeable
files, set-UID and set-GID files, and some directories of the Linux filesystem that
get in the way of system security. Fortunately, an ext2 filesystem also has some
built-in security measures you can use to your advantage.
The Linux ext2 filesystem supports a set of extended attributes (listed in Table
9-4) that can help you tighten security.
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 209

TABLE 9-4: EXT2 FILESYSTEM EXTENDED ATTRIBUTES WITH SECURITY USES

Extended Attribute Description

A When the A attribute is set, file-access time isn’t updated.

This can benefit computers that have power-consumption
problems because it makes some disk I/O is unnecessary.
S When the S attribute is set, the file is synchronized with the
physical storage, which in the long run provides a higher level
of data integrity at the expense of performance.
a File becomes append-only — files can be created or modified
within a particular directory but can’t be removed.
i Files can’t be changed. In a particular directory, files can be
modified but new files can’t be created or deleted.
d The dump program ignores the file.
c Setting this attribute means that a write request coming to
the file is compressed and a read request is automatically
uncompressed. This attribute isn’t yet available in the 2.2 or
2.4 kernel.
s When a file with this attribute is deleted, the file data is
overwritten with zeros. This attribute isn’t yet available in
the 2.2 or 2.4 kernel.
U When a file with this attribute is deleted, the data is moved
away so it can be undeleted. This attribute isn’t yet available
in the 2.2 or 2.4 kernel.

Using chattr
The ext2 filesystem used for Red Hat Linux provides some unique features. One of
these features makes files immutable by even the root user. For example:

chattr +i filename

This command sets the i attribute of a file in an ext2 filesystem. This attribute
can be set or cleared only by the root user. So this attribute can protect against file
accidents. When this attribute is set, the following conditions apply:

◆ No one can modify, delete, or rename the file.

◆ New links can’t point to this file.

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210 Part III: System Security

When you need to clear the attribute, you can run the following command:

chattr –i filename

Using lsattr
If you start using the chattr command, sometimes you notice that you can’t modify
or delete a file, although you have the necessary permission to do so. This happens if
you forget that earlier you set the immutable attribute of the file by using chattr —
and because this attribute doesn’t show up in the ls output, the sudden “freezing” of
the file content can be confusing. To see which files have which ext2 attributes, use
the lsattr program.
Unfortunately, what you know now about file and filesystem security may be old
news to informed bad guys with lots of free time to search the Web. Use of tools such
as chattr may make breaking in harder for the bad guy, but they don’t make your
files or filesystems impossible to damage. In fact, if the bad guy gets root-level
privileges, ext2 attributes provide just a simple hide-and-seek game.

Using a File Integrity Checker

Determining whether you can trust your files is a major problem after a break-in.
You may wonder whether the bad guy has installed a Trojan application or embed-
ded a virus to infect new files (and possibly provide access to other computers that
you access). None of the methods examined so far in this chapter can handle this
aspect of a security problem. The solution? Run a file integrity checker program;
the upcoming section shows how.
A file integrity checker is a tool that allows checksum-like values to use hashing
functions. These values are stored in a safe place that is guaranteed unalterable (for
example, read-only media like CD-ROM). The file integrity checker then can check
the current files against the checksum database and detect whether files have been
altered.

Using a home-grown file integrity checker

Listing 9-8 shows a simple MD5 digest-based file integrity checker script with the
Digest::MD5 module in Perl.

Listing 9-8: The md5_fic.pl script

#!/usr/bin/perl
# Purpose: creates and verifies MD5 checksum for files.
# 1st time:
# md5_fic.pl /dir/filename creates and stores a MD5 checksum
# 2nd time:
# md5_fic.pl /dir/filename verifies the integrity of the file
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 211

# using the stored MD5 checksum

# If the /dir/filename has changed, the script reports ‘*FAILED*’
# else it reports ‘PASSED’
# Limited wildcard supported. Example: md5_fic.pl /dir/*.conf
#
# Written by: Mohammed J. Kabir
# CVS ID: $Id$
use strict;
use File::Basename;
use Digest::MD5;
use constant DEBUG => 0;
use constant UMASK => 0777;
# Change this directory to an appropriate path on your system
my $SAFE_DIR = ‘/usr/local/md5’;
# Cycle through each file given in the command-line
foreach my $filename (@ARGV) {
# If the given filename does not exist, show syntax msg
syntax() if (! -R $filename);
# Create path to the checksum file
my $chksumFile = get_chksum_file($filename);
# Create intermediate directory names for the checksum path
my $dir2 = dirname($chksumFile);
my $dir1 = dirname($dir2);
# Create intermediate directories if they don’t exist
mkdir $dir1, UMASK if (! -e $dir1);
mkdir $dir2, UMASK if (! -e $dir2);
DEBUG and print “Checksum File $chksumFile\n”;
# Get data from the input file
my $data = get_data_from_file($filename);
# If MD5 checksum exists for this file
if (! -e $chksumFile ) {
DEBUG and print “Writing MD5 fingerprint for $filename to $chksumFile\n”;

# Create a MD5 digest for the data we read from the file
my $newDigest = get_digest($data);

# Write the digest to the checksum file for this input file
write_data_to_file($chksumFile, $newDigest);

# Show status message

printf(“%-40s ... MD5 finger-print created\n”, $filename);
} else {

DEBUG and print “Verifying $filename with $chksumFile\n”;

Continued
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212 Part III: System Security

Listing 9-8 (Continued)

CAT=/bin/cat
# Read the old digest from the checksum file we created
# earlier for this input file.
my $oldDigest = get_data_from_file($chksumFile);

# Create a new digest for the data read from the current
# version of the file
my $newDigest = get_digest($data);

# Compare the old and the current checksum and see if

# data has been altered or not; report accordingly
my $status = ($oldDigest eq $newDigest) ? ‘PASSED’ : ‘*FAILED*’;

# Show status message

printf(“%-40s ... %s\n”, $filename,$status);
}
}
exit 0;
sub write_data_to_file {
# Write data to file

my ($filename, $data) = @_;

open(DATA, “>$filename”) || die “Can’t write $filename $!\n”;
print DATA $data;
close(DATA);
}

sub get_data_from_file {
# Load data from a given file
#
my $filename = shift;
local $/ = undef;
open(FILE, $filename) || die “Can’t read $filename $!\n”;
my $data = <FILE>;
close(FILE);
return $data;
}
sub get_digest {
# Calculate a MD5 digest for the given data
#
my $data = shift;
my $ctx = Digest::MD5->new;
$ctx->add($data);
my $digest;
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 213

$digest = $ctx->digest;
#$digest = $ctx->hexdigest;
#$digest = $ctx->b64digest;
return $digest;
}
sub syntax {
# Print syntax
#
die “Syntax: $0 /dir/files\nLimited wild card supported.\n”;
}
sub get_chksum_file {
# Create the path (based on the given filename) for the checksum file
#
my $filename = shift;
my $chksumFile = sprintf(“%s/%s/%s/%s.md5”,
$SAFE_DIR,
lc substr(basename($filename),0,1),
lc substr(basename($filename),1,1),
basename($filename) );
return $chksumFile;
}
# END OF SCRIPT

The md5_fic.pl script takes filenames as command-line arguments. For example,

if you run the ./md5_fic.pl /etc/pam.d/* command, the script generates the
following output:

/etc/pam.d/chfn ... MD5 finger-print created

/etc/pam.d/chsh ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/ftp ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/kbdrate ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/linuxconf ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/linuxconf-auth ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/linuxconf-pair ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/login ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/other ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/passwd ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/ppp ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/rexec ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/rlogin ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/rsh ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/samba ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/su ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/sudo ... MD5 finger-print created
/etc/pam.d/system-auth ... MD5 finger-print created
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214 Part III: System Security

The script simply reads all the files in /etc/pam.d directory and creates MD5
checksums for each file. The checksum files are stored in a directory pointed by the
$SAFE_DIR variable in the script. By default, it stores all checksum files in
/usr/local/md5. Make sure you change the $SAFE_DIR from /usr/local/md5 to
an appropriate path the you can later write-protect. For example, use /mnt/floppy
to write the checksums to a floppy disk (which you can later write-protect).
After the checksum files are created, every time you run the script with the same
arguments, it compares the old checksum against one it creates from the current
contents of the file. If the checksums match, then your file is still authentic, because
you created the checksum file for it last time. For example, running the
./md5_fic.pl /etc/pam.d/* command again generates the following output:

/etc/pam.d/chfn ... PASSED

/etc/pam.d/chsh ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/ftp ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/kbdrate ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/linuxconf ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/linuxconf-auth ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/linuxconf-pair ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/login ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/other ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/passwd ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/ppp ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/rexec ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/rlogin ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/rsh ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/samba ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/su ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/sudo ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/system-auth ... PASSED

Because the files have not changed between the times you executed these two
commands, the checksums still match; therefore each of the files passed.
Now if you change a file in the /etc/pam.d directory and run the same com-
mand again, you see a *FAILED* message for that file because the stored MD5 digest
does not match the newly computed digest. Here’s the output after I modified the
/etc/pam.d/su file.

/etc/pam.d/chfn ... PASSED

/etc/pam.d/chsh ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/ftp ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/kbdrate ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/linuxconf ... PASSED
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 215

/etc/pam.d/linuxconf-auth ... PASSED

/etc/pam.d/linuxconf-pair ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/login ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/other ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/passwd ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/ppp ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/rexec ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/rlogin ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/rsh ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/samba ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/su ... *FAILED*
/etc/pam.d/sudo ... PASSED
/etc/pam.d/system-auth ... PASSED

You can also run the script for a single file. For example, the ./md5_fic.pl
/etc/pam.d/su command produces the following output:

/etc/pam.d/su ... *FAILED*

A file integrity checker relies solely on the pristine checksum data. The data
mustn’t be altered in any way. Therefore, it’s extremely important that you don’t
keep the checksum data in a writeable location. I recommend using a floppy disk (if
you have only a few files to run the checksum against), a CD-ROM, or a read-only
disk partition.

Write-protect the floppy, or mount a partition read-only after you check the
checksum files.

This little script is no match for a commercial-grade file integrity checker

such as Tripwire.

Using Tripwire Open Source, Linux Edition

In a great move towards open-source software, Tripwire released Tripwire Open
Source, Linux Edition, under the General Public License (GPL). Simply speaking,
Tripwire is a file-and-directory integrity checker; it creates a database of signatures
for all files and directories and stores them in one file. When Tripwire is run again,
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216 Part III: System Security

it computes new signatures for current files and directories and compares them
with the original signatures stored in the database. If it finds a discrepancy, it
reports the file or directory name along with information about the discrepancy.
You can see why Tripwire can be a great tool for helping you determine which
files were modified in a break-in. Of course, for that you must ensure the security
of the database that the application uses. When creating a new server system, many
experienced system administrators do the following things:

1. Ensure that the new system isn’t attached to any network to guarantee
that no one has already installed a Trojan program, virus program, or
other danger to your system security.
2. Run Tripwire to create a signature database of all the important system
files, including all system binaries and configuration files.
3. Write the database in a recordable CD-ROM.
This ensures that an advanced bad guy can’t modify the Tripwire database
to hide Trojans and modified files from being noticed by the application.
Administrators who have a small number of files to monitor often use a
floppy disk to store the database. After writing the database to the floppy
disk, the administrator write-protects the disk and, if the BIOS permits,
configures the disk drive as a read-only device.
4. Set up a cron job to run Tripwire periodically (daily, weekly, monthly)
such that the application uses the CD-ROM database version.

GETTING TRIPWIRE
Red Hat Linux includes the binary Tripwire RPM file. However, you can download
the free (LGPL) version of Tripwire from an RPM mirror site such as
http://fr.rpmfind.net. I downloaded the Tripwire source code and binaries
from this site by using http://fr.rpmfind.net/linux/rpm2html/search.
php?query=Tripwire.
The source RPM that I downloaded was missing some installation scripts, so
I downloaded the source again from the Tripwire Open Source development site at
the http://sourceforge.net/projects/tripwire/ site. The source code I down-
loaded was called tripwire-2.3.0-src.tar.gz. You may find a later version
there when you read this. In the spirit of compiling open-source software from
the source code, I show compiling, configuring, and installing Tripwire from the
tripwire-2.3.0-src.tar.gz file.

When following the instructions given in the following section, replace the
version number with the version of Tripwire you have downloaded.
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 217

If you want to install Tripwire from the binary RPM package, simply run the
rpm -ivh tripwire-version.rpm command. You still must configure
Tripwire by running twinstall.sh. Run this script from the /etc/trip-
wire directory and skip to Step 7 in the following section.

COMPILING TRIPWIRE
To compile from the source distribution, do the following:

1. su to root.
2. Extract the tar ball, using the tar xvzf tripwire-2.3.0-src.tar.gz
command. This creates a subdirectory called
/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/tripwire-2.3.0-src.

Change your current directory to /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/tripwire-

2.3.0-src/src.

3. Run the make release command to compile all the necessary Tripwire
binaries. (This takes a little time, so do it just before a coffee break.)
After it is compiled, install the binaries: Change directory to
/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/tripwire-2.3.0-src/install. Copy the
install.cfg and install.sh files to the parent directory using the cp
install.* .. command.

4. Before you run the installation script, you may need to edit the
install.cfg file, which is shown in Listing 9-9. For example, if you
aren’t a vi editor fan, but rather camp in the emacs world, you change the
TWEDITOR field in this file to point to emacs instead of /usr/bin/vi. I
wouldn’t recommend changing the values for CLOBBER, TWBIN, TWPOLICY,
TWMAN, TWDB, TWDOCS, TWSITEKEYDIR, TWLOCALKEYDIR settings.
However, you may want to change the values for TWLATEPROMPTING,
TWLOOSEDIRCHK, TWMAILNOVIOLATIONS, TWEMAILREPORTLEVEL,
TWREPORTLEVEL, TWSYSLOG, TWMAILMETHOD, TWMAILPROGRAM,
and so on. The meaning of these settings are given in the comment lines
above each setting in the install.cfg file.

Listing 9-9: The install.cfg file

# install.cfg
# default install.cfg for:
# Tripwire(R) 2.3 Open Source for Linux
# NOTE: This is a Bourne shell script that stores installation
# parameters for your installation. The installer will
Continued
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218 Part III: System Security

Listing 9-9 (Continued)

# execute this file to generate your config file and also to
# locate any special configuration needs for your install.
# Protect this file, because it is possible for
# malicious code to be inserted here
# This version of Tripwire has been modified to conform to the FHS
# standard for Unix-like operating systems.
# To change the install directory for any tripwire files, modify
# the paths below as necessary.
#=======================================================
# If CLOBBER is true, then existing files are overwritten.
# If CLOBBER is false, existing files are not overwritten.
CLOBBER=false
# Tripwire binaries are stored in TWBIN.
TWBIN=”/usr/sbin”
# Tripwire policy files are stored in TWPOLICY.
TWPOLICY=”/etc/tripwire”
# Tripwire manual pages are stored in TWMAN.
TWMAN=”/usr/man”
# Tripwire database files are stored in TWDB.
TWDB=”/var/lib/tripwire”
# Tripwire documents directory
TWDOCS=”/usr/doc/tripwire”
# The Tripwire site key files are stored in TWSITEKEYDIR.
TWSITEKEYDIR=”${TWPOLICY}”
# The Tripwire local key files are stored in TWLOCALKEYDIR.
TWLOCALKEYDIR=”${TWPOLICY}”
# Tripwire report files are stored in TWREPORT.
TWREPORT=”${TWDB}/report”
# This sets the default text editor for Tripwire.
TWEDITOR=”/bin/vi”
# TWLATEPROMTING controls the point when tripwire asks for a password.
TWLATEPROMPTING=false
# TWLOOSEDIRCHK selects whether the directory should be monitored for
# properties that change when files in the directory are monitored.
TWLOOSEDIRCHK=false
# TWMAILNOVIOLATIONS determines whether Tripwire sends a no violation
# report when integrity check is run with --email-report but no rule
# violations are found. This lets the admin know that the integrity
# was run, as opposed to having failed for some reason.
TWMAILNOVIOLATIONS=true
# TWEMAILREPORTLEVEL determines the verbosity of e-mail reports.
TWEMAILREPORTLEVEL=3
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 219

# TWREPORTLEVEL determines the verbosity of report printouts.

TWREPORTLEVEL=3
# TWSYSLOG determines whether Tripwire will log events to the system log
TWSYSLOG=false
#####################################
# Mail Options - Choose the appropriate
# method and comment the other section
#####################################
#####################################
# SENDMAIL options - DEFAULT
# Either SENDMAIL or SMTP can be used to send reports via TWMAILMETHOD.
# Specifies which sendmail program to use.
#####################################
TWMAILMETHOD=SENDMAIL
TWMAILPROGRAM=”/usr/lib/sendmail -oi -t”
#####################################
# SMTP options
# TWSMTPHOST selects the SMTP host to be used to send reports.
# SMTPPORT selects the SMTP port for the SMTP mail program to use.
#####################################
# TWMAILMETHOD=SMTP
# TWSMTPHOST=”mail.domain.com”
# TWSMTPPORT=25
################################################################################
# Copyright (C) 1998-2000 Tripwire (R) Security Systems, Inc. Tripwire (R) is a
# registered trademark of the Purdue Research Foundation and is licensed
# exclusively to Tripwire (R) Security Systems, Inc.
##################################################################

5. Run the ./install.sh command. This walks you through the installation
process. You are asked to press Enter, accept the GPL licensing agreement,
and (finally) to agree to the locations to which files copy.
6. After the files are copied, you are asked for a site pass phrase.
This pass phrase encrypts the Tripwire configuration and policy files.
Enter a strong pass phrase (that is, not easily guessable and at least eight
characters long) to ensure that these files aren’t modified by any unknown
party.
7. Choose a local pass phrase. This pass phrase encrypts the Tripwire data-
base and report files.
Choose a strong pass phrase..
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220 Part III: System Security

8. You are asked for the site pass phrase.

The installation program signs the configuration file using your pass
phrase. A clear-text version of the Tripwire configuration file is created in
/etc/tripwire/twcfg.txt. The encrypted, binary version of the config-
uration file — which is what Tripwire uses — is stored in /etc/tripwire/
tw.cfg. The clear-text version is created for your inspection. The install-
ation program recommends that you delete this file manually after you
have examined it.
9. You are asked for the site pass phrase so the installation program can use
it for signing the policy file.
The installation program creates a clear-text policy file in /etc/tripwire/
twpol.txt and the encrypted version is kept in /etc/tripwire/tw.pol.
(You learn to modify the text version of the policy file later — and to create
the binary, encrypted version that Tripwire uses.)

CONFIGURING TRIPWIRE POLICY

The policy file defines rules that Tripwire uses to perform integrity checks. Each rule
defines which files and directories to check — and what types of checks to perform.
Additionally, each rule can include information such as name and severity.
Syntax for a typicalrule is shown in the following example:

(attribute=value attribute=value ...)

{
/path/to/a/file/or/directory -> mask;

Table 9-5 lists available attributes and their meanings.

TABLE 9-5 LIST OF AVAILABLE ATTRIBUTES

Attribute Meaning

rulename=name This attribute associates a name to the rule. This attribute

makes Tripwire reports more readable and easy to sort by
named rules.
emailto=emailaddr When a rule is violated, the e-mail address given as value for
this attribute receives a violation report.
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 221

Attribute Meaning

severity=number This attribute can associate a severity level (that is,

importance) to a rule. This makes Tripwire reports easier to
manage.
recurse=true | false This attribute determines whether a directory is automatically
recursed. If it’s set to true (or -1), all subdirectories are
recursed; if it’s set to false (or 0), the subdirectories aren’t
traversed. Any numeric value in the range of -1 to 1000000
(excluding -1 and 0) dictates the depth to which the
subdirectories are recursed. For example recurse=3 means
that subdirectories up to level-3 depth are recursed.

Look at the following example rule:

(Rulename= “OS Utilities”, severity=100)

{
/bin/ls -> +pinugtsdrbamcCMSH-l;

Here the rule being defined is called the OS Utilities rule; it has a severity
rating of 100 — which means violation of this rule is considered a major problem;
the +pinugtsdrbamcCMSH-l properties of /bin/ls is checked. Table 9-6 describes
each of these property/mask characters.

TABLE 9-6 PROPERTY/MASKS CHARACTERS USED IN TRIPWIRE POLICY FILE

Property or Description
Mask

a Access timestamp of the file or directory

b Number of blocks allocated to the file
c Inode timestamp
d ID of the disk where the inode resides
g Owner’s group
Continued
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222 Part III: System Security

TABLE 9-6 PROPERTY/MASKS CHARACTERS USED IN TRIPWIRE POLICY FILE

(Continued)

Property or Description
Mask

i Inode number
l File is increasing in size
m Modification timestamp
n Inode reference count or number of links
p Permission bits of file or directory
r ID of the device pointed to by an inode belonging to a device
file
s Size of a file
t Type of file
u Owner’s user ID
C CRC-32 value

H Haval value
M MD5 value

S SHA value

+ Record and check the property followed by this character

- Ignore the property followed by this character

Another way to write the previous rule is shown in the following line:

/bin/ls -> +pinugtsdrbamcCMSH-l (Rulename= “OS Utilities”, severity=100);

The first method is preferable because it can group many files and directories
under one rule. For example, all the listed utilities in the following code fall under
the same policy:

SEC_CRIT = +pinugtsdrbamcCMSH-l;
(Rulename= “OS Utilities”, severity=100)
{
/bin/ls -> $(SEC_CRIT);
/bin/login -> $(SEC_CRIT);
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 223

/bin/ls -> $(SEC_CRIT);

/bin/mail -> $(SEC_CRIT);
/bin/more -> $(SEC_CRIT);
/bin/mt -> $(SEC_CRIT);
/bin/mv -> $(SEC_CRIT);
/bin/netstat -> $(SEC_CRIT);
}

The preceding code uses the SEC_CRIT variable, which is defined before it’s
used in the rule.This variable is set to +pinugtsdrbamcCMSH-l and substi-
tuted in the rule statements using $(SEC_CRIT). This can define one vari-
able with a set of properties that can be applied to a large group of files
and/or directories. When you want to add or remove properties, you simply
change the mask value of the variable; the change is reflected everywhere
the variable is used. Some built-in variables are shown in Table 9-7.

TABLE 9-7: A SELECTION OF BUILT-IN VARIABLES FOR THE TRIPWIRE POLICY FILE

Variable Meaning

ReadOnly +pinugtsdbmCM-rlacSH. Good for files that should remain read-only.

Dynamic +pinugtd-srlbamcCMSH. Good for user directories and files that are
dynamic and sub of changes.
Growing +pinugtdl-srbamcCMSH. Good for files that grow in size.

Device +pugsdr-intlbamcCMSH. Good for device files.

IgnoreAll -pinugtsdrlbamcCMSH. Checks if the file exists or not but doesn’t

check anything else.
IgnoreNone +pinugtsdrbamcCMSH-l. Opposite of IgnoreAll. Checks all
properties.

When creating a rule, consider the following:

◆ Don’t create multiple rules that apply to the same file or directory, as in
this example:
/usr -> $(ReadOnly);
/usr -> $(Growing);
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224 Part III: System Security

Tripwire complains about such a policy.

◆ More specific rules are honored, as in this example:

/usr -> $(ReadOnly);

/usr/local/home -> $(Dynamic);

In the second line of the example, when you check a file with the path
/usr/local/home/filename, Tripwire checks the properties substituted
by the variable $(Dynamic).

If you want to create or modify rules, run the following command:

/usr/sbin/twadmin --create-polfile /etc/twpol.txt

The command generates the encrypted /etc/tripwire/tw.pol policy file. You

are asked for the site pass phrase needed to sign (that is, encrypt) the policy file.

CREATING THE TRIPWIRE DATABASE

Before you initialize the Tripwire database file, be absolutely certain that bad guys
have not already modified the files on your current system. This is why the best
time for creating this database is when your new system hasn’t yet been connected
to the Internet or any other network. After you are certain that your files are
untouched, run the following command:

/usr/sbin/tripwire –-init

This command applies the policies listed in the /etc/tripwire/tw.pol file and
creates a database in var/lib/tripwire/k2.intevo.com.
After you have created the database, move it to a read-only medium such as a
CD-ROM or a floppy disk (write-protected after copying) if possible.

PROTECTING TRIPWIRE ITSELF

Bad guys can modify the Tripwire binary (/usr/sbin/tripwire) or the
/etc/tripwire/tw.pol policy file to hide traces of their work. For this reason, you
can run the /usr/sbin/siggen utility to create a set of signatures for these files. To
generate a signature for the /usr/sbin/tripwire binary, you can run the
/usr/sbin/siggen -a /usr/sbin/tripwire command.
You see something like the following on-screen:

---------------------------------------------------------------------
Signatures for file: /usr/sbin/tripwire
CRC32 BmL3Ol
MD5 BrP2IBO3uAzdbRc67CI16i
SHA F1IH/HvV3pb+tDhK5we0nKvFUxa
HAVAL CBLgPptUYq2HurQ+sTa5tV
---------------------------------------------------------------------
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 225

You can keep the signature in a file by redirecting it to that file. (Print the sig-
nature too.) Don’t forget to generate a signature for the siggen utility itself, also. If
you ever get suspicious about Tripwire not working right, run the siggen utility on
each of these files and compare the signatures. If any of them don’t match, then
you shouldn’t trust those files; replace them with fresh new copies and launch an
investigation into how the discrepancy happened.

RUNNING TRIPWIRE TO DETECT INTEGRITY

IN INTERACTIVE MODE
You can run Tripwire in the interactive mode using the /usr/sbin/tripwire --
check --interactive command. In this mode, a report file is generated and
loaded in the preferred editor. The summary part of an example Tripwire report
generated by this command is shown in the following listing:

Tripwire(R) 2.3.0 Integrity Check Report

Report generated by: root
Report created on: Fri Dec 22 02:31:25 2000
Database last updated on: Fri Dec 22 02:13:44 2000
===============================================================================
Report summary:
===============================================================================
Host name: k2.intevo.com
Host IP address: 172.20.15.1
Host ID: None
Policy file used: /etc/tripwire/tw.pol
Configuration file used: /etc/tripwire/tw.cfg
Database file used: /var/lib/tripwire/k2.intevo.com.twd
Command line used: /usr/sbin/tripwire --check --interactive
===============================================================================
Rule summary:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Section: Unix Filesystem
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rule Name Severity Level Added Removed Modified
--------- -------------- ----- ------- --------
Invariant Directories 66 0 0 0
Temporary directories 33 0 0 0
* Tripwire Data Files 100 0 0 1
Critical devices 100 0 0 0
User binaries 66 0 0 0
Tripwire Binaries 100 0 0 0
* Critical configuration files 100 0 0 1
Libraries 66 0 0 0
Shell Binaries 100 0 0 0
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226 Part III: System Security

Filesystem and Disk Administration Programs

100 0 0 0
Kernel Administration Programs 100 0 0 0
Networking Programs 100 0 0 0
System Administration Programs 100 0 0 0
Hardware and Device Control Programs
100 0 0 0
System Information Programs 100 0 0 0
Application Information Programs
100 0 0 0
Shell Related Programs 100 0 0 0
Critical Utility Sym-Links 100 0 0 0
Critical system boot files 100 0 0 0
System boot changes 100 0 0 0
OS executables and libraries 100 0 0 0
Security Control 100 0 0 0
Login Scripts 100 0 0 0
Operating System Utilities 100 0 0 0
Root config files 100 0 0 0
Total objects scanned: 14862
Total violations found: 2

Two rules violations exist, which are marked using the ‘*’ sign on the very left of
the lines.

◆ The “Tripwire Data Files” rule. The report also states that there’s another
violation for the “Critical configuration files” rule. In both cases, a file has
been modified that was supposed to be. Now, the Object summary section
of the report shows the following lines:

===============================================================================
Object summary:
===============================================================================
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
# Section: Unix Filesystem
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rule Name: Tripwire Data Files (/etc/tripwire/tw.pol)
Severity Level: 100
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Remove the “x” from the adjacent box to prevent updating the database
with the new values for this object.
Modified:
[x] “/etc/tripwire/tw.pol”
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 227

Rule Name: Critical configuration files (/etc/cron.daily)

Severity Level: 100
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Remove the “x” from the adjacent box to prevent updating the database
with the new values for this object.
Modified:
[x] “/etc/cron.daily”

As shown, Tripwire shows exactly which files were modified and what rules
these files fall under. If these modifications are okay, I can simply leave the ‘x’
marks in the appropriate sections of the report and exit the editor. Tripwire updates
the database per my decision. For example, if I leave the ‘x’ marks on for both files,
next time when the integrity checker is run, it doesn’t find these violations any
more because the modified files are taken into account in the Tripwire database.
However, if one of the preceding modifications was not expected and looks suspi-
cious, Tripwire has done its job!

If you want to view a report from the /var/lib/tripwire/report

directory at any time, you can run the /usr/sbin/twprint -m r --
twrfile reportfilename command.

RUNNING TRIPWIRE TO DETECT INTEGRITY AUTOMATICALLY

You can also run Tripwire as a cron job by creating a small script such as the one
shown in Listing 9-10.

Listing 9-10: The /etc/cron.daily/tripwire-check file

#!/bin/sh
HOST_NAME=`uname -n`
if [ ! -e /var/lib/tripwire/${HOST_NAME}.twd ] ; then
echo “*** Error: Tripwire database for ${HOST_NAME} not found. ***”
echo “*** Run “/etc/tripwire/twinstall.sh” and/or “tripwire --init”. ***”
else
test -f /etc/tripwire/tw.cfg && /usr/sbin/tripwire --check
fi

This script checks whether the Tripwire database file exists or not. If it exists, the
script then looks for the configuration file. When both files are found, it runs the
/usr/sbin/tripwire command in a non-interactive mode. This results in a report
file; if you have configured rules using the emailto attribute, e-mails are sent to
the appropriate person(s).
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228 Part III: System Security

UPDATING THE TRIPWIRE DATABASE

Update the Tripwire database whenever you have a change in the filesystem that
generates a false warning. For example, if you modify a configuration file or
remove a program that Tripwire is “watching” for you, it generates a violation
report. Therefore, whenever you change something intentionally, you must update
the database. You can do it two ways:

◆ Reinitialize the database using the /usr/sbin/tripwire --init

command.
◆ Update the database using the /usr/sbin/tripwire --update command.

The update method should save you a little time because it doesn’t create
the entire database again.

Similarly, when you change the Tripwire policy file, /etc/tripwire/twpol.txt,

update the database. Again, instead of reinitializing the entire database using the --
init option, you can instruct the program to apply policy changes and update the
database using the /usr/sbin/tripwire --update-policy /etc/tripwire/
twpol.txt command.
After you create a Tripwire database, it should be updated every time you update
your policy file. Instead of reinitializing the database every time you change (or
experiment) with your policy file, you can run the tripwire --update-policy
/etc/tripwire/twpol.txt command to update the database. This saves a signifi-
cant amount of time.

GETTING THE TRIPWIRE REPORT BY E-MAIL

If you use the emailto attribute in rules, you can receive violation (or even non-
violation) reports from Tripwire. This is especially useful if you are running Tripwire
checks as a cron job. (See the preceding section, “Running Tripwire to detect
integrity automatically.”)
Before you can get e-mail from Tripwire, you must configure the e-mail settings
in the /etc/tripwire/twcfg.txt file and rebuild the configuration file using the
/usr/sbin/twadmin --create-cfgfile /etc/tripwire/twcfg.txt command.
The settings that control e-mail are explained in Table 9-8.
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 229

TABLE 9-8: E-MAIL SETTINGS FOR TRIPWIRE CONFIGURATION FILE

Attribute Meaning

MAILMETHOD = SMTP | SENDMAIL Default: MAILMETHOD = SENDMAIL

This attribute sets the mail delivery method
Tripwire uses. The default allows Tripwire to
use the Sendmail daemon, which must be
specified using the MAILPROGRAM attribute
discussed later. Because most popular
Sendmail-alternative mail daemons (such as
qmail and postoffice), work very much like
Sendmail, you can still set this to
SENDMAIL and specify the path to your
alternative daemon using the
MAILPROGRAM.

However, if you don’t run a Sendmail or a

Sendmail-like daemon on the machine on
which you run Tripwire, you can set this
attribute to SMTP and specify the
SMTPHOST and SMTPPORT number
attributes. Assuming the SMTPHOST allows
your system to relay messages, Tripwire
connects to the host via the SMTP port and
delivers messages that are later delivered to
the appropriate destination by the host.
SMTPHOST = hostname | IP Address Default: none
This attribute can specify the hostname of a
mail server. Use this only if you don’t have
mail capabilities in the same system where
Tripwire runs. You can look up the mail
server IP or hostname using the nslookup
-q=mx yourdomain command.

SMTPPORT = port number Default: none

This attribute specifies the TCP port number
of the remote mail server. Typically, this
should be set to 25. You only need this if
you set MAILMETHOD to SMTP.
Continued
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230 Part III: System Security

TABLE 9-8: E-MAIL SETTINGS FOR TRIPWIRE CONFIGURATION FILE (Continued)

Attribute Meaning

MAILPROGRAM = /path/to/mail/program Default: MAILPROGRAM =

/usr/sbin/sendmail -oi -t

This attribute specifies the mail daemon

path and any arguments to run it. This
attribute only makes sense if you use
MAILMETHOD = SENDMAIL.

EMAILREPORTLEVEL = 0 - 4 Default: EMAILREPORTLEVEL = 3

This attribute specifies the level of
information reported via e-mail. Leave the
default as is.
MAILNOVIOLATIONS = true | false Default: MAILNOVIOLATIONS = true
If you don’t want to receive e-mail when
no violation is found, set this to false.

To test your e-mail settings, you can run Tripwire using the /usr/sbin/tripwire
-m t -email your@emailaddr command. Remember to change the you@emailaddr
to your own e-mail address.

Setting up Integrity-Checkers
When you have many Linux systems to manage, it isn’t always possible to go from
one machine to another to perform security checks — in fact, it isn’t recommended.
When you manage a cluster of machines, it’s a good idea to centralize security as
much as possible. As mentioned before, Tripwire can be installed and set up as a cron
job on each Linux node on a network, but that becomes a lot of work (especially on
larger networks). Here I discuss a new integrity checker called Advanced Intrusion
Detection Environment (AIDE), along with a Perl-based utility called Integrity
Checking Utility (ICU) that can automate integrity checking on a Linux network.

Setting up AIDE
AIDE is really a Tripwire alternative. The author of AIDE liked Tripwire but wanted to
create a free replacement of Tripwire with added functionality. Because Tripwire Open
Source exists, the “free aspect” of the AIDE goal no longer makes any difference, but
the AIDE tool is easy to deploy in a network environment with the help of ICU.
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 231

You can get Tripwire company to sell you a shrink-wrapped, integrity check-
ing solution that works in a cluster of Linux hosts. So inquire about this with
Tripwire.

Downloading and extracting the latest source distribution from ftp://ftp.

linux.hr/pub/aide/ is the very first step in establishing AIDE. As of this writing
the latest version is 0.7 (aide-0.7.tar.gz). When following these instructions,
make sure you replace the version number with the version you are currently
installing. Here’s how you can compile AIDE:

1. su to root.
2. Extract the source tar ball.
For version 0.7, use the tar xvzf aide-0.7.tar.gz command in the
/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES directory. You see a new subdirectory called
aide-0.7.

3. Change your current directory to aide-0.7 and run the ./configure

command.
4. Run make; make install to compile and install the software.
The AIDE binary, aide, is installed in /usr/local/bin and the man pages
are installed in the /usr/local/man directory.

Now you can set up ICU.

ICU requires that you have SSH1 support available in both the ICU server
and ICU client systems. You must install OpenSSH (which also requires
OpenSSL) to make ICU work. See Chapter 12 and Chapter 11 for information
on how to meet these prerequisites.

Setting up ICU
To use the Perl-based utility called Integrity Checking Utility (ICU) you have to set
up the ICU server and client software.

ESTABLISHING AN ICU SERVER

Start the setup process by downloading the latest version of ICU from the http://
nitzer.dhs.org/ICU/ICU.html site. I downloaded version 0.2 (ICU-0.2.tar.gz)
for these instructions. As always, make sure you replace the version number men-
tioned here with your current version of ICU.
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232 Part III: System Security

Here’s how you can compile ICU on the server that manages the ICU checks on
other remote Linux systems:

1. su to root on the system where you want to run the ICU service.
This is the server that launches ICU on remote Linux systems and performs
remote integrity checking and also hosts the AIDE databases for each host.
2. Extract the source in /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES.
A new subdirectory called ICU-0.2 is created.
3. Run the cp -r /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/ICU-0.2 /usr/local/ICU
command to copy the source in /usr/local/ICU, which makes setup
quite easy because the author of the program uses this directory in the
default configuration file.
4. Create a new user account called icu, using the adduser icu command.
■ Change the ownership of the /usr/local/ICU directory to the new
user by running the chown -R icu /usr/local/ICU command.
■ Change the permission settings using the chmod -R 700
/usr/local/ICU command so that only the new user can access files
in that directory.
5. Edit the ICU configuration file (ICU.conf) using your favorite text editor.
■ Modify the icu_server_name setting to point to the ICU server that
launches and runs ICU on remote Linux machines.
This is the machine you are currently configuring.
■ Change the admin_e-mail setting to point to your e-mail address.
If you don’t use Sendmail as your mail server, change the sendmail
setting to point to your Sendmail-equivalent mail daemon.
6. The default configuration file has settings that aren’t compatible with
OpenSSH utilities. Change these settings as shown here:

OpenSSH-incompatible setting Change to

ssh = /usr/local/bin/sshl ssh = /usr/local/bin/ssh

scp = /usr/local/bin/scpl scp = /usr/local/bin/scp

ssh_keygen = /usr/local/bin/ssh-keygenl ssh_keygen = /usr/local/

bin/ssh-keygen
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 233

7. Remove the -l option from the following lines of the scp (secure copy)
command settings in the ICU.conf file:
get_bin_cmd = %scp% -1 -P %port% -i %key_get_bin_priv% \
root@%hostname%:%host_basedir%/aide.bin %tmp_dir%/ 2>&1
get_conf_cmd = %scp% -1 -P %port% -i %key_get_conf_priv% \
root@%hostname%:%host_basedir%/aide.conf %tmp_dir%/ 2>&1
get_db_cmd = %scp% -1 -P %port% -i %key_get_db_priv% \
root@%hostname%:%host_basedir%/aide.db %tmp_dir%/ 2>&1

8. su to the icu user using the su icu command. Run the ./ICU.pl -G
command to generate five pairs of keys in the keys directory.
9. Run the ./ICU.pl -s to perform a sanity check, which ensures that
everything is set up as needed.
If you get error messages from this step, fix the problem according to the
messages displayed.
10. Copy and rename the AIDE binary file from /usr/local/bin to
/usr/local/ICU/binaries/aide.bin-i386-linux,using the following
command:
cp /usr/local/bin/aide /usr/local/ICU/binaries/aide.
bin-i386-linux

I recommend that you read the man page for AIDE configuration (using the
man aide.conf command) before you modify this file. For now, you can
leave the configuration as is.

Now you can set up a remote Linux system as an ICU client.

ESTABLISHING AN ICU CLIENT

The ICU server runs AIDE on this remote host via the SSH1 protocol. Here’s how
you add a host that the ICU server manages:

1. Modify the /usr/local/ICU/ICU.hosts file to add a line using the fol-

lowing syntax:
hostname:email:OS:architecture:SSH1 port

An example is shown here:

k2.intevo.com:[email protected]:linux:i386:22

2. Perform a sanity check for the host using the ./ICU.pl -s -r hostname
command. For the preceding example, this command is ./ICU.pl -s -r
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234 Part III: System Security

k2.intevo.com. Remember to replace the hostname with the actual host-

name of the Linux computer that you want to bring under ICU control.
3. Create a tar ball containing all the necessary files for the host, using the
./ICU.pl -n -r hostname command. This creates a .tar file called
/usr/local/ICU/databases/hostname.icu-install.tar.

4. FTP the .tar file to the desired remote Linux system whose files you want
to bring under integrity control. Log in to the remote Linux system and su
to root.
5. Run the tar xvf hostname.icu-install.tar command to extract it in
a temporary directory. This creates a new subdirectory within the extrac-
tion directory called hostname-icu-install.
6. From the new directory, run the ./icu-install.sh command to install a
copy of aide.conf and aide.db to the /var/adm/.icu directory
7. Append five public keys to ~/.ssh/authorized_keys - key_init_db.pub to ini-
tialize the database, key_check.pub to run an AIDE check, key_get_bin.pub
to send aide.bin (the AIDE binary), key_get_conf.pub to send aide.conf
(configuration) and key_get_db.pub to send aide.db (the integrity database).

The keys don’t use any pass phrase because they are used via cron to run
automatic checks.

Now you can start ICU checks from the ICU server.

INITIALIZING THE REMOTE HOST’S INTEGRITY DATABASE

Before you can perform the actual integrity checks on any of the remote systems,
you have to create the initial integrity database.

1. Log in as icu user and change directory to /usr/local/ICU.

2. Run the ./ICU.pl -i -r hostname command, where hostname should
be replaced with the name of the remote Linux system (the name of your
new ICU client).
3. Because this is the first time you are connecting to the remote system
using the icu account, you are prompted as follows:
The authenticity of host ‘k2.intevo.com’ can’t be
established.
RSA key fingerprint is
1d:4e:b3:d1:c2:94:f5:44:e9:ae:02:65:68:4f:07:57.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 235

4. Enter yes to continue. You see a warning message as shown here:

Warning: Permanently added ‘k2.intevo.com,172.20.15.1’ (RSA)
to the list of known hosts.

5. Wait until the database is initialized. Ignore the traverse_tree() warning

messages from AIDE. Your screen displays output similar to the following
example:

Verbose mode activated.

Initializing sanity check.
Sanity check passed.
Database initialization started
Checking if port 22 is open.
Executing init command: ‘/usr/local/bin/ssh -x -l root -p 22 -i
/usr/local/ICU/keys/key_init_db k2.intevo.com “/var/adm/.icu/aide.bin -i -c
/var/adm/.icu/aide.conf -V5 -A gzip_dbout=no -B gzip_dbout=no -B
database_out=file:/var/adm/.icu/aide.db.new -B
database=file:/var/adm/.icu/aide.db -B report_url=stdout; mv
/var/adm/.icu/aide.db.new /var/adm/.icu/aide.db” 2>&1’
This may take a while.
traverse_tree():No such file or directory: /root/.ssh2
traverse_tree():No such file or directory: /usr/heimdal
traverse_tree():No such file or directory: /usr/krb4
traverse_tree():No such file or directory: /usr/krb5
traverse_tree():No such file or directory: /usr/arla
mv: overwrite `/var/adm/.icu/aide.db’? y
aide.conf 100%
|*******************************************************| 5787 00:00
aide.db 100%
|*******************************************************| 3267 KB 00:03
All files successfully received.
Sending mail to [email protected] with subject: [ICU - k2.intevo.com] Welcome
to ICU!
Database initialization ended.

When initializing a new host, the first integrity database and configuration
are saved as /usr/localICU/databases/hostname/archive/aide.db-first-
TIMESTAMP.gz and /usr/localICU/databases/hostname/archive/aide.
conf-first-.TIMESTAMP. For example, /usr/localICU/databases/k2.intevo.
com/archive/aide.db-first-Sat Dec 23 11:30:50 2000.gz and /usr/
localICU/databases/k2.intevo.com/archive/aide.conf-first-Sat Dec 23
11:30:50 2000 are the initial database and configuration files created when the
preceding steps were followed by a host called k2.intevo.com.
After the database of the remote host is initialized, you can run file-system
integrity checks on the host.
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236 Part III: System Security

CHECKING REMOTE HOST’S INTEGRITY DATABASE

To perform a file-system integrity check on a remote Linux system (in this case,
your new ICU client), you can do the following:

1. Become the icu user on the ICU server.

2. Change directory to /usr/local/ICU.
3. Run the ./ICU.pl -v -c -r hostname command, where hostname is
the name of the ICU client system. For example, the ./ICU.pl -v -c -r
r2d2.intevo.com command performs filesystem integrity checks on the
r2d2.intevo.com site from the ICU server. An example output of this
command is shown in the following listing:

Verbose mode activated.

Initializing sanity check.
Sanity check passed.
Check started.
Checking if port 22 is open.
Getting files from r2d2.intevo.com: aide.bin aide.conf aide.db
All files successfully received.
Verifying MD5 fingerprint of the AIDE database...match.
Verifying MD5 fingerprint of the AIDE configuration...match.
Verifying MD5 fingerprint of the AIDE binary...match.
Executing AIDE check command on the remote host. This may take a while.
Getting files from r2d2.intevo.com: aide.db
All files successfully received.
A change in the filesystem was found, updating
/usr/local/ICU/databases/r2d2.intevo.com/aide.db.current.
Saving copy as /usr/local/ICU/databases/ r2d2.intevo.com/archive/aide.db-sun Dec
24 09:56:26 2000.
Sending mail to [email protected] with subject: [ICU - r2d2.intevo.com]
Warning: Filesystem has changed (Added=2,Removed=0,Changed=11)
Check ended.
You have new mail in /var/mail/kabir

If you don’t use the -v option in the preceding command, ICU.pl is less
verbose. The -v option is primarily useful when you run the command from
an interactive shell. Also, you can add the -d option to view debugging
information if something isn’t working right.

If the filesystems on the remote machine have changed, the administrator is

notified via e-mail. As shown in the preceding sample output, two new files have
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 237

been added and eleven files were modified. The e-mail sent to the administrator
(kabir@ r2d2.intevo.com) looks like this:

From icu sun Dec 24 09:56:30 2000

Date: sun, 24 Dec 2000 09:56:30 -0500
From: The ICU server <[email protected]>
To: [email protected]
subject: [ICU - r2d2.intevo.com] Warning: Filesystem has changed
(Added=2,Removed=0,Changed=11)
X-ICU-version: ICU v0.2 By Andreas Östling, [email protected].
*** Warning ***
The filesystem on r2d2.intevo.com has changed.
This could mean that authorized changes were made, but it could
also mean that the host has been compromised. The database has been
updated with these changes and will now be regarded as safe.
Consider updating your /var/adm/.icu/aide.conf if you get warnings
about these changes all the time but think that the changes are legal.
Below is the output from AIDE. Read it carefully.
AIDE found differences between database and filesystem!!
Start timestamp: 2000-12-24 09:50:34
summary:
Total number of files=35619,added files=2,removed files=0,changed files=11
Added files:
added:/etc/rc.d/rc3.d/S65named
added:/var/lib/tripwire/report/r2d2.intevo.com-20001224-091546.twr
Changed files:
changed:/etc/rc.d/rc3.d
changed:/etc/mail/virtusertable.db
changed:/etc/mail/access.db
changed:/etc/mail/domaintable.db
changed:/etc/mail/mailertable.db
changed:/etc/aliases.db
changed:/etc/ioctl.save
changed:/etc/issue
changed:/etc/issue.net
changed:/boot
changed:/boot/System.map
[Information on change details are not shown here]

With the AIDE and ICU combo, you can detect filesystem changes quite easily.
You can, in fact, automate this entire process by running the ICU checks on remote
machines as a cron job on the ICU server. Here’s how:

1. Become the icu user on the ICU server.

2. Run the crontab -e command to enter new cron entries for the icu user.
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238 Part III: System Security

3. Enter the following line (remember to replace hostname with appropriate

remote host name).
15 1 * * * cd /usr/local/ICU; ./ICU.pl -c -r hostname

4. Save and exit the crontab file.

This runs filesystem integrity checks on the named host at 01:15 AM every
morning. After you create a cron job for a host, monitor the log file
(/usr/local/ICU/logs/hostname.log) for this host on the ICU server next morn-
ing to ensure that ICU.pl ran as intended.

If you have a lot of remote Linux systems to check, add a new entry in the
/var/spool/cron/icu file (using the crontab -e command), as shown
in the preceding example. However, don’t schedule the jobs too close to each
other. If you check five machines, don’t start all the ICU.pl processes at the
same time. Spread out the load on the ICU server by scheduling the checks at
15- to 30-minute intervals.This ensures the health of your ICU server.

When ICU.pl finds integrity mismatches, it reports it via e-mail to the adminis-
trator. It’s very important that the administrator reads her e-mail or else she won’t
know about a potential break-in.Doing Routine Backups
Protecting your system is more than keeping bad guys out. Other disasters
threaten your data. Good, periodic backup gives you that protection.
The most important security advice anyone can give you is back up regularly.
Create a maintainable backup schedule for your system. For example, you can per-
form incremental backups on weekdays and schedule a full backup over the week-
end. I prefer removable media-based backup equipment such as 8mm tape drives or
DAT drives. A removable backup medium enables you to store the information in a
secure offsite location. Periodically check that your backup mechanism is function-
ing as expected. Make sure you can restore files from randomly selected backup
media. You may recycle backup media, but know the usage limits that the media
manufacturer claims.
Another type of “backup” you should do is backtracking your work as a system
administrator. Document everything you do, especially work that you do as a supe-
ruser. This documentation enables you to trace problems that often arise while you
are solving another.

I keep a large history setting (a shell feature that remembers N number last
commands), and I often print the history in a file or on paper. The script
command also can record everything you do while using privileged accounts.
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Chapter 9: Securing Files and Filesystems 239

Using the dump and restore utilities

The dump and restore utilities can back up files onto tape drives, backup disks,
or other removable media. The dump command can perform incremental backups,
which makes the backup process much more manageable than simply copying all
files on a routine basis. The restore command can restore the files backed up by
the dump command. To learn more about these utilities, visit http://dump.
sourceforge.net.

You need ext2 file-system utilities to compile the dump/restore suite. The ext2 file-
system utilities (e2fsprogs) contain all of the standard utilities for creating, fixing,
configuring, and debugging ext2 filesystems. Visit http://sourceforge.net/
projects/e2fsprogs for information on these utilities.

Creating a Permission Policy

Most user problems on Unix and Unix-like systems are caused by file permissions.
If something that was working yesterday and the day before yesterday all of a sud-
den stops working today, first suspect a permission problem. One of the most com-
mon causes of permission problems is the root account. Inexperienced system
administrators often access files and programs via a superuser (root) account. The
problem is that when the root user account runs a program, the files created can
often be set with root ownership — in effect, that’s an immediate and unintended
gap in your security.

Setting configuration file permissions for users

Each user’s home directory houses some semi-hidden files that start with a period
(or dot). These files often execute commands at user login. For example, shells (csh,
tcsh, bash, and so on) read their settings from a file such as .cshrc or .bashrc. If
a user doesn’t maintain file permissions properly, another not-so-friendly user can
cause problems for the naive user. For example, if one user’s .cshrc file is write-
able by a second user, the latter can play a silly trick such as putting a logout com-
mand at the beginning of the .cshrc file so that the first user is logged out as soon
as she logs in. Of course, the silly trick could develop into other tricks that violate
a user’s file privacy in the system. Therefore, you may want to watch for such situ-
ations on a multiuser system. If you only have a few users, you can also quickly
perform simple checks like the following:

find /home -type f -name “.*rc” -exec ls -l {} \;

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240 Part III: System Security

This command displays permissions for all the dot files ending in “rc” in the
/home directory hierarchy. If your users’ home directories are kept in /home, this
shows you which users may have a permission problem.

Setting default file permissions for users

As a system administrator, you can define the default permission settings for all the
user files that get on your system. The umask command sets the default permissions
for new files.

Setting executable file permissions

Only the owner should have write permission for program files run by regular
users. For example, the program files in /usr/bin should have permission settings
such that only root can read, write, and execute; the settings for everyone else
should include only read and execute. When others besides the owner can write to
a program file, serious security holes are possible. For example, if someone other
than the root user can write to a program such as /usr/bin/zip, a malicious user
can replace the real zip program with a Trojan horse program that compromises
system security, damaging files and directories anywhere it goes. So, always check
the program files on your systems for proper permissions. Run COPS frequently to
detect permission-related problems.

Summary
Improper file and directory permissions are often the cause of many user support
incidents and also the source of many security problems. Understanding of file and
directory permissions is critical to system administration of a Linux system. By
setting default permissions for files, dealing with world-accessible and set-UID and
set-GID files, taking advantage of advanced ext2 filesystem security features, using
file integrity checkers such as Tripwire, AIDE, ICU, etc. you can enhance your
system security.
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Chapter 10

PAM
IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ What is PAM?
◆ How does PAM work?
◆ Enhancing security with PAM modules

PLUGGABLE AUTHENTICATION MODULES (PAM) were originally developed for the

Solaris operating system by Sun Microsystems. The Linux-PAM project made PAM
available for the Linux platform. PAM is a suite of shared libraries that grants priv-
ileges to PAM-aware applications.

What is PAM?
You may wonder how programs such as chsh, chfn, ftp, imap, linuxconf, rlogin,
rexec, rsh, su, login, and passwd suddenly understand the shadow password
scheme (see Chapter 12) and use the /etc/shadow password file instead of the
/etc/passwd file for authentication. They can do so because Red Hat distributes
these programs with shadow password capabilities. Actually, Red Hat ships these
programs with the much grander authentication scheme — PAM. These PAM-aware
programs can enhance your system security by using both the shadow password
scheme and virtually any other authentication scheme.
Traditionally, authentication schemes are built into programs that grant privi-
leges to users. Programs such as login or passwd have the necessary code for
authentication. Over time, this approach proved virtually unscaleable, because
incorporating a new authentication scheme required you to update and recompile
privilege-granting programs. To relieve the privilege-granting software developer
from writing secure authentication code, PAM was developed. Figure 10-1 shows
how PAM works with privilege-granting applications.

241
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242 Part III: System Security

User

1 9 6

PAM-aware 7
privilege granting application
Request information
Conversion functions from the user
for PAM

2 5 8

Configuration file for the

PAM-aware application. This file
3 is stored in /etc/pam.d/directory
PAM

Authentication module(s)
4
Figure 10-1: How PAM-aware applications work

When a privilege-granting application such as /bin/login is made into a

PAM-aware application, it typically works in the manner shown in Figure 10-1 and
described in the following list:

1. A user invokes such an application to access the service it offers.

2. The PAM-aware application calls the underlying PAM library to perform
the authentication.
3. The PAM library looks up an application-specific configuration file in the
/etc/pam.d/ directory. This file tells PAM what type of authentication is
required for this application. (In case of a missing configuration file, the
configuration in the /etc/pam.d/other file is used.)
4. The PAM library loads the required authentication module(s).
5. These modules make PAM communicate with the conversation functions
available in the application.
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Chapter 10: PAM 243

6. The conversation functions request information from the user. For example,
they ask the user for a password or a retina scan.
7. The user responds to the request by providing the requested information.
8. The PAM authentication modules supply the application with an authenti-
cation status message via the PAM library.
9. If the authentication process is successful, the application does one of the
following:
■ Grants the requested privileges to the user
■ Informs the user that the process failed

Think of PAM as a facility that takes the burden of authentication away from
the applications and stacks multiple authentication schemes for one application.
For example, the PAM configuration file for the rlogin application is shown in
Listing 10-1.

Listing 10-1: The /etc/pam.d/rlogin file

#%PAM-1.0
auth required /lib/security/pam_securetty.so
auth sufficient /lib/security/pam_rhosts_auth.so
auth required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
auth required /lib/security/pam_nologin.so
account required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
password required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
session required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth

In this file, multiple pluggable authentication modules from /lib/security

authenticate the user.

Working with a PAM configuration file

Listing 10-1 shows what a PAM configuration file for an application looks like.
Blank lines and lines starting with a leading # character are ignored. A configura-
tion line has the following fields:

module-type control-flag module-path module-args

Currently, four module types exist, which are described in Table 10-1.
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244 Part III: System Security

TABLE 10-1: PAM MODULE TYPES

Module Type Description

auth Does the actual authentication. Typically, an auth module

requires a password or other proof of identity from a user.
account Handles all the accounting aspects of an authentication request.
Typically, an account module checks whether the user access
meets all the access guidelines. For example, it can check
whether the user is accessing the service from a secure host and
during a specific time.
password Sets password.
session Handles session management tasks, such as refreshing session
tokens.

The control flag defines how the PAM library handles a module’s response. Four
control flags, described in Table 10-2, are currently allowed.

TABLE 10-2: PAM MODULE CONTROL FLAGS

Control Flag Description

required This control flag tells the PAM library to require the success of
the module specified in the same line. When a module returns a
response indicating a failure, the authentication definitely fails,
but PAM continues with other modules (if any). This prevents
users from detecting which part of the authentication process
failed, because knowing that information may aid a potential
attacker.
requisite This control flag tells the PAM library to abort the
authentication process as soon as the PAM library receives a
failure response.
sufficient This control flag tells the PAM library to consider the
authentication process complete if it receives a success
response. Proceeding with other modules in the configuration
file is unnecessary.
optional This control flag is hardly used. It removes the emphasis on the
success or failure response of the module.
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Chapter 10: PAM 245

The control-flag field also permits conditional flags.The conditional flags

take the following form:
[key1=value1 key2=value2 ...]
The key in this key value list , can be one of the following:
open_err, symbol_err, service_err, system_err, buf_err,
perm_denied, auth_err, cred_insufficient,
authinfo_unavail, user_unknown, maxtries,
new_authtok_reqd, acct_expired, session_err,
cred_unavail, cred_expired, cred_err, no_module_data,
conv_err, authtok_err, authtok_recover_err,
authtok_lock_busy, authtok_disable_aging, try_again,
ignore, abort, authtok_expired, module_unknown,
bad_item, and default.
The value in this key value list can be one of the following:
ignore, ok, done, bad, die, reset, or a positive
integer
If a positive integer is used, PAM skips that many records of the same type.

The module path is the path of a pluggable authentication module. Red Hat
Linux stores all the PAM modules in the /lib/security directory. You can supply
each module with optional arguments, as well.
In Listing 10-1, the PAM library calls the pam_securetty.so module, which
must return a response indicating success for successful authentication. If the mod-
ule’s response indicates failure, PAM continues processing the other modules so
that the user (who could be a potential attacker) doesn’t know where the failure
occurred. If the next module (pam_rhosts_auth.so) returns a success response, the
authentication process is complete, because the control flag is set to sufficient.
However, if the previous module (pam_securetty.so) doesn’t fail but this one fails,
the authentication process continues and the failure doesn’t affect the final result.
In the same fashion, the PAM library processes the rest of the modules.
The order of execution exactly follows the way the modules appear in the con-
figuration. However, each type of module (auth, account, password, and session)
is processed in stacks. In other words, in Listing 10-1, all the auth modules are
stacked and processed in the order of appearance in the configuration file. The rest
of the modules are processed in a similar fashion.

Establishing a PAM-aware Application

Every program that requires user authentication under Red Hat Linux can use PAM.
In fact, virtually all such programs include their own PAM configuration file in
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246 Part III: System Security

/etc/pam.d directory. Because each application has its own configuration file, cus-
tom authentication requirements are easily established for them. However, too
many custom authentication requirements are probably not a good thing for man-
agement. This configuration management issue has been addressed with the recent
introduction of a PAM module called the pam_stack.so. This module simply can
jump to another PAM configuration while in the middle of one. This can be better
explained with an example. Listing 10-2 shows /etc/pam.d/login, the PAM con-
figuration file for the login application.

Listing 10-2: The /etc/pam.d/login file

#%PAM-1.0
auth required /lib/security/pam_securetty.so
auth required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
auth required /lib/security/pam_nologin.so
account required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
password required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
session required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
session optional /lib/security/pam_console.so

When the PAM layer is invoked by the login application, it looks up this file
and organizes four different stacks:

◆ Auth stack

◆ Account stack

◆ Password stack

◆ Session stack

In this example, the auth stack consists of the pam_securetty, pam_stack, and
pam_nologin modules. PAM applies each of the modules in a stack in the order
they appear in the configuration file. In this case, the pam_securetty module must
(because of the “required” control flag) respond with a failure for the auth process-
ing to continue. After the pam securetty module is satisfied, the auth processing
moves to the pam_stack module. This module makes PAM read a configuration file
specified in the service=configuration argument. Here, the system-auth configura-
tion is provided as the argument; therefore, it’s loaded. The default version of this
configuration file is shown in Listing 10-3.

Listing 10-3: The /etc/pam.d/system-auth file

#%PAM-1.0
# This file is auto-generated.
# User changes are destroyed the next time authconfig is run.
auth sufficient /lib/security/pam_unix.so likeauth nullok md5 shadow
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Chapter 10: PAM 247

auth required /lib/security/pam_deny.so

account sufficient /lib/security/pam_unix.so
account required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
password required /lib/security/pam_cracklib.so retry=3
password sufficient /lib/security/pam_unix.so nullok use_authtok md5
shadow
password required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
session required /lib/security/pam_limits.so
session required /lib/security/pam_unix.so

As shown, this configuration has its own set of auth, account, password, and
session stacks. Because the pam_stack module can jump to a central configura-
tion file like this one, it enables a centralized authentication configuration, which
leads to better management of the entire process. You can simply change the system-
auth file and affect all the services that use the pam_stack module to jump to
it. For example, you can enforce time-based access control using a module called
pam_time (the Controlling access by time section explains this module) for every
type of user access that understands PAM. Simply add the necessary pam_time con-
figuration line in the appropriate stack in the system-auth configuration file.
Typically, when you are establishing a new PAM-aware application on Red Hat
Linux, it should include the PAM configuration file. If it doesn’t include one or it
includes one that appears to not use this centralized configuration discussed, you
can try the following:

1. If you have a PAM configuration file for this application, rename it to

/etc/pam.d/myapp.old, where myapp is the name of your current PAM
configuration file.
2. Create a new file called /etc/pam.d/myapp so that it has the following
lines:
auth required /lib/security/pam_stack.so
service=system-auth
auth required /lib/security/pam_nologin.so
account required /lib/security/pam_stack.so
service=system-auth
password required /lib/security/pam_stack.so
service=system-auth
session required /lib/security/pam_stack.so
service=system-auth

3. The preceding PAM configuration delegates actual configuration to the

/etc/pam.d/system-auth file.

4. Access the application as usual. If you have no problem accessing it,

you just created a centrally managed PAM configuration file for myapp
application.
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248 Part III: System Security

5. If you run into a problem, run the tail –f /var/log/messages com-

mand on a shell or xterm and try myapp as usual. Watch the log messages
that PAM generates.

PAM-generated log messages usually have PAM_modulename strings in

them where modulename is the name of the PAM module that is attempt-
ing a task. The log information should show why the application isn’t work-
ing as usual. If you still can’t fix it and have an old configuration, simply
rename the old configuration file back to myapp so that you can use the
application. In such a case, your application doesn’t work with the system-
auth configuration and you can’t do much to change that.

Most PAM-aware applications are shipped with their own PAM configuration
files. But even if you find one that is not, it’s still using PAM. By default, when
PAM can’t find a specific configuration file for an application, it uses the default
/etc/pam.d/other configuration. This configuration file is shown in Listing 10-4.

Listing 10-4: The /etc/pam.d/other file

#%PAM-1.0
auth required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
account required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
password required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
session required /lib/security/pam_deny.so

This configuration simply denies access using the pam_deny module, which
always returns failure status. I recommend that you keep this file the way it is so
that you have a “deny everyone access unless access is permitted by configuration”
type of security policy.

Using Various PAM Modules

to Enhance Security
Red Hat Linux ships with many PAM modules.

◆ pam_access.so

This module uses the /etc/security/access.conf configuration file.

This configuration file has the following configuration format:
< + or - > : <username list> : <tty list | host list]
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Chapter 10: PAM 249

The positive sign in the first field indicates a grant permission; the nega-
tive sign indicates a deny permission. The user list consists of at least one
comma-separated username or group. The third field can either be a list of
tty devices or host/domain names.
When you want to restrict a certain user from logging in via the physical
console, use the tty list. To restrict login access by hostname or domain
names (prefixed with a leading period), specify the host or domain names
in a comma-separated list. Use ALL to represent everything; use EXCEPT
to exclude list on the right side of this keyword; use LOCAL to match any-
thing without a period in it. For example:
-:sysadmin:ALL EXCEPT LOCAL

Here, users in the sysadmin group are denied login access unless they log
in locally using the console.
■ pam_console.so
■ This module controls which PAM-aware, privileged commands such as
/sbin/shutdown, /sbin/halt, and /sbin/reboot an ordinary user
can run.
See the Securing console access using mod_console section.
◆ pam_cracklib.so

This module checks the strength of a password using the crack library.
◆ pam_deny.so

This module always returns false. For example, it’s used in the
/etc/pam.d/other configuration to deny access to any user who is try-
ing to access a PAM-aware program without a PAM configuration file.
◆ pam_env.so

This module sets environment variables.

See /etc/security/pam_env.conf for details.
◆ pam_filter.so

This module accesses STDIN and STDOUT data that passes between the
user and the application. It’s currently not used in any default configura-
tion shipped with Red Hat Linux.
◆ pam_ftp.so

This is a simple FTP authentication module that currently is not used.

◆ pam_group.so

This is the group access module that uses the /etc/security/group.conf

file to provide (or remove) group access to services.
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250 Part III: System Security

Using this module you can give a group (in /etc/group) access to PAM-
aware programs.

◆ pam_issue.so

This module displays the contents of the /etc/issue file during login
process.

This module isn’t recommended because displaying unnecessary informa-

tion before a user can be authenticated can give clues to a potential
intruder.

◆ pam_lastlog.so

This module displays information about a user’s last login.

This module isn’t recommended because displaying unnecessary informa-

tion before a user can be authenticated can give clues to a potential
intruder.

◆ pam_limits.so

This module sets resource limits using the /etc/security/limits.conf

file for an ordinary user session.
See the Managing System Resources Among Users section for details.
◆ pam_listfile.so

This module reads a file and performs an action (that is, it enables or
denies access) based on the existence or non-existence of an item such as
username, tty, host, groups, or shell.

See the Restricting FTP access by username section in Chapter 18 for an

example of this module.
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Chapter 10: PAM 251

◆ pam_localuser.so

This module returns success when the user being authenticated is found in
the /etc/passwd file of the server. Optionally, you can specify a different
file for the file argument, as in the following example:
auth required /lib/security/pam_localuser.so \
file=/etc/myusers

If you add the preceding line in a PAM-aware application configuration

file, the authentication is successful if the user being authenticated is
listed in /etc/myusers file.

The functionally of this module is like the pam_listfile.so module.

◆ pam_mail.so

This module checks whether the user has new or unread e-mail and dis-
plays a message.
◆ pam_mkhomedir.so

This module creates a user’s home directory upon the first successful
login. It’s very useful if you use a central user information repository
(using LDAP orNIS) to manage a large number of users. For example, after
you create the user account on the LDAP server, the home directories
aren’t needed on all the machines the user has access privileges to if these
machines use the following line in the configuration of access control
application such as login and sshd:
session required /lib/security/pam_mkhomedir.so \
skel=/etc/skel/ umask=0022

This line assumes that you want to get the user resource files (such as dot
files for shell) from the /etc/skel directory and also set a umask of 0022
for the new home directory and dot files.
◆ pam_motd.so

Displays the /etc/motd (message of the day) file when a user successfully
logs in. You can also display a different file using the
mod=/path/to/filename option.
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252 Part III: System Security

This module isn’t recommended because displaying unnecessary informa-

tion before a user can be authenticated can give clues to a potential
intruder.

◆ pam_nologin.so

This module can restrict all users but root from logging into the system.

See the Restricting access to everyone but root section.

◆ pam_permit.so

This module works as an auth, account, password, or session module

and always returns success. This should be used only for very low-risk
authentication or authorization tasks. For example, enabling any user to
use the kbdrate command to reset the keyboard repeat rate and delay
time isn’t risky. Therefore, it’s acceptable for the /etc/pam.d/kbdrate
configuration file to look like this:
auth sufficient /lib/security/pam_rootok.so
auth required /lib/security/pam_console.so
account required /lib/security/pam_permit.so

◆ pam_pwdb.so

This is the old password database module.

Use pam_unix instead.

◆ pam_radius.so

This module provides session services for users authenticated via a

RADIUS server.
◆ pam_rhosts_auth.so

This is the rhosts module.

Stay away from rhosts enabled services such as rlogin and rsh.These
were considered major security holes for years.
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Chapter 10: PAM 253

◆ pam_rootok.so

This is the root access module. When you are logged in as root and run
programs such as shutdown, reboot, halt, or any other privileged com-
mand, normally you should be authenticated.

If this module is used in the PAM configuration of such commands, the root
user is excused from entering her password. The most useful place for this
module is in /etc/pam.d/su because root shouldn’t need a password to
su to an ordinary user.

◆ pam_securetty.so

This module reads the /etc/securetty file and checks to ensure that
root user can’t log in from any tty device not mentioned in this file.
◆ pam_shells.so

This module authenticates a user if her login shell is listed in the

/etc/shells file.

◆ pam_stack.so

This module can jump out of the current configuration file in /etc/pam.d to
another one. For example, does /etc/pam.d/sshd have the following line?
auth required /lib/security/pam_stack.so \
service=system-auth

If so, when PAM is authenticating an SSH request on behalf of the sshd

daemon, it jumps to /etc/pam.d/system-auth file and performs the
auth process found in that file.

This module enables a highly manageable authentication scheme by central-

izing authentication requirements in one or multiple configuration files that
can be used by many programs. For example, if you decide that the authenti-
cation process for sshd and login are the same, without pam_stack
you must create duplicate configuration in the /etc/pam.d/sshd and
/etc/pam.d/login files. That means if you later decide to add another
pam_module for more control, you must then change both of these configu-
ration files. Using pam_stack, you can centralize the authentication rules to
one file and only change this file to reflect your requirements change to
every program that should use the new module.
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254 Part III: System Security

◆ pam_stress.so

This module enables you to stress test your applications. I have never used
this module and don’t know of any good application for it.
◆ pam_tally.so

This module tracks access attempts for a user account. It can deny access
after a specified number of failures.
◆ pam_time.so

See the Controlling access by time section for details.

◆ pam_unix_acct.so

This module no longer exists. It’s now a symbolic link for the
pam_unix.so module.

◆ pam_unix_auth.so

This module no longer exists. It’s now a symbolic link for the
pam_unix.so module.

◆ pam_unix_passwd.so

This module no longer exists. It’s now a symbolic link for the
pam_unix.so module.

◆ pam_unix_session.so

This module no longer exists. It’s now a symbolic link for the
pam_unix.so module.

◆ pam_unix.so

This is the standard password module that can work with both
/etc/passwd and the /etc/shadow files.

◆ pam_warn.so

This module logs warning messages about requested authentication and

authorization process.

The pam_warn.so module doesn’t perform any authentication step itself.

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Chapter 10: PAM 255

◆ pam_wheel.so

This module restricts root access to users belonging to the wheel group.
For example, the /etc/pam.d/su configuration includes a line such as the
following:
auth required /lib/security/pam_wheel.so use_uid

This makes PAM confirm that the person trying to su to root (that is, not try-
ing to su to a non-root user) belongs to the wheel group in /etc/group file.
◆ pam_xauth.so

This module works as a session module for forwarding xauth keys when
programs such as su and linuxconf are used under X Window.

A few of these modules can enhance and enforce your system security policy.

Controlling access by time

To restrict access to services by time, you need an accounting module called
pam_time (/lib/security/pam_time.so). This module can be configured to deny
access to users based on the following criteria:

◆ Their name

◆ Time of day

◆ Day of the week

◆ Service they are applying for

◆ The terminal from which they are making their request

Its actions are determined with the /etc/security/time.conf configuration

file. Follow these steps:

1. For control of all user access, modify the /etc/pam.d/system-auth PAM

configuration file by adding the following line:
account required /lib/security/pam_time.so

2. Devise an access policy for login service. This example assumes that users
should log in after 6 a.m. and no later than 8 p.m.
3. Configure the /etc/security/time.conf file. The configuration lines in
this file have the following syntax:
services;ttys;users;times

You can use some special characters in the fields. Table 10-3 describes the spe-
cial characters.
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256 Part III: System Security

TABLE 10-3: SPECIAL CHARACTERS FOR CONFIGURATION FIELDS IN

/ETC/SECURITY/TIME.CONF

Character Meaning

! NOT. For example, !login means “not login” or “except login.”

| OR. For example, kabir|ronak means “either kabir or ronak.”
& AND. For example, login&su means “both login and su.”
* Wildcard. For example, foo* means “everything that starts with foo.”

Table 10-4 describes the fields in such a configuration line.

TABLE 10-4: FIELDS OF THE /ETC/SECURITY/TIME.CONF FILE

Field Description

services A list of services that are affected by the time restriction. For example,
for control of login and su using one rule, specify the service to be
login&su in a configuration line.

ttys A list of terminals that are affected by the time restriction. For
example, for control of only pseudoterminals and not the console
terminals, specify ttyp*!tty*, where ttyp* lists all the
pseudoterminals used in remote login via services such as Telnet, and
tty* lists all the console terminals.

users A list of users who are affected by the time restriction. For example,
to specify all the users, use the wildcard character * in a configuration
line.
time A list of times when the restrictions apply. You can specify time as a
range in a 24-hour clock format. For example, to specify a range from
8 p.m. to 6 a.m., specify 2000–0600 (that is, HHMM format, where
HH is 00–23 and MM is 00–59). You can also specify days by using a
two-character code, such as Mo (Monday), Tu (Tuesday), We
(Wednesday), Th (Thursday), Fr (Friday), Sa (Saturday), and Su
(Sunday). You can also use special codes, such as Wk for all weekdays,
Wd for weekends, and Al for all seven days. For example, to restrict
access to a service from 8 p.m. to 6 a.m. every day, specify a time
range as !Al2000–0600.
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Chapter 10: PAM 257

For the ongoing example, you can create a time-based rule that prohibits login
access from 8 p.m. to 6 a.m. for all users who access the system via remote means
(such as Telnet) by adding the following line to the /etc/security/time.conf
file:

login;ttyp*;*;!Al2000-0600

This line can be interpreted this way:

If (requested service is login) and

(access is made from a pseudo ttyp type device) and
(current time is between 8PM to 6AM) then
Access to the requested service is not allowed.
Else
Access to the requested service is permitted.
End

To enable a user called kabir access to the system at any time, but make all
other users follow the preceding rule, modify the rule this way:

login;ttyp*;*!kabir;!Al2000-0600

Restricting access to everyone but root

The pam_nologin module can restrict all users but root from accessing the system.
The module is used this way:

auth required /lib/security/pam_nologin.so

This module checks for the existence of the /etc/nologin file. If this file exits,
the module returns failure but displays the contents of this file on screen so users
see the reason for the restriction.
Typically, the /etc/nologin file is created when the system administrator (root)
should perform maintenance tasks such as the following:

◆ Rebooting the server

◆ Installing special software

◆ Configuring disk drives

To disable user login, create the file by running the touch /etc/nologin com-
mand. If you want to write a note to the users, modify this file and tell the users
why they can’t access your system at this time. After you are done, remove the
/etc/nologin file so that users can log in again.
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258 Part III: System Security

If you enable multiple login methods such as ssh or telnet (not recom-
mended), make sure each of the PAM configuration files for these services
requires the pam_nologin configuration as shown in the beginning of this
section. Also, if you use multiple auth lines in a PAM configuration such as
the /etc/pam.d/login, make sure the nologin line appears before
any auth line with the sufficient control flag. Otherwise, the /etc/
nologin isn’t displayed because the module may not be used.

Managing system resources among users

By restricting a user account’s capability to hog system resources, you can keep
your system safe from user abuses. The pam_limits module can manage system
resources for an individual user or a group of users. The following list shows the
major resources that you can manage with this module:

◆ Maximum number of processes (nproc)

◆ Maximum number of logs (maxlogins)

◆ Process priority for user run commands (priority)

◆ Maximum CPU time (cpu) in minutes

◆ Maximum stack size in user programs (stack)

◆ Maximum number of opened files (nofile)

◆ Maximum data size (data)

◆ Maximum file size (fsize)

◆ Maximum resident memory size of a user process (rss)

◆ Maximum size of the core file (core)

◆ Maximum memory address space (as)

Each configuration line in the /etc/security/limits.conf file has the fol-

lowing format:

username | @group | * hard | soft resourcename value

The following list defines the codes used in the preceding format:

◆ The @ symbol denotes a user group.

◆ Thard is the maximum limit.

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Chapter 10: PAM 259

◆ Tsoft is the default limit.

◆ The resourcename is the name of the resource, such as the following:

■ nproc

■ maxlogins

■ nofiles

■ rss

■ fsize

■ stack

◆ Tvalue is the limit you want to set.

For example:

kabir hard nproc 5

Here, the user kabir has a hard limit of five (5) on the number of processes he
can run. In other words, if this user tries to run more than five processes, the sys-
tem refuses to run more than five. For example, after logging in, the user runs the
ps auxww | grep ^ kabir command to see the number of processes owned by
him. The command returns the following lines:

kabir 1626 0.0 0.5 2368 1324 pts/2 S 14:36 0:00 -tcsh
kabir 1652 0.0 0.2 2552 752 pts/2 R 14:40 0:00 ps auxww
kabir 1653 0.0 0.2 1520 596 pts/2 R 14:40 0:00 grep ^kabir

User kabir shows one shell process (tcsh) and two other processes (ps and
grep) that are part of the preceding command. Now, running the man perl com-
mand shows the following message:

sh: fork: Resource temporarily unavailable

sh: fork: Resource temporarily unavailable
Error executing formatting or display command.
System command (cd /usr/share/man ; (echo -e “.ll 11.3i\n.pl 1100i”; /bin/gunzip
-c /usr/share/man/man1/perl.1.gz; echo “.pl \n(nlu+10”) | /usr/bin/gtbl |
/usr/bin/groff -Tlatin1 -mandoc | /usr/bin/less -isr) exited with status 128.
No manual entry for perl

The command failed because it tried to fork more than five processes. Such con-
trol over the number of processes that a user can run could have a great impact on
overall system reliability, which translates well for security. A reliable system is
predictable and predictable systems are more secure than the ones that aren’t.
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260 Part III: System Security

Securing console access using mod_console

This module typically controls device permissions and privileged command settings
for users who log in via the physical console. When an ordinary user logs in to a
Red Hat Linux system via the console, she has full access to many attached devices,
such as the floppy drive, the CD drive, and the Zip drive. The permission settings
that enable an ordinary console user access to such devices are configured in the
/etc/security/console.perms file.
To limit ordinary console users from accessing a particular device, comment out
the appropriate device permission line in this file. For example, if you don’t want
an ordinary console user to access the floppy and the CD drives on the system, you
must comment out the following lines in the /etc/security/console.perms file.

<console> 0660 <floppy> 0660 root.floppy

<console> 0600 <cdrom> 0600 root.disk

Also the <console>, <floppy>, and <cdrom> aliases (also known as classes)
must point to the desired devices. The default values for these aliases are also found
in the same file. They are shown below:

<console>=tty[0-9][0-9]* :[0-9]\.[0-9] :[0-9]

<floppy>=/dev/fd[0-1]*
<cdrom>=/dev/cdrom* /dev/cdwriter*

As shown, the values contain wildcards and simple, regular expressions. The
default values should cover most typical situations.
As mentioned before, the pam_console module also controls which PAM-aware,
privileged commands such as /sbin/shutdown, /sbin/halt, and /sbin/reboot
an ordinary user can run. Let’s take a look at what happens when an ordinary user
runs the shutdown command.

◆ The user enters the shutdown -r now command at the console prompt to
reboot the system.
◆ The /usr/bin/shutdown script, which is what the user runs, runs a
program called consolehelper. This program in turn uses a program
called userhelper that runs the /sbin/reboot program. In this process,
the PAM configuration for the reboot program (stored in /etc/pam.d/
reboot) is applied.

◆ In the /etc/pam.d/reboot file you will see that the pam_console module is
used as an auth module, which then checks for the existence of a file
called /etc/security/console.apps/reboot. If this file exists and the
user meets the authentication and authorization requirements of the
/etc/pam.d/reboot configuration, the reboot command is executed.
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Chapter 10: PAM 261

If the user runs the shutdown command using the -h option, the
/usr/bin/shutdown script uses the /sbin/halt program in place of
/sbin/reboot and uses halt-specific PAM configuration files.

Consider these security scenarios:

◆ Prevent an ordinary console user from rebooting or halting by removing

the /etc/security/console.apps/reboot or /etc/security/console.
apps/halt file accordingly. However, console users are typically trusted
unless the console is located in an unsecured place.
◆ If you house your system in an ISP co-location facility or other unsecured
places, consider restricting access to the shutdown, reboot, and halt
commands by modifying the /etc/pam.d/reboot, /etc/pam.d/halt, and
/etc/pam.d/shutdown files to the following line:

auth required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth

◆ This makes sure that even if someone can access a user account or opened
shell (perhaps you didn’t log out when you walked away from the system),
he must know the user’s password to shut down, reboot, or halt the
machine. In my recent security analysis experience, I found instances where
many organizations housed their Web servers in ISP co-location facilities,
which are very secured from outside. However, many of the servers had
physical consoles attached to them and often had opened shell running
simple stats programs such as top and vmstat. Anyone could stop these
programs and simply pull a prank by typing shutdown, reboot, or, even
worse — halt! It is essential in these situations to require the password, using
the configuration line discussed in the preceding text.

It’s a big step towards security management that Red Hat Linux ships with PAM
and PAM-aware applications. To follow the PAM happenings, visit the primary
PAM distribution site at www.us.kernel.org/pub/linux/libs/pam/ frequently.

Summary
PAM is a highly configurable authentication technology that introduces a layer of
middleware between the application and the actual authentication mechanism. In
addition to this, PAM can handle account and session data, which is something that
normal authentication mechanisms don’t do very well. Using various PAM modules,
you can customize authentication processes for users, restrict user access to console
and applications based on such properties as username, time, and terminal location.
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Chapter 11

OpenSSL
IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Understanding how SSL works

◆ Installing and configuring OpenSSL
◆ Understanding server certificates
◆ Getting a server certificate from a commercial CA
◆ Creating a private certificate authority

ONLY A FEW YEARS AGO, the Internet was still what it was initially intended to be —
a worldwide network for scientists and engineers. By virtue of the Web, however,
the Internet is now a network for everyone. These days, it seems as though every-
one and everything is on the Internet. It’s also the “new economy” frontier; thou-
sands of businesses, large and small, for better or worse, have set up e-commerce
sites for customers around the world. Customers are cautious, however, because
they know that not all parts of the Internet are secured.
To eliminate this sense of insecurity in the new frontier, the Netscape
Corporation invented a security protocol that ensures secured transactions between
the customer’s Web browser and the Web server. Netscape named this protocol
Secured Sockets Layer (SSL). Quickly SSL found its place in many other Internet
applications, such as e-mail and remote access. Because SSL is now part of the
foundation of the modern computer security infrastructure, it’s important to know
how to incorporate SSL in your Linux system. This chapter shows you how.

Understanding How SSL Works

The foundation of SSL is encryption. When data travels from one point of the
Internet to another, it goes through a number of computers such as routers, gateways,
and other network devices.
As you can see, the data must travel through many nodes. Although data packets
travel at a high speed (usually reaching their destination in milliseconds), intercep-
tion is still a possibility at one of these nodes — which is why we need a secured
mechanism for exchanging sensitive information. This security is achieved through
encryption.
263
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264 Part III: System Security

Technically speaking, encryption is the mathematical encoding scheme that

ensures that only the intended recipient can access the data; it hides the data from
eavesdroppers by sending it in a deliberately garbled form. Encryption schemes
often restrict access to resources. For example, if you log on to a Unix or Windows
NT system, the passwords or keys you use are typically stored in the server com-
puter in an encrypted format. On most Unix systems, a user’s password is encrypted
and matched with the encrypted password stored in an /etc/passwd file. If this
comparison is successful, the user is given access to the requested resource. Two
kinds of encryption schemes are available.

Symmetric encryption
Symmetric encryption is like the physical keys and locks you probably use every
day. Just as you would lock and unlock your car with the same key, symmetric
encryption uses one key to lock and unlock an encrypted message.
Because this scheme uses one key, all involved parties must know this key for
the scheme to work.

Asymmetric encryption
Asymmetric encryption works differently from symmetric encryption. This scheme
has two keys:

◆ A public key

◆ A private key

The extra key is the public key (so this scheme is also known as public key
encryption).
When data is encrypted with the public key, it can only be decrypted using the
private key, and vice versa. Unlike symmetric encryption, this scheme doesn’t
require that the sender know the receiver’s private key to unlock the data. The pub-
lic key is widely distributed, so anyone who needs a secure data communication
can use it. The private key is never distributed; it’s always kept secret.

SSL as a protocol for data encryption

Using both symmetric and asymmetric encryption schemes, Netscape developed the
open, nonproprietary protocol called Secured Socket Layer (SSL) for data encryption,
server authentication, data integrity, and client authentication for TCP/IP-based
communication.
The SSL protocol runs above TCP/IP and below higher-level, application-layer
protocols such as HTTP, FTP, and IMAP. It uses TCP/IP on behalf of the application-
layer protocols. Doing so accomplishes the following:

◆ Allows an SSL-enabled server to authenticate itself to an SSL-enabled client

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Chapter 11: OpenSSL 265

◆ Allows the client to authenticate itself to the server

◆ Allows both machines to establish an encrypted connection

HOW DOES SSL WORK?

In an SSL-based transaction, the server sends a certificate (defined later in this
chapter) to the client system.

1. A certificate is typically issued by a well-known digital certificate issuing

company known as a Certificate Authority (CA).
The Certificate Authority encrypts the certificate using its private key.
The client decrypts the certificate using the public key provided by the
Certificate Authority.
Because the certificate contains the CA server’s public key, the client can
now decrypt any encrypted data sent by the server.
2. The server sends a piece of data identifying itself as the entity mentioned
in the certificate. It then creates a digest message of the same data it sent
to identify itself earlier.
The digest is then encrypted using the server’s private key. The client now
has the following information:
■ The certificate from a known CA stating what the server’s public key
should be
■ An identity message from the server
■ An encrypted digest version of the identity message

3. Using the server’s public key, the client can decrypt the digest message.
The client then creates a digest of the identity message and compares it
with the digest sent by the server.
A match between the digest and the original message confirms the identity
of the server. Why? The server initially sent a certificate signed by a known
CA, so the client is absolutely sure to whom this public key belongs.
However, the client needed proof that the server that sent the certificate
is the entity that it claims to be, so the server sent a simple identification
message along with a public-key-encrypted digest of the same message. If
the sending server hadn’t had the appropriate private key, it would have
been unable to produce the same digest that the client computed from the
identification message.

If this seems complex , it is — intentionally so — and it doesn’t end here. The

client can now send a symmetric encryption key to the server, using the server’s
public key to encrypt the new message. The server can then use this new key to
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266 Part III: System Security

encrypt data and transmit it to the client. Why do that all over again? Largely
because symmetric encryption is much faster than asymmetric encryption.

Asymmetric encryption (using private and public keys) safely transmits a

randomly generated symmetric key from the client to the server; this key is
later used for a fast, secured communication channel.

If an impostor sits between the client and the server system, and is capable of
intercepting the transmitted data, what damage can it do? It doesn’t know the
secret symmetric key that the client and the server use, so it can’t determine the
content of the data; at most, it can introduce garbage in the data by injecting its
own data into the data packets.
To avoid this, the SSL protocol allows for a message-authentication code (MAC).
A MAC is simply a piece of data computed by using the symmetric key and the
transmitted data. Because the impostor doesn’t know the symmetric key, it can’t
compute the correct value for the MAC. For example, a well-known cryptographic
digest algorithm called MD5 (developed by RSA Data Security, Inc.) can generate
128-bit MAC values for each transmitted data packet. The computing power and
time required to successfully guess the correct MAC value this way is almost
nonexistent. SSL makes secure commerce possible on the Internet.

OBTAINING SSL
For many years, SSL was available mainly in commercial Linux software such as
Stronghold, an Apache-based, commercial Web server. Because of patent and US
export restrictions, no open-source versions of SSL for Linux were available for a
long time. Recently, the OpenSSL Project has changed all that.

Understanding OpenSSL
The OpenSSL Project is an open-source community collaboration to develop
commercial-grade SSL, Transport Layer Security (TLS), and full-strength, general-
purpose cryptography library packages. The current implementation of SSL is also
called OpenSSL. OpenSSL is based on SSLeay library, which has been developed by
Eric A. Young and Tim J. Hudson. The OpenSSL software package license allows
both commercial and noncommercial use of the software.

Uses of OpenSSL
SSL can be used in many applications to enhance and ensure transactional data
security: OpenSSL simply makes that capability more widely available. This section
examines using OpenSSL for the following security tasks:
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Chapter 11: OpenSSL 267

◆ Securing transactions on the Web using Apache-SSL (see Chapter 15 for

details)
◆ Securing user access for remote access to your Linux computer

◆ Securing Virtual Private Network (VPN) connections via PPP, using

OpenSSL-based tunneling software (see Chapter 20 for details)
◆ Securing e-mail services (IMAP, PO3) via tunneling software that uses
OpenSSL (see Chapter 20 for details).

Getting OpenSSL
OpenSSL binaries are currently shipped with the Red Hat Linux distribution in RPM
packages. So you can either use the RPM version supplied by Red Hat or you can
simply download the source code from the official OpenSSL Web site at
www.openssl.org/source.
As mentioned throughout the book, I prefer that security software be installed
from source distribution downloaded from authentic Web or FTP sites. So, in the
following section I discuss the details of compiling and installing OpenSSL from the
official source distribution downloaded from the OpenSSL Web site.

If you must install OpenSSL from the RPM, use a trustworthy, binary RPM
distribution, such as the one found on the official Red Hat CD-ROM.
To install OpenSSL binaries from an RPM package, simply run the
rpm –ivh openssl-packagename.rpm command.

Installing and Configuring OpenSSL

The OpenSSL Web site offers the OpenSSL source in a gzip compressed tar file. The
latest version as of this writing is openssl-0.9.6.tar.gz. Before you can start with
the compilation process, you must ensure that your system meets the prerequisites.

OpenSSL prerequisites
The OpenSSL source distribution requires that you have Perl 5 and an ANSI C com-
piler. I assume that you installed both Perl 5 and gcc (C compiler) when you set up
your Linux system.
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268 Part III: System Security

Compiling and installing OpenSSL

Compiling OpenSSL is a simple task. Follow the steps given below.

1. Log in to your Linux system as root from the console.

2. Copy the OpenSSL source tar ball into the /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES
directory.
3. Extract the source distribution by running the tar xvzf openssl-
version.tar.gz command.

For example, to extract the openssl-0.9.6.tar.gz file, I can run the tar
xvzf openssl-0.9.6.tar.gz command. The tar command creates a direc-
tory called openssl-version, which in my example is openssl-0.9.6.

You can delete the tar ball at this point if disk space is an issue for you. First,
however, make sure you have successfully compiled and installed OpenSSL.

4. Make the newly created directory your current directory.

At this point, feel free to read the README or INSTALL files included in the distri-
bution. The next step is to configure the installation options; certain settings are
needed before you can compile the software.
To install OpenSSL in the default /usr/local/ssl directory, run the following
command:

./config

However, if you must install it in a different directory, append --prefix and --

openssldir flags to the preceding command. For example, to install OpenSSL in
/opt/security/ssl directory, the preceding command line looks like this:

./config --prefix=/opt/security

You can use many other options with the config or Configure script to prepare
the source distribution for compilation. These options are listed and explained in
Table 11-1.
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Chapter 11: OpenSSL 269

TABLE 11-1: CONFIGURATION OPTIONS FOR COMPILING OPENSSL

Configuration Options Purpose

--prefix=DIR This option installs OpenSSL in the DIR directory. It creates

subdirectories such as DIR/lib, DIR/bin, DIR/include/
openssl. The configuration files are stored in DIR/ssl unless
you use the --openssldir option to specify this directory.
--openssldir=DIR This option specifies the configuration files directory. If the --
prefix option isn’t used, all files are stored in this directory.

Rsaref This option forces building of the RSAREF toolkit. To use the
RSAREF toolkit, make sure you have the RSAREF library
(librsaref.a) in your default library search path.
no-threads This option disables support for multithreaded applications.
threads This option enables support for multithreaded applications.
no-shared This option disables the creation of a shared library.
Shared This option enables the creation of a shared library.
no-asm This option disables the use of assembly code in the source tree.
Use this option only if you are experiencing problems in
compiling OpenSSL.
386 Use this only if you are compiling OpenSSL on an Intel 386
machine. (Not recommended for newer Intel machines.)
no-<cipher> OpenSSL uses many cryptographic ciphers such as bf, cast,
des, dh, dsa, hmac, md2, md5, mdc2, rc2, rc4, rc5, rsa, and
sha. If you want to exclude a particular cipher from the
compiled binaries, use this option.
-Dxxx, -lxxx, -Lxxx, These options enable you to specify various system-dependent
-fxxx, -Kxxx options. For example, Dynamic Shared Objects (DSO) flags, such
as -fpic, -fPIC, and -KPIC can be specified on the command
line. This way one can compile OpenSSL libraries with Position
Independent Code (PIC), which is needed for linking it into DSOs.
Most likely you won’t need any of these options to compile
OpenSSL. However, if you have problems compiling it, you can
try some of these options with appropriate values. For example,
if you can’t compile because OpenSSL complains about missing
library files, try specifying the system library path using the
–L option.
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270 Part III: System Security

After you have run the config script without any errors, run the make utility. If
the make command is successful, run make test to test the newly built binaries.
Finally, run make install to install OpenSSL in your system.

If you have problems compiling OpenSSL, one source of the difficulty may
be a library-file mismatch — not unusual if the latest version of software like
OpenSSL is being installed on an old Linux system. Or the problem may be
caused by an option, specified in the command line, that’s missing an essen-
tial component. For example, if you don’t have the RSAREF library (not
included in Red Hat Linux) installed on your system and you are trying to use
the rsaref option, the compilation fails when it tries to build the binaries.
Here some traditional programming wisdom comes in handy: Make sure
you know exactly what you’re doing when you use specific options. If nei-
ther of these approaches resolves the problem, try searching the OpenSSL
FAQ page at www.openssl.org/support/faq.html. Or simply install
the binary RPM package for OpenSSL.

Understanding Server Certificates

Before you can use OpenSSL with many SSL-capable applications (such as
OpenSSH and Apache-SSL), you must create appropriate server certificates.

What is a certificate?
In an SSL transaction, a certificate is a body of data placed in a message to serve as
proof of the sender’s authenticity. It consists of encrypted information that associ-
ates a public key with the true identity of an individual, server, or other entity,
known as the subject. It also includes the identification and electronic signature of
the issuer of the certificate. The issuer is known as a Certificate Authority (CA).
A certificate may contain other information that helps the CA manage certifi-
cates (such as a serial number and period of time when the certificate is valid).
Using an SSL-enabled Web browser (such as Netscape Navigator or Microsoft
Internet Explorer), you can view a server’s certificate easily.
The identified entity in a certificate is represented by distinguished name fields
(as defined in the X509 standard). Table 11-2 lists common distinguished name
fields.
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Chapter 11: OpenSSL 271

TABLE 11-2: DISTINGUISHED NAME FIELDS

DN Field: Abbreviation Meaning

Common Name CN Certified entity is known by this name.

Organization or Company O Entity is associated with this organization.
Organizational Unit OU Entity is associated with this organization unit.
City/Locality L Entity is located in this city.
State/Province ST Entity is located in this state or province.
Country C Name is located in this country (2-digit ISO
country code).

The certificate is usually transmitted in binary code or as encrypted text.

What is a Certificate Authority (CA)?

A Certificate Authority (CA) is a trusted organization that issues certificates for
both servers and clients (that is, users.) To understand the need for such an organi-
zation, consider the following scenario.
One of your clients wants secure access to a Web application on your extranet
Web server. She uses the HTTPS protocol to access your extranet server, say

https://extranet.domain.com/login.servlet

Her Web browser initiates the SSL connection request. Your extranet Web server
uses its private key to encrypt data it sends to her Web browser — which decrypts
the data using your Web server’s public key.
Because the Web server also sends the public key to the Web browser, there’s no
way to know whether the public key is authentic. What stops a malicious hacker
from intercepting the information from your extranet server and sending his own
public key to your client? That’s where the CA comes in to play. After verifying
information regarding your company in the offline world, a CA has issued you a
server certificate — signed by the CA’s own public key (which is well known).
Genuine messages from your server carry this certificate. When the Web browser
receives the server certificate, it can decrypt the certificate information using the
well-known CA’s public key. This ensures that the server certificate is authentic. The
Web browser can then verify that the domain name used in the authentic certificate
is the same as the name of the server it’s communicating with.
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272 Part III: System Security

Similarly, if you want to ensure that a client is really who she says she is, you could
enforce a client-side certificate restriction, creating a closed-loop secured process
for the entire transaction.

If each party has a certificate that validates the other’s identity, confirms the
public key, and is signed by a trusted agency, then they both are assured that
they are communicating with whom they think they are.

Two types of Certificate Authority exist:

◆ Commercial CA

◆ Self-certified private CA

Commercial CA
A commercial Certificate Authority’s primary job is to verify the authenticity of
other companies’ messages on the Internet. After a CA verifies the offline authen-
ticity of a company by checking various legal records (such as official company
registration documents and letters from top management of the company), one of
its appropriately empowered officers can sign the certificate. Only a few commer-
cial CAs exist; the two best known are

◆ Verisign (www.verisign.com)

◆ Thawte (www.thawte.com)

Verisign recently acquired Thawte Consulting, which created an over-

whelming monopoly in the digital-certificate marketplace.

Self-certified, private CA
A private CA is much like a root-level commercial CA: It’s self-certified. However, a
private CA is typically used in a LAN or WAN environment (or in experimenting with
SSL). For example, a university with a WAN that interconnects departments may
decide on a private CA instead of a commercial one. If you don’t expect an unknown
user to trust your private CA, you can still use it for such specific purposes.
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Chapter 11: OpenSSL 273

Getting a Server Certificate

from a Commercial CA
You can get a certificate from a commercial CA or create your own CA to certify
your servers and clients. To get a signed certificate from a commercial CA, you
must meet its requirements. Commercial CAs have two requirements:

◆ Prove that you are the entity you claim to be.

To meet this requirement, usually you follow the CA’s guidelines for veri-
fying individuals or organizations. Consult with your chosen CA to find
out how to proceed.
◆ Submit a Certificate Signing Request (CSR) in electronic form.

Typically, if you plan to get your Web server certified, be prepared to submit
copies of legal documents such as business registration or incorporation papers.
Here, I show you how you can create a CSR using OpenSSL.

GENERATING A PRIVATE KEY

The very first step to creating a CSR is creating a private key for your server.
To generate an encrypted private key for a Web server host called
www.domain.com, for example, you would run the following command:

openssl genrsa -des3 -out www.domain.com.key 1024 -rand /dev/urandom.

After running this command, you are asked for a pass phrase (that is, password)
for use in encrypting the private key. Because the private key is encrypted using the
des3 cipher, you are asked for the pass phrase every time your server is started. If
this is undesirable, you can create an unencrypted version of the private key by
removing the –des3 option in the preceding command line.

To ensure a high level of security, use an encrypted private key. You don’t
want someone else who has access to your server to see (and, possibly, later
use) your private key.

The content of the www.domain.com.key file is shown in Listing 11-1.

Listing 11-1: The content of www.domain.com.key file

-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
Proc-Type: 4,ENCRYPTED
DEK-Info: DES-EDE3-CBC,C48E9F2F597AF968
Continued
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274 Part III: System Security

Listing 11-1 (Continued)
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-----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----

GENERATING A CERTIFICATE SIGNING REQUEST

You generate the Certificate Signing Request as follows:

1. Run the following command:

openssl req -new -key www.domain.com.key -out
www.domain.com.csr

Don’t forget to change www.domain.com with your server’s hostname.

2. If you encrypted the private key earlier, you are asked for the pass phrase
for the private key. Enter the appropriate pass phrase. Then you are asked
for country name, state, city, organization name, organization unit/
department name, common name (that is, your name if the certificate
request is for yourself) or your server’s hostname, as well as e-mail address
and some optional information (such as a challenge password and an
optional company name).
3. When you have filled in the necessary information, you submit your CSR
to a Certificate Authority such as Thawte. The certification process then
turns to verifying your individual or business-identity documents; such
verification may take from a few days to a few weeks or even months. (In
the upcoming section, I use Thawte as the chosen CA in the examples.)
4. If you are in a rush to get the certificate so you can start testing your sys-
tem and its online security — or have other reasons to get a temporary cer-
tificate fast — ask the officers of your CA. They may have a way for you to
get a temporary, untrusted certificate. For example, Thawte allows you to
submit your CSR via the Web for a temporary certificate, which you
receive in minutes via e-mail.
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Chapter 11: OpenSSL 275

Creating a Private Certificate

Authority
If you aren’t interested in getting a signed certificate from a commercial CA, you
can create your own CA — and certify entities such as your servers or users — at any
time.

It may be possible to get a cross-linked certificate for your private CA from a

commercial CA. In such a case, your private CA is chained to the commercial
CA — and everyone should trust any certificate you issue. However, the com-
mercial CA may limit your certificate-granting authority to your own organi-
zation to ensure that you don’t become a competitor.

It is quite easy to create a private, self-certified CA using OpenSSL. Simply

download the latest ssl.ca-version.tar.gz script distribution version from the
user-contributed software section (www.openssl.org/contrib) of the OpenSSL
Web site. Extract this file to a directory of your choice. A subdirectory called
ssl.ca-version is created. You find a set of sh scripts in the directory.
Here is how you can create server and client certificates using your own CA:

◆ Run the new-root-ca.sh script to create a self-signed root certificate for

your private CA. You are asked for a pass phrase. This pass phrase is
required to sign future certificates.
◆ Creating a server certificate

Run the new-server-cert.sh www.domain.com script to create a server’s

private and public keys. You are asked for distinguished name fields for
the new server certificate. The script also generates a CSR, which you can
send to a commercial CA later if you so choose.
◆ Signing a server certificate

Run the sign-server-cert.sh script to approve and sign the server cer-
tificate you created using the new-server-cert.sh script.
◆ Creating a user or client certificate

Run the new-user-cert.sh script to create a user certificate. User certifi-

cates when signed by a commercial certificate authority can be used with
Web browsers to authenticate users to remote services. However, user cer-
tificates have not yet become common because of lack of understanding
and availability of both client and server software.
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276 Part III: System Security

◆ Signing a user or client certificate

Run the sign-user-cert.sh script to sign a user certificate. Also, run the
p12.sh script to package the private key, the signed key, and the CA’s
Public key into a file with a .p12 extension. This file can then be
imported into applications such as e-mail clients for use.

Now you can use OpenSSL with various applications.

Summary
OpenSSL is an integral part of security. The more you get used to OpenSSL, the
more easily you can incorporate it in many services. You learn about using
OpenSSL with Apache and other applications to enhance security, in many chapters
in this book.
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Chapter 12

Shadow Passwords and

OpenSSH
IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Understanding user-access risks

◆ Using shadow passwords

◆ Exploring OpenSSH

◆ Securing user access

◆ Creating a user-access policy

◆ Monitoring user access

MOST SECURITY BREAK-INS VIA the Internet follow this sequence:

◆ A hacker launches a program to exploit a known bug in an Internet ser-

vice daemon process.
◆ The exploit program tricks the buggy daemon to change system files for
root access.
◆ The hacker logs on to the system using an ordinary user account, which
he or she either created or stole using the exploit program.
◆ The hacker changes more system files and installs trojan programs, which
ensure back-door access for a later time.

Ever wonder what would it be like if you could remove all nonconsole user
access from your Internet server — or from the Linux system in your LAN? If a user
had only one way to gain shell access to your Linux system — via the console —
perhaps the number of break-ins would drop substantially. Of course, that would
turn Linux into Windows NT! Or would it?
Actually, removing user access altogether isn’t quite practical for most Linux
installations. So you must understand the risks involving user accounts and reduce
the risks as much as you can. In this chapter you learn exactly that. Typically, a
user accesses a Linux system via many means such as Web, Telnet, FTP, rlogin, rsh,
or rexec. Here I discuss only the non-anonymous types of user access that require 277
Linux user accounts.
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278 Part III: System Security

Understanding User Account Risks

Typically, a user gains non-anonymous access to a Linux system via a username
and a password. She enters the username and password at the prompt of a commu-
nication program and gains access. Unfortunately (in most cases), the client
machine transmits both the username and password to the Linux server without
any encryption, in clear text. A malicious hacker could use network packet-sniffing
hardware/software to sniff out the username and password — with no special effort
required beyond being part of the same network. For example, let’s say that joe1 is
a user of a large ISP called DummyISP and connects to his Linux server (which is
colocated at the ISP facility). A hacker who hacked into another colocated server on
the same ISP network can now sniff IP packets on their way in and out of their net-
work — and find Joe’s username and password if he uses services such as Telnet or
FTP to connect to his system. Clear-text passwords are indeed a big risk, especially
when the password travels over an untrusted public network: the Internet.

If you run a Linux system that allows shell access to many users, make sure
the /var/log directory and its files aren’t readable by ordinary users. I
know of many incidents when ordinary “unfriendly” users gained access to
other user accounts by simply browsing the /var/log/messages log file.
Every time login fails because of a username and/or password mismatch, the
incident is recorded in the /var/log/messages file. Because many users
who get frustrated with the login process after a few failed attempts often
type their passwords in the login: prompt instead of the password:
prompt, there may be entries in the messages file that show their pass-
words. For example, log entries may show that user mrfrog failed to log in a
few times, then got in via Telnet, but one entry (in bold) reveals the user’s
password when he mistakenly entered the password as a response to the
login: prompt.
login: FAILED LOGIN 2 FROM neno FOR mrfrog,
Authentication failure
PAM_unix: Authentication failure; (uid=0) ->
mysecretpwd for system-auth service
login: FAILED LOGIN 3 FROM neno FOR mysecretpwd,
Authentication failure
PAM_unix: (system-auth) session opened for user mrfrog
by (uid=0)
Now if anyone but the root user can access such a log file, disaster may
result. Never let anyone but the root account access your logs!
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 279

Although passing clear-text usernames and passwords over a network is a big

concern, many more security issues are tied to user access. For example, a great
security risk arises in systems that allow users to pick or change their passwords;
most users tend to choose easy passwords that they can remember. If you survey
your user base, hardly anyone has passwords like “x86nOop916”. In most cases you
find that people choose passwords from dictionary words, names, and numbers that
they use every day.
In addition, as a result of a long-lasting Unix tradition, Linux systems store the
password in a world-readable /etc/passwd file. Although the password entries
aren’t stored in clear text, the file has been the primary target of many security
exploits, decade after decade. A typical hacker simply tries to retrieve this file in
order to run a password-guessing program like crack to find weak passwords.
If you combine easy-to-guess, clear-text passwords with a world-readable
/etc/passwd storage location, the result is a major security risk in your user-
authentication process.

Securing User Accounts

To manage your accounts to reduce risks in your user-authentication process, give
each entry in the /etc/passwd file the following format:

username:password:uid:gid:fullname:homedir:shell

Table 12-1 describes each of these fields.

TABLE 12-1: /ETC/PASSWD FIELDS

Field Name Function

Username Login name of the account

Password Encoded password
UID Unique user ID
GID Group ID
Fullname Typically used to store a user’s real-world full name but can store short
comments
Homedir User’s home directory path
Shell User’s login shell
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280 Part III: System Security

As mentioned before, /etc/passwd is a world readable text file that holds all user
passwords in an encoded form. The password file should be world-readable; after all,
many applications depend on user information such as user ID, group ID, full name,
or shell for their services. To improve the security of your user-authentication
process, however, you can take several measures immediately. The upcoming sections
describe them.

Using shadow passwords and groups

Ensure that /etc/passwd can’t give away your user secrets. For this you need
shadow passwords. Luckily, by default Red Hat Linux uses a shadow-password
scheme — and it begins by storing the user passwords someplace other than the
/etc/passwd file. Instead, the passwords are stored in the /etc/shadow file, which
has the following format:

username:password:last:may:must:warn:expire:disable:reserved

Table 12-2 describes each of these fields.

TABLE 12-2: /ETC/SHADOW FIELDS

Field Name Function

username The username

password The encoded password
last Days since January 1, 1970 that password was last changed
may Minimum days a user must wait before she can change the password
since her last change
must Maximum number of days that the user can go on without changing her
password
warn Number of days when the password change reminder starts
expire Days after password expires that account is disabled
disable Days since Jan. 1, 1970 that account is disabled
reserved A reserved field

The /etc/passwd file format remains exactly the same as it was — except
the password field is always set to ‘x’ instead of the encoded user password.
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 281

An example entry of the /etc/shadow password file looks like this:

mrfrog:$1$ar/xabcl$XKfp.T6gFb6xHxol4xHrk.:11285:0:99999:7:::

This line defines the account settings for a user called mrfrog. Here mrfrog has
last changed his password 11285 days since January 1, 1970. Because the minimum
number of days he must wait before he can change the password is set to 0, he can
change it at any time. At the same time, this user can go on for 99,999 days with-
out changing the password.

AGING YOUR USER ACCOUNTS

Although a shadow-password file could allow users to go on without changing
their passwords, good security demands otherwise. Therefore, the shadow-password
mechanism can incorporate the concept of password aging so the users must
change passwords at a set interval.
Under a shadow-password scheme, when you create a new user account, the
user entry in /etc/shadow is created using the default values stored in the
/etc/login.defs configuration file. The default version of this file contains the
following entries:

PASS_MAX_DAYS 99999
PASS_MIN_DAYS 0
PASS_MIN_LEN 5
PASS_WARN_AGE 7

The PASS_MAX_DAYS entry dictates how long a user can go on without changing
her password. The default value is 99999, which means that a user can go for
approximately 274 years before changing the password. I recommend changing
this to a more realistic value. An appropriate value probably is anywhere from 30
to 150 days for most organizations. If your organization frequently faces password
security problems, use a more restrictive number in the 15- to 30-day range.
The PASS_MIN_DAYS entry dictates how long the user must wait before she can
change her password since her last change. The default value of 0 lets the user
change the password at any time. This user flexibility can be good if you can
ensure that your users choose hard-to-guess passwords. The PASS_MIN_LEN entry
sets the minimum password length. The default value reflects the frequently used
minimum size of 5. The PASS_WARN_AGE entry sets the reminder for the password
change. I use the following settings in many systems that I manage:

PASS_MAX_DAYS 150
PASS_MIN_DAYS 0
PASS_MIN_LEN 5
PASS_WARN_AGE 7
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282 Part III: System Security

Before changing a system configuration file such as /etc/login.defs,

/etc/passwd, or /etc/shadow, back up the file.

After you modify the /etc/login.defs file, make sure your aging policy works
as expected.

TESTING YOUR NEW ACCOUNT AGING POLICY IN ACTION

Create a test user account using the useradd testuser command and set the pass-
word using the passwd testuser command. Then verify that the default values
from /etc/login.defs are used in the /etc/shadow file. To simulate aging, you
can simply modify the last password change day count. This shows an entry in my
/etc/shadow file for testuser.

testuser:$1$/fOdEYFo$qcxNCerBbSE6unDn2uaCb1:11294:0:150:7:::

Here the last password change was on Sunday, December 3, 2000, which makes
11,294 days since January 1, 1970. Now, if I want to see what happens after 150
days have elapsed since the last change, I can simply subtract 150+1 from 11,295
and set the last change value like this:

testuser:$1$/fOdEYFo$qcxNCerBbSE6unDn2uaCb1:11143:0:150:7:::

Now, if I try to log in to the system using this account, I must change the pass-
word because it has aged. Once you have tested your settings by changing appro-
priate values in the /etc/shadow file, you have a working password-aging policy.

Remove the test user account using the userdel testuser command.

Checking password consistency

When you work with password files like /etc/passwd and /etc/shadow, be very
careful:

◆ Back up these files before modification.

◆ Confirm the validity of your files by running a consistency checker.

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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 283

The pwck command can do exactly that. This command performs integrity
checking for both of the password files and the /etc/group file, too.
Although shadow passwords and password aging are great ways to fight user
security risks, the clear-text password risk still remains. To eliminate that risk, stop
using shell access that requires clear-text passwords.

Normally you should have only one superuser (that is, root) account in your
/etc/passwd and /etc/shadow files. For security, periodically scan these
files so you know there’s only one root entry. The grep ‘:x:0:’ /etc/
passwd command displays all users who have root access.

Eliminating risky shell services

Telnet, which uses clear-text passwords, is the primary culprit of all shell-related
security incidents. Unfortunately, Red Hat Linux comes with Telnet service turned on.
Don't use Telnet for accessing your Linux system. To disable Telnet do the following:

Don’t continue if you are currently using Telnet to access the server.You
must follow the steps below from the console.

◆ Log in to your Linux system as root from the console.

◆ Using vi or another text editor, open the /etc/services file. Search for
the string telnet, and you should see a line such as the following:
telnet 23/tcp

◆ Insert a # character before the word telnet, which should make the line
look like this:
#telnet 23/tcp

◆ Save the /etc/services file.

◆ Modify the /etc/xinetd.conf file by adding disabled = telnet line in

the defaults section.

For more about configuring xinetd, see Chapter 14.

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284 Part III: System Security

◆ If you have a file called /etc/xinetd.d/telnet, modify this file by

adding a new line, disabled = yes, so that the Telnet service definition
looks like the following:
service telnet
{
disable = yes
flags = REUSE
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/sbin/in.telnetd
log_on_failure += USERID
disabled = yes
}

◆ Restart xinetd using the killall –USR1 xinetd command.

This command disables the Telnet service immediately. Verify that Telnet
service is no longer available by running the telnet localhost 23 com-
mand; you should get the following error message:
Trying 127.0.0.1...
telnet: Unable to connect to remote host: Connection refused

If you don’t get this error message, xinetd hasn’t been restarted properly
in the last step of the example. Retry that command and return to
verifying.
As an added security precaution, remove the /usr/sbin/in.telnetd
Telnet daemon.

Although Telnet is the most frequently used method for accessing a remote sys-
tem, you may also have rlogin, rsh, or rexec services turned on. Check the fol-
lowing directory carefully:

/etc/xinetd.d/<each of the mentioned r* service>

If you don’t see a disabled = yes line in the service definition, add one in each
of these files and then restart xinetd.
If it isn’t practical to access the system via the console, use Secure Shell (SSH)
for remote access. SSH encrypts all your traffic, including your passwords, when
you connect to another machine over the network, effectively eliminating risks
associated with eavesdropping in a network connection.
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 285

Using OpenSSH for Secured

Remote Access
The OpenSSH suite of tools implements the SSH1 and SSH2 protocols. These proto-
cols allow a cryptographically secure connection between the server running the
OpenSSH daemon and the client machine.

Getting and installing OpenSSH

You can download OpenSSH from http://www.openssh.com; the latest version is
2.3.0. Download the following RPM packages:

openssh-version.rpm
openssh-clients-version.rpm
openssh-server-version.rpm
openssh-version.src.rpm

You need only the first three RPM if you want to install the OpenSSH binaries.
OpenSSH uses OpenSSL (See Using OpenSSL chapter) and the general-purpose, in-
memory compression/decompression library called Zlib. Red Hat supplies Zlib RPMs,
which should be already installed on your system. You can check this using the rpm
–qa | grep zlib command. If you don’t already have Zlib installed, download and
install the Zlib RPM packages (zlib-version.rpm, zlib-devel-version.
rpm) from a Red Hat RPM site. You can also download the Zlib source code from
ftp://ftp.freesoftware.com/pub/infozip/zlib/, then compile and install it.
Once your system meets all the OpenSSH prerequisites, you can install OpenSSH.
I downloaded the following RPM packages:

openssh-2.3.0p1-1.i386.rpm
openssh-clients-2.3.0p1-1.i386.rpm
openssh-server-2.3.0p1-1.i386.rpm
openssh-2.3.0p1-1.src.rpm

To avoid or reduce future debugging time, it’s better to install the client soft-
ware on the server and thus remove the issues that occur because of remote
access. Running the client from the server ensures that you aren’t likely to
face DNS issues or other network issues. Once you get the client working on
the server, you can try a remote client knowing that the software works and
any problem probably is related to network configuration and availability.
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286 Part III: System Security

I like to have source code available — so I installed all the preceding packages
using the rpm -ivh openssh*.rpm command. If you decide to compile the source
code (openssh-version.src.rpm), see the following instructions after you run the
rpm –ivh openssh-version.src.rpm command:

Because the source distribution doesn’t install all the necessary configura-
tion files, be sure to install all the binary RPMs first — and then compile and
install the source on top of them.

1. Make /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES your current directory.

2. Extract the OpenSSH tar ball by using the tar xvzf openssh-version.tar.gz
command. This extracts the source code and creates a new directory called
openssh-version. Make openssh-version your current directory.

3. Run ./configure, then make, and finally make install to install the
OpenSSH software.
4. Replace the binary RPM installed lines in the /etc/pam.d/sshd file with
the lines shown in the listing that follows. The new file tells the SSH dae-
mon to use the system-wide authentication configuration (found in the
/etc/pam.d/system-auth file).

#%PAM-1.0
auth required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
auth required /lib/security/pam_nologin.so
account required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
password required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
session required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth

Now you can configure OpenSSH.

Configuring OpenSSH service

The RPM version of the OpenSSH distribution creates a directory called /etc/ssh.
This directory contains the following files:

ssh_host_dsa_key
ssh_host_dsa_key.pub
ssh_host_key
ssh_host_key.pub
sshd_config
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 287

Files ending with a .pub extension store the public keys for the OpenSSH server.
The files with the .key extension store the private keys. The private keys shouldn’t
be readable by anyone but the root user. The very last file, sshd_config, is the
configuration file. Listing 12-1 shows the default version of this file (slightly mod-
ified for brevity).

Listing 12-1: /etc/ssh/ssh_config

# /etc/ssh/ssh_config file
# This is ssh server systemwide configuration file.
Port 22
ListenAddress 0.0.0.0
HostKey /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key
ServerKeyBits 768
LoginGraceTime 600
KeyRegenerationInterval 3600
PermitRootLogin yes
IgnoreRhosts yes
StrictModes yes
X11Forwarding no
X11DisplayOffset 10
PrintMotd yes
KeepAlive yes
SyslogFacility AUTH
LogLevel INFO
RhostsAuthentication no
RhostsRSAAuthentication no
RSAAuthentication yes
PasswordAuthentication yes
PermitEmptyPasswords no
CheckMail no

These directives may require changes:

◆ Port specifies the port number that sshd binds to listen for connections.
■ The default value of 22 is standard.
■ You can add multiple Port directives to make sshd listen to multiple
ports.

A non-standard port for SSH (a port other than 22) can stop some port
scans.
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288 Part III: System Security

◆ ListenAddress specifies the IP address to listen on.

■ By default, sshd listens to all the IP addresses bound to the server.
■ The Port directive must come before the ListenAddress directive.
◆ HostKey specifies the fully qualified path of the private RSA host key file.

◆ ServerKeyBits specifies the number of bits in the server key.

◆ LoginGraceTime specifies the grace period for login request to complete.

◆ KeyRegenerationInterval specifies the time interval for generating the

key.
◆ PermitRootLogin, when set to yes, enables sshd to log in as the root
user. Set this to no unless you have used the /etc/hosts.allow and
/etc/hosts.deny files (discussed in a later section) to restrict sshd
access.
◆ IgnoreRhostshas, when set to yes, enables sshd to ignore the .rhosts
file found in a user’s home directory. Leave the default as is.
◆ StrictModes, when set to yes, has sshd enable a strict mode of opera-
tion. Normally sshd doesn’t allow connection to users whose home direc-
tory (or other important files such as .rhosts) are world-readable. Leave
the default as is.
◆ X11Forwarding, if set to yes, allows X Window System forwarding. I typ-
ically don’t use the X Window System, so I set this to no.
◆ X11DisplayOffset specifies the first X Window System display available
to SSH for forwarding. Leave the default as is.
◆ PrintMotd, when set to yes, has sshd print the /etc/motd file when a
user logs in. This is a relatively minor option.
◆ KeepAlive, when set to yes, has sshd use the KeepAlive protocol for
reducing connection overhead. Leave the default as is.
◆ SyslogFacility specifies which syslog facility is used by sshd. Leave the
default as is.
◆ LogLevel specifies which log level is used for syslog. Leave the default as is.

◆ RhostsAuthentication, when set to no, has sshd disable any authentica-

tion based on .rhosts- or /etc/hosts.equiv. Leave the default as is.
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 289

◆ RhostsRSAAuthentication, when set to no, has sshd disable .rhosts-

based authentication even if RSA host authentication is successful. Leave
the default as is.
◆ RSAAuthentication specifies whether RSA-based authentication is
allowed. Leave the default as is.
◆ PasswordAuthentication specifies whether password-based authentica-
tion is allowed. Leave the default as is.
◆ PermitEmptyPasswords specifies whether empty passwords are okay.
Leave the default as is.
◆ CheckMail, upon successful login, has sshd check whether the user has
e-mail. Leave the default as is.

Once you’ve made all the necessary changes to the /etc/ssh/ssh_config file,
you can start sshd. The next subsections discuss the two ways you can run sshd:

◆ standalone service

◆ xinetd service

STANDALONE SERVICE
The standalone method is the default method for running sshd. In this method, the
daemon is started at server startup, using the /etc/rc.d/init.d/sshd script. This
script is called from the appropriate run-level directory. For example, if you boot
your Linux system in run-level 3 (default for Red Hat Linux), you can call the script
by using the /etc/rc.d/rc3.d/S55sshd link, which points to the /etc/rc.d/
init.d/sshd script.
To run sshd in standalone mode, you must install the openssh-server-
version.rpm package. If you have installed sshd only by compiling the source
code, follow these steps:

1. Create a script named /etc/rc.d/init.d/sshd, as shown in Listing 12-2.

This script is supplied by Red Hat in the binary RPM package for the sshd
server.

Listing 12-2: /etc/rc.d/init.d/sshd

#!/bin/bash
# Init file for OpenSSH server daemon
# chkconfig: 2345 55 25
# description: OpenSSH server daemon
# processname: sshd
# config: /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key
# config: /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.pub

Continued
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290 Part III: System Security

Listing 12-2 (Continued)

# config: /etc/ssh/ssh_random_seed
# config: /etc/ssh/sshd_config
# pidfile: /var/run/sshd.pid
# source function library
. /etc/rc.d/init.d/functions
RETVAL=0
# Some functions to make the below more readable
KEYGEN=/usr/bin/ssh-keygen
RSA_KEY=/etc/ssh/ssh_host_key
DSA_KEY=/etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key
PID_FILE=/var/run/sshd.pid
do_rsa_keygen() {
if $KEYGEN -R && ! test -f $RSA_KEY ; then
echo -n “Generating SSH RSA host key: “
if $KEYGEN -q -b 1024 -f $RSA_KEY -C ‘’ -N ‘’ >&/dev/null; then
success “RSA key generation”
echo
else
failure “RSA key generation”
echo
exit 1
fi
fi
}
do_dsa_keygen() {
if ! test -f $DSA_KEY ; then
echo -n “Generating SSH DSA host key: “
if $KEYGEN -q -d -b 1024 -f $DSA_KEY -C ‘’ -N ‘’ >&/dev/null;
then
success “DSA key generation”
echo
else
failure “DSA key generation”
echo
exit 1
fi
fi
}
case “$1” in
start)
# Create keys if necessary
do_rsa_keygen;
do_dsa_keygen;
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 291

echo -n “Starting sshd: “

if [ ! -f $PID_FILE ] ; then
sshd
RETVAL=$?
if [ “$RETVAL” = “0” ] ; then
success “sshd startup”
touch /var/lock/subsys/sshd
else
failure “sshd startup”
fi
fi
echo
;;
stop)
echo -n “Shutting down sshd: “
if [ -f $PID_FILE ] ; then
killproc sshd
[ $RETVAL -eq 0 ] && rm -f /var/lock/subsys/sshd
fi
echo
;;
restart)
$0 stop
$0 start
RETVAL=$?
;;
condrestart)
if [ -f /var/lock/subsys/sshd ] ; then
$0 stop
$0 start
RETVAL=$?
fi
;;
status)
status sshd
RETVAL=$?
;;
*)
echo “Usage: sshd {start|stop|restart|status|condrestart}”
exit 1
;;
esac
exit $RETVAL
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292 Part III: System Security

2. Link this script to your run-level directory, using the following command:
ln –s /etc/rc.d/init.d/sshd /etc/rc.d/rc3.d/S55sshd

This form of the command assumes that your run level is 3, which is
typical.

The openssh-server-version.rpm package contains the preceding script along

with other files, making it easy to administer the SSH daemon. If you installed this
package earlier, you can start the daemon this way:

/etc/rc.d/init.d/sshd start

When you run the preceding command for the very first time, you see output
like this:

Generating SSH RSA host key: [ OK ]

Generating SSH DSA host key: [ OK ]
Starting sshd: [ OK ]

Before the SSH daemon starts for the very first time, it creates both public and
private RSA and DSA keys — and stores them in the /etc/ssh directory. Make sure
that the key files have the permission settings shown here:

-rw------- 1 root root 668 Dec 6 09:42 ssh_host_dsa_key

-rw-rw-r-- 1 root root 590 Dec 6 09:42 ssh_host_dsa_key.pub
-rw------- 1 root root 515 Dec 6 09:42 ssh_host_key
-rw-rw-r-- 1 root root 319 Dec 6 09:42 ssh_host_key.pub
-rw------- 1 root root 1282 Dec 3 16:44 sshd_config

The files ending in _key are the private key files for the server and must not be
readable by anyone but the root user. To verify that the SSH daemon started, run
ps aux | grep sshd, and you should see a line like this one:

root 857 0.0 0.6 3300 1736 ? S 09:29 0:00 sshd

Once the SSH daemon starts, SSH clients can connect to the server. Now, if you
make configuration changes and want to restart the server, simply run the
/etc/rc.d/init.d/sshd restart command. If you want to shut down the sshd
server for some reason, run the /etc/rc.d/init.d/sshd stop command.

You can safely run the /etc/rc.d/init.d/sshd stop command, even if

you are currently connected to your OpenSSH server via an SSH client. You
aren’t disconnected.
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 293

RUNNING SSHD AS XINETD SERVICE

Every time sshd runs, it generates the server key — which is why sshd is typically
run only once (in standalone mode) during server startup. However, to use xinetd’s
access control features for the ssh service, you can run it as xinetd service. Here’s
how:

1. Create a service file for xinetd called /etc/xinetd.d/sshd, as shown in

the following listing:
service ssh
{
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/local/sbin/sshd
server_args = -i
log_on_success += DURATION USERID
log_on_failure += USERID
nice = 10
}

2. Run the ps auxw | grep sshd command to check whether sshd is

already running. If it’s running, stop it by using the /etc/rc.d/init.d/
sshd stop command.

3. Force xinetd to load its configuration using the killall –USR1 xinetd
command.

Now you can set up SSH clients. Typically, most people who access a Linux
server are running sshd from another Linux system (or from a PC running
Windows or some other operating system).

Connecting to an OpenSSH server

A Linux system can connect to an OpenSSH server. To run the OpenSSH client on a
Linux system install OpenSSL (see Using OpenSSL chapter) and the following
OpenSSH packages.

openssh-version.rpm
openssh-clients-version.rpm

Try the client software on the server itself so that you know the entire
client/server environment is working before attempting to connect from a
remote client system.
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294 Part III: System Security

If you are following my recommendations, then you already have these two
packages installed on your server. If that is the case, go forward with the configu-
ration as follows:

1. Log on to your system as an ordinary user.

2. Generate a public and private key for yourself, which the client uses on
your behalf.
To generate such keys run the /usr/bin/ssh-keygen command.
This command generates a pair of public and private RSA keys, which are
needed for default RSA authentication. The keys are stored in a subdirec-
tory called .ssh within your home directory.
■ identity.pub is the public key.

■ identity is the private key.

3. To log in to the OpenSSH server, run the ssh -l username hostname

command, where username is your username on the server and the host-
name is the name of the server.

For example, to connect to a server called k2.nitec.com, I can run the

ssh –l kabir k2.nitec.com command.

4. The first time you try to connect to the OpenSSH server, you see a mes-
sage that warns you that ssh, the client program, can’t establish the
authenticity of the server. An example of this message is shown here:
The authenticity of host ‘k2.nitec.com’ can’t be established.

You are asked whether you want to continue. Because you must trust your
own server, enter yes to continue. You are warned that this host is perma-
nently added to your known host list file. This file, known_hosts, is cre-
ated in the .ssh directory.
5. You are asked for the password for the given username. Enter appropriate
password.

To log in without entering the password, copy the identity.pub file from
your workstation to a subdirectory called .ssh in the home directory on
the OpenSSH server. On the server, rename this identity.pub file to
authorized_keys, using the mv identity.pub authorized_keys
command. Change the permission settings of the file to 644, using the
chmod 644 authorized_keys command. Doing so ensures that only
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 295

you can change your public key and everyone else can only read it. This
allows the server to authenticate you by using the your public key, which is
now available on both sides.

6. Once you enter the correct password, you are logged in to your OpenSSH
server using the default SSH1 protocol. To use the SSH2 protocol:
■ Use the -2 option
■ Create RSA keys using the ssh-keygen command.

If you enter a pass phrase when you generate the keys using ssh-keygen pro-
gram, you are asked for the pass phrase every time ssh accesses your private key
(~/.ssh/identity) file. To save yourself from repetitively typing the pass phrase,
you can run the script shown in Listing 12-3.

Listing 12-3: ssh-agent.sh script

#!/bin/sh
# Simple script to run ssh-agent only once.
# Useful in a multi-session environment (like X),
# or if connected to a machine more than once.
# Written by: Danny Sung <[email protected]>
# Released under the GPL
# Sat May 22 23:04:19 PDT 1999
# $Log: ssh-agent.sh,v $
# Revision 1.4 1999/05/23 07:52:11 dannys
# Use script to print, not ssh-agent.
# Revision 1.3 1999/05/23 07:44:59 dannys
# Added email address to comments.
# Added GPL license.
# Revision 1.2 1999/05/23 07:43:04 dannys
# Added ability to kill agent.
# Added csh/sh printouts for kill statement.
# Revision 1.1.1.1 1999/05/23 06:05:46 dannys
# SSH utilities/scripts
#
SSHDIR=”${HOME}/.ssh”
HOSTNAME=”`hostname`”
LOCKFILE=”${SSHDIR}/agent/${HOSTNAME}”
SHELL_TYPE=”sh”
RUNNING=0
parse_params()
{

Continued
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296 Part III: System Security

Listing 12-3 (Continued)

while [ $# -ge 1 ]; do
case “$1” in
-s)
SHELL_TYPE=”sh”
;;
-c)
SHELL_TYPE=”csh”
;;
-k)
kill_agent
;;
*)
echo “[-cs] [-k]”
exit 0
;;
esac
shift
done
}
setup_dir()
{
if [ ! -e “${SSHDIR}/agent” ]; then
mkdir “${SSHDIR}/agent”
fi
}
get_pid()
{
if [ -e “${LOCKFILE}” ]; then
PID=`cat “${LOCKFILE}” | grep “echo” | sed ‘s/[^0-9]*//g’`
else
PID=””
fi
}
check_stale_lock()
{
RUNNING=”0”
if [ ! -z “$PID” ]; then
ps_str=`ps auxw | grep $PID | grep -v grep`
if [ -z “$ps_str” ]; then
rm -f “${LOCKFILE}”
else
# agent already running
RUNNING=”1”
fi
fi
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 297

}
start_agent()
{
if [ “$RUNNING” = “1” ]; then
. “${LOCKFILE}” > /dev/null
else
ssh-agent -s > “${LOCKFILE}”
. “${LOCKFILE}” > /dev/null
fi
}
kill_agent()
{
check_stale_lock
if [ -e “${LOCKFILE}” ]; then
. “${LOCKFILE}” > /dev/null
case “$SHELL_TYPE” in
sh)
PARAMS=”-s”
;;
csh)
PARAMS=”-c”
;;
*)
PARAMS=””
;;
esac
ssh-agent ${PARAMS} -k > /dev/null
rm -f “${LOCKFILE}”
fi
print_kill
exit 0
}
print_agent()
{
case “$SHELL_TYPE” in
csh)
echo “setenv SSH_AUTH_SOCK $SSH_AUTH_SOCK;”
echo “setenv SSH_AGENT_PID $SSH_AGENT_PID;”
;;
sh)
echo “SSH_AUTH_SOCK=$SSH_AUTH_SOCK; export SSH_AUTH_SOCK;”
echo “SSH_AGENT_PID=$SSH_AGENT_PID; export SSH_AGENT_PID;”
;;
esac
echo “echo Agent pid $PID”

Continued
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298 Part III: System Security

Listing 12-3 (Continued)

}
print_kill()
{
case “$SHELL_TYPE” in
csh)
echo “unsetenv SSH_AUTH_SOCK;”
echo “unsetenv SSH_AGENT_PID;”
;;
sh)
echo “unset SSH_AUTH_SOCK;”
echo “unset SSH_AGENT_PID;”
;;
esac
echo “echo Agent pid $PID killed”
}
setup_dir
get_pid
parse_params $*
check_stale_lock
start_agent
get_pid
print_agent

When you run this script once, you can use ssh multiple times without entering
the pass phrase every time. For example, after you run this script you can start the
X Window System as usual using startx or other means you use. If you run ssh
for remote system access from xterm, the pass phrase isn’t required after the very
first time. This can also be timesaving for those who use ssh a lot.

Managing the root Account

In most cases, an intruder with a compromised user account tries for root access as
soon as possible. This is why it’s very important to know how to manage your root
account.
Typically, the root account is the Holy Grail of all break-in attempts. Once the
root account is compromised, the system is at the mercy of an intruder. By simply
running a command such as rm –rf /, an intruder can wipe out everything on the
root filesystem or even steal business secrets. So if you have root access to your
system, be very careful how you use it. Simple mistakes or carelessness can create
serious security holes that can cause great harm. Each person with root privileges
must follow a set of guidelines. Here are the primary guidelines that I learned from
experienced system administrators:
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 299

◆ Be root only if you must. Having root access doesn’t mean you should
log in to your Linux system as the root user to read e-mail or edit a text
file. Such behavior is a recipe for disaster! Use a root account only to
■ Modify a system file that can’t be edited by an ordinary user account
■ Enable a service or to do maintenance work, such as shutting down the
server
◆ Choose a very difficult password for root.

root is the Holy Grail for security break-ins. Use an unusual combination of
characters, pun\ctuation marks, and numbers.

◆ Cycle the root password frequently. Don’t use the same root password
more than a month. Make a mental or written schedule to change the
root password every month.

◆ Never write down the root password. In a real business, usually the
root password is shared among several people. So make sure you notify
appropriate coworkers of your change, or change passwords in their pres-
ence. Never e-mail the password to your boss or colleagues.

Limiting root access

Fortunately, the default Red Hat Linux system doesn’t allow login as root via
Telnet or any other remote-access procedure. This magic is done using the
/etc/securetty file. This file lists a set of TTY devices that are considered secure
for root access. The default list contains only vc/1 through vc/11 and tty1
through tty11; that is, virtual consoles 1 through 11, which are tied to tty1
through tty11. This is why you can log in directly as root only from the physical
console screen using a virtual console session. The big idea here is that if you are at
the system console, you are okay to be the root user.

If you look at the /etc/inittab file, you notice that it has lines such as the
following:
# Run gettys in standard runlevels
1:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty1
2:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty2
3:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty3
4:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty4
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300 Part III: System Security

5:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty5
6:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty6
These lines tie vc/1 through vc/6 to tty1 through tty6. You can remove
the rest of the unused virtual consoles and TTYs from the
/etc/securetty file (the lines for vc/7 through vc/11 and tty7
through tty11).

The /etc/securetty file must not be readable by anyone other than the root
user account itself. Because login-related processes run as root, they can access the
file to verify that root-account access is authorized for a certain tty device. If
pseudo-terminal devices such as pts/0, pts/1, and pts/3 are placed in this file,
you can log in as the root user — which means that anyone else can try brute-force
hacks to break in, simply by trying to log in as root. To ensure that this file has the
appropriate permission settings that don’t allow others to change the file, run the
chown root /etc/securetty and chmod 600 /etc/securetty commands.

The OpenSSH daemon, sshd, doesn’t use the /etc/securetty file to

restrict access to the root account. It uses a directive called
PermitRootLogin in the /etc/ssh/sshd_config file to control root
logins. If this directive is set to yes then direct root login from remote sys-
tems is allowed. Disable this option by setting it to no and restarting the
daemon (using the /etc/rc.d/init.d/sshd restart command).

You can’t log in as root because of /etc/securetty (or the PermitRootLogin =

no line in the /etc/ssh/sshd_config file). So if you need to be the root user and
can’t access the machine from the physical console, you can use the su command.

Using su to become root or another user

The su command can run a shell with a user and group ID other than those you
used to log in. For example, if you are logged in as user kabirmj and want to
become user gunchy, simply run su gunchy.

To run the su session as a login session of the new user, use the - option. For
example, su – gunchy switches to the user gunchy and runs such files as
.login, .profile, and .bashrc files as if the user had logged in
directly.
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 301

Similarly, to become the root user from an ordinary user account, run the su
root command. You are asked for the root password. Once you enter the appropri-
ate password, you are in.

A common shortcut switch to root is to run the su command without any

username.

You can switch back and forth between your root session and the original ses-
sion by using the suspend and fg commands. For example, you can su to root
from an ordinary user account and then if you must return to the original user
shell, simply run the suspend command to temporarily stop the su session. To
return to the su session run the fg command.
The su command is a PAM-aware application and uses the /etc/pam.d/su con-
figuration file as shown in Listing 12-4.

Listing 12-4: /etc/pam.d/su

#%PAM-1.0
auth sufficient /lib/security/pam_rootok.so
# Uncomment the following line to implicitly trust users in the “wheel” group.
#auth sufficient /lib/security/pam_wheel.so trust use_uid
# Uncomment the following line to require a user to be in the “wheel” group.
#auth required /lib/security/pam_wheel.so use_uid
auth required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
account required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
password required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
session required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
session optional /lib/security/pam_xauth.so

The preceding configuration file allows the root user to su to any other user
without a password, which makes sense because going from high privilege to low
privilege isn’t insecure by design. However, the default version of this file also per-
mits any ordinary user who knows the root password to su to root. No one but the
root user should know his or her password; making the root account harder to
access for unauthorized users who may have obtained the password makes good
security sense. Simply uncomment (that is, remove the # character from) the fol-
lowing line:

#auth required /lib/security/pam_wheel.so use_uid

Now the users who are listed in the wheel group in the /etc/group file can use
the su command to become root.
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302 Part III: System Security

An ordinary user can su to other ordinary user accounts without being a

member of the wheel group. The wheel group restrictions apply only to
root account access.

Now, if you want to enable a user to become root via the su facility, simply add
the user into the wheel group in the /etc/group file. For example, the following
line from my /etc/group file shows that only root and kabir are part of the
wheel group.

wheel:x:10:root,kabir

Don’t use a text editor to modify the /etc/group file. Chances of making
human mistakes such as typos or syntax errors are too great and too risky.
Simply issue the usermod command to modify a user’s group privileges. For
example, to add kabir to the wheel group, run the usermod -G wheel
kabir command.

The su command is great to switch over from an ordinary user to root but it’s
an all-or-nothing type of operation. In other words, an ordinary user who can su to
root gains access to all that root can do. This is often not desirable. For example,
say you want a coworker to be able to start and stop the Web server if needed. If
you give her the root password so that she can su to root to start and stop the
Web server, nothing stops her from doing anything else root can do. Thankfully,
there are ways to delegate selected root tasks to ordinary users without giving
them full root access.

Using sudo to delegate root access

There are two common ways to delegate root tasks. You can change file permis-
sions for programs that normally can only be run by root. Typically, you use set-
UID for this so that an ordinary user can act as the root user. Using set-UID is
discussed in a later chapter (see Securing Filesystems.) This method, though, is very
unsafe and cumbersome to manage. The other option is called sudo, which is short
for superuser do.
The sudo suite of programs can let users (or user groups) run selected commands
as root. When an ordinary user uses sudo to execute a privileged command, sudo
logs the command and the arguments so that a clear audit trail is established.
Because the sudo package isn’t in the standard Red Hat Linux distribution, you
must install it yourself.
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 303

COMPILING AND INSTALLING SUDO

The official Web site for the sudo package is http://www.courtesan.com/sudo/.
You can download the sudo source distribution from there. Or, you can download
the RPM version of sudo from the very useful RPM Finder Web site at
http://rpmfind.net. Search for sudo to locate the sudo RPMs at this site.
Because I prefer to compile and install software, I recommend that you down-
load the sudo source RPM package. As of this writing the latest source sudo RPM is
sudo-1.6.3-4.src.rpm. The version that you download may be different, so make
sure you replace the version number (1.6.3-4) wherever I refer to it in the follow-
ing section.

To install the latest sudo binary RPM package suitable for your Red Hat
Linux architecture (such as i386, i686, or alpha), download it from the RPM
Finder Web site and install it using the rpm command. For example, the lat-
est binary RPM distribution for i386 (Intel) architecture is sudo-
1.6.3-4.i386.rpm. Run the rpm –ivh sudo-1.6.3-4.i386.rpm
command to install the package.

After downloading the source RPM package, complete the following steps to
compile and install sudo on your system.

1. su to root.
2. Run rpm –ivh sudo-1.6.3-4.src.rpm command to extract the sudo tar
ball in /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES directory.
Change your current directory to /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES. If you run
ls –l sudo* you see a file such as the following:

-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 285126 Apr 10 2000 sudo-

1.6.3.tar.gz

3. Extract the sudo-1.6.3.tar.gz file using the tar xvzf sudo-1.6.3.

tar.gz command. This creates a subdirectory called sudo-1.6.3. Change
your current directory to sudo-1.6.3.
4. Run the ./configure --with-pam script to configure sudo source code
for your system. The --with-pam option specifies that you want to build
sudo with PAM support.

5. Run make to compile. If you don’t get any compilation errors, you can run
make install to install the software.

6. Run cp sample.pam /etc/pam.d/sudo to rename the sample PAM con-

figuration file; then copy it to the /etc/pam.d directory.
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304 Part III: System Security

Modify the /etc/pam.d/sudo file to have the following lines:

#%PAM-1.0
auth required /lib/security/pam_stack.so
service=system-auth
account required /lib/security/pam_stack.so
service=system-auth
password required /lib/security/pam_stack.so
service=system-auth
session required /lib/security/pam_stack.so
service=system-auth

7. Run the make clean command to remove unnecessary object files.

CONFIGURING AND RUNNING SUDO

The sudo configuration file is called /etc/sudoers. Use the visudo program as
root to edit this file. The visudo command

◆ Locks the /etc/sudoers file to prevent simultaneous changes by multiple

root sessions.

◆ Checks for configuration syntax.

By default, the visudo command uses the vi editor. If you aren’t a vi fan
and prefer emacs or pico, you can set the EDITOR environment variable to
point to your favorite editor, which makes visudo run the editor of your
choice. For example, if you use the pico editor, run export
EDITOR=/usr/bin/pico for a bash shell, or run setenv EDITOR
/usr/bin/pico editor for csh, tcsh shells. Then run the visudo com-
mand to edit the /etc/sudoers contents in the preferred editor.

The default /etc/sudoers file has one configuration entry as shown below:

root ALL=(ALL) ALL

This default setting means that the root user can run any command on any host
as any user. The /etc/sudoers configuration is quite extensive and often confus-
ing. The following section discusses a simplified approach to configuring sudo for
practical use.
Two types of configuration are possible for sudo:
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 305

◆ Aliases. An alias is a simple name for things of the same kind. There are
four types of aliases supported by sudo configuration.
■ Host_Alias = list of one or more hostnames. For example, WEB-
SERVERS = k2.nitec.com, everest.nitec.com defines a host alias
called WEBSERVERS, which is a list of two hostnames.
■ User_Alias = list of one or more users. For example, JRADMINS =
dilbert, catbert defines a user alias called JRADMIN, which is a list
of two users.
■ Cmnd_Alias = list of one or more commands. For example,
COMMANDS = /bin/kill, /usr/bin/killall defines a command
alias called COMMANDS, which is a list of two commands.
◆ User specifications. A user specification defines who can run what com-
mand as which user.
For example:
JRADMINS WEBSERVER=(root) COMMANDS

This user specification says sudo allows the users in JRADMINS to run pro-
grams in COMMANDS on WEBSERVER systems as root. In other words, it
specifies that user dlibert and catbert can run /bin/kill or /usr/
bin/killall command on k2.nitec.om, everest.nitec.com as root.
Listing 12-5 is an example configuration.

Listing 12-5: /etc/sudoers sample configuration file

Host_Alias WEBSERVER = www.nitec.com
User_Alias WEBMASTERS = sheila, kabir
Cmnd_Alias KILL = /bin/kill, /usr/bin/killall
WEBMASTERS WEBSERVER=(root) KILL

The preceding configuration authorizes user sheila and kabir to run (via sudo)
the kill commands (/bin/kill and /usr/bin/killall) as root on
www.nitec.com. In other words, these two users can kill any process on
www.nitec.com. How is this useful? Let’s say that user sheila discovered that a
program called oops.pl that the system administrator (root) ran before going to
lunch has gone nuts and is crawling the Web server. She can kill the process with-
out waiting for the sysadmin to return. User sheila can run the ps auxww | grep
oops.pl command to check whether the oops.pl program is still running. The out-
put of the command is:

root 11681 80.0 0.4 2568 1104 pts/0 S 11:01 0:20 perl /tmp/oops.pl

She tries to kill it using the kill -9 11681 command, but the system returns
11681: Operation not permitted error message. She realizes that the process is
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306 Part III: System Security

owned by root (as shown in the ps output) and runs sudo kill -9 11681 to kill
it. Because she is running the sudo command for the very first time, she receives
the following message from the sudo command.

We trust you have received the usual lecture from the local System
Administrator. It usually boils down to these two things:
#1) Respect the privacy of others.
#2) Think before you type.
Password:

At this point she is asked for her own password (not the root password) and
once she successfully provides the password, sudo runs the requested command,
which kills the culprit process immediately. She then verifies that the process is
no longer running by rerunning the ps auxww | grep oops.pl command. As
shown sudo can safely delegate system tasks to junior-level administrators or
coworkers. After all, who likes calls during the lunch?. Listing 12-6 presents a prac-
tical sudo configuration that I use to delegate some of the Web server administra-
tion tasks to junior administrators.

Listing 12-6: Kabir’s /etc/sudoers for a Web server

# sudoers file.
# This file MUST be edited with the ‘visudo’
# command as root.
# See the sudoers man page for the details on how
# to write a sudoers file.
# Host alias specification
Host_Alias WEBSERVER = www.intevo.com
# User alias specification
User_Alias WEBMASTERS = wsajr1, wsajr2
# Cmnd alias specification
Cmnd_Alias APACHE = /usr/local/apache/bin/apachectl
Cmnd_Alias KILL = /bin/kill, /usr/bin/killall
Cmnd_Alias REBOOT = /usr/sbin/shutdown
Cmnd_Alias HALT = /usr/sbin/halt
# User privilege specification
WEBMASTERS WEBSERVER=(root) APACHE, KILL, REBOOT, HALT

This configuration allows two junior Web administrators (wsajr1 and wsajr2) to
start, restart, stop the Apache Web server using the /usr/local/apache/
bin/apachectl command. They can also kill any process on the server and even
reboot or halt the server if need be. All this can happen without having the full
root access.
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 307

Commands that allow shell access (such as editors like vi or programs like
less) shouldn’t run via the sudo facility, because a user can run any com-
mand via the shell and gain full root access intentionally or unintentionally.

The configuration I use is quite simple compared to what is possible with sudo.
(Read the sudoers man pages for details.) However, it’s a good idea to keep your
/etc/sudoers configuration as simple as possible. If the program you want to give
access to others is complex or has too many options, consider denying it com-
pletely. Don’t give out sudo access to users you don’t trust. Also, get in the habit of
auditing sudo-capable users frequently using the logs.

AUDITING SUDO USERS

By default, sudo logs all attempts to run any command (successfully or unsuccess-
fully) via the syslog. You can run sudo –V to find which syslog facility sudo uses
to log information. You can also override the default syslog facility configuration
in /etc/sudoers. For example, adding the following line in /etc/sudoers forces
sudo to use the auth facility of syslog.

Defaults syslog=auth

To keep a separate sudo log besides syslog managed log files, you can add a
line such as the following to /etc/sudoers:

Defaults log_year, logfile=/var/log/sudo.log

This forces sudo to write a log entry to the /var/log/sudo.log file every time
it’s run.

Monitoring Users
There are some simple tools that you can use every day to keep yourself informed
about who is accessing your system. These tools aren’t exactly monitoring tools by
design, but you can certainly use them to query your system about user activity.
Often I have discovered (as have many other system administrators) unusual activ-
ity with these tools, perhaps even by luck, but why quibble? The tools have these
capabilities; an administrator should be aware of them. In this section I introduce
some of them.
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308 Part III: System Security

Finding who is on the system

You can use the who or w commands to get a list of users who are currently on your
system. Here is some sample output from who:

swang pts/1 Dec 10 11:02

jasont pts/2 Dec 10 12:01
zippy pts/3 Dec 10 12:58
mimi pts/0 Dec 10 8:46

If you simply want a count of the users, run who –q. The w command provides
more information than who does. Here’s an example output of the w command.

USER TTY FROM LOGIN@ IDLE JCPU PCPU WHAT

swang pts/1 reboot.nitec.co 11:02am 12.00s 0.29s 0.15s pine
jasont pts/2 k2.nitec.co 12:01pm 2.00s 0.12s 0.02s vi .plan
zippy pts/3 reboot.nitec.co 12:58pm 17:45 0.04s 0.04s -tcsh
mimi pts/0 gatekeeper.nitec.co 8:46am 0.00s 1.02s 0.02s lynx

Here user swang appears to read e-mail using pine, user jasont is modifying his
.plan file, user zippy seems to be running nothing other than the tcsh shell, and
user mimi is running the text-based Web browser Lynx.
When you have a lot of users (in the hundreds or more), running w or who can
generate more output than you want to deal with. Instead of running the who or w
commands in such cases, you can run the following script from Listing 12-7 to
check how many unique and total users are logged in.

Listing 12-7: The who.sh script

#!/bin/sh
# Purpose: this simple script uses the common Linux
# utilities to determine the total and unique number
# of users logged on the system
# Version: 1.0
#
WHO=/usr/bin/who
GREP=/bin/grep
AWK=/bin/awk
SORT=/bin/sort
WC=/usr/bin/wc
SED=/bin/sed
echo -n “Total unique users:”;
# Filter the output of the who command using awk to
# extract the first column and then uniquely sort the
# columns using sort. Pipe the sorted output to wc for
# line count. Finally remove unnecessary white spaces
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 309

# from the output of wc using sed

$WHO | $AWK ‘{print $1}’ | $SORT -u | $WC -l | $SED ‘s/ */ /g’;
# Use grep to filter the output of the who command to
# find the line containing user count.
# Then print out the user count using awk.
$WHO -q | $GREP users | $AWK ‘BEGIN{FS=”=”;} {printf(“\nTotal user sessions:
%d\n\n”, $2);}’;
# Exit
exit 0;

You can run this script from the command line as sh who.sh at any time to
check how many total and unique users are logged in. Also, if you want to run the
command every minute, use the watch –n 60 sh /path/to/who.sh command.
This command runs the who.sh script every 60 seconds. Of course, if you want to
run it at a different interval, change the number accordingly.

Finding who was on the system

You can run the last command to find users who have already logged out. Last
uses the /var/log/wtmp file to display a list of users logged in (and out) since that
file was created. You specify a username, and it displays information only for the
given user. You can also use the finger username command to see when someone
last logged in.

To use the finger command on the local users; you don’t need the finger
daemon.

All the commands (who, w, last, finger) discussed in this section depend on
system files such as /var/log/wtmp and /var/run/utmp files. Make sure that these
files aren’t world-writeable; otherwise a hacker disguised as an ordinary user can
remove his tracks.

Creating a User-Access
Security Policy
System and network administrators are often busy beyond belief. Any administra-
tor that manages ten or more users know that there’s always something new to take
care of every day. I often hear that user administration is a thankless job, but it
doesn’t have to be. With a little planning and documentation, an administrator can
make life easier for herself and everyone else involved. If every administrator
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310 Part III: System Security

would craft a tight security policy and help users understand and apply it, user-
access-related security incidents would subside dramatically. Follow these guide-
lines for creating a user security policy.

◆ Access to a system is a privilege. This privilege comes with responsibil-

ity; one must take all precautions possible to ensure the access privilege
can’t be easily exploited by potential vandals. Simply knowing who may
be watching over your shoulder when you enter a password can increase
user-access security.
◆ Passwords aren’t a personal preference. A user must not consider her
password as something that she has a lot of control over when it comes to
choosing one.
◆ Passwords expire. A user must accept that passwords aren’t forever.

◆ Passwords are organizational secrets. A user must never share or display

passwords. A user must not store passwords in a handheld PC, which can
get lost and fall in wrong hands. Never give passwords to anyone over the
phone.
◆ Not all passwords are created equal. Just having a password isn’t good
enough. A good password is hard to guess and often hard to remember. A
user must make great efforts to memorize the password.

Creating a User-Termination
Security Policy
It is absolutely crucial that your organization create a user-termination security
policy to ensure that people who leave the organization can’t become potential
security liabilities. By enforcing a policy upon user termination, you can make sure
your systems remain safe from any ill-conceived action taken by an unhappy
employee.
When a user leaves your organization, you have two alternatives for a first
response:

◆ Remove the person’s account by using the userdel username command.

◆ Disable the user account so it can’t log in to the system, using the user-
mod –s /bin/true username command.

The command modifies the user account called username in /etc/pass-

word file and changes the login shell to /bin/true, which doesn’t allow
the user to log in interactively.
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Chapter 12: Shadow Passwords and OpenSSH 311

To display a message such as Sorry, you are no longer allowed to access

our systems, you can create a file called /bin/nologin this way:

#!/bin/sh
echo “Sorry, you are no longer allowed to access our systems.”;
exit 0;

Set the nologin script’s ownership to root with the chown root /bin/nologin
command. Make it executable for everyone by using the chmod 755 /bin/nologin
command. Run the usermod –s /bin/nologin username command. When a ter-
minated user tries to log in, the script runs and displays the intended message.

Summary
This chapter examined the risks associated with user access and some responses to
the risks — such as using shadow passwords, securing a user-authentication process
by using an OpenSSH service, restricting the access granted to the root user
account, and delegating root tasks to ordinary users in a secure manner.
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Chapter 13

Secure Remote Passwords

IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Setting up Secure Remote Password (SRP)

◆ Securing Telnet using SRP

SECURE REMOTE PASSWORD (SRP) is an open source password-based authentication

protocol. SRP-enabled client/server suites don’t transmit passwords (encrypted or
in clear text) over the network. This entirely removes the possibility of password
spoofing. SRP also doesn’t use encryption to perform authentication, which makes
it faster than the public/private key–based authentication schemes currently avail-
able. To learn more about this protocol visit the official SRP Web site at
http://srp.standford.edu.

Setting Up Secure Remote

Password Support
As of this writing there’s no RPM package available for SRP. You need to download
the source distribution from http://srp.stanford.edu, then compile and install
it. In this section I discuss how you can do that.

1. Download the latest SRP source distribution from the preceding Web site.
As of this writing the source distribution is called srp-1.7.1.tar.gz. As
usual, make sure that you replace the version number (1.7.1) with the
appropriate version number of the distribution you are about to install.
2. Once downloaded, su to root and copy the .tar file in the /usr/src/
redhat/SOURCES directory.

3. Extract the source distribution in the /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES direc-

tory using the tar xvzf srp-1.7.1.tar.gz command. This creates a
subdirectory called srp-1.7.1. Change your current directory to this new
subdirectory.

313
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314 Part III: System Security

4. Run the configure script with these options:

--with-openssl
--with-pam

I assume that you have extracted and compiled OpenSSL source in the
/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/openssl-0.9.6 directory. Run the config-
ure script as shown below:

./configure --with-openssl=/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/openssl-0.9.6 \
--with-pam

5. Once the SRP source is configured for OpenSSL and PAM support by the
options used in the preceding command, run the make and make install
commands to install the software.

At this point you have compiled and installed SRP, but you still need the
Exponential Password System (EPS) support for SRP applications.

Establishing Exponential
Password System (EPS)
The SRP source distribution includes the EPS source, which makes installation easy.
However, the default installation procedure didn’t work for me, so I suggest that
you follow my instructions below.

1. su to root.
2. Change the directory to /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/srp-
1.7.1/base/pam_eps.

3. Install the PAM modules for EPS in the /lib/security directory with the
following command:
install -m 644 pam_eps_auth.so pam_eps_passwd.so
/lib/security

4. Run the /usr/local/bin/tconf command. You can also run it from the
base/src subdirectory of the SRP source distribution.

The tconf command generates a set of parameters for the EPS password
file.
5. Choose the predefined field option.
The tconf utility also creates /etc/tpasswd and /etc/tpasswd.conf
files.
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Chapter 13: Secure Remote Passwords 315

Select the predefined field number 6 or above.The number 6 option is 1,024

bits. If you choose a larger field size, the computation time to verify the para-
meters used by EPS increases.

The more bits that you require for security, the more verification time costs
you.

At this point, you have the EPS support installed but not in use. Thanks to the
PAM technology used by Linux, upgrading your entire (default) password authenti-
cation to EPS is quite easy. You modify a single PAM configuration file.

Using the EPS PAM module

for password authentication
To use the EPS PAM module for password authentication, do the following:

1. As root, create a backup copy of your /etc/pam.d/system-auth file.

(You’ll need this if you run into problems with the EPS.) You can simply
switch back to your old PAM authentication by overwriting the modified
system-auth file with the backed-up version.

2. Modify the system-auth file as shown in Listing 13-1.

Listing 13-1: /etc/pam.d/system-auth

#%PAM-1.0
# This file is auto-generated.
# User changes are destroyed the next time authconfig is run.
# DON’T USE authconfig!
auth required /lib/security/pam_unix.so likeauth nullok md5 shadow
auth sufficient /lib/security/pam_eps_auth.so
auth required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
account sufficient /lib/security/pam_unix.so
account required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
password required /lib/security/pam_cracklib.so retry=3
password required /lib/security/pam_eps_passwd.so

Continued
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316 Part III: System Security

Listing 13-1 (Continued)

password sufficient /lib/security/pam_unix.so nullok use_authtok md5
shadow
password required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
session required /lib/security/pam_limits.so

session required /lib/security/pam_unix.so

3. Notice the lines in bold. The first bold line indicates that the ESP auth
module for PAM can satisfy authentication requirements. The second bold
line specifies that the pam_eps_passwd.so PAM module for EPS is used
for password management. The placement of these lines (in bold) is very
important. No line with sufficient control fag can come before the
pam_eps_auth.so or pam_eps_passwd.so lines.

Now you can convert the passwords in /etc/passwd (or in /etc/shadow) to EPS
format.

Converting standard passwords to EPS format

User passwords are never stored in /etc/passwd or in /etc/shadow, so there is no
easy way to convert all of your existing user passwords to the new EPS format.
These two files store only encrypted versions of password verification strings gen-
erated by a one-way hash algorithm used in the crypt() function.
So the best way for converting to ESP passwords is by making users change their
passwords using the passwd command as usual. If your /etc/pam.d/passwd file
still uses the default settings, as shown in Listing 13-2, the pam_eps_passwd.so
module used in /etc/pam.d/system-auth configuration writes an EPS version of
the password verification string (not the user’s actual password) in the
/etc/tpasswd file.

Listing 13-2: /etc/pam.d/passwd

#%PAM-1.0
auth required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
account required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
password required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth

Ordinary user passwords may need to be changed by using the root account
once before map_eps_passwd.so will write to the /etc/tpasswd file.
This bug or configuration problem may be already corrected for you if you
are using a newer version.
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Chapter 13: Secure Remote Passwords 317

Once you have converted user passwords in this manner you can start using the
SRP version of applications such as Telnet.

Using SRP-Enabled Telnet Service

The SRP distribution includes SRP-enabled Telnet server and client software. To
install the SRP-enabled Telnet client/server suite, do the following:

1. su to root and change the directory to the Telnet subdirectory of your

SRP source distribution, which for my version is
/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/srp-1.7.1/telnet.

2. Run make and make install to the Telnet server (telnetd) software in
/usr/local/sbin and the Telnet client (telnet) in /usr/local/bin.

3. Change the directory to /etc/xinetd.conf. Move your current Telnet

configuration file for xinetd to a different directory if you have one.
4. Create a Telnet configuration file called /etc/xinetd.d/srp-telnetd, as
shown in Listing 13-3.

Listing 13-3: /etc/xinetd.d/srp-telnetd

# default: on
# description: The SRP Telnet server serves Telnet connections.
# It uses SRP for authentication.
service telnet
{
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/local/sbin/telnetd
log_on_success += DURATION USERID
log_on_failure += USERID
nice = 10
disable = no
}

5. Restart xinetd using the killall -USR1 xinetd command.

6. Create or modify the /etc/pam.d/telnet file as shown in Listing 13-4.
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318 Part III: System Security

Listing 13-4: /etc/pam.d/telnet

#%PAM-1.0
auth required /lib/security/pam_listfile.so item=user \
sense=deny file=/etc/telnetusers onerr=succeed
auth required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=srp-telnet
auth required /lib/security/pam_shells.so
account required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=srp-telnet
session required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=srp-telnet

If you have modified the /etc/pam.d/system-auth file as shown in

Listing 13-1, you can replace the service=srp-telnet option in the pre-
ceding listing to service=system-auth. This can keep one systemwide
PAM configuration file, which eases your authentication administration.
Also, you can skip step 7.

7. Create a file called /etc/pam.d/srp-telnet as shown in Listing 13-5.

Listing 13-5: /etc/pam.d/srp-telnet

#%PAM-1.0
auth required /lib/security/pam_unix.so likeauth nullok md5 shadow
auth sufficient /lib/security/ pam_eps_auth.so
auth required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
account sufficient /lib/security/pam_unix.so
account required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
password required /lib/security/pam_cracklib.so retry=3
password required /lib/security/pam_eps_passwd.so
password sufficient /lib/security/pam_unix.so nullok use_authtok md5
shadow
password required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
session required /lib/security/pam_limits.so
session required /lib/security/pam_unix.so

Now you have an SRP-enabled Telnet server. Try the service by running the
SRP-enabled Telnet client (found in the /usr/local/bin directory) using the
/usr/local/bin/telnet localhost command. When prompted for the username
and password, use an already SRP-converted account. The username you use to
connect to the SRP-enabled Telnet server via this client must have an entry in
/etc/tpasswd, or the client automatically fails over to non-SRP (clear-text pass-
word) mode. Here’s a sample session:
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Chapter 13: Secure Remote Passwords 319

$ telnet localhost 23
Trying 127.0.0.1...
Connected to localhost.intevo.com (127.0.0.1).
Escape character is ‘^]’.
[ Trying SRP ... ]
SRP Username (root): kabir
[ Using 1024-bit modulus for ‘kabir’ ]
SRP Password:
[ SRP authentication successful ]
[ Input is now decrypted with type CAST128_CFB64 ]
[ Output is now encrypted with type CAST128_CFB64 ]
Last login: Tue Dec 26 19:30:08 from reboot.intevo.com

To connect to your SRP-enabled Telnet server from other Linux workstations,

you must install SRP support and the SRP Telnet client software on them. Also,
there are many SRP-enabled non-Linux versions of Telnet clients available, which
may come in handy if you have a heterogeneous network using multiple operating
systems.

Using SRP-enabled Telnet clients

from non-Linux platforms
Many SRP-enabled Telnet clients exist for the other popular operating systems. You
can find a list of these at http://srp.stanford.edu. One SRP-enabled Telnet
client works on any system that supports Java, which covers just about every mod-
ern operating system.

Using SRP-Enabled FTP Service

The SRP distribution includes an SRP-enabled FTP server and FTP client software.
To install the SRP-enabled FTP service do the following:

1. su to root and change the directory to the FTP subdirectory of your SRP
source distribution, which for my version is /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/
srp-1.7.1/ftp.

2. Run make and make install to the FTP server (ftpd) software in /usr/
local/sbin and the FTP client (ftp) in /usr/local/bin.

3. Change the directory to /etc/xinetd.conf. Move your current FTP con-

figuration file for xinetd to a different directory if you have one.
4. Create an FTP configuration file called /etc/xinetd.d/srp-ftpd, as
shown in Listing 13-6.
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320 Part III: System Security

Listing 13-6: /etc/xinetd.d/srp-ftpd

# default: on
# description: The SRP FTP server serves FTP connections.
# It uses SRP for authentication.
service ftp
{
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/local/sbin/ftpd
log_on_success += DURATION USERID
log_on_failure += USERID
nice = 10
disable = no
}

If you don’t want to fall back to regular FTP authentication (using a clear-text
password) when SRP authentication fails, add server_args = -a line
after the socket_type line in the preceding configuration file.

5. Restart xinetd using the killall -USR1 xinetd command.

6. Create or modify the /etc/pam.d/ftp file as shown in Listing 13-7.

Listing 13-7: /etc/pam.d/ftp

#%PAM-1.0
auth required /lib/security/pam_listfile.so item=user \
sense=deny file=/etc/ftpusers onerr=succeed
auth required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=srp-ftp
auth required /lib/security/pam_shells.so
account required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=srp-ftp
session required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=srp-ftp

If you have modified the /etc/pam.d/system-auth file as shown in

Listing 13-1 you can replace the service=srp-ftp option in the listing to
service=system-auth. This keeps one systemwide PAM configuration
file, which eases your authentication administration. Also, you can skip step 7.
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Chapter 13: Secure Remote Passwords 321

7. Create a file called /etc/pam.d/srp-ftp as shown in Listing 13-8.

Listing 13-8: /etc/pam.d/srp-ftp

#%PAM-1.0
auth required /lib/security/pam_unix.so likeauth nullok md5 shadow
auth sufficient /lib/security/pam_eps_auth.so
auth required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
account sufficient /lib/security/pam_unix.so
account required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
password required /lib/security/pam_cracklib.so retry=3
password required /lib/security/pam_eps_passwd.so
password sufficient /lib/security/pam_unix.so nullok use_authtok md5
shadow
password required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
session required /lib/security/pam_limits.so
session required /lib/security/pam_unix.so

Now you have an SRP-enabled FTP server. Try the service by running the SRP-
enabled FTP client (found in the /usr/local/bin directory) using the
/usr/local/bin/ftp localhost command. When prompted for the username
and password, use an already SRP-converted account. The username you use to
connect to the SRP-enabled FTP server via this client must have an entry in
/etc/tpasswd, or the client automatically fails over to non-SRP (clear-text pass-
word) mode. Here’s a sample session:

$ /usr/local/bin/ftp localhost
Connected to localhost.intevo.com.
220 k2.intevo.com FTP server (SRPftp 1.3) ready.
SRP accepted as authentication type.
Name (localhost:kabir): kabir
SRP Password:
SRP authentication succeeded.
Using cipher CAST5_CBC and hash function SHA.
200 Protection level set to Private.
232 user kabir authorized by SRP.
230 User kabir logged in.
Remote system type is UNIX.
Using binary mode to transfer files.

The SRP-enabled FTP service supports the following cryptographic ciphers:

NONE (1)
BLOWFISH_ECB (2)
BLOWFISH_CBC (3)
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322 Part III: System Security

BLOWFISH_CFB64 (4)
BLOWFISH_OFB64 (5)
CAST5_ECB (6)
CAST5_CBC (7)
CAST5_CFB64 (8)
CAST5_OFB64 (9)
DES_ECB (10)
DES_CBC (11)
DES_CFB64 (12)
DES_OFB64 (13)
DES3_ECB (14)
DES3_CBC (15)
DES3_CFB64 (16)
DES3_OFB64 (17)

Also, MD5 and SHA hash functions are supported. By default, the CAST5_CBC
cipher and SHA hash function are used. To specify a different cipher, use the -c
option. For example, the /usr/local/bin/ftp -c blowfish_cfb64 localhost
command uses the BLOWFISH_CFB64 cipher, not CAST5_CBC. To use the MD5 hash
function, use the -h option. The /usr/local/bin/ftp -h md5 localhost com-
mand uses the MD5 hash function, not SHA.
Details of these ciphers or hash functions are beyond the scope of this book. You
can learn about these ciphers at security-related Web sites. See Appendix C for
online resources.
To connect to your SRP-enabled FTP server from other Linux workstations,
install SRP support along with the SRP-enabled FTP client on them. There are also
SRP-enabled FTP clients for non-Linux systems.

Using SRP-enabled FTP clients

from non-Linux platforms
Kermit 95 — available for Windows 95, 98, ME, NT, and 2000, and OS/2 — is SRP
enabled and has a built-in FTP client. Visit http://www.columbia.edu/kermit/
k95.html for details.

Summary
Transmitting plain-text passwords over a network such as Internet is very risky.
Secure Remote Password (SRP) protocol provides you with an alternative to send-
ing plain-text passwords over the network. Using SRP you can secure the authenti-
cation aspect of such protocols as Telnet and FTP.
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Chapter 14

xinetd
IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ What is xinetd?

◆ Compiling and installing xinetd

◆ Restricting access to common Internet services

◆ Preventing denial-of-service attacks

◆ Redirecting services

AS A SECURE REPLACEMENT for the inetd daemon, xinetd offers greater flexibility
and control. The xinetd daemon has the same functionality as inetd, but adds
access control, port binding, and protection from denial-of-service attacks.
One drawback is its poor support for Remote Procedure Call (RPC)-based services
(listed in /etc/rpc). Because most people don’t run RPC-based services, this
doesn’t matter too much. If you need RPC-based services, you can use inetd to run
those services while running xinetd to manage your Internet services in a secure,
controlled manner. In this chapter I dicuss how you can set up xinetd and manage
various services using it in a secure manner.

What Is xinetd?
Typically, Internet services on Linux are run either in stand-alone or xinetd-run
mode. Figure 14-1 shows a diagram of what the stand-alone mode looks like.
As shown in stand-alone mode, a parent or master server is run at all times. This
master server

◆ Listens to ports on network interfaces.

◆ Preforks multiple child servers that wait for requests from the master
server.

When the master server receives a request from a client system, it simply passes
the request information to one of its ready-to-run child server processes. The child
server interacts with the client system and provides necessary service.
323
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324 Part III: System Security

Request #1
User #1 Master Server
Request #N (Listens for connection
User #N on a certain port)
Pre-forks a number of
child servers

Response #1 Child Server #1 • A child server stays around for awhile

User #1 (Services the client) to service multiple clients
• A pool of child servers are kept alive to
service multiple clients fast
Response #N Child Server #N
User #N (Services the client)

Figure 14-1: Stand-alone mode Internet service diagram

Apache Web Server is typically stand-alone, though it can run as a xinetd-run

server.
Figure 14-2 shows a diagram of how a xinetd-run service works.

• Forks on appropriate daemon

Request xinetd on demand
User (Listens for connection on all • Typically, a daemon services
defined service ports) a single client and exits
immediately afterwards
• Multiple requests of the same
kind force xinetd to start
multiple daemons on the fly
Response • Typically, this model is not
Requested Daemon recommended for high-load,
User (Services the client and exits) high-traffic services such as
HTTP or SMTP

Figure 14-2: xinetd-run Internet service diagram

There is no master server other than the xinetd server itself. The server is
responsible for listening to all necessary ports for all the services it manages. Once
a connection for a particular service arrives, it forks the appropriate server pro-
gram, which in turn services the client and exits. If the load is high, xinetd services
multiple requests by running multiple servers.
However, because xinetd must fork a server as requests arrive, the penalty is too
great for anything that receives or can receive heavy traffic. For example, running
Apache as a xinetd service is practical only for experimentation and internal pur-
poses. It isn’t feasible or run Apache as a xinetd-run service for a high-profile Web
site. The overhead of forking and establishing a new process for each request is too
much of a load and a waste of resources.
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Chapter 14: xinetd 325

Because load is usually not an issue, plenty of services can use xinetd. FTP ser-
vice and POP3 service by using xinetd, for example, are quite feasible for even
large organizations.

Setting Up xinetd
By default, xinetd gets installed on your Red Hat Linux 7.x system. Make sure,
though, that you always have the latest version installed. In the following section I
show installation of and configuration for the latest version of xinetd.

Getting xinetd
As with all open-source Linux software, you have two choices for sources of
xinetd:

◆ Install a binary RPM distribution of xinetd from the Red Hat CD-ROM or
download it from a Red Hat RPM site such as http://rpmfind.net.
◆ Download the source RPM distribution, then compile and install it
yourself.

I prefer the source distribution, so I recommend that you try this approach, too.
However, if you must install the binary RPM, download it and run the rpm –ivh
xinetd-version-architecture.rpm file to install. In the following section, I
show how you can compile and install xinetd.

Compiling and installing xinetd

After downloading the source RPM distribution, follow the steps below to compile
xinetd.

1. Run rpm –ivh xinet-version.src.rpm, where xinet-version.src.rpm is

the name of the source RPM distribution file.
This places a tar archive called xinetd-version.tar.gz in the
/usr/sr324c/redhat/SOURCES directory.

2. Go to the /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES directory and run the tar xvzf

xinetd-version.tar.gz command to extract the source tree.

The tar program extracts the source in a subdirectory called

xinetd-version.

3. Go to xinetd-version and run the ./configure script.

To control maximum load placed on the system by any particular xinetd-
managed service, use the --with-loadavg option with the script.
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326 Part III: System Security

To configure the TCP wrapper (tcpd) for xinetd, run the configure
script with the --with-libwrap=/usr/lib/libwrap.a option. This
controls access by using /etc/hosts.allow and /etc/hosts.deny
files. Choose this option only if you invest a great deal of time creating these
two files.

4. Run make and make install if you don’t receive an error during step 3.
If you get an error message and can’t resolve it, use the binary RPM
installation.
5. Create a directory called /etc/xinetd.d.
This directory stores the xinetd configuration files for each service you
want to run via xinetd.
6. Create the primary xinetd configuration file called /etc/xinetd.conf as
shown in Listing 14-1.

The binary RPM xinetd package comes with this file.

Listing 14-1: The /etc/xinetd.conf file

# Simple configuration file for xinetd

# Some defaults, and include /etc/xinetd.d/
defaults
{
instances = 60
log_type = SYSLOG authpriv
log_on_success = HOST PID
log_on_failure = HOST RECORD
}
includedir /etc/xinetd.d

At startup, xinetd reads this file, which accordingly should be modified

for greater security. (See “Strengthening the Defaults in
/etc/xinetd.conf,” later in this chapter, for details.)

7. Create a script called /etc/rc.d/init.d/xinetd as shown in Listing

14-2.
This script — needed to start xinetd from an appropriate run level — is
supplied by Red Hat in the binary distribution only.
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Chapter 14: xinetd 327

Listing 14-2: The /etc/rc.d/init.d/xinetd file

#! /bin/sh
# xinetd This starts and stops xinetd.
# chkconfig: 345 56 50
# description: xinetd is a powerful replacement
# for inetd. xinetd has access control mechanisms,
# extensive logging capabilities, the ability to
# make services available based on time, and can
# place limits on the number of servers that can
# be started,among other things.
# processname: /usr/sbin/xinetd
# config: /etc/sysconfig/network
# config: /etc/xinetd.conf
# pidfile: /var/run/xinetd.pid
PATH=/sbin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin
# Source function library.
. /etc/init.d/functions
# Get config.
test -f /etc/sysconfig/network && . /etc/sysconfig/network
# Check that networking is up.
[ ${NETWORKING} = “yes” ] || exit 0
[ -f /usr/sbin/xinetd ] || exit 1
[ -f /etc/xinetd.conf ] || exit 1
RETVAL=0
start(){
echo -n “Starting xinetd: “
daemon xinetd -reuse -pidfile /var/run/xinetd.pid
RETVAL=$?
echo
touch /var/lock/subsys/xinetd
return $RETVAL
}
stop(){
echo -n “Stopping xinetd: “
killproc xinetd
RETVAL=$?
echo
rm -f /var/lock/subsys/xinetd
return $RETVAL
}
reload(){
echo -n “Reloading configuration: “
killproc xinetd -USR2
RETVAL=$?
echo
Continued
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328 Part III: System Security

Listing 14-2 (Continued)

return $RETVAL
}
restart(){
stop
start
}
condrestart(){
[ -e /var/lock/subsys/xinetd ] && restart
return 0
}
# See how we were called.
case “$1” in
start)
start
;;
stop)
stop
;;
status)
status xinetd
;;
restart)
restart
;;
reload)
reload
;;
condrestart)
condrestart
;;
*)
echo “Usage: xinetd
{start|stop|status|restart|condrestart|reload}”
RETVAL=1
esac
exit $RETVAL

8. Change the directory to /etc/rc.d/rc[1-5].d where [1-5] should be

replaced with the run-level number between 1 and 5. In most cases, your
default run level is 3, so you would change directory to /etc/rc.d/rc3.d.

If you don’t know your run level, run the run level command and the
number returned is your current run level.
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Chapter 14: xinetd 329

9. Create a symbolic link called S50xinetd that points to /etc/rc.d/

init.d/xinetd script. Run the ln –s /etc/rc.d/init.d/xinetd
S50xinetd command to create this link.

To automatically run xinetd in other run levels you may choose to use,
create a similar link in the appropriate run-level directory.

Configuring xinetd for services

After compiling and installing xinetd, configure each service that you want to
manage via xinetd. When xinetd is started, the /etc/xinetd.conf file, shown in
Listing 14-1, is loaded. This file sets some defaults and instructs xinetd to load
additional service configuration files from the /etc/xinetd.d directory. The
xinetd daemon parses each file in this directory and loads all the services that are
configured properly.

If you have an inetd.conf file that you want to convert to xinetd.conf,

run xinetd/xconv.pl < /etc/inetd.conf > /tmp/xinetd.conf
command from the directory where you extracted xinetd source RPM. In
my example, this directory is /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/xinetd-
2.1.8.9pre11/xinetd.

The default values section enclosed within the curly braces {} have the follow-
ing syntax:

<attribute> <assignment operator> <value> <value> ...

The following are common xinetd service attributes and their options.

◆ bind IP Address

See “Creating an Access-Discriminative Service” in this chapter.

◆ cps sec [wait sec]

See “Limiting the number of servers” in this chapter.

◆ flags keyword

This attribute can specify seven flags:

■ REUSE — Sets the SO_REUSEADDR flag on the service socket.

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330 Part III: System Security

■ IDONLY — This flag accepts connections from only those clients that
have an identification (identd) server.
■ NORETRY — This flag instructs the server not to fork a new service
process again if the server fails.
■ NAMEINARGS — This flag specifies that the first value in the
server_args attribute is used as the first argument when starting the
service specified. This is most useful when using tcpd; you would spec-
ify tcpd in the server attribute (and ftpd -l as the service) in the
server_args attribute.

■ INTERCEPT — This flag tells the server to intercept packets to verify

that a source’s IP is acceptable. (It is not applicable to all situations.)
■ NODELAY — This option sets the TCP_NODELAY flag for the socket.
■ DISABLE — This option sets the TCP_NODELAY flag for the socket.
■ KEEPALIVE — This option sets the SO_KEEPALIVE flag in the socket for
TCP-based services.
◆ id

Identifies the service. By default, the service’s name is the same as the id
attribute.
◆ instances number

Specifies the maximum number of servers that can run concurrently.

◆ log type

This takes one of two forms:

■ log_type syslog facility

■ log_type file [soft_limit [hard_limit]] [path]

When xinetd starts a service, it writes a log entry in the log_type

specified file or syslog facility. See “Limiting log file size” in this chapter.

◆ log_on_success keyword

Specifies the information that needs to be logged upon successful start of

a service. This attribute can take five optional values:
■ PID — This value is the server’s PID (if it’s an internal xinetd service,
the PID is 0)
■ HOST — This value is the client’s IP address.
■ USERID — This value is the identity of the remote user.
■ EXIT — This value is the exit status code of the service.
■ DURATION — This value is the session duration of the service.
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Chapter 14: xinetd 331

◆ log_on_failure keyword

As with log_on_success, xinetd logs an entry when a service can’t be

started. This attribute can take four values as arguments:
■ HOST — This value is the client’s IP address.
■ USERID — This value is the identity of the remote user.
■ ATTEMPT — Records the access attempt.
■ RECORD — Logs everything that xinetd knows about the client.
◆ max_load number

See “Limiting load” in this chapter.

◆ nice number

Sets the process priority of the service run by xinetd.

◆ no_access [IP address] [hostname] [network/netmask]

Defines a list of IP addresses, hostnames, networks, and/or netmask that

are denied access to the service. (For details, see Appendix A.)
◆ only_from [ip address] [hostname] [network/netmask]

Specifies a list of IP addresses, hostnames, network(s), and/or netmask(s)

allowed to access the service (see Appendix A). If you don’t supply a value
for this attribute, the service is denied to everyone.
◆ per_source number

See “Limiting the number of servers” in this chapter.

◆ UNLIMITED

See “Limiting the number of servers” in this chapter.

◆ port number

Specifies the port number for a service. Use this only if your service port
isn’t defined in /etc/services.
◆ protocol keyword

Specifies the protocol name that must exist in /etc/protocols. Normally

a service’s default protocol is used.
◆ Redirect IP address

See “Redirecting and Forwarding Clients” in this chapter.

◆ Redirect hostname port

See “Redirecting and Forwarding Clients” in this chapter.

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332 Part III: System Security

◆ server path

Specifies the path to the server executable file.

◆ server_args [arg1] [arg2] [arg3]...

Specifies the list of arguments that are passed on to the server.

◆ socket_type keyword

Specifies any of four socket types:

■ Stream (TCP)

■ dgram (UDP)

■ raw

■ seqpacket.

◆ type keyword

◆ xinetd

Specifies service type. Can manage three different types of services:

■ INTERNAL — These services are directly managed by xinetd.
■ RPC — xinetd isn’t (yet) good at handling RPC services that are
defined in /etc/rpc. Use inetd instead with RPC-based services.
■ UNLISTED — Services that aren’t listed in /etc/services or in
/etc/rpc.

◆ wait yes | no

If the service you want to manage by using xinetd is multithreaded, set

this attribute to yes; otherwise set it to no.
■ When wait is set to yes, only one server is started by xinetd.
■ When wait is set to no, xinetd starts a new server process for each
request.

The following table lists the three possible assignment operators.

Assignment Operator Description

= Assigns a value to the attribute

+= Adds a value to the list of values assigned to a given attribute
-= Removes a value from the list of values for a given attribute
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Chapter 14: xinetd 333

The default attributes found in the /etc/xinetd.conf file applies to each man-
aged service. As shown in Listing 14-1, the defaults section:

◆ Tells xinetd to allow 60 instances of the same service to run.

This means that when xinetd is in charge of managing the FTP service, it
allows 60 FTP sessions to go on simultaneously.
◆ Tells xinetd to use the syslog (the authpriv facility) to log information.

◆ Instructs xinetd to log

■ hostname (HOST) and process ID (PID) upon successful start of a service,
■ hostname and all available information (RECORD) when a service
doesn’t start.

As mentioned earlier, each service has its own configuration file (found in the
/etc/xinetd.d directory), and that’s what you normally use to configure it. For
example, a service called myservice would be managed by creating a file called
/etc/xinetd.d/myservice, which has lines such as the following:

service myservice
{
attribute1 operator value1, value2, ...
attribute2 operator value1, value2, ...
. . .
attributeN operator value1, value2, ...
}

You can start quickly with only the default configuration found in the
/etc/xinetd.conf file. However, there is a lot of per-service configuration that
should be done (discussed in later sections) before your xinetd configuration is
complete.

Starting, Reloading, and

Stopping xinetd
If you followed the installation instructions in the previous section, your xinetd
should automatically start when you reboot the system. You can also start it man-
ually without rebooting the system. To start xinetd, run the /etc/rc.d/init.d/
xinetd start command.
Any time you add, modify, or delete /etc/xinetd.conf (or any other files in the
/etc/xinet.d directory), tell xinetd to reload the configuration. To do so, use the
/etc/rc.d/init.d/xinetd reload command.
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334 Part III: System Security

If you prefer the kill command, you can use kill –USR1 xinetd PID
or killall -USR1 xinetd to soft-reconfigure xinetd. A soft reconfigu-
ration using the SIGUSR1 signal makes xinetd reload the configuration
files and adjust accordingly. To do a hard reconfiguration of the xinetd
process, simply replace USR1 with USR2 (SIGUSR2 signal). This forces
xinetd to reload the configuration and remove currently running services.

To stop xinetd, run the /etc/rc.d/init.d/xinetd stop command.

Strengthening the Defaults

in /etc/xinetd.conf
The defaults section, shown in Listing 14-1, isn’t ideal for strong security. It doesn’t
obey the prime directive of a secured access configuration: “Deny everyone; allow
only those who should have access.” So add an attribute that fixes this insecurity:

no_access = 0.0.0.0/0

The 0.0.0.0/0 IP address range covers the entire IP address space. The
no_access attribute set to such an IP range disables access from all possible IP
addresses — that is, everyone. You must open access on a per-service basis.
Here is how you can fine tune the default configuration:

◆ The default configuration allows 60 instances of a service to run if neces-

sary because of load. This number seems high. I recommend that this
number be scaled back to 15 or 20. You can change it later as needed. For
example, if you find that your server gets more than 20 FTP requests
simultaneously, you can change the /etc/xinetd/ftp service file to set
instances to a number greater than 20.
◆ The default configuration doesn’t restrict how many connections one
remote host can make to a service. Set this to 10, using the per_source
attribute.
◆ Disable all the r* services (such as rlogin, rsh, and rexec); they are con-
sidered insecure and shouldn’t be used. You can disable them in the
defaults section by using the disabled attribute.

Now the defaults section looks like this:

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Chapter 14: xinetd 335

defaults
{
instances = 20
log_type = SYSLOG authpriv
log_on_success = HOST PID
log_on_failure = HOST RECORD
# Maximum number of connections allowed from
# a single remote host.
per_source = 10
# Deny access to all possible IP addresses. You MUST
# open access using only_from attribute in each service
# configuration file in /etc/xinetd.d directory.
no_access = 0.0.0.0/0
# Disable services that are not to be used
disabled = rlogin rsh rexec
}

After you create the defaults section as shown here, you can start xinetd. You
can then create service-specific configuration files and simply reload your xinetd
configuration as needed.

Running an Internet Daemon

Using xinetd
An Internet service that runs via xinetd is defined using an /etc/xinetd.d/
service file where the filename is the name of the service. Listing 14-3 shows a
simple configuration for an Internet service called myinetservice.

Listing 14-3: /etc/xinetd.d/myinetservice

service myinetservice
{
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /path/to/myinetserviced
server_args = arg1 arg2
}

To set up services such as FTP, Telnet, and finger, all you need is a skeleton
configuration as in the preceding listing; change the values as needed. For exam-
ple, Listing 14-4 shows /etc/xinetd.d/ftp, the FTP configuration file.
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336 Part III: System Security

Listing 14-4: /etc/xinetd.d/ftpd

service ftp
{
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/sbin/in.ftpd
server_args = -l -a
}

Here the server attribute points to /usr/sbin/in.ftpd, the server_args

attribute is set to -l and -a, and everything else is the same as in the skeleton con-
figuration. You can enhance such configuration to add more attributes as needed.
For example, say you want to log more than what the defaults section provides for
the FTP service, such that a successful login (log_on_success) then logs not only
the HOST and PID, but also the DURATION and USERID. You can simply use the +=
operator to add these log options:

log_on_success += DURATION USERID

When reloaded, the xinetd daemon sees this line as

log_on_success = HOST PID DURATION USERID

You are adding values to the list already specified in the log_on_success
attribute in the defaults section in /etc/xinetd.conf. Similarly, you can override
a default value for your service configuration. Say you don’t want to log via
syslog, and prefer to log by using a file in the /var/log directory. You can over-
ride the default log_type setting this way:

log_type = FILE /var/log/myinetdservice.log

Also, you can add new attributes as needed. For example, to control the FTP
server’s priority by using the nice attribute, you can add it into your configuration.
The completed example configuration is shown in Listing 14-5.

Listing 14-5: /etc/xinetd.d/ftpd

service ftp
{
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/sbin/in.ftpd
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Chapter 14: xinetd 337

server_args = -l –a
log_on_success += DURATION USERID
nice = 10
}

Controlling Access by Name

or IP Address
It is common practice to control access to certain services via name (that is, host-
name) or IP address. Previously (in the inetd days) this was possible only by using
the TCP wrapper program called tcpd, which uses the /etc/hosts.allow and
/etc/hosts.deny files to control access. Now xinetd comes with this feature
built in.
If you want your Telnet server accessible only within your organization’s LAN,
use the only_from attribute. For example, if your network address and netmask in
(CIDR) format is 192.168.0.0/24, you can add the following line in the /etc/
xinetd.d/telnet configuration file.

# Only allow access from the 192.168.0.0/24 subnet

only_from = 192.168.0.0/24

This makes sure that only the computers in the 192.168.0.0 network can access
the Telnet service.
If you want to limit access to one or a few IP addresses instead of a full network,
you can list the IP addresses as values for the only_from attribute as shown in this
example:

# Only allow access from two known IP addresses

only_from = 192.168.0.100 172.20.15.1

Here, access to the Telnet service is limited to two IP addresses.

If you want to allow connections from a network such as 192.168.0.0/24 but
don’t want a subnet 192.168.0.128/27 to access the service, add the following lines
to the configuration file:

# Only allow access from the 192.168.0.0/24 subnet

only_from = 192.168.0.0/24
# Don’t allow access from the 192.168.0.128/27 subnet
no_access = 192.168.0.128/27

Although only_from makes the service available to all usable IP addresses rang-
ing from 192.168.0.1 to 192.168.0.254, the noaccess attribute disables the IP
addresses that fall under the 192.168.0.128 network.
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338 Part III: System Security

If you want to allow access to the service from a network 192.168.0.0/24 but
also want to block three hosts (with IP addresses 192.168.0.100, 192.168.0.101, and
192.168.0.102), the configuration that does the job is as follows:

# Only allow access from the 192.168.0.0/24 subnet

only_from = 192.168.0.0/24
# Don’t allow access from the 192.168.0.128/27 subnet
no_access = 192.168.0.100 192.168.0.101 192.168.0.102

Controlling Access by Time of Day

Sooner or later, most security administrators have to restrict access to a service for
a certain period of time. Typically, the need for such restriction comes from services
that must be restarted (or go into maintenance mode) during a 24-hour cycle. For
example, if you’re running a database server, you may find that performing a
backup requires taking all database access offline because of the locks. Luckily, if
such a service is managed by xinetd, you can control access by using the
access_times attribute — and may not have to deny access while you’re creating
the backup. For example, you can control access to your FTP server during office
hours if you add the following configuration:

# Allow access only during office hours

access_times = 08:00-17:00

When a user tries connecting to the service before or after these hours, access is
denied.

Reducing Risks of
Denial-of-Service Attacks
Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks are very common these days. A typical DoS attacker
diminishes your system resources in such a way that your system denies responses
to valid user requests. Although it’s hard to foolproof a server from such attacks,
precautionary measures help you fight DoS attacks effectively. In this section, I dis-
cuss how xinetd can reduce the risk of DoS attacks for services it manages.

Limiting the number of servers

To control how many servers are started by xinetd use the instances attribute.
This attribute allows you to specify the maximum number of server instances that
xinetd can start when multiple requests are received as shown in this example:
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Chapter 14: xinetd 339

#Only 10 connections at a time

instances = 10

Here, xinetd starts a maximum of ten servers to service multiple requests. If the
number of connection requests exceeds ten, the requests exceeding ten are refused
until at least one server exits.

Limiting log file size

Many attackers know that most services write access log entries. They often send
many requests to daemons that write lots of log entries and try to fill disk space in
/var or other partitions. Therefore, a maximum log size for services is a good idea.
By default, xinetd writes log entries using the daemon.info facility of syslog
(syslogd). You can use this attribute to change the syslog facility this way:

log_type SYSLOG facility

To use the authpriv.info facility of syslog, use:

log_type SYSLOG authpriv.info

Also, xinetd can write logs to a file of your choice. The log_type syntax for
writing logs is:

log_type FILE /path/to/logfile [soft_limit [hard_limit]]

For example, to limit the log file /var/log/myservice.log for a service to be

10,485,760 bytes (10MB) at the most and receive warning in syslog when the limit
approaches 8,388,608 bytes (8MB) then use the log_type attribute this way:

log_type FILE /var/log/myservice.log 8388608 10485760

When the log file reaches 8MB, you see an alert entry in syslog and when the log
file reaches the 10MB limit, xinetd stops any service that uses the log file.

Limiting load
You can use the maxload attribute to specify the system load at which xinetd stops
accepting connection for a service. This attribute has the following syntax:

max_load number

This number specifies the load at which the server stops accepting connections;
the value for the load is based on a one-minute CPU load average, as in this
example:
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340 Part III: System Security

#Not under load

max_load = 2.9

When the system load average goes above 2.9, this service is temporarily dis-
abled until the load average lowers.

To use the max_load attribute, compile xinetd with the –with-load-

avrg option.

The nice attribute sets the process priority of the server started by xinetd as
shown in this example:

#Be low priority

nice = 15

This ensures that the service started by xinetd has a low priority.

To set a high priority use a smaller number. Highest priority is -20.

Limiting the rate of connections

This attribute controls how many servers for a custom service xinetd starts per
second. The first number (in seconds) specifies the frequency (connections per sec-
ond). The second number (also in seconds) specifies how long xinetd waits after
reaching the server/sec limit, as in this example:

#Only 5 connections per second

cps = 10 60

Here xinetd starts a maximum of 10 servers and waits 60 seconds if this limit is
reached. During the wait period, the service isn’t available to any new client.
Requests for service are denied.
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Chapter 14: xinetd 341

Creating an
Access-Discriminative Service
Occasionally, a service like HTTP or FTP has to run on a server in a way that dis-
criminates according to where the access request came from. This access discrimi-
nation allows for tight control of how the service is available to the end user.
For example, if you have a system with two interfaces (eth0 connected to the
local LAN and eth1 connected to an Internet router), you can provide FTP service
with a different set of restrictions on each interface. You can limit the FTP service
on the public (that is, eth1), Internet-bound interface to allow FTP connections only
during office hours when a system administrator is on duty and let the FTP service
run unrestrictedly when requested by users in the office LAN. Of course, you don’t
want to let Internet users access your FTP site after office hours, but you want
hardworking employees who are working late to access the server via the office
LAN at any time.
You can accomplish this using the bind attribute to bind an IP address to a spe-
cific service. Because systems with multiple network interfaces have multiple IP
addresses, this attribute can offer different functionality on a different interface
(that is, IP address) on the same machine.
Listing 14-6 shows the /etc/xinetd.d/ftp-worldwide configuration file used
for the public FTP service.

Listing 14-6: /etc/xinetd.d/ftp-worldwide

service ftp
{
id = ftp-worldwide
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/sbin/in.ftpd
server_args = -l
instances = 10
cps = 5
nice = 10
only_from = 0.0.0.0/0
bind = 169.132.226.215
access_times = 08:00-17:00
}

The proceeding configuration does the following

◆ The id field sets a name (“ftp-worldwide”) for the FTP service that is
available to the entire world (the Internet).
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342 Part III: System Security

◆ This service is bound to the IP address on the eth1 interface

(169.132.226.215). It’s open to everyone because the only_from attribute
allows any IP address in the entire IP address space (0.0.0.0/0) to access it.
◆ Access is restricted to the hours 08:00-17:00 using the access_times
attribute.
◆ Only ten instances of the FTP server can run at a time.

◆ Only five instances of the server can be started per second.

◆ The service runs with a low process-priority level (10), using the nice
attribute.

Listing 14-7 shows the private (that is, office LAN access only) FTP service con-
figuration file called /etc/xinetd.d/ftp-office.

Listing 14-7: /etc/xinetd.d/ftp-office

service ftp
{
id = ftp-office
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/sbin/in.ftpd
server_args = -l
only_from = 192.168.1.0/24
bind = 192.168.1.215
}

Here the private FTP service is named ftp-office — using the id attribute — and it’s
bound to the 192.168.1.0 network. Every host on this Class C network can access
this FTP server. But no external server (for example, one on the Internet) has access
to this server.

Redirecting and Forwarding Clients

Using port redirection you can point clients to a different port on the server or even
forward them to a different system. The redirect attribute can redirect or forward
client requests to a different system or a different port on the local system. The
redirect attribute has the following syntax:

redirect IP address or hostname port

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Chapter 14: xinetd 343

When xinetd receives a connection for the service with the redirect attribute, it
spawns a process and connects to the port on the IP or hostname specified as the
value of the redirect attribute. Here’s how you can use this attribute.
Say that you want to redirect all Telnet traffic destined for the Telnet server (run-
ning on IP address 169.132.226.215) to 169.132.226.232. The machine with the
169.132.226.215 IP address needs the following /etc/xinetd.d/telnet configuration:

service telnet
{
flags = REUSE
socket_type = stream
protocol = tcp
wait = no
user = root
bind = 169.132.226.215
redirect = 169.132.226.232
}

Here the redirect attribute redirects Telnet requests to 169.132.226.215 to

another host with IP address 169.132.226.232. Any time you run Telnet
169.132.226.215 from a machine, the request forces xinetd to launch a process and
act as a Telnet proxy between 169.132.226.215 and 169.132.226.232. You don’t
need a server or server_args attribute here.
The 169.132.226.232 machine doesn’t even have to be a Linux system. However,
if the destination of the redirect (169.132.226.232) is a Linux system — and you
want to run Telnet on a nonstandard port such as 2323 on that machine — you can
create a configuration file for xinetd called /etc/xinetd.d/telnet2323. It would look
like this:

service telnet2323
{
id = telnet2323
flags = REUSE
socket_type = stream
protocol = tcp
wait = no
user = root
bind = 169.132.226.232
port = 2323
server = /usr/sbin/in.telnetd
}

Here the id field distinguishes the special service and port attribute lets xinetd
know that you want to run the Telnet daemon on port 2323 on 169.132.226.232. In
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344 Part III: System Security

such a case change redirect 169.132.226.232 23 to redirect 169.132.226.232 2323

in /etc/xinetd.d/telnet on the machine with the IP address 169.132.226.215.
Figure 14-3 illustrates how you can use this redirection feature to access a pri-
vate network from the Internet.

Internet Router
neon.nitec.com
Network Gateway System (running xinetd)
eth1
169.132.226.215: Port23

192.168.1.215: Port23
eth0

LAN: 192.168.1.0/24

eth0: 192.168.1.215
Telnet Server

Figure 14-3: Using redirection to access a private network

As shown in the figure, the neon.nitec.com system is a Linux gateway between

the Internet and a private network 192.168.1.0/24. The gateway implements the
redirect this way:

service telnet
{
flags = REUSE
socket_type = stream
protocol = tcp
wait = no
user = root
bind = 169.132.226.215
redirect = 192.168.1.215 23
}

When a Telnet request such as telnet 169.132.226.215 is received by the

xinetd daemon on 169.132.226.215, it launches a process to proxy all data
between 169.132.226.215 and 192.168.1.215.
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Chapter 14: xinetd 345

Using TCP Wrapper with xinetd

When xinetd is compiled with TCP wrapper support (using the –with-libwrap
configuration option), all services can use the /etc/hosts.allow and
/etc/hosts.deny files. For example, say you want to run the finger server via
xinetd and control it via the TCP wrapper. Here’s what you do:

1. Modify the /etc/xinetd.d/finger file as shown below:

service finger
{
flags = REUSE NAMEINARGS
protocol = tcp
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = nobody
server = /usr/sbin/tcpd
server_args = /usr/sbin/in.fingerd
}

2. To control access to the finger daemon, modify /etc/hosts.allow and

/etc/hosts.deny as needed. For example, to deny everyone access to the
finger daemon except hostname 192.168.1.123, you can create an
entry in /etc/hosts.allow this way:
in.fingerd: 192.168.1.123

3. Modify /etc/hosts.deny this way:

in.fingerd: ALL

This makes xinetd run the TCP wrapper (/usr/sbin/tcpd) with the command-
line argument /usr/sbin/in.fingerd (which is the finger daemon).

Running sshd as xinetd

Every time sshd runs, it generates a server key. This is why sshd is typically a
stand-alone server (that is, started once during server start-up). However, to use
xinetd’s access control features for SSH service, you can run it as a xinetd service.
Here’s how:

1. Create a xinetd service file called /etc/xinetd.d/sshd as shown in the

following listing.
service ssh
{
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346 Part III: System Security

socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/local/sbin/sshd
server_args = -i
log_on_success += DURATION USERID
log_on_failure += USERID
nice = 10
}

2. Run ps auxw | grep sshd to check whether sshd is already running. If

it’s running, stop it by using /etc/rc.d/init.d/sshd stop.
3. Force xinetd to load its configuration, using killall –USR1 xinetd.

You can use an SSH client to access the server as usual.

Using xadmin
The xinetd daemon provides an internal administrative service called xadmin. This
service provides information about the xinetd-run services. You can set up this
service configuration file, /etc/xinetd.d/xadmin, this way:

service xadmin
{
type = INTERNAL UNLISTED
port = 9100
protocol = tcp
socket_type = stream
wait = no
instances = 1
only_from = localhost
cps = 1
}

The configuration tells xinetd to run only one instance of the xadmin service on
the nonstandard (that is, not listed in /etc/services) port, 9100, using TCP.
Because xadmin shows information about the xinetd-run services, it isn’t advis-
able to make this service available to the public. That’s why the configuration
makes this service available only on localhost (that is, 127.0.0.1). You must log
on to the system locally to access this service. Only one connection per second is
allowed for this service.
To run this service from localhost, run the telnet localhost 9100 command.
Listing 14-8 shows a sample session when connected to this service.
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Chapter 14: xinetd 347

Listing 14-8: Sample xadmin session

Trying 127.0.0.1...
Connected to localhost.intevo.com.
Escape character is ‘^]’.
> help
xinetd admin help:
show run : shows information about running services
show avail: shows what services are currently available
bye, exit : exits the admin shell
> show run
Running services:
service run retry attempts descriptor
ftp server
pid = 2232
start_time = Thu Dec 14 21:56:47 2000
Connection info:
state = CLOSED
service = ftp
descriptor = 11
flags = 9
remote_address = 172.20.15.100,2120
Alternative services =
log_remote_user = YES
writes_to_log = YES
xadmin server
pid = 0
start_time = Fri Dec 15 19:00:00 2000
Connection info:
state = OPEN
service = xadmin
descriptor = 11
flags = 0x9
remote_address = 127.0.0.1,1534
Alternative services =
log_remote_user = YES
writes_to_log = NO
> show avail
Available services:
service port bound address uid redir addr redir port
xadmin 9100 0.0.0.0 0
ftp 21 0.0.0.0 0
telnet 23 0.0.0.0 0
shell 514 0.0.0.0 0
login 513 0.0.0.0 0
Continued
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348 Part III: System Security

Listing 14-8 (Continued)

finger 79 0.0.0.0 99
> bye
bye bye
Connection closed by foreign host.

The xadmin commands entered at the > prompt are shown in boldface. The help
command lists available xadmin commands. The show run command shows infor-
mation about currently running services that xinetd started. In the example, ftp
and xadmin are the only services run by xadmin. The show avail command shows
the configured services.

Summary
The xinetd daemon is a secure replacement for the traditional inetd daemon. It
allows each service to have its own configuration file and provides a greater flexi-
bility in controlling access to the services it manages. It offers good support for
handling many denial of service attacks as well.
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Part IV
Network Service Security
CHAPTER 15
Web Server Security
CHAPTER 16
DNS Server Security
CHAPTER 17
E-Mail Server Security
CHAPTER 18
FTP Server Security
CHAPTER 19
Samba and NFS Server Security
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Chapter 15

Web Server Security

IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Understanding Web Risks

◆ Configuring Sensible Security for Apache

◆ Reducing CGI Risks

◆ Reducing SSI Risks

◆ How to log everything

◆ How to restrict access to sensitive sections of the Web

◆ How use SSL with Apache

APACHE, THE DEFAULT WEB-SERVER program for Red Hat Linux, is the most widely
used Web server in the world. Apache developers pay close attention to Web secu-
rity issues, which keeps Apache in good shape for keeping security holes to a min-
imum in server code. However, most security issues surrounding Web sites exist
because of software misconfiguration or misunderstanding of underlying server
technology. This chapter examines some common Web security risks — and some
ways to reduce or eliminate them.

Understanding Web Risks

The very first step in protecting your Web server from vandals is understanding and
identifying security risks. Not long ago, Web sites served only static HTML pages,
which made them less prone to security risks. The only way a vandal could hack
into such Web sites was to break into the server by gaining illegal access. This was
typically done by using weak passwords (passwords that are easily guessed or dic-
tionary words) or by tricking another server program.
These days most Web sites no longer serve static HTML pages; typically they
serve dynamic content, personalized for a rich user experience. Many Web sites tie
in applications for valuable customer service or perform e-commerce activities —
and that’s where they also take some (usually inadvertent) risks.
Most Web sites that have been hacked by vandals are not vandalized because of
the Web server software; they are hacked because holes in their applications or
351
scripts are exploited.
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352 Part IV: Network Service Security

Most Web-security experts agree that scripts or applications running on a Web

server are the biggest risk factors. Because CGI scripts are generally responsible for
creating dynamic content, they often cause the most damage. This chapter exam-
ines security risks associated with CGI scripts and shows how you can reduce such
risks. First — appropriately for the most-used Web server — is a look at how you can
configure Apache for enhanced security.

Configuring Sensible
Security for Apache
Sensible security configuration for Apache includes creating dedicated user and
group accounts, using a security-friendly directory structure, establishing permis-
sions and index files, and disabling risky defaults. The following sections provide a
closer look.

Using a dedicated user and group for Apache

Apache can be run as a standalone or an inetd-run service. If you run Apache as an
inetd service, don’t worry about the User and Group directives. If you run Apache
as a standalone server, however, make sure you create a dedicated user and group
for Apache. Don’t use the nobody user or the nogroup group, especially if your sys-
tem has already defined these. Likely there are other services or other places where
your system uses them. Instead, create a new user and group for Apache.

For clarity, this chapter refers to the Apache-dedicated user and group
accounts as the httpd user and the httpd group; you may want to use a
different name for these accounts.

When you use a dedicated user and group for Apache, permission-specific
administration of your Web content becomes simpler to do: Just ensure that only
the Apache user has read access to your Web content. If you want to create a direc-
tory to which some CGI scripts may write data, enable write permissions for only
the Apache user.

Using a safe directory structure

Most Apache installations have four main directories:

◆ ServerRoot stores server configuration (conf subdirectory), binary

(bin subdirectory), and other server-specific files.
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 353

◆ DocumentRoot stores Web site content such as HTML, JavaScript, and

images.
◆ ScriptAlias stores CGI scripts.

◆ CustomLog and ErrorLog store access and error log files. You can specify
two different directories for each of these directives, but keeping one log
directory for all the log files is usually more manageable in the long run.

I recommend using a directory structure where all four primary directories are
independent of each other — meaning no primary directory is a subdirectory of any
other.

◆ ServerRoot should point to a directory that can be accessed only by the

root user.

◆ The DocumentRoot directory needs access permission for

■ Users who maintain your Web site
■ The Apache user or group (specified using the User and Group direc-
tives in the httpd.conf file)
◆ The ScriptAlias directory should be accessible only to script developers
and an Apache user or group.
◆ The CustomLog or ErrorLog directory should be accessible only by the
root user.

Not even the Apache user or group should have access to the log directory. The
following example shows such a directory structure:

/
+---home
| +---httpd (ServerRoot)
+---www
| +---htdocs (DocumentRoot)
| +---cgi-bin (ScriptAlias)
| +---logs (CustomLog and ErrorLog)
.

This directory structure is quite safe in many ways. To understand why, first look
at the following Apache configuration in httpd.conf.

ServerRoot /home/httpd
DocumentRoot /www/htdocs
ScriptAlias /cgi-bin/ “/www/cgi-bin/”
CustomLog /www/logs/access.log common
ErrorLog /www/logs/error.log
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354 Part IV: Network Service Security

Because all these major directories are independent (not one is a subdirectory of
another) they are safe. A permissions mistake in one directory doesn’t affect the
others.

Using appropriate file and directory permissions

ServerRoot should be accessible only by the root user, because no one but the
root should configure or run Apache. DocumentRoot should be accessible to users
who manage the contents of your Web site and the Apache user (specified using the
User directive) or the Apache group (specified using Group directive).
For example, if you want a user called htmlguru to publish content on your Web
site and you run Apache as httpd user, here’s how you make both Apache and the
named user access the DocumentRoot directory:

1. Create a new group called webteam with this command:

groupadd webteam

2. Add htmlguru as a user to the webteam group with this command:

usermod –G webteam htmlguru

3. Change the ownership of the DocumentRoot directory (and all the subdi-
rectories below it) with this command:
chown –R httpd.webteam /www/htdocs

This command sets the directory ownership to Apache (that is, the httpd
user) and sets the group ownership to webteam, which includes the html-
guru user. This means both the Apache and htmlguru accounts can access
the document tree.
4. Change the permission of the DocumentRoot directory (and all the subdi-
rectories below it) this way:
chmod -R 2570 /www/htdocs

This command makes sure that the files and subdirectories under the
DocumentRoot are readable and executable by the Apache user and that
the webteam group can read, write, and execute everything. It also ensures
that whenever a new file or directory is created in the document tree, the
webteam group has access to it.

One great advantage of this method is that adding new users to the
webteam is as simple as running the following command:

usermod -G webteam <new username>

5. To remove an existing user from the webteam group, simply run:

usermod -G <username> [group1,group2,group3,...]
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 355

In this configuration, group1, group2, group3, and so on are groups

(excluding the webteam group) that this user currently belongs to.

You can find which group(s) a user belongs to by running the group
<username> command.

ScriptAlias should be accessible only to the CGI developers and the Apache
user. I recommend that you create a new group called webdev for the developer(s).
Although the developer group (webdev) needs read, write, and execute access for
the directory, the Apache user requires only read and execute access. Don’t allow
the Apache user to write files in this directory. For example, say you have the fol-
lowing ScriptAlias in httpd.conf:

ScriptAlias /cgi-bin/ “/www/cgi-bin/”

If httpd is your Apache user and webdev is your developer group, set the per-
missions for /www/cgi-bin like this:

chown -R httpd.webdev /www/cgi-bin

chmod -R 2570 /www/cgi-bin

Alternatively, if you want only one user (say, cgiguru) to develop CGI scripts,
you can set the file and directory permission this way:

chown -R cgiguru.httpd /www/cgi-bin

chmod -R 750 /www/cgi-bin

Here the user cgiguru owns the directory and the group (specified by the Group
directive) used for Apache server and is the group owner of the directory and its files.
The log directory used in CustomLog and ErrorLog directives should be writable
only by the root user. The recommended permissions setting for such a directory
(say, /www/logs) is:

chown -R root.root /www/logs

chmod -R 700 /www/logs

Don’t allow anyone (including the Apache user or group) to read, write, or
execute files in the log directory specified in CustomLog and ErrorLog
directives.
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356 Part IV: Network Service Security

Whenever implementing an access policy for a Web directory remember:

◆ Take a conservative approach to allowing access to new directories that

are accessible via Web.
◆ Don’t allow Web visitors to view any directory listings. You can hide your
directory listings using the methods discussed below.

Using directory index file

Whenever a user requests access to a directory via Web, Apache does the following:

1. Apache checks whether the directory is accessible.

If it is accessible, Apache continues; if it is not, Apache displays an error
message.
2. If the directory is accessible, Apache looks for a directory index file speci-
fied using the DirectoryIndex directive. By default, this file is
index.html.

■ If it can read this file in the requested directory, the contents of the file
are displayed.
■ If such a file doesn’t exist, Apache checks whether it can create a
dynamic listing for the directory. If that action is allowed, then Apache
creates dynamic listings and displays the contents of the directory to
the user.

Any directory listings dynamically generated by Apache provide potential bad

guys with clues about your directory structure; you shouldn’t allow such listings.
The simplest way to avoid creating a dynamic directory listing is by specifying the
filenames of your directory listings in the DirectoryIndex directive. For example,
Apache first looks for index.html in the requested directory of the URL; then it
looks for index.htm if index.html is missing — provided you set DirectoryIndex
with this command:

DirectoryIndex index.html index.htm

One common reason that many Web sites have an exposed directory or two is
that someone creates a new directory and forgets to create the index file — or
uploads an index file in the wrong case (INDEX.HTML or INDEX.HTM, for example).
If this happens frequently, a CGI script can automatically redirect users to your
home page or perhaps to an internal search engine interface. Simply modify the
DirectoryIndex directive so it looks like this:

DirectoryIndex index.html index.htm /cgi-bin/index.pl

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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 357

Now add a CGI script such as the one shown in Listing 15-1 in the
ScriptAlias-specified directory.

Listing 15-1: index.pl

#!/usr/bin/perl
# Purpose: this script is used to redirect
# users who enter URL that points to
# directories without index.html page.
#
# Set the automatically redirect URL
my $AUTO_REDIRECT_URL = ‘/’;
# Get the current URL path
my $curDir = $ENV{REQUEST_URI};
# if the current URL path isn’t home page (/) then
# redirect user to home page
if ($curDir ne ‘/’){
print redirect($AUTO_REDIRECT_URL);
# If the home page is also missing the index page,
# we can’t redirect back to home page (to avoid
# recursive redirection) so display an error message.
} else {
print header;
print “HOME PAGE NOT FOUND!”;
}
exit 0;

This script runs if Apache doesn’t find the directory index files (index.html or
index.htm). The script simply redirects a user, whose URL points to a directory with
no index file, to the home page of the Web site.

Change /cgi-bin/ from the path of the directive if you use another alias
name.

If you want to not display any directory listings, you can simply disable direc-
tory listings by setting the following configuration:

<Directory />
Options -Indexes
</Directory >

The Options directive tells Apache to disable all directory-index processing.

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358 Part IV: Network Service Security

You may also want to tell Apache not to allow symbolic links; they can
expose part of the disk space that you don’t want to make public. To do so,
use the minus sign when you set the Options directive so it looks like this:
-FollowSymLinks.

Disabling default access

A good security model dictates that no access exists by default; get into the habit
of permitting no access at first. Permit specific access only to specific directories. To
implement no-default access, use the following configuration segment in
httpd.conf:

<Directory />
Order deny,allow
Deny from all
</Directory>

This segment disables all access first. For access to a particular directory, use the
<Directory...> container again to open that directory. For example, if you want
to permit access to /www/htdocs, add the following configuration:

<Directory “/www/htdocs”>
Order deny,allow
Allow from all
</Directory>

This method — opening only what you need — is highly recommended as a pre-
ventive security measure.

Don’t allow users to change any directorywide configuration options using

a per-directory configuration file (.htaccess) in directories that are open
for access.

Disabling user overrides

To disable users’ override capability for configuration settings that use the per-
directory configuration file (.htaccess) in any directory, do the following :

<Directory />
AllowOverride None
</Directory>
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 359

This disallows user overrides and speeds up processing (because the server no
longer looks for the per-directory access control files (.htaccess) for each request).

Using Paranoid Configuration

Want to go a few steps further into the land of paranoia in search of security?
Here’s what I consider a “paranoid” configuration for Apache.

◆ No CGI script support.

CGI scripts are typically the cause of most Web security incidents.
◆ No SSI support.

SSI pages are often problematic since some SSI directives that can be
incorporated in a page can allow running CGI programs
◆ No standard World Wide Web URLs.

Allowing Web sites to use the www.domain.com/~username URL scheme

for individual users introduces many security issues such as
■ Users may not take appropriate cautions to reduce the risk of exposing
filesystem information to the rest of the world.
■ Users can make mistakes that make nonpublic disk areas of the server
publicly accessible.
◆ Don’t provide status information via the Web.

Apache provides a status module that offers valuable status information

about the server via the Web. This information can give clues to vandals.
Not installing the module in the first place is the paranoid way of making
sure the vandals can’t access such information.

The preceding paranoid configuration can be achieved using the following con-
figuration command:

./configure --prefix=/home/apache \
--disable-module=include \
--disable-module=cgi \
--disable-module=userdir \
--disable-module=status

Once you have run the preceding configuration command from the src direc-
tory of the Apache source distribution, you can make and install Apache (in
/home/apache) using the preceding paranoid configuration.
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360 Part IV: Network Service Security

Many “paranoid” administrators run Apache on nonstandard ports such as

8080 or 9000. To run Apache on such ports, change the Port directive in
httpd.conf. Vandals typically use port-scanner software to detect HTTP
ports. However, using nonstandard ports also makes legitimate users work
harder to reach the benefits of your site, because they must know and type
the port number (www.domain.com:port) at the end of the URL used to
enter your Web site.

Reducing CGI Risks

CGI isn’t inherently insecure, but poorly written CGI scripts are a major source of Web
security holes. The simplicity of the CGI specification makes it easy for many inexpe-
rienced programmers to write CGI scripts. These inexperienced programmers,
unaware of the security aspects of internetworking, may create applications or scripts
that work but may also create unintentional back doors and holes on the system.

I consider CGI applications and CGI scripts to be interchangeable terms.

Information leaks
Vandals can make many CGI scripts leak information about users or the resources
available on a Web server. Such a leak helps vandals break into a system. The more
information a vandal knows about a system, the better informed the break-in
attempt, as in the following example:

http://unsafe-site.com/cgi-bin/showpage.cgi?pg=/doc/article1.html

Say this URL displays /doc/article1.html using the showpage.cgi script. A

vandal may try something like

http://unsafe-site.com/cgi-bin/showpage.cgi?pg=/etc/passwd

This displays the user password file for the entire system if the showpage.cgi
author does not protect the script from such leaks.

Consumption of system resources

A poorly written CGI script can also consume system resources such that the server
becomes virtually unresponsive, as shown in this example:
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 361

http://unsafe-site.com/cgi-bin/showlist.pl?start=1&stop=15

Say that this URL allows a site visitor to view a list of classifieds advertisements
in a Web site. The start=1 and stop=15 parameters control the number of records
displayed. If the showlist.pl script relies only on the supplied start and stop val-
ues, then a vandal can edit the URL and supply a larger number for the stop para-
meter to make showlist.pl display a larger list then usual. The vandal’s
modification can overload the Web server with requests that take longer to process,
making real users wait (and, in the case of e-commerce, possibly move on to a com-
petitor’s site).

Spoofing of system commands via CGI scripts

Vandals can trick an HTML form-based mailer script to run a system command or
give out confidential system information. For example, say you have a Web form
that visitors use to sign up for your services or provide you with feedback. Most of
these Web forms use CGI scripts to process the visitors’ reqests and send thank-you
notes via e-mail. The script may perform a process like the following to send the
e-mail:

system(“/bin/mail -s $subject $emailAddress < $thankYouMsg”);

In this case, the system call runs the /bin/mail program and supplies it the
value of variable $subject as the subject header and the value of variable
$emailAddress as the e-mail address of the user and redirects the contents of the
file named by the $thankYouMsg variable. This works, and no one should normally
know that your application uses such a system call. However, a vandal interested in
breaking into your Web site may examine everything she has access to, and try
entering irregular values for your Web form. For example, if a vandal enters
vandal@emailaddr < /etc/passwd; as the e-mail address, it fools the script into
sending the /etc/passwd file to the vandal-specified e-mail address.

If you use the system() function in your CGI script, use the -T option in
your #!/path/to/perl line to enable Perl’s taint-checking mode and also
set the PATH (environment variable) using set $ENV{PATH} = ‘/path/
to/commands/you/call/via/system’ to increase security.

Keeping user input from making

system calls unsafe
Most security holes created by CGI scripts are caused by inappropriate user input.
Use of certain system calls in CGI script is quite unsafe. For example, in Perl (a
widely used CGI programming language) such a call could be made using system(),
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362 Part IV: Network Service Security

exec(), piped open(), and eval() functions. Similarly, in C the popen() and sys-
tem() functions are potential security hazards. All these functions/commands typi-
cally invoke a subshell (such as /bin/sh) to process the user command.
Even shell scripts that use system(), exec() calls can open a port of entry for
vandals. Backtick quotes (features available in shell interpreters and Perl that cap-
ture program output as text strings) are also dangerous.
To illustrate the importance of careful use of system calls, take a look this
innocent-looking Perl code segment:

#!/usr/bin/perl
# Purpose: to demonstrate security risks in
# poorly written CGI script.
# Get the domain name from query string
# environment variable.
#
# Print the appropriate content type.
# Since whois output is in plain text
# we choose to use text/plain as the content-type here.
print “Content-type: text/plain\n\n”;
# Here is the bad system call
system(“/usr/bin/whois $domain”);
# Here is another bad system call using backticks.
# my $output = `/usr/bin/whois $domain`;
# print $output;
exit 0;

This little Perl script should be a Web-based whois gateway. If this script is
called whois.pl, and it’s kept in the cgi-bin directory of a Web site called
unsafe-site.com, a user can call this script this way:

http://unsafe-site.com/cgi-bin/script.pl?domain=anydomain.com

The script takes anydomain.com as the $domain variable via the QUERY_STRING
variable and launches the /usr/bin/whois program with the $domain value as the
argument. This returns the data from the whois database that InterNIC maintains.
This is all very innocent, but the script is a disaster waiting to happen. Consider the
following line:

http://unsafe-site.com/cgi-bin/script.pl?domain=nitec.com;ps

This does a whois lookup on a domain called nitec.com and provides the out-
put of the Unix ps utility that shows process status. This reveals information about
the system that shouldn’t be available to the requesting party. Using this technique,
anyone can find out a great deal about your system. For example, replacing the ps
command with df (a common Unix utility that prints a summary of disk space)
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 363

enables anyone to determine what partitions you have and how full they are. I
leave to your imagination the real dangers this security hole could pose.

Don’t trust any input. Don’t make system calls an easy target for abuse.

Two overall approaches are possible if you want to make sure your user input is
safe:

◆ Define a list of acceptable characters. Replace or remove any character

that isn’t acceptable.
The list of valid input values is typically a predictable, well-defined set of
manageable size.

This approach is less likely to let unaccepable characters through. A pro-

grammer must ensure that only acceptable characters are identified.

Building on this philosophy, the Perl program presented earlier could be

sanitized to contain only those characters allowed, for example:
#!/usr/bin/perl -w
# Purpose: This is a better version of the previous
# whois.pl script.
# Assign a variable the acceptable character
# set for domain names.
my $DOMAIN_CHAR_SET=’-a-zA-Z0-9_.’;
# Get the domain name from query string
# environment variable.
my $domain = $ENV{‘QUERY_STRING’};
# Now remove any character that doesn’t
# belong to the acceptable character set.
$domain =~ s/[^$DOMAIN_CHAR_SET]//g;
# Print the appropriate content type.
# Since whois output is in plain text we
# choose to use text/plain as the content-type here.
print “Content-type: text/plain\n\n”;
# Here is the system call
system(“/usr/bin/whois $domain”);
# Here is another system call using backticks.
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364 Part IV: Network Service Security

# my $output = `/usr/bin/whois $domain`;

# print $output;
exit 0;

The $DOMAIN_CHAR_SET variable holds the acceptable character set, and

the user input variable $domain is searched for anything that doesn’t fall
in the set. The unacceptable character is removed.
◆ Scan the input for illegal characters and replace or remove them.

For example, for the preceding whois.pl script, you can add the follow-
ing line:
$domain =~ s/[\/ ;\[\]\<\>&\t]//g;

This is an inadvisable approach. Programmers must know all possible com-

binations of characters that could cause trouble. If the user creates input not
predicted by the programmer, there’s the possibility that the program may
be used in a manner not intended by the programmer.

The best way to handle user input is by establishing rules to govern it, clarifying

◆ What you expect

◆ How you can determine if what you have received is acceptable

If (for example) you are expecting an e-mail address as input (rather than just
scanning it blindly for shell metacharacters), use a regular expression such as the
following to detect the validity of the input as a possible e-mail address:

$email = param(‘email-addr’);
if ($email=~ /^[\w-\.]+\@[\w-\.]+$/) {
print “Possibly valid address.”
}
else {
print “Invalid email address.”;
}

Just sanitizing user input isn’t enough. Be careful about how you invoke exter-
nal programs; there are many ways you can invoke external programs in Perl.
Some of these methods include:

◆ Backtick. You can capture the output of an external program:

$list = ‘/bin/ls -l /etc’;

This command captures the /etc directory listing.

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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 365

◆ Pipe. A typical pipe looks like this:

open (FP, “ | /usr/bin/sort”);

◆ Invoking an external program. You have a couple of options with exter-

nal programs:
■ system() — wait for it to return:

system “/usr/bin/lpr data.dat”;

■ exec() — don’t wait for it to return:

exec “/usr/bin/sort < data.dat”;

All these constructions can be risky if they involve user input that may con-
tain shell metacharacters. For system() and exec(), there’s a somewhat
obscure syntactical feature that calls external programs directly rather than
through a shell. If you pass the arguments to the external program (not in
one long string, but as separate elements in a list), Perl doesn’t go through
the shell, and shell metacharacters have no unwanted side effects, as
follows:
system “/usr/bin/sort”,”data.dat”;
You can use this feature to open a pipe without using a shell. By calling open
the character sequence -| , you fork a copy of Perl and open a pipe to the
copy.Then, the child copy immediately forks another program, using the first
argument of the exec function call.

To read from a pipe without opening a shell, you can use the -| character
sequence:

open(GREP,”-|”) || exec “/usr/bin/grep”,$userpattern,$filename;

while (<GREP>) {
print “match: $_”;
}
close GREP;

These forms of open()s are more secure than the piped open()s. Use these
whenever applicable.
Many other obscure features in Perl can call an external program and lie to it
about its name. This is useful for calling programs that behave differently depend-
ing on the name by which they were invoked. The syntax is

system $real_name “fake_name”,”argument1”,”argument2”

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366 Part IV: Network Service Security

Vandals sometimes alter the PATH environment variable so it points to the pro-
gram they want your script to execute — rather than the program you’re expecting.
Invoke programs using full pathnames rather than relying on the PATH environ-
ment variable. That is, instead of the following fragment of Perl code

system(“cat /tmp/shopping.cart.txt”);

use this:

system “/bin/cat” , “/tmp/shopping.cart.txt “;

If you must rely on the path, set it yourself at the beginning of your CGI script,
like this:

$ENV{‘PATH’}=”bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/bin”;

Remember these guidelines:

◆ Include the previous line toward the top of your script whenever you use
taint checks.
Even if you don’t rely on the path when you invoke an external program,
there’s a chance that the invoked program does.
◆ You must adjust the line as necessary for the list of directories you want
searched.
◆ It’s not a good idea to put the current directory into the path.

User modification of hidden data in HTML pages

HTTP is a stateless protocol. Many Web developers keep state information or other
important data in cookies or in hidden tags. Because users can turn off cookies and
creating unique temporary files per user is cumbersome, hidden tags are frequently
used. A hidden tag looks like the following:

<input type=hidden name=”datakey” value=”dataValue”>

For example:

<input type=hidden name=”state” value=”CA”>

Here the hidden tag stores state=CA, which can be retrieved by the same appli-
cation in a subsequent call. Hidden tags are common in multiscreen Web applica-
tions. Because users can manually change hidden tags, they shouldn’t be trusted at
all. A developer can use two ways of protecting against altered data:
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 367

◆ Verify the hidden data before each use.

◆ Use a security scheme to ensure that data hasn’t been altered by the user.

In the following example CGI script, shown in Listing 15-2, I demonstrate the
MD5 message digest algorithm to protect hidden data.

The details of the MD5 algorithm are defined in RFC 1321.

Listing 15-2: hidden-md5.eg

#!/usr/bin/perl -w
# Purpose: this script demonstrates the use of
# MD5 message digest in a multiscreen
# Web application.
# CVS: $Id$
######################################################
use strict;
use CGI qw(:standard);
my $query = new CGI;
# Call the handler subroutine to process user data
&handler;
# Terminate
exit 0;
sub handler{
#
# Purpose: determine which screen to display
# and call the appropriate subroutine to
# display it.
#
# Get user-entered name (if any) and email address
# (if any) and initialize two variables using given
# name and e-mail values. Note, first time we will
# not have values for these variables.
my $name = param(‘name’);
my $email = param(‘email’);
# Print the appropriate Content-Type header and
# also print HTML page tags
print header,
start_html(-title => ‘Multiscreen Web Application Demo’);
# If we don’t have value for the $name variable,

Continued
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368 Part IV: Network Service Security

Listing 15-2 (Continued)

# we have not yet displayed screen one so show it.
if ($name eq ‘’){
&screen1;
# if we have value for the $name variable but the
# $email variable is empty then we need to show
# screen 2.
} elsif($email eq ‘’) {
&screen2($name);
# We have value for both $name and $email so
# show screen 3.
} else {
&screen3($name, $email);
}
# Print closing HTML tag for the page
print end_html;
}
sub screen1{
#
# Purpose: print an HTML form that asks the
# user to enter her name.
#
print h2(“Screen 1”),
hr({-size=>0,-color=>’black’}),
start_form,
‘Enter name: ‘,
textfield(-name => ‘name’, -size=>30),
submit(-value => ‘ Next ‘),
end_form;
}
sub screen2{
#
# Purpose: print an HTML form that asks the
# user to enter her email address. It also
# stores the name entered in the previous screen.
#
# Get the name
my $name = shift;
# Create an MD5 message disgest for the name
my $digest = &create_message_digest($name);
# Insert the digest as a new CGI parameter so
# that we can store it using CGI.pm’s hidden()
# subroutine.
param(‘digest’, $digest);
# Now print the second screen and insert
# the $name and the $digest values as hidden data.
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 369

print h2(“Screen 2”),

hr({-size=>0,-color=>’black’}),
start_form,
‘Enter email: ‘,
textfield(-name => ‘email’, -size=>30),
hidden(‘name’),
hidden(‘digest’),
submit(-value => ‘ Next ‘),
end_form;
}
sub screen3{
#
# Purpose: print a message based on the data gathered
# in screen 1 and 2. However, print the message
# only if the entered data has not been altered.
#
# Get name and email address
my ($name, $email) = @_;
# Get the digest of the $name value
my $oldDigest = param(‘digest’);
# Create a new digest of the value of the $name variable
my $newDigest = &create_message_digest($name);
# If both digests are not same then (name) data has been altered
# in screen 2. Display an alert message and stop processing
#in such a case.
if ($oldDigest ne $newDigest){
return (0, alert(‘Data altered. Aborted!’));
}
# Since data is good, process as usual.
print h2(“Screen 3”),
hr({-size=>0,-color=>’black’}),
p(‘Your name is ‘. b($name) .
‘ and your email address is ‘. b($email) . ‘.’),
a({-href=>”$ENV{SCRIPT_NAME}”},’Restart’);
}
sub create_message_digest{
#
# Purpose: create a message digest for the
# given data. To make the digest hard
# to reproduce by a vandal, this subroutine
# uses a secret key.
#
my $data = shift;
my $secret = ‘ID10t’ ; # Change this key if you like.
# We need the following line to tell Perl that

Continued
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370 Part IV: Network Service Security

Listing 15-2 (Continued)

# we want to use the Digest::MD5 module.
use Digest::MD5;
# Create a new MD5 object
my $ctx = Digest::MD5->new;
# Add data
$ctx->add($data);
# Add secret key
$ctx->add($secret);
# Create a Base64 digest
my $digest = $ctx->b64digest;
# Return the digest
return $digest;
}
sub alert{
#
# Purpose: display an alert dialog box
# using JavaScript
#
# Get the message that we need to display
my $msg = shift;
# Create JavaScript that uses the alert()
# dialog box function to display a message
# and then return the browser to previous screen
print <<JAVASCRIPT;
<script language=”JavaScript”>
alert(“$msg”);
history.back();
</script>
JAVASCRIPT
}

This is a simple multiscreen CGI script that asks the user for a name in the first
screen and an e-mail address in the following screen and finally prints out a mes-
sage. When the user moves from one screen to another, the data from the previous
screen is carried to the next screen through hidden tags. Here’s how this script
works.
The first screen asks the user for her name. Once the user enters her name, the
following screen asks for the user’s e-mail address. The HTML source of this screen
is shown in Listing 15-3.

Listing 15-3: HTML source for screen 2 of hidden-md5.eg

<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC “-//IETF//DTD HTML//EN”>
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Multiscreen Web Application Demo</TITLE>
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 371

</HEAD>
<BODY>
<H2>Screen 2</H2>
<HR SIZE=”0” COLOR=”black”>
<FORM METHOD=”POST”
ENCTYPE=”application/x-www-form-urlencoded”>
Enter email:
<INPUT TYPE=”text”
NAME=”email”
SIZE=30>
<INPUT TYPE=”hidden”
NAME=”name”
VALUE=”Cynthia”>
<INPUT TYPE=”hidden”
NAME=”digest”
VALUE=”IzrSJlLrsWlYHNfshrKw/A”>
<INPUT TYPE=”submit”
NAME=”.submit”
VALUE=” Next “>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Notice that the hidden data is stored using the following lines:

<INPUT TYPE=”hidden”
NAME=”name”
VALUE=”Cynthia”>
<INPUT TYPE=”hidden”
NAME=”digest”
VALUE=”IzrSJlLrsWlYHNfshrKw/A”>

The first hidden data tag line stores name=Cynthia and the second one stores
digest=IzrSJlLrsWlYHNfshrKw/A. The second piece of data is the message digest
generated for the name entered in screen 1. When the user enters her e-mail address
in the second screen and continues, the final screen is displayed.
However, before the final screen is produced, a message digest is computed for
the name field entered in screen 1. This digest is compared against the digest created
earlier to verify that the value entered for the name field in screen 1 hasn’t been
altered in screen 2. Because the MD5 algorithm creates the same message digest for
a given data set, any differences between the new and old digests raise a red flag,
and the script displays an alert message and refuses to complete processing. Thus,
if a vandal decides to alter the data stored in screen 2 (shown in Listing 15-3) and
submits the data for final processing, the digest mismatch allows the script to detect
the alteration and take appropriate action. In your real-world CGI scripts (written in
Perl) you can use the create_message_digest() subroutine to create a message
digest for anything.
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372 Part IV: Network Service Security

You can download and install the latest version of Digest::MD5 from
CPAN by using the perl –MCPAN –e shell command, followed by the
install Digest::MD5 command at the CPAN shell prompt.

Wrapping CGI Scripts

The best way to reduce CGI-related risks is to not run any CGI scripts — but in these
days of dynamic Web content, that’s unrealistic. Perhaps you can centralize all CGI
scripts in one location and closely monitor their development to ensure that they
are well written.
In many cases, especially on ISP systems, all users with Web sites want CGI
access. In this situation, it may be a good idea to run CGI scripts under the UID of
the user who owns the CGI script. By default, CGI scripts that Apache runs use the
Apache UID. If you run these applications using the owner’s UID, all possible dam-
age is limited to what the UID is permitted to access. This way, a bad CGI script run
with a UID other than the Apache server UID can damage only the user’s files. The
user responsible for the CGI script will now be more careful, because the possible
damage affects his or her content solely. In one shot, you get increased user respon-
sibility and awareness and (simultaneously) a limit on the area that could suffer
potential damage. To run a CGI script using a UID other than that of the Apache
server, you need a special type of program called a wrapper, which can run a CGI
script as the user who owns the file rather than as the Apache server user. Some CGI
wrappers do other security checks before they run the requested CGI scripts.

suEXEC
Apache includes a support application called suEXEC that lets Apache users run
CGI and SSI programs under UIDs that are different from the UID of Apache.
suEXEC is a setuid wrapper program that is called when an HTTP request is made
for a CGI or SSI program that the administrator designates to run as a UID other
than that of the Apache server. In response to such a request, Apache provides the
suEXEC wrapper with the program’s name and the UID and GID. suEXEC runs the
program using the given UID and GID.
Before running the CGI or SSI command, the suEXEC wrapper performs a set of
tests to ensure that the request is valid.

◆ This testing procedure ensures that the CGI script is owned by a user who
can run the wrapper and that the CGI directory or the CGI script isn’t
writable by anyone but the owner.
◆ After the security checks are successful, the suEXEC wrapper changes the
UID and the GID to the target UID and GID via setuid and setgid calls,
respectively.
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 373

◆ The group-access list is also initialized with all groups in which the user is
a member. suEXEC cleans the process’s environment by
■ Establishing a safe execution path (defined during configuration).
■ Passing through only those variables whose names are listed in the safe
environment list (also created during configuration).
The suEXEC process then becomes the target CGI script or SSI command
and executes.

CONFIGURING AND INSTALLING SUEXEC

If you are interested in installing suEXEC support in Apache, run the configure (or
config.status) script like this:

./configure --prefix=/path/to/apache \
--enable-suexec \
--suexec-caller=httpd \
--suexec-userdir=public_html
--suexec-uidmin=100 \
--suexec-gidmin=100
--suexec-safepath=”/usr/local/bin:/usr/bin:/bin”

Here’s the detailed explanation of this configuration:

◆ --enable-suexec enables suEXEC support.

◆ --suexec-caller=httpd changes httpd to the UID you use for the User
directive in the Apache configuration file. This is the only user account
permitted to run the suEXEC program.
◆ --suexec-userdir=public_html defines the subdirectory under users’
home directories where suEXEC executables are kept. Change
public_html to whatever you use as the value for the UserDir directive,
which specifies the document root directory for a user’s Web site.
◆ --suexec-uidmin=100 defines the lowest UID permitted to run suEXEC-
based CGI scripts. This means UIDs below this number can’t run CGI or
SSI commands via suEXEC. Look at your /etc/passwd file to make sure
the range you chose doesn’t include the system accounts that are usually
lower than UIDs below 100.
◆ --suexec-gidmin=100 defines the lowest GID permitted as a target group.
This means GIDs below this number can’t run CGI or SSI commands via
suEXEC. Look at your /etc/group file to make sure that the range you
chose doesn’t include the system account groups that are usually lower
than UIDs below 100.
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374 Part IV: Network Service Security

◆ --suexec-safepath=”/usr/local/bin:/usr/bin:/bin” defines the

PATH environment variable that gets executed by suEXEC for CGI scripts
and SSI commands.

ENABLING AND TESTING SUEXEC

After you install both the suEXEC wrapper and the new Apache executable in the
proper location, restart Apache, which writes a message like this:

[notice] suEXEC mechanism enabled (wrapper: /usr/local/sbin/suexec)

This tells you that the suEXEC is active. Now, test suEXEC’s functionality. In the
httpd.conf file, add the following lines:

UserDir public_html
AddHandler cgi-script .pl

UserDir sets the document root of a user’s Web site as ~username/

public_html, where username can be any user on the system. The second directive
associates the cgi-script handler with the .pl files. This runs Perl scripts with
.pl extensions as CGI scripts. For this test, you need a user account. In this exam-
ple, I use the host wormhole.nitec.com and a user called kabir. Try the script
shown in Listing 15-4 in a file called test.pl and put it in a user’s public_html
directory. In my case, I put the file in the ~kabir/public_html directory.

Listing 15-4: A CGI script to test suEXEC support

#!/usr/bin/perl
# Make sure the preceding line is pointing to the
# right location. Some people keep perl in
# /usr/local/bin.
my ($key,$value);
print “Content-type: text/html\n\n”;
print “<h1>Test of suEXEC<h1>”;
foreach $key (sort keys %ENV){
$value = $ENV{$key};
print “$key = $value <br>”;
}
exit 0;

To access the script via a Web browser, I request the following URL:

http://wormhole.nitec.com/~kabir/test.pl

A CGI script is executed only after it passes all the security checks performed by
suEXEC. suEXEC also logs the script request in its log file. The log entry for my
request is
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 375

[200-03-07 16:00:22]: uid: (kabir/kabir) gid: (kabir/kabir) cmd: test.pl

If you are really interested in knowing that the script is running under the user’s
UID, insert a sleep command (such as sleep(10);) inside the foreach loop, which
slows the execution and allows commands such as top or ps on your Web server
console to find the UID of the process running test.pl. You also can change the
ownership of the script using the chown command, try to access the script via your
Web browser, and see the error message that suEXEC logs. For example, I get a
server error when I change the ownership of the test.pl script in the ~kabir/
public_html directory as follows:

chown root test.pl

The log file shows the following line:

[200-03-07 16:00:22]: uid/gid (500/500) mismatch with directory (500/500) or

program (0/500)

Here, the program is owned by UID 0, and the group is still kabir (500), so
suEXEC refuses to run it, which means suEXEC is doing what it should do.
To ensure that suEXEC will run the test.pl program in other directories, I cre-
ate a cgi-bin directory in ~kabir/public_html and put test.cgi in that direc-
tory. After determining that the user and group ownership of the new directory and
file are set to user ID kabir and group ID kabir, I access the script by using the fol-
lowing command:

http://wormhole.nitec.com/~kabir/cgi-bin/test.pl

If you have virtual hosts and want to run the CGI programs and/or SSI commands
using suEXEC, use User and Group directives inside the <VirtualHost . . .>
container. Set these directives to user and group IDs other than those the Apache
server is currently using. If only one, or neither, of these directives is specified for a
<VirtualHost> container, the server user ID or group ID is assumed.
For security and efficiency, all suEXEC requests must remain within either a top-
level document root for virtual host requests or one top-level personal document
root for userdir requests. For example, if you have four virtual hosts configured,
structure all their document roots from one main Apache document hierarchy if
you plan to use suEXEC for virtual hosts.

CGIWrap
CGIWrap is like the suEXEC program because it allows CGI scripts without compro-
mising the security of the Web server. CGI programs are run with the file owner’s
permission. In addition, CGIWrap performs several security checks on the CGI script
and isn’t executed if any checks fail.
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376 Part IV: Network Service Security

CGIWrap is written by Nathan Neulinger; the latest version of CGIWrap is

available from the primary FTP site on ftp://ftp.cc.umr.edu/pub/cgi/
cgiwrap. CGIWrap is used via a URL in an HTML document. As distributed,
CGIWrap is configured to run user scripts that are located in the ~/public_html/
cgi-bin/ directory.

CONFIGURING AND INSTALLING CGIWRAP

CGIWrap is distributed as a gzip-compressed tar file. You can uncompress it by
using gzip and extract it by using the tar utility.
Run the Configure script, which prompts you with questions. Most of these
questions are self-explanatory.
A feature in this wrapper differs from suEXEC. It enables allow and deny files
that can restrict access to your CGI scripts. Both files have the same format, as
shown in the following:

User ID

mailto:Username@subnet1/mask1,subnet2/mask2. . .

You can have

◆ A username (nonnumeric UID)

◆ A user mailto:ID@subnet/mask line where subnet/mask pairs can be

defined

For example, if the following line is found in the allow file (you specify the
filename),

mailto:[email protected]/255.255.255.255

user kabir’s CGI scripts can be run by hosts that belong in the 192.168.1.0
network with netmask 255.255.255.0.
After you run the Configure script, you must run the make utility to create the
CGIWrap executable file.

ENABLING CGIWRAP
To use the wrapper application, copy the CGIWrap executable to the user’s cgi-bin
directory. This directory must match what you have specified in the configuration
process. The simplest starting method is keeping the ~username/public_html/
cgi-bin type of directory structure for the CGI script directory.

1. After you copy the CGIWrap executable, change the ownership and per-
mission bits like this:
chown root CGIWrap
chmod 4755 CGIWrap
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 377

2. Create three hard links or symbolic links called nph-cgiwrap, nph-

cgiwrapd, and cgiwrapd to CGIWrap in the cgi-bin directory as follows:

ln [-s] CGIWrap cgiwrapd

ln [-s] CGIWrap nph-cgiwrap
ln [-s] CGIWrap nph-cgiwrapd

On my Apache server, I specified only the .cgi extension as a CGI script;

therefore, I renamed my CGIWrap executable to cgiwrap.cgi. If you have
similar restrictions, you may try this approach or make a link instead.
3. Execute a CGI script like this:
http://www.yourdomain.com/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/username/scriptname

To access user kabir’s CGI script, test.cgi, on the wormhole.nitec.com

site, for example, I must use the following:
http://wormhole.nitec.com/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/kabir/test.cgi

4. To see debugging output for your CGI, specify cgiwrapd instead of

CGIWrap, as in the following URL:

http://www.yourdomain.com/cgi-bin/cgiwrapd/username/
scriptname

5. If the script is an nph-style script, you must run it using the following
URL:
http://www.yourdomain.com/cgi-bin/nph-
cgiwrap/username/scriptname

Hide clues about your CGI scripts

The fewer clues you provide about your system to potential vandals, the less likely
your Web site is to be the next victim. Here’s how you can hide some important CGI
scripts:

◆ Use a nonstandard script alias.

Use of cgi-bin alias has become overwhelmingly popular. This alias is set
using the ScriptAlias directive in httpd.conf for Apache as shown in
this example:
ScriptAlias /cgi-bin/ “/path/to/real/cgi/directory/”

You can use nearly anything to create an alias like this. For example, try
ScriptAlias /apps/ “/path/to/real/cgi/directory/”

Now the apps in the URL serve the same purpose as cgi-bin. Thus, you
can use something nonstandard like the following to confuse vandals:
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378 Part IV: Network Service Security

ScriptAlias /dcon/ “/path/to/real/cgi/directory/”

Many vandals use automated programs to scan Web sites for features and
other clues. A nonstandard script alias such as the one in the preceding
example usually isn’t incorporated in any automated manner.

◆ Use nonextension names for your CGI scripts.

Many sites boldly showcase what type of CGI scripts they run, as in this
example:
http://www.domain.com/cgi-bin/show-catalog.pl

The preceding URL provides two clues about the site: It supports CGI
scripts, and it runs Perl scripts as CGI scripts.
If, instead, that site uses
http://www.domain.com/ext/show-catalog

then it becomes quite hard to determine anything from the URL. Avoid
using the .pl and .cgi extensions.

To change an existing script’s name from a .pl, .cgi, or other risky exten-
sion type to a nonextension name, simply rename the script. You don’t have
to change or add any new Apache configuration to switch to nonextension
names.

Reducing SSI Risks

SSI scripts pose a few security risks. If you run external applications using SSI
commands such as exec, the security risk is virtually the same as with the CGI
scripts. However, you can disable this command very easily under Apache, using
the following Options directive:

<Directory />
Options IncludesNOEXEC
</Directory>

This disables exec and includes SSI commands everywhere on your Web space.
You can enable these commands whenever necessary by defining a directory con-
tainer with narrower scope. See the following example:
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 379

<Directory />
Options IncludesNOEXEC
</Directory>
<Directory “/ssi”>
Options +Include
</Directory>

This configuration segment disables the exec command everywhere but the
/ssi directory.

Avoid using the printenv command, which prints out a listing of all exist-
ing environment variables and their values, as in this example:
<--#printenv -->
This command displays all the environment variables available to the Web
server — on a publicly accessible page — which certainly gives away clues
to potential bad guys. Use this command only when you are debugging SSI
calls, never in a production environment.

As shown, there are a great deal of configuration and policy decisions (what to
allow and how to allow it) that you must make to ensure Web security. Many
become frustrated after implementing a set of security measures, because they don’t
know what else is required. Once you have implemented a set of measures, such as
controlled CGI and SSI requests as explained above, focus your efforts on logging.

Logging Everything
A good Web administrator closely monitors server logs, which provide clues to
unusual access patterns. Apache can log access requests that are successful and that
result in error in separate log files as shown in this example:

CustomLog /logs/access.log common

ErrorLog /logs/error.log

The first directive, CustomLog, logs each incoming request to your Web site, and
the second directive, ErrorLog, records only the requests that generated an error
condition. The error log is a good place to check problems that are reported by your
Web server. You can use a robust log analysis program like Wusage
(www.boutell.com) to routinely analyze and monitor log files. If you notice, for
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380 Part IV: Network Service Security

example, someone trying to supply unusual parameters to your CGI scripts, con-
sider it a hostile attempt and investigate the matter immediately. Here’s a process
that you can use:

1. Get the complete URL used in trying to fool a CGI script.

2. If you didn’t write the script, ask the script author about what happens
when someone passes such URL (that is, parameters within the URL after
?) to the script. If there’s a reason to worry, proceed forward or stop
investigating at this point — but make a note of the IP address in a text file
along with the URL and time and date stamp.
3. If the URL makes the script do something it shouldn’t, consider taking the
script offline until it’s fixed so that the URL can’t pose a threat to the
system.
4. Use host to detect the hostname of the bad guy’s IP address. Sometimes
host can’t find the hostname. In such a case, try traceroute and identify
the ISP owning the IP address.
5. Do a whois domain lookup for the ISP and find the technical contact
listed in the whois output. You may have to go to a domain register’s Web
site to perform the whois lookup if you don’t have the whois program
installed. Try locating an appropriate domain register from InterNIC at
www.internic.net.

6. Send an e-mail to the technical contact address at the ISP regarding the
incident and supply the log snippet for his review. Write your e-mail in a
polite and friendly manner.

The ISP at the other end is your only line of defense at this point. Politely
request a speedy resolution or response.

7. If you can’t take the script offline because it’s used too heavily by other
users, you can decide to ban the bad guy from using it. Say you run your
script under the script alias ext which is set up as follows:
ScriptAlias /ext/ “/some/path/to/cgi/scripts/”

Change the preceding line of code to the following:

Alias /ext/ “/some/path/to/cgi/scripts/”
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 381

Add the following lines after the above line:

<Location /ext>
SetHandler cgi-script
Options -Indexes +ExecCGI
AllowOverride None
Order allow,deny
Allow from all
Deny from 192.168.1.100
</Location>

Replace 192.168.1.100 with the IP address of the bad guy. This configura-
tion runs your script as usual for everyone but the user on the IP address
given in the Deny from line. However, if the bad guy’s ISP uses dynami-
cally allocated IP addresses for its customers, then locking the exact IP
address isn’t useful because the bad guy can come back with a different IP
address next time. In such a case, you must consider locking the entire IP
network. For example, if the ISP uses 192.168.1.0, then you must remove
the 100 from the Deny from line to block the entire ISP. This is a drastic
measure and may block a lot of innocent users at the ISP from using this
script, so exercise caution when deciding to block.
8. Wait a few days for the technical contact to respond. If you don’t hear
from him, try to contact him through the Web site. If the problem persists,
contact your legal department to determine what legal actions you can
take to require action from the ISP.

Logs are great, but they’re useless if the bad guys can modify them. Protect your
log files. I recommend keeping log files in their own partition where no one but the
root user has access to make any changes.
Make sure that the directories specified by ServerRoot, CustomLog, and
ErrorLog directives aren’t writable by anyone but the root user. Apache users and
groups don’t need read or write permission in log directories. Enabling anyone
other than the root user to write files in the log directory can cause a major secu-
rity hole. To ensure that only root user has access to the log files in a directory
called /logs, do the following:

1. Change the ownership of the directory and all the files within it to root
user and root group by using this command:
chown –R root:root /logs

2. Change the directory’s permission by using this command:

chmod –R 750 /logs
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382 Part IV: Network Service Security

Logging access requests can monitor and analyze who is requesting information
from your Web site. Sometimes access to certain parts of your Web site must be
restricted so that only authorized users or computers can access the contents.

Restricting Access to
Sensitive Contents
You can restrict access by IP or hostname or use username/password authentication
for sensitive information on your Web site. Apache can restrict access to certain
sensitive contents using two methods:

◆ IP-based or hostname-based access control

◆ An HTTP authentication scheme

Using IP or hostname
In this authentication scheme, access is controlled by the hostname or the host’s IP
address. When a request for a certain resource arrives, the Web server checks
whether the requesting host is allowed access to the resource; then it acts on the
findings.
The standard Apache distribution includes a module called mod_access, which
bases access control on the Internet hostname of a Web client. The hostname can be

◆ A fully qualified domain name

◆ An IP address

The module supports this type of access control by using the three Apache
directives:

◆ allow

◆ deny

◆ order

The allow directive can define a list of hosts (containing hosts or IP addresses)
that can access a directory. When more than one host or IP address is specified,
they should be separated with space characters. Table 15-1 shows the possible val-
ues for the directive.
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 383

TABLE 15-1 POSSIBLE VALUES FOR THE ALLOW DIRECTIVE

Value Example Description

all allow from all This reserved word allows access for all
hosts. The example shows this option.
A fully qualified allow from Only the host that has the specified
domain name wormhole.nitec.com FQDN is allowed access. The allow
(FQDN) of a host directive in the example allows access
only to wormhole.nitec.com. This
compares whole components;
toys.com would not match
etoys.com.

A partial domain allow from .mainoffice. Only the hosts that match the partial
name of a host nitec.com hostname have access. The example
permits all the hosts in the
.mainoffice.nitec.com network
access to the site. For example,
developer1.mainoffice.
nitec.com and developer2.
mainoffice.nitec.com have access
to the site. However, developer3.
baoffice.nitec.com isn’t allowed
access.
A full IP address allow from Only the specified IP address is allowed
of a host 192.168.1.100 access. The example shows a full IP
address (all four octets are present),
192.168.1.100, that is allowed access.
A partial allow from When not all four octets of an IP
IP address 192.168.1 address are present in the allow
allow from directive, the partial IP address is
130.86 matched from left to right, and hosts
that have the matching IP address
pattern (that is, it’s part of the same
subnet) have access. In the first
example, all hosts with IP addresses in
the range of 192.168.1.1 to
192.168.1.255 have access. In the
second example, all hosts from the
130.86 network have access.
Continued
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384 Part IV: Network Service Security

TABLE 15-1 POSSIBLE VALUES FOR THE ALLOW DIRECTIVE (Continued)

Value Example Description

A network/ allow from This can specify a range of IP addresses

netmask pair 192.168.1.0/ by using the network and netmask
255.255.255.0 addresses. The example allows only the
hosts with IP addresses in the range of
192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.254 to have
access.
A network/n allow 192. This is like the previous entry, except
CIDR specification 168.1.0/24 the netmask consists of n number of
high-order 1 bits. The example allows
from 192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0. This
feature is available in Apache 1.3 and
later.

The deny directive is the exact opposite of the allow directive. It defines a list of
hosts that can’t access a specified directory. Like the allow directive, it can accept
all the values shown in Table 15-1.
The order directive controls how Apache evaluates both allow and deny direc-
tives. For example:

<Directory “/mysite/myboss/rants”>
order deny, allow
deny from myboss.mycompany.com
allow from all
</Directory>

This example denies the host myboss.mycompany.com access and gives all other
hosts access to the directory. The value for the order directive is a comma-
separated list, which indicates which directive takes precedence. Typically, the one
that affects all hosts (in the preceding example, the allow directive ) is given
lowest priority.
Although allow, deny and deny, allow are the most widely used values for the
order directive, another value, mutual-failure, can indicate that only those hosts
appearing on the allow list but not on the deny list are granted access.
In all cases, every allow and deny directive is evaluated.
If you are interested in blocking access to a specific HTTP request method, such
as GET, POST, and PUT, the <Limit> container, you can do so as shown in this
example:
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 385

<Location /cgi-bin>
<Limit POST>
order deny,allow
deny from all
allow from yourdomain.com
</Limit>
</Location>

This example allows POST requests to the cgi-bin directory only if they are
made by hosts in the yourdomain.com domain. This means if this site has some
HTML forms that send user input data via the HTTP POST method, only the users in
yourdomain.com can use these forms effectively. Typically, CGI applications are
stored in the cgi-bin directory, and many sites feature HTML forms that dump
data to CGI applications through the POST method. Using the preceding host-based
access control configuration, a site can allow anyone to run a CGI script but allow
only a certain site (in this case, yourdomain.com) to actually post data to CGI
scripts. This gives the CGI access in such a site a bit of read-only character.
Everyone can run applications that generate output without taking any user input,
but only users of a certain domain can provide input.

Using an HTTP authentication scheme

Standard mod_auth module-based basic HTTP authentication confirms authentica-
tion with usernames, groups, and passwords stored in text files. This approach
works well if you’re dealing with a small number of users. However, if you have a
lot of users (thousands or more), using mod_auth may exact a performance
penalty — in which case, you can use something more advanced, such as DBM files,
Berkeley DB files, or even a dedicated SQL database. The next section presents a
few examples of basic HTTP authentication.

REQUIRING A USERNAME AND PASSWORD

This example creates a restricted directory that requires a username and a pass-
word for access. I assume the following are settings for a Web site called
apache.nitec.com:

DocumentRoot “/www/htdocs”
AccessFileName .htaccess
AllowOverride All

Assume also that you want to restrict access to the following directory, such that
only a user named reader with the password bought-it can access the directory:

/www/htdocs/readersonly
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386 Part IV: Network Service Security

The following steps create the appropriately restricted access:

1. Create a user file by using htpasswd.

A standard Apache distribution includes a utility called htpasswd, which
creates the user file needed for the AuthUserFile directive. Use the pro-
gram like this:
htpasswd -c /www/secrets/.htpasswd reader

The htpasswd utility asks for the password of reader. Enter bought-it
and then reenter the password to confirm. After you reenter the password,
the utility creates a file called .htpasswd in the /www/secrets directory.
Note the following:
■ The -c option tells htpasswd that you want a new user file. If you
already had the password file and wanted to add a new user, you
would not want this option.
■ Place the user file outside the document root directory of the
apache.nitec.com site, as you don’t want anyone to download it via
the Web.
■ Use a leading period (.) in the filename so it doesn’t appear in the out-
put on your Unix system. Doing so doesn’t provide any real benefits
but can help identify a Unix file because its use is a traditional Unix
habit. Many configuration files in Unix systems have leading periods
(.login and .profile).
2. Execute the following command:
cat /www/secrets/.htpasswd

This should show a line like the following (the password won’t be exactly
the same as this example):
reader:hulR6FFh1sxK6

This command confirms that you have a user called reader in the
.htpasswd file. The password is encrypted by the htpasswd program,
using the standard crypt() function.
3. Create an .htaccess file.
Using a text editor, add the following lines to a file named
/www/htdocs/readersonly/.htaccess:

AuthName “Readers Only”

AuthType Basic
AuthUserFile /www/secrets/.htpasswd
require user reader

The preceding code works this way:

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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 387

■ AuthName sets the realm of the authentication.

This is really just a label that goes to the Web browser so that the user
is provided with some clue about what she will access. In this case, the
“Readers Only” string indicates that only readers can access this
directory.
■ AuthType specifies the type of authentication.

Because only basic authentication is supported, AuthType is always

Basic.

■ AuthUserFile specifies the filename and path for the user file.

■ require specifies that a user named reader is allowed access to this

directory.
4. Set file permissions.
After the .htaccess and .htpasswd files are created, make sure that only
the Apache user can read the files.

No users except the file owner and Apache should have access to these files.

5. Use a Web browser to access the following URL:

http://apache.nitec.com/readersonly

Apache sends the 401 status header and WWW-Authenticate response

header to the browser with the realm (set in AuthName) and authentication-
type (set in AuthType) information. The browser displays a pop-up dialog
box that requests a username and password.
Check whether a user can get in without a username or password — enter
nothing in the entry boxes in the dialog box and click OK. This should
result in an authentication failure and an error message. The browser
receives the same authentication challenge again, so it displays another
dialog box.
Clicking Cancel results in the browser showing the standard
Authentication Required error message from Apache.

Clicking Reload or refresh in the browser requests the same URL again,
and the browser receives the same authentication challenge from the
server. This time enter reader as the username and bought-it as the pass-
word, and click OK. Apache now gives you directory access.
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388 Part IV: Network Service Security

You can change the Authentication Required message if you want by using the
ErrorDocument directive:

ErrorDocument 401 /nice_401message.html

Insert this line in your httpd.conf file and create a nice message in the
nice_401message.html file to make your users happy.

ALLOWING A GROUP OF USERS TO ACCESS A DIRECTORY

Instead of allowing one user called reader to access the restricted area (as demon-
strated in the previous example), try allowing anyone belonging to the group
named smart_readers to access the same directory. Assume this group has two
users: pikejb and bcaridad.
Follow these steps to give the users in the group smart_readers directory
access.

1. Create a user file by using htpasswd.

Using the htpasswd utility, create the users pikejb and bcaridad.
2. Create a group file.
Using a text editor such as vi (available on most Unix systems), create a
file named /www/secrets/.htgroup. This file has one line:
smart_readers: pikejb bcaridad

3. Create an .htaccess file in /www/htdocs/readersonly.

Using a text editor, add the following lines to a file called /data/web/
apache/public/htdocs/readersonly/.htaccess:

AuthName “Readers Only”

AuthType Basic
AuthUserFile /www/secrets/.htpasswd
AuthGroupFile /www/secrets/.htgroup
require group smart_readers

This addition is almost the same configuration that I discussed in the pre-
vious example, with two changes:
■ A new directive, AuthGroupFile, points to the .htgroup group file
created earlier.
■ The require directive line requires a group called smart_readers.
This means Apache allows access to anyone that belongs to the group.
4. Make sure .htaccess, .htpasswd, and .htgroup files are readable only by
Apache, and that no one but the owner has write access to the files.
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 389

MIXING HOST-BASED ACCESS CONTROL

WITH HTTP AUTHENTICATION
In this example, you see how you can mix the host-based access control scheme
with the basic HTTP authentication method found in Apache. Say you want to
allow the smart_readers group access to the same directory as it has in the second
preceding example, “Allowing a group of users to access a directory,” and you want
anyone coming from a domain called classroom.nitec.com without a username
and password to have access to the same directory.
This means if a request for the URL http://apache.nitec.com/readersonly
comes from a domain named classroom.nitec.com, the request is processed with-
out HTTP authentication because you perform the following steps:

1. Modify the .htaccess file (from the preceding example) to look like this:
AuthName “Readers Only”
AuthType Basic
AuthUserFile /www/secrets/.htpasswd
AuthGroupFile /www/secrets/.htgroup
require group smart_readers
order deny, allow
deny from all
allow from classroom.nitec.com

This adds three host-based access control directives (discussed in earlier

sections).
■ The order directive tells Apache to evaluate the deny directive before
it does the allow directive.
■ The deny directive tells Apache to refuse access from all hosts.
■ The allow directive tells Apache to allow access from
classroom.nitec.com.

This third directive effectively tells Apache that any hosts in the
classroom.nitec.com domain are welcome to this directory.

2. Using a Web browser from a host called user01.classroom.nitec.com,

if you try to access http://apache.nitec.com/readersonly, your
browser displays the username and password authentication dialog box.
This means you must authenticate yourself.
This isn’t what you want to happen. So what’s going on? Apache assumes
that both host-based and basic HTTP authentication are required for this
directory — so it denies access to the directory unless it can pass both
methods. A solution to this problem is the satisfy directive, which you
can use like this:
AuthName “Readers Only”
AuthType Basic
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390 Part IV: Network Service Security

AuthUserFile /www/secrets/.htpasswd
AuthGroupFile /www/secrets/.htgroup
require group smart_readers
order deny, allow
deny from all
allow from classroom.nitec.com
satisfy any

The satisfy directive takes either the all value or the any value. Because
you want the basic HTTP authentication activated only if a request comes
from any host other than the classroom.nitec.com domain, specify any
for the satisfy directive. This effectively tells Apache to do the following:
IF (REMOTE_HOST NOT IN .classroom.nitec.com DOMAIN) THEN
Basic HTTP authentication Required
ENDIF

If you want only users of the classroom.nitec.com subdomain to access

the directory with basic HTTP authentication, specify all for the satisfy
directive; this tells Apache to enforce both authentication methods for all
requests.

Controlling Web Robots

Your Web site isn’t always accessed by human users. Many search engines index
your Web site by using Web robots — programs that traverse Web sites for indexing
purposes. These robots often index information they shouldn’t — and sometimes
don’t index what they should. The following section examines ways to control
(most) robot access to your Web site.
Frequently used search engines such as Yahoo!, AltaVista, Excite, and Infoseek
use automated robot or spider programs that search Web sites and index their con-
tents. This is usually desirable, but on occasion, you may find yourself wanting to
stop these robots from accessing a certain part of your Web site.
If content in a section of your Web site frequently expires (daily, for example),
you don’t want the search robots to index it. When a user at the search-engine site
clicks a link to the old content and finds that the link doesn’t exist, she isn’t happy.
That user may then go to the next link without returning to your site.
Sometimes you may want to disable the indexing of your content (or part of it),
because the robots can overwhelm Web sites by requesting too many documents
too rapidly. Efforts are underway to create standards of behavior for Web robots. In
the meantime, the Robot Exclusion Protocol enables Web site administrators to
place a robots.txt file on their Web sites, indicating where robots shouldn’t go.
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 391

For example, a large archive of bitmap images is useless to a robot that is trying to
index HTML pages. Serving these files to the robot wastes resources on your server
and at the robot’s location.
This protocol is currently voluntary, and etiquette is still evolving for robot
developers as they gain experience with Web robots. The most popular search
engines, however, abide by the Robot Exclusion Protocol. Here is what a robot or
spider program does:

1. When a compliant Web robot visits a site called www.domain.com, it first

checks for the existence of the URL:
http://www.domain.com/robots.txt

2. If this URL exists, the robot parses its contents for directives that instruct
the robot to index the site. As a Web server administrator, you can create
directives that make sense for your site. Only one robots.txt file may
exist per site; this file contains records that may look like the following:
User-agent: *
Disallow: /cgi-bin/
Disallow: /tmp/
Disallow: /~kabir/

In the preceding code

■ The first directive tells the robot that the following directives should be
considered by any robots.
■ The following three directives (Disallow) tell the robot not to access
the directories mentioned in the directives.

You need a separate Disallow line for every URL prefix you want to
exclude. For example, your command line should not read like this:

Disallow: /cgi-bin/ /tmp/ /~kabir/

You should not have blank lines in a record. They delimit multiple records.
Regular expressions aren’t supported in the User-agent and Disallow lines. The
asterisk in the User-agent field is a special value that means any robot.
Specifically, you can’t have lines like either of these:

Disallow: /tmp/*
Disallow: *.gif
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392 Part IV: Network Service Security

Everything not explicitly disallowed is considered accessible by the robot (some

examples follow).
To exclude all robots from the entire server, use the following configuration:

User-agent: *
Disallow: /

To permit all robots complete access, use the following configuration:

User-agent: *
Disallow:

You can create the same effect by deleting the robots.txt file. To exclude a sin-
gle robot called WebCrawler, add these lines:

User-agent: WebCrawler
Disallow: /

To allow a single robot called WebCrawler to access the site, use the following
configuration:

User-agent: WebCrawler
Disallow:
User-agent: *
Disallow: /

To forbid robots to index a single file called /daily/changes_to_often.html,

use the following configuration:

User-agent: *
Disallow: /daily/changes_to_often.html

Content Publishing Guidelines

If you’ve applied the preceding steps, your Web site is reasonably fortified for secu-
rity. Even so (as mentioned before), be sure to monitor log activities to detect
unusual access. Remember, too, that the human components of your Web site (such
as content publishers and script developers) need training for site security. Establish
guidelines for them.
Content publishers and script developers should know and adhere to the follow-
ing guidelines:
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 393

◆ Whenever storing a content file, such as an HTML file, image file, sound
file, or video clip, the publisher must ensure that the file is readable by the
Web server (that is, the username specified by the User directive). No one
but the publisher user should have write access to the new file.
◆ Any file or directory that can’t be displayed directly on the Web browser
because it contains information indirectly accessed by using an applica-
tion or script shouldn’t be located under a DocumentRoot-specified direc-
tory. For example, if one of your scripts needs access to a data file that
shouldn’t be directly accessed from the Web, don’t keep the data file inside
the document tree. Keep the file outside the document tree and have your
script access it from there.
◆ Any time a script needs a temporary file, the file should never be created
inside the document tree. In other words, don’t have a Web server writable
directory within your document tree. All temporary files should be created
in one subdirectory outside the document tree where only the Web server
has write access. This ensures that a bug in a script doesn’t accidentally
write over any existing file in the document tree.
◆ To fully enforce copyright, include both visible and embedded copyright
notices on the content pages. The embedded copyright message should be
kept at the beginning of a document, if possible. For example, in an HTML
file you can use a pair of comment tags to embed the copyright message
at the beginning of the file. For example, <!-- Copyright (c) 2000 by
YourCompany; All rights reserved. --> can be embedded in every
page.
◆ If you have many images that you want to protect from copyright theft,
look into watermarking technology. This technique invisibly embeds
information in images to protect the copyright. The idea is that if you
detect a site that’s using your graphical contents without permission, you
can verify the theft by looking at the hidden information. If the informa-
tion matches your watermark ID, you can clearly identify the thief and
proceed with legal action. (That’s the idea, at least. I question the strength
of currently available watermarking tools; many programs can easily
remove the original copyright owner’s watermarks. Watermark technology
is worth investigating, however, if you worry about keeping control of
your graphical content.)

Creating a policy is one thing and enforcing it is another. Once you create your
own publishing policy, discuss this with the people you want to have using it. Get
their feedback on each policy item — and, if necessary, refine your policy to make it
useful.
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394 Part IV: Network Service Security

Using Apache-SSL
I want to point out a common misunderstanding about Secure Sockets Layer (SSL).
Many people are under the impression that having an SSL-enabled Web site auto-
matically protects them from all security problems. Wrong! SSL protects data traf-
fic only between the user’s Web browser and the Web server. It ensures that data
isn’t altered during transit. It can’t enhance your Web site’s security in any other
way.
Apache doesn’t include an SSL module in the default distribution, but you can
enable SSL for Apache by using the Apache-SSL source patch. The Apache-SSL
source patch kit can be downloaded from www.apache-ssl.org. The Apache-
SSL source patch kit turns Apache into a SSL server based on either SSLeay or
OpenSSL.
In the following section, I assume that you have already learned to install
OpenSSL (if not, see Chapter 11), and that you use OpenSSL here.

Compiling and installing Apache-SSL patches

As mentioned before, you need OpenSSL installed for Apache-SSL to work. I
assume that you have done the following:

◆ Installed OpenSSL in the /usr/local/ssl directory as recommended in

Chapter 11
◆ Extracted the Apache source tree into the
/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/apache_x.y.zz directory

For example, the Apache source path for Apache 2.0.01 is /usr/src/
redhat/SOURCES/apache_2.0.01.

Here’s how you can set up Apache for SSL support.

1. su to root.
2. Change the directory to the Apache source distribution (/usr/src/
redhat/SOURCES/apache_x.y.zz).

3. Copy the Apache-SSL patch kit (apache_x.y.zz+ssl_x.y.tar.gz) in the

current directory and extract it by using the tar xvzf
apache_x.y.zz+ssl_x.y.tar.gz command.

4. Run patch -p1 < SSLpatch to patch the source files.

5. Change the directory to src and edit the Configuration.tmpl file to
have the following lines along with other unchanged lines.
SSL_BASE=/usr/local/ssl
SSL_APP_DIR= $(SSL_BASE)/bin
SSL_APP=/usr/local/ssl/bin/openssl
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 395

6. Change back your current directory to src by running the cd ..

command.
7. Run the ./configure command with any command-line arguments that
you typically use. For example, to install Apache in /usr/local/apache,
run this script with the --prefix=/usr/local/apache option.
8. Run make and make install to compile and install Apache.

This compiles and installs both standard (httpd) and SSL-enabled (httpsd)
Apache. Now you need a server certificate for Apache.

Creating a certificate for your Apache-SSL server

See Chapter 11 for details on creating a certificate for your Apache server. To create
a temporary certificate to get going quickly, you can simply do the following:

1. Change directory to the src (for example, /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/

apache_x.y.zz/src) subdirectory of your Apache source distribution.

2. Run the make certificate command to create a temporary certificate for

testing purposes only. The make certificate command uses the
/usr/local/ssl/bin/openssl program to create a server certificate for
you. You are asked a few self-explanatory questions. Here’s an example
session of this command.
ps > /tmp/ssl-rand; date >> /tmp/ssl-rand; \
RANDFILE=/tmp/ssl-rand /usr/local/ssl/bin/openssl req -config
../SSLconf/conf/ssleay.cnf \
-new -x509 -nodes -out ../SSLconf/conf/httpsd.pem \
-keyout ../SSLconf/conf/httpsd.pem; \
ln -sf httpsd.pem ../SSLconf/conf/`/usr/local/ssl/bin/openssl
\
x509 -noout -hash < ../SSLconf/conf/httpsd.pem`.0; \
rm /tmp/ssl-rand
Using configuration from ../SSLconf/conf/ssleay.cnf
Generating a 1024 bit RSA private key
..................++++++
...............................................++++++
writing new private key to ‘../SSLconf/conf/httpsd.pem’
-----
You are about to be asked to enter information that will be
incorporated
into your certificate request.
What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished
Name or a DN.
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396 Part IV: Network Service Security

There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
For some fields there will be a default value,
If you enter ‘.’, the field will be left blank.
-----
Country Name (2 letter code) [GB]:US
State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:California
Locality Name (eg, city) []:Sacramento
Organization Name (eg, company; recommended) []:MyORG
Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:CS
server name (eg. ssl.domain.tld; required!!!)
[]:shea.intevo.com
Email Address []:[email protected]

The certificate called httpsd.pem is created in the SSLconf/conf subdirectory

of your Apache source distribution. For example, if the path to the directory con-
taining your Apache source distribution is /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/
apache_x.xx, then the fully qualified path — which you use to configure Apache in
the following section — is as follows:

/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/apache_x.xx/SSLconf/conf/httpsd.pem

Now you can configure Apache.

Configuring Apache for SSL

When you ran make install in the “Compiling and installing Apache-SSL
patches” section, you created an httpsd.conf file in the conf subdirectory of your
Apache installation directory. For example, if you used --prefix=/usr/
local/apache to configure Apache, you find the httpsd.conf file in /usr/local/
apache/conf. Rename it to httpd.conf, using the following command:

mv /usr/local/apache/conf/httpsd.conf /usr/local/apache/conf/httpd.conf

Make sure you replace /usr/local/apache/conf with appropriate

pathname if you installed Apache in a different directory.

You have two choices when it comes to using SSL with Apache. You can either
enable SSL for the main server or for virtual Web sites. Here I show you how you
can enable SSL for your main Apache server. Modify the httpd.conf file as follows
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Chapter 15: Web Server Security 397

1. By default, Web browsers send SSL requests to port 443 of your Web
server, so if you want to turn the main Apache server into an SSL-enabled
server, change the Port directive line to be
Port 443

2. Add the following lines to tell Apache how to generate random data
needed for encrypting SSL connections:
SSLRandomFile file /dev/urandom 1024
SSLRandomFilePerConnection file /dev/urandom 1024

3. If you want to reject all requests but the secure requests, insert the follow-
ing directive:
SSLRequireSSL

4. To enable SSL service, add the following directive:

SSLEnable

5. By default, the cache server used by SSL-enabled Apache is created in the

src/modules/ssl directory of the Apache source distribution. Set this
directory as shown below:
SSLCacheServerPath \
/path/to/apache_x.y.zz/src/modules/ssl/gcache

6. Add the following to enable the cache server port and cache timeout
values:
SSLCacheServerPort logs/gcache_port
SSLSessionCacheTimeout 15

7. Tell Apache where you are keeping the server certificate file.
■ If you created the server certificate by using the instructions in Chapter
11, your server certificate should be in /usr/local/ssl/certs.
■ If you apply the test certificate now (using the make certificate
command discussed earlier), then your test certificate is in
/path/to/apache_x.y.zz/SSLconf/conf, and it’s called httpsd.pem.

Set the following directive to the fully qualified path of your server cer-
tificate as shown with the following code.
SSLCertificateFile \
/path/to/apache_x.y.zz/SSLconf/conf/httpsd.pem

8. Set the following directives as shown, and save the httpd.conf file.
SSLVerifyClient 3
SSLVerifyDepth 10
SSLFakeBasicAuth
SSLBanCipher NULL-MD5:NULL-SHA
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398 Part IV: Network Service Security

To SSL-enable a virtual host called myvhost.intevo.com on port 443, use

the following configuration:
Listen 443
<Virtualhost myvhost.intevo.com:443>
SSLEnable
SSLCertificateFile /path/to/myvhost.certificate.cert
</Virtualhost>

Now you can test your SSL-enabled Apache server.

Testing the SSL connection

If you have installed Apache in the /usr/local/apache directory, run the
/usr/local/apache/bin/httpsdctl start command to start the SSL-enabled
Apache server. If you get an error message, check the log file for details. A typo or
a missing path in the httpd.conf file is the most common cause of errors. Once the
server is started, you can access it by using the HTTPS protocol. For example, to
access an SSL-enabled Apache server called shea.intevo.com, I can point a Web
browser to https://shea.intevo.com. If you use the test certificate or a home-
grown CA-signed certificate (see Chapter 11 for details) the Web browser displays a
warning message stating that the certificate can’t be verified. This is normal,
because the certificate isn’t signed by a known certificate authority.
Accept the certificate, and browse your SSL-enabled Web site.

Summary
Web servers are often the very first target of most hack attacks. By fortifying your
Web server using techniques to reduce CGI and SSI risks and logging everything,
you can ensure the security of your Web sites. Not allowing spiders and robots to
index sensitive areas of your Web site and restricting access by username or IP
address can be quite helpful in combating Web vandalism.
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Chapter 16

DNS Server Security

IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Checking DNS configuration using Dlint

◆ Using Transaction Signatures (TSIG) to handle zone transfers

◆ Limiting DNS queries

◆ Creating a chroot jail for the DNS server

◆ Using DNSSEC for authentication

ACCORDING TO A RECENT Men & Mice Domain Health Survey, three out of four
Internet domains have incorrect DNS configurations. Incorrect DNS configuration
often leads to security break-ins. This chapter examines correcting, verifying, and
securing DNS configuration using various techniques.

Understanding DNS Spoofing

DNS spoofing (attack by falsifying information) is a common DNS security prob-
lem. When a DNS server is tricked into accepting — and later using incorrect,
nonauthoritative information from a malicious DNS server, the first DNS server has
been spoofed. Spoofing attacks can cause serious security problems — like directing
users to the wrong Internet sites or routing e-mail to unauthorized mail servers —
for vulnerable DNS servers.
Hackers employ many methods to spoof a DNS server, including these two
favorites:

◆ Cache poisoning. A malicious hacker manipulates DNS queries to insert

data into an unprotected DNS server’s cache. This poisoned data is later
given out in response to client queries. Such data can direct clients to
hosts that are running Trojan Web servers or mail servers, where the
hackers may retrieve valuable information from users.
◆ DNS ID prediction scheme. Each DNS packet has a 16-bit ID number asso-
ciated with it, which DNS servers use to determine what the original query
was. A malicious hacker attacks DNS server A by placing a recursive query
that makes server A perform queries on a remote DNS server, B, whose 399
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400 Part IV: Network Service Security

information will be spoofed. By performing a denial-of-service (DoS)

attack and predicting the DNS ID sequence, the hacker can place query
responses to A before the real server B can respond. This type of attack is
hard but not impossible, because the ID space is only 16 bits, and DoS
attack tools are common hackerware these days.

How can you protect your DNS server from spoofing attacks? Begin with the fol-
lowing two principles:

◆ Keep your DNS configuration secure and correct.

◆ Ensure that you are running the latest release version of DNS server
software.

Running the latest stable DNS server software is as simple as getting the
source or binary distribution of the software from the server vendor and
installing it. Most people run the Berkeley Internet Name Domain (BIND)
server. The latest version of BIND is at www.isc.org/products/BIND.
Keeping your DNS configuration correct and secure is the challenge.

Checking DNS Configuring

Using Dlint
Poorly configured DNS servers are great security risks because they’re exploited
easily. However, a free tool called Dlint can help you analyze any DNS zone and
produce reports on many common configuration problems in the following listing:

◆ Hostnames that have A records must also have PTR records.

DNS configurations that have A records but no corresponding PTR records

can’t be verified by servers that want to perform reverse DNS lookup on a
host. Dlint checks for missing PTR records for A records found in your in
configuration.
◆ For each PTR record in the in-addr.arpa zone there should an equivalent
A record. Dlint reports missing A records for PTR records.
◆ Dlint recursively traverses subdomains (subzones) and looks for configu-
ration problems in them, too.
◆ Common typos or misplaced comments can create incorrect configuration;
Dlint tries to catch such errors.
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Chapter 16: DNS Server Security 401

Getting Dlint
Here’s how you can install Dlint on your system.
You can download Dlint from www.domtools.com/dns/dlint.shtml. As of this
writing the latest version of Dlint is 1.4.0. You can also use an online version of
Dlint at www.domtools.com/cgi-bin/dlint/nph-dlint.cgi. The online version
has time restrictions, so I recommend it only for trying the tool.

Installing Dlint
Dlint requires DiG and Perl 5. DiG is a DNS query utility found in the BIND distrib-
ution. Most likely you have it installed. Run the dig localhost any command to
find out. If you don’t have it, you can get DiG from www.isc.org/bind.html. I
assume that you have both DiG and Perl 5 installed on your Linux system.
To install Dlint do the following:

1. su to root.
2. Extract the Dlint source package using a suitable directory.
I extracted the dlint1.4.0.tar package in the /usr/src/redhat/
SOURCES directory using the tar xvf dlint1.4.0.tar command. A new
subdirectory gets created when you extract the source distribution.

Change your current directory to the new directory, which in my case is

dlint1.4.0. Make sure you substitute the appropriate Dlint version num-
ber (of the source distribution you downloaded) in all the instructions given
here.

3. Run the which perl command to see where the Perl interpreter is
installed.
4. Run the head -1 digparse command to see the very first line of the
digparse Perl script used by Dlint. If the path shown after #! matches the
path shown by the which perl command, don’t change it. If the paths
don’t match, modify this file using a text editor, and replace the path after
#! with the path of your Perl interpreter.

5. Run the make install command to install Dlint, which installs the dlint
and digparse scripts in /usr/local/bin.
Now you can run Dlint.
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402 Part IV: Network Service Security

Running Dlint
The main script in the Dlint package is called dlint. You can run this script using
the following command:

/usr/local/bin/dlint domain | in-addr.arpa-domain

For example, to run dlint for a domain called intevo.com, you can execute
/usr/local/bin/dlint intevo.com. Listing 16-1 shows an example output.

Listing 16-1: Sample output from dlint

;; dlint version 1.4.0, Copyright (C) 1998 Paul A. Balyoz <[email protected]>
;; Dlint comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY.
;; This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
;; under certain conditions. Type ‘man dlint’ for details.
;; command line: /usr/local/bin/dlint domain.com
;; flags: normal-domain recursive.
;; using dig version 8.2
;; run starting: Fri Dec 29 13:34:07 EST 2000
;; ============================================================
;; Now linting domain.com
;; Checking serial numbers per nameserver
;; 1997022700 ns2.domain.com.
;; 1997022700 ns1.domain.com.
;; All nameservers agree on the serial number.
;; Now caching whole zone (this could take a minute)
;; trying nameserver ns1.domain.com.
;; 3 A records found.
ERROR: “ns1.domain.com. A 172.20.15.1”, but the PTR record for
1.15.20.172.in-addr.arpa. is “k2.domain.com.”
One of the above two records are wrong unless the host is a name server
or mail server.
To have 2 names for 1 address on any other hosts, replace the A record
with a CNAME record:
ns1.domain.com. IN CNAME k2.domain.com.
ERROR: “ns2.domain.com. A 172.20.15.1”, but the PTR record for
1.15.20.172.in-addr.arpa. is “k2.domain.com.”
One of the above two records are wrong unless the host is a name server
or mail server.
To have 2 names for 1 address on any other hosts, replace the A record
with a CNAME record:
ns2.domain.com. IN CNAME k2.domain.com.
;; ============================================================
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Chapter 16: DNS Server Security 403

;; Now linting domain.com.

;; Checking serial numbers per nameserver
;; 1997022700 ns1.domain.com.
;; 1997022700 ns2.domain.com.
;; All nameservers agree on the serial number.
;; Now caching whole zone (this could take a minute)
;; trying nameserver ns1.domain.com.
;; 3 A records found.
ERROR: “ns1.domain.com. A 172.20.15.1”, but the PTR record for
1.15.20.172.in-addr.arpa. is “k2.domain.com.”
One of the above two records are wrong unless the host is a name
server or mail server.
To have 2 names for 1 address on any other hosts, replace the A record
with a CNAME record:
ns1.domain.com. IN CNAME k2.domain.com.
ERROR: “ns2.domain.com. A 172.20.15.1”, but the PTR record for
1.15.20.172.in-addr.arpa. is “k2.domain.com.”
One of the above two records are wrong unless the host is a name
server or mail server.
To have 2 names for 1 address on any other hosts, replace the A record
with a CNAME record:
ns2.domain.com. IN CNAME k2.domain.com.
;; no subzones found below domain.com., so no recursion will take place.
;; ============================================================
;; dlint of domain.com. run ending with errors.
;; run ending: Fri Dec 29 13:34:09 EST 2000
;; ============================================================
;; dlint of domain.com run ending with errors.
;; run ending: Fri Dec 29 13:34:09 EST 2000

As you can see, dlint is verbose. The lines that start with a semicolon are com-
ments. All other lines are warnings or errors. Here domain.com has a set of prob-
lems. ns1.domain.com has an A record, but the PTR record points to
k2.domain.com instead. Similarly, the ns2.domain.com host has the same problem.
This means the domain.com configuration has the following lines:

ns1 IN A 172.20.15.1
ns2 IN A 172.20.15.1
k2 IN A 172.20.15.1

The configuration also has the following PTR record:

1 IN PTR k2.intevo.com.
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404 Part IV: Network Service Security

The dlint program suggests using CNAME records to resolve this problem. This
means the configuration should be:

ns1 IN A 172.20.15.1
ns2 IN CNAME ns1
k2 IN CNAME ns1

The PTR record should be:

1 IN PTR ns1.intevo.com.

After fixing the errors in the appropriate configuration DNS files for
domain.com, the following output is produced by the /usr/local/bin/dlint
domain.com command.

;; dlint version 1.4.0, Copyright (C) 1998 Paul A. Balyoz <[email protected]>

;; Dlint comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY.
;; This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
;; under certain conditions. Type ‘man dlint’ for details.
;; command line: /usr/local/bin/dlint domain.com
;; flags: normal-domain recursive.
;; using dig version 8.2
;; run starting: Fri Dec 29 13:38:00 EST 2000
;; ============================================================
;; Now linting domain.com
;; Checking serial numbers per nameserver
;; 1997022700 ns2.domain.com.
;; 1997022700 ns1.domain.com.
;; All nameservers agree on the serial number.
;; Now caching whole zone (this could take a minute)
;; trying nameserver ns1.domain.com.
;; 1 A records found.
;; ============================================================
;; Now linting domain.com.
;; Checking serial numbers per nameserver
;; 1997022700 ns1.domain.com.
;; 1997022700 ns2.domain.com.
;; All nameservers agree on the serial number.
;; Now caching whole zone (this could take a minute)
;; trying nameserver ns1.domain.com.
;; 1 A records found.
;; no subzones found below domain.com., so no recursion will take place.
;; ============================================================
;; dlint of domain.com. run ending normally.
;; run ending: Fri Dec 29 13:38:01 EST 2000
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Chapter 16: DNS Server Security 405

;; ============================================================
;; dlint of domain.com run ending normally.
;; run ending: Fri Dec 29 13:38:01 EST 2000

As shown no error messages are reported. Of course, Dlint (dlint) can’t catch all
errors in your configuration, but it’s a great tool to perform a level of quality con-
trol when you create, update, or remove DNS configuration information.

Securing BIND
BIND is the most widely used DNS server for Linux. BIND was recently overhauled
for scalability and robustness. Many DNS experts consider earlier versions of BIND
(prior to 9.0) to be mostly patchwork.
Fortunately BIND 9.0 is written by a large team of professional software devel-
opers to support the next generation of DNS protocol evolution. The new BIND sup-
ports back-end databases, authorization and transactional security features,
SNMP-based management, and IPv6 capability. The code base of the new bind is
audited and written in a manner that supports frequent audits by anyone who is
interested.
The new BIND now supports the DNSSEC and TSIG standards.

Using Transaction Signatures (TSIG)

for zone transfers
Transaction Signatures (TSIG) can authenticate and verify the DNS data exchange.
This means you can use TSIG to control zone transfers for domains you manage.
Typically, zone transfers are from primary to secondary name servers. In the fol-
lowing named.conf segment of a primary name server the IP addresses listed in the
access control list (acl) called dns-ip-list can transfer the zone information only
for the yourdomain.com domain.

acl “dns-ip-list” {
172.20.15.100;
172.20.15.123;
};
zone “yourdomain.com” {
type master;
file “mydomain.dns”;
allow-query { any; };
allow-update { none; };
allow-transfer { dns-ip-list; };
};
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406 Part IV: Network Service Security

Unfortunately, malicious hackers can use IP spoofing tricks to trick a DNS server
into performing zone transfers. Avoid this by using Transaction Signatures. Let’s
say that you want to limit the zone transfer for a domain called yourdomain.com to
two secondary name servers with IP addresses 172.20.15.100 (ns1.yourdomain.
com) and 172.20.15.123 (ns2.yourdomain.com). Here’s how you can use TSIG to
ensure that IP spoofing tricks can’t force a zone transfer between your DNS server
and a hacker’s DNS server.

Make sure that the DNS servers involved in TSIG-based zone transfer
authentication keep the same system time. You can create a cron job entry
to synchronize each machine with a remote time server using rdate or ntp
tools.

1. Generate a shared secret key to authenticate the zone transfer.

2. Change the directory to /var/named.
3. Use the /usr/local/sbin/dnssec-keygen command to generate a set of
public and private keys as follows:
dnssec-keygen -a hmac-md5 -b 128 -n HOST zone-xfr-key

The public key file is called Kzone-xfr-key.+157+08825.key, and the

private key file is Kzone-xfr-key.+157+08825.private. If you view the
contents of the private key file, you see something like the following:
Private-key-format: v1.2
Algorithm: 157 (HMAC_MD5)
Key: YH8Onz5x0/twQnvYPyh1qg==

4. Using the key string displayed by the preceding step, create the following
statement in the named.conf file of both ns1.yourdomain.com and
ns2.yourdomain.com.

key zone-xfr-key {
algorithm hmac-md5;
secret “YH8Onz5x0/twQnvYPyh1qg==”;
};
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Chapter 16: DNS Server Security 407

Use the actual key string found in the file you generated. Don’t use the key
from this example.

5. Add the following statement in the /etc/named.conf file of the

ns1.yourdomain.com server:

server 172.20.15.123 {
keys { zone-xfr-key; };
};

6. Add the following statement in the /etc/named.conf file of the

ns2.yourdomain.com server:

server 172.20.15.100 {
keys { zone-xfr-key; };
};

7. The full /etc/named.conf configuration segment of the yourdomain.com

zone for the primary DNS server ns1.yourdomain.com is shown in
Listing 16-2.

Listing 16-2: yourdomain.com configuration for primary DNS server

acl “dns-ip-list” {
172.20.15.100;
172.20.15.123;

};

key zone-xfr-key {
algorithm hmac-md5;
secret “YH8Onz5x0/twQnvYPyh1qg==”;
};
server 172.20.15.123 {
keys { zone-xfr-key; };
};
zone “yourdomain.com” {
type master;
file “mydomain.dns”;
allow-query { any; };
allow-update { none; };
allow-transfer { dns-ip-list; };
};
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408 Part IV: Network Service Security

8. The full /etc/named.conf configuration segment of the yourdomain.com

zone for the secondary DNS server ns1.yourdomain.com is shown in
Listing 16-3.

Listing 16-3: yourdomain.com configuration for secondary DNS server

acl “dns-ip-list” {
172.20.15.100;
172.20.15.123;

};

key zone-xfr-key {
algorithm hmac-md5;
secret “YH8Onz5x0/twQnvYPyh1qg==”;
};
server 172.20.15.100 {
keys { zone-xfr-key; };
};
zone “yourdomain.com” {
type master;
file “mydomain.dns”;
allow-query { any; };
allow-update { none; };
allow-transfer { dns-ip-list; };
};

9. Restart named on both systems.

The preceding steps ensures zone transfers between the given hosts occur in a
secure manner. To test that a shared TSIG key is used for zone-transfer authentica-
tion, you can do the following:

◆ Delete the yourdomain.com domain’s zone file on the secondary DNS

server (ns2.yourdomain.com).
◆ Restart the secondary name server.

◆ The secondary DNS server should transfer the missing zone file from the
primary DNS server. You should see the zone file created in the appropri-
ate directory. If for some reason this file isn’t created, look at /var/log/
messages for errors, fix the errors, and redo this verification process.
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Chapter 16: DNS Server Security 409

Watch for these problems:

◆ If you change the shared TSIG key in any of the two hosts by one character,
the zone transfer isn’t possible. You get an error message in /var/log/
messages that states that TSIG verification failed because of a bad key.

◆ Because the named.conf file on both machines now has a secret key,
ensure that the file isn’t readable by ordinary users.

If you want to dynamically updates of DNS configuration if the request is

signed using a TSIG key, use the allow-update { key keyname; }; state-
ment. For example, allow-update { key zone-xfr-key; }; statement
allows dynamic updates between the hosts discussed here. If the public and
private key files for a key named zone-xfr-key is in the /var/named/
keys directory, you can run /usr/local/bin/nsupdate -k/var/
named/keys:zone-xfr-key to update DNS zone information for the
yourdomain.com domain.

Running BIND as a non-root user

On a Linux kernel 2.3.99 and later, you can run BIND as a non-root user using the
-u option. For example, the /usr/local/sbin/named -u nobody command starts
BIND as the nobody user.

Hiding the BIND version number

Because software bugs are associated with certain versions, the version information
becomes a valuable piece of information for malicious hackers. By finding what
version of BIND you run, a hacker can figure what exploits (if any) are there for it
and try to break in. So it’s wise not to give your version number willingly. You can
simply override the version information given by BIND by adding the version
statement in the options section. For example, the following configuration seg-
ment tells named to display Unsupported on this platform when version infor-
mation is requested.

options {

# other global options go here

version “Unsupported on this platform”;
};
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410 Part IV: Network Service Security

As with the version number, you don’t want to give your host information. In
the sprit of making a potential attacker’s job harder, I recommend that you
don’t use HINFO or TXT resource records in your DNS configuration files.

Limiting Queries
Anyone can perform a query with most DNS servers on the Internet. This is
absolutely unacceptable for a secure environment. A DNS spoof attack usually
relies on this fact, and an attacker can ask your DNS server to resolve a query for
which it can’t produce an authoritative answer. The spoof may ask your server to
resolve a query that requires it to get data from the hacker’s own DNS server. For
example, a hacker runs a DNS server for the id10t.com domain, and your DNS
server is authoritative for the yourdomain.com domain. Now, if you allow anyone
to query your server for anything, the hacker can ask your server to resolve
gotcha.id10t.com. Your DNS server gets data from the hacker’s machine, and the
hacker plays his spoofing tricks to poison your DNS cache.
Now, say that your network address is 168.192.1.0. The following statement
makes sure that no one outside your network can query your DNS server for any-
thing but the domains it manages.

options {
allow-query { 168.192.1.0/24; };
};

The allow-query directive makes sure that all the hosts in the 168.192.1.0
network can query the DNS server. If your DNS server is authoritative for the
yourdomain.com zone, you can have the following /etc/named.conf segment:

options {
allow-query { 168.192.1.0/24; };
};
zone “yourdomain.com” {
type master;
file “yourdomain.com”;
allow-query { any; };
};
zone “1.168.192.in-addr.arpa” {
type master;
file “db.192.168.1”;
allow-query { any; };
};
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Chapter 16: DNS Server Security 411

This makes sure that anyone from anywhere can query the DNS server for your-
domain.com but only the users in the 168.192.1.0 network can query the DNS
server for anything.

Don’t allow anyone outside your network to perform recursive queries. To

disable recursive queries for everyone but your network, add this line:
allow-recursion { 192.168.1.0/24; };

You can also disable recursion completely, for everyone, by using the following
option in the global options section:

recursion no;

You can’t disable recursion on a name server if other name servers use it as a
forwarder.

Ideally, you should set your authoritative name server(s) to perform no recur-
sion. Only the name server(s) that are responsible for resolving DNS queries for
your internal network should perform recursion. This type of setup is known as
split DNS configuration.
For example, say that you have two name servers — ns1.yourdomain.com (pri-
mary) and ns2.yourdomain.com (secondary) — responsible for a single domain
called yourdomain.com. At the same time you have a DNS server called ns3.your-
domain.com, which is responsible for resolving DNS queries for your 192.168.1.0
network. In a split DNS configuration, you can set both ns1 and ns2 servers to use
no recursion for any domain other than yourdomain.com and allow recursion on
ns3 using the allow-recursion statement discussed earlier.

Turning off glue fetching

When a DNS server returns a name server record for a domain and doesn’t have an
A record for the name server record, it attempts to retrieve one. This is called glue
fetching, which spoofing attackers can abuse. Turning off glue fetching is as simple
as adding the following statement in the global options section of /etc/named.
conf.

options no-fetch-glue
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412 Part IV: Network Service Security

chrooting the DNS server

The 9.x version of BIND simplifies creating a chroot jail for the DNS server. Here’s
how you can create a chroot jail for BIND.

1. su to root.
2. Create a new user called dns by using the useradd dns -d /home/dns
command.
3. Run the mkdir -p /home/dns/var/log /home/dns/var/run /home/
dns/var/named /home/dns/etc command to create all the necessary
directories.
4. Copy the /etc/named.conf file, using the cp /etc/named.conf
/home/dns/etc/ command.

5. Copy everything from /var/named to /home/dns/var/named, using the

cp -r /var/named/* /home/dns/var/named/ command.

6. Run the chown -R dns:dns /home/dns command to make sure that all
files and directories needed by named are owned by user dns and its pri-
vate group called dns.

If you plan to run named as root, use root:root instead of dns:dns as

the username:groupname in this command.

Now you can run the name server using the following command:
/usr/local/sbin/named -t /home/dns -u dns

If you plan to run named as root, don’t specify the -u dns command.

Using DNSSEC (signed zones)

The DNS Security Extension (DNSSEC) is an authentication model based on public
key cryptography. It introduces two new resource record types, KEY and SIG, to
allow resolves and name servers to cryptographically authenticate the source of
any DNS data. This means a DNS client can now prove that the response it received
from a DNS server is authentic. Unfortunately, until DNSSEC is widespread, its ben-
efit can’t be fully realized. Here I show you how you can create the necessary
DNSSEC configuration for a domain called domain.com.
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Chapter 16: DNS Server Security 413

1. Create a pair of public and private keys for the domain.com domain. From
the /var/named directory, run the /usr/local/sbin/dnssec-keygen -a
DSA -b 768 -n ZONE domain.com command.

This command creates a 768-bit DSA-based private and public key pair. It
creates a public key file called Kdomain.com.+003+29462.key and a pri-
vate key file called Kdomain.com.+003+29462.private.
The 29462 number is called a key tag, and it varies. Insert the public key
in the zone file (domain.com.db) with a line like this at the beginning of
the file:
$INCLUDE /var/named/Kdomain.com.+003+29462.key

2. Create a key set using the /usr/local/sbin/dnssec-makekeyset -t

3600 -e now+30 Kdomain.com.+003+29462 command.

This command creates a key set with a time-to-live value of 3,600 seconds
(1 hour) and expiring in 30 days. This command creates a file called
domain.com.keyset.

3. Sign the key set, using the /usr/local/sbin/dnssec-signkey

domain.com.keyset Kdomain.com.+003+29462 command.

This command creates a signed key file called domain.com.signedkey.

4. Sign the zone file by using the /usr/local/sbin/dnssec-signzone -o
domain.com domain.db command, where domain.db is the name of the
zone file in the /var/named directory.
This command creates a signed zone file called domain.db.signed.
5. Replace the zone filename for domain.com in the /etc/named.conf file.
For example, the /etc/named.conf configuration segment in the follow-
ing code shows the zone declaration for domain.com.

zone “domain.com” IN {
type master;
file “domain.db.signed”;
allow-update { none; };
};
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414 Part IV: Network Service Security

Summary
Every Internet request (Web, FTP, email) requires at least one DNS query. Since
BIND is the most widely used DNS server available today, it is very important that
your BIND server is configured well for enhanced security. Checking the DNS con-
figuration using Dlint, using transaction signatures for zone transfer, and using
DNSSEC ensures that your DNS server is as secure as it can be.
224754-2 Ch17.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 415

Chapter 17

E-Mail Server Security

IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Securing open mail relay

◆ Using procmail to secure e-mail

◆ Securing IMAP

◆ Securing POP3

E-MAIL COMMUNICATION TAKES A leading role in today’s business-to-business (B2B),

business-to-consumer (B2C), and peer-to-peer (P2P) arenas. Many consider e-mail
to be the “killer app” of the Internet era. I don’t doubt it for a bit.
Today, over a billion e-mails are exchanged worldwide every day. Most of these
e-mails are routed to their destinations by a select few Mail Transport Agents
(MTAs). Sendmail, an MTA, has been around for many years and is usually the
default MTA for most Unix and Unix-like distributions (which include Red Hat
Linux).
Unfortunately, as e-mail use becomes more common, it’s becomes a target for
abuse and break-ins. The open-source and commercial software industries are
responding to a real-world need for secure e-mail services by updating Sendmail.
Among these updates are new MTAs especially designed for scalability and secu-
rity. This chapter discusses e-mail-related security issues, focusing on popular
MTAs and their roles in potential solutions.

What Is Open Mail Relay?

The biggest problem in the world of e-mail is unsolicited mail or spam. The under-
lying e-mail protocol, Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP), is just that — simple.
It is not designed to be secure. Accordingly, the biggest abuse of e-mail service is
called open mail relay.
An MTA receives mail for the domain it’s responsible for. It’s also able to relay
messages to other MTAs responsible for other domains. When you write an e-mail
using an e-mail client like Pine, Netscape Messenger, or Outlook, the mail is deliv-
ered to your local MTA, which then relays the message to the appropriate MTA of
the destination address. So mail sent to [email protected] from a user called
[email protected] is delivered from the MTA of her-isp.com to the MTA for 415
nitec.com.
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416 Part IV: Network Service Security

Traditionally, each MTA also allows anyone to relay messages to another MTA.
For example, only a few years ago you could have configured your e-mail program
to point to the mail server for the nitec.com domain and sent a message to your
friend at [email protected]. This means you could have simply
used my mail server to relay a message to your friend. What’s wrong with that?
Nothing — provided the relaying job doesn’t do the following:

◆ Take system resources from the MTA used

◆ Send e-mail to people who don’t want to receive it

Unfortunately, legitimate-opportunity seeking individuals and organizations

weren’t the only ones to realize the power of e-mail as a mass-delivery medium.
Scam artists started spamming people around the globe, using any open-relay-
capable MTA they could find. They simply figured that by using the open relaying
capability built into the MTAs around the world, they could distribute their junk mes-
sages for profit without incurring any cost proportional to the distribution capacity.
As spamming became more prevalent and annoying, the Internet community
became worried about the abuse. Some users formed blacklists of known spammers,
some filed legal actions, and some resorted to fixing MTAs. Why bother? Here are
some good reasons.

◆ If an open mail-relay attack uses your MTA, your reputation can be

tarnished. Many people receiving the spam via your e-mail server auto-
matically assign you as the faulty party and possibly publicize the matter
on the Internet or even in public mediums. This can be a public relations
disaster for an organization.
◆ An open relay attack can cost you money. If the spam attack is large, it
may take your own e-mail service down. Your legitimate e-mail messages
may get stuck in a queue, because the mail server is busy sending spam.
◆ An open relay attack can mean legal action against your organization.
As legislators pass Internet-related laws, it is likely that soon open relays
will become a legal liability.
◆ You may be blacklisted. People whose e-mail accounts are abused by a
spammer using open mail relay can file your mail server information to
be included in a blacklist. This can stop you from sending legitimate
e-mail to domains that automatically check with blacklists such as the
MAPS (Mail Abuse Prevention System) Realtime Blackhole List.

The MAPS RBL authority are quite reasonable about removing a black-listed
server from their list once the server authority demonstrates that the server
is no longer an open mail relay.
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Chapter 17: E-Mail Server Security 417

◆ Spammers use tools that search the Internet for open relays automatically.

If you want a secure, relatively hassle-free network, I recommend that you take
action to stop open mail from relaying via your e-mail servers.

Is My Mail Server Vulnerable?

To find whether your mail server (or any mail server) is vulnerable to an open mail-
relay attack, do the following test.

1. Log on to your Linux system (or any system that has nslookup and Telnet
client tools).
2. Run the nslookup -q=mx domain.com command where domain.com is
the domain name for which you want to find the MX records.
The MX records in a DNS database point to the mail servers of a domain. In
this example, I use a fictitious domain called openrelay-ok.com as the
example domain. Note the mail servers to which the MX records of the
domain actually point. The domain should have at least one mail server
configured for it. In this example, I assume the mail server pointed to by the
MX record for the openrelay-ok.com domain is mail.openrelay-ok.com.
3. Run the telnet mailserver-host 25 command, where mailserver-
host is a mail server hostname. I ran the telnet mail.openrelay-ok.
com 25 command to connect to port 25 (standard SMTP port) of the tested
mail server.
4. Once connected, enter the ehlo localhost command to say (sort of )
hello to the mail server. The mail server replies with a greeting message
and waits for input.
5. Enter the mail from: [email protected] command to tell the mail server
that you want to send mail to a Hotmail address called [email protected].
I recommend using any address outside your domain when replacing
[email protected]. The server acknowledges the sender address using a
response such as 250 [email protected]... Sender ok.
If the server responds with a different message, stating that the sender’s
e-mail address isn’t acceptable, make sure you are entering the command
correctly. If you still get a negative response, the server isn’t accepting the
e-mail destination, which is a sign that the server probably has special
MAIL FROM checking. This means the server probably won’t allow open
relay at all. Most likely you get the okay message; if so, continue.
At this point, you have instructed the mail server that you want to send
an e-mail from [email protected].
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418 Part IV: Network Service Security

6. Tell the server that you want to send it to [email protected] using the rcpt
to: [email protected] command. If the server accepts it by sending a
response such as 250 [email protected]... Recipient ok, then you have
found an open mail relay. This is because the mail server accepted mail
from [email protected], and agreed to send it to [email protected].
If you aren’t performing this test on a yahoo.com mail server, then the
mail server shouldn’t accept mail from just anyone outside the domain to
send to someone else outside the domain. It’s an open mail relay; a spam-
mer can use this mail server to send mail to people outside your domain,
as shown in Listing 17-1.

Listing 17-1: Using an open mail relay

$ telnet mail.openrelay-ok.com 25
Trying 192.168.1.250...
Connected to mail.openrelay-ok.com.
Escape character is ‘^]’.
220 mail.openrelay-ok.com ESMTP Sendmail Pro-8.9.3/Pro-8.9.3;
Sun, 31 Dec 2000 11:04:33 -0800
EHLO localhost
250-mail.openrelay-ok.com Hello [192.168.1.250], pleased to
meet you
250-EXPN
250-VERB
250-8BITMIME
250-SIZE
250-DSN
250-ONEX
250-ETRN
250-XUSR
250 HELP
mail from: [email protected]
250 [email protected]... Sender ok
rcpt to: [email protected]
250 [email protected]... Recipient ok
data
354 Enter mail, end with “.” on a line by itself
THIS MAIL SERVER CAN BE AN OPEN MAIL RELAY!
FUTURE SPAM WILL BE SERVED FROM HERE!
YOU NEED TO BLOCK THIS ASAP!
.
250 LAA15851 Message accepted for delivery
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Chapter 17: E-Mail Server Security 419

If you perform the preceding test on a mail server that doesn’t allow open mail
replay, the output looks very different. Here’s an example Telnet session on port 25
of a mail server called mail.safemta.com, showing how the test does on a pro-
tected mail server; you get the following ouput:

[kabir@209 ~]$ telnet localhost 25

Trying 172.20.15.250...
Connected to mail.safemta.com.
Escape character is ‘^]’.
220 172.20.15.250 ESMTP Sendmail 8.11.0/8.11.0; Sun, 31 Dec 2000 14:07:15 -0500
ehlo localhost
250-172.20.15.250 Hello mail.safemta.com [172.20.15.250], pleased to meet you
250-ENHANCEDSTATUSCODES
250-8BITMIME
250-SIZE
250-DSN
250-ONEX
250-XUSR
250-AUTH DIGEST-MD5 CRAM-MD5
250 HELP
mail from: [email protected]
250 2.1.0 [email protected]... Sender ok
rcpt to: [email protected]
550 5.7.1 [email protected]... Relaying denied

The listing shows the mail server rejecting the recipient address given in the
rcpt to: [email protected] command.

If your mail server doesn’t reject open mail relay requests, secure it now!

Securing Sendmail
Sendmail is the most widely distributed MTA and currently the default choice for
Red Hat Linux. Fortunately, by default the newer versions of Sendmail don’t allow
open relay functionality. Although this feature is available in the latest few ver-
sions, I recommend that you download and install the newest version of Sendmail
from either an RPM mirror site or directly from the official open source Sendmail
site at www.sendmail.org.
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420 Part IV: Network Service Security

I strongly recommend that you download both the binary RPM version (from
an RPM mirror site such as www.rpmfind.net) and the source distribution
(from www.sendmail.org). Install the RPM version using the rpm -ivh
sendmail-version.rpm command where sendmail-version.rpm is
the latest binary RPM of Sendmail. Installing the binary RPM version ensures
that the configuration files and directories are automatically created for you.

You can decide not to install the binary RPM and simply compile and install
the source distribution from scratch. The source distribution doesn’t have a
fancy installation program, so creating and making configuration files and
directories are a lot of work.To avoid too many manual configurations, I sim-
ply install the binary distribution and then compile and install the source on
top of it. .

Also, extract the source-distribution tar ball in a suitable directory, such as

/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES. Then follow the instructions in the top-level readme
file to compile and install Sendmail. In the following section I discuss various
Sendmail security and control features related to combating spam. To use these fea-
tures, you must incorporate them in your Sendmail configuration file found in
/etc/mail/sendmail.cf. However, don’t directly modify this file. Instead, modify
the whatever.mc file in the cf/cf directory where whatever.mc is the name of the
macro file per the top-level readme file. When you modify the whatever.mc file,
make sure you generate the /etc/mail/sendmail.cf file using the m4 /path/to/
whatever.mc > /etc/mail/sendmail.cf command. Remember these rules:

◆ Back up your current /etc/mail/sendmail.cf file first.

◆ Run this command from the cf/cf subdirectory of your source

distribution.

I use the linux-dnsbl.mc configuration as the replacement for the

whatever.mc file. The linux-dnsbl.mc file is in the source distribution
of Sendmail, but it’s extracted outside the subdirectory that the tar com-
mand creates when extracting Sendmail.To use it, copy it to the cf/cf sub-
directory in the newly created Sendmail source distribution directory.
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Chapter 17: E-Mail Server Security 421

In the following section, when I mention a Sendmail feature using the FEATURE
(featurename) syntax, add it to the appropriate whatever.mc file and recreate
the /etc/mail/sendmail.cf file. In my example, I add it to /usr/src/
redhat/SOURCES/sendmail-8.11.0/cf/cf/linux-dnsbl.mc, which is shown in
Listing 17-2.

Listing 17-2: /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/sendmail-8.11.0/cf/cf/linux-dnsbl.mc

divert(0)dnl
include(`../m4/cf.m4’)dnl
VERSIONID(`$Id: Kitchen Sink 2000/08/09 ‘)
OSTYPE(linux)dnl
define(`confCON_EXPENSIVE’, `true’)dnl
define(`confDEF_USER_ID’,`mail:mail’)dnl
define(`confDONT_PROBE_INTERFACES’,`true’)dnl
define(`confPRIVACY_FLAGS’,
`needmailhelo,noexpn,novrfy,restrictmailq,restrictqrun,noetrn,nobodyreturn’)dnl
FEATURE(access_db)dnl
FEATURE(always_add_domain)dnl
FEATURE(blacklist_recipients)dnl
FEATURE(delay_checks)dnl
FEATURE(limited_masquerade)dnl
FEATURE(local_procmail)dnl
FEATURE(masquerade_entire_domain)dnl
FEATURE(relay_local_from_popip)dnl
FEATURE(redirect)dnl
FEATURE(relay_entire_domain)dnl
FEATURE(smrsh)dnl
FEATURE(use_ct_file)dnl
FEATURE(use_cw_file)dnl
FEATURE(domaintable)dnl
FEATURE(genericstable)dnl
FEATURE(mailertable)dnl
FEATURE(virtusertable)dnl
FEATURE(`dnsbl’,`rbl.maps.vix.com’)dnl
FEATURE(`dnsbl’,`dul.maps.vix.com’)dnl
FEATURE(`dnsbl’,`relays.mail-abuse.org’)dnl
dnl Remove to use orbs also
dnl FEATURE(`dnsbl’,`relays.orbs.org’)dnl
MAILER(smtp)dnl
MAILER(procmail)dnl

For example, if I recommend a feature called xyz using the FEATURE(xyz) nota-
tion, add the feature to the configuration file; then create the /etc/mail/
sendmail.cf file, using the preceding command. The latest version of Sendmail
gives you a high degree of control over the mail-relaying feature of your MTA.
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422 Part IV: Network Service Security

Controlling mail relay

The latest version of Sendmail 8.11.2 allows you a high degree of control over the
mail-relaying feature of your MTA. As mentioned before, mail relaying is disabled
by default. Sendmail offers control of mail relay for legitimate uses. To enable the
configuration controls discussed here, you need the following features in your m4
macro file to generate appropriate /etc/mail/sendmail.cf.

USING FEATURE(ACCESS_DB)
This feature enables the access-control database, which is stored in the
/etc/mail/access file. The entries in this file have the following syntax:

LHS{tab}RHS

◆ Left-hand side (LHS) can be any item shown in Table 17-1

◆ {tab} is a tab character

◆ Right-hand side (RHS) can be any item shown in Table 17-2.

TABLE 17-1: LEFT SIDE OF AN ENTRY IN /ETC/MAIL/ACCESS

LHS Meaning

user@host An e-mail address

IP address IP address of a mail server
Hostname or domain Hostname of a mail server
From: user@host Mail from an e-mail address called
user@host

From: hostname or From:domain Mail from a hostname or domain

To: user@host Mail to an e-mail address called
user@host

To: hostname or To:domain Mail to a hostname or domain

Connect: hostname or Connect:domain Connection from hostname or any host in
the given domain name
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Chapter 17: E-Mail Server Security 423

TABLE 17-2: RIGHT-HAND SIDE OF AN ENTRY IN /ETC/MAIL/ACCESS

RHS Meaning

RELAY Enable mail relay for the host or domain named in the LHS
OK Accept mail and ignore other rules
REJECT Reject mail
DISCARD Silently discard mail; don’t display an error message
ERROR RFC821-CODE Display RFC 821 error code and a text message
text message

ERROR RFC1893-CODE Display RFC 1893 error code and a text message
text message

When you create, modify, or delete an entry in the /etc/mail/access file,

remember these rules:

◆ Run the makemap hash /etc/mail/access < /etc/mail/

access command to create the database readable by Sendmail.

◆ Restart the server using the /rc.d/init.d/sendmail restart

command.

REJECTING MAIL FROM AN ENTIRE DOMAIN OR HOST To reject a message

from an entire domain (for example, from spamfactory.com), use the following
command:

spamfactory.com REJECT

To reject mail from a host called bad.scam-artist.com, use

bad.scam-artist.com REJECT

The preceding configuration doesn’t reject mail from other hosts.

REJECT MAIL FROM AN E-MAIL ADDRESS To reject mail from an e-mail address
called [email protected], use

From:[email protected] REJECT
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424 Part IV: Network Service Security

You don’t receive mail from the preceding address, but you can still send mes-
sages to the address.

RELAYING MAIL TO A DOMAIN OR HOST To relay messages to a domain called

busyrebooting.com, use

To:busyrebooting.com RELAY

This command allows relaying messages to the busyrebooting.com domain,

but Sendmail doesn’t accept nonlocal messages from it; that is, Sendmail doesn’t
relay.

RELAYING MAIL FROM A DOMAIN OR HOST To relay messages from a domain

called imbuddies.com, use

Connect:imbuddies.com RELAY

ACCEPTING A SELECTED E-MAIL ADDRESS FROM A DOMAIN Sometimes you

want to disallow e-mail from all users except for a few for a given domain. For
example, to ban everyone but the e-mail addressees [email protected] and
[email protected] for the myfoe.net domain, use

From:[email protected] OK
From:[email protected] OK
From:myfoe.net REJECT

All e-mail except that from the first two addresses is rejected.

USING FEATURE(RELAY_ENTIRE_DOMAIN)
The database for this feature is stored in /etc/mail/relay-domains. Each line in
this file lists one Internet domain. When this feature is set, it allows relaying of all
hosts in one domain. For example, if your /etc/mail/relay-domain file looks like
the following line, mail to and from kabirsfriends.com is allowed:

kabirsfriends.com

USING FEATURE(RELAY_HOSTS_ONLY)
If you don’t want to enable open mail relay to and from an entire domain, you can
use this feature to specify each host for which your server is allowed to act as a
mail relay.
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Chapter 17: E-Mail Server Security 425

Enabling MAPS Realtime Blackhole

List (RBL) support
MAPS RBL uses a set of modified DNS servers for access to a blacklist of alleged
spammers, who are usually reported by spam victims.
The simplest way to start using the RBL to protect your mail relay is arranging
for it to make a DNS query (of a stylized name) whenever you receive an incoming
mail message from a host whose spam status you don’t know.
When a remote mail server (say, 192.168.1.1) connects to your mail server,
Sendmail checks for the existence of an address record (A) in the MAPS DNS
server using a MAPS RBL rule set. Sendmail issues a DNS request for
1.1.168.192.blackholes.mail-abuse.org. If an address record (A) is found for
1.1.168.192.blackholes.mail-abuse.org, it is 127.0.0.2, which means that
192.168.1.1 is a blacklisted mail server. Your Sendmail server can then reject it.
To use the RBL add the following features to your configuration (mc) file, regen-
erate /etc/mail/sendmail.cf, and restart the server.

FEATURE(`dnsbl’,`rbl.maps.vix.com’)dnl
FEATURE(`dnsbl’,`dul.maps.vix.com’)dnl
FEATURE(`dnsbl’,`relays.mail-abuse.org’)dnl

To test your RBL configuration, run the /usr/sbin/sendmail -bt command.

An interactive Sendmail test session is started as shown in the following listing:

ADDRESS TEST MODE (ruleset 3 NOT automatically invoked)

Enter <ruleset> <address>
> .D{client_addr}127.0.0.1
> Basic_check_relay <>
Basic_check_rela input: < >
Basic_check_rela returns: OKSOFAR

Enter .D{client_addr}127.0.0.1, followed by Basic_check_relay <>, to

check whether the address 127.0.0.1 is blacklisted. Because the address 127.0.0.1 is
a special address (localhost) it’s not blacklisted, as indicated by the message
OKSOFAR.
Now test a blacklisted address: 127.0.0.2. You must enter the same sequence of
input as shown in the following list:

> .D{client_addr}127.0.0.2
> Basic_check_relay <>
Basic_check_rela input: < >
Basic_check_rela returns: $# error $@ 5.7.1 $: “550 Mail from “ 127.0.0.2 “
refused by blackhole site rbl.maps.vix.com”
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426 Part IV: Network Service Security

Here you can see that the address is blacklisted. Press Ctrl+Z to put the current
process in the background, and then enter kill %1 to terminate the process.
The current version of Sendmail supports Simple Authentication and Security
Layer (SASL), which can authenticate the user accounts that connect to it. Because
a user must use authentication, spammers who (aren’t likely to have user accounts
on your system) can’t use it as an open mail relay. (This new feature is not yet
widely used.)
Before you can use the SASL-based authentication, however, install the Cyrus
SASL library package (as shown in the next section).

COMPILING AND INSTALLING CYRUS SASL

Download the source distribution (cyrus-sasl-1.5.24.tar.gz or the latest ver-
sion) from ftp://ftp.andrew.cmu.edu/pub/cyrus-mail. To compile and install
the package, do the following:

When following these instructions, make sure you replace SASL version
number 1.5.24 with the version number you download.

1. Extract the source into /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES, using the tar xvzf

cyrus-sasl-1.5.24.tar.gz command. This creates a subdirectory called
cyrus-sasl-1.5.24. Change directory to cyrus-sasl-1.5.24.

2. Run the ./configure --prefix=/usr command to configure the SASL

source tree.
3. Run the make and make install to make and install the library.

If you change directory to /usr/lib and run the ls -l command, you see the
SASL library files installed.

-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 685 Dec 31 04:45 libsasl.la

lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 16 Dec 31 04:45 libsasl.so -> libsasl.so.7.1.8
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 16 Dec 31 04:45 libsasl.so.7 -> libsasl.so.7.1.8
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 173755 Dec 31 04:45 libsasl.so.7.1.8

Now you can compile Sendmail with SASL support.

COMPILING AND INSTALLING SENDMAIL WITH SASL SUPPORT

If you already have a working Sendmail installation, you must back up all the nec-
essary files using the following commands:
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Chapter 17: E-Mail Server Security 427

cp -r /etc/mail /etc/mail.bak
cp /usr/sbin/sendmail /usr/sbin/sendmail.bak
cp /usr/sbin/makemap /usr/sbin/makemap.bak
cp /usr/bin/newaliases /usr/bin/newaliases.bak

Download the latest Sendmail source from www.sendmail.org. I downloaded

sendmail.8.11.0.tar.gz, the latest source as of this writing. Make sure you
replace version information when completing the following instructions.

1. Extract the Sendmail source distribution using the tar xvzf sendmail.
8.11.0.tar.gz command. This creates a subdirectory called sendmail-8.
11.0. Change to this subdirectory.

2. Run the following commands to extract and install the Sendmail configu-
ration files in the appropriate directories.
mkdir -p /etc/mail
cp etc.mail.tar.gz /etc/mail
cp site.config.m4 sendmail-8.11.0/devtools/Site/
cp sendmail.init /etc/rc.d/init.d/sendmail

3. Follow the instructions in the INSTALL file and build Sendmail as

instructed.
4. Add the following lines in the /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/sendmail-
8.11.0/devtools/Site/site.config.m4 file.

APPENDDEF(`confENVDEF’, `-DSASL’)
APPENDDEF(`conf_sendmail_LIBS’, `-lsasl’)
APPENDDEF(`confLIBDIRS’, `-L/usr/local/lib/sasl’)
APPENDDEF(`confINCDIRS’, `-I/usr/local/include’)

5. The sendmail-8.11.0/devtools/Site/configu.m4 file is shown in

Listing 17-3.

Listing 17-3: define(`confDEPEND_TYPE’, `CC-M’)

define(`confEBINDIR’, `/usr/sbin’)
define(`confFORCE_RMAIL’)
define(`confLIBS’, `-ldl’)
define(`confLDOPTS_SO’, `-shared’)
define(`confMANROOT’, `/usr/man/man’)
define(`confMAPDEF’,`-DNEWDB -DMAP_REGEX -DNIS -
DTCP_WRAPPERS’)
define(`confMTLDOPTS’, `-lpthread’)
define(`confOPTIMIZE’,`${RPM_OPT_FLAGS}’)
define(`confSTDIR’, `/var/log’)
APPENDDEF(`confLIBSEARCH’, `crypt nsl wrap’)
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428 Part IV: Network Service Security

APPENDDEF(`confENVDEF’, `-DSASL’)
APPENDDEF(`conf_sendmail_LIBS’, `-lsasl’)
APPENDDEF(`confLIBDIRS’, `-L/usr/local/lib/sasl’)
APPENDDEF(`confINCDIRS’, `-I/usr/local/include’)

6. Change the directory to /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/sendmail-

8.11.0/sendmail and run the su Build -c command to rebuild
Sendmail.
7. Run the sh Build install command to install the new Sendmail
binaries.
8. Run the /usr/sbin/sendmail -d0.1 -bv root command to check
whether you have SASL support built into your new Sendmail configura-
tion. You should see output like the following:
Version 8.11.0
Compiled with: MAP_REGEX LOG MATCHGECOS MIME7TO8 MIME8TO7
NAMED_BIND NETINET NETUNIX NEWDB NIS QUEUE SASL SCANF SMTP
USERDB XDEBUG
============ SYSTEM IDENTITY (after readcf) ============
(short domain name) $w = 172
(canonical domain name) $j = 172.20.15.1
(subdomain name) $m = 20.15.1
(node name) $k = 172.20.15.1

As shown in bold, SASL is listed in the preceding output.

9. Run /usr/sbin/saslpasswd username to create the /etc/sasldb.db
password file.
10. Run the /etc/rc.d/init.d/sendmail start command to start the
Sendmail daemon.
11. Run the telnet localhost 25 command to connect to your newly com-
piled Sendmail service. When connected enter the EHLO localhost com-
mand. This displays output like the following.
220 209.63.178.15 ESMTP Sendmail 8.11.0/8.11.0; Sun, 31 Dec
2000 05:37:58 -0500
EHLO localhost
250-209.63.178.15 Hello root@localhost, pleased to meet you
250-ENHANCEDSTATUSCODES
250-8BITMIME
250-SIZE
250-DSN
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Chapter 17: E-Mail Server Security 429

250-ONEX
250-XUSR
250-AUTH DIGEST-MD5 CRAM-MD5
250 HELP

As shown, the newly built Sendmail now supports the SMTP AUTH command and
offers DIGEST-MD5 CRAM-MD5 as an authentication mechanism.
The SMTP AUTH allows relaying for senders who successfully authenticate them-
selves. Such SMTP clients as Netscape Messenger and Microsoft Outlook can use
SMTP authentication via SASL.

Sanitizing incoming e-mail using procmail

Most e-mail security incidents occur because users can attach all types of files to
the messages. Attachments and embedded scripts are primary vehicles for such
attacks as e-mail viruses and malicious macros. A filtering tool called procmail
can help.
procmail can scan headers and the body of each message for patterns based on
custom rules. It can take action when a certain rule matches. Here I show you how
you can sanitize incoming e-mails using a procmail-based rule set.
You can download the procmail rule set (procmail-sanitizer.tar.gz) from
www.impsec.org/email-tools/procmail-security.html.
Make sure that you have the following lines in your m4 macro file. (they gener-
ate the /etc/mail/sendmail.cf file):

FEATURE(local_procmail)dnl
MAILER(procmail)dnl

For reliable performance, take the following two measures:

◆ Install procmail from either

■ An RPM distribution on your Red Hat CD-ROM.
■ An RPM mirror site, such as http://www.rpmfind.net.
◆ Install the latest version of Perl on your system.

ESTABLISHING THE SANITIZER

Here’s how you can set up the rule set for local delivery.

1. su to root.
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430 Part IV: Network Service Security

2. Run the mkdir /etc/procmail command to create a subdirectory in

/etc.

3. Run the chown -R root:root /etc/procmail command to change the

ownership of the directory to root.
4. Copy the procmail-sanitizer.tar.gz file in /etc/procmail and
extract it using the tar xvzf procmail-sanitizer.tar.gz command.
5. Create an /etc/procmailrc file as shown in Listing 17-4.

Listing 17-4: /etc/procmailrc

LOGFILE=$HOME/procmail.log
PATH=”/usr/bin:$PATH:/usr/local/bin”
SHELL=/bin/sh
POISONED_EXECUTABLES=/etc/procmail/poisoned
SECURITY_NOTIFY=”postmaster, security-dude”
SECURITY_NOTIFY_VERBOSE=”virus-checker”
SECURITY_NOTIFY_SENDER=/etc/procmail/local-email-security-
policy.txt
SECRET=”CHANGE THIS”
# this file must already exist, with
# proper permissions (rw--w--w-):
SECURITY_QUARANTINE=/var/spool/mail/quarantine
POISONED_SCORE=25
SCORE_HISTORY=/var/log/macro-scanner-scores
# Finished setting up, now run the sanitizer...
INCLUDERC=/etc/procmail/html-trap.procmail
# Reset some things to avoid leaking info to
# the users...
POISONED_EXECUTABLES=
SECURITY_NOTIFY=
SECURITY_NOTIFY_VERBOSE=
SECURITY_NOTIFY_SENDER=
SECURITY_QUARANTINE=
SECRET=

6. Run the touch /var/spool/mail/quarantine command to create the

file. This file stores poisoned messages.
7. Run the touch /var/log/macro-scanner-scores command to create the
file. This file stores historical scores for macros.
8. Change the permission for the /var/spool/mail/quarantine file using
the chmod 622 /var/spool/mail/quarantine command.
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Chapter 17: E-Mail Server Security 431

The /etc/procmailrc file sets a number of control (environment) variables used

to control the sanitizer and runs the sanitizer using the INCLUDERC setting. This
resets the environment variables such that a user can’t view the values of these
variables by running setenv or set commands — a safer arrangement. These con-
trol variables are

◆ LOGFILE

Specifies the fully qualified path of the log. The default value allows
the sanitizer to create a log file called procmail.log in a user’s home
directory.
The default value is $HOME/procmail.log.
◆ POISONED_EXECUTABLES

Specifies a fully qualified path of a filename, which lists the filenames

and/or file extensions (with wild cards) that are considered poisoned if
sent via attachment.
The default file contains a list of widely known poisoned attachment file-
names. When a new poison attachment file name is released in public by
CERT (or another security authority), add the name in this file.
The default value is /etc/procmail/poisoned.
◆ SECURITY_NOTIFY

Specifies a comma-separated list of e-mail addresses of people who should

be notified when a poisoned e-mail is trapped by the sanitizer.

Only the header part of the trapped message goes to the e-mail list.

The default values are postmaster, security-dude.

◆ SECURITY_NOTIFY_VERBOSE

Specifies a comma-separated list of e-mail addresses of people who should

be notified when a poisoned e-mail is trapped by the sanitizer.

In contrast to the SECURITY_NOTIFY variable, the trapped e-mail goes in

its entirety to this list.
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432 Part IV: Network Service Security

The default value is virus-checker.

◆ SECURITY_NOTIFY_SENDER

Specifies a filename whose contents are e-mailed to the sender of a poi-

soned message. If the variable is a nonexistent file, a built-in message is
sent instead.

For this variable to take effect, the SECURITY_NOTIFY variable must be set
to at least one e-mail address.

The default value is /etc/procmail/local-email-security-

policy.txt.

◆ SECURITY_NOTIFY_SENDER_POSTMASTER

When set to a value such as YES, an e-mail goes to the violator’s postmas-
ter address.
◆ SECURITY_NOTIFY_RECIPIENT

When set to a filename, the intended recipient receives the contents of the
file as a notice stating that an offending e-mail has been quarantined.
◆ SECRET

Specifies a random set of characters that are used internally to make it

hard for a vandal to bypass the sanitizer rule set. Change the default to
something in the 10- to 20-character range.
The default value is CHANGE THIS.
◆ SECURITY_QUARANTINE

Specifies the path of the file that quarantines the poisoned attachment.
The default value is /var/spool/mail/quarantine.
◆ SECURITY_QUARANTINE_OPTIONAL
■ When set to YES, a poisoned message is still sent to the intended
recipient.
■ When set to NO, it is bounced.
◆ POISONED_SCORE

Specifies the score at which the sanitizer considers embedded Microsoft

Office-related macros (found in such applications as Word and Excel)
poisoned.
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Chapter 17: E-Mail Server Security 433

The sanitizer looks at the embedded macro and tries to match macro frag-
ments with known poisoned macro-fragment code. As it finds question-
able macro fragments, it keeps a growing score. When the score reaches
the value specified by the variable, the macro is considered dangerous
(that is, poisoned).
The default value is 25.
◆ MANGLE_EXTENSIONS

Contains a list of filename extensions to mangle and possibly poison. The

built-in list of extensions should be sufficient for most installations.
◆ DISABLE_MACRO_CHECK

Disables scanning of Microsoft Office file attachments for dangerous

macros.
■ The sanitizer contains a rudimentary scanner that checks Microsoft
Office document attachments (such as Word documents, Excel spread-
sheets, and PowerPoint presentations) for embedded Visual Basic
Application (VBA) macros that appear to be modifying security set-
tings, changing the Registry, or writing macros to the Standard
Document template.
■ Documents are scanned for macros even if their extensions don’t
appear in the MANGLE_EXTENSIONS list. This means you can remove
.doc and .xls extensions from the MANGLE_EXTENSIONS list to make
your users happy, but still be protected by the scanner against macro-
based attacks.
◆ SCORE_HISTORY

If you want to keep a history of macro scores for profiling to see whether
your POISONED_SCORE is a reasonable value, set SCORE_HISTORY to the
name of a file. The score of each scanned document is saved to this file.
The default value is /var/log/macro-scanner-scores.
◆ SCORE_ONLY

When this variable is set to YES, the sanitizer doesn’t act when it detects a
macro.
◆ SECURITY_STRIP_MSTNEF

Microsoft Outlook and Exchange support sending e-mail using a format

called Outlook Rich Text. Among other things, this has the effect of
bundling all file attachments, as well as other data, into a proprietary
Microsoft-format attachment, usually with the name winmail.dat. This
format is called MS-TNEF and isn’t generally understandable by non-
Microsoft mail programs.
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434 Part IV: Network Service Security

■ MS-TNEF attachments can’t be scanned or sanitized and may contain

hazardous content that the sanitizer can’t detect. Microsoft recom-
mends that MS-TNEF attachments are used only within your intranet,
not the Internet.
■ If you set SECURITY_STRIP_MSTNEF to any value, these attachments are
stripped off the message, and it is delivered to the intended recipient
with a notice that this happened. The message isn’t poisoned.
◆ DEFANG_WEBBUGS

Disables inline images.

Web bugs are small images (typically only one pixel in size) that track an
e-mail message. Identifying information is included in the image URL, and
when an HTML-enabled mail program attempts to display the message,
the location of the message can be tracked and logged. If you consider
this a violation of your privacy, you can set DEFANG_WEBBUGS to any
value, and the sanitizer mangles the image tag. You can still retrieve the
URL from the message and decide whether to view the image.
◆ SECURITY_TRUST_STYLE_TAGS

Disables <STYLE> tag defanging.

■ <STYLE> tags allow the author fine control over the appearance of the
HTML content when it’s displayed. It’s used extensively by HTML-
enabled mail programs, but it can be an attack vector — exploited by
supplying scripting commands instead of appearance settings.
■ By default, the sanitizer defangs <STYLE> tags, but this may leave an
extra HTML end-comment tag (-->1) visible in the body of the mes-
sage. You may want to trust <STYLE> tags on internally generated mail
but defang them in mail received from the Internet.
◆ DEBUG

Enables output of some debugging information from the sanitizer.

◆ DEBUG_VERBOSE

Turns on verbose debugging of the sanitizer.

When the sanitizer runs, it creates a log file (default filename is procmail.log —
set using the LOGFILE variable) that should be periodically reviewed and removed
by the user. When attachments are poisoned, they are kept in a mailbox file called
/var/spool/mail/quarantine (set by the SECURITY_QUARANTINE variable). You
can the unmangle attachments fairly easily. For example, you can designate a
workstation where you download mangled files from the quarantine mailbox, then
disconnect the network cable before renaming and reading the emails with poten-
tially dangerous attachments.
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Chapter 17: E-Mail Server Security 435

TREATING LOCAL MAIL DIFFERENTLY

The basic setup discussed here so far treats all mail equally, which isn’t always what
you want. For example, when user [email protected] sends an e-mail with a
Word or Excel attachment to [email protected], the attachment gets
mangled and it probably shouldn’t. Probably these two local users use virus-
checking software and don’t plan to harm each other. Don’t mangle common doc-
ument formats (such as Word and Excel) when the e-mail is initiated from within
your own user domain. Just modify the /etc/procmailrc file like this:

1. Add the following lines before the INCLUDERC line in /etc/procmailrc.

:0
* ^From:.*<[a-z0-9][email protected]>
* ^To:.*<[a-z0-9][email protected]>
{
MANGLE_EXTENSIONS=’html?|exe|com|cmd|bat|pif|sc[rt]|lnk|dll|o
cx|dot|xl[wt]|p[po]t|rtf|vb[se]?|hta|p[lm]|sh[bs]|hlp|chm|eml
|ws[cfh]|ad[ep]|jse?|md[abew]|ms[ip]|reg|asd|cil|pps|asx|wm[s
zd]’ }

Enter the MANGLE_EXTENSIONS line in one line. Replace

yourdomain.com with your domain name.

2. Save the file.

From now on, when MAIL FROM is set to [email protected], Word (.doc)
and Excel (.xls) attachments aren’t mangled.

UNMANGLING ATTACHMENTS
To unmangle an attachment from the /var/spool/mail/quarantine mailbox file,
do the following:

1. Edit the /var/spool/mail/quarantine file and locate the attachment.

2. You see that the sanitizer has added a set of Content-Type and Content-
Security headers, followed by a security warning message just before the
actual attachment data. Listing 17-5 shows an example of a poisoned
(quarantined) attachment in this state.
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436 Part IV: Network Service Security

Listing 17-5: Sample poisoned attachment segment

------=_NextPart_000_0027_01BF26F5.91230E60_
Content-Type: TEXT/PLAIN;
X-Content-Security: NOTIFY
X-Content-Security: REPORT: Trapped poisoned executable “cool.exe”
X-Content-Security: QUARANTINE
Content-Description: SECURITY WARNING
SECURITY WARNING!
The mail system has detected that the following
attachment may contain hazardous executable code,
is a suspicious file type or has a suspicious file name.
Contact your system administrator immediately!
Content-Type: application/octet-stream; name=”cool.16920DEFANGED-
exe”
Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64
DxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaM
NATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaM

3. Now, locate the original Content-Type header, which usually has a value
such as application/something (application/octet-stream in the
preceding example).
4. Place the MIME boundary marker string (shown in bold in the preceding
listing) just in front of the original Content-Type header. Remove every-
thing above the marker string so that you end up with something like the
Listing 17-6.

Listing 17-6: Sample of unmangled attachment segment

------=_NextPart_000_0027_01BF26F5.91230E60_
Content-Type: application/octet-stream; name=”cool.16920DEFANGED-
exe”
Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64
DxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaDxTaM
NATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaNATaM

5. Save the file; then load it (using a mail-user agent like Pine) and send it
to the intended user.
The user still must rename the file because it is mangled. In the preceding
example, the original filename was cool.exe, which was renamed to
cool.16920DEFANGED-exe. The user must rename this file to cool.exe by
removing the 16920DEFANGED string from the middle. If you change this
in the Content-Type header during the previous step, the sanitizer
catches it and quarantines it again. So let the user rename it, which is
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Chapter 17: E-Mail Server Security 437

much safer because she can run her own virus checks on the attachment
once she has saved the file to her system’s hard drive.

Now you have a reasonably good tool for handling inbound attachments before
they cause any real harm. Inbound mail is just half of the equation, though. When
you send outbound e-mail from your network, make sure you and your users take
all the necessary steps, such as virus-checking attachments and disabling potential
embedded macros. Another helpful tool is the zip file. Compressing files and send-
ing them in a zip file is better than sending them individually, because the zip file
isn’t executable and it gives the receiving end a chance to save and scan for
viruses.

Outbound-only Sendmail
Often a Linux system is needed for sending outbound messages but not for receiv-
ing inbound mail. For example, machines designated as monitoring stations (which
have no users receiving e-mail) have such a need. To meet it, you have to alter the
standard Sendmail installation (which normally keeps the inbound door open).
Typically, Sendmail is run using the /etc/rc.d/init.d/sendmail script at
start-up. This script starts the sendmail daemon using a command line such as:

/usr/sbin/sendmail -bd -q10m

Here the -bd option specifies that Sendmail run in the background in daemon
mode (listening for a connection on port 25). The -q10m option specifies that the
queue be run every ten minutes. This is fine for a full-blown Sendmail installation
in which inbound and outbound e-mail are expected. In outbound-only mode, the
-bd option isn’t needed. Simply run Sendmail using xinetd. Here’s how.

1. su to root.
2. Force Sendmail to run whenever a request to port 25 is detected.
Do this by making xinetd listen for the connection and start a Sendmail
daemon when one is detected. So create a xinetd configuration file called
/etc/xinetd.d/sendmail for Sendmail, as shown following.

service smtp
{
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/sbin/sendmail
server_args = -bs
log_on_success += DURATION USERID
log_on_failure += USERID
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438 Part IV: Network Service Security

nice = 10
disable = no
only_from = localhost
}

3. Run the queue every ten minutes so that outgoing mail is attempted for
delivery six times per hour. For this, add a line in the /etc/crontab file
as shown next:
10 * * * * /usr/sbin/sendmail -q

The only_from directive in the xinetd configuration file for Sendmail is set to
localhost, which effectively tells xinetd not to start the Sendmail daemon for
any request other than the local ones. The cron entry in /etc/crontab ensures that
the mail submitted to the queue gets out.
Here xinetd helps us restrict access to the mail service from outside. But bear in
mind that running Sendmail via xinetd requires that every time a new SMTP request
is made, the xinetd daemon starts a Sendmail process. This can consume resources if
you are planning to have a lot of STMP connections open simultaneously.

Running Sendmail without root privileges

If your site receives on an average a few hundred messages per hour, you are run-
ning a small mail server and should be fine using xinetd-based SMTP service. In
fact, you can even enhance Sendmail security using xinetd by running it as a non-
root process. Here I discuss how you can run Sendmail as a non-root user.
By default, the Sendmail daemon (sendmail) runs as a set-UID root process.
This means that the root account can be compromised via Sendmail if the
Sendmail daemon can be attacked with a buffer overflow attack or another innov-
ative Sendmail exploit.
By running Sendmail as a xinetd-run SMTP service, you can demote it to an
ordinary user. Here’s how.

1. su to root.
2. Create a user called mail using the useradd mail -s /bin/false
command.
3. Run the following commands to change permissions on files and directo-
ries used by Sendmail.
chown root:mail /var/spool/mail
chmod 1775 /var/spool/mail
chown -R :mail /var/spool/mail/*
chmod -R 660 /var/spool/mail/*
chown mail:mail /usr/sbin/sendmail
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Chapter 17: E-Mail Server Security 439

chmod 6555 /usr/sbin/sendmail

chown mail /var/spool/mqueue/*
chown -R mail:mail /etc/mail
chmod -R 664 /etc/mail

4. Create an /etc/xinetd.d/sendmail file like this:

service smtp
{
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = mail
group = mail
server = /usr/sbin/sendmail
server_args = -bs
log_on_success += DURATION USERID
log_on_failure += USERID
nice = 10
disable = no
}

5. Modify the /etc/crontab file to have an entry like this:

10 * * * * mail /usr/sbin/sendmail -q

6. Modify the site.config.m4 file in your Sendmail distribution to include

the following lines:
define(`confTEMP_FILE_MODE’, `0660’)dnl
define(`ALIAS_FILE’, `/etc/mail/aliases’)

7. Terminate the Sendmail daemon if it’s currently running by the

/etc/rc.d/init.d/sendmail stop or killall sendmail commands.

8. Restart xinetd using the killall -USR1 xinetd command.

9. Connect to Sendmail using the telnet localhost 25 command.
10. On another login session, run the ps aux | grep sendmail command to
check whether Sendmail is running as the ordinary mail user. Here is sam-
ple output for this command:
mail 25274 0.0 0.7 4048 1808 ? SN 04:11 0:00 sendmail:
server
root 25294 0.0 0.2 1520 592 ttyp0 S 04:15 0:00 grep
sendmail

As shown, Sendmail is run as the mail user. You can enter quit to exit the Telnet
session to port 25. Now you have a Sendmail server that runs as an ordinary user.
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440 Part IV: Network Service Security

Securing Postfix
As the new kid on the MTA block, Postfix has the luxury of built-in security fea-
tures. It’s a suite of programs instead of a single binary server like Sendmail.

Keeping out spam

Postfix offers a number of main.cf configuration options that can tackle spam.

FILTERING E-MAIL USING HEADER INFORMATION

You can use the standard e-mail headers such as To:, From:, Subject:, and
X-Mailer to reject e-mail. For example, you can have the following configuration
in main.cf file.

header_checks = regexp:/etc/postfix/reject-headers

It tells Postfix to read a file called /etc/postfix/reject-headers, which con-

tains lines that have the following syntax:

regexp REJECT

The left side (regexp) is basic regular expression. Here’s an example of the
/etc/postfix/reject-headers file:

/^To: *you@xoom\.com$/ REJECT

/^From: mailer-daemon@myclient\.com$/ REJECT
/^Subject: Make money fast/ REJECT

All e-mail sent received with To: header containing at least the [email protected]
string is rejected. Similarly, all e-mail sent from an account called mailer-
[email protected] is rejected. The third regular expression states that any
e-mail with the subject “Make money fast” is rejected.
You can also use Perl-compatible regular expressions (PCREs) for more advanced
matches. For a file containing PCREs instead of basic regular expressions, simply
use the following configuration in the main.cf file.

header_checks = pcre:/etc/postfix/reject-headers

PCRE statements can be complex. See Perl regular expression documenta-

tion for details.
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Chapter 17: E-Mail Server Security 441

REJECTING E-MAIL USING IP OR HOSTNAME

Often, an offending IP address or host must be blocked from using your email
server. Here is how you can deny everyone but your computers:

1. In the main.cf configuration file, define your network addresses using the
following line:
mynetworks = 192.168.1.0/24

2. To block access to your mail server by any host other than the ones in
your network, add:
smtpd_client_restrictions = permit_mynetworks,\
reject_unknown_client

You can also use an access map file to reject or allow a single host or IP address.
Here is how:

1. To use the access map for this purpose, add the following line:
smtpd_client_restrictions = hash:/etc/postfix/access

2. In the /etc/postfix/access file, you can add lines such as

Spammer-domain.com REJECT
shannon.herisp.com OK
herisp.com REJECT

In the preceding code

■ The first sample line in the access map states that all mail from a
domain called spammer-domain.com should be rejected.
■ The second line tells Postfix to allow connection from the
shannon.herisp.com host but reject all other hosts in the herisp.com
domain.

USING MAPS RBL

To use the MAPS RBL support you must define the following:

maps_rbl_domains = mail-abuse.org
smtpd_client_restrictions = reject_maps_rbl

The first line sets the hosts that need to be contacted to get the RBL list and the
second line sets the restrictions that need to be applied.
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442 Part IV: Network Service Security

Hiding internal e-mail addresses by masquerading

If you have a central mail server for outgoing mail on the network that services
many hosts, there is a good chance that you must hide the hostname part of the
e-mail address in the header. For example, if you have a user called joe on a host
called pc-joe.yourcompany.com, when joe sends e-mail via the Postfix e-mail
gateway machine, his address appears as [email protected]. Not let-
ting others know about your internal hostnames is a good security measure. You
can enable the following options in main.cf.

masquerade_domains = $mydomain
masquerade_exceptions = root

In the preceding code

◆ The first line tells Postfix to enable address masquerading for your
domain, set by the $mydomain variable.
This means [email protected] appears as
[email protected].

◆ The second line tells Postfix to leave the root user alone.

This means Sendmail doesn’t masquerade for root.

Summary
An unprotected mail server is often an open mail relay, which allows spammers to
send emails to people who do not want them. Such an abuse can waste resources
and cause legal problems for companies that leave their email system open to such
attacks. By controlling which hosts your mail server allows mail relay services,
enabling the RBL rules, sanitizing incoming emails using procmail, and running
Sendmail without root privileges, you can ensure the safety of your email service.
234754-2 Ch18.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 443

Chapter 18

FTP Server Security

IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Securing WU-FTPD

◆ Restricting FTP access by username

◆ Building a chroot jail for FTP access

◆ Restricting access to sensitive files and directories

◆ Restricting upload privileges for anonymous FTP sites

◆ Using and securing ProFTPD

◆ Using PAM for ProFTPD authentication

◆ Creating a minimal anonymous FTP site

◆ Using Linux Capabilities with ProFTPD

AN FTP SERVER CAN be an important part of your Internet presence. Unfortunately,

FTP servers have many security risks. Some of these risks depend on the server
software; others are because of inappropriate server configuration. In this chapter
you secure two widely used FTP servers: WU-FTPD and ProFTPD. I also show you
how to control user access by using configuration options and directives provided
by these FTP servers, create chroot jails to isolate FTP users into their own direc-
tory structure, and create anonymous FTP sites with security in mind.

Securing WU-FTPD
WU-FTPD is the default FTP server for Red Hat Linux. It’s one of the most widely
used FTP server packages. Recently, WU-FTPD (versions earlier than 2.6.1) was in the
spotlight for security issues. However, all the known security holes have been
patched in Red Hat Linux 7. Downloading the latest WU-FTPD source RPM package
from an RPM finder site, such as http://www.rpmfind.net, and installing it as
follows enhances security of your FTP service. The latest stable version is always
the best candidate for a new FTP server installation.

1. Download the latest source RPM distribution.

443
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444 Part IV: Network Service Security

2. Extract the source tar ball from the RPM package by using the rpm -ivh
filename command, where filename is the name of the source RPM file
(for example, wu-ftpd-2.6.1.src.rpm) in the /usr/src/redhat/
SOURCES directory. You should now have a file called wu-ftpd-
version.tar.gz (for example, wu-ftpd-2.6.1.tar.gz) in the /usr/
src/redhat/SOURCES directory. Change your current directory to this
directory.
3. Extract the .tar file by using the tar xvzf filename command.
The file extracts itself to a new subdirectory named after the filename
(with the filename in Step 2, for example, the directory would be named
wu-ftpd-2.6.1).

4. Using the cd directory_name command, switch to the new subdirectory

created in Step 3.
5. Consider using the security-related command-line options for the config-
ure script, which I describe in Table 18-1. To do so, run the ./configure
--option1 --option2 command, where --option1 is the first option to
use; option2 is the second option and so on; you can have as many
options as you want).
For example, if you simply want to configure WU-FTPD with the --
enable-paranoid option (yes, it’s a real option), run the ./configure --
enable-paranoid command.

6. After you configure the source, install the binaries by running the make
and make install commands.

TABLE 18-1: SECURITY-SPECIFIC COMMAND LINE OPTIONS FOR THE CONFIGURE

SCRIPT

Option What It Does Why Use It?

--enable-paranoid Enables paranoid mode, This is the most restrictive way of

which disables features running an FTP server, because
that are considered users can’t overwrite or delete any
potential security risks, files.
such as the nonstandard
SITE commands,
file-overwriting,
and deletion.
--disable-upload Disables the If you are sure that you don’t need
file-upload feature. file uploads to the FTP server, this
option is appropriate.
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 445

Option What It Does Why Use It?

--disable-overwrite Disables the Using this option may make the

file-overwrite feature. FTP experience painful for your
users, but it may be suitable for
environments in which users are
told that they can upload but not
overwrite what they have
uploaded.
--disable-anonymous Disables the anonymous Unless you absolutely must run an
FTP server feature. anonymous FTP server, use this
option. If you have only a few small
files to offer, consider offering the
files via your Web server.
--disable-virtual Disables virtual FTP Virtual FTP service should be used
site support. only by organizations or ISPs that
must provide a separate “virtual”
FTP area for clients.
--disable-private Disables the SITE GROUP Allowing a user to change privilege
and SITE GPASS level in an FTP session increases
commands that allow an the risk of abuse. So consider using
already logged in FTP user this option.
to escalate his or her group
privileges.

Restricting FTP access by username

The WU-FTPD server is a PAM-aware FTP service (see Chapter 10 for details on
PAM). This means whenever a user connects to the FTP server, the authentication
process is handled by PAM using the /etc/pam.d/ftp file. This file is shown in
Listing 18-1.

Listing 18-1: /etc/pam.d/ftp

auth required /lib/security/pam_listfile.so item=user \

sense=deny file=/etc/ftpusers onerr=succeed
auth required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
auth required /lib/security/pam_shells.so
account required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
session required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
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446 Part IV: Network Service Security

The first line in Listing 18-1 instructs PAM to load the pam_listfile module
and read the /etc/ftpusers file. If the /etc/ftpusers file contains a line match-
ing the username given at the FTP authentication, PAM uses the sense argument to
determine how to handle the user’s access request. Because this argument is set to
deny, the user is denied access if the username is found in the /etc/ftpusers file.

DENYING A USER FTP ACCESS

To deny a particular user FTP access to your server, simply append the username in
the /etc/ftpusers file. If a user to whom you’ve denied access tries to access the
FTP server, the /var/log/messages file spits out error messages like the following:

Dec 12 15:21:16 k2 ftpd[1744]: PAM-listfile: Refused user kabir for service ftp

ALLOWING FTP ACCESS FOR A SELECT GROUP OF USERS

Instead of keeping a list of all the users that are denied access explicitly in
/etc/ftpusers, you may want to consider denying access to everyone except cer-
tain users that are listed in a specific file. This method is preferred because it fol-
lows the well-known grand security scheme of denying everyone by default and
allowing only those you must. This approach is superior to listing all the bad users
in /etc/ftpaccess, because you can forget to include someone. Instead, you can
turn this around and store only the authorized FTP usernames in /etc/ftpaccess.
This way, everyone not mentioned in this file is denied by default. Here’s how to
implement this scheme:

1. Place a # in front of the pam_listfile line (the first line shown in Listing
18-1) in your /etc/pam.d/ftp configuration file. Doing so comments out
the configuration.
2. Add the following configuration line as the first line in the file.
auth required /lib/security/pam_listfile.so item=user \
sense=allow file=/etc/userlist.ftp onerr=fail

3. Create a file called /etc/userlist.ftp that contains one username per

line. Only the users named in this file have FTP access.

Run the awk -F: ‘{print $1}’ /etc/passwd > /etc/userlist.

ftp command if you want to create an initial version of the
/etc/userlist.ftp file from the /etc/passwd file, which you can later
edit to remove all users that you don’t want to give FTP access.
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 447

Don’t allow the root user or anyone in the wheel group to access your FTP
server.

Setting default file permissions for FTP

In a multiuser environment, files created by one user may become accessible by
another user if the permission settings are open. Setting default file permission is
very handy for systems that act as Web and FTP servers for many different clients.
If many of your users transfer their files on the FTP server, you can control the
default umask for the FTP server so that one user’s file isn’t accessible by another.

You can learn about umask and file permissions in detail in Chapter 9.

For example, if you want permissions so only the user who created a particular
file and his group can read the file uploaded on an FTP server, you can modify the
server_args line in the /etc/xinetd.d/wu-ftpd file. By default, this line looks
like

server_args = -l -a

The following steps set a default umask for all files uploaded via FTP.

1. Add a –u argument with the appropriate umask value to the -server

_args line. For example, to set the 640 (rw- r-- ---) permission for
each file uploaded, you can set the umask value to 026 by changing the
-server_args line like this:

server_args = -l –a –u026

2. Restart the xinetd server (killall –USR1 xinetd) and FTP a file via a
user account to check whether the permissions are set as expected.
3. To disallow one client from seeing another client’s files, use the -u option
along with a special ownership setting. For example, say that you keep all
your Web client files in the /www directory, where each client site has a
subdirectory of its own (for example, /www/myclient1, /www/myclient2,
and so on), and each client has an FTP account to upload files in these
directories. To stop a client from seeing another’s files:
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448 Part IV: Network Service Security

■ Use the -u option with the FTP server as described above.

■ Reset the ownership of each client site like this:
chown -R client:Web_server_user /www/client_directory

If you run a Web server called httpd and have a client user called
myclient1, then the command you use should look like this:

chown -R myclient1:httpd /www/myclient1

This command changes the ownership of the /www/myclient1 directory,

along with all its subdirectories and files, to user myclient1 in group
httpd. Doing so allows the user to

■ Own, modify, and delete his or her files.

■ Allow the Web server to read the files in the directory.
4. To disallow everyone else, change the permissions like this:
chmod -R 2750 /www/client_directory

For the current example, the actual command is

chmod -R 2750 /www/myclient1

This command sets all the files and subdirectory permissions for /www/
myclient1 to 2750, which allows the files and directories to be readable,
writable, and executable by the owner (myclient1) and only readable and
executable by the Web server user (httpd). The set-GID value (2) in the
preceding command ensures that when new files are created, their permis-
sions allow the Web server user to read the file.

Using a chroot jail for FTP sessions

Typically, an ordinary user who logs in via an FTP connection can browse more
files and directories than those he or she owns. This is because an FTP session is
usually not restricted to a certain directory; a user can change directories and view
files in /usr or / or /tmp or many other system-specific directories. Why is that so
bad? Well, suppose this user is a bad guy who manages to get in via FTP — and now
he can view the binaries you have on the system, possibly getting a close look at
how you run your system. Suppose he decides to browse the /etc directory and
download important configuration files. Not a happy thought, right? With WU-FTPD
you can plug that hole by using a chroot jail.

BUILDING A CHROOT JAIL

A chroot jail limits what a user can see when he or she connects to your FTP
server; it shows only a certain part of your filesystem. Typically, a chroot jail
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 449

restricts a user’s access to the home directory. To create a chroot jail, follow these
steps.

1. Install the anonymous FTP RPM package from your Red Hat Linux
CD-ROM or by downloading the anon-ftp-version.rpm package (for
example, anonftp-3.0-9.i386.rpm) from an RPM-finder Web site such
as www.rpmfind.net.
2. Install the package using the rpm -ivh anon-ftp-version.rpm com-
mand.
3. Run the cp -r /home/ftp /home/chroot command. This copies every-
thing from the home directory of the FTP user to /home/chroot. The files
in /home/chroot are needed for a minimal execution environment for
chrooted FTP sessions. After that, you can run the rpm -e anon-ftp-
version command to delete the now-unneeded anonymous FTP package.

4. Install the chrootusers.pl script that you can find on the CD that came
with this book (see the CD Appendix for info on where to find the script).
5. Run the chmod 700 /usr/local/bin/chrootusers.pl command to
make sure the script can be run only by the root user.
6. Create a new group called ftpusers in the /etc/group file by using the
groupadd ftpusers command.

7. Add a new line such as the following to the /etc/ftpaccess file.

guestgroup ftpusers

8. You add users to your new chroot jail by running the chrootusers.pl
script. If you run this script without any argument, you see the following
output that shows all the options the script can use.

chrootusers.pl --start-uid=number --end-uid=number --chroot-group=group

--update-ok
--start-uid=number where number is the starting UID value.
--end-uid=number where number is the ending UID value.
All the users with the UID in the starting and ending UID range
will be added (if update-ok is supplied).
--chroot-group=group specifies the name of the user group
where to add the users in the specfied range.
--update-ok specifies that this script should make the necessary
updates to /etc/group and /etc/passwd. By default, chrootusers.pl simply
writes a sh script in /tmp/chrootusers.pl.sh, which can be reviewed and run
by the super user using the sh /tmp/chrootusers.pl.sh command.
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450 Part IV: Network Service Security

As shown in the preceding output, the --start-uid and --end-uid options

specify a range of user IDs; --chroot-group specifies the name of the group in
/etc/group, and --update-ok commits all necessary changes to the /etc/group
and /etc/passwd files. If you don’t use --update-ok, the script writes a small sh
shell script called /tmp/chrootusers.pl.sh, which you can review and run.

USING A UID RANGE TO THROW MULTIPLE

USERS IN A CHROOT JAIL
The chrootusers.pl script makes it easy to add users (within a UID range) to
chroot jails. Instead of typing many sensitive (and easily botched) commands
repeatedly for each user that you want to place in chroot jail, you can use a sim-
ple script — which should reduce human error.
To configure each user account in a certain range of UIDs, run the chroo-
tusers.pl script with the following command:

/usr/local/bin/chrootusers.pl --start-uid=lowest_ID --end-uid=highest_ID --

chroot-group=ftpusers

In this command, lowest_ID is the lowest user ID number in the desired range,
and highest_ID is the highest user ID number in the desired range. For example, if
you want to configure each user account with UIDs between 100 and 999, low-
est_ID is 100 and highest_ID is 999. If you run this command with --start-
uid=100 and --end-uid=999, it displays the following output:

Review the /tmp/chrootusers.pl.sh script.

If everything looks good run it as follows:

sh /tmp/chrootusers.pl.sh

If you choose, you can review the /tmp/chrootusers.pl.sh script using the
more /tmp/chrootusers.pl.sh command or a text editor. Whether you review
the file or not, finish by running the sh /tmp/chrootusers.pl.sh command to
create the chroot jails for the users within the specified UID range.

WATCHING CHROOTUSERS.PL CREATE CHROOT JAILS

If you must know how the chrootusers.pl script works, this section is for you. In
the following example, I configure each user account whose UID ranges between
100 and 999. If you have more than one user who falls under the range you provide
using the --start-uid and --end-uid range, all of their accounts are configured
for chroot jail. For this example, I have only one user (sheila) whose UID (501)
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 451

falls between 100 and 999; only that user’s account is chrooted. The process of cre-
ating a chroot jail looks like this:

1. Execute the chrootusers.pl script with the following command, which

creates a sh script in the /tmp directory called chrootusers.pl.sh.:
/usr/local/bin/chrootusers.pl --start-uid=100 \
--end-uid=999 \
--chroot-group=ftpusers

2. Run this sh script, using the sh /tmp/chrootusers.pl.sh command.

If you want to avoid running the sh script manually, you can use
the -- update-ok option with the command in Step 1, which tells the
chrootusers.pl script to execute all the commands using the sh script.
The sh script first adds sheila’s user account to the ftpusers group in
/etc/group by executing the following command:

/usr/sbin/usermod -G ftpusers sheila

3. User sheila’s home directory field is modified in /etc/passwd using the

following command:
/usr/sbin/usermod -d /home/sheila/./ sheila

The user directory changes from /home/sheila to /home/sheila/./.

When the WU-FTPD daemon reads home-directory entries like this one, it
runs the chroot(“/home/sheila”) system call internally and then
changes the directory to “.” (which is the root (/) directory in the
chrooted environment).

4. The script copies the contents of the /home/chroot directory to sheila’s

home directory using the following command:
cd /home/chroot; /bin/tar cf - * | ( cd ~sheila; /bin/tar xf
- )

This ensures that the user account has all the necessary files to maintain
chrooted FTP sessions:

■ Command files (/home/chroot/bin/*)

■ Library files (/home/chroot/lib/*)
■ Configuration files (/home/chroot/etc/*)
5. The script adds entries for sheila to the ~sheila/etc/passwd and
~sheila/etc/group files by executing the following commands:

/bin/echo “sheila:*:501:501::” >> /home/sheila/etc/passwd

/bin/echo “sheila::501:” >> /home/sheila/etc/group
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452 Part IV: Network Service Security

Because the user sheila likely doesn’t want to be called 501 (her user
number), this entry allows commands like ls to display user and group
names instead of user ID and group ID values when listing files and direc-
tories in an FTP session.
6. The script sets permissions for the copied files and directories so that user
sheila can access them during FTP sessions.

cd /home/sheila; /bin/chown -R sheila:sheila bin etc lib pub

7. Repeat the preceding steps for each user whose UID falls in the range
given in the chrootusers.pl script.

Securing WU-FTPD using options in /etc/ftpaccess

The default /etc/ftpaccess has a lot of room for modification in terms of security
enhancement. In this section I show you how you can enhance WU-FTPD security by
modifying this file.

LOGGING EVERYTHING
The more network traffic WU-FTPD logs the more you can trace back to the server.
By default, WU-FTPD logs file transfers only to and from the server (inbound and
outbound, respectively) for all defined user classes (anonymous, real, and guest).
Following are all the log directives you can add to /etc/ftpaccess file.

◆ File transfers: Log file transfers if you want to see which files are being
uploaded to or downloaded from the server by which user. Use the follow-
ing directive in the /etc/ftpaccess file:
log transfers anonymous,real,guest inbound,outbound

◆ Security information: Enable logging of security violations for anony-

mous, guest, and real users by putting the following directives in the
/etc/ftpaccess file:

log security anonymous,guest,real

log commands anonymous,guest,real
■ The first log directive tells WU-FTPD to enable logging of security viola-
tions for all default user classes.
■ The second log directive ensures that WU-FTPD logs all commands run
by all default user classes.

RESTRICTING ACCESS TO SENSITIVE FILES AND DIRECTORIES

If you have decided against using a chroot jail for user accounts, you may want to
consider restricting access to sensitive files and directories with the noretrieve
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 453

directive in the /etc/ftpaccess file. Here are some sample uses of the noretrieve
directive:

◆ To prohibit a file from being retrieved, the command syntax is

noretrieve file | dir [class=anonymous | real | guest]

◆ To prohibit anyone from retrieving any files from the sensitive /etc direc-
tory, you can add the following line in /etc/ftpaccess:
noretrieve /etc

◆ If you run an Apache Web server on the same system that runs your WU-
FTPD server, you can add the following line in /etc/ftpaccess to ensure
that directory-specific Apache configuration files (found in users’ Web
directories) can’t be downloaded by anyone. Here's an example:
noretrieve .htaccess .htpasswd

If you decide to deny such privileges only to anonymous users, you can do
so by using the following modified directive:
noretrieve .htaccess .htpasswd class=anonymous

◆ If you have set up a noretrieve for a certain directory but you want to
allow users to download files from that directory, use the allow-
retrieve file_extension directive. For example, allow-retrieve
/etc/hosts allows users to download the /etc/hosts file even when
noretrieve /etc is in effect.

RESTRICTING UPLOAD PRIVILEGES FOR ANONYMOUS FTP USERS

Many anonymous FTP servers that allow uploading can quickly become a swap
meet for pirated software. If you must allow uploading of files as an anonymous
WU-FTPD service, consider making it very hard for anonymous users to exploit your
service. To tighten security for such an anonymous server, you can put the nore-
trieve, upload directives to work by following these steps:

1. Disable upload for all directories within your anonymous FTP account by
using the upload directive like this:
upload /var/ftp * no

2. Create a directory in /var/ftp (substitute its name for the directory

shown here) and explicitly open the upload permissions for this directory,
like this:
upload /var/ftp/directory yes nobody ftp 0440 nodirs
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454 Part IV: Network Service Security

For example, I can create a subdirectory called /var/ftp/incoming and

add the following line in /etc/ftpaccess:
upload /var/ftp/incoming yes nobody ftp 0440 nodirs

Here all the uploaded files in the /var/ftp/incoming directory would be

owned by user nobody belonging to a group called ftp. The files have
0440 (-r--r-----) permission settings, and as such, anonymous FTP
users who upload files in this directory cannot create any subdirectories.
3. Use the following directive to make all files in /var/ftp/directory non-
retrievable:
noretrieve /var/ftp/directory

For the example, discussed in the previous step this directive is set as
follows:
noretrieve /var/ftp/incoming

RESTRICTING ACCESS BY IP/NETWORK ADDRESSES

If you monitor your /var/log/secure log frequently and notice FTP connection
attempts from unfamiliar IP addresses, consider investigating the attempts as
potential security risks. You can use the /usr/bin/host IP_address command to
resolve the IP addresses you are wondering about. Or, you can execute the
/usr/sbin/traceroute IP_address command to trace the network path of the IP
address. For example, if you have no users in Russia and your Traceroute output
shows an IP address from Russia, you may want to simply block the IP from future
FTP access attempts. In such a case, you can simply refuse FTP access to IP
addresses — or even to an entire network — by using the deny directive. The syntax
of the deny directive is

deny IP_address[/network mask] [fully_qualified_filename]

For example, to deny all the hosts in 192.168.1.0/24 (a Class C network,) you can
add the following line in the /etc/ftpaccess file:

deny 192.168.1.0/24

To deny different IP addresses from multiple networks, simply list those IP

addresses by separating them with single spaces.You can also specify a fully
qualified filename — which lists all the IP addresses you want to deny — as in
this example:
deny /etc/ftphosts.bad
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 455

Each line in this file can list one IP address or network in the CIDR format (for
example, 192.168.1.0/24). Using an external file can keep your /etc/ftpaccess
configuration file simpler to maintain, because it won’t get cluttered by lots of IP
addresses.

To shut down FTP service temporarily, add an entry such as 0.0.0.0/0 to

the /etc/ftphosts.bad file to disallow every IP address in the entire IP
space. Remember to remove that entry once you are ready to re-enable the
service.

In most cases, users don’t need an explanation for access denial, but if your pol-
icy requires such civilized behavior, you can display the contents of a message file
when denying access. For example, the following command shows everyone being
denied access to the contents of the /etc/ftphosts.bad.msg file:

deny /etc/ftphosts.bad /etc/ftphosts.bad.msg

Using ProFTPD
Earlier, this chapter demonstrated how to configure the WU-FTPD server to enhance
FTP security. But WU-FTPD isn’t the only FTP server you can get for Red Hat Linux;
another FTP server called ProFTPD is now common — and as with the “cola wars,”
each server has its following (in this case, made up of administrators). Here are
some of the benefits of ProFTPD:

◆ ProFTPD uses one Apache-like configuration file, which makes it easy to

learn if you have configured Apache before.

ProFTPD can also use an Apache-like optional feature that sets up per-
directory configuration files, which can create a configuration specific to one
directory.

◆ ProFTPD supports easy-to-configure virtual FTP sites.

◆ ProFTPD can control resources, such as how many instances of the server
run at any given time to service simultaneous connections.
◆ ProFTPD can use Linux Capabilities (see Chapter 8 for details on Linux
Capabilities).
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456 Part IV: Network Service Security

Downloading, compiling, and installing ProFTPD

Before you can use ProFTPD, you must download and install the software. Here’s
how to acquire ProFTPD and get it running in the following list.

1. Download the latest stable ProFTPD source distribution (the filename

should be proftpd-version_number.tar.gz or similar, where
version_number is the version number in the filename, such as 1.2.2).
You can download the ProFTPD source code from www.proftpd.net.
2. Become root (using the su command).
3. Extract the source distribution by running the following command:
tar xvzf proftpd-version_number.tar.gz

This creates a subdirectory of the in /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES directory

called proftpd-version_number (for example, proftod-1.2.2). Change
your current directory to the new subdirectory.
4. Run the ./configure --sysconfdir=/etc command to configure the
source distribution for your system.
5. Run the make and make install commands to compile and install the
binaries and default configuration files.

Configuring ProFTPD
The ProFTPD configuration file is /etc/proftpd.conf. The default copy of this file
(without any comment lines) is shown in Listing 18-2.

Listing 18-2: Default copy of /etc/proftpd.conf

ServerName “ProFTPD Default Installation”

ServerType standalone
DefaultServer on
Port 21
Umask 022
MaxInstances 30
User nobody
Group nogroup
<Directory /*>
AllowOverwrite on
</Directory>
<Anonymous ~ftp>
User ftp
Group ftp
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 457

UserAlias anonymous ftp

MaxClients 10
DisplayLogin welcome.msg
DisplayFirstChdir .message
<Limit WRITE>
DenyAll
</Limit>
</Anonymous>

If you are familiar with Apache Web server configuration, you can see a couple
of close similarities here:

◆ Single-line directives such as ServerName and ServerType

◆ Multiple-line container directives such as <Directory> and <Limit>

Before you configure ProFTPD, however, know the meaning of each directive for
the configuration file. For a complete list of ProFTPD directives and their usage, read
the ProFTPD user’s guide online at the ProFTPD Web site, http://www.proftpd.net.
Here I discuss only the directives shown in the default proftpd.conf file and the
ones that have security and access control implications. They are as follows:

◆ ServerName: Gives your FTP server a name. Replace the default value,
ProFTPD Default Installation, with something that doesn’t state what
type of FTP server it is. For example, you could use something like
ServerName “FTP Server”

◆ ServerType: ProFTPD can run two ways:

■ As a standalone service
By default, the ServerType directive is set to standalone, which
means that ProFTPD runs as a standalone service.
■ As an xinetd-run (inetd) service
Because ProFTPD is highly configurable using its own set of directives,
there is no benefit from running under xinetd. Services that can’t con-
trol their resource utilizations are better suited for xinetd, so I recom-
mend that you leave the default alone. If you want to run it under
xinetd anyway, I show you how in “Running ProFTPD as an xinetd-
run service,” later in this chapter.
◆ DefaultServer: ProFTPD supports virtual FTP servers, which means you
have a main server (called the default server) and one or more virtual FTP
servers. By default, the main server is enabled using the DefaultServer
directive. If you plan on using only a set of virtual FTP servers and don’t
want any FTP request to default to the main server, turn it off by setting
the DefaultServer directive to off.
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458 Part IV: Network Service Security

Leave DefaultServer alone at least until you are completely familiar with all
the directives and creating virtual FTP servers using ProFTPD.

◆ Port: Specifies the port that ProFTPD listens to for incoming connections.
The default value of 21 should be left alone, or you must instruct your
FTP users to change their FTP client software to connect to a different
port on your FTP server.
◆ Umask: Specifies the default file and directory creation umask setting. The
default value of 022 creates files or directories with 755 permissions,
which is too relaxed. A value of 027 is recommended, and it ensures that
only the owner and the group can access the file or directory.
◆ MaxInstances: Specifies how many ProFTPD instances are run simultane-
ously before refusing connections. This directive is effective only for the
standalone mode of operation.
◆ User: Although the initial ProFTPD daemon must be run as root, for secu-
rity ProFTPD switches to an ordinary user and group when the FTP service
interacts with a client, thus reducing the risk of allowing a client process
to interact with a privileged process. This directive simply tells ProFTPD
which user to switch to.
◆ Group: Just as with the User directive, the Group directive specifies the
user and group that run the ProFTPD server. Just as with the User direc-
tive, the initial ProFTPD daemon must be run as root.

Although the default value of the User directive (nobody) is suitable for
most Linux installations, the Group value (nogroup) is not. There’s no
nogroup in the default /etc/group file with Red Hat Linux. To solve this
problem you can set the Group value to nobody (because there’s a group
called nobody in /etc/group that by default doesn’t have any members).
If you want to keep the default value for the Group directive for some rea-
son, you can run the groupadd nogroup command to add a new group
called nogroup.

◆ <Directory_/*>: Allows a set of directives that applies to a particular direc-

tory path. The default directory directive applies to /*, which is a wildcard
path (meaning every file in every directory visible to ProFTPD). The
AllowOverwrite directive, which is enclosed in the directory container,
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 459

allows FTP clients to overwrite any file they want. This is a bad idea and
should be set to off. Whenever one is trying to create a secure environ-
ment, the first step is to shut all doors and windows and only open those
that are well guarded or a necessity.

Setting AllowOverwrite to off in the /* directory context means you

must create specific instances of AllowOverwrite on as needed. Yes, this
may be a painful procedure, but it helps your security in the long run.

◆ <Anonymous ~FTP>: The final configuration segment of the default

proftpd.conf file creates an anonymous FTP site. Unless you must have
an anonymous FTP site, remove the entire anonymous FTP configuration
segment.

If you follow the preceding recommendations, your modified /etc/

proftpd.conf file looks like the one in Listing 18-3.

Listing 18-3: Modified /etc/proftpd.conf

ServerName “FTP Server”

ServerType standalone
DefaultServer on
Port 21
Umask 027
MaxInstances 30
User nobody
Group nogroup
<Directory /*>
AllowOverwrite off
</Directory>

RUNNING PROFTPD AS A STANDALONE SERVICE

As mentioned before, you can run ProFTPD as a standalone service by setting the
ServerType to standalone. Once you have set this directive, you can simply start
the ProFTPD server while logged in as root using the /usr/local/sbin/proftpd
command. However, starting ProFTPD manually in this manner isn’t a reasonable
system administration practice so do the following:

1. Become root by using the su command.

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460 Part IV: Network Service Security

2. Install the proftpd script from the CD that comes with this book (see the
CD Appendix for info on where to find the script) in your
/etc/rc.d/init.d directory.

3. Add a new group called nogroup using the groupadd nogroup command.
4. Execute the following command:
ln -s /etc/rc.d/init.d/proftpd /etc/rc.d/rc3.d/S95proftpd

This creates a symbolic link to the /etc/rc.d/init.d/proftpd script.

Every time you start your system and it switches to run-level 3, the
ProFTPD service starts automatically.

5. Run the following command:

ln -s /etc/rc.d/init.d/proftpd /etc/rc.d/rc3.d/K95proftpd

Doing so creates a symbolic link to the /etc/rc.d/init.d/proftpd

script. Every time you reboot or halt your system from run-level 3, the
ProFTPD service stops automatically.

At any time (as root) you can run the /etc/rc.d/init.d/proftpd start com-
mand to start the ProFTPD service. If you make any configuration change in
/etc/proftpd.conf, reload the configuration using the /etc/rc.d/init.d/
proftpd reload command. Similarly, the /etc/rc.d/init.d/proftpd stop
command can stop the service.

To perform a scheduled shutdown of the FTP service you can also use the
/usr/local/sbin/ftpshut HHMM command. For example, the /usr/
local/sbin/ftpshut 0930 command stops the FTP service at 9:30 a.m.
To prevent any connection before a certain time of the scheduled shutdown
you can use the -l minute option. By default, ProFTPD doesn’t allow any
new connections ten minutes before a scheduled shutdown. Remember to
remove the /etc/shutmsg file when you want to enable the FTP service
again.

RUNNING PROFTPD AS AN XINETD-RUN SERVICE

Although running ProFTPD in standalone mode is recommended, you may choose
to run it using xinetd. For example, if you don’t have a lot of user accounts that
frequently must connect to your FTP server, running ProFTPD using xinetd is
reasonable.
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 461

Before you configure ProFTPD as an xinetd-run service, first make sure

that you aren’t already running ProFTPD in standalone mode. Run the ps
auxww | grep proftpd command to check whether any instances of
ProFTPD are currently running. If necessary kill any running instances
before following the steps below.

1. Add disable = yes in the /etc/xinetd.d/wu-ftpd file, which ensures

that your WU-FTPD server isn’t started by xinetd when a new FTP request
comes.
2. Reload the xinetd configuration using the killall -USR1 xinetd
command.
3. Modify the /etc/proftpd.conf file so that the ServerType directive is
set to inetd instead of standalone.
4. Add a new group called nogroup by using the groupadd nogroup
command.
5. Create a new xinetd configuration file called /etc/xinetd.d/proftpd
with the following lines:
service ftp
{
flags = REUSE
socket_type = stream
instances = 30
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/local/sbin/proftpd

log_on_success = HOST PID

log_on_failure = HOST RECORD
disable = no
}

6. Reload the xinetd configuration, using the killall -USR1 xinetd

command.
7. Connect to the server from the local host, using the ftp localhost com-
mand. If your connection is refused, run the tail -f /var/log/messages
command and try again. Notice the error messages that ProFTPD outputs;
correct the problem(s) accordingly.
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462 Part IV: Network Service Security

Monitoring ProFTPD
ProFTPD includes a few utilities that can help you monitor the service. For exam-
ple, you can run ProFTP bundled utilities to count concurrent FTP connections or
determine which users are connected to your server. In this section, I detail these
utilities.

COUNTING FTP CONNECTIONS

To find how many people are connected to your FTP server, run the
/usr/local/bin/ftpcount command. Here’s an example of the output you get
back:

Master proftpd process 8322:

- - 2 users

When you introduce a new FTP service, monitor it very closely for at least a few
days. Typically, you should run commands like the preceding using the watch facil-
ity. For example, the watch -n 60 /usr/local/bin/ftpcount command can run
on a terminal or xterm to display a count of FTP users every 60 seconds.

FINDING WHO IS FTP-CONNECTED

Run the /usr/local/bin/ftpwho command to see who is connected. Sample out-
put follows:

Master proftpd process 8322:

8387 0m1s proftpd: sheila - reboot.intevo.com: IDLE
8341 3m59s proftpd: kabir - k2.intevo.com: IDLE
- - 2 users

Here two users (sheila and kabir) are connected from two different machines
on a LAN. The output shows:

◆ ProFTPD processes that service these users

◆ The master ProFTPD process ID

Securing ProFTPD
ProFTPD has a number of directives that you can use in the /etc/proftpd.conf
file to create a secure and restrictive FTP service. In this section, I show you how
you can use such directives to restrict FTP connections by remote IP addresses,
enable PAM-based user authentication (see Chapter 10 for details on PAM itself), or
create a chroot jail for FTP users.
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 463

RESTRICTING FTP CONNECTIONS BY IP ADDRESS

To restrict access to your FTP server by IP addresses, use the following configura-
tion segment within the main server or a virtual server (within a <VirtualHost>
container) or an anonymous FTP server (within an <Anonymous> container).

<Limit LOGIN>
Order Allow, Deny
Allow from goodIPaddr1, goodIPaddr2
Deny from all
</Limit>

For example, to allow a host called myhost.domain.com access to your main

FTP server, you can first find what the IP address is for myhost.domain.com by
using the host myhost.domain.com command (or simply by running the ping
myhost.domain.com command). For an IP address of 216.112.169.138, you create
the following configuration in the /etc/proftpd.conf file:

<Limit LOGIN>
Order Allow, Deny
Allow from 216.112.169.138
Deny from all
</Limit>

Doing so allows myhost.domain.com to connect to your FTP server. However, if

myhost.domain.com doesn’t have a static IP address, the user on that host proba-
bly can’t connect the next time she gets a different IP address from her ISP. In this
case, you may have to grant her entire network FTP-access privileges. For example,
you can use:

Allow from 216.112.169.

I don’t recommend using hostnames in the Allow directive, because host-

name lookups are slow and can reduce your server performance. Besides,
hostnames are more likely to be spoofed than IP addresses.

USING PAM AS THE AUTHORITATIVE

USER AUTHENTICATION METHOD
ProFTPD is a PAM-enabled application. (PAM is detailed in Chapter 10.) ProFTPD
can use PAM to perform user authentication and any other type of access control
that a PAM module can provide.
To use PAM with ProFTPD (that is, applying PAM for authentication), you can
simply create a file called /etc/pam.d/ftp that contains the following lines:
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464 Part IV: Network Service Security

%PAM-1.0
auth required /lib/security/pam_listfile.so item=user \
sense=deny file=/etc/ftpusers onerr=succeed
auth required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
auth required /lib/security/pam_shells.so
account required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth
session required /lib/security/pam_stack.so service=system-auth

By default, ProFTPD enables PAM-based authentication, but it doesn’t consider

PAM as the ultimate authority in user authentication. Directives like AuthUserFile
and AuthGroupFile can override an authentication failure reported by PAM.
Because Red Hat Linux uses PAM-based authentication for just about all types of
user access, PAM makes sense as the authoritative authentication scheme for
ProFTPD. To establish it as such, add the following directives in the main server
configuration in the /etc/proftpd.conf file:

AuthPAMAuthoritative on
AuthPAMConfig ftp

This makes sure ProFTPD obeys PAM as the ultimate user-authentication and
authorization middleware; it tells ProFTPD to use the /etc/pam.d/ftp configura-
tion for user authentication.

If you want different virtual FTP sites to authenticate differently, you can
use the preceding directives in a <VirtualHost> configuration.

USING A CHROOT JAIL FOR FTP USERS

ProFTPD makes using a chroot jail easy for FTP users. To create a chroot jail for
users in their home directories, you can add the following directive to the main
server configuration or to a virtual host configuration:

DefaultRoot “~”

This directive tells ProFTPD to chroot a user to his home directory (because ~
expands to the home directory of the user). To limit the jail to be a subdirectory of
the home directory, you can use DefaultRoot “~/directory” instead. In contrast
to WU-FTPD (discussed earlier in the chapter), you don’t have to copy a lot of files to
support the chroot jail for each user. You also don’t need the chrootusers.pl
script with ProFTPD.
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 465

You can limit the jail to a group of users, as shown in this example:
DefaultRoot “~” untrusted
Here only the users in the untrusted group in the /etc/group file are
jailed. Similarly, if you want to jail all the users in a group called everyone
but want to spare the users in a smaller group called buddies, you can use
the same directive like this:
DefaultRoot “~” everyone, !buddies
The ! (bang) sign in front of the second group tells ProFTPD to exclude the
users in the group from being chroot-jailed.

LIMITING FTP COMMAND PRIVILEGES

If you have a lot of directories on your server available via FTP, you may have dif-
ferent access-control requirements for some of them. You may want to prevent
users from creating or deleting files and directories within a certain directory, or
you may want to designate a sole upload directory for your users. This section
demonstrates such configurations, using the <Limit> container directive.

Keep all your directives inside the /etc/proftpd.conf file.

DISABLING DIRECTORY CREATION-AND-DELETION PRIVILEGES To prevent all

users from creating new directories (or removing existing ones) via FTP, use the fol-
lowing configuration:

<Directory /*>
<Limit MKD RMD>
DenyAll
</Limit>
</Directory>

If you want to allow directory creation-and-deletion privileges to only a certain

group called staff, you can use a modified version of the preceding configuration
as shown next:

<Directory /*>
<Limit MKD RMD>
DenyAll
AllowGroup staff
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466 Part IV: Network Service Security

</Limit>
</Directory>

Similarly, you can use the AllowUser directive to specify users to create and
delete directories. If you want to deny these rights to only a few users, create a
group (say, badusers) in /etc/group and use the following configuration to allow
creation and deletion to everyone but the users in that group:

<Directory /*>
<Limit MKD RMD>
Order deny,allow
DenyGroup badusers
AllowAll
</Limit>
</Directory>

ESTABLISHING AN UPLOAD-ONLY FTP SERVER To allow only uploading of files

to your FTP server, you can use the following configuration in the main server or a
virtual-host container:

<Directory /*>
<Limit RETR>
DenyAll
</Limit>
</Directory>

RESTRICTING ACCESS TO A SINGLE DIRECTORY To keep users from poking

around directories they shouldn’t be in, you can limit all FTP users to a certain
directory by using the following configuration:

<Directory /*>
<Limit CWD>
DenyAll
</Limit>
</Directory>

With this configuration in place, users who FTP to the server can’t change the
directory. You can use DenyGroup groupname instead of the DenyALL to limit the
scope of the configuration to one user group (groupname) defined in the
/etc/group file.

SIMPLIFYING FILE TRANSFERS FOR NOVICE USERS Many users get lost when
they see too many directories or options available to them. Most users won’t mind
or know if you simplify their computer interactions. So if you have a group of users
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 467

who must retrieve or store files in the FTP server on a regular basis, you may want
to consider locking their access into one directory. For example, you have a group
defined in /etc/group called novices, and you want to allow the users in this
group to retrieve files from a directory called /files/download and upload files
into a directory called /files/upload. The configuration you add to /etc/
proftpd.conf file to do the job looks like this:

<Directory /files/download>
<Limit READ>
AllowGroup novices
</Limit>
<Limit WRITE>
DenyGroup novices
</Limit>
</Directory>
<Directory /files/upload>
<Limit READ>
DenyGroup novices
</Limit>
<Limit WRITE>
AllowGroup novices
</Limit>
</Directory>

RESTRICTING DIRECTORY BROWSING PRIVILEGES To limit directory-browsing

privileges for a group of users, you can use the following configuration:

<Directory path>
<Limit DIRS>
DenyGroup group_name
</Limit>
</Directory>

To limit directory-browsing privileges for a group called newfriends in a direc-

tory called /my/mp3s, use the following configuration. This prevents users in the
newfriends group from getting listings of /my/mp3s directory:

<Directory /my/mp3s>
<Limit DIRS>
DenyGroup newfriends
</Limit>
</Directory>
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468 Part IV: Network Service Security

CONTROLLING COMMAND BUFFER SIZE

Many “script kiddies” (novice hackers) try to attack a server by sending extremely
long commands to them. They hope to cause some sort of buffer overflow, which
can then be exploited. You can use the CommandBufferSize directive to control the
length of the command sent by clients. Setting buffer size to 512 is sufficient for
most scenarios. Set this in main server configuration.

KEEPING PRYING USERS AWAY FROM EACH OTHER

Usually when you access an FTP server on an ISP, you see more files than you
should. Being able to peek and poke gives bad people ideas about what they can do
to a system. So try to hide unnecessary files. Take a look at the following configu-
ration segment:

DefaultRoot “/www”
<Directory /www>
HideNoAccess on
<Limit ALL>
IgnoreHidden on
</Limit>
</Directory>

This configuration allows a user to see only what you permit. When a user con-
nects to a system with the preceding configuration, he sees only the files and direc-
tories in /www for which he has access privileges. This is true for every user who
connects to this system. The HideNoAccess directive hides all the entries in the
/www directory that a user cannot access. The IgnoreHidden directive tells ProFTPD
to ignore any command from a user that is one of the hidden commands.

CREATING A MINIMAL ANONYMOUS FTP SITE

If people need to get only a few small files from your FTP server (say, a few kilo-
bytes or a few megabytes), consider using a Web server rather than an anonymous
FTP site. If you have a lot of files for download and want to allow uploading via an
anonymous account, create an anonymous FTP server. The following
/etc/proftpd.conf configuration shows an anonymous FTP server whose incom-
ing directory allows users to upload files.

<Anonymous ~ftp>
User ftp
Group ftp
RequireValidShell off
UserAlias anonymous ftp
MaxClients 20
<Directory *>
<Limit WRITE>
DenyAll
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 469

</Limit>
</Directory>
<Directory incoming>
<Limit WRITE>
AllowAll
</Limit>
<Limit READ>
DenyAll
</Limit>
</Directory>
</Anonymous>

ProFTPD automatically creates a chroot jail for any user logging in to an

anonymous FTP site. The home directory of the ftp user is used as the root direc-
tory for the site.
The following list explains the purpose of the directives in the preceding config-
uration for an anonymous FTP site:

◆ User and Group: Both these directives ensure that all anonymous sessions
are owned by User ftp and Group ftp.
◆ RequireValidShell: Because the built-in user FTP doesn’t have a valid
shell listed in /etc/passwd, this directive tells ProFTPD to still allow
anonymous sessions for User ftp.
◆ UserAlias: This directive assigns anonymous to the FTP account so that
anyone can log in to the anonymous FTP site, using either ftp and
anonymous as the username.

◆ MaxClients: The preceding code example limits the number of anony-

mous connections to 20. You may have to change this setting as you find
your system’s load-tolerance levels.
◆ <Directory> containers: These assign various restrictions to named direc-
tories.
■ The first directory container denies write privileges (upload, delete,
modify) to everyone, for every directory.
■ The next directory container gives the incoming subdirectory = write
permissions for everyone.
■ The final Limit directive ensures that users who upload files in the
incoming directory cannot see or retrieve the files in that directory.

USING LINUX CAPABILITIES WITH PROFTPD

ProFTPD supports Linux Capabilities (see Chapter 8 to learn about Linux
Capabilities in detail).
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470 Part IV: Network Service Security

When a ProFTPD server with Linux Capabilities receives a client request, the
ProFTP server launches a child server process to service the request. However, after
a user authentication is successful, the child server process drops all the Linux
Capabilities except cap_net_bind_service, which allows it to bind to a standard
port defined in /etc/services. At this point, the child process can’t return to root
privileges. This makes ProFTPD very safe, because even if a hacker tricks it to run
an external program, the new process that a ProFTPD creates can’t perform any
privileged operations because it doesn’t have any Linux Capabilities — not even
cap_net_bind_service.
To use Linux Capabilities, you must compile ProFTPD with a (still-unofficial)
module called mod_linuxprivs. Here’s how.

1. Become root using the su command.

2. Install the kernel source distribution from your Red Hat CD-ROM or
download the source RPM from a suitable Web site, such as
http://www.kernel.org.

Make sure you install the source for the kernel you are currently running.
For example, to install the source for the 2.4.1 kernel, you can run rpm -
ivh kernel-source-2.4.1.i386.rpm command. The kernel source
should be installed in /usr/src/linux-2.4.1 (your version number is
likely to be different), and a symbolic link for /usr/src/linux points to
the /usr/src/linux-2.4.1 directory.
3. Open the directory to which you extracted the ProFTPD source distribution
earlier (when compiling it); then run the following command:
./configure --sysconfdir=/etc \
--with-modules=mod_linuxprivs

4. Run the following command:

./configure --sysconfdir=/etc --with-modules=mod_linuxprivs

5. Run the make clean command to remove old binaries.

6. Run the make command followed by make install to install the new
ProFTPD with the Linux Capabilities module.

To verify that the mod_linuxprivs is installed in your new ProFTPD binary,

run the /usr/local/sbin/proftpd -l command, which shows a list like the
following:

Compiled-in modules:
mod_core.c
mod_auth.c
mod_xfer.c
mod_site.c
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Chapter 18: FTP Server Security 471

mod_ls.c
mod_unixpw.c
mod_log.c
mod_pam.c
mod_linuxprivs.c

As shown in the preceding example, the mod_linuxprivs.c module is compiled,

and ProFTPD now uses this module.

Summary
FTP servers are often the target of hackers who often trick the system to download
password files or other secrets that they should not have access to. By restricting
FTP access by username, setting default file permission, and using chroot jailed FTP
service, you can protect against FTP server attacks.
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Chapter 19

Samba and NFS Server

Security
IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Securing Samba Server

◆ Securing an NFS server

A LINUX SYSTEM IN a network often acts as a file server. To turn your Linux box
into a file server you have two choices: Samba and NFS. In this chapter, I discuss
how you can secure both of these services.

Securing Samba Server

This section discusses various security issues related to Samba Server.

Choosing an appropriate security level

Samba Server can use four different security levels. These security levels affect how
client/server authentication takes place when Samba service is in use. When a
Samba client initiates a connection to a Samba server, the server informs the client
about the security level it operates under. The client then must adhere to the server-
chosen security level.
The four security levels are as follows:

◆ Share

◆ User

◆ Server

◆ Domain

The security level is set using the security parameter in the global section in
/etc/samba/smb.conf file.

473
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474 Part IV: Network Service Security

USER-LEVEL SECURITY
When the security parameter is set to user, the Samba server operates using user-
level security. In the latest Samba version, this is the default security level.
When a client connects to the server, the Samba server notifies it of the security
level in use. In user-level security, the client sends a username and password pair to
authenticate. The Samba server can authenticate the user only based on the given
username and password pair or the client’s host information. The server has no way
to know which resource the client requests after authentication; therefore, it can’t
base acceptance or rejection of the request on any resource restriction.
Because Samba is a PAM-aware application, it uses PAM to authenticate the
user, in particular the /etc/pam.d/samba configuration file. By default, this con-
figuration file uses the /etc/pam.d/system-auth configuration with the
pam_stack module. This means Samba authentication becomes synonymous with
regular user-login authentication (which involves /etc/shadow or /etc/passwd
files) under Linux. If you enable encrypted passwords in /etc/samba/smb.conf,
the /etc/samba/smbpasswd file is used instead (see the “Avoiding plain-text pass-
words” section later in this chapter for details).
Once access is granted, the client can connect to any share without resupplying
a password or a username/password pair. If a client successfully logs on to the
Samba server as a user called joe, the server grants the client all the access privi-
leges associated with joe; the client can access files owned by joe.0.
A client can maintain multiple user-authenticated sessions that use different
username/password pairs. Thus, a client system can access a particular share by
using the appropriate username/password pair — and access a whole different share
by using a different username/password pair.

SHARE-LEVEL SECURITY
Share-level security is active when /etc/samba/smb.conf uses security =
share. In share-level security, the client is expected to supply a password for each
share it wants to access. However, unlike Windows 2000/NT, Samba doesn’t use a
share/password pair. In fact, when Samba receives a password for a given share
access request, it simply tries to match the password with a previously given user-
name and tries to authenticate the username/password pair against the standard
Unix authentication scheme (using /etc/shadow or /etc/passwd files) or the
encrypted Samba passwords (using the /etc/samba/smbpasswd file.)
If a username isn’t found — and/or the requested share is accessible as a guest
account (that is, one in which the guest ok parameter is set to yes) — the connec-
tion is made via the username found in the guest account parameter in the
/etc/samba/smb.conf file.
One consequence of this security mode is that you don’t have to make a Linux
account for every Windows user you want to connect to your Samba server. For
example, you can set the guest account = myguest parameter in the
/etc/samba/smb.conf file and create a Linux user called myguest with its own
password — and provide that password to Windows users who want to connect to
shares where you’ve set the guest ok parameter to yes.
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Chapter 19: Samba and NFS Server Security 475

SERVER-LEVEL SECURITY
Server-level security is active when the security = server parameter is used in
the /etc/samba/smb.conf file. In this mode, the Samba server informs the client
that it is operating under user-level security, which forces the client to supply a
username/password pair. The given username/password pair is then used to authen-
ticate the client via an external password server whose NetBIOS name is set by
using the password server parameter. The password server must be a Samba or
Windows 2000/NT server, running under the user-level security mode.
If you have enabled encrypted passwords on the Samba server, also enable
encrypted passwords on the password server. Typically, server-level security dele-
gates authentication service to a Windows 2000/NT server.

A connection to the password server is maintained throughout the life of

the Samba server.

DOMAIN-LEVEL SECURITY
Domain-level security is active when security = domain is used in the
/etc/samba/smb.conf file. It is identical to server-level security with the follow-
ing exceptions:

◆ The Samba server doesn’t maintain a dedicated connection to the pass-

word server. It simply connects to the remote authentication server as
needed and disconnects. This is good for the password server, because
Windows 2000/NT licensing agreements are priced according to the num-
ber of connections.
◆ The Samba server can use Windows 2000/NT domain capabilities such as
the trusted domain feature.
For example, say your Windows 2000 domain is called SKINET and your
Samba server’s NetBIOS name is SMBSRV. Your global configuration for
domain-level security might look like this example:
netbios name = SMBSRV
workgroup = SKINET
password_server = *
security = domain

Whenever a client connects to the Samba server (SMBSRV) it uses the SKINET
domain’s primary domain controller as the password server and authenticates the
client request.
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476 Part IV: Network Service Security

Avoiding plain-text passwords

By default, Samba server expects plain-text passwords from a client system, which
(to put it mildly) isn’t ideal. You can change this behavior by uncommenting
(removing the leading semicolon from) the following lines in the /etc/samba/
smb.conf file.

; encrypt passwords = yes

; smb passwd file = /etc/samba/smbpasswd

The preceding configuration tells Samba server to use encrypted passwords and
authenticate users by using the /etc/samba/smbpasswd file when the security
parameter is set to user.
When the preceding configuration is in use, the Samba server appends an eight-
byte random value during the session-setup phase of the connection. This random
value is stored in the Samba server as the challenge. The client then encrypts the
challenge — using its user password — and sends the response. The server encrypts the
challenge (using the hashed password stored in /etc/samba/smbpasswd) and checks
whether the client-supplied response is the same as the one it calculated. If the
responses match, then the server is satisfied that the client knows the appropriate user
password; the authentication phase is complete. In this method of authentication, the
actual password isn’t transmitted over the network, which makes the process very
secure. Also, the Samba server never stores the actual password in the /etc/samba/
smbpasswd file — only an encrypted, hashed version of the password is stored.
I highly recommend that you enable an encrypted password mode for authenti-
cation. Once you enable encrypted passwords, create an /etc/samba/smbpasswd
file by converting the /etc/passwd like this:

1. su to root.
2. Generate a base /etc/samba/smbpasswd file, using the following command.
cat /etc/passwd | /usr/bin/mksmbpasswd.sh > \
/etc/samba/smbpasswd

3. Use the smbpasswd command to create passwords for the users. For exam-
ple, the smbpasswd sheila command creates a password for an existing
user called sheila in /etc/samba/smbpasswd file.

All users on your system can change their encrypted Samba passwords by
using this command (without the argument).

Now your Samba server requires encrypted passwords for client access — which
may be less convenient to users but is also vastly more secure.
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Chapter 19: Samba and NFS Server Security 477

Allowing access to users from trusted domains

If you use domain-level security, you can use the trusted domain feature of
Windows 2000/NT. For example, say that you have a user called myuser in a
Windows 2000/NT domain called ADMIN and your Samba server is part of a domain
called ENGR. If the primary domain controllers for the both of these domains are set
up such that there’s a trust relationship, then myuser from ADMIN should be able to
access the Samba server on the ENGR domain. You can do so by setting the follow-
ing parameter in a global section of your /etc/samba/smb.conf file.

allow trusted domain = yes

When this parameter is set, users from trusted domains can access the Samba
server — although they still need Linux user accounts on the Samba server. Add the
following parameters in the global section of the /etc/samba/smb.conf file:

add user script = /usr/sbin/useradd %u -g smbusers

delete user script = /usr/sbin/userdel %u

With these parameters in place, when a user from a trusted domain attempts
access on the Samba server (on a different domain) for the very first time, the
Samba server performs domain-level security measures. It asks the primary domain
controller (PDC) of its own domain to authenticate the user. Because you have
already set up a trust relationship with the user’s domain, the PDC for the Samba
server can authenticate the user. The Samba server then creates a Linux user
account and allows the user to access the requested resource.

When the allow trusted domain parameter is set to no, trust relation-
ships are ignored.

Controlling Samba access by network interface

You can tell Samba to listen to one or more network interfaces of the Linux system.
Say you are running Samba on a system with two network interfaces, eth0
(192.168.2.10) and eth1 (192.168.3.10), and want to restrict Samba service to
eth0 only. In such a case, define the following parameters in the global section of
your /etc/samba/smb.conf file.

interfaces = 192.168.2.10/24 127.0.0.1

bind interfaces only = yes
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478 Part IV: Network Service Security

The first parameter, interfaces, defines the list of network interfaces that
Samba listens to. The 192.168.1.10/24 network is tied to the eth0 (192.168.1.10)
interface and, hence, it is added in the interface list. The 127.0.0.1 interface is
added because it is the local loopback interface and is used by smbpasswd to con-
nect to the local Samba server. The next parameter, bind interfaces only, is
set to yes to tell the Samba server to listen to only the interfaces listed in the
interfaces parameter.

You can also use interface device names such as eth0 and eth1 with the
interfaces parameter.

Controlling Samba access by

hostname or IP addresses
You can tell the Samba server to only allow a set of hosts to access its resources.
For example, the following restricts host access:

hosts deny = ALL

hosts allow = 192.168.1.0/24 127.0.0.1

In the preceding lines, access to Samba is restricted as follows:

◆ The first parameter disallows access to all hosts.

◆ The second parameter opens access to

■ Hosts in the 192.168.1.0 network.
■ The local host (127.0.0.1).

If you use IP networks as the value for the hosts allow parameter, you can
exclude certain IP addresses too. For example, the following lines give all hosts in
192.168.1.0/24 network access to the Samba server except 192.168.1.100:

hosts deny = ALL

hosts allow = 192.168.1.0/24 EXCEPT 192.168.1.100

You can use hostnames instead of IP addresses. For example, the following
allows access to three computers in the network:

hosts deny = ALL

hosts allow = kabirspc, lancespc, stevespc
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Chapter 19: Samba and NFS Server Security 479

Using pam_smb to authenticate all

users via a Windows NT server
Typically, Linux is the newcomer in most organizations; if you have a Windows
2000/NT network where a Windows 2000/NT machine is used for authentication,
usually management is easier if you can delegate Linux user authentication to the
Windows 2000/NT server. Samba along with pam_smb can use a Windows 2000/NT
server (or a Linux-based Samba server acting as a PDC) to authenticate users who
want to log on to your Linux system via Telnet or SSH.

GETTING PAM_SMB
You can download the pam_smb source from the FTP site located at ftp://ftp.
samba.org/pub/samba/pam_smb.

INSTALLING AND CONFIGURING PAM_SMB

To install and configure the pam_smb module do the following:

1. su to root.
2. Extract the pam_smb distribution file in a directory by using the tar xvzf
pam_smb.tar.gz command. Change your current directory to the newly
created directory called pam_smb.
3. Run the ./configure command to prepare the source distribution. To
place the pamsmbd daemon somewhere other than default location
(/usr/local/sbin), run the ./configure --
sbindir=/path/to/pamsmbd where /path/to/pamsmbd is the path where
you want to keep the daemon binary. To disable encrypted passwords you
can run the configure script with the --disable-encrypt-pass option.
4. Run the make command. Copy the pam_smb_auth.so file to /lib/
security by using the cp pam_smb_auth.so /lib/security command.

5. Modify the /etc/pam.d/system-auth file as shown below:

#%PAM-1.0
# This file is auto-generated.
# User changes are destroyed the next time authconfig is run.
auth sufficient /lib/security/pam_smb_auth.so
#auth sufficient /lib/security/pam_unix.so likeauth nullok md5 shadow
auth required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
account sufficient /lib/security/pam_unix.so
account required /lib/security/pam_deny.so
password required /lib/security/pam_cracklib.so retry=3
password sufficient /lib/security/pam_unix.so nullok use_authtok md5
shadow
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480 Part IV: Network Service Security

password required /lib/security/pam_deny.so

session required /lib/security/pam_limits.so
session required /lib/security/pam_unix.so

6. The configuration file is stored in /etc/pam_smb.conf, and it consists of

three lines.
■ The first line is the NT logon domain name, which is to be used for
authentication.
■ The second line is the primary domain controller name.
■ The third line is the secondary domain controller name.

These don’t have to be NT server machines — simply machines that can

authenticate in the domain. For example, Listing 19-1 shows a sample ver-
sion of /etc/pam_smb.conf. Here the first line, SKINET, is the domain
name, the second line, PDCSRV, is the primary domain controller, and the last
line, BDCSRV, is the secondary domain controller.

Listing 19-1: Sample version of /etc/pam_smb.conf

SKINET
PDCSRV
BDCSRV

7. If you installed pamsmbd in the /usr/local/sbin directory, add the fol-

lowing line in your /etc/rc.d/rc.local file so that the daemon is
started automatically whenever your system is booted:
/usr/local/sbin/pamsmbd

8. Run the /usr/local/sbin/pamsmbd command to start the daemon for the

first time.

Now your Linux system performs user authentication by using the Windows NT
domain controllers specified in /etc/pam_smb.conf. In the sample configuration
file shown in Listing 19-1, the authentication process uses the PDCSRV machine in
the SKINET domain. If PDCSRV is down, BDCSRV is used.
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Chapter 19: Samba and NFS Server Security 481

Are you mapping users between your Linux system and the Windows NT
system performing the authentication? You can use the /etc/ntmap.db
database created using the makemap command. See the ntmap.example
file found in the source distribution for details. You can use the ntmap.sh
script to convert ntmap.example to /etc/ntmap.sh.

Using OpenSSL with Samba

OpenSSL can secure your Samba service. Currently, only smbclient implements
SSL communication with the Samba server. Because SSL is an established trusted
protocol, new clients for both Linux and Windows are expected to be developed.
To use SSL with Samba service, install OpenSSL. See Chapter 11 for details on
compiling and installing OpenSSL on your Linux system.

COMPILING SAMBA WITH SSL

Here I assume that you have installed OpenSSL in the default location (/usr/
local/ssl). Download the Samba source code from www.samba.org or a Samba
mirror site near you. Follow the instructions below to compile and install Samba
with SSL:

1. su to root.
2. Extract the Samba source by using the tar xvzf samba-source.tar.gz
command, where samba-source.tar.gz is the name of your source dis-
tribution, and change the directory to the newly created subdirectory.
3. Modify the makefile command by uncommenting the SSL_ROOT line.
4. Run make and make install to compile and install Samba binaries with
SSL support.
5. Configure Samba to use SSL, as shown in the following section.

CONFIGURING SAMBA WITH SSL

Here’s how you can configure Samba with SSL.

1. To enable SSL support in Samba, add the ssl = yes parameter in the
global section of your /etc/samba/smb.conf file.
2. By default, when ssl = yes is set, Samba communicates only via SSL.
■ If you want SSL connections limited to a certain host or network, ssl
hosts = hostname, IP-address, IP/mask parameter limits SSL
connection to name hosts or IP addresses. For example, using ssl
hosts = 192.168.1.0/24 in the global section of your
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482 Part IV: Network Service Security

/etc/samba/smb.conf file limits SSL connection to 192.168.1.0/24

network.
■ The ssl hosts resign - hostname, IP-address, IP/mask parame-
ter disables SSL connection for only a certain number of hosts or IP
addresses. For example, ssl hosts resign = 192.168.1.10/24 dis-
ables SSL only for the 192.168.1.10 network, and all other clients must
communicate via SSL.
3. The ssl CA certDir = /usr/local/ssl/certs parameter points to
the directory in which certificate authority (CA) certificates are kept. You
should have a file for each CA that the server trusts. Each filename must
be the hash value over the Distinguished Name from the CA.
4. Use ssl CA certFile = /usr/local/ssl/certs/trustedCAs.pem to
point to the file containing all server certificates.
■ If you use the ssl CA certDir parameter as shown in the preceding
example, you don’t need this parameter.
■ If you have only one CA certificate, use this instead of the ssl CA
certDir parameter.

5. Use the ssl server cert = /usr/local/ssl/certs/samba.pem

parameter to point to server’s certificate.
■ Use the ssl server key = /usr/local/ssl/private/samba.pem
parameter to point to the server’s private key.
■ Use the ssl client cert = /usr/local/ssl/certs/
smbclient.pem parameter to point to the certificate used by
smbclient.

This parameter is needed if the Samba server also requires a client

certificate.

6. Use the ssl client key = /usr/local/ssl/private/smbclient.pem

parameter to point to the private key file for smbclient.
7. Use the ssl require clientcert = yes parameter if the server rejects
connections from a client without a valid client certificate. When a client
submits the client certificate, the server verifies the certificate by using the
authorized CA certificates found in the ssl CA certFile specified direc-
tory or the ssl server cert parameter specified file.
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Chapter 19: Samba and NFS Server Security 483

8. Use the ssl require servercert = yes parameter if server certificates

are required when using smbclient.

Once you configure the /etc/samba/smb.conf file for SSL, you can run Samba
with SSL support.

RUNNING SAMBA WITH SSL

Running Samba with SSL support is no different than running it without SSL sup-
port. However, if you used a pass phrase for the private key when you created it,
you are asked for the pass phrase.

1. Using an encrypted (with a pass phrase) private key requires that you
don’t start Samba automatically from the /etc/rc.d/rc3.d/Sxxsmb
(where xx is a number) symbolic link. It doesn’t start and waits for the
pass phrase.
2. If you must use a pass phrase for the private key, remove the symbolic
link (/etc/rc.d/rc3.d/Sxxsmb) and always start the Samba server
manually.
3. If you created an unencrypted private key, you can start the Samba server
as usual. To manually start the server, run the /etc/rc.d/init.d/smb
start command.

Samba is started as usual. The daemon asks for the private key’s pass phrase
before it goes to the background if the private key is encrypted. If you start smbd
from inetd, this won’t work. Therefore, you must not encrypt your private key if
you run smbd from inetd.

Securing NFS Server

As with Samba, NFS servers are widely used as file servers. In this section, I discuss
security issues related to the NFS server.

GRANTING READ-ONLY ACCESS TO THE EXPORTED DIRECTORY

To allow only read-only access to any directory or filesystem you export from your
NFS server to the clients, you can use ro as the access option as shown in this
example:

/apps devpc.nitec.com(ro)

Here the devpc.nitec.com client system has read-only access to the /apps
directory. I recommend using the ro option to export directories that store applica-
tion binaries.
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484 Part IV: Network Service Security

DISABLING ACCESS TO A CERTAIN DIRECTORY

When you export an entire filesystem or a directory, the subdirectories below the
exported directory are automatically accessible using the same access options.
However, this may not be always desirable. You may want to allow access to a
directory called /pub but not a directory called /pub/staff-only. In such a case,
use the noaccess access option like this:

/pub weblab-??.nitec.com (ro)

/pub/staff-only weblab-??.nitec.com (noaccess)

Here all the weblab-??.nitec.com (where ?? is any two characters) computers

have read-only access to the /pub directory, but they can’t access the /pub/staff-
only directory because of the noaccess option in the next line.

MAPPING USERS BETWEEN THE NFS SERVER AND THE CLIENTS

After you set up an NFS server, one issue that quickly comes up is how to keep the
user from mapping between the NFS server and the clients. For example, say that
you are exporting a directory called /www that is owned by a user and group called
webguru and webdev, respectively. The NFS client capable of mounting this direc-
tory must have a user called webguru or a webdev group for access. This isn’t often
desirable. In particular, don’t give an NFS client root account privileges on the
NFS-mounted directory. This is why the NFS server by default enforces an option
called root_squash. This typically maps the root user (UID = 0) and root group
(GID = 0) to user nobody on the client system. You can disable the default mapping
of the root user and group to nobody by adding no_root_squash when defining
your export lines, but I don’t recommend it unless you have an extraordinary
circumstance in which the NFS client and server are both in an isolated, trusted
environment.
To map the root UID/GID pair to a particular UID/GID, you can use the anonuid
and anongid access options as shown in the following example:

/proj *.nitec.com (anonuid=500 anongid=666)

Here, anonuid and anongid are specified to allow root squashing to UID 500
and GID 666.
If you prefer to squash all the UID/GID pairs to an anonymous UID/GID pair, you
can use the all_squash option as shown in this example:

/proj *.nitec.com (anonuid=500 anongid=666 all_squash)

Here the /proj directory is exported to all hosts in the nitec.com domain, but
all accesses are made as UID 500 and GID 666.
If you want a list of UIDs and GIDs that should be squashed using the anony-
mous UID/GID pair, you can use the squash_uids and squash_gids options as
shown in this example:
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Chapter 19: Samba and NFS Server Security 485

/proj *.nitec.com (anonuid=500 anongid=666 \

squash_uids=0-100 squash_gids=0-100)

Here all the UIDs and GIDs in the range 0–100 are squashed, using the anony-
mous UID 500 and GID 666.
An external map file can map NFS client–supplied UIDs and GIDs to any UID or
GID you want. You can specify the map by using the map_static option as shown
in this example:

/proj *.nitec.com (map_static=/etc/nfs.map)

Here the /proj directory is exported to all the nitec.com hosts, but all NFS
client–supplied UIDs and GIDs are mapped using the /etc/nfs.map file. An exam-
ple of this map file is below:

uid 0-100 - # squash all remote uids in the 0-100 range

gid 0-100 - # squash all remote gids in the 0-100 range
uid 500 666 # map remove uid 500 to local uid 666
gid 500 777 # map remove gid 500 to local gid 777

Now you know all the frequently used options for creating the /etc/export file.
Whenever the /etc/exports file is changed, however, the system has to let the
NFS daemons know about this change. A script called exportfs can restart these
daemons, like this:

/usr/sbin/exportfs

Now, to make sure both rpc.mountd and rpc.nfsd are running properly, run a
program called rpcinfo like this:

rpcinfo -p

The output looks like this:

program vers proto port

100000 2 tcp 111 portmapper
100000 2 udp 111 portmapper
100021 1 udp 1024 nlockmgr
100021 3 udp 1024 nlockmgr
100024 1 udp 1025 status
100024 1 tcp 1024 status
100011 1 udp 728 rquotad
100011 2 udp 728 rquotad
100005 1 udp 1026 mountd
100005 1 tcp 1025 mountd
100005 2 udp 1026 mountd
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486 Part IV: Network Service Security

100005 2 tcp 1025 mountd

100003 2 udp 2049 nfs

This shows that mountd and nfsd have announced their services and are work-
ing fine. At this point, the NFS server is fully set up.

SECURING PORTMAP
The portmap setting, in combination with rpc.nfsd, can be fooled — making files
accessible on NFS servers without any privileges. Fortunately, the portmap Linux
uses is relatively secure against attack; you can secure it further by adding the fol-
lowing line in the /etc/hosts.deny file:

portmap: ALL

The system denies portmap access for everyone. Now the /etc/hosts.allow
file must be modified like this:

portmap: 192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0

This allows all hosts from the 192.168.1.0 network access to portmap-administered
programs such as nfsd and mountd.

Never use hostnames in the portmap line in /etc/hosts.allow, because

use of hostname lookups can indirectly cause portmap activity, which trig-
gers hostname lookups in a loop.

SQUASHING THE ROOT USER

Treating the root account on a client as root on the server is another security issue
on the server side. By default, Linux prohibits root on the NFS client from being
treated as root on the NFS server. This means an exported file owned by root on
the server can’t be modified by the client root user. To explicitly enforce this rule,
modify the /etc/exports file like this:

/www www1.nitec.com(rw, root_squash)

Now, if a user with UID 0 (the root user) on the client attempts access (read,
write, or delete) on the filesystem, the server substitutes the UID of the server’s
nobody account. This means the root user on the client can’t access or change files
that only the root on the server can access or change. To grant root access to an
NFS, use the no_root_squash option instead.
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Chapter 19: Samba and NFS Server Security 487

USING THE NOSUID AND NOEXEC OPTIONS

You can disable set-UID programs from running off NFS using he nosuid option.
For example, you can have a line like the following in the /etc/exports file:

/www www1.nitec.com(rw, root_squash, nosuid)

Here the /www directory is mountable on www1.nitec.com. Users on

www1.nitec.com can read and write files and directories in /www but can’t run set-
UID programs from it.
You can also forbid execution of files on the mounted filesystem altogether by
adding the the noexec option to the list of options.

Using Cryptographic Filesystems

In any modern business, many sensitive files live forever on the organization’s LAN
or WAN. Most reasonable organizations keep the sensitive files related to employee
salary structure, payroll, accounting information, and strategic and competitive
market research data in a secure network accessible to only the appropriate groups
of users. Typically, though, system administrators are involved in managing such
resources but are not related to them. In certain cases, you want a Linux guru to
manage your LAN but not access certain files. Because the root user can change
any permissions settings, a simple file permission doesn’t stop the prying eyes of a
inexperienced or unprofessional network administrator. So what can you do?
Typically, such files are protected using individual passwords at the application
level. In other words, if a sensitive text document should reside in a Samba share,
you simply password-protect the file and give the password to appropriate people
who need access. This works, but management becomes very cumbersome because
of all the password tracking.
The better solution is a cryptographic filesystem, such as TCFS. TCFS works in
the kernel space, which helps improve performances and security. The dynamic
encryption feature of TCFS allows a user to specify the encryption engine of choice
used by TCFS. You can learn more about TCFS at http://tcfs.dia.unisa.it.
You can also download TCFS from ftp://tcfs.dia.unisa.it/pub/tcfs/.

Summary
Samba and NFS are very important protocols for modern organizations. Many
organizations use these services to share disks and printers among many users.
Securing Samba and NFS service is, therefore, a very important step in enhancing
your overall network security. By centralizing user authentication using a Samba or
Windows 2000/NT based server, avoiding plain-text passwords, and restricting
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488 Part IV: Network Service Security

access via IP addresses you can ensure that your Samba service is as secure as it
can be. Similarly, by enabling read-only access to NFS mounted directories, secur-
ing portmap service and squashing root access, and using non set-UID and non
executable file settings, you can secure your NFS server.
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Part V
Firewalls
CHAPTER 20
Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels
CHAPTER 21
Firewall Security Tools
254754-2 Pt5.F 11/5/01 1:16 PM Page 490
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Chapter 20

Firewalls, VPNs, and

SSL Tunnels
IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ Using a packet-filtering firewall

◆ Using Squid as a firewall

◆ Using FreeS/Wan

A FIREWALL IS A device that implements your security policy by shielding your net-
work from external threats. This device can take various forms — from dedicated,
commercial hardware that you buy from a vendor to a Linux system with special
software. This chapter covers turning your Linux system into various types of fire-
walls to implement your security policy and protect your network.
Because network security is big business, many classifications of firewalls exist;
thanks to commercial computer security vendors, many firewall systems are really
hybrids that perform diverse functions. Here I focus on two types of firewall — the
packet filter and the proxy firewall — and examine how you can use virtual private
networks (VPNs) to help implement secure access to your system.

Packet-Filtering Firewalls
A packet filter (sometimes called a filtering gateway or a screening router) is a fire-
wall that analyzes all IP packets flowing through it and determines the fate of each
packet according to rules that you create. A packet filter operates at the network
and transport layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack. It examines every packet that
enters the protocol stack. The network and the transport headers of a packet are
examined for information on

◆ The protocol being used

◆ Source and destination addresses

◆ Source and destination ports

◆ Connection status
491
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492 Part V: Firewalls

You can set a packet filter to use certain features of a packet as criteria for allow-
ing or denying access:

◆ Protocols. A typical filter can identify the TCP, UDP, and ICMP protocols,
so you can allow or deny packets that operate under these protocols.
◆ Source/destination. You can allow or deny packets that come from a par-
ticular source and/or are inbound to a particular destination (whether an
IP address or port).
◆ Status information. You can specify field settings that either qualify or
disqualify a packet for admission to your system. For example, if a TCP
packet has the ACK field set to 0, you can deny the packet under a policy
that does not allow incoming connection requests to your network.

Fortunately, Linux kernel 2.4.x comes with a highly configurable packet-filtering

infrastructure called netfilter. The netfilter Web site is:

http://netfilter.filewatcher.org.

The netfilter subsystem of the Linux kernel 2.4 allows you to set up, maintain,
and inspect the packet-filtering rules in the kernel itself. It is a brand new packet-
filtering solution, more advanced than what was available to Linux kernel before
2.4.x; netfilter provides a number of improvements, and it has now become an
even more mature and robust solution for protecting corporate networks.
However, don’t think of netfilter as merely a new packet-filter implementa-
tion. It is a complete framework for manipulating packets as they traverse the parts
of the kernel. netfilter includes

◆ Packet filtering, IP masquerading, and network-address translation (NAT).

◆ Support for stateful inspection of packets (in which the kernel keeps track
of the packets’ state and context).
◆ Support for the development of custom modules to perform specific
functions.

Netfilter contains data structures called tables within the kernel to provide packet-
filtering. Each table contains lists of rules called chains. There are three tables:

◆ filter

◆ nat

◆ mangle

Each rule contains a set of criteria and a target. When the criteria are met, the
target is applied to the packet. For example, the filter table (which is the default
table), contains the INPUT, FORWARD, and OUPUT chains. These function as follows:
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 493

◆ The INPUT chain within the filter table holds the rules for the packets
that are meant for the system that is examining the packet.
◆ The FORWARD chain contains the rules for the packets that are passing
through the system that is examining the packets.
◆ The OUTPUT chain holds the rules for packets that are created by the sys-
tem itself (which is also examining the packets).

The following listing shows a way to visualize the relationship among tables,
chains, and rules. For example, the filter table has INPUT, FORWARD, and OUTPUT
chains where each of these chains can have 1 to N number of rules.

filter table
|
+---INPUT
| |
| +---input rule 1
| +---input rule 2
| +---input rule 3
| | ...
| +---input rule N
|
+---FORWARD
| |
| +---forward rule 1
| +---forward rule 2
| +---forward rule 3
| | ...
| +---forward rule N
|
+---OUTPUT
|
+---output rule 1
+---output rule 2
+---output rule 3
| ...
+---output rule N
nat table
|
+---PREROUTING
| |
| +---pre routing rule 1
| +---pre routing rule 2
| +---pre routing rule 3
| | ...
| +---pre routing rule N
|
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494 Part V: Firewalls

+---OUTPUT
| |
| +---output rule 1
| +---output rule 2
| +---output rule 3
| | ...
| +---output rule N
|
+---POSTROUTING
|
+---post routing rule 1
+---post routing rule 2
+---post routing rule 3
| ...
+---post routing rule N
mangle table
|
+---PREROUTING
| |
| +---pre routing rule 1
| +---pre routing rule 2
| +---pre routing rule 3
| | ...
| +---pre routing rule N
|
+---OUTPUT
|
+---output rule 1
+---output rule 2
+---output rule 3
| ...
+---output rule N

When a packet enters the packet-filter-and-firewall system, the packet-filtering

subsystem of netfilter determines whether the packet is for itself (INPUT) or is
simply being forwarded through itself (FORWARD), or is being generated by itself
(OUTPUT). In the case of an input packet, the rules in the INPUT chain are applied in
order. The first rule to match the packet criteria wins. The target of the matched rule
then becomes the action for the packet.
The mangle table is used to change or modify packets both before they are
routed and after routing has been decided. The mangle table has two chains:
PREROUTING and POSTROUTING to store rules that apply prior to routing and post of
routing, respectively.
The third table, nat, is used for Network Address Translation (NAT), which is a
process of substituting an Internet-routable IP address for (typically) private
addresses in IP packets. This is also known as IP masquerading.
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 495

The target of a rule can vary according to the table — or even the chain — it occu-
pies. Table 20-1 is a list of targets available in each table.

TABLE 20-1: TARGETS FOR RULES IN FILTER, MANGLE, AND NAT TABLES

Target filter mangle nat Description

REJECT Yes Yes Yes When this target is used for a matched packet,
an error response is sent back to the system
that created the packet.
DENY Yes Yes Yes The matched packet is simply dropped when
this is the target of a rule. Unlike REJECT, no
error response is sent to the system generating
the packet.
ACCEPT Yes Yes Yes The matched packet is accepted when this
target is in use.
TOS No Yes No This target allows you to set the Type Of Service
(TOS) byte (8-bits) field in the IP header of the
packet.
MIRROR Yes Yes Yes When this target is in use, the matched packet’s
source and destination addresses are reversed
and the packet is retransmitted.
MARK No Yes No This target is used to set the mark field value of
a packet. The marking of a packet can be used
by routers to change the routing behavior for
such packets.
MASQUERADE No No Yes This target is used to alter the source address of
the matched packet. The source address is
replaced with the IP address of the packet
filter’s interface, which the packet will go out
from. This target is used for packet-filtering
systems that use dynamic IP address to connect
to another network (such as the Internet) and
also acts as a gateway between the networks.
If you have static a IP address for the interface
that connects to the outside network, use SNAT
target instead.
Continued
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496 Part V: Firewalls

TABLE 20-1: TARGETS FOR RULES IN FILTER, MANGLE, AND NAT TABLES
(Continued)

Target filter mangle nat Description

DNAT No No Yes This target specifies that the destination

address of the packet should be modified.
SNAT No No Yes This target specifies that the source address of
the packet should be modified, including all
future packets in this connection.
REDIRECT No No Yes Redirect is another special type of NAT. All
incoming connections are mapped onto the
incoming interface’s address, causing the
packets to come to the local machine instead of
passing through. This is useful for transparent
proxies.
LOG Yes Yes Yes This target allows you to log information
regarding a matched IP packet.
TTL No Yes No This target is used to modify the Time To Live
(TTL) field of a matched IP packet.

The iptables extended packet matching modules supply additional capabilities

in the form of shared library add-ons and small kernel modules that provide addi-
tional functionality.

The old ipchains and ipfwadm modules maintain backward compatibility.

You can only load one of these two modules at a time. You can’t have
ipchains and iptables rules at the same time. I recommend upgrading to
the latest, stable kernel so that you can use iptables of the netfilter
subsystem.

Enabling netfilter in the kernel

To enable netfilter support you must ensure that you have enabled the netfilter
support in the kernel itself. Here is how you can do that.

1. As root, run the menu config command from the /usr/src/linux

directory.
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 497

I assume that you have downloaded and extracted the latest, stable Linux
kernel from www.kernel.org or a geographically closer mirror site.
2. From the main menu select Networking options submenu. From the
Networking options submenu select the Network packet filtering
(replaces ipchains) option to enable netfilter support.

3. Enter the IP: Netfilter Configuration submenu that appears when

you complete step 2. Select the following options to be included as mod-
ules as shown, using <M>.
<M> Connection tracking (required for masq/NAT)
<M> FTP protocol support (NEW)
<M> Userspace queuing via NETLINK (EXPERIMENTAL)
<M> IP tables support (required for filtering/masq/NAT)
<M> limit match support (NEW)
<M> MAC address match support (NEW)
<M> netfilter MARK match support (NEW)
<M> Multiple port match support (NEW)
<M> TOS match support (NEW)
<M> Connection state match support (NEW)
<M> Unclean match support (EXPERIMENTAL) (NEW)
<M> Owner match support (EXPERIMENTAL) (NEW)
<M> Packet filtering (NEW)
<M> REJECT target support (NEW)
<M> MIRROR target support (EXPERIMENTAL) (NEW)
<M> Full NAT (NEW)
<M> MASQUERADE target support (NEW)
<M> REDIRECT target support (NEW)
<M> Packet mangling (NEW)
<M> TOS target support (NEW)
<M> MARK target support (NEW)
<M> LOG target support (NEW)
< > ipchains (2.2-style) support
< > ipfwadm (2.0-style) support

I don’t recommend using ipchains and ipfwadm support; they are in Linux
past and, therefore, let them stay there!

Don’t select the Fast switching option; it’s incompatible with packet-
filtering support.
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498 Part V: Firewalls

4. Compile, install, and boot up the new kernel.

When the kernel is installed and compiled, you can start creating your packet-
filtering rules. The next section shows how to do so with use of iptables.

Creating Packet-Filtering
Rules with iptables
The iptables program is used to administer packet-filtering rules under the
netfilter infrastructure. Here I provide you with the basics of how you can use
this tool, but I strongly encourage you to read the man pages for iptables after you
read this section. Another reason to read the man pages is that the iptables pro-
gram has many command-line switches, but only the common ones are discussed
here.

Creating a default policy

You can create a default policy for a given chain using the following syntax:

/sbin/iptables -P chain_name target

For example:

/sbin/iptables -P input DENY

/sbin/iptables -P output REJECT
/sbin/iptables -P forward REJECT

This is often considered as a preferred default policy for the filter table. Here all
packets are denied or rejected by default. All packets that are input to the firewall
system are denied; all packets that are generated by the firewall system itself are
rejected; all packets that are to be forwarded through the system are also rejected.
This is called the “deny everything by default” policy. Security experts prefer the
concept of locking all doors and windows down and then opening the ones that are
needed. This default packet-filtering policy serves the same purpose and is recom-
mended by me. This policy, created using the combination of these three rules,
should be always part of your packet-filtering firewall policy.

Appending a rule
To append a new rule to a specific chain, the syntax is

/sbin/iptables -A chain_name rule_parameters -j target

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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 499

For example:

/sbin/iptables -A input -s 192.168.1.254 -j ACCEPT

/sbin/iptables -A input -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j DROP

Here both of the rules are appended to the input chain of the default table (fil-
ter). You can explicitly specify the filter table using the -t table_name option. For
example, the following lines of code are exactly equivalent to the two rules men-
tioned earlier:

/sbin/iptables -A input -t filter -s 192.168.1.254 -j ACCEPT

/sbin/iptables -A input -t filter -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j DROP

The very first rule specifies that any packet destined for the system from another
host whose IP address is 192.168.1.254 be accepted by the system. The second rule
specifies that all IP packets from any host in the entire 192.168.1.0/24 network be
dropped. Avid readers will notice that the first IP address 192.168.1.254 is within
the 192.168.1.0/24 network. So the second rule drops it! However, since the first
matching rule wins, all the packets from the 192.168.1.254 host are accepted even
if the next rule says they should be dropped.
So the order of rules is crucial. One exception to the first matching rule wins is
the default policy rule — any default policy rule, as in this example:

/sbin/iptables -P input DENY

/sbin/iptables -A input -t filter -s 192.168.1.254 -j ACCEPT
/sbin/iptables -A input -t filter -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j DROP

Here the very first rule denies all packets but since it is the default policy
(denoted by the -P option) it still allows other rules to be examined. In other words,
the position of a policy rule does not prohibit other rules from being evaluated.

You can write chain names in upper case or lower case. For example, INPUT
and input are both acceptable.

Listing the rules

To list all the rules in a chain, simply run /sbin/iptables -L chain_name. For
example, /sbin/iptables -L input lists all the rules in the input chain of the
default filter table.
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500 Part V: Firewalls

Deleting a rule
To delete a rule from a chain, run /sbin/iptables -D chain_name rule_number.
For example, /sbin/iptables -D input 1 deletes the first rule in the input chain
of the default filter table.
To delete all the rules from a given chain, run /sbin/iptables -F chain_name.
For example, /sbin/iptables -F input flushes (that is, empties) all the rules in the
input chain.
You can also delete a rule by replacing the -A (append) option with -D (delete)
option in your rule specification. For example, say that you have added the follow-
ing rule:

/sbin/iptables -A input -t filter -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j DROP

Now if you want to delete it without listing all rules and determining the rule
number as discussed earlier, simply do the following:

/sbin/iptables -D input -t filter -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j DROP

This deletes this rule.

Inserting a new rule within a chain

To insert a new rule in a specific chain at a specific position, the syntax is

/sbin/iptables -I chain_name rule_number rule_parameters -j target

For example:

/sbin/iptables -I input 1 -s 192.168.1.254 -j ACCEPT

This inserts the rule in the number one position in the input chain of the default
filter table.

Replacing a rule within a chain

To replacing an existing rule in a specific chain at a specific position, the syntax is

/sbin/iptables -R chain_name rule_number rule_parameters -j target

For example:

/sbin/iptables -R input 1 -s 192.168.1.254 -j ACCEPT

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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 501

This replaces the rule in the number one position in the input chain of the
default filter table with the new rule.
You can use the iptables program to create/modify/delete rules and policies in
packet-filtering firewalls.

Creating SOHO Packet-Filtering

Firewalls
The Small Office/Home Office (SOHO) is a common phenomenon in a working
world that has more small-business owners and telecommuters than ever before.
The emergence of Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and cable based Internet connec-
tions in recent years have made it possible for a full-time Internet connection for
even the smallest home office. The drop in PC hardware price has given many
SOHO owners a real chance at creating multinode networks. In this section I discuss
how a SOHO can create a simple firewall system to take protective measures against
the outside world of people with way too much time for hacking.
Suppose that there are three machines on the network and all three of them have
real, static IP addresses as shown. Here each machine has an IP address that can be
routed on the Internet. Suppose also that you — as the SOHO administrator — decide
to turn the Linux box into a firewall, as shown in Figure 20-1.

DSL Router 207.183.233.17

Internet

Hub

Linux PC Win PC Mac

207.183.233.18 207.183.233.19 207.183.233.20

Figure 20-1: A SOHO network

Here the Linux PC has been set up with two Ethernet interfaces (eth0 and eth1).
The eth0 is connected to the DSL router and it has a real IP address. The internal,
private LAN interface of the Linux PC (eth1) has a private IP (192.168.1.254) and
the two other systems in this LAN also have private IP addresses.
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502 Part V: Firewalls

In this configuration, all outgoing packets from the private network flow
through the Linux firewall machine to the outside world; similarly, all incoming
packets from the Internet come to the private network via the firewall machine.
This Linux PC must implement the following:

◆ IP forwarding to enable packet movement between eth0 and eth1

◆ IP masquerading to dynamically alter the private IP addresses of the pri-

vate LAN to its own external interface (eth0) address for the outside world
◆ Packet-filtering rules to protect access to the private LAN

Enabling IP forwarding is quite easy. You can simply add the following com-
mand in the /etc/rc.d/rc.local script to enable IP forwarding when you boot up
your Linux system.

/sbin/sysctl -w net.ipv4.conf.all.forwarding=1

You can also execute it from the shell to turn on IP forwarding at any time.
Since you have already enabled the netfilter support in the kernel as discussed in
the previous section, you can enable the masquerading and packet filtering using
iptables, as shown in the script called soho-firewall.sh, Listing 20-1.

Listing 20-1: soho-firewall.sh

#!/bin/sh
# Path of the iptables program
IPTABLES=/sbin/iptables
# Private LAN address
INTERNAL_LAN=”192.168.1.0/24”
# Private LAN Interface
INTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE=”eth1”
# Private LAN interface address
INTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR=”192.168.1.254”
# External LAN Interface
EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE=”eth0”
# External LAN interface address
EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR=”207.183.233.18”
# Flush all the current packet filtering rules
$IPTABLES -F
# Set default policy to deny everything
$IPTABLES -P input DENY
$IPTABLES -P output REJECT
$IPTABLES -P forward REJECT
# Enable local (loopback) interface
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 503

$IPTABLES -A input -i lo -j ACCEPT

$IPTABLES -A output -i lo -j ACCEPT
# Enable internal LAN access to the firewall’s
# internal interface
$IPTABLES -A input -i $INTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE \
-s $INTERNAL_LAN -j ACCEPT
# Enable firewall generated packets destined for
# the internal LAN
$IPTABLES -A output -i $INTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE \
-d $INTERNAL_LAN -j ACCEPT
# Setup masquerading for everything not destined to
# the internal LAN
$IPTABLES -t nat -A POSTROUTING -o $ EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE \
-d ! $INTERNAL_LAN \
-j MASQUERADE
# Only forward packets from internal LAN
$IPTABLES -A FORWARD -s $INTERNAL_LAN -j ACCEPT
$IPTABLES -A FORWARD -d $INTERNAL_LAN -j ACCEPT

This script allows you to change the necessary variables to make it work in a
similar, real-world environment. When the script is executed as shown in Listing
20-1, it effectively creates the following packet-filtering rules.

/sbin/iptables -F
/sbin/iptables -P input DENY
/sbin/iptables -P output REJECT
/sbin/iptables -P forward REJECT
/sbin/iptables -A input -i lo -j ACCEPT
/sbin/iptables -A output -i lo -j ACCEPT
/sbin/iptables -A input -i eth1 -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j ACCEPT
/sbin/iptables -A output -i eth1 -d 192.168.1.0/24 -j ACCEPT
/sbin/iptables -t nat -A POSTROUTING -o eth0 -d ! 192.168.1.0/24 -j MASQUERADE
/sbin/iptables -A FORWARD -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j ACCEPT
/sbin/iptables -A FORWARD -d 192.168.1.0/24 -j ACCEPT

The script has these rules:

◆ The very first rule flushes all the existing rules in the filter table.

◆ The next three rules should be familiar to you since they are the default
policy rules. These rules state that no packet can enter, leave, or be for-
warded to/from this system. Basically, these three rules lock up the IP
traffic completely.
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504 Part V: Firewalls

◆ The next two rules enable traffic to and from the local loopback interface
(lo) so that you can access other systems when logged onto the firewall
machine itself.
◆ The next rule specifies that any packet with source IP residing in the
192.168.1.0/24 network be accepted on the eth1 interface. Remember that
the eth1 interface in Figure 20-2 is the internal, private network interface
of the firewall system. We want this interface to accept packets from other
nodes (that is, hosts) in the private network.
◆ The next rule specifies that packets generated (that is, output) by the fire-
wall itself for the 192.168.1.0/24 network be allowed.
◆ The next rule is the masquerading rule. It uses the nat table and the
POSTROUTING chain. This rule states that all packets not destined for the
192.168.1.0/24 network be masqueraded. For example, if a packet from
the Windows PC (192.168.1.1) system destined for an external system
with IP address 207.183.233.200 is detected by the firewall machine, it
changes the source address of this packet such that the 207.183.233.200
sees 207.183.233.18 (eth0) address as the source address. When response
packet from 207.183.233.200 arrives at 207.183.233.18, the NAT facility
retranslates the destination address to be 192.168.1.1.

At this point, what you have is a firewall system that forwards masqueraded IP
traffic to the external interface (eth0) but no inbound packet can be seen from the
outside world by the internal, private network. You need to now categorically open
connectivity from external interface to the internal network.

Allowing users at private network access

to external Web servers
In this case you want to do the following:

◆ Outbound traffic rule – Create a rule that allows the external interface
of the firewall to send (that is, output) HTTP requests using the standard
port 80.
◆ Inbound traffic rule – Create a rule that allows the external interface of
the firewall to receive (that is, input) HTTP responses from outside Web
servers.

Here is a rule that you can add to the soho-firewall.sh script to implement the
outbound traffic rule:

$IPTABLES -A output -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE -p tcp \

-s $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-d 0/0 80 -j ACCEPT
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 505

This rule looks as follows when shell script variables are substituted for appro-
priate values:

/sbin/iptables -A output -i eth0 -p tcp \

-s 207.183.233.18 1024-65535 \
-d 0/0 80 -j ACCEPT

This rule allows the firewall to output HTTP packets on port 80 destined to any
IP address using the external interface. The 1024–65535 range specifies that the
Web browser can use any of the non-privileged ports (that is, ports greater than
0–1023) in the connection and, therefore, the firewall will not block packets with
such a source port number.
Similarly, you need the following line in the script to accept HTTP response traf-
fic destined for the external interface.

$IPTABLES -A input -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE -p tcp ! -y \

-s 0/0 80 \
-d $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT

In this case, packets sent by outside Web servers to the external interface of the
firewall via the external IP address of the firewall as the destination are accepted
for any unprivileged port as long as the source port is HTTP (80).
As you can see, opening bi-directional connection requires that you know which
port a particular service runs on. For example, suppose you want to allow the out-
side world access to your Web server in the private network.

Allowing external Web browsers access

to a Web server on your firewall
Running a Web server on a firewall is not a good idea but might be necessary
(resource wise) for a SOHO. In such case, you want to do the following:

◆ Create a rule that allows any IP address to connect to the HTTP port (80)
on your firewall machine’s external interface.
◆ Create a rule that allows the firewall/Web server to respond to unprivi-
leged ports (which Web clients use for client-side connection) when source
IP address is any IP and source port is HTTP (80).
The following lines can be added to the soho-firewall.sh script to
implement these rules.

# Allow any IP to connect to firewall’s external

# interface to send a HTTP request for the
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506 Part V: Firewalls

# internal network
$IPTABLES -A input -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s 0/0 1024-65535 \
-d $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 80 \
-j ACCEPT
# Allow internal HTTP response to go out to the
# world via the external interface of the firewall
$IPTABLES -A output -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp \
-s $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 80 \
-d 0/0 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT

If you want to enable HTTPS (Secure HTTP) connections, add the following
lines:
# Enable incoming HTTPS connections
$IPTABLES -A input -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s 0/0 443 \
-d $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT
# Enable outgoing HTTPS connections
$IPTABLES -A output -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp \
-s $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-d 0/0 443 \
-j ACCEPT

In order to interact with the Internet, you are most likely to need a few other ser-
vices enabled, such as DNS, SMTP, POP3, and SSH. In the following sections, I
show you how.

DNS client and cache-only services

In a SOHO environment you are likely to use your ISP’s name server for resolving
DNS queries or you can use a caching only, local name server to boost your overall
DNS related performance. First, suppose that you only want to enable access to the
remote DNS server at your ISP network. Suppose that you have set up the follow-
ing variable in the soho-firewall.sh script to point to the IP address of the name
server.

NAMED_ADDR=”207.183.233.100”
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 507

Now, to allow your private network to access the name server, you should add
the following lines in the script.

# Allow packets from external interface of the

# firewall to access an outside named server
$IPTABLES -A output -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p udp \
-s $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-d $NAMED_ADDR 53 \
-j ACCEPT
# Allow an external named to respond to internal
# request by delivering query response packets
# to external interface of the firewall
$IPTABLES -A input -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p udp \
-s $NAMED_ADDR 53 \
-d $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT

The very first rule ensures that the firewall allows outputting of DNS query pack-
ets on port 53 via the UDP protocol. The second rule ensures that the firewall allows
DNS query response packets originating from the name server to be accepted.

Sometimes, when the DNS response is too large to fit in a UDP packet, a
name server uses a TCP packet to respond.This occurs rarely unless you have
systems in your internal network that want to perform DNS zone transfers,
which are often large. If you want to ensure that rare large DNS responses
are handled properly, add two more of the same rules as shown above
except replace the -p udp protocol to -p tcp. Also use the ! -y option for
the input rule.

Now if you run a DNS server internally on the private LAN or even on the fire-
wall machine (not recommended), then you need to allow the caching server to per-
form DNS queries to your ISP’s DNS server when it cannot resolve an internal
request from the cache. In such case, add the following lines to the same script.

# Allow DNS resolver to connect to external

# name server on port 53
$IPTABLES -A output -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p udp \
-s $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 53 \
-d $NAMED_ADDR 53 \
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508 Part V: Firewalls

-j ACCEPT
# Allow external name server to connect to firewall
# system’s external interface in response to a
# resolver query
$IPTABLES -A input -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p udp \
-s $NAMED_ADDR 53 \
-d $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 53 \
-j ACCEPT

SMTP client service

To access SMTP mail server from the internal network, add the following lines in
the soho-firewall.sh script

# Change the SMTP server IP address as needed

SMTP_SERVER_ADDR=”1.2.3.4”
# Enable outgoing SMTP connections
$IPTABLES -A output -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp \
-s $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-d $SMTP_SERVER_ADDR 25 \
-j ACCEPT
# Enable incoming SMTP responses from external SMTP
# server
$IPTABLES -A input -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s $SMTP_SERVER_ADDR 25 \
-d $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT

POP3 client service

To access POP3 mail server from the internal network, add the following lines in
the soho-firewall.sh script.

# Change the POP3 server IP address as needed

POP_SERVER_ADDR=”1.2.3.4”
# Enable outgoing POP3 connections
$IPTABLES -A output -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-d $POP_SERVER_ADDR 110 \
-j ACCEPT
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 509

# Enable incoming POP3 responses from external POP3

# server
$IPTABLES -A input -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s $POP_SERVER_ADDR 110 \
-d $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT

Passive-mode FTP client service

To access FTP server from the internal network, add the following lines in the
soho-firewall.sh script.

# Change the FTP server IP address as needed

FTP_SERVER_ADDR=”1.2.3.4”
# Enable outgoing FTP connections
$IPTABLES -A output -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-d $POP_SERVER_ADDR 21 \
-j ACCEPT
# Enable incoming FTP command responses from
# external FTP server
$IPTABLES -A input -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s $FTP_SERVER_ADDR 21 \
-d $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT
# Enable passive mode data connections
$IPTABLES -A output -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-d $POP_SERVER_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT
# Enable passive mode data response
$IPTABLES -A input -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s $FTP_SERVER_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-d $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT
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510 Part V: Firewalls

SSH client service

If you want to allow SSH client connection to an external SSH server, add the fol-
lowing lines in the soho-firewall.sh script.

# Set the IP address of your external SSH server

# here. A random IP address is used in this example
#
EXTERNAL_SSH_SERVER_ADDR=”207.177.175.60”
# Allow the firewall to connect to SSH server
# for the masquerading nodes behind it that want
# to connect to the SSH server
$IPTABLES -A output -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp \
-s $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1020-65535 \
-d $ EXTERNAL_SSH_SERVER_ADDR 22 \
-j ACCEPT
# Allow an external SSH server to deliver SSH packets
# to the external interface of the firewall
$IPTABLES -A input -i $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s $EXTERNAL_SSH_SERVER_ADDR 22 \
-d $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR 1020-65535 \
-j ACCEPT

Note that SSH clients use 1020 or higher ports and, therefore, you need to use
1020-65535 range.

Other new client service

Once you have identified a new service that you want to control using the firewall,
do the following:

1. Determine what server (SERVER_ADDR) you want to access from the

internal network.
2. Determine what ports are going to be used in such connectivity. Most
likely the service uses a port defined in /etc/services file. Find that port
(ASSIGNED_PORT).
3. Determine what ports the client software uses for the client-side of the
connection. Typically, the unassigned ports (1024-65535) are used.
4. Determine what protocol is being used, TCP or UDP.
■ For TCP protocol, use the -t tcp and ! -y options
■ for UDP, use -t udp option.
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 511

5. Create an output rule that allows the external interface of the firewall to
send packets to the server.
Internal clients can access the internal interface of the firewall and their
requests for the external service is automatically forwarded to the external
interface. And this is why we create the output rule for the external inter-
face. This rule appears as follows:
/sbin/iptables -A output -i external_interface \
-p protocol_name \
-s external_interface_address UNASSIGNED_PORTS
\
-d external_server_address ASSIGNED_PORT \
-j ACCEPT

6. Create an input rule that allows the external server to respond with
packets.
The rule looks like this:
/sbin/iptables -A input -i external_interface \
-p protocol_name [ ! -y ] \
-s external_server_address ASSIGNED_PORT \
-d external_interface_address UNASSIGNED_PORTS \
-j ACCEPT

Creating a Simple Firewall

There are times when I am asked to create a simple firewall. Yes, there are people
who ask such questions. They want security, complete flexibility in everything,
which reminds me of the phrase “have your cake and eat it too.” In such cases, I
simply create the following rules in a script called /etc/rc.d/firewall-
dummy.sh:

#!/bin/sh
#
# Packet filtering firewall for dummies
#
IPTABLES=/sbin/iptables
# Drop all rules in the filter table
$IPTABLES -F FORWARD
$IPTABLES -F INPUT
$IPTABLES -F OUTPUT
# Create default drop-and-reject-everything policy
$IPTABLES -P input DENY
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512 Part V: Firewalls

$IPTABLES -P output REJECT

$IPTABLES -P forward REJECT
# Enable loopback
$IPTABLES -A INPUT -i lo -p all -j ACCEPT
# Enable ICMP. Yes, even a dummy knows
# how to use ping these days!
$IPTABLES -A INPUT -p icmp -j ACCEPT
# Enable caching DNS
$IPTABLES -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 53 -j ACCEPT
$IPTABLES -A INPUT -p udp --dport 53 -j ACCEPT
# We do not want to allow new connection so
# accept only those incoming packets that do
# not have the SYN flag set. In other words,
# these packets are not new connection requests
$IPTABLES -A INPUT -p tcp ! --syn \
--dport :1023 -j ACCEPT \
-- syn -- dport :1023 -j ACCEPT
# Most everything that a Internet dummy does
# need unprivileged port access for both TCP and UDP
# so enable them
$IPTABLES -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 1024: -j ACCEPT
$IPTABLES -A INPUT -p udp --dport 1024: -j ACCEPT

Creating Transparent,
proxy-arp Firewalls
Suppose that you have a small office where several Linux/Windows 9x/2K/NT
machines are connected to the internet using a modem or DSL/cable/ISDN router.
You want to allow the world access to the Web server in your network and also
want to implement some of the packet-filtering rules you learned earlier.
Suppose your ISP provided you with an Internet connection via the network
X.Y.Z.32/27.
You have each machine on the network use the X.Y.Z.35 address as its Internet
gateway address — which allows each machine to send and receive packets to and
from the outside world. Now you have two choices for your firewall:

◆ Set up a firewall machine between your LAN and the Internet feed (which
is the typical place for a firewall).
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 513

The problem with the typical placement of a firewall is that if the firewall
machine is down, the entire LAN is disconnected from the Internet. If
Internet access is a big part of your business, that spells trouble — especially
for a small company.

◆ Use a transparent proxy-arp firewall.

In this case, the firewall machine is less of a potential obstacle to your com-
pany’s Internet connection. If the firewall machine is down, you can simply take
out the network cable connected to eth0 on the firewall and reconnect it to the hub
on the other side (eth1 side) and you should have full Internet connectivity. You
might need to have your ISP refresh the arp cache and/or reboot some of your
machines, but your network regains Internet access in a very short time.
The idea behind this setup is as follows: the Linux firewall machine has two net-
work interfaces eth0 and eth1 set to the same IP address (X.Y.Z.50) and has APR
proxying and IP forwarding turned on. This allows the machine to see all the pack-
ets that are either originated from your LAN or that are coming to your LAN from
the outside world via the ISP feed. Therefore, you can use packet filtering on such
packets like a regular firewall system.
The only real advantage is that if the firewall is down for upgrade, or other
uncontrollable reasons, you can recover your connectivity in a much shorter time
than if you had a regular firewall configuration where you had private IP addresses
for your LAN and all the hosts were pointing to the firewall as their gateway to the
Internet. In this configuration, the host machines don’t even know that their pack-
ets are being scanned, forwarded by the man-in-the-middle type of transparent
proxy-arp based firewall system. Assuming that you have a Linux system with two
Ethernet network cards (eth0, eth1) installed, here is how you can create such as a
setup.

1. As root, you need to create a custom kernel that supports netfilters.

You can use the make menuconfig command to set this option from the
/usr/src/linux directory. Select the [ ] Network packet filtering
(replaces ipchains) from the Networking options submenu from the
main menu and compile, install, and test your new kernel. For help in
compiling, installing, and booting a new kernel, see Chapter 2.
2. Download and install the iproute package using RPM.
For example, I installed the iproute-2.2.4-10 rpm package, which I
downloaded from a RPM mirror site called www.rpmfind.net.
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514 Part V: Firewalls

3. Set up both of the /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0 and

/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth1 to have the same

■ IP address
■ Network address
■ Network mask
4. Add the following lines in your /etc/rc.d/rc.local script to enable the
proxy_arp feature for both of your Linux network interfaces.

/sbin/sysctl net.ipv4.conf.eth0.proxy_arp=1
/sbin/sysctl net.ipv4.conf.eth1.proxy_arp=1

5. Add the following line in /etc/rc.d/rc.local script to enable IP for-

warding between the eth0 and eth1 interfaces.
/sbin/sysctl -w net.ipv4.conf.all.forwarding=1

6. Add the following lines in your /etc/rc.d/rc.local script. Don’t forget

to replace the X.Y.Z.32/27, X.Y.Z.35 with appropriate network addresses.
/sbin/ip route del X.Y.Z.32/27 dev eth0
/sbin/ip route add X.Y.Z.35 dev eth0
/sbin/ip route add X.Y.Z.32/27 dev eth1

This tells the kernel that packets for the X.Y.Z.35 address (that is, the
address of the router) is routed on eth0 and the rest of the network is
available on eth1. Since you have enabled IP forwarding between the
interfaces, any outside packet destined for an internal LAN host are seen
by eth0 and forwarded onto eth1.

At this point, either you can wait awhile for the arp caches to expire or restart
your router. At that point you should be able to get back and forth between the
router and the other servers on the network. If you look at your arp cache on a
server, it will show the mac address of the router as the mac address of eth1 on your
Linux firewall. After you have this layer working, you can add your rules.

Creating Corporate Firewalls

A corporation that has a lot of day-to-day Internet interaction is likely to spend
quite a bit of resource in building a secure infrastructure. Here, I explore one such
infrastructure that you can build with a set of Linux-based packet-filtering fire-
walls. Note that a packet-filtering firewall is only one of the important components
in a high-grade security solution. As a rule of thumb, multiple (and redundant)
security measures ensure a higher degree of security. This section focuses only on
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 515

the packet-filtering aspect of the solution; later sections cover other security com-
ponents that you can integrate with packet filtering to build a robust, well-secured
environment for your organization.
A multiple-firewall environment, known as a Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), keeps
the corporate public servers such as the Web server (Apache server), FTP server,
mail server, and DNS server (if any) behind the primary firewall. The internal net-
work (consisting of employee workstations, and possibly internal-only servers)
resides behind another, separate firewall. Each of these firewalls has a distinct pur-
pose; an examination of each purpose follows.

Purpose of the internal firewall

The internal firewall protects the internal network from outside access. It forwards
non-local traffic to the DMZ and restricts incoming traffic. This firewall should be
configured to do the following:

◆ Implement the default deny-all-packets policy.

◆ Masquerade the internal traffic meant for the DMZ services or for the out-
side world.
◆ Allow only incoming traffic that has been generated in response to inter-
nal requests. Incoming packets to this firewall must not have SYN bit set.
◆ Limit the internal network’s access to outside services

Purpose of the primary firewall

The external (primary) firewall protects the entire corporate network, but its main
task is to do the following:

◆ Implement the default “deny all packets” policy.

◆ Allow access to the DMZ servers from the outside world.

◆ Masquerade the packets that are generated by the internal firewall (on
behalf of internal nodes) to the outside world to make the packets appear
to be coming from the primary firewall’s external interface.

When the firewall is doing its job correctly, a typical scenario looks like this:

1. A user at a workstation in the internal LAN initiates a HTTP request for an

outside domain via her Web browser.
2. The internal firewall masquerades her requests to its own external inter-
face (the DMZ site).
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516 Part V: Firewalls

3. The primary firewall sees this outgoing packet, masquerades it, and for-
wards to the outside world.
4. The Web server on the outside knows only that the external IP address of
the primary firewall has requested access to an outside domain.
Accordingly, the Web server sends response packets to the DMZ site,
which ensures that outside systems do not know who the real user is —
and (more importantly) can’t get hold of the user-account information for
unauthorized uses.

Note that you can decide to not masquerade outgoing packets on the internal
firewall — the external firewall masquerades them anyway — but if you masquerade
outgoing packets on the internal firewall, you can use simpler packet-filtering rules
on the external (primary) firewall. When implemented consistently, such an
arrangement can enhance performance without harming security. Because the pri-
mary firewall sees all packets from the internal network as coming from one
address — that of the internal firewall’s external interface — that one IP is the only
one you have to deal with when you create access rules on the primary firewall.

In this example, I use a DMZ network 192.168.1.0/24 (actually a private

network) — but in the real world, you cannot access a non-routable,
private network from the Internet. You have to use an Internet-routable,
non-private network for your real-world DMZ. Ask your ISP to allocate a sub-
net to your company’s use — and to route all packets addressed to the sub-
net to your firewall’s external interface address instead. Then assign each
server in your DMZ a real IP address to make them accessible from the out-
side world via the firewall. Note also that the external network address for
the primary firewall is also assigned by your ISP; the example uses a random
number that is routable on the Internet.

Implementing these firewalls for the given scenario is a distinct process. Note
that when you follw the instructions in the next two subsections, you must change
IP addresses to match those on your own network environment.

Setting up the internal firewall

To set up your internal firewall, follow these steps:

1. Create an sh script (called internal-firewall.sh) that defines the set-

tings of the internal network as follows:
#!/bin/sh
IPTABLES=/sbin/iptables
INTERNAL_LAN=”192.168.2.0/24”
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 517

INTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE=”eth1”
INTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE_ADDR=”192.168.2.254”
EXTERNAL_INTERFACE=”eth0”
EXTERNAL_INTERFACE_ADDR=”192.168.1.1”

2. Flush out all the rules in the filter table by appending the following
lines to the script:
# Drop all rules in the filter table
$IPTABLES -F FORWARD
$IPTABLES -F INPUT
$IPTABLES -F OUTPUT

3. Implement the default policy by appending the following lines to the

script:
# Create default drop and reject everything policy
$IPTABLES -P FORWARD DROP
$IPTABLES -P OUTPUT ACCEPT
$IPTABLES -P INPUT DROP

4. Enable the local loopback interface by appending these lines:

# Enable loopback
$IPTABLES -A INPUT -i lo -p all -j ACCEPT

5. Enable the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) packets used by ping
and other services:
$IPTABLES -A INPUT -p icmp -j ACCEPT

6. Allow internal LAN access to the firewall’s internal interface by append-

ing these lines:
$IPTABLES -A input -i $INTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE \
-s $INTERNAL_LAN -j ACCEPT

7. Allow access to firewall-generated packets destined for the internal LAN:

$IPTABLES -A output -i $INTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE \
-d $INTERNAL_LAN -j ACCEPT

8. Set up masquerading for everything not destined for the internal LAN:
$IPTABLES -t nat -A POSTROUTING -o $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE \
-d ! $INTERNAL_LAN \
-j MASQUERADE

9. Forward only those packets that come from the internal LAN by append-
ing these lines:

$IPTABLES -A FORWARD -s $INTERNAL_LAN -j ACCEPT

$IPTABLES -A FORWARD -d $INTERNAL_LAN -j ACCEPT
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518 Part V: Firewalls

At this point, you have a firewall that can masquerade internal traffic meant
for outside servers. Now you have to decide what types of services your
internal users may access — for example, HTTP, SMTP, POP3, DNS, and AUTH
(part of identd) — and create specific firewall rules for each service.

Setting up the primary firewall

To set up your external (primary) firewall, create an sh script called firewall-
primary.sh script, as shown in Listing 20-2.

Listing 20-2: Firewall-primary.sh

#!/bin/sh
IPTABLES=/sbin/iptables
DMZ_LAN=”192.168.1.0/24”
DMZ_INTERFACE=”eth1”
DMZ_INTERFACE_ADDR=”192.168.1.254”
WORLD_INTERFACE=”eth0”
WORLD_INTERFACE_ADDR=”207.177.175.66”
INTERNAL_LAN=”192.168.2.0/24”
DMZ_FTP_SERVER_ADDR=”192.168.1.10”
DMZ_APACHE_SERVER_ADDR=”192.168.1.20”
DMZ_MAIL_SERVER_ADDR=”192.168.1.30”
DMZ_DNS_SERVER_ADDR=”192.168.1.40”
# Drop all rules in the filter table
$IPTABLES -F FORWARD
$IPTABLES -F INPUT
$IPTABLES -F OUTPUT
# Create default drop and reject everything policy
$IPTABLES -P FORWARD DROP
$IPTABLES -P OUTPUT ACCEPT
$IPTABLES -P INPUT DROP
# Enable loopback
$IPTABLES -A INPUT -i lo -p all -j ACCEPT
# Enable the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
# packets that are used by ping and others
$IPTABLES -A INPUT -p icmp -j ACCEPT
# Enable DMZ LAN access to the firewall’s
# internal interface
$IPTABLES -A input -i $DMZ_LAN_INTERFACE \
-s $DMZ_LAN -j ACCEPT
# Enable firewall generated packets destined for
# the DMZ LAN
$IPTABLES -A output -i $DMZ_LAN_INTERFACE \
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 519

-d $DMZ_LAN -j ACCEPT
# Setup masquerading for packets generated by the
# internal private LAN that is not meant for itself
$IPTABLES -t nat -A POSTROUTING -o $EXTERNAL_LAN_INTERFACE \
-s $INTERNAL_LAN \
-d ! $INTERNAL_LAN \
-j MASQUERADE
# Forward packets from DMZ LAN
$IPTABLES -A FORWARD -s $DMZ_LAN -j ACCEPT
$IPTABLES -A FORWARD -d $DMZ_LAN -j ACCEPT

The next step is to add rules to enable the services offered in the DMZ.

ACCESSING FTP SERVERS IN YOUR DMZ

You want to allow FTP server access from the outside world, but you also want to
regulate it to prevent FTP from becoming a security risk. The following code lays
the foundation for such a policy:

# Enable incoming FTP connections from

# outside world
$IPTABLES -A input -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p tcp \
-s 0/0 1024-65535 \
-d $DMZ_FTP_SERVER_ADDR 21\
-j ACCEPT
# Enable outgoing FTP connections
$IPTABLES -A output -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s $DMZ_FTP_SERVER_ADDR 21 \
-d 0/0 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT
# Enable incoming FTP data channel connection from
# outside world
$IPTABLES -A input -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p tcp \
-s 0/0 1024-65535 \
-d $DMZ_FTP_SERVER_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT
# Enable outgoing FTP data connections
$IPTABLES -A output -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s $DMZ_FTP_SERVER_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-d 0/0 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT
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520 Part V: Firewalls

ACCESSING APACHE SERVERS IN DMZ

You want to allow Apache server access from the outside world. Here is the script:

# Enable incoming HTTP requests from

# outside world
$IPTABLES -A input -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p tcp \
-s 0/0 1024-65535 \
-d $DMZ_APACHE_SERVER_ADDR 80\
-j ACCEPT
# Enable outgoing HTTP responses
$IPTABLES -A output -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s $DMZ_APACHE_SERVER_ADDR 80 \
-d 0/0 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT

ACCESSING DNS SERVERS IN DMZ

You want to allow DNS server access from the outside world. Here is the script:

# Enable incoming client/server DNS requests from

# outside world
$IPTABLES -A input -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p udp \
-s 0/0 1024-65535 \
-d $DMZ_DNS_SERVER_ADDR 53\
-j ACCEPT
# Enable outgoing client/server DNS responses
$IPTABLES -A output -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p udp \
-s $DMZ_DNS_SERVER_ADDR 53 \
-d 0/0 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT
# Enable incoming server/server DNS requests from
# outside world
$IPTABLES -A input -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p udp \
-s 0/0 53 \
-d $DMZ_DNS_SERVER_ADDR 53\
-j ACCEPT
# Enable outgoing server/server DNS responses
$IPTABLES -A output -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p udp \
-s $DMZ_DNS_SERVER_ADDR 53 \
-d 0/0 53 \
-j ACCEPT
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 521

ACCESSING IDENTD (AUTH) SERVERS IN DMZ

You want to allow identd server access from the outside world. The identd server is
usually run on the mail server to provide user authentication service. I assume that
you are running identd on DMZ_MAIL_SERVER. Here is the script:

# Enable incoming auth requests from

# outside world
$IPTABLES -A input -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p tcp \
-s 0/0 1024-65535 \
-d $DMZ_MAIL_SERVER_ADDR 113\
-j ACCEPT
# Enable outgoing auth responses
$IPTABLES -A output -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s $DMZ_MAIL_SERVER_ADDR 113 \
-d 0/0 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT

The following code enables auth client service for your mail server.

# Enable incoming auth response from

# outside world
$IPTABLES -A input -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p tcp \
-s 0/0 113 \
-d $DMZ_MAIL_SERVER_ADDR 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT
# Enable outgoing auth requests from mail server
$IPTABLES -A output -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p tcp \
-s $DMZ_MAIL_SERVER_ADDR 113 \
-d 0/0 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT

ACCESSING MAIL SERVERS IN DMZ

You want to allow mail server access from the outside world.

# Enable incoming SMTP requests from

# outside world
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522 Part V: Firewalls

$IPTABLES -A input -i $WORLD_INTERFACE

-p tcp \
-s 0/0 1024-65535 \
-d $DMZ_MAIL_SERVER_ADDR 25 \
-j ACCEPT
# Enable outgoing SMTP requests/responses
$IPTABLES -A output -i $WORLD_INTERFACE
-p tcp ! -y \
-s $DMZ_MAIL_SERVER_ADDR 25 \
-d 0/0 1024-65535 \
-j ACCEPT

REDIRECTING PACKETS
Say you want to redirect all internal network (192.168.2.0/24) packets going to a
specific Web site at IP address 193.1.1.193 and port 80 to be redirected to a Web
server at IP address 193.1.1.195. You can add the following rule to the primary fire-
wall rule file:

$IPTABLES -t nat -A POSTROUTING -s 192.168.2.0/24 \

-d 193.1.1.193 \
-p tcp --dport 80 \
-j SNAT --to 193.1.1.195

LOGGING INFORMATION ABOUT PACKETS

You can use netfilter’s built-in logging support (/var/log/messages) to trou-
bleshoot rule errors and monitor traffic. For example:

/sbin/iptables -A input -s 193.1.1.193 -j LOG

Whenever a packet from 193.1.1.193 machine enters the firewall, it’s logged. To
control the number of log entry, you can use the -m limit --limit rate options.
For example:

/sbin/iptables -A input -s 193.1.1.193 -m limit --limit 10/second -j LOG

The above rule will log a maximum of 10 packets from 193.1.1.193 host. You
can also use a prefix to identify a special IP address using the --log-prefix
prefix option. For example:

/sbin/iptables -A input -s 193.1.1.193 -m limit \

--limit 10/second \
--log-prefix ‘BAD GUY’ -j LOG

The above rule will prefix the log entry for 193.1.1.193 using the words
‘BAD GUY’.
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 523

SETTING TYPE OF SERVICE (TOS) IN IP PACKET

You can prioritize one type of traffic over another by setting the TOS value in the
IP packet header. The TOS values can be one of the following:

◆ Minimize-Delay

◆ Maximize-Throughput

◆ Maximize-Reliability

◆ Minimize-Cost

◆ Normal-Service

For example, to provide interactive performance to telnet while using ftp at the
same time:

/sbin/iptables -A PREROUTING -t mangle -p tcp \

--sport telnet -j TOS \
--set-tos Minimize-Delay
/sbin/iptables -A PREROUTING -t mangle -p tcp \
--sport ftp -j TOS \
--set-tos Minimize-Delay
/sbin/iptables -A PREROUTING -t mangle -p tcp \
--sport ftp-data -j TOS \
--set-tos Maximize-Throughput

STATEFUL INSPECTION
Netfilter provides the ability to associate all the packets of a particular connec-
tion to each other; packets that are not considered part of an existing connection
can be denied or rejected. Packet-filtering rules can now be created to base their
target on one of the following states:

◆ NEW: This packet is attempting to create a new connection.

◆ RELATED: This packet is related to the existing connection, and is passing

in the original direction.
◆ INVALID: This packet doesn’t match any existing connections.

◆ ESTABLISHED: This packet is part of an existing connection.

◆ RELATED+REPLY: This packet is not part of an existing connection, but is

related to one. For example, if there is a FTP command connection (via
port 21) to a host, then the ftp-data connection (via port 1024 or above) to
the same host is related to the other connection.
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524 Part V: Firewalls

For example, to accept packets that are part of an established connection, you
can define a rule such as:

/sbin/iptables -A input -m state \

-state ESTABLISHED -j ACCEPT

Or you can forward a packet from one interface to another if the packet is part
of a related or established connection using the following rule:

/sbin/iptables -A forward -m state \

-state ESTABLISHED, RELATED -j ACCEPT

NETWORK ADDRESS TRANSLATION (NAT) RULES

The NAT table in the Netfilter implementation allows you to masquerade, and
redirect, and even load-balance packets. Specifically, the following NAT target
options are currently available:

◆ DNAT: This target specifies that the destination address of the packet
should be modified.
◆ SNAT: This target specifies that the source address of the packet should be
modified, including all future packets in this connection.
◆ REDIRECT: This is a specialized case of DNAT that alters the destination IP
address to send the packet to the machine itself.

When packets get their source or destination addresses translated due to a

matching rule, these packets are retranslated back to normal source and/or destina-
tion addresses on the return path so that the packets are delivered back to the
appropriate host.
Using the POSTROUTING chain in the NAT table, you can create a simple round-
robin load-balancing environment. For example, to load-balance HTTP traffic for
192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.20, 192.168.1.21, 192.168.1.22, you can create a rule as
follows:

/sbin/iptables -t nat -A POSTROUTING \

-s 192.168.1.1 \
--to 192.168.1.20-192.168.1.22 \
-j DNAT

TESTING PACKET-FILTERING RULES

First of all, you should list all your rules per chain using the /sbin/iptables
-L chain_name [-t table_name] command. For example, to list all the rules
in the input chain of the default filter table, run the /sbin/iptables -L input
command.
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 525

To test an existing rule, simply replace the -A (if you appended the rule) or -I (if
you inserted the rule) with -C and insert values for source and destination IP
addresses. For example, say you have a rule such as the following:

/sbin/iptables -A input -i eth1 -p tcp \

-s 0/0 \
-d 192.168.1.100 \
-dport 80 \
-j REJECT

This rule states that a packet from any IP address (-s 0/0) destined to port 80 of
IP address 192.168.1.100 on Ethernet interface eth1 is to be rejected. To test this
rule, you can run the following code:

/sbin/iptables -C input -i eth1 -p tcp \

-s 207.177.175.66 \
-d 192.168.1.100 \
-dport 80 \
-j REJECT

You should see an output stating that the packet is rejected. If your rule calls for
address translation, you should see a message stating that packet is masqueraded;
similarly, if your rule calls for dropping the packet, you should see a message stat-
ing so.

PEER-TO-PEER SERVICES
Most people on the Internet (and almost everywhere else) have heard of Napster.
I loved Napster in the beginning — but later, when I noticed Napster clients on the
office network, I had to stop loving it (at least in the office). I could not allow users
to run Napster (even before its legal imbroglio) because its peer-to-peer file-sharing
software could have opened a security hole in our corporate network — exposing a
treasure trove of sensitive data, intellectual properties, and client databases. So an
addendum to our (normally very flexible) user policy had to exclude all peer-to-
peer software in the office environment. However, the addendum also needed spe-
cific enforcement (junior engineers took it upon themselves to find a way to get
around the restriction).
Peer-to-peer (P2P) networking is not new, but the availability of high-speed net-
working (such as DSL and cable) on the home front made P2P quickly popular. In
my humble opinion, Napster brought P2P on the spotlight. Also, AOL Instant
Messaging (AIM) became the dominant personal-networking tool of choice. These
tools are great for personal use but since they are major security hazards, they are
not welcome in the business environment just yet. Most of these network toys com-
municate using simple, clear-text protocols that are (for that reason) unsafe — and
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526 Part V: Firewalls

many of these tools access the hard disk of the computer they run on. Hard-drive
access is exactly what we had to deny to Java applets if we were to keep it secure.
Many of us were extremely reluctant to let these personal, social-networking tools
get full access to sensitive private data. The following sections cover how you can
block these services if you need to.

BLOCKING NAPSTER AND ITS FUTURE GENERATIONS Napster client uses

Napster servers to find music files. If you can block access to the Napster servers,
you should be able to disable casual Napster users. Here’s how:

1. Download the Napster client software on a PC, run it and use the netstat
-n command to view which servers it connects to. You will notice that
Napster servers are on 64.124.41.0 network. You can run ping
server.napster.com a few times and find out that the hostname net-
work mentioned earlier is load-balanced by using multiple IPs.
2. Add the following rules to drop all incoming and outgoing packets to and
from the Napster network.
/sbin/iptables -A input -s 64.124.41.0/24 -j DROP
/sbin/iptables -A output -d 64.124.41.0/24 -j DROP

As mentioned before, this technique blocks the casual Napster user. If you have
network-savvy users who have friends with Internet servers, you might still have a
Napster problem in your network; troublemakers can still connect to Napster via a
remote proxy server. In such a case, your only option is to pay a visit to the user’s
superior and report the issue. Of course, if you are dealing with a campus environ-
ment where students are bypassing your Napster blockade, your only hope is to fig-
ure out a way to reduce the bandwidth available to such activity.

If the Napster users in your network are using open source Napster Servers
(OpenNap), you have to block them individually as well.You can find a list of
OpenNap servers at www.napigator.com/list.php.

Unfortunately, the next generation of Napster (called GnutellaNet) is a much

harder beast to tame. P2P clients based on the Gnutella protocol form
GnutellaNet — a network of computers without any central server. Therefore, the
service is not easy to block. You can block the default port (6346) used by Gnutella-
based P2P client software such as Gnotella and BearShare — but completely block-
ing these P2P programs is virtually impossible. Your best choice is to reduce the
bandwidth available to these clients.

BLOCKING INSTANT MESSENGERS AOL Instant Messenger (AIM) is a great per-

sonal communication tool — but it is also a potential security risk. To block AIM on
your network, follow these steps:
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 527

1. Download AIM and use netstat -n to detect which server it connects to.
Typically, AIM clients connect to the login.oscar.aol.com server on
port 5190. Run nslookup -q=a login.oscar.aol.com from the com-
mand line to discover the IP addresses that are in the load-balancing pool.
For example, when I ran the nslookup command mentioned earlier, I got
Name: login.oscar.aol.com
Addresses: 152.163.241.128, 152.163.242.24, 152.163.242.28,
152.163.241.120

2. You can block all connection to each of the IP addresses for

login.oscar.aol.com using a pair of rules such as the following:

/sbin/iptables -A input -s 152.163.241.128 DROP

/sbin/iptables -A output -d 152.163.241.128 DROP

After you have added this pair of rules for each IP address that points to
this server, your system should effectively block AIM.

Don’t forget to check for new IP addresses that might show up as AOL
decides to add or drop servers in their load-balancing server pool.

Yahoo! Messenger can be blocked in a similar way, by blocking off outbound

access to msg.edit.yahoo.com, edit.messenger.yahoo.com, csa.yahoo.com,
csb.yahoo.com, and csc.yahoo.com. Each of the above host names resolves to
multiple IP addresses — so you have to add each individual IP address to your list of
those you want block. Of course, Yahoo! can always add new addresses at any time,
making this an ongoing battle.
MSN Messenger can be blocked by blocking IP access to the Hotmail network
64.4.0.0 through 64.4.63.255.
Blocking MSN Messenger may or may not block access to Hotmail itself.

These measures to block P2P file sharing and communication software are
(at most) interim solutions.We must find better ways to allow/deny access to
these interesting software in the corporate environment.There should be an
initiative between the developers and the systems security experts to come
to some common ground to allow both sides to be in a win-win situation.
Until then, your best bet is to keep monitoring these software products and
their vendors on an ongoing basis, staying ready to plug any security hole
that opens.
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528 Part V: Firewalls

Secure Virtual Private Network

Firewalls are typically deployed to protect an internal network from outside harm.
But what if you wanted to communicate with two different networks that are geo-
graphically separated. For example, say you wanted to connect to the branch
office in California from New York using Internet. In such a case, using firewalls at
both end will make sure that both networks are protected from potentially harmful
Internet traffic, but how can you make sure that the entire transport (that is, the
path) between the networks is secure? In other words, what if you could create a
tunnel that connects the two geographically disjoined networks. This is typically
referred to as a virtual private network (VPN).
Typically, a VPN is a private network over a public network such as the Internet.
For example, say your company has a branch office in San Jose, California, and
another one in Manhattan, New York. You can use a VPN to connect the private
networks in California and New York over the Internet. All the traffic on the private
network is only seen by the end networks; that is, the users in the San Jose office
and the Manhattan office.
Just using a VPN does not guarantee that the virtual network established over
the public network is safe. This is why I recommend the Free S/WAN solution,
which uses an implementation of Internet Protocol Security (IPSEC) and IKE for
Linux.
IPSEC uses strong cryptography to provide both authentication and encryption
services. Secure authentication ensures that users are who they really are and
encryption of data packets ensure that they are not altered in transit. Hence, IPSEC
is most suitable for building secure tunnels through public, untrusted networks
such as the Internet. By placing an IPSEC private-to-public-network gateway
machine on each private network, you create a secure tunnel — a “virtually private”
network. Such a VPN has one specific purpose: to ensure the privacy of its users,
even though it includes machines at several different sites that are connected by the
insecure Internet.
The standard IP packet (IPv4) consists of header and data bytes; the header con-
tains the source and destination addresses among other information. A hacker can
change the header to create a man-in-the-middle or spoof attack. Using IPSEC pre-
vents such attacks because both the header byte and the data byte are digitally
signed — therefore, any alteration while the packet is in transit causes the receiving
IPSEC gateway machine to discard the packet. The Authentication Header (AH) and
Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) mechanism in IPSEC ensures the integrity
and confidentially of both header and data.

In general, I recommend not using NAT when considering IPSEC based VPN
technology. If you use Network Address Translation (NAT), then you might
not be able to use IPSEC with AH protocol. NAT changes the source and/or
destination of IP packets, which appears as an attack when IPSEC checks the
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 529

packet header signature. IPSEC using the ESP in tunnel mode encapsulates
the entire original packet into a new packet and the remote IPSEC gateway
using the same ESP protocol in tunnel mode will only evaluate the original
packet stored within the received packet. This ensures that the original
packet is secured within the new packet and works with NAT.

Compiling and installing FreeS/WAN

To compile and install FreeS/WAN do the following:

1. As root, you must compile and install the latest Linux kernel from the
kernel source distribution.
See Chapter 2 for details on how to compile, install, and boot a new ker-
nel. You must continue with the following instruction after you have suc-
cessfully booted from a custom compiled kernel.
2. Download FreeS/WAN source distribution from the following site or its
mirror sites:
ftp://ftp.xs4all.nl/pub/crypto/freeswan/

Extract the source into the /usr/src directory by copying the tar ball in
that directory and running tar xvzf freeswan-version.tar.gz com-
mand. This will create a new subdirectory in /usr/src.
3. From the freeswan directory in /usr/src, run make menugo, which will
run the make menuconfig command and also run other freeswan instal-
lation scripts to allow you customize kernel configuration, compile it and
also create a pair of RSA authentication keys, which are stored in
/etc/ipsec.secret file.

When you see the menu-based kernel-configuration screen, you can cus-
tomize anything you want — or simply save the configuration to let the
freeswan installation continue. If any errors are detected during this
process, you should review the out.kbuild or out.kinstall files to get
the details on the errors you encounter.

The RSA keys generated by the freeswan configuration scripts are suit-
able only for authentication, not for encryption. IPSEC uses them only for
authentication.
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530 Part V: Firewalls

4. To install the kernel the easy way, from the FreeS/WAN directory run the
make kinstall command to install the new kernel and any modules that
are needed.

If you want to go through the standard kernel-building process instead of

using FreeS/WAN, you can run the following commands:
make dep
make bzImage
make install
make modules
make modules_install

You should back up your existing kernel and modules and also create a LILO
configuration that allows you to boot the old kernel in case the new kernel
doesn’t boot. (See Chapter 2 for details.)

5. Run the /sbin/lilo command to reconfigure LILO.

6. Reboot the system, using the /sbin/shutdown -r now command.

Look for boot messages stating that Kernel (code) Linux IP Security (KLIPS) is
initializing and Pluto is starting. You can run dmesg | grep -i KLIPS
and/or dmesg | grep -i pluto if you missed the boot messages.

Creating a VPN
Here I show you how you can create an IPSEC VPN using FreeS/WAN.
For my example, each of the unjoined local area networks — one in San Jose,
California, and another one in New York City — has a FreeS/WAN gateway machine
connected to the Internet. Creating a IPSEC VPN to exist between these two net-
works is (as you may expect) a two-part process unto itself.

CONFIGURING THE FIRST OF TWO LANS FOR A VPN

On the San Jose, CA FreeS/WAN gateway, do the following:

1. Make sure IP forwarding is turned on.

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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 531

2. Make sure you have compiled the kernel with netfilter support; this
configuration procedure uses packet-filtering rules to restrict access to the
San Jose gateway.
3. Modify the /etc/ipsec.conf to have the lines shown in Listing 20-3.

Listing 20-3: /etc/ipsec.conf

config setup
interfaces=”ipsec0=eth0”
klipsdebug=none
plutodebug=none
plutoload=%search
plutostart=%search
conn %default
keyingtries=0
authby=rsasig
conn sjca-nyc
left=207.177.175.60
leftsubnet=192.168.1.0/24
leftnexthop=207.177.175.1
right=207.183.233.17
rightsubnet=192.168.2.0/24
rightnexthop=207.183.233.1
auto=start
[email protected]
[email protected]
leftrsasigkey=0x01035d3db6bdabeb8d9a62eb8d798d92a1
rightrsasigkey=0x01032d2dbadfeeddead62eb8d798d92b2

Here the first line of the file tells KLIPS that you are describing a machine
configuration. The next line defines the interfaces that FreeS/WAN should
use. In the example just given, interfaces=”ipsec0=eth0” tells the sys-
tem to use eth0 interface as the first IPSEC (ipsec0) interface. In most
cases, you can set interfaces=%defaultroute; the typical default route
is also the default connection to the Internet.

If you want to know which interface is considered for default route by

FreeS/WAN, you can run the ipsec showdefaults command.
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532 Part V: Firewalls

It is not necessary to use multiple interfaces to create multiple VPNs;

for example interfaces=”ipsec0=eth0 ipsec1=eth1” defines two
IPSEC interfaces using eth0 and eth1 Ethernet interfaces.

■ The klipsdebug=none line tells FreeS/WAN not to use debugging.

If you want to enable debugging, set this to all instead.
■ The plutodebug=none line disables debugging for the Pluto daemon
that negotiates keys and connections in FreeS/WAN.
To enable debugging, set this to all instead.
■ The plutoload and the plutostart lines list connects that are to be
loaded and negotiated by the Pluto daemon. You can set both of these
to a quoted list of connection names.
Here I have set them to %search, which tells Pluto to load only those con-
nections that have auto=add or add=start in this file’s connection defin-
ition. Setting up the VPN between two offices means both gateways are
likely to be available most of the time; setting plutostart=%search and
auto=start in connection description makes good sense. This way,
whenever a connection is lost, it can be easily retried and restarted by
Pluto. However, if this VPN were built for a different purpose (such as
supporting a set of mobile systems that are likely to be offline most of the
time), then the connection description should not include auto=start.
Instead, it should include auto=add so the gateway does not retry connec-
tions automatically. In such a case, connection is only initiated when the
mobile system starts the negotiations.
■ The conn %default section defines the defaults for all the connections.
In our example configuration, the keyingtries option is set to 0,
which means that it forever retries key negotiations to establish con-
nections. In other words, if a connection goes down, the FreeS/WAN
server will retry again and again to reestablish the connection.
The authby option specifies that we want to use RSA signature
(rsasig) in the authentication process.
■ The conn sjca-nyc section defines our VPN connection that we
named “sjca-nyc” (short for San Jose CA to New York City). Always
use meaningful names when defining connection names. It helps read-
ability of your connection specifications.
The left option is set to the interface address of the San Jose, CA office
network gateway. This is the external interface of the gateway system
called sjca-gw.domain.com. The leftsubnet is the private network
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 533

that the left gateway is connecting to the right. Here it is 192.168.1.0/

24. The leftnexthop defines the default route of the gateway machine.
Since in our diagram the default route is set to the router with IP
address 207.177.175.1, the leftnexthop is set to this address.

Why specify the next hop address or default route for the gateway machine?
The KLIPS does not use the default “default route” used by the normal net-
work subsystem, so you must specify this. If the gateway machines are
directly connected by themselves, you do not need to set this.

The right, rightsubnet, and rightnexthop are the right equivalent

of left, leftsubnet, leftnexthop, respectively. The only difference
is that the right, rightsubnet, and rightnexthop applies to the right
side of the diagram and the left equivalents apply to the left side of the
diagram.
■ The auto=start option tells Pluto to initiate the connection every time
it starts.
You can also use auto=add instead if you want to start the connection
manually.
■ The leftid and rightid options create unique identifiers used in
association with the RSA public key during two-way communication.
These are the names the systems use to identify themselves during con-
nection negotiation.
When naming a system using the leftid or rightid option, the best
option is to use @FQDN format, which stands for fully qualified domain
name (as shown in this example configuration).
■ The leftrsasigkey and rightrsasigkey options are set to the public
key found in /etc/ipsec.secret file in the pubkey field.
3. Make sure the /etc/ipsec.secret file has the RSA key generated during
the FreeS/WAN setup. If do not have a key, you can generate one using
the ipsec rsasigkey 1024 >> /tmp/rsakey.txt. Once it’s generated,
you must place the key in the /etc/ipsec.secret file, as shown here:

: rsa {
#Insert contents of the /tmp/rsakey.txt file here
}
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534 Part V: Firewalls

CONFIGURING THE SECOND OF TWO LANS FOR A VPN

On the New York City gateway in the example, follow the same steps as for the San
Jose gateway to create the same configuration.
To enhance the security of a gateway system, create a script called /etc/rc.d/
ipsec-gw.firewall.sh, as shown in Listing 20-4.

Listing 20-4: /etc/rc.d/ipsec-gw.firewall.sh

#!/bin/sh
IPTABLES=/sbin/iptables
# Make sure you change the following interface
# address and private LAN addresses for your
# network
WORLD_INTERFACE_ADDR=”207.177.175.60”
PRIVATE_LAN=”192.168.1.0/24”
# Drop all rules in the filter table
$IPTABLES -F FORWARD
$IPTABLES -F INPUT
$IPTABLES -F OUTPUT
# Default policies
$IPTABLES -P input DENY
$IPTABLES -P output REJECT
$IPTABLES -P forward REJECT
# Enable loopback
$IPTABLES -A INPUT -i lo -p all -j ACCEPT
# Enable ICMP. Yes, even a dummy knows
# how to use ping these days!
$IPTABLES -A INPUT -p icmp -j ACCEPT
# Only allow ipsec traffic, ESP(50) and AH(51) from and to
the Internet
$IPTABLES -A input -p udp\
-d $WORLD_INTERFACE_ADDR 500 \
-j ACCEPT
$IPTABLES -A input -p 50 \
-d $WORLD_INTERFACE_ADDR \
-j ACCEPT
$IPTABLES -A input -p 51 \
-d $WORLD_INTERFACE_ADDR \
-j ACCEPT
# Allows internal subnet access
$IPTABLES -A input -s $PRIVATE_LAN -j ACCEPT
# Allows traffic from and to internal LANs
$IPTABLES -A forward -b \
-s $PRIVATE_LAN \
-d $PRIVATE_LAN -j ACCEPT
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 535

Add /etc/rc.d/ipsec-gw.firewall.sh at the end of your /etc/rc.d/rc.

local script to ensure that the gateway loads its packet-filtering rules whenever
the system reboots. This script only allows IPSEC-specific traffic in and out of the
gateway system.
When installing this script, make sure you change the WORLD_INTERFACE_ADDR
and PRIVATE_LAN interface according to the gateway location. Set the script for the
left side (San Jose, CA) to WORLD_INTERFACE_ADDR=”207.177.175.60” and
PRIVATE_LAN=”192.168.1.0/24” (as shown in the listing); set the New York City
side to WORLD_INTERFACE_ADDR=”207.183.233.17” and PRIVATE_LAN=”192.168.
2.0/24” per our diagram.
Of course, you also use real IP and network addresses to create your
configuration.

STARTING AND STOPPING A VPN CONNECTION

At this point, you are ready to bring up the gateways. The procedure looks like this:

1. Reboot both gateways.

2. Run the ls -l /proc/net/ipsec_* command on each gateway.
You should see a list of files such as ipsec_eroute, ipsec_spi,
ipsec_spigrp, ipsec_spinew, ipsec_tncfg, and ipsec_version.

3. cat the /proc/net/ipsec_tncfg to make sure the ipsec0 interface is up

and running and pointing to eth0.
4. On each gateway, start IPSEC by using the ipsec auto --up name com-
mand where name is the name of connection you want to bring up.
In this example, the command is ipsec auto --up sjca-nyc.
5. After IPSEC is started, run the ipsec look command to see whether your
connection is up and running. You should see a route indicated between
the two private networks via the ipsec0 interface.
6. To stop a connection, simply replace --up with the --down option.
When you shut down a connection, make sure you shut it down from
both gateways.

If you are setting up a VPN, test to make sure you can start a complete VPN
connection from one gateway. The other gateway should start automati-
cally, as soon as it recognizes a connection-negotiation request coming from
the gateway that initiates the connection.
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536 Part V: Firewalls

TESTING THE CONNECTION

From the private network on one side of the connection, ping a machine on the
private network of the other side of the connection. For example, in our example,
we can send ping requests from a machine in the San Jose, CA, office to a machine
in the New York office. When testing, use a client machine on the private network
instead of the gateways themselves. For example, in our current example, we can
ping from a machine with IP address 192.168.1.10 on 192.168.1.0/24 to a machine
on 192.168.2.50 on 192.168.2.0/24. If ping requests are answered by the machine
on the other end, you have a working VPN connection. Now try other services such
as telnet or ssh.

Stunnel: A Universal SSL Wrapper

Secure Socket Layer (SSL), developed by Netscape Corporation (now part of AOL),
has become the de facto standard for secure online transaction. Although SSL was
primarily developed for Web security, now you can use SSL for other services that
are not even SSL capable themselves. Such services include IMAP, POP3, LDAP,
etc., that are commonly used by all of us.
The magic solution is to use Stunnel, which can secure non-SSL services by pro-
viding the SSL layer without any modification to the code involved in the imple-
mentation of the service itself. In order to use Stunnel, you will need to install
OpenSSL; see Using OpenSSL chapter for details. You can download Stunnel source
code from the official Stunnel site (www.stunnel.org). The next step is to install
Stunnel on your system.

Compiling and installing Stunnel

Download the Stunnel source distribution, stunnel-version.tar.gz, from the
Web site mentioned earlier (or from another reliable mirror site).

1. As root, extract the source into /usr/src, using the tar xvzf stunnel-
version.tar.gz command.

2. Run the configure script from the newly created stunnel-version

directory.
3. Run the make and make install commands to install Stunnel.

Now you are ready to use Stunnel to wrap many popular services.

Securing IMAP
You have two ways of using Stunnel with the IMAP service on your system,
depending on how it’s configured. You can run the IMAP service directly via stun-
nel or run IMAP service as a xinetd managed service. The first method is only rec-
ommended if you have IMAP clients who do not use SSL protocol for connection.
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 537

RUNNING IMAPD DIRECTLY VIA STUNNEL

If you want to run a non-SSL version of imapd for clients that cannot use SSL to
connect to the service, then do the following:

Disable imapd as you run in the current method; instead run imapd using
the following command from a startup script such as /etc/rc.d/rc.
local:

/usr/sbin/stunnel -p /usr/local/ssl/certs/stunnel.pem \
-d 993 \
-r localhost:143

This command runs stunnel using the specified certificate file on the
IMAPS port (993) and proxy for the imapd daemon running on localhost
port 143. The command also allows your non-SSL IMAP clients to con-
nect on the standard IMAP port (143), and you can configure the SSL-
capable IMAP clients to connect to port IMAPS (993) instead.

Alternatively, you can run the IMAP service as follows:

/usr/sbin/stunnel -p /usr/local/ssl/certs/stunnel.pem \
-d 993 \
-l /usr/sbin/imapd

This approach yields the same result by running the imap daemon (specified by
-l) rather than connecting to a daemon that is already running on the IMAP port
(143).

USING XINETD TO RUN SECURE IMAPD

If you use xinetd to run IMAP service, modify your /etc/xinetd.d/imapd con-
figuration file as follows:

service imap
{
disable = no
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
port = 143
server = /usr/sbin/stunnel
server_args = stunnel imapd -l /usr/sbin/imapd --imapd
log_on_success += USERID
log_on_failure += USERID
#env = VIRTDOMAIN=virtual.hostname
}
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538 Part V: Firewalls

Don’t forget to reload xinetd configuration using the killall -USR1 xinetd
command.

Securing POP3
To connect to your POP3 mail server via SSL, reconfigure your /etc/xinetd.d/
pop3s configuration script as follows:

service pop3s
{
disable = no
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/sbin/stunnel
server_args = stunnel pop3s -l /usr/sbin/ipop3d --ipop3d
log_on_success += USERID
log_on_failure += USERID
}

If you have POP3 client software that cannot use SSL, then you can use a POP3
redirector service as follows:

1. Set up a normal (that is, not using Stunnel) POP3 server on a system that
uses the following /etc/xinetd.d/pop3 service configuration.
service pop3
{
disable = no
socket_type = stream
wait = no
user = root
server = /usr/sbin/stunnel
server_args = -c -r pop3server-using-
stunnel:pop3s
log_on_success += USERID
log_on_failure += USERID
}

2. Set up a POP3 server using stunnel, as shown in the first xinetd configu-
ration example (/etc/xinetd.d/pop3s).
3. Change the pop3server-using-stunnel to the hostname of the POP3 server
that is using Stunnel. This will allow non-SSL capable POP3 clients to
connect to a host that uses stunnel to forward POP3 traffic to another
server using SSL.
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Chapter 20: Firewalls, VPNs, and SSL Tunnels 539

Securing SMTP for special scenarios

Say you run a SMTP server that allows your roaming, mobile employees to connect
and send mail to many branches of your organization. If you want to keep your
email transactions secure, you can use.

/usr/local/sbin/stunnel -d 25 \
-p /var/lib/ssl/certs/server.pem \
-r localhost:smtp

Note that you are securing SMTP delivery between the end-user and your mail
server. If the mail is to be sent to another server outside your domain, it will not be
secure. This special scenario is only applicable for situations for an organization
where all mail is sent internally via the secure method and external mail goes
through some other SMTP relay.

Summary
Packet filtering is a means to impose control on the types of traffic permitted to
pass from one IP network to another. The packet filter examines the header of the
packet and makes a determination of whether to pass or reject the packet based
upon the contents of the header. Packet filtering capability found in the iptables
allows you to make security rules for incoming and outgoing IP packets. On the
other hand, security tools such as a VPN and stunnel allow you to secure two net-
works or various network services, respectively.
264754-2 Ch20.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 540
274754-2 Ch21.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 541

Chapter 21

Firewall Security Tools

IN THIS CHAPTER

◆ How to use various security assessment or audit tools

◆ How to use various port scanners

◆ How to use log monitoring tools

◆ How to use CGI scanners

◆ How to use password crackers

◆ How to use packet sniffers

IN THIS CHAPTER, I introduce you to various security tools that you can use to audit,
monitor, and detect vulnerabilities in your individual Linux system or an entire
network.

Using Security Assessment

(Audit) Tools
It is a great idea to audit your system security periodically to ensure that your
assessment of your system security is correct. In this section, I cover a few security
assessment tools that can help you in this process.

Using SAINT to Perform a Security Audit

Periodic security audit is a standard procedure for a security administrator. Security
Administrator’s Integrated Network Tool (SAINT) can help you audit a single Linux
system or an entire network.
SAINT is based on the infamous SATAN tool. SAINT probes user specified target
systems for security vulnerabilities and produces analysis reports so that you can
take appropriate action. Features include

◆ Scanning through a firewall

◆ Updated security checks from CERT and CIAC bulletins

541
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542 Part V: Firewalls

◆ Four levels of severity (red, yellow, brown, and green)

◆ A feature-rich HTML interface

Make sure you have permission before using SAINT to audit a system or a
network. If you let SAINT loose on a system or network that you don’t have
permission for, you may be in legal trouble — the owner may consider your
audit an intrusion attempt!

SAINT can detect many vulnerabilities such as:

◆ Guessable read and write SNMP community strings

◆ SITE EXEC buffer overflows and others in FTP servers

◆ Problems within NFS configurations

◆ Mail servers that permit relaying

◆ Instances of FrontPage that may contain security flaws

◆ Root kits

For a full list of vulnerabilities that SAINT finds, check http://www.

wwdsi.com/cgi-bin/vulns.pl.

GETTING STARTED WITH SAINT

Here is how you can get started with SAINT. (Make sure you have a Web browser,
such as Navigator or Lynx, on the system to run SAINT.)

1. Download the latest source distribution from the official SAINT Web site
at http://www.wwdsi.com/saint.
The source distribution is usually called saint-version.tar.gz (e.g.,
saint-3.1.2.tar.gz).

2. As root, extract the source in /usr/local/src using the tar xvzf

saint-version.tar.gz command. You should have a new subdirectory
called saint-version. From this new subdirectory, run ./configure;
make; make install commands to install configure, compile, and install
SAINT on your system.
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 543

To start, run ./saint from the command-line. SAINT starts using a Web
browser.

CONFIGURING AUDIT PARAMETERS

When you start SAINT using the ./saint command from the installed directory, it
displays a set of links such as the following:

SAINT home
WWDSI
SAINT Home
Data Management
Target Selection
Data Analysis
Configuration Management
SAINT Documentation
Troubleshooting

First, you should select the Configuration Management option to configure

audit parameters. You see a page with many options that you can set. Most default
options should work for you. However, the following option should be set accord-
ing to your need level.

What probe level should I use?

( ) Light
( ) Normal
(*) Heavy
( ) Heavy+
( ) Top 10 (scans specifically for SANS Top 10 Internet Security
Threats)
( ) Custom (Set up custom scan)

This option configures the probe level; the default is set to Heavy. For example,
if you are aware of the SANS top 10 security threats (see http://www.
sans.org/topten.htm) and want to check if your system exhibits such threats,
select the Top 10 option.

When you make a change to any configuration options in this page, save
the changes using the Change the configuration file link.

AUDITING A SINGLE SYSTEM OR NETWORK

Once you have configured SAINT, you can select a target host or network to audit
using the Target Selection link found in the top page.
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544 Part V: Firewalls

1. You have to enter one or more hostnames or IP addresses or subnet

address to audit.
For example, to scan a machine called rhat.nitec.com, I have entered
the following information in the Target Selection page.
Primary target selection
Primary target host(s) or network, e.g. rhat.nitec.com
May be a single host, space-separated list, IP range,
or subnet:
(*) rhat.nitec.com____________________________
OR
File containing list of target host(s):
( ) target_file_______________________________
(*) Scan the target host(s) only. (Disables
smurf check.)
( ) Scan all hosts in the target hosts’
subnet(s).
■ If you want to scan multiple hosts, you can enter their hostnames in
the same line. Separate the names with a space.
■ If you have a file with hostnames, you can specify the path here and
scan them.

If you plan on using SAINT for a number of hosts on a regular basis, create a
file with hostnames and use it here to save some typing and avoid errors.

The first time you start a scan in each SAINT session, it warns you about not
connecting to external Web servers while using SAINT.

2. Select a scanning level from the following options:

Scanning level selection
Should SAINT do a light scan, a normal scan, or should it hit
the (primary) target(s) at full blast?
( ) Light
( ) Normal (may be detected even with minimal
logging)
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 545

(*) Heavy (avoids WinNT ports that are known to crash

system)
( ) Heavy+ (doesn’t avoid WinNT ports that are known
to crash system)
( ) Top 10 (scans specifically for SANS Top 10
Internet Security Threats)
( ) Custom (Set up custom scan)

Scanning can temporarily take many resources from the target machine, so
don’t perform heavy scans on busy machines. Scan when the target system
or network isn’t heavily loaded with other work.

3. If you are behind a firewall, check the Firewall Support option from
below.
Firewall Support
Is the host you are scanning behind a firewall? If it is, you
should enable firewall support, or your results might not be
accurate, or you might get no results at all.
(*) No Firewall Support
( ) Firewall Support

Only choose firewall support if SAINT isn’t running on the target system
itself or SAINT system and the target system or network has a firewall
between them. Making SAINT aware of the firewall’s presence allows for a
more accurate scan.

4. Click Start.
Once the scan is complete you see a results screen. Here is an example
result of running a heavy scan on a single host called rhat.nitec.com.
SAINT data collection

_____________________________________________________________
Data collection in progress...
03/26/01-08:41:37 bin/timeout 60 bin/fping rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:41:37 bin/timeout 60 bin/tcpscan.saint

12754,15104,16660,20432,27665,33270,1-1525,1527-5404,5406-888
7,8889-9999 rhat.nitec.com
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546 Part V: Firewalls

03/26/01-08:41:37 bin/timeout 20 bin/ostype.saint

rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:41:37 bin/timeout 20 bin/finger.saint
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:41:38 bin/timeout 20 bin/rpc.saint
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:41:38 bin/timeout 20 bin/dns.saint
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:41:38 bin/timeout 20 bin/ddos.saint
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:41:39 bin/timeout 60 bin/udpscan.saint

19,53,69,111,137-139,161-162,177,8999,1-18,20-52,54-68,70-110
,112-136,140-160,163-176,178-176
0,1763-2050,32767-33500 rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:22 bin/timeout 20 bin/ftp.saint
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:22 bin/timeout 20 bin/relay.saint
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:22 bin/timeout 20 bin/login.saint -o -u
root -p root telnet rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:22 bin/timeout 20 bin/sendmail.saint smtp
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:22 bin/timeout 90 bin/http.saint 1263
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:22 bin/timeout 20 bin/login.saint -r -u
wank -p wank telnet rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:24 bin/timeout 90 bin/http.saint http
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:24 bin/timeout 20 bin/rlogin.saint
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:24 bin/timeout 20 bin/rsh.saint -u root
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:24 bin/timeout 20 bin/statd.saint Linux 7.0
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:24 bin/timeout 20 bin/ssh.sara
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:25 bin/timeout 20 bin/rsh.saint
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:25 bin/timeout 60 bin/smb.saint
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:27 bin/timeout 20 bin/mountd.sara
rhat.nitec.com
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 547

03/26/01-08:42:27 bin/timeout 20 bin/printer.saint

rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:27 bin/timeout 20 bin/login.saint -r -u
rewt -p satori telnet rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:28 bin/timeout 20 bin/dns-chk.saint
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:29 bin/timeout 20 bin/login.saint -o -u
root telnet rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:43 bin/timeout 20 bin/ftp_bounce.saint
rhat.nitec.com
03/26/01-08:42:44 SAINT run completed
Data collection completed (1 host(s) visited).

As you can see, a number of scans were run including UDP, TCP, DNS,
HTTP, and RPC. SAINT also tries to detect the remote software platform
and version.
5. Click Continue with report and analysis for a summary of your scan
results.

ANALYZING THE SCAN RESULTS

You can analyze the data collected after a scan by either clicking on the Continue
with report and analysis link or clicking on the Data Analysis link from the top
page. Once you are in the Data Analysis page, you see the following options:

Table of contents
Vulnerabilities

* By Approximate Danger Level

* By Type of Vulnerability
* By Vulnerability Count

Host Information
* By Class of Service
* By System Type
* By Internet Domain
* By Subnet
* By Host Name

Trust
* Trusted Hosts
* Trusting Hosts
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548 Part V: Firewalls

You can analyze the gathered data in many ways. The first option allows you to
analyze the data by approximating the danger level. An example of this analysis
for rhat.nitec.com is shown below:

Vulnerabilities - Danger Levels

________________________________________________________________________________
Table of contents

Critical Problems RED Denial of Service

Areas of Concern YELLOW Information Gathering
Potential Problems BROWN Possible vulnerabilities
BROWN Limit Internet Access ?

Note: hosts may appear in multiple categories.

________________________________________________________________________________
RED Denial of Service
* top-10 rhat.nitec.com: denial-of-service in BIND 8.2.2 (CVE 1999-0849
1999-0851)______________________________________________________________________
YELLOW Information Gathering
* rhat.nitec.com: Excessive finger information (CVE 1999-0612)
________________________________________________________________________________
BROWN Possible Vulnerabilities
* rhat.nitec.com: possible vulnerability in Linux lpd
* top-10 rhat.nitec.com: rpc.statd is enabled and may be vulnerable (CVE
1999-0018 1999-0019
1999-0210 1999-0493 2000-0666)
________________________________________________________________________________
BROWN Limit Internet Access ?
Vulnerabilities - Danger Levels (p2 of 2)
* rhat.nitec.com: rlogin is enabled
* rhat.nitec.com: rshd is enabled
* rhat.nitec.com: Sendmail command EXPN is enabled
* rhat.nitec.com: Sendmail command VRFY is enabled
________________________________________________________________________________

One critical problem (marked as RED) is detected for rhat.nitec.com.

top-10 rhat.nitec.com: denial-of-service in BIND 8.2.2 (CVE 1999-0849 1999-0851)

This problem, vulnerability in the DNS software (BIND 8.2.2), is listed as one of
the top 10 security threads by SANS (http://www.sans.org).
A potential problem (marked as YELLOW) is detected:
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 549

rhat.nitec.com: Excessive finger information (CVE 1999-0612)

Here, SAINT reports that the rhat.nitec.com system allows for excessive finger
information when finger service is used to find information on a user. This can
potentially lead to other security risks.
Finally, it also lists some potential vulnerabilities (marked as BROWN), which are:

rhat.nitec.com: possible vulnerability in Linux lpd

top-10 rhat.nitec.com: rpc.statd is enabled and may be vulnerable (CVE
1999-0018 1999-0019
1999-0210 1999-0493 2000-0666)

The printer daemon (lpd) and the Remote Procedure Call (RPC) stat daemon
(rpc.statd) are enabled and may be associated with security issues.
Once you have identified vulnerabilities in a system or network, use the
(Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures) CVE links to learn more about the prob-
lems. For example, to learn more about the DNS vulnerability detected in the scan
for rhat.nitec.com, I can click on the (CVE 1999-0849 1999-0851) links listed in
the analysis and find all the details.
The next step is to shut off the program or service that is vulnerable. This may
not be possible if your business depends on this service or program. So I recom-
mend that you find a fix as quickly as possible and replace the faulty program or
service as soon as possible.

SARA
The original authors of SAINT wrote another security audit tool called Security
Auditor’s Research Assistant (SARA), which can be downloaded from http://www-
arc.com/sara. SARA has a special firewall mode that allows detects hosts without
using ping packets.
The source distribution can be installed as follows:

1. As root, extract the source distribution sara-version.tar.gz (e.g. sara-

3.3.5.tar.gz) using tar xvzf sara-version.tar.gz command. This
creates a new subdirectory called sara-version (e.g. sara-3.3.5).
Change your current directory to this directory.
2. Run make linux to compile the source. A binary file called sara is cre-
ated in the same directory.
3. Run the binary using ./sara command.
Using SARA is like using SAINT.
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550 Part V: Firewalls

VetesCan
VetesCan is a bulk vulnerability scanner that you can download from http://www.
self-evident.com. It contains many programs to check for network security
exploits.
Once you have downloaded and extracted the source distribution, run the sup-
plied install script from the source directory and the scanner is compiled and
built. Running a scan on a host is as simple as running ./vetescan hostname from
the same directory.

Using Port Scanners

Hackers often scan networks for ports that are opened. They run programs that try
to connect to ports and detect what server manages such ports. This information
helps the hacker decide whether a machine is running a server software that has a
known security vulnerability that can be exploited. This is known as port scanning.
You can use port scanners to find which ports are open in your network before the
hacker does. You want to make sure only the ports that you need for your organi-
zation are open. For example, if you only want the Web (HTTP) service to be
accessed from the Internet, only make port 80 available. Here I discuss how you
can use port scanners to find out what ports are opened for a given system.

Performing Footprint Analysis Using nmap

The nmap utility is a port scanner that can scan ports on a single host or a network
of hosts. It can scan TCP, UDP, ICMP ports and also guess the operating system
being used on the target system. Specifically, nmap supports the following scan-
ning options:

◆ Vanilla TCP connect() scanning

◆ TCP SYN (half open) scanning

◆ TCP FIN, Xmas, or NULL (stealth) scanning

◆ TCP ftp proxy (bounce attack) scanning

◆ SYN/FIN scanning using IP fragments (bypasses some packet filters)

◆ TCP ACK and Window scanning

◆ UDP raw ICMP port unreachable scanning

◆ ICMP scanning (ping-sweep)

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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 551

◆ TCP Ping scanning

◆ Direct (non portmapper) RPC scanning

◆ Remote OS Identification by TCP/IP Fingerprinting, and

◆ Reverse-ident scanning

GETTING STARTED WITH NMAP

You can download the latest nmap source tar ball from http://www.insecure.org
and compile and install it as follows:

1. As root, extract the downloaded source in /usr/src using tar xvzf

nmap-version.tar.gz command, then change directory to the newly
created subdirectory.
2. Run ./configure; make; make install to configure and install nmap.

I had trouble compiling the latest version of nmap on Linux so I downloaded

the binary RPM distribution from site and installed it using the following
command:
rpm -vhU http://www.insecure.org/nmap/dist/nmap-
2.53-1.i386.rpm
If you want to install as above, make sure you change the version number as
appropriate.

SCANNING TCP PORTS AND GUESSING OS

To scan for open TCP ports on a target system and at the same time guess what
operating system it’s using, run the nmap program as follows:

/usr/bin/nmap -sT -O hostname/32

Replace the hostname with the target hostname. The /32 tells nmap to scan only
the given host on the network. If you specify /24, it scans all the hosts on the class
C network where the given host resides. If you specify /16, it scans the class B net-
work and /8 scans the class A network.
If you don’t know the hostname, you can use the IP address instead. For example:

/usr/bin/nmap -sT -O 192.168.1.100/32

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552 Part V: Firewalls

This command tells nmap to scan the TCP ports (-sT) on the 192.168.1.100 host
only and guess its operating system. The output of the preceding command is
shown below:

Starting nmap V. 2.53 by [email protected] ( www.insecure.org/nmap/ )

Interesting ports on ns.domain.com (192.168.1.100):
(The 1506 ports scanned but not shown below are in state: closed)
Port State Service
21/tcp open ftp
22/tcp open ssh
25/tcp open smtp
53/tcp open domain
80/tcp open http
111/tcp open sunrpc
113/tcp open auth
443/tcp open https
444/tcp open snpp
554/tcp open rtsp
635/tcp open unknown
2049/tcp open nfs
3306/tcp open mysql
5050/tcp open mmcc
8080/tcp open http-proxy
9090/tcp open zeus-admin
31337/tcp filtered Elite
TCP Sequence Prediction: Class=random positive increments
Difficulty=3130032 (Good luck!)
Remote operating system guess: Linux 2.1.122 - 2.2.14
Nmap run completed -- 1 IP address (1 host up) scanned in 18 seconds

As you can see it has detected several TCP ports that are open and also guessed
the operating system of the machine responding to the 192.168.1.100 address.

SCANNING UDP PORTS ON A HOST

To scan for open UDP ports, run nmap with -sU option. For example:

/usr/bin/nmap -sU hostname/32

Here nmap scans the UDP ports for the specified host.

Using PortSentry to Monitor Connections

PortSentry is a TCP/IP port monitoring tool that is part of the Abacus Project suite
of tools. It allows you to detect port scans (probes) on your host. You can download
PortSentry from http://www.psionic.com/abacus/portsentry.
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 553

When PortSentry detects activity on a monitored port, it can report it and also
perform a specified action, which can include denying further attempts to access
your system. Typically, a hacker scans ports for weakness in a service connected to
a port and then attacks the service. Since PortSentry can detect access attempts to
multiple monitored ports, it can deny the hacker the time he needs to launch mas-
sive attacks to say create buffer overflow or other kinds of attacks. When it detects
a port scan, the following action is taken:

◆ A log entry is made via syslog facility.

◆ The source of the trouble is automatically added to the /etc/hosts.deny

file.
◆ The local host isn’t allowed to send any packets to the scanner system.
This is done by adding a dead route for the scanner system.
◆ The local host is configured to drop all packets from the scanner system
by using packet filtering rule.

GETTING STARTED WITH PORTSENTRY

Once you have downloaded and extracted the source in a subdirectory, edit the
portsentry.conf file to have the following lines:

TCP_PORTS=”1,11,15,79,111,119,143,540,635,1080,1524,2000,5742,6667,12345,12346,2
0034,31337,32771,32772,327
73,32774,40421,49724,54320”
UDP_PORTS=”1,7,9,69,161,162,513,635,640,641,700,32770,32771,32772,32773,32774,31
337,54321”
ADVANCED_PORTS_TCP=”1023”
ADVANCED_PORTS_UDP=”1023”
ADVANCED_EXCLUDE_TCP=”113,139”
ADVANCED_EXCLUDE_UDP=”520,138,137,67”
IGNORE_FILE=”/usr/local/psionic/portsentry/portsentry.ignore”
HISTORY_FILE=”/usr/local/psionic/portsentry/portsentry.history”
BLOCKED_FILE=”/usr/local/psionic/portsentry/portsentry.blocked”
BLOCK_UDP=”1”
BLOCK_TCP=”1”
KILL_ROUTE=”/sbin/iptables -I input -s $TARGET$ -j DROP -l”
KILL_HOSTS_DENY=”ALL: $TARGET$”
KILL_RUN_CMD=”/bin/echo Attack host: $TARGET$ port: $PORT$ >>
/var/log/attacks.log”
SCAN_TRIGGER=”0”

Table 21-1 explains each of the options in this configuration file.

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554 Part V: Firewalls

TABLE 21-1: PORTSENTRY CONFIGURATION OPTIONS

Option Meaning

TCP_PORTS A comma separated list of TCP ports you want PortSentry to

listen to. This list can’t have any spaces in it and the maximum
number of ports that can be listed is 64.
This list isn’t used for the advanced stealth scan detection.
UDP_PORTS The same as above, except for UDP ports. This list isn’t used for
the advanced stealth scan detection.
ADVANCED_PORTS_TCP Advanced monitoring starts at the given port and monitors all
ports below it.
ADVANCED_PORTS_UDP Same as above, except for UDP.
ADVANCED_EXCLUDE_TCP A comma separated list of TCP ports that you want to exclude
from monitoring. Ports such as HTTPS (443) or AUTH (113) etc.
are often accessed by mistake so you should not monitor them.
For example, do you want to set an alarm if someone accesses
https://www.yourdomain.com by mistake instead of
http://www.yourdomain.com? Most likely not.

ADVANCED_EXCLUDE_UDP Same as above, except for UDP.

IGNORE_FILE A fully qualified path of a file that lists IP addresses of hosts
that PortSentry ignores.
BLOCKED_FILE A fully qualified path of a file that lists IP addresses of hosts
that PortSentry denies access.
BLOCK_UDP This option enables (1) or disables (0) all automatic responses
to UDP scans.
BLOCK_TCP Same as above, but for TCP.
KILL_ROUTE This is set to a command that disables communication
between the PortSentry system and the bad guy (target host of
PortSentry). When an attack is detected, this command is
executed. The macro $TARGET$ is substituted for the IP
address of the offending target host and $PORT$ is expanded
to the port used by the attacker.
As shown in the preceding configuration, the iptables
command is used to drop packets when an attack is detected.
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 555

Option Meaning

KILL_HOSTS_DENY This specifies the line that is appended to the /etc/hosts.

deny file. The default configuration show above adds an ALL:
$TARGET$ line where the macro $TARGET$ expands to the IP
address of the attacker host. The /etc/hosts.deny file is
used by TCP wrapper programs to decide if connection from a
host is denied on any services. Since ALL is used, TCP wrappers
reject every connection. You can also drop in any TCP wrapper
escape codes here as well (such as %h or twist). The macro
$PORT$ substitutes the port that was connected to by the
attacker.
KILL_RUN_CMD This specifies a command that is run before the KILL_ROUTE
specified command is run. For example, the sample
configuration shows that the echo command is run to write a
log entry about an attack.
Note that if you are thinking about running a counter attack
script, simply don’t. It isn’t appropriate and not worth the
trouble that you can get into legally or with resources.
SCAN_TRIGGER Sets how fast PortSentry reacts to incoming port scans.
Default setting of 0 makes it react immediately. For example, a
setting of 3 allows a potential attacker perform scan on three
ports. Leave the default as is.
PORT_BANNER When PortSentry detects a scan, it can send a text banner
message set with this option. The banner isn’t displayed for
advanced stealth mode operation.
If you want to ignore a few hosts even if they connect to a
monitored port, add their IP addresses in portsentry.ignore file.
Now you can compile and install the source using the make
linux && make install command. The binaries and
configuration files are installed in /usr/local/psionic/
portsentry directory. If you want to change this location,
modify the Makefile, portsentry.conf, and
portsentry_config.h files before running the preceding
make command.

Before you can start PortSentry, you need to know which of

the six modes to use as shown in Table 21-2.
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556 Part V: Firewalls

TABLE 21-2: PORTSENTRY MODES

Mode Meaning

-tcp Basic port-bound TCP mode. PortSentry binds to all the ports listed in
TCP_PORTS option in portsentry.conf file.

-udp Basic port-bound UDP mode. PortSentry binds to all the ports listed in
UDP_PORTS option in portsentry.conf file.

-stcp Stealth TCP scan detection mode. PortSentry uses a raw socket to monitor all
incoming packets. If an incoming packet is destined for a monitored port it
reacts to block the host. This method detects connect() scans, SYN/half-open
scans, and FIN scans.
-sudp Stealth UDP scan detection mode. This operates the same as the preceding TCP
stealth mode. UDP ports need to be listed and they are then monitored. This
doesn’t bind any sockets, and it reacts to any UDP packet.
-atcp Advanced TCP stealth scan detection mode. PortSentry listens to all the ports
under ADVANCED_PORTS_TCP option specified port number. Any host
connecting to any port in this range that isn’t excluded (in
ADVANCED_EXCLUDE_TCP option) is blocked. This mode is the most sensitive
and the most effective of all the protection options. Make sure you know which
ports you need to exclude for this mode to work properly. For example, if you
include the AUTH (113) port here, an outgoing FTP connection may be rejected
by an external FTP server that sends a request to identd daemon on your
system.
PortSentry allows FTP servers to make a temporary data connection back to the
client on a high (> 1024) port.
-audp Advanced UDP stealth scan detection mode. This is a very advanced option
and you stand a good chance of causing false alarms. PortSentry makes no
distinction between broadcast and direct traffic. If you have a router on your
local network putting out RIP broadcasts, then you probably block them. Use
this option with extreme caution. Be sure you use exclusions in the
ADVANCED_EXCLUDE_UDP option.

For example, to run PortSentry in standard TCP mode use usr/local/psionic/

portsentry/portsentry -tcp command. To ensure that PortSentry is started prop-
erly, you can view the /var/log/messages file to see such lines as the following:

adminalert: Psionic PortSentry 1.0 is starting.

adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 1
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 11
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 557

adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 15

adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 79
adminalert: ERROR: could not bind TCP socket: 79. Attempting to continue
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 111
adminalert: ERROR: could not bind TCP socket: 111. Attempting to continue
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 119
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 143
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 540
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 635
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 1080
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 1524
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 2000
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 5742
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 6667
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 12345
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 12346
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 20034
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 31337
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 32771
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 32772
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 32773
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 32774
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 40421
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 49724
adminalert: Going into listen mode on TCP port: 54320
adminalert: PortSentry is now active and listening.

The last line indicates that PortSentry is running. You should see all the ports
you told it to watch in the log. If a port is used, PortSentry warns you that it
couldn’t bind to it and continues until all the other ports are bound. In the preced-
ing sample log entries, finger port (79) and sunrpc port (111) couldn’t be bound to
PortSentry because other services are already bound to them.

Note that for the advanced stealth scan detection mode PortSentry only
lists the ports that it doesn’t listen for.This is an inverse binding.

Now, to see what happens when another host tries to connect to a monitored
port, do the following experiment:

1. Run tail -f /var/log/messages on the system running PortSentry.

2. From another host on your network that has not been in the portsentry.
ignore list, connect to a monitored port and watch the log window on the
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558 Part V: Firewalls

PortSentry machine. For example, I connected to the monitored system

from a host called nano.nitec.com on a monitored port 54320. Here is
what /var/log/messages showed:
attackalert: Connect from host: nano.nitec.com/207.183.233.19
to TCP port: 54320
attackalert: External command run for host: 207.183.233.19
using command: “/bin/echo Attack host: 207.183.233.19 port:
54320 >> /var/log/attacks.log”
attackalert: Host 207.183.233.19 has been blocked via
wrappers with string: “ALL: 207.183.233.19”

I didn’t have the KILL_ROUTE option turned on in portsentry.conf, so the

iptables command was not issued.
3. Repeated connection attempts generates logs such as the following:
attackalert: Connect from host: nano.nitec.com/207.183.233.19
to TCP port: 54320
attackalert: Host: 207.183.233.19 is already blocked.
Ignoring

4. For advanced mode, you can telnet to any port not excluded to trip an
alarm. If you disconnect and try to telnet again, you should find that the
target system is unreachable.

To make sure PortSentry starts up each time you boot the system, append the
following line in /etc/rc.d/rc.local script. Don’t forget to change the mode
argument to one of the six possible modes.

/usr/local/psionic/portsentry mode

Using Nessus Security Scanner

The Nessus security scanner is a client/server security auditing tool.

◆ The server, nessusd, is in charge of the audits.

◆ The client, nessus, interferes with the user through X11/GTK+ interface or
command line.

COMPILING AND INSTALLING NESSUS

Here is how you can install and run this scanner.

1. Become root. Download the latest version of four files: nessus-

libraries-version.tar.gz, libnasl-version.tar.gz, nessus-core.
version.tar.gz, and nessus-plugins.version.tar.gz from
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 559

http://www.nessus.org. You must compile them in this order. Extract

each file using tar xvzf filename.tar.gz command. For example:
tar xvzf nessus-libraries-1.0.7a.tar.gz
tar xvzf libnasl-1.0.7a.tar.gz
tar xvzf nessus-core-1.0.7a.tar.gz
tar xvzf nessus-plugins-1.0.7a.tar.gz

These commands don’t extract all the source code in nessus-libraries, lib-
nasl, nessus-core, and nessus-plugins directories. Here the software ver-
sion is 1.0.7a.
2. Compile the nessus-libraries by changing your current directory to
nessus-libraries and running ./configure and make && make install
to install the libraries.
3. Add /usr/local/lib in /etc/ld.so.conf and run ldconfig.
4. Compile libnasl by changing your current directory to libnasl and run-
ning ./configure and make && make install to install the libraries.
5. Compile nessus-core by changing your current directory to nessus-core
and running ./configure and make && make install to install the core.

If you don’t use The X Window System or you don’t want the nessus client to
use GTK, you can compile a stripped-down version of the client that works
from the command-line.To do this, add the --disable-gtk option to con-
figure while building nessus-core as follows: ./configure --disable-
gtk ; make && make install

6. Compile nessus-plugins by changing your current directory to nessus-

plugins and running ./configure and the make command. Then run make
install to install the plugins.

At this point, you have the nessus built.

CONFIGURING NESSUS SERVER

The nessusd server has its own users database. Each user has a set of restrictions.
This allows you to share a nessusd server for a whole network and different admin-
istrators who only test their part of the network. The utility nessus-adduser can
create a new nessus user account. Here is a sample session using this command.

Addition of a new nessusd user

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560 Part V: Firewalls

------------------------------
Login : renaud
Password : secret
Authentication type (cipher or plaintext) [cipher] : cipher
Now enter the rules for this user, and hit ctrl-D once you are done :
(the user can have an empty rule set)
^D
Login : renaud
Password : secret
Authentication : cipher
Rules :
Is that ok (y/n) ? [y] y
user added.

The Nessus server configuration is stored in /usr/local/etc/nessus/nessusd.

conf. You should take a look at it and see whether anything needs to be changed.
Most likely, you can keep the defaults.
To start the Nessus server, run ./nessusd -D from the command-line as root.

USING NESSUS CLIENT TO SCAN

Follows these steps to configure the Nessus client:

1. Run nessus from the command line.

By default, the Nessus client shows
■ The Nessus server hostname (local machine)
■ Default port 3001
■ Default encryption type
2. Use the username/password pair created earlier to login.
3. Select the security check plugins that you want to perform.
To know more about a particular check, click on the plugin name and
more information appears. You can select/un-select options at the plugin
level. Some plugins may require that you enter additional information at
the plugin level.
4. Click on the Scan option button, then enter
■ Range of ports to scan
■ Maximum process threads to use on the system (the more threads you
use, the more resources are used on both local system and the target
system)
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 561

■ Path to CGI scripts on the target system

■ Port scanner software to use
These actions are optional:
■ A reverse DNS lookup on the IP address of the target host before
scanning
■ Optimizing the test
5. Define the target system by clicking on the Target section button. Enter
either
■ A single hostname, IP address, or IP address/CIDR
■ A comma-separated list of hostnames or IP addresses
For example, you can enter 192.168.1.0/24 to scan the entire 192.168.1.0
network.
6. Click the Start the scan button to start the test.

To restrict the test using one or more rules, you can add rules using the User
tab window to exclude one or more systems from a scan.

Once you have started the scan, you see a graphical status for each host
showing. After the scan is complete, a report window appears showing all
the findings. For each host, you have a detailed report, which also points
out the potential solution and/or Common Vulnerability Exposure (CVE)
identification number.

Using Strobe
Strobe is a high speed TCP port scanner. You can download it from http://www.
insecure.org/nmap/scanners. Once you have downloaded the source distribu-
tion, you can extract it and run make install from the new strobe subdirectory.
You can run strobe from this directory using the ./strobe hostname -f com-
mand. For example:

strobe nano.nitec.com -f
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562 Part V: Firewalls

The preceding command scans a host called nano.nitec.com in fast mode (-f).
Here’s a sample output:

strobe 1.03 (c) 1995 Julian Assange ([email protected]).

nano.nitec.com echo 7/tcp Echo [95,JBP]
nano.nitec.com discard 9/tcp Discard [94,JBP]
nano.nitec.com daytime 13/tcp Daytime [93,JBP]
nano.nitec.com qotd 17/tcp Quote of the Day [100,JBP]
nano.nitec.com chargen 19/tcp ttytst source Character Generator
nano.nitec.com ftp 21/tcp File Transfer [Control] [96,JBP]
nano.nitec.com smtp 25/tcp Simple Mail Transfer [102,JBP]
nano.nitec.com nameserver 42/tcp Host Name Server [99,JBP]
nano.nitec.com domain 53/tcp Domain Name Server [81,95,PM1]
nano.nitec.com kerberos 88/tcp Kerberos [BCN]
nano.nitec.com loc-srv 135/tcp Location Service [JXP]
nano.nitec.com netbios-ssn 139/tcp NETBIOS Session Service [JBP]
nano.nitec.com ldap 389/tcp Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
nano.nitec.com microsoft-ds 445/tcp
nano.nitec.com printer 515/tcp spooler (lpd)
nano.nitec.com nterm 1026/tcp remote_login network_terminal
nano.nitec.com irc-serv 6666/tcp internet relay chat server
nano.nitec.com afs3-bos 7007/tcp basic overseer process

You can also generate statistics on the scan by using the -s option.

Using Log Monitoring and

Analysis Tools
Logs are very valuable in fighting security problems. Often a hacker makes many
failed attempts before getting in. Sometimes I have seen failed attempts for days
from hackers which led me to fix one or more security problems before anyone got
it. So monitoring logs and using tools to analyze them is a great security measure.
Here I will discuss log monitoring and analysis tools.

Using logcheck for detecting unusual log entries

You can use the logcheck tool to scan your system logs for unusual log activity
caused by port scans or other attacks. Download the source distribution from
http://www.psionic.com/abacus/logcheck. A typical logcheck-enabled system
works as follows:
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 563

◆ Every hour logcheck script is run, which runs the logtail program.

◆ The logtail program finds the position in the log where logcheck finished
last time (if any).
◆ The logcheck script performs keyword searches on the new log entries for
■ Active system attacks
■ Security violations
■ Unusual system activity
◆ If there is anything to report, it sends an email to the administrator

INSTALLING LOGCHECK
To install logcheck from the source distribution do the following:

1. As root extract the source distribution using the tar xvzf logcheck-
version.tar.gz command. Enter the newly created logceck-version
subdirectory.
2. Run make linux to compile and install. The logcheck configuration files
are stored in /usr/local/etc directory. The logcheck.sh script is also
stored in /usr/local/etc. However the logtail program is stored in
/usr/local/bin.

CONFIGURING LOGCHECK
The logcheck.sh is the main script. There are four configuration files:

◆ logcheck.hacking

The logcheck.hacking file contains a list of keywords that logcheck

scans for in the logs. When logcheck finds a keyword match in a log file it
reports it under ACTIVE SYSTEM ATTACK title in the email message.
Keywords are case insensitive.
◆ logcheck.ignore

The logcheck.ignore file contains a list of keywords that you want

logcheck to ignore. Anything that you don’t specify here is reported in the
email under Unusual System Activity. Keywords are case sensitive.
◆ logcheck.violations

The logcheck.violations file contains a list of keywords that indicate a

security violation. A keyword match from this file results in reporting the
entry in Security Violation section of the email.
◆ logcheck.violations.ignore
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564 Part V: Firewalls

To exclude a violation keyword from being reported, you can use the
logcheck.violations.ignore file. Any keyword that is found in
logcheck.violations.ignore isn’t reported, even if logcheck.
violations includes it. Note that keywords searches for the ignore
file is insensitive.

Ideally, logcheck would like to scan a single log file such as /var/log/
messages, but that’s not really a good idea from a system management point of
view. Therefore, logcheck actually creates temporary log files by combining /var/
log/messages, /var/log/secure and /var/log/maillog to a temporary file in
/usr/local/tmp/check.PID.

The default logcheck.sh script doesn’t check the FTP transfer log /var/
log/xferlog. To check it, add $LOGTAIL /var/log/xferlog >>
$TMPDIR/check.$$ in the section where you find the following lines:
$LOGTAIL /var/log/messages > $TMPDIR/check.$$
$LOGTAIL /var/log/secure >> $TMPDIR/check.$$
$LOGTAIL /var/log/maillog >> $TMPDIR/check.$$

By default, logcheck sends email to the root account on the localhost. If

you want to change that modify the logcheck.sh script by changing SYSADMIN=
root to SYSADMIN=your@emailaddress, where your@emailaddress is the email
address you want to use instead. For local users, simply specify username instead of
the full address.
Decide whether you want to run logcheck.sh on a hourly, daily, or weekly,
basis. I recommend that you run it on a hourly basis at the beginning, then switch
to a daily report. This allows you to weed out false alerts at the beginning quickly,
then get a daily report. To setup an hourly cron job, simply run the following com-
mand as root once:

ln -s /usr/local/etc/logcheck.sh /etc/cron.hourly/logcheck.sh

Similarly, to run it every day, run:

ln -s /usr/local/etc/logcheck.sh /etc/cron.daily/logcheck.sh

Once you have created one of these two symbolic links, cron daemon runs the
script on the schedule you choose.
If you want to run the logcheck script more frequently than once an hour, add
the script in /etc/crontab instead. For example:

00,15,30,45 * * * * /usr/local/etc/logcheck.sh
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 565

This line in /etc/crontab has crond daemon run the script every 15 minutes.

Swatch
This is a Perl-based system log (/var/log/message) monitoring script that can
monitor system events and trigger alarms based on patterns stored in a configura-
tion file. It has multiple alarm methods, (visual and event triggers). Here is how you
can install and configure swatch.

1. Download the tar ball from http://www.stanford.edu/~atkins/

swatch/ and extract it as root in a directory. Change directory to the
newly created subdirectory.
2. Run perl Makefile.PL ; make ; make test commands.
3. Modify the swatchrc.monitor or swatcher.personal configuration file
to suit your needs. The configuration format is quite simple. For example:
watchfor /keyword/
echo bold
bell 3

The preceding configuration tells swatch to echo the bell (character 0x7)
three times if the keyword is seen in the /var/log/messages file. Rename
your configuration file to .swatchrc and keep it in /root/ directory.
4. Run swatch using the /path/to/swatch/swatch --config-file=/
root/.swatchrc command on a xterm or shell window.

IPTraf
IPTraf is an ncurses-based IP LAN monitor that utilizes the built-in raw packet cap-
ture interface of the Linux kernel. It generates various network statistics, including

◆ Total, IP, TCP, UDP, ICMP, and non-IP byte counts

◆ TCP source and destination addresses and ports

◆ TCP packet and byte counts

◆ TCP flag statuses

◆ UDP source and destination information

◆ ICMP type information

◆ OSPF source and destination information

◆ TCP and UDP service statistics

◆ Interface packet counts

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566 Part V: Firewalls

◆ Interface IP checksum error counts

◆ Interface activity indicators

◆ LAN station statistics

IPTraf can be used to monitor the load on an IP network, the most used types of
network services, the proceedings of TCP connections, and others. You can down-
load IPTraf from http://cebu.mozcom.com/riker/iptraf.

Using CGI Scanners

CGI scanners are used to scan a Web server for CGI script-related vulnerabilities.
There are two scanners that I like.

Using cgichk.pl
This is a simple CGI scanner written in Perl. You can download the source from
http://www.packetstorm.securify.com Web site. When run from the command
line using perl cgichk.pl command, it asks you to enter a hostname for the Web
server you want to scan and a port number (default 80). You can also choose to log
the results in a file.
First, it checks the HTTP protocol version being used by the Web server. For
example, the following sample session shows that we are scanning a machine
called rhat.nitec.com.

CGI scanner [in Perl] v1.1

Host: rhat.nitec.com
HTTP Port [80]:
Log Session?(y/n)y
Log File [rhat.nitec.com.scan]:
Press [enter] to check the httpd version...
HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Tue, 27 Mar 2001 04:50:47 GMT
Server: Apache/2.0.14 (Unix)
Last-Modified: Mon, 26 Mar 2001 20:23:13 GMT
ETag: “1ba42-1000-c65eee40”
Connection: close
Content-Type: text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1

Once it detects the protocol version, it asks you to press the enter key to start
checking for CGI vulnerabilities. Following output shows a sample scan for CGI
security issues on rhat.nitec.com Web server running Apache 2.0.
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 567

Searching for UnlG - backdoor : Not Found

Searching for THC - backdoor : Not Found
Searching for phf : Not Found
Searching for Count.cgi : Not Found
Searching for test-cgi : Not Found
Searching for nph-test-cgi : Not Found
Searching for nph-publish : Not Found
Searching for php.cgi : Not Found
Searching for handler : Not Found
Searching for webgais : Not Found
Searching for websendmail : Not Found
Searching for webdist.cgi : Not Found
Searching for faxsurvey : Not Found
Searching for htmlscript : Not Found
Searching for pfdisplay : Not Found
Searching for perl.exe : Not Found
Searching for wwwboard.pl : Not Found
Searching for www-sql : Not Found
Searching for view-source : Not Found
Searching for campas : Not Found
Searching for aglimpse : Not Found
Searching for glimpse : Not Found
Searching for man.sh : Not Found
Searching for AT-admin.cgi : Not Found
Searching for filemail.pl : Not Found
Searching for maillist.pl : Not Found
Searching for jj : Not Found
Searching for info2www : Not Found
Searching for files.pl : Not Found
Searching for finger : Not Found
Searching for bnbform.cgi : Not Found
Searching for survey.cgi : Not Found
Searching for AnyForm2 : Not Found
Searching for textcounter.pl : Not Found
Searching for classifields.cgi : Not Found
Searching for environ.cgi : Not Found
Searching for wrap : Not Found
Searching for cgiwrap : Not Found
Searching for guestbook.cgi : Not Found
Searching for edit.pl : Not Found
Searching for perlshop.cgi : Not Found
Searching for anyboard.cgi : Not Found
Searching for webbbs.cgi : Found!
Searching for environ.cgi : Not Found
Searching for whois_raw.cgi : Not Found
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568 Part V: Firewalls

Searching for _vti_inf.html : Not Found

Searching for service.pwd : Not Found
Searching for users.pwd : Not Found
Searching for authors.pwd : Not Found
Searching for administrators : Not Found
Searching for shtml.dll : Not Found
Searching for shtml.exe : Not Found
Searching for args.bat : Not Found
Searching for uploader.exe : Not Found
Searching for rguest.exe : Not Found
Searching for wguest.exe : Not Found
Searching for bdir - samples : Not Found
Searching for CGImail.exe : Not Found
Searching for newdsn.exe : Not Found
Searching for fpcount.exe : Not Found
Searching for counter.exe : Not Found
Searching for visadmin.exe : Not Found
Searching for openfile.cfm : Not Found
Searching for exprcalc.cfm : Not Found
Searching for dispopenedfile : Not Found
Searching for sendmail.cfm : Not Found
Searching for codebrws.asp : Not Found
Searching for codebrws.asp 2 : Not Found
Searching for showcode.asp : Not Found
Searching for search97.vts : Not Found
Searching for carbo.dll : Not Found
Server may have CGI vulnerabilities.

In the preceding code, the bold line is a potential CGI security risk. The
webbbs.cgi script can be abused by script kiddies and wannabe hackers to break
into the system. If your scan results one or more identified security risks, consider
removing the scripts or updating them with appropriate fixes.

Using Whisker
Whisker is a Perl-based CGI scanner that I like a lot. You can download the source
distribution from http://www.wiretrip.net/rfp. Once downloaded, extract the
source in a directory and run the whisker.pl script as perl whisker.pl -h host-
name. For example, perl whisker -h rhat.nitec.com command runs the scan-
ner on the Apache Web server running on the named host. The result is:

= Host: rhat.nitec.com
= Server: Apache/2.0.14 (Unix)
+ 200 OK: HEAD /cgi-bin/webbbs.cgi
+ 200 OK: HEAD /manual/
+ 200 OK: HEAD /temp/
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 569

The scan output uses HTTP status code (such as 200, 303, 403, and 404) to indi-
cate security risks. For example, the preceding scan result shows that there are three
potential risks found (200) on the server. If you want more information, run
whisker with -i and -v options. For example, the perl whisker.pl -h
www.domain.com -i -v command runs it on www.domain.com. Here is a sample
scan output:

= - = - = - = - = - =
= Host: www.domain.com
- Directory index: /
= Server: Apache/1.3.12 (Unix) mod_oas/5.1/
- www.apache.org
+ 302 Found: GET /scripts/
+ 403 Forbidden: GET /cgi-bin/
+ 200 OK: HEAD /cgi-bin/upload.pl
+ 403 Forbidden: HEAD /~root/
+ 403 Forbidden: HEAD /apps/
+ 200 OK: HEAD /shop/
+ 200 OK: HEAD /store/

Notice that there are a few 200 OK lines, which means that the exploits exists.
403 states that access to exploitable resource is denied but it still exists — this is
both good and bad. It’s good because, as the server is configured, the exploit isn’t
accessible. If the configuration changes, the exploit may become available; that’s
why 403 in this case is bad news. The 302 lines indicate false positives. This is
because many servers are configured to respond with a custom error message when
a requested URL is missing and this generates a 302 HTTP status code.
You can also use -I n (where n = 0 to 9) option to enable evasive mode for evad-
ing Intrusion Detection System (IDS) on the Web server. So if you use any IDS solu-
tion, you can also test your IDS effectiveness. For example, if your IDS knows about
/cgi-bin/phf (a known CGI risk), using -I 1 attempts to trick your IDS using URL
encoding so the /cgi-bin/phf request is sent in an encoded URL instead of directly
using /cgi-bin/phf in the request. Similarly, -I 2 tries to confuse an IDS using
extra /./ pattern in the URL. For details, run whisker without any argument.

Using Malice
Malice is also another Perl-based CGI vulnerability scanner. It has anti-IDS evasion
capabilities and a large list of checks.

Using Password Crackers

When a hacker gets a hold of a password file, he runs password cracker programs
to detect weak passwords that are easy to guess or based on dictionary words. By
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570 Part V: Firewalls

using password crackers on your own password files you can detect guessable or
weak passwords before the hacker does. Here I will discuss how you can use pass-
word crackers.

John The Ripper

This is a very popular password cracking tool that you can download from http://
www.openwall.com/john. This is a good tool to use to try to crack your password
file (/etc/passwd) so that you can find weak passwords.

When using a cracker program, be sure that you are authorized to run crack
programs. If you work for a company and aren’t directly responsible for sys-
tem administration, ask the boss for the permission or unnecessary legal
trouble may find you.

To install john, do the following:

1. Download and extract the source distribution from the official Web site.
Change your current directory to the src subdirectory under the newly
created subdirectory called john-version (where version is the version
number of your source distribution).
2. Run the make linux-x86-any-elf command to compile and install john
in the run subdirectory in john-version/run.

To crack your password file, follow these steps:

1. If you are using shadow password, unshadow it by running the following

command from the run subdirectory under john-version directory:
./unshadow /etc/passwd /etc/shadow > /etc/passwd.john

2. Run ./john /etc/passwd.john from the same subdirectory.

Depending on how many passwords you have in the password file and
their complexity, the cracking can take a very long time.
3. To get the cracked passwords, run ./john -show /tmp/passwd.john
command from the run subdirectory.
4. To see if any root account (UID = 0) got cracked or not run ./john -
show -users:0 /tmp/passwd.john command from the run subdirectory.
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 571

Cracking passwords takes a lot of system resources. Don’t run john on a pro-
duction server. If you must run on a busy system, consider using nice to
lower priority. For example, nice -n 20 /path/to/john /etc/
passwd.txt & command is nice to your system.

If you run john in the foreground (that is, you don’t use & when running it),
you can press control+c to abort it. You can also restore an aborted session
by running john with only the -restore command-line option.

Crack
Like John the Ripper (john), you can use Crack to take a crack at cracking your
passwords. Crack is the classic password cracker. It can be downloaded from
http://www.users.dircon.co.uk/~crypto.

Using Intrusion Detection Tools

Intrusion detection tools are great when it comes to detecting security breaches in
a computer system. Here are two such tools that can help you enhance your system
security.

Tripwire
Tripwire Open Source Linux Edition, under the General Public License (GPL), is a
file and directory integrity checker that creates a database of signatures for all files
and directories and stores them in a single file. When Tripwire is run again, it com-
putes new signatures for current files and directories, then compares them with the
original signatures stored in the database. If there is a discrepancy, the file or direc-
tory name is reported with information about the discrepancy.
See the Using Tripwire Open Source, Linux Edition section in Chapter 9 for
details on how to use Tripwire.

LIDS
The Linux Intrusion Detection System (LIDS) enhances security from within the
kernel of the Linux operating system. In the LIDS security model, the subject,
the object, and the access type are in the kernel, so it’s called a reference monitor.
The LIDS project Web site is http://www.lids.org/about.html. Chapter 8
describes this tool.
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572 Part V: Firewalls

Using Packet Filters and Sniffers

Packet filtering is a technique that allows you to drop or reject unwanted IP pack-
ets. Similarly, packet sniffers allow you to detect dangerous payload within the
packets. Tools that provide you with such powerful security techniques are dis-
cussed here.

Snort
This is a packet sniffer, packet logger, and network intrusion detection system that
analyzes network traffic analysis and logs IP packets. Snort uses a flexible rules
language and a detection engine that utilizes modular plugin architecture. Snort
has a real-time alert capability that incorporates alert mechanisms for

◆ Syslog

◆ A user-specified file

◆ A UNIX socket

◆ Win Popup messages to Windows clients using Samba’s smbclient.

You can download snort from http://www.snort.org.

If you use network switches instead of hubs, your switch must mirror traffic
on the switched port for the machine running snort.

Snort uses the libpcap library. You must install libpcap library, which can be
downloaded from http://www.tcpdump.org. It features rules based logging and
can perform content searching/matching in addition to being used to detect a vari-
ety of other attacks and probes, such as

◆ Buffer overflows

◆ Stealth port scans

◆ CGI attacks

◆ SMB probes

Here is how you compile and install snort on your system:

1. Download snort source distribution from the official Web site. As root,
extract the source using tar xvzf snort-version.tar.gz command.
From the newly created subdirectory, run ./configure to configure the
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 573

source. The configure script detects if you have supported database (such
as MySQL and Postgres) and for files necessary for the database plugin.

Although I had MySQL with appropriate header and library distributions,

Snort couldn’t compile because of an error. So I had to disable the
MySQL related compilation by changing the CPPFLAGS = -I/usr/
include/mysql -DENABLE_MYSQL -I/usr/include/pgsql DENABLE_
POSTGRESQL -I/usr/include -DENABLE_SSL line in Makefile to
CPPFLAGS = -I/usr/include -DENABLE_SSL

2. Run make && make install to compile and install snort.

3. Configure Snort using the snort.conf file.
■ Set the HOME_NET variable in the file to your home network.
■ Optionally, you can set the DNS_SERVERS variable.
■ If you plan on creating new snort rules, consult the snort rule-writing
guide found on the official Web site.
4. Save the configuration file changes.
5. Create the log directory for Snort by using mkdir -p /var/log/snort.

When you run Snort on a specific network interface it’s in promiscuous

mode.

USING SNORT IN SNIFFER MODE

To sniff TCP/IP packets on the network, run the /usr/local/bin/snort -v
command. This prints TCP/IP packet headers, like this:

03/28-22:34:48.123739 207.183.233.19:1660 -> 207.183.233.20:22

TCP TTL:128 TOS:0x0 ID:37163 IpLen:20 DgmLen:40 DF
***A**** Seq: 0xA99ACDBA Ack: 0xAE054C32 Win: 0x7F0 TcpLen: 20
=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+
03/28-22:34:48.123810 207.183.233.19:1660 -> 207.183.233.20:22
TCP TTL:128 TOS:0x0 ID:37164 IpLen:20 DgmLen:40 DF
***A**** Seq: 0xA99ACDBA Ack: 0xAE054E62 Win: 0x5C0 TcpLen: 20
=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+
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574 Part V: Firewalls

03/28-22:34:48.123879 207.183.233.19:1660 -> 207.183.233.20:22

TCP TTL:128 TOS:0x0 ID:37165 IpLen:20 DgmLen:40 DF
***A**** Seq: 0xA99ACDBA Ack: 0xAE05508A Win: 0x398 TcpLen: 20
=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+

Snort prints packet header information until you stop it by pressing Control+C.
When you abort Snort using such a key combination, it prints packet statistics, like
this:

===============================================================================
Snort received 441 packets and dropped 0(0.000%) packets
Breakdown by protocol: Action Stats:
TCP: 438 (99.320%) ALERTS: 0
UDP: 0 (0.000%) LOGGED: 0
ICMP: 0 (0.000%) PASSED: 0
ARP: 0 (0.000%)
IPv6: 0 (0.000%)
IPX: 0 (0.000%)
OTHER: 3 (0.680%)
DISCARD: 0 (0.000%)
===============================================================================
Fragmentation Stats:
Fragmented IP Packets: 0 (0.000%)
Rebuilt IP Packets: 0
Frag elements used: 0
Discarded(incomplete): 0
Discarded(timeout): 0
===============================================================================
TCP Stream Reassembly Stats:
TCP Packets Used: 0 (0.000%)
Reconstructed Packets: 0 (0.000%)
Streams Reconstructed: 0
===============================================================================

If you want to see more than just the TCP/UDP/ICMP header information, such
as application data in transit then do the following:

◆ Run /usr/local/bin/snort -vd. If you want more information such as

the link layer headers, run snort with -vde options.
◆ If you want to log the packets to a log directory, run snort with -vde -l
path options where path should be a suitable log directory.

◆ If you want to analyze the logged packets using a tcpdump format com-
patible analysis tool, you can use -l path -b options.
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 575

USING SNORT IN NETWORK INTRUSION DETECTION MODE

You need to have a rule file, such as snort.conf, to run in network intrusion
detection mode. For example:

/usr/local/bin/snort -d -c snort.conf

Here, Snort applies all the rules in snort.conf file and log entries in /var/log/
snort directory by default.

By default, Snort uses full alert mode (-A full), which may be a bit slow for a
fast network. You can use -A fast instead. This ensures that Snort writes sim-
ple alert messages in the log file and logs packet data in tcpdump format.

GShield
GShield is an iptables firewall that you can download from http://muse.linux-
mafia.org/gshield.html. It supports network address translations (NAT), de-
militarized zone (DMZ), port forwarding, transparent proxy and many other cool
features.

Useful Utilities for Security

Administrators
There are many programs that a security conscious administrator needs frequently.
Here I will discuss four such security utilities for such security emergencies.

Using Netcat
Netcat (nc) is a network utility that allows you to create raw socket connection to a
port. Over a raw connection, data can be sent or received. It’s a great network
debugging and exploration tool that can act as a backend for another script that
serves as a client or server using TCP or UDP protocols.

INSTALLING NETCAT
Here is how you can install Netcat on your system:

1. Download the Netcat RPM source from RPM sites, such as http://www.
rpmfind.net.

Simply enter netcat as the keyword for the search interface and you find
both source and binary RPM distributions.
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576 Part V: Firewalls

2. Download the netcat-version-src.rpm. Don’t forget to replace version

with appropriate version number.
3. As root, run rpm -ivh netcat-version-src.rpm. This installs a tar ball file
in /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES directory. Run mkdir -p /usr/src/red-
hat/SOURCES/netcat; mv /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/nc*.tgz
/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/netcat commands to create a subdirectory
called netcat in /usr/src/redhat/SOURCES and move the ncversion.
tgz (for example, nc110.tgz) file in this directory.

4. Change your current directory to the newly created /usr/src/redhat/

SOURCES/netcat directory. From this directory, run tar xvzf
ncversion.tgz command to extract the source.

5. Once extracted, run make linux command to compile the source. If you
have errors, try make nc instead. Either way, you end up with a new
binary called nc in the current directory. Install the binary in a suitable
directory, such as /usr/bin using cp nc /usr/bin; chmod 755
/usr/bin/nc commands.

Now you have Netcat binary nc installed on your system. You should be
able to access it from anywhere as long as you have /usr/bin directory
in your path.

Telnet is a very limited TCP client. Using it in scripts is difficult due to its limi-
tations. For example, telnet client doesn’t allow you to send arbitrary binary
data to the other side, because it interprets some of the byte sequences as
its internal command options.Telnet also mixes network output with its own
internal messages, which makes it difficult for keeping the raw output clean.
It’s also not capable of receiving connection requests nor can it use UDP
packets. Netcat doesn’t have any of these limitations and it’s much smaller
and faster than telnet and has many other advantages.

Netcat’s major features are:

◆ TCP or UDP connection to and from any port

◆ Full DNS (forward/reverse) lookup capabilities

◆ Ability to use any local source port and network address

◆ Built-in port-scanning capabilities, with randomizer

◆ Built-in loose source-routing capability

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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 577

◆ Slow-send mode, one line every N seconds

◆ Hex dump of transmitted and received data

◆ Optional ability to let another program service established connections

◆ Optional telnet-options responder

The simplest way to use Netcat is to run nc hostname portnumber. This makes
a TCP connection to the named host on the given port. There are many command-
line options that you can use. Run nc -h to find out about all the command-line
options.

CREATING A SIMPLE CLIENT/SERVER USING NC

You can use Netcat (nc) to create a simple client/server solution.

1. Run the following command on one shell or xterm window:

/usr/bin/nc -l -p 9999 -v

This command tells Netcat (nc) to listen to port 9999 and be verbose (-v)
about it. This is the server.

If you don’t specify a port number using the -p option, nc automatically

finds an unused port and uses it for the connection. Of course you must use
-v option to have nc tell you what port it’s using in this case or else you
won’t be able to connect to it from the client side. Also note that if you are
using UDP mode (using -u option) instead of the default TCP mode, then
you must provide port number using -p option.

2. Run the following command in another shell or xterm window:

/usr/bin/nc -v localhost 9999

This tells another instance of nc to run as a client and connect to local-

host using port 9999. As soon as you make the connection using this pre-
ceding command, you see a message on the server window. For example,
when the preceding commands are run on a host called rhat.nitec.com,
the server window shows the following messages after the client connects.
listening on [any] 9999 ...
connect to [127.0.0.1] from rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 1407
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578 Part V: Firewalls

Entering text on the client or the server gets the message sent to each side. This
acts like a simple talk or chat client/server solution.
If you want to display a text message to anyone who connects to the nc server
running on port 9999, you can modify the nc command used to startup in server
mode as follows:

/usr/bin/nc -l -p 9999 -v < /path/to/file

When you start the nc server using this command line, the /path/to/file is
displayed whenever a new client connects to the server. To disconnect the client
from the server, press Control+C.; the server automatically stops, too.

CREATING A HEX DUMP OF YOUR CONNECTION

It is often a good idea to get a hex dump of the entire network conversation so you
can see what data is exactly being received or sent. Netcat allows you to do that
using the -o filename option. For example:

/usr/bin/nc -v localhost 25 -o /tmp/smtp.hex

This command connects to the local SMTP server on port 25 and allows you to
record all incoming and outgoing data in /tmp/smtp.hex in Hex format. For
example, a sample short session for the preceding command is shown below:

220 rhat.nitec.com ESMTP Sendmail 8.11.0/8.11.0; Tue, 27 Mar 2001 10:50:57 -0800
helo domain.com
250 rhat.nitec.com Hello IDENT:[email protected] [127.0.0.1], pleased to meet
you
quit
221 2.0.0 rhat.nitec.com closing connection

After connecting to the local SMTP server via nc, I entered the helo command
(spelled helo, not hello). The server responded with a greeting, then I entered the
quit command to log out. The data collected in the /tmp/smtp.hex is shown below:

< 00000000 32 32 30 20 72 68 61 74 2e 6e 69 74 65 63 2e 63 # 220 rhat.nitec.c

< 00000010 6f 6d 20 45 53 4d 54 50 20 53 65 6e 64 6d 61 69 # om ESMTP Sendmai
< 00000020 6c 20 38 2e 31 31 2e 30 2f 38 2e 31 31 2e 30 3b # l 8.11.0/8.11.0;
< 00000030 20 54 75 65 2c 20 32 37 20 4d 61 72 20 32 30 30 # Tue, 27 Mar 200
< 00000040 31 20 31 30 3a 35 30 3a 35 37 20 2d 30 38 30 30 # 1 10:50:57 -0800
< 00000050 0d 0a # ..
> 00000000 68 65 6c 6f 20 64 6f 6d 61 69 6e 2e 63 6f 6d 0a # helo domain.com.
< 00000052 32 35 30 20 72 68 61 74 2e 6e 69 74 65 63 2e 63 # 250 rhat.nitec.c
< 00000062 6f 6d 20 48 65 6c 6c 6f 20 49 44 45 4e 54 3a 6b # om Hello IDENT:k
< 00000072 61 62 69 72 40 72 68 61 74 2e 6e 69 74 65 63 2e # [email protected].
< 00000082 63 6f 6d 20 5b 31 32 37 2e 30 2e 30 2e 31 5d 2c # com [127.0.0.1],
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 579

< 00000092 20 70 6c 65 61 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 6d 65 65 74 # pleased to meet

< 000000a2 20 79 6f 75 0d 0a # you..
> 00000010 71 75 69 74 0a # quit.
< 000000a8 32 32 31 20 32 2e 30 2e 30 20 72 68 61 74 2e 6e # 221 2.0.0 rhat.n
< 000000b8 69 74 65 63 2e 63 6f 6d 20 63 6c 6f 73 69 6e 67 # itec.com closing
< 000000c8 20 63 6f 6e 6e 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 0d 0a # connection..

In the preceding code, I marked the data I entered via nc in bold face.

◆ Lines starting with the < character represent data received by nc from the
remote server.
◆ Lines starting with the > character are generated by the local nc user (in
this case, me).

CREATING A PORT SCANNER

You can use nc as a port scanner by running it as follows:

/usr/bin/nc -v -w 2 -z hostname port_range

In the preceding example,

◆ -w specifies timeout for connections and final network read.

◆ -z enables zero-I/O mode for scanning purposes, which prevents sending

any data to a TCP connection and very limited probe data to a UDP
connection.
◆ port_range is a numeric range of port. For example:

/usr/bin/nc -v -w 2 -z rhat.nitec.com 1-1024

This command does port scans for all ports ranging from 1 to 1024 on
rhat.nitec.com system. Here’s an example:

rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 1024 (?) open

rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 587 (?) open
rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 515 (printer) open
rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 514 (shell) open
rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 513 (login) open
rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 139 (netbios-ssn) open
rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 113 (auth) open
rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 111 (sunrpc) open
rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 80 (www) open
rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 79 (finger) open
rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 53 (domain) open
rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 25 (smtp) open
rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 23 (telnet) open
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580 Part V: Firewalls

rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 22 (ssh) open

rhat.nitec.com [127.0.0.1] 21 (ftp) open

As you can see, nc shows a number of open ports. If you need to slow
down the rate of scan, use the -i seconds option to delay each scan by
specified number of seconds. Scanning is performed from highest ranging
port to lowest. If you want to randomize the scanning of ports, use the -r
option. You can also specify multiple ranges; for example, /usr/bin/nc
-v -w 2 -z rhat.nitec.com 20-50 100-300 scans ports between 20 to
50 and 100 to 300 only.

CREATING A SIMPLE FILE TRANSFER SOLUTION

This example demonstrates how you can turn Netcat into a file transfer client
server solution.

1. Run nc on the machine where you want to receive one or more files, as
follows:
/usr/bin/nc -l -p port_number | /bin/tar xvzfp -

2. Change the port_number to a real port number > 1024. For example:
/usr/bin/nc -l -p 9999 | /bin/tar xvzfp -

In this case, nc on the receiving host listens on local port 9999. Data
received by nc is passed to the tar program, which uncompresses the data
(due to the z flag) from STDIN (due to the - flag) and writes the files to
disk.
3. On the sender machine, run the following command:
/bin/tar cvzfp - path | /usr/bin/nc -w 3 receiver_host 9999

Change the path to the fully qualified path name of the file or the direc-
tory you want to copy and the receiver_host to the host name that is
listening for data. For example:
/bin/tar cvzfp - /etc | /usr/bin/nc -w 3 rhat.nitec.com
9999

This command transfers all the files in /etc directory to the rhat.nitec.
com system via port 9999.

Tcpdump
This is a powerful and popular network packet monitoring tool. It allows you to
dump the network traffic on STDOUT or in a file. You can download it from
http://www.tcpdump.org.
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 581

Tcpdump depends on libpcap, a system-independent interface for user-

level packet capture library that must be installed on the system before you
can compile tcpdump.The libpcap source distribution is available at the tcp-
dump site. You can download, extract, and install it by running ./config-
ure && make install command from the newly created subdirectory
where the source distribution resides.

To install tcpdump on your system, follow these steps:

1. Download the source distribution from the official tcpdump site. Extract
the source using tar xvzf tcpdump-version.tar.gz command and
change directory to the newly created subdirectory.
2. Run ./configure to configure the source, then run the make && make
install command, which installs the binary in /usr/local/sbin
directory.

Now you can run tcpdump to monitor network traffic between hosts. For exam-
ple, to monitor traffic between a router called router.nitec.com and the local
machine I can run:

/usr/local/sbin/tcpdump host router.nitec.com

If I ping the router.nitec.com from the local machine, tcpdump displays out-
put such as the following:

23:36:58.794492 rhat.nitec.com > router.nitec.com: icmp: echo request

23:36:58.797811 router.nitec.com > rhat.nitec.com: icmp: echo reply
23:36:59.794478 rhat.nitec.com > router.nitec.com: icmp: echo request
23:36:59.798558 router.nitec.com > rhat.nitec.com: icmp: echo reply
23:37:00.794464 rhat.nitec.com > router.nitec.com: icmp: echo request
23:37:00.797777 router.nitec.com > rhat.nitec.com: icmp: echo reply
23:37:01.794465 rhat.nitec.com > router.nitec.com: icmp: echo request
23:37:01.797784 router.nitec.com > rhat.nitec.com: icmp: echo reply

Some tools for viewing and analyzing tcpdump trace files are available from the
Internet Traffic Archive (http://www.acm.org/sigcomm/ITA/). You can also use
a program called tcpslices (ftp://ftp.ee.lbl.gov/tcpslice.tar.Z) to analyze
portions of tcpdump output.

LSOF
This is a very powerful diagnostic tool that allows you to associate open files with
processes. It lists information about all files that are open by a process. You can
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582 Part V: Firewalls

download the source distribution from ftp://vic.cc.purdue.edu/pub/tools/

unix/lsof. Here’s how you compile and install it:

1. As root, extract the downloaded tar ball in a directory and change your
current directory to the newly created subdirectory.
2. Run ./configure linux to configure the source distribution. You are
asked if you want to take an inventory of all the files in this distribution.
Entering no will works in most situations. If you think you may have a
damaged distribution, say yes.
3. You are asked to customize machine.h header file. Enter y to customize.
4. You are asked if you want to enable HASSECURITY. Entering y ensures
that only root user can run lsof to examine all open files; other users may
examine only the files that belong to them.
5. You are asked to enable or disable WARNINGSTATE. Leave the default as
is — allowing lsof to display warnings is a good idea.
By default, HASKERNIDCK is disabled. This option allows lsof to verify its
own integrity in a way, but the process is slow. Keep the default unless
you’re paranoid (like me).
6. You are asked whether you want to backup the old machine.h to
machine.h.old and use the new one. Enter y to indicate positively.

7. Run make && make install to compile and install lsof.

The binary is installed in /usr/sbin directory.

FINDING PROCESSES ATTACHED TO AN OPEN FILE

You can find which processes are using a certain file. Run the following command:

/usr/sbin/lsof /path/to/filename

/path/to/filename is the fully qualified pathname of the file you want lsof to
report on, like this:

/usr/sbin/lsof /var/log/messages

In this case, I want to know which process opened this log file. A typical output
is

COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE NODE NAME

syslogd 339 root 2w REG 3,1 189003 50854 /var/log/messages
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 583

As you can see, only the Syslog daemon (syslogd) has opened this file, which is
expected because this daemon writes to this file.

FINDING AN UNLINKED LOCALLY OPEN FILE

Sometimes, a file’s directory entry can be removed while a process is writing to it.
This creates a very big problem. For example, you may find that your /var partition
is filling, yet you don’t see a file getting bigger. The lsof tool can help you find such
a culprit. Here’s a simple example:

1. As root, change directory to /tmp.

2. Run mkdir /tmp/test and change your current directory to /tmp/test.
3. Run yes AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA > /tmp/test/culprit.txt &.
This creates a file called culprit.txt in /tmp/test that grows — fast! The
yes program constantly writes the string AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.

4. Run ls -l /tmp/test/culprit.txt a few times to see the file size grow.

Once it reaches a few megabytes, run rm -f /tmp/test/culprit.txt to
delete the file. Now you have created a situation where the yes program is
still writing the open file handled for /tmp/test/culprit.txt, which is
now unlinked!
5. When you run df, you see that your /tmp partition (or the partition con-
taining the /tmp directory) is losing space fast! This is when you need lsof.
6. Run ps auxww | grep yes to see if yes is still running, which it should.
7. Run /usr/sbin/lsof +L1
You see an output similar to the following
COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE NLINK NODE NAME
yes 9148 root 1w REG 3,1 314163200 0 3447
/tmp/test/culprit.txt (deleted)

As you can see, the file is still growing even though it’s deleted! In the
preceding example, the file has grown to 31,416,320 bytes (~ 31 MB). The
+L1 option tells lsof to display all files that have a maximum of 1 links
associated with them. This limits the output to a single link or 0 linked
(deleted) files.
Signaling or terminating the program is the only course of action you can
take. In this example case, you can run killall yes to terminate all
instances of the yes command. You can also use kill -9 PID command
to terminate the command using the PID shown in the lsof output.
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584 Part V: Firewalls

You can limit lsof to report link counts on a single filesystem by using the -a
option. For example, to limit the output to /usr partition, you can enter /usr/
sbin/lsof -a +L1 /usr.
Remember these limitations:

◆ lsof can’t always report link count.

For example, it may not report link counts for First In First Out (FIFO)
buffers, pipes, and sockets.
◆ The link count also doesn’t work properly on NFS filesystem.

UNBLOCKING UMOUNT WITH LSOF

Sometimes you want to unmount a filesystem and run umount /filesystem and the
program reports that the filesystem is busy. You need to know which files, pro-
grams, and users are still using it so you can politely tell the users to get off the
filesystem. In such a case, you can run

/usr/sbin/lsof mountpoint

Here, mountpoint is the mount position. For example, /usr/sbin/lsof /home

tells you all the files opened from /home partition. Note that sometimes lsof can’t
find any open files on a partition but it may still show busy status. In such a case
the kernel has internal references to one or more files in the filesystem. The only
solution in this case is to wait for the references to go away or commenting out the
appropriate mount entry for the filesystem in /etc/fstab and reboot. Be careful
when you comment out mount points in /etc/fstab, because a system may not
boot happily if such filesystems as /, /usr, /home, /tmp (if any), and /var aren’t
available.

FINDING OPENED NETWORK CONNECTIONS

If you want to find out all the opened sockets on your system, you can run
/usr/sbin/lsof -i .
Want to find all the network connections to a remote host with IP address
207.183.233.19? You can run

/usr/sbin/lsof [email protected]

A typical output is

COMMAND PID USER TYPE NODE NAME

smbd 2630 root IPv4 TCP r.nitec.com:netbios-ssn->n.nitec.com:3230
(ESTABLISHED)
smbd 2630 root IPv4 TCP r.nitec.com:1032->n.nitec.com:netbios-ssn (CLOSE)
sshd 8013 root IPv4 TCP r.nitec.com:ssh->n.nitec.com:3886 (ESTABLISHED)
sshd 9185 root IPv4 TCP r.nitec.com:ssh->n.nitec.com:4121 (ESTABLISHED)
nc 9211 kabir IPv4 TCP r.nitec.com:9999->n.nitec.com:4131 (ESTABLISHED)
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 585

Here, lsof reports that several commands are connected to the 207.183.233.19
(n.nitec.com) address. smbd (Samba daemon), sshd (SSH daemon) and a nc com-
mand are connected to the given IP address. The last connection is suspicious
because it offers the remote IP a connection on an odd (non standard) port 9999
and it’s also run by a regular user. Therefore, it needs to be investigated further.
Typically, network administrators use netstat program to casually monitor net-
work connection activity. However, netstat and lsof can work together to solve
problems.
Here’s a typical output from netstat:

Active Internet connections (w/o servers)

Proto Recv-Q Send-Q Local Address Foreign Address State
tcp 0 0 rhat.nitec.com:9999 nano.nitec.com:4174 ESTABLISHED
tcp 0 0 rhat.nitec.com:ssh nano.nitec.com:4121 ESTABLISHED
tcp 0 0 rhat.nitec.com:ssh nano.nitec.com:3886 ESTABLISHED
tcp 0 0 rhat.nitec.com:1032 nano.nitec.:netbios-ssn CLOSE
tcp 0 0 rhat.nitec.:netbios-ssn nano.nitec.com:3230 ESTABLISHED

Now you need to find out why a remote host, nano.nitec.com, is on port 9999
of your system. What process is serving this remote connection? Run /usr/sbin/
lsof [email protected] and you get the name of the process and its owner
that is serving this port on the local system.

FINDING ALL THE FILES OPENED BY A PROGRAM

To know what files a particular program has opened, run the /usr/sbin/lsof -p
PID command. For example, I ran ps auxw on my system and noticed a line such as
the following:

kabir 9233 0.0 0.1 1552 652 pts/1 S 08:21 0:00 nc -l -p 9999

Now I want to know what files are opened by the nc command whose PID is
9233. So I ran /usr/sbin/lsof -p 9233. The following output appears:

COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE NODE NAME

nc 9233 kabir cwd DIR 3,1 4096 96578 /tmp
nc 9233 kabir rtd DIR 3,1 4096 2 /
nc 9233 kabir txt REG 3,3 17204 256103 /usr/sbin/nc
nc 9233 kabir mem REG 3,1 434945 80492 /lib/ld-2.1.92.so
nc 9233 kabir mem REG 3,1 4776568 80499 /lib/libc-2.1.92.so
nc 9233 kabir mem REG 3,1 234205 80522 /lib/libnss_files-2.1.92.so
nc 9233 kabir mem REG 3,1 290019 80528 /lib/libnss_nisplus-
2.1.92.so
nc 9233 kabir mem REG 3,1 380006 80508 /lib/libnsl-2.1.92.so
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586 Part V: Firewalls

nc 9233 kabir mem REG 3,1 274024 80526 /lib/libnss_nis-2.1.92.so

nc 9233 kabir 1u CHR 136,1 3 /dev/pts/1
nc 9233 kabir 2u CHR 136,1 3 /dev/pts/1
nc 9233 kabir 4u IPv4 329604 TCP rhat.nitec.com:9999-
>nano.nitec.com:4174 (ESTABLISHED)

This output shows all the files, devices, libraries, and network sockets that this
program has currently opened. If you want to find all instances of a command and
which files each have opened, run /usr/sbin/lsof -c command_name. For exam-
ple, /usr/sbin/lsof -c sshd shows all instances of the sshd server and their
opened files.

Ngrep
This is the grep for the network traffic. It uses the libpcap library access the network
packet. This tool allows you to specify regular expressions to match against contents
within TCP, UDP, and ICPM packets. You can download the source distribution from
http://www.packetfactory.net/Projects/ngrep. To install it, do the following:

1. Download and as root extract the source in a directory. A new subdirec-

tory is created. Make the new subdirectory your current directory.
2. Run ./configure && make install to configure, compile, and install
the binaries and man pages. The ngrep binary is installed in /usr/bin
directory.
Here are a few examples:
/usr/bin/ngrep -qd eth0 ‘yahoo’ tcp port 80

This command tells ngrep to monitor the eth0 interface for TCP packets
on port 80 that contains the string ‘yahoo’. On a host on the same sub-net,
I can use a Web browser to create target network packets as follows:
http://www.google.com/search?q=yahoo

Since the packet generated by that host has the string ‘yahoo’ in the data,
ngrep catches is as follows:
T 207.183.233.19:2225 -> 216.239.37.100:80 [AP]
GET /search?q=yahoo HTTP/1.1..Accept: image/gif, image/x-
xbitmap, imag
e/jpeg, image/pjpeg, application/vnd.ms-powerpoint,
application/vnd.ms
-excel, application/msword, */*..Referer:
http://www.google.com/..Acce
pt-Language: en-us..Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflate..User-
Agent: Mozill
a/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 5.5; Windows NT 5.0)..Host:
www.google.com..Connection: Keep-Alive..Cookie:
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Chapter 21: Firewall Security Tools 587

PREF=ID=5b67841b6f7a913d:TM=982401088:LM
=982401088....
/usr/bin/ngrep -qd eth0 ‘USER|PASS’ tcp port 21

Here, ngrep is told to monitor interface eth0 for either ‘USER’ or ‘PASS’
strings for TCP port 21, which is the command port for FTP connections.
If I connect to this host from another workstation on the same network,
I can get the username and password used for an FTP connection. A sam-
ple ngrep captured data is
T 207.183.233.19:2267 -> 207.183.233.20:21 [AP]
USER kabir..
T 207.183.233.19:2267 -> 207.183.233.20:21 [AP]

Summary
Ensuring computer security is a hard job. Thankfully, there are many tools such as
security assessment or audit tools, port scanners, log monitoring and analyzing
tools, CGI scanners, password crackers, packet sniffers, and intrusion detection
tools that you can use to identify, detect, and possibly (and hopefully) eliminate
security holes. Ironically, these tools are also available to the hackers. Hopefully,
you will run them on your system to eliminate security vulnerability before they
know anything about it.
274754-2 Ch21.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 588
284754-2 AppA.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 589

Appendix A

IP Network Address
Classification
Currently, Ipv4 (32-bit IP) addresses are used on the Internet. A 32-bit IP address is
divided into two parts: the network-prefix and the host-number. Traditionally, each
IP address belongs to an IP class.
The class hierarchy is identified by a self-encoded key in each IP address:

◆ If the first bit of an IP address is 0, it is Class A.

◆ If the first two bits are 10, the address is Class B.

◆ If the first three bits are 110, the address is Class C.

Class A IP network addresses

Each Class A network address has these three elements (from left to right):

◆ The highest bit set to 0

◆ A 7-bit network number

◆ A 24-bit host-number

Class A networks are now referred as /8 networks.

Only the first eight bits are used in defining the network prefix; therefore, the
maximum possible number of Class A (/8) networks is 128. However, only 126
(27 – 2) Class A (/8) networks are available. Two special addresses must be excluded
from the list of valid Class A (/8) networks:

◆ 0.0.0.0 (the entire IP space or default route)

◆ 127.0.0.0 (loopback network).

Each Class A Network can have 16,777,214 (224 – 2) possible hosts. We must
exclude x.0.0.0 and x.1.1.1 host addresses where x is the 8-bit network-prefix with
the first bit set to 0. The address with all 0s is considered the network address; the
one with all 1s is considered the broadcast address.

589
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590 Appendixes

Class B IP network addresses

Each Class B network address has its two highest-order bits set to 10. The network-
prefix is 14 bits long and the host-number is 16 bits long. A Class B network is
referred to as a /16 network. A total of 16,384 (214) networks are possible in Class
B and each such network has 65,534 ( 216 – 2) available hosts.

Class C IP network addresses

Each Class C network address has its three highest-order bits set to 110. The net-
work-prefix is 21-bits long and the host-number is 8 bits long. A Class C network
is referred to as a /24 network. A total of 2,097,152 (221) networks are possible in
Class C; each such network has 254 (28 – 2) available hosts.
Table A-1 summarizes each of these classes.

TABLE A-1: IP CLASS NETWORKS

Address Class Starting IP Address Ending IP Address

(in Decimal Dotted Notation) (in Decimal Dotted Notation)

A (/8) 1.xxx.xxx.xxx 126.xxx.xxx.xxx

B (/16) 128.0.xxx.xxx 191.255.xxx.xxx

C (/24) 192.0.0.xxx 223.255.255.xxx

Subnetting IP networks
Each of the IP classes (A, B, or C) can be subdivided into smaller networks
called subnets. When you divide any of the IP classes into subnets, you gain two
advantages:

◆ You help minimize the routing table for your outmost router.

◆ You hide the details of your networked organization.

For example, say you have a Class B network, 130.86.32.0. Your router to the
Internet receives all IP packets for this entire network. After the packets enter your
network, however, you might use several subnets to route the IP packets to differ-
ent divisions of your organization. In the absence of subnetting, you would either
use a large Class B network or multiple Class C networks to support the divisions of
your organization. In the latter case, your router table would have to list a larger
number of routes — which usually slows down the performance of the network.
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Appendix A: IP Network Address Classification 591

To create a subnet, you divide the host-number portion of the IP class address
into two components:

◆ Subnet number

◆ New host number

The old host number had two parts; the new subnet number has three; thus, sub-
netting shifts from a two-level class hierarchy to a three-level subnet hierarchy.
As an example of subnetting, consider a Class C network called 192.168.1.0. Say
that we want to create six subnets for this network where the largest subnet has 20
hosts.
The very first step is to determine how many bits are necessary to create six sub-
nets from the host-number part, which is 8-bit. Since each bit can be 1 or 0, we
must subnet along binary boundaries and, therefore, the possible subnets are 2 (21),
4 (22), 8 (23), 16 (24), 32 (25), 64 (26), and 128 (27). Since we need six subnets, the
best choice for us is 8 (23), which gives us 2 additional subnets for the future. If we
use a 3-bit subnet number, there are five bits in the new host-number. So, the max-
imum subnet mask would be 255.255.255.224 — or (in binary) 11111111. 11111111.
11111111. 11100000. The last subnet mask 255.255.255.224 can be also represented
as /27, which is called an extended network-prefix. At this point, a Class C (/24) net-
work is subnetted using /27 (a 3-bit extended network prefix). Table A-2 shows all
the subnets possible for this network.

TABLE A-2: SUBNETS OF 192.168.1.0/24 NETWORK

Network Subnet Mask Subnet Mask Maximum Hosts

(Subnet) (Dotted-decimal (Binary)
notation)

192.168.1.0/27 255.255.255.0 11111111. 11111111. 30

11111111.00000000

192.168.1.32/27 255.255.1.32 11111111. 11111111. 30

11111111.00100000

192.168.1.64/27 255.255.1.64 11111111. 11111111. 30

11111111.01000000

192.168.1.96/27 255.255.1.96 11111111. 11111111. 30

11111111.01100000

192.168.1.128/27 255.255.1.128 11111111. 11111111. 30

11111111.10000000

Continued
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592 Appendixes

TABLE A-2: SUBNETS OF 192.168.1.0/24 NETWORK (Continued)

Network Subnet Mask Subnet Mask Maximum Hosts

(Subnet) (Dotted-decimal (Binary)
notation)

192.168.1.160/27 255.255.1.160 11111111. 11111111. 30

11111111.10100000

192.168.1.192/27 255.255.1.192 11111111. 11111111. 30

11111111.11000000

192.168.1.224/27 255.255.1.224 11111111. 11111111. 30

11111111.11100000
294754-2 AppB.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 593

Appendix B

Common Linux Commands

MOST WORK WITH LINUX consists of entering commands one after another. The
structure of each command follows an established rule commonly known as its
command-line syntax. If you don’t follow the syntax correctly, a command may
execute incorrectly, and problems can result.
When you type a command, the entire on-screen line it occupies is the command
line. Although normally you issue commands one at a time, you can type multiple
commands on the command line if you separate your commands with semicolons.
The system executes these commands as if they were one continuous command. For
example, you can clear the screen and then list the contents of the current directory
by typing the following command line:

clear; ls

When you enter a command, you type the name of the command, followed (if
necessary) by other information. Items that follow the name of the command and
modify how it works are arguments. For example, consider the following command
line:

wc –l doc.txt

Two arguments appear in this example, the –l and the doc.txt. It’s up to the
program to determine how to use the arguments.
Two types of arguments exist: options and parameters. Options come right after
the program name and are usually prefixed with a dash (minus-sign character). The
parameters come after the options. From the preceding example, the -l is an option
telling wc to count the number of lines; doc.txt is a parameter indicating which
file to use.
When entering commands at the command line, remember the arguments are
case sensitive just as filenames in Unix are. Overall, the general syntax of a Unix
command is

command_name options parameters

Basics of wildcards
When you use directory and file commands, you can use special characters called
wildcards to specify patterns in filenames — which identify what the command
593
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594 Appendixes

must work on. For example, to list all the files in the current directory that end in
.c, use:

ls *.c

The asterisk is a wildcard. The shell interprets the pattern and replaces it with all
the filenames that end in .c. Table B-1 shows commonly used wildcards.

TABLE B-1: COMMONLY USED WILDCARD CHARACTERS

Wildcard Meaning

* Match any sequence of one or more characters.

? Match any single character.
[ ] Match one of the enclosed characters or range.

Table B-2 shows examples of wildcard usage in various locations within the
filename.

TABLE B-2: EXAMPLES OF WILDCARD USAGE

Example Meaning

Jo* Files that begin with Jo

Jo*y Files that begin with Jo and end in y
Ut*l*s.c Files that begin with Ut, contain an l, and end in s.c
?.h Files that begin with a single character followed by.h.
Doc[0-9].txt Files with the names Doc0.txt, Doc1.txt, . . . , Doc9.txt
Doc0[A-Z].txt Files with the names Doc0A.txt, Doc0B.txt, . . . ,
Doc0Z.txt

As you can see, using wildcards can make selecting multiple items easy.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 595

Basics of regular expressions

Various Unix commands use regular expressions. They provide a convenient and
consistent way of specifying patterns to be matched. Though similar to wildcards,
regular expressions are much more powerful; they provide a wider scope of pattern
selecting. Several different Unix commands use regular expressions, including ed,
sed, awk, grep, and, to a limited extent, vi and emacs.
The special characters in Table B-3 are typical of regular expressions in general.
Understand these special characters and you need to learn only a few variations as
they arise.

TABLE B-3: SPECIAL CHARACTERS FOR REGULAR EXPRESSIONS

Symbol Meaning

. Match any single character except newline.

* Match zero or more of the preceding characters.
^ Match the beginning of a line.
$ Match the end of a line.
\< Match the beginning of a word.
\> Match the end of a word.
[ ] Match one of the enclosed characters or range of characters.
[^] Match any characters not enclosed.
\ Take the following symbol literally.

Within a regular expression, any character that does not have a special meaning
stands for itself. For example

◆ To search for lines that contain “foo” in the file data.txt, use

grep foo data.txt

◆ To search for only lines in data.txt that begin with the word foo, use
grep ‘^foo’ data.txt

The use of single quotes tells the shell to leave these characters alone and
to pass them to the program. Single quotes are necessary whenever using
any of the special characters.
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596 Appendixes

◆ The dollar sign indicates you want to match a pattern at the end of the
line:
grep ‘hello$’ data.txt

Any lines ending with “hello” result in a match using the preceding regu-
lar expression.
◆ To look for a pattern that begins a word, use \<.

grep ‘\<ki’ data.txt

The preceding expression searches for words that begin with ki in the file
data.txt. To find the pattern wee, but only at the end of a word, use

grep ‘wee\>’ data.txt

From Table B-3, notice that the period matches any single character except new-
line. This comes in handy if you are searching for all the lines that contain the let-
ters “C” followed by two letters and end in “s”; here, the regular expression is:

grep ‘C..s’ data.txt

This expression matches patterns like: Cats, Cars, and Cris if they are in the file
data.txt.
If you want to specify a range of characters, use a hyphen to separate the begin-
ning and end of the range. When you specify the range, the order must be the same
as in the ASCII code. For example, to search for all the lines that contain a “B” fol-
lowed by any single lowercase letter, use:

grep ‘B[a-z]’ data.txt

It is also possible to specify more than one range of characters in the same pattern.

grep ‘B[A-Za-z]’ data.txt

The preceding example selects all lines that contain the letter B followed by an
uppercase or lowercase letter.

How to Use Online man Pages

The online man (short for manual) pages are divided into eight major sections, as in
Table B-4. Other sections may come with your particular version of Unix; most, if
not all, contain eight major sections. Section 1 contains the description of the bulk
of Unix commands. Most users can get by fine with only this section of the man-
ual. Sections 2, 3, 4, and 5 of the Unix manual are of interest only to programmers.
Section 8 is only for system administrators.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 597

TABLE B-4: SECTIONS OF MAN PAGES

Section Topic

1 Executable programs or shell commands

2 System calls (functions the kernel provides)
3 Library calls (functions within system libraries)
4 Special files (usually in /dev)
5 File formats (that is, /etc/passd)
6 Games
7 Miscellaneous information
8 Maintenance commands

Modern Unix systems provide much more detail than their ancestors; commonly
their sections are broken into subsections. For instance, section 6 is a reference for
games. However, you may find a section 6a (for adventure games), a section 6c (for
classic games), and so on.
The man command allows you to view the online manuals. The syntax for this
command is as follows:

man [-k] [section] keyword

The keyword is usually the name of the program, utility, or function. The default
action is to search in all the available sections following a predefined order and to
show only the first page found, even if the keyword exists in several sections.
Because commands may appear in several sections, the first page found might
not be the man page you are looking for. The command printf is a good example.
Say you are writing a program and would like to know more about the ANSI C
library function printf (). Just by typing

man printf

you get information about printf. However, the man pages for this printf are
for the shell command printf. Obviously, this is the wrong information. A reason-
able solution is to list all the sections that cover printf (if it exists in multiple sec-
tions) and to select the correct one. You can search the keywords of the man pages
with the -f option:

man –k printf
fprintf printf (3b) - formatted output conversion
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598 Appendixes

fprintf printf (3s) - print formatted output

printf printf (1) - write formatted output
printf printf (3b) - formatted output conversion
printf printf (3s) - print formatted output

The printf in question here is a library function. It is in section 3 (from Table B-4)
or, more specifically, in section 3b or 3s from the output. To specify a particular
section of a man page, pass it to man at the command line:

man 3b printf

Now this is the correct information!

General File and Directory

Commands
This section examines file- and directory-specific commands you are likely to use
on a daily basis.

cat
Syntax:

cat file [>|>] [destination file]

The cat command displays the contents of a file to stdout. It is often helpful
to examine the contents of a file by using the cat command. The argument you
pass to cat is the name of the file you want to view. To view the total content of
a filename:

cat name
Kiwee
Joe
Ricardo
Charmaine

cat can also merge existing multiple files into one:

cat name1 name2 name3 > allnames

This example combines the files name1, name2, and name3 to produce the final
file allnames. You establish the order of the merge by the order in which you enter
the files at the command line.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 599

Using cat, you can append a file to another file. For instance, if you forgot to
add a name4 in the previous command, you can still produce the same results by
executing the following:

cat name4 >> allnames

chmod
Syntax:

chmod [-R] permission-mode file or directory

You can use this command to change the permission mode of a file or directory.
The permission mode is specified as a three- or four-digit octal number, as in this
example:

chmod 755 myscript.pl

The preceding command changes the permission of a script called myscript.pl

to 755 (rwxr-xr-x), which allows the file owner to read, write, and execute and
allows only read and execute privileges for everyone else. Here is another example:

chmod -R 744 public_html

The preceding command changes the permissions of the public_html directory

and all its contents (files and subdirectories) to 744 (rwxr-r-), which is a typical per-
mission setting for personal Web directories you access using http://server/
~username URLs under Apache Server. The -R option tells chmod to recursively
change permissions for all files and directories under the named directory.

chown
Syntax:

chown [ -fhR ] Owner [ :Group ] { File . . . | Directory. . . }

The chown command changes the owner of the file the File parameter specifies to
the user the Owner parameter specifies. The value of the Owner parameter can be a
user ID or a login name in the /etc/passwd file. Optionally, you can also specify a
group. The value of the Group parameter can be a group ID or a group name in the
/etc/group file.
Only the root user can change the owner of a file. You can change the group of
a file only if you are a root user or if you own the file. If you own the file but are
not a root user, you can change the group only to a group of which you are a
member. Table B-5 discusses the details of the chown options.
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600 Appendixes

TABLE B-5: CHOWN OPTIONS

Option Description

-f Suppresses all error messages except usage messages.

-h Changes the ownership of an encountered symbolic link but not that of the file or
directory the symbolic link points to.
-R Descends directories recursively, changing the ownership for each file. When a
symbolic link is encountered and the link points to a directory, the ownership of
that directory is changed, but the directory is not further traversed.

The following example changes ownership of the file from one user to another:

chown bert hisfile.txt

clear
Syntax:

clear

The clear command clears your terminal and returns the command line prompt
to the top of the screen.

cmp
Syntax:

cmp [-ls] file 1 file2

This command compares the contents of two files. If the contents show no dif-
ferences, cmp by default is silent.
To demonstrate, file1.txt contains

this is file 1

the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.

and file2.txt contains

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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 601

this is file 2
the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.

The only difference between the two files is the first line, last character. In one
file, the character is 1, and the other file has a 2, as shown here:

cmp file1.txt file2.txt

file1.txt file2.txt differ: char 14, line 1

The results of cmp correctly identify character 14, line 1 as the unequal character
between the two files. The -l option prints the byte number and the differing byte
values for each of the files.

cmp –l file1.txt file2.txt

14 61 62

The results of the preceding example show us that byte 14 is different in the first
and second files; the first file has an octal 61 and the second file has an octal 62 in
that position.
Finally, the -s option displays nothing. The -s option only returns an exit status
indicating the similarities between the files. It returns 0 (zero) if the files are identi-
cal and 1 if the files are different. Last, the -s option returns a number >1 (greater
than 1) when an error occurs.

cp
Syntax:

cp [-R] source file or directory file or directory

Use the cp command to make an exact copy of a file. The cp command requires
at least two arguments: the name of the file or directory you want to copy, and the
location (or filename) of the new file. If the second argument is a name for a direc-
tory that already exists, cp copies the source file into that directory. The command
line looks like this:

cp main.c main.c.bak

The preceding example copies the existing file main.c and creates a new file
called main.c.bak in the same directory. These two files are identical, bit for bit.

cut
Syntax:

cut [-cdf list] file

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602 Appendixes

The cut command extracts columns of data. The data can be in bytes, charac-
ters, or fields from each line in a file. For instance, a file called names contains
information about a group of people. Each line contains data pertaining to one per-
son, like this:

Fast Freddy:Sacramento:CA:111-111-1111
Joe Smoe:Los Angeles:CA:222-222-2222
Drake Snake:San Francisco:CA:333-333-3333
Bill Steal:New York:NY:444-444-4444

To list the names and telephone numbers of all individuals in the file, the options
-f and -d should suffice:

cut –f 1,4 –d : names

Fast Freddy:111-111-1111
Joe Some:222-222-2222
Drake Snake:333-333-3333
Bill Steal:444-444-4444

The -f list option specifies the fields you elect to display. The -d options define
each field. In the preceding example, -d : indicates that a colon separates each
field. Using : as the field delimiter makes fields 1 and 4 into name and phone num-
ber fields.
To display the contents of a particular column, use the -c list option.

cut –c 1-5 names

Fast
Joe
Drake
Bill

The preceding example shows how to list columns 1 through 5 in the names
file — and nothing else.

diff
Syntax:

diff [-iqb] file1 file2

You can use the diff command to determine differences between files and/or
directories. By default, diff does not produce any output if the files are identical.
The diff command is different from the cmp command in the way it compares
the files. The diff command is used to report differences between two files, line by
line. The cmp command reports differences between two files character by character,
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 603

instead of line by line. As a result, it is more useful than diff for comparing binary
files. For text files, cmp is useful mainly when you want to know only whether two
files are identical.
Considering changes character by character entails practical differences from
considering changes line by line. To illustrate, think of what happens if you add a
single newline character to the beginning of a file. If you compare that file with an
otherwise-identical file that lacks the newline at the beginning, diff reports that a
blank line has been added to the file, and cmp reports that the two files differ in
almost every character.
The normal output format consists of one or more hunks of differences; each
hunk shows one area in which the files differ. Normal format hunks look like this:

change-command
< from-file-line
< from-file-line. . .
—-
> to-file-line
> to-file-line. . .

Three types of change commands are possible. Each consists of a line number (or
comma-separated range of lines) in the first file, a single character (indicating the
kind of change to make), and a line number (or comma-separated range of lines) in
the second file. All line numbers are the original line numbers in each file. The spe-
cific types of change commands are as follows:

◆ ‘lar’: Add the lines in range r of the second file after line l of the first
file. For example, ‘8a12,15’ means append lines 12–15 of file 2 after
line 8 of file 1 or (if you’re changing file 2 into file 1) delete lines 12–15
of file 2.
◆ ‘fct’: Replace the lines in range f of the first file with lines in range t of
the second file. This is like a combined add-and-delete but more compact.
For example, ‘5,7c8,10’ means change lines 5–7 of file 1 to read the
same as lines 8–10 of file 2 or (if changing file 2 into file 1) change lines
8–10 of file 2 to read the same as lines 5–7 of file 1.
◆ ‘rdl’: Delete the lines in range r from the first file; line l is where they
would have appeared in the second file had they not been deleted. For
example, ‘5,7d3’ means delete lines 5–7 of file 1 or (if changing file 2
into file 1) append lines 5–7 of file 1 after line 3 of file 2.

For example, if a.txt contains

a
b
c
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604 Appendixes

d
e

and b.txt contains

c
d
e
f
g

the diff command produces the following output:

1,2d0
< a
< b
5a4,5
> f
> g

The diff command produces output that shows how the files are different and
has to happen for the files to be identical. First, notice how c is the first common
character between the two files. The first line reads 1,2d0. This is interpreted as
deleting lines 1 and 2 of the first file, lines a and b. Next, the third line reads 5a4,6.
The a signifies append. If we append lines 4 through 6 of the second file to line 5 of
the first file, the files are identical.
The diff command has some common options. The -i option ignores changes
in case. diff considers upper- and lowercase characters equivalent. The -q option
summarizes information — in effect, the -q option reports if the files differ at all. A
sample output looks like this:

diff -q a.txt b.txt

Files a.txt and b.txt differ

The -b option ignores changes in whitespace. The phrase “the foo” is equiva-
lent to “the foo” if you use the -b option.

du
Syntax:

du [-ask] filenames

This command summarizes disk usage. If you specify a directory, du reports the
disk usage for that directory and any directories it contains. If you do not specify a
filename or directory, du assumes the current directory. du -a breaks down the total
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 605

and shows the size of each directory and file. The -s option will just print the total.
Another useful option is the -k option. This option prints all file sizes in kilobytes.
Here are some examples of the various options:

du -a
247 ./util-linux_2.9e-0.1.deb
130 ./libncurses4_4.2-2.deb
114 ./slang1_1.2.2-2.deb
492 .

du -s
492 .

emacs
The emacs program, a full-screen visual editor, is one of the best editors. It is
known for its flexibility and power as well as for being a resource hog. The power
of emacs is not easily obtained. There is a stiff learning curve that requires patience
and even more patience. There can be as many as four sequential key combinations
to perform certain actions.
However, emacs can do just about anything. Aside from the basic editing fea-
tures, emacs supports the following: syntax highlighting, macros, editing multiple
files at the same time, spell checking, mail, FTP, and many other features.
When reading about emacs, you’ll often see words like meta-Key and C-x. The
meta key is the meta key on your keyboard (if you have one) or most commonly the
Esc key. C-x is the syntax for Ctrl plus the X key. Any “C-” combination refers to
the Ctrl key.
The two most important key combinations to a new emacs user are the C-x C-c
and C-h C-h combinations. The first combination exits emacs. You’d be surprised
to know how many people give up on emacs just because they cannot exit the pro-
gram the first time they use it. Also, C-h C-h displays online help, where you can
follow the tutorial or get detailed information about a command. Table B-6 shows
emacs’s most commonly used commands:

TABLE B-6: COMMON EMACS COMMANDS

Commands Effects

C-v Move forward one screenful.

M-v Move backward one screenful.
C-p Move the cursor to the previous line.
Continued
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606 Appendixes

TABLE B-6: COMMON EMACS COMMANDS (Continued)

Commands Effects

C-n Move the cursor to the next line.

C-f Move the cursor right one position.
C-b Move the cursor left one position.
M-f Move forward a word.
M-b Move backward a word.
C-a Move to beginning of line.
C-e Move to end of line.
M-a Move back to beginning of sentence.
M-e Move forward to end of sentence.
<Delete> Delete the character just before the cursor.
C-d Delete the next character after the cursor.
M-<Delete> Kill the word immediately before the cursor.
M-d Kill the next word after the cursor.
C-k Kill from the cursor position to end of line.
M-k Kill to the end of the current sentence.
C-x Undo the previous command.
C-x C-f Open another file.
C-x C-s Save the current file.
C-x C-w Save the current file as another name.
C-x s Save all the buffers that have recently changed.
C-x C-c Exit emacs.

fgrep
The fgrep command is designed to be a faster-searching program (as opposed to
grep). However, it can search only for exact characters, not for general specifica-
tions. The name fgrep stands for “fixed character grep.” These days, computers and
memory are so fast that there is rarely a need for fgrep.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 607

file
Syntax:

file filename

The file command determines the file’s type. If the file is not a regular file, this
command identifies its file type. It identifies the file types directory, FIFO, block
special, and character special as such. If the file is a regular file and the file is zero-
length, this command identifies it as an empty file.
If the file appears to be a text file, file examines the first 512 bytes and tries to
determine its programming language. If the file is an executable a.out, file prints
the version stamp, provided it is greater than 0.

file main.C
main.C: c program text

find
Syntax:
find [path] [-type fdl] [-name pattern] [-atime [+-]number of days] [-exec
command {} \;] [-empty]

The find command finds files and directories, as in this example:

find . -type d

The find command returns all subdirectory names under the current directory.
The -type option is typically set to d (for directory) or f (for file) or l (for links).

find . -type f -name “*.txt”

This command finds all text files (ending with .txt extension) in the current
directory, including all its subdirectories.

find . -type f -name “*.txt” -exec grep -l ‘magic’ {} \;

This command searches all text files (ending with the .txt extension) in the cur-
rent directory, including all its subdirectories for the keyword “magic,” and returns
their names (because -l is used with grep).

find . -name “*.gif” -atime -1 -exec ls -l {} \;

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608 Appendixes

This command finds all GIF files that have been accessed in the past 24 hours
(one day) and displays their details using the ls -l command.

find . -type f -empty

This displays all empty files in the current directory hierarchy.

grep
Syntax:

grep [-viw] pattern file(s)

The grep command allows you to search for one or more files for particular
character patterns. Every line of each file that contains the pattern is displayed at
the terminal. The grep command is useful when you have lots of files and you want
to find out which ones contain words or phrases.
Using the -v option, you can display the inverse of a pattern. Perhaps you want
to select the lines in data.txt that do not contain the word “the”:

grep –vw ‘the’ data.txt

If you do not specify the -w option, any word containing “the” matches, such as
“toge[the]r.” The -w option specifies that the pattern must be a whole word. Finally,
the -i option ignores the difference between upper and lowercase letters when
searching for the pattern.
Much of the flexibility of grep comes from the fact that you can specify not
only exact characters but also a more general search pattern. To do this, use what
you describe as “regular expressions.”

head
Syntax:

head [-count | -n number] filename

This command displays the first few lines of a file. By default, it displays the first
10 lines of a file. However, you can use the preceding options to specify a different
number of lines.

head –2 doc.txt
# Outline of future projects
# Last modified: 02/02/99

The preceding example illustrates how to view the first two lines of the text file
doc.txt.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 609

ln
Syntax:

ln [-s] sourcefile target

ln creates two types of links: hard and soft. Think of a link as two names for the
same file. Once you create a link, it’s indistinguishable from the original file. You
cannot remove a file that has hard links from the hard disk until you remove all
links. You create hard links without the -s option.

ln ./www ./public_html

However, a hard link does have limitations. A hard link cannot link to another
directory, and a hard link cannot link to a file on another file system. Using the -s
option, you can create a soft link, which eliminates these restrictions.

ln –s /dev/fs02/jack/www /dev/fs01/foo/public_html

This command creates a soft link between the directory www on file system 2 and
a newly created file public_html on file system 1.

locate
Syntax:

locate keyword

The locate command finds the path of a particular file or command. locate
finds an exact or substring match, as in this example:

locate foo
/usr/lib/texmf/tex/latex/misc/footnpag.sty
/usr/share/automake/footer.am
/usr/share/games/fortunes/food
/usr/share/games/fortunes/food.dat
/usr/share/gimp/patterns/moonfoot.pat

The output locate produces contains the keyword “foo” in the absolute path or
does not have any output.

ls
Syntax:

ls [-1aRl] file or directory

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610 Appendixes

The ls command allows you to list files (and subdirectories) in a directory. It is

one of the most popular programs. When you use it with the -1 option, it displays
only the file and directory names in the current directory; when you use the
-l option, a long listing containing file/directory permission information, size,
modification date, and so on is displayed; the -a option allows you to view all files
and directories (including the ones that have a leading period in their names)
within the current directory; the -R option allows the command to recursively dis-
play contents of the subdirectories (if any).

mkdir
Syntax:

mkdir directory . . .

To make a directory, use the mkdir command. You have only two restrictions
when choosing a directory name: (1) File names can be up to 255 characters long,
and (2) directory names can contain any character except the /.

mkdir dir1 dir2 dir3

The preceding example creates three sub-directories in the current directory.

mv
Syntax:

mv [-if]sourcefile targetfile

Use the mv command to move or rename directories and files. The command per-
forms a move or rename depending on whether the targetfile is an existing direc-
tory. To illustrate, suppose you give a directory called foo the new name of foobar.

mv foo foobar

Because foobar does not already exist as a directory, foo becomes foobar. If
you issue the following command,

mv doc.txt foobar

and foobar is an existing directory, you peform a move. The file doc.txt now
resides in the directory foobar.
The -f option removes existing destination files and never prompts the user. The
-i option prompts the user whether to overwrite each destination file that exists. If
the response does not begin with “y” or “Y,” the file is skipped.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 611

pico
Syntax:

pico [filename]

This full-screen text editor is very user-friendly and highly suitable for users
who migrate from a Windows or DOS environment.

pwd
Syntax:

pwd

This command prints the current working directory. The directories displayed are
the absolute path. None of the directories displayed are hard or soft symbolic links.

pwd
/home/usr/charmaine

rm
Syntax:

rm [-rif] directory/file

To remove a file or directory, use the rm command. Here are some examples:

rm doc.txt
rm ~/doc.txt
rm /tmp/foobar.txt

To remove multiple files with rm, you can use wildcards or type each file indi-
vidually. For example

rm doc1.txt doc2.txt doc3.txt

is equivalent to:

rm doc[1-3].txt

rm is a powerful command that can cause chaos if used incorrectly. For instance,
you have your thesis that you’ve worked so hard on for the last six months. You
decide to rm all your docs, thinking you are in another directory. After finding out
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612 Appendixes

a backup file does not exist (and you are no longer in denial), you wonder if there
were any ways to have prevented this.
The rm command has the -i option that allows rm to be interactive. This tells rm
to ask your permission before removing each file. For example, if you entered:

rm –i *.doc
rm: remove thesis.doc (yes/no)? n

The -i option gives you a parachute. It’s up to you to either pull the cord
(answer no) or suffer the consequences (answer yes). The -f option is completely
the opposite. The -f (force) option tells rm to remove all the files you specify,
regardless of the file permissions. Use the -f option only when you are 100 percent
sure you are removing the correct file(s).
To remove a directory and all files and directories within it, use the -r option.
rm -r will remove an entire subtree.

rm –r documents

If you are not sure what you are doing, combine the -r option with the -i
option:

rm –ri documents

The preceding example asks for your permission before it removes every file and
directory.

sort
Syntax:

sort [-rndu] [-o outfile] [infile/sortedfile]

The obvious task this command performs is to sort. However, sort also merges
files. The sort command reads files that contain previously sorted data and merges
them into one large, sorted file.
The simplest way to use sort is to sort a single file and display the results on
your screen. If a.txt contains:

b
c
a
d
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 613

to sort a.txt and display the results to the screen:

sort a.txt
a
b
c
d

To save sorted results, use the -o option: sort -o sorted.txt a.txt saves the
sorted a.txt file in sorted.txt. To use sort to merge existing sorted files and to
save the output in sorted.txt, use:

sort -o sorted.txt a.txt b.txt c.txt

The -r option for this command reverses the sort order. Therefore, a file that
contains the letters of the alphabet on a line is sorted from z to a if you use the
-r option.
The -d option sorts files based on dictionary order. The sort command consid-
ers only letters, numerals, and spaces and ignores other characters.
The -u option looks for identical lines and suppresses all but one. Therefore, sort
produces only unique lines.

stat
Syntax:

stat file

This program displays various statistics on a file or directory, as in this example:

stat foo.txt

This command displays the following output:

File: “foo.txt”
Size: 4447232 Filetype: Regular File
Mode: (0644/-rw-r — r — ) Uid: ( 0/root) Gid: (0/root)
Device: 3,0 Inode: 16332 Links: 1
Access: Mon Mar 1 21:39:43 1999(00000.02:32:30)
Modify: Mon Mar 1 22:14:26 1999(00000.01:57:47)
Change: Mon Mar 1 22:14:26 1999(00000.01:57:47

You can see the following displayed: file access, modification, change date, size,
owner and group information, permission mode, and so on.
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614 Appendixes

strings
Syntax:

strings filename

The strings command prints character sequences at least four characters long.
You use this utility mainly to describe the contents of nontext files.

tail
Syntax:

tail [-count | -fr] filename

The tail command displays the end of a file. By default, tail displays the last 10
lines of a file. To display the last 50 lines of the file doc.txt, issue the command:

tail –50 doc.txt

The -r option displays the output in reverse order. By default, -r displays all
lines in the file, not just 10 lines. For instance, to display the entire contents of the
file doc.txt in reverse order, use:

tail –r doc.txt

To display the last 10 lines of the file doc.txt in reverse order, use:

tail –10r doc.txt

Finally, the -f option is useful when you are monitoring a file. With this option,
tail waits for new data to be written to the file by some other program. As new
data are added to the file by some other program, tail displays the data on the
screen. To stop tail from monitoring a file, press Ctrl+C (the intr key) because the
tail command does not stop on its own.

touch
Syntax:

touch file or directory

This command updates the timestamp of a file or directory. If the named file
does not exist, this command creates it as an empty file.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 615

umask
See the section on default file permissions for users in Chapter 4.

uniq
Syntax:

uniq [-c] filename

The uniq command compares adjacent lines and displays only one unique line.
When used with the -c option, uniq counts the number of occurrences. A file that
has the contents:

a
a
a
b
a

produces the following result when you use it with uniq:

uniq test.txt
a
b
a

Notice that the adjacent a’s are removed — but not all a’s in the file. This is an
important detail to remember when using uniq. If you would like to find all the
unique lines in a file called test.txt, you can run the following command:

sort test.txt | uniq

This command sorts the test.txt file and puts all similar lines next to each
other, allowing uniq to display only unique lines. For example, say that you want
to find quickly how many unique visitors come to your Web site; you can run the
following command:

awk ‘{print $1}’ access.log | sort | uniq

This displays the unique IP addresses in a CLF log file, which is what Apache
web server uses.
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616 Appendixes

vi
The vi program is a powerful full-screen text editor you can find on almost all
Unix systems because of its size and capabilities. The vi editor does not require
much in the way of resources to utilize its features. In addition to the basic edit
functions, vi can search, replace, and concatenate files, and it has its own macro
language, as well as a number of other features.
vi has two modes: input and command. When vi is in input mode, you can
enter, insert, or append text in a document. When vi is in command mode, you tell
vi what to do from the command line — move within the document, merge lines,
search, and so on. You can carry out all vi functions from command mode except
the entering of text. You can enter text only in input mode.
A typical vi newbie assumes he is in input mode and begins typing his docu-
ment. He expects to see his newly inputted text, but what he really sees is his cur-
rent document mangled because he is in command mode.
When vi starts, it is in command mode. You can go from command mode to
input mode by using one of the following commands: [aAiIoOcCsSR]. To return to
command mode, press the Esc key for normal exit, or press Interrupt (the Ctrl+C key
sequence) to end abnormally.
Table B-7 shows a summary of common vi commands and their effects in com-
mand mode.

TABLE B-7: SUMMARY OF COMMON VI COMMANDS

Keys Effects

Ctrl+D Moves window down by half a screen.

Ctrl+U Moves window up by half a screen.
Ctrl+F Moves window forward by a screen.
Ctrl+B Moves window back by a screen.
k or up arrow Moves cursor up one line.
j or down arrow Moves cursor down one line.
l or right arrow Moves cursor right one character.
h or left arrow Moves cursor left one character.
Return Moves cursor to beginning of next line.
– (minus) Moves cursor to beginning of previous line.
w Moves cursor to beginning of next word.
b Moves cursor to beginning of previous word.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 617

Commands Effects

^ or 0 Moves cursor to beginning of current line.

$ Moves cursor to end of current line.
A Inserts text immediately after the cursor.
o Opens a new line immediately after the current line.
O Opens a new line immediately before the current line. Note this is an
uppercase letter o, not a zero.
x Deletes character under the cursor.
dw Deletes a word (including space after it).
D or d Deletes from the cursor until the end of line.
d^ (d caret) Deletes from the beginning of the line to the space or character
to the left of the cursor.
dd Deletes the current line.
U Undoes last change. Note that 2 undos will undo the undo (nothing
changes).
:w Writes the changes for the current file and continues editing.
:q! Quits vi without saving any changes.
:ZZ Saves current file and exits vi.

wc
Syntax:

wc [-lwc] filename

The wc (word count) command counts lines, characters, and words. If you use the
wc command without any options, the output displays all statistics of the file. The
file test.txt contains the following text:

the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog

wc test.txt
1 9 44 test.txt
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618 Appendixes

The results tell us there is one line with nine words containing 44 characters in
the file test.txt. To display only the number of lines, use the -l option. The -w
option displays only the number of words. Finally, the -c option displays only the
total number of characters.

whatis
Syntax:

whatis keyword

This command displays a one-line description for the keyword entered in the
command line. The whatis command is identical to typing man -f. For instance, if
you want to display the time but you are not sure whether to use the time or date
command, enter:

whatis time date

time time (1) - time a simple command
date date (1) - print the date and time

Looking at the results, you can see that the command you want is date. The
time command actually measures how long it takes for a program or command to
execute.

whereis
The whereis command locates source/binary and manuals sections for specified
files. The command first strips the supplied names of leading pathname compo-
nents and any (single) character file extension, such as .c, .h, and so on. Prefixes
of s. resulting from use of source code control are also dealt with.

whereis ls
ls: /bin/ls /usr/man/man1/ls.1.gz

The preceding example indicates the location of the command in question. The
ls command is in the /bin directory, and its corresponding man pages are at
/usr/man/man1/ls.1.gz.

which
Syntax:

which command
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 619

The which command displays the path and aliases of any valid, executable
command.

which df
/usr/bin/df

The preceding example shows us that the df command is in the /usr/bin direc-
tory. which also displays information about shell commands.

which setenv
setenv: shell built-in command.

File Compression and

Archive-Specific Commands
The commands in this section compress, archive, and package files.

compress
Syntax:

compress [-v] file(s)

The compress command attempts to reduce the size of a file using the adaptive
Lempel-Ziv coding algorithm. A file with a .Z extension replaces a compressed file.
Using any type of compression for files is significant because smaller file sizes
increase the amount of available disk space. Also, transferring smaller files across
networks reduces network congestion.
The -v (verbose) option displays the percentage of reduction for each file you
compress and tells you the name of the new file. Here is an example of how to use
the compress command:

ls -alF inbox
-rw — — — - 1 username cscstd 194261 Feb 23 20:12 inbox
compress -v inbox
inbox: Compression: 37.20% — replaced with inbox.Z
ls -alF inbox.Z
-rw — — — - 1 username cscstd 121983 Feb 23 20:12 inbox.Z
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620 Appendixes

gunzip
Syntax:

gunzip [-v] file(s)

To decompress files to their original form, use the gunzip command. gunzip
attempts to decompress files ending with the following extensions: .gz, -gz, .z,
-z, _z, .Z, or tgz.
The -v option displays a verbose output when decompressing a file.

gunzip -v README.txt.gz
README.txt.gz: 65.0% — replaced with README.txt

gzip
Syntax:

gzip [-rv9] file(s)

The gzip command is another compression program. It is known for having one
of the best compression ratios but for a price. It can be considerably slow. Files
compressed with gzip are replaced by files with a .gz extension.
The -9 option yields the best compression sacrificing speed. The -v option is the
verbose option. The size, total, and compression ratios are listed for each file. Also,
the -r option recursively traverses each directory compressing all the files along
the way.

ls -alF README.txt
-rw-r — r — 1 root root 16213 Oct 14 13:55 README.txt
gzip -9v README.txt
README.txt: 65.0% — replaced with README.txt.gz
ls -alF README.txt.gz
-rw-r — r — 1 root root 5691 Oct 14 13:55 README.txt.gz

rpm
Syntax:

rpm -[ivhqladefUV] [ — force] [ — nodeps] [ — oldpackage] package list

This is the Red Hat Package Manager program. It allows you to manage RPM
packages, making it very easy to install and uninstall software.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 621

To install a new RPM package called precious-software-1.0.i386.rpm, run:

rpm -i precious-software-1.0.i386.rpm

You can make rpm a bit more verbose by using -ivh instead of just the -i
option. If you have installed the package and for some reason would like to install
it again, you need to use the --force option to force rpm.
If you are upgrading a software package, you should use the -U option, as in this
example:

rpm -Uvh precious-software-2.0.i386.rpm

This command upgrades the previous version of the precious-software package

to version 2.0. However, if you have installed a newer version and want to go back
to the previous version, rpm detects this condition and displays an error message
saying that the installed version is newer than the one you are trying to install. In
such a case, should you decide to proceed anyway, use the --oldpackage option
with the -U option to force rpm to downgrade your software.
To find a list of all available packages installed on your system, run:

rpm -qa

To find out which package a program such as sendmail belongs to, run:

rpm -q sendmail

This returns the RPM package name you use to install sendmail. To find out
which package a specific file such as /bin/tcsh belongs to, run:

rpm -qf /bin/tcsh

This displays the package name of the named file. If you are interested in find-
ing the documentation that comes with a file, use the -d option along with the -qf
options. To list all files associated with a program or package, such as sendmail, use
the -l option, as shown here:

rpm -ql sendmail

To ensure that an installed package is not modified in any way, you can use the
-V option. For example, to verify that all installed packages are in their original
state, run the following:

rpm -Va
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622 Appendixes

This option becomes very useful if you learn that you or someone else could
have damaged one or more packages.
To uninstall a package such as sendmail, run:

rpm -e sendmail

If you find that removing a package or program breaks other programs because
they depend on it or its files, you have to decide if you want to break these pro-
grams or not. If you decide to remove the package or the program, you can use the
--nodeps option with the -e option to force rpm to uninstall the package.

tar
Syntax:

tar [c] [x] [v] [z] [f filename] file or directory names

The tar command allows you to archive multiple files and directories into a sin-
gle .tar file. It also allows you to extract files and directories from such an archive
file, as in this example:

tar cf source.tar *.c

This command creates a tar file called source.tar, which contains all C source
files (ending with extension .c) in the current directory.

tar cvf source.tar *.c

Here the v option allows you to see which files are being archived by tar.

tar cvzf backup.tar.gz important_dir

Here all the files and subdirectories of the directory called important_dir are
archived in a file called backup.tar.gz. Notice that the z option is compressing
this file; hence, give the resulting file a .gz extension. Often, the .tar.gz exten-
sion is shortened by many users to be .tgz as well.
To extract an archive file, backup.tar, you can run:

tar xf backup.tar

To extract a compressed tar file (such as backup.tgz or backup.tar.gz), you

can run:

tar xzf backup.tgz

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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 623

uncompress
Syntax:

uncompress [-v] file(s)

When you use the compress command to compress a file, the file is no longer in its
original form. To return a compressed file to its original form, use the uncompress
command.
The uncompress command expects to find a file with a .Z extension, so the
command line “uncompress inbox” is equivalent to “uncompress inbox.Z.”
The -v option produces verbose output.

uncompress -v inbox.Z
inbox.Z: — replaced with inbox

unzip
Syntax:

unzip file(s)

This command decompresses files with the .zip extension. You can compress
these files with the unzip command, Phil Katz’s PKZIP, or any other PKZIP-
compatible program.

uudecode
Syntax:

uudecode file

The uudecode command transforms a uuencoded file into its original form.
uudecode creates the file by using the “target_name” the uuencode command
specifies, which you can also identify on the first line of a uuencoded file.
To convert our uuencoded file from the following entry back to its original form:

uudecode a.out.txt

As a result, you create the executable file a.out from the text file a.out.txt.
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624 Appendixes

uuencode
Syntax:

uuencode in_file target_name

The uuencode command translates a binary file into readable form. You can do
so by converting the binary file into ASCII printable characters. One of the many
uses of uuencode is transmitting a binary file through e-mail. A uuencoded file
appears as a large e-mail message. The recipient can then save the message and use
the uudecode command to retrieve its binary form.
The target_name is the name of the binary file created when you use the
uuencode.
This example uuencodes the executable program a.out. The target name that
uudecode creates is b.out. Save the uuencoded version of a.out in the file
a.out.txt.

uuencode a.out b.out > a.out.txt

zip
Syntax:

zip [-ACDe9] file(s)

This compression utility compresses files in a more popular format, enabling

compatibility with systems such as VMS, MS-DOS, OS/2, Windows NT, Minix,
Atari, Macintosh, Amiga, and Acorn RISC OS. This is mainly because of zip’s com-
patibility with Phil Katz’s PKZIP program. Files compressed with zip have the .zip
extension.
The zip command has an array of options that are toggled by its switches. This
command can create self-extracting files, add comments to ZIP files, remove files
from an archive, and password-protect the archive.
These are a few of the features zip supports. For a more detailed description, see
your local man page.

File Systems — Specific Commands

The commands in this section deal with file systems.

dd
Syntax:

dd if=input file [conv=conversion type] of=output file [obs=output block size]

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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 625

This program allows you to convert file formats, as in this example:

dd if=/tmp/uppercase.txt conv=lcase of=/tmp/lowercase.txt

This command takes the /tmp/upppercase.txt file and writes a new file called
/tmp/lowercase.txt and converts all characters to lowercase (lcase). To do the
reverse, you can use conv=ucase option. However, dd is most widely used to write
a boot image file to a floppy disk that has a file system that mkfs has already cre-
ated. For example:

dd if=/some/boot.img conv=lcase of=/dev/fd0 obs=16k

This command writes the /some/boot.image file to the first floppy disk
(/dev/fd0) in 16KB blocks.

df
Syntax:

df [-k] FileSystem | File

The df command summarizes the free disk space for the drives mounted on the
system. Hard disk space is a vital (and often scarce) resource in a computer; moni-
tor it carefully. Mismanagement of hard disk space can cause a computer to crawl
on its knees and can cause some unhappy users.

df

Filesystem 512-blocks Free %Used Iused %Iused Mounted on

/dev/hd4 49152 25872 48% 2257 19% /
/dev/hd2 1351680 243936 82% 19091 12% /usr
/dev/hd9var 49152 12224 76% 2917 48% /var
/dev/hd3 57344 52272 9% 125 2% /tmp
/dev/lv00 57344 55176 4% 19 1% /tftpboot
/dev/hd1 163840 16976 90% 1140 6% /home
/dev/fs01 8192000 6381920 23% 20963 3% /home/fs01
/dev/fs02 8192000 1873432 78% 72 1% /home/fs02

To view the disk space summary for the current file system:

df .
Filesystem 512-blocks Free %Used Iused %Iused Mounted on
/dev/fs01 8192000 6381920 23% 20963 3% /home/fs01
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626 Appendixes

Notice that the db output is printed in 512-byte blocks. It may seem odd to think
of blocks with this size if you are used to 1K blocks or more precisely 1,024-byte
blocks. The -k option displays the summary with 1,024-byte blocks instead:

df –k .
Filesystem 1024-blocks Free %Used Iused %Iused Mounted on
/dev/fs01 4096000 3190960 23% 20963 3% /home/fs01

With the -k option in mind, the results are very different. If you interpret the
output incorrectly, you may run out of disk space sooner than you think.

edquota
See the section on assigning disk quotas to users in Chapter 7 for details.

fdformat
Syntax:

fdformat floppy-device

This program does a low-level format on a floppy device, as in this example:

fdformat /dev/fd0H1440

This formats the first floppy disk (/dev/fd0) as a high-density 1.44MB disk.

fdisk

mkfs
Syntax:

mkfs [-t fstype] [-cv] device-or-mount-point [blocks]

This command allows you to make a new file system, as in this example:

mkfs -t ext2 /dev/hda3

The preceding command creates an ext2-type file system on the /dev/hda3

partition of the first IDE hard disk. The -c option allows you to instruct mkfs to
check bad blocks before building the file system; the -v option produces verbose
output.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 627

mount
Syntax:

mount -a [-t fstype] [-o options] device directory

This command mounts a file system. Typically, the mount options for commonly
used file systems are stored in /etc/fstab, as in this example:

/dev/hda6 /intranet ext2 defaults 1 2

If the preceding line is in /etc/fstab, you can mount the file system stored in
partition /dev/hda6 as follows:

mount /intranet

You can also mount the same file system as follows:

mount -t ext2 /dev/hda6 /intranet

Use the -t option to specify file system type. To mount all the file systems spec-
ified in the /etc/fstab, use the -a option, as in this example:

mount -a -t ext2

The preceding command mounts all ext2 file systems. Commonly used options
for -o option are ro (read-only) and rw (read/write), as in this example:

mount -t ext2 -o ro /dev/hda6 /secured

The preceding command mounts /dev/hda6 on /secured as a read-only file

system.

quota
See the section on monitoring disk usage in Chapter 7 for details.

quotaon
See the section on configuring your system to support disk quotas in Chapter 7 for
details.

swapoff
Syntax:

swapoff -a
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628 Appendixes

This command allows you to disable swap devices. The -a option allows you to
disable all swap partitions specified in /etc/fstab.

swapon
Syntax:

swapon -a

This command allows you to enable swap devices. The -a option allows you to
enable all swap partitions specified in /etc/fstab.

umount
Syntax:

umount -a [-t fstype]

This command unmounts a file system from the current system, as in this
example:

umount /cdrom

The preceding command unmounts a file system whose mount point is /cdrom
and the details of whose mount point are specified in /etc/fstab.
The -a option allows you to unmount all file systems (except for the proc file
system) specified in the /etc/fstab file. You can also use the -t option to specify
a particular file system type to unmount, as in this example:

umount -a -t iso9660

This command unmounts all iso9660-type file systems, which are typically
CD-ROMs.

DOS-Compatible Commands
If you need access to MS-DOS files from your Linux system, you need to install the
Mtools package. Mtools is shipped with Red Hat as an RPM package, so installing it
is quite simple. See the rpm command for details on how to install an RPM
package.
Mtools is a collection of utilities that allow you to read, write, and move around
MS-DOS files. It also supports Windows 95–style long filenames, OS/2 Xdf disks,
and 2m disks. The following section covers the common utilities in the Mtools
package.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 629

mcopy
Syntax:

mcopy [-tm] source-file-or-directory destination-file-or-directory

Use the mcopy utility to copy MS-DOS files to and from Linux, as in this example:

mcopy /tmp/readme.txt b:

The preceding command copies the readme.txt file from the /tmp directory to
the b: drive. The -t option enables you to automatically translate carriage return/
line feed pairs in MS-DOS text files into new line feeds. The -m option allows you
to preserve file modification time.

mdel
Syntax:

mdel msdosfile

This utility allows you to delete files on an MS-DOS file system.

mdir
Syntax:

mdir [-/] msdos-file-or-directory

This utility allows you to view an MS-DOS directory. The –/ option allows you
to view all the subdirectories as well.

mformat
Syntax:

mformat [-t cylinders] [-h heads] [-s sectors]

This utility allows you to format a floppy disk to hold a minimal MS-DOS file
system. I find it much easier to format a disk by using an MS-DOS machine than to
specify cylinders, heads, sectors, and so on.
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630 Appendixes

mlabel
Syntax:

mlabel [-vcs] drive:[new label]

This utility displays the current volume label (if any) of the name drive and
prompts for the new label if you do not enter it after the drive: in the command
line. The -v option prints a hex dump of the boot sector of the named drive; the
-c option clears the existing volume label, and the -s shows the existing label of
the drive.

System Status — Specific Commands

The commands in this section deal with status information on system resources.

dmesg
Syntax:

dmesg

This program prints the status messages the kernel displays during bootup.

free
Syntax:

free

This program displays memory usage statistics. An example of output looks like
this:

total used free shared buffers cached

Mem: 127776 124596 3180 30740 2904 107504

-/+ buffers/cache: 14188 113588
Swap: 129900 84 129816

shutdown
Syntax:

shutdown [-r] [-h] [-c] [-k] [-t seconds] time [message]

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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 631

This command allows a superuser or an ordinary user listed in the /etc/

shutdown.allow file to shut the system down for a reboot or halt. To reboot the
computer now, run:

shutdown -r now

To halt the system after the shutdown, replace the -r with -h. The -k option
allows you to simulate a shutdown event, as in this example:

shutdown -r -k now System going down for maintenance

This command sends a fake shutdown message to all users. The -t option allows
you to specify a delay in seconds between the warning message and the actual
shutdown event. In such a case, if you decide to abort the shutdown, run shutdown
again with the -c option to cancel it.
Note that you can use the HH:MM format to specify the time, as in this example:

shutdown -r 12:55

This reboots the system at 12:55. You can also use +minutes to specify time, as
in this example:

shutdown -r +5

This starts the shutdown process five minutes after you print the warning message.

uname
Syntax:

uname [-m] [-n] [-r] [-s] [-v] [-a]

This command displays information about the current system, as in this example:

uname -a

This command displays a line such as the following:

Linux picaso.nitec.com 2.0.36 #1 Tue Oct 13 22:17:11 EDT 1998 i586 unknown

The -m option displays the system architecture (for instance, i586); the -n option
displays the host name (for instance, picaso.nitec.com); the -r option displays
the release version of the operating system (for instance, 2.0.36); the -s option
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632 Appendixes

displays the operating system name (for instance, Linux); and the -v option dis-
plays the local build version of the operating system (for instance, #1 Tue Oct 13
22:17:11 EDT 1998).

uptime
Syntax:

uptime

This command displays current time, how long the system has been up since the
last reboot, how many users are connected to the server, and the system load in the
last 1, 5, and 15 minutes.

User Administration Commands

The commands in this section deal with user administration.

chfn
See the section on modifying an existing user account in Chapter 7.

chsh
See the section on modifying an existing user account in Chapter 7.

groupadd
See the section on creating a new group in Chapter 7.

groupmod
See the section on modifying an existing group in Chapter 7.

groups
Syntax:

groups [username]

This command displays the list of group(s) the named user currently belongs to.
If no username is specified, this command displays the current user’s groups.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 633

last
Syntax:

last [-number] [username] [reboot]

This command displays a list of users who have logged in since /var/log/wtmp
was created, as in this example:

last julie

This command shows the number of times user julie has logged in since the last
time /var/log/wtmp was created.

last -10 julie

This command shows only the last 10 logins by julie.

last reboot

This displays the number of times the system has been rebooted since /var/
log/wtmp file was created.

passwd
Syntax:

passwd username

This command allows you to change a user’s password. Only a superuser can
specify a username; everyone else must type passwd without any argument, which
allows the user to change his or her password. A superuser can change anyone’s
password using this program.

su
Syntax:

su [-] [username]

You can use the su command to change into another user, as in this example:

su john

This command allows you to be the user john as long as you know john’s pass-
word, and this account exists on the server you use.
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634 Appendixes

The most common use of this command is to become root. For example, if you
run this command without any username argument, it assumes that you want to be
root and prompts you for the root password. If you enter the correct root pass-
word, su runs a shell by using the root’s UID (0) and GID (0). This allows you effec-
tively to become the root user and to perform administrative tasks. This command
is very useful if you have only Telnet access to the server. You can telnet into the
server as a regular user and use it to become root to perform system administrative
tasks. If you supply the – option, the new shell is marked as the login shell. Once you
become the root user, you can su to other users without entering any password.

useradd
See the section on creating new user account in Chapter 7.

userdel
See the section on deleting or disabling a user account in Chapter 7.

usermod
See the section on modifying an existing user account in Chapter 7.

who
Syntax:

who

This command displays information about the users who are currently logged in
to a system. You can also use the w command for the same purpose.

whoami
Syntax:

whoami

This command displays your current username.

User Commands for Accessing

Network Services
The commands in this section allow you to access various network services.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 635

finger
Syntax:

finger user@host

This program allows you to query a finger daemon at the named host, as in this
example:

finger [email protected]

This command requests a finger connection to the finger daemon running on

the blackhole.integrationlogic.com server. If the named host does not allow
finger connections, this attempt fails. On success, the finger request displays
information about the named user. If the user has a .plan file in the home direc-
tory, most traditional finger daemons display this file. Because finger has been
used by hackers to cause security problems, most system administrators disable
finger service outside their domains.

ftp
Syntax:

ftp ftp hostname or IP address

This is the default FTP client program. You can use this to FTP to an FTP server,
as in this example:

ftp ftp.cdrom.com

This opens an FTP connection to ftp.cdrom.com and prompts you to enter a

username and a password. If you know the username and password, you can log in
to the FTP server and upload or download files. Once you are at the FTP prompt,
you can enter help or ? to get help on FTP commands.

lynx
Syntax:

lynx [-dump] [-head] [URL]

This is the most popular interactive text-based Web browser, as in this example:

lynx http://www.integrationlogic.com/
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636 Appendixes

This command displays the top page of the site. It is a very handy program to
have. For example, say you want to quickly find what kind of Web server the site
uses without asking the Webmaster. You can run the following command:

lynx -head http://www.integrationlogic.com/

This displays the HTTP header the lynx browser receives from the Web server. An
example of output is shown here:

HTTP/1.1 302 Moved

Date: Tue, 02 Mar 1999 06:47:27 GMT
Server: Apache/1.3.3 (Unix)
Location: http://www.integrationlogic.com/index.shtml
Connection: close
Content-Type: text/html

As you can see, this header shows that www.integrationlogic.com runs on the
Apache 1.3.3 Web server on a Unix platform. Note that not all Web sites give
their Web server platform information, but most do. If you would like to avoid the
interactive mode, you can use the -dump option to dump the page on the screen
(stdout). For example,

lynx -dump -head http://www.integrationlogic.com/

This dumps the header to stdout. The -dump feature can be quite handy, as in
this example:

lynx -dump -head http://webserver/new.gif > new.gif

This allows you to save new.gif on the Web server host on a local file called
new.gif.
The interactive mode allows you to browse sites that are compatible with text-
only browsers.

mail
Syntax:

mail user@host [-s subject] [< filename]

This is the default SMTP mail client program. You can use this program to send
or receive mail from your system. For example, if you run this program without
any argument, it displays an ampersand (&) prompt and shows you the currently
unread mail by arranging the messages in a numbered list. To read a message, enter
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 637

the index number, and the mail is displayed. To learn more about mail, use the ?
command once you are at the & prompt.
To send a message to a user called [email protected] with the sub-
ject header About your Red Hat book, you can run the following command:

mail [email protected] -s “About your Red Hat book”

You can then enter your mail message and press Ctrl+D to end the message. You
can switch to your default text editor by entering ~v at the beginning of a line
while you are in compose mode.
If you have already prepared a mail message in a file, you can send it using a
command such as

mail [email protected] -s “About your Red Hat book” << feedback.txt

This sends a message with the given subject line; the message consists of the
contents of the feedback.txt file.

pine
Syntax:

pine

This is a full-screen SMTP mail client that is quite user-friendly. If you typically
use mail clients via telnet, you should definitely try this program. Because of its
user-friendly interfaces, it is suitable for your Linux users who are not yet friends
with Linux.

rlogin
Syntax:

rlogin [-l username] host

This command allows you to log remotely into a host. For example, to log in to
a host called shell.myhost.com, you can run:

rlogin shell.myhost.com

Because rlogin is not safe, I recommend that you use it only in a closed
LAN environment.
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638 Appendixes

The -l option allows you to specify a username to use for authentication. If you
would like to log remotely into a host without entering a password, create a
.rhosts file in the user’s home directory. Add the hostname or IP address of the
computer you use to issue the rlogin request. Again, because many consider this a
security risk, I do not recommend wide use of rlogin.

talk
Syntax:

talk username tty

If you need to send a message to another user, e-mail works just fine. But if you
need to communicate with another user in real time (as in a telephone conversa-
tion), use the talk command.
To talk to another user who is logged in:

talk [email protected]

The user you request has to accept your talk request. Once the user accepts your
talk request, you can begin talking (or typing) to each other. The talk program
terminates when either party executes Ctrl+C (the intr key combination).

telnet
Syntax:

telnet hostname or IP address [port]

This is the default Telnet client program. You can use this program to connect to
a Telnet server, as in this example:

telnet shell.myportal.com

This command opens a Telnet connection to the shell.myportal.com system if

the named host runs a Telnet server. Once a connection is opened, the command
prompts you for username and password and, on successful login, allows you to
access a local user account on the Telnet server.

wall
Syntax:

wall
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 639

This command allows you to send a text message to every terminal whose user
has not disabled write access to the TTY via the mesg n command. Once you type
wall, you can enter a single or multiline message; you can send it by pressing
Ctrl+D.

Network Administrator’s Commands

The commands in this section allow you to gather information on network services
and on the network itself.

host
Syntax:

host [-a] host IP address

By default, this program allows you to check the IP address of a host quickly. If
you use the -a option, it returns various sorts of DNS information about the named
host or IP address.

hostname
Syntax:

hostname

This program displays the host name of a system.

ifconfig
Syntax:

ifconfig [interface] [up | down] [netmask mask]

This program allows you to configure a network interface. You can also see the
state of an interface using this program. For example, if you have configured your
Red Hat Linux for networking and have a preconfigured network interface device,
eth0, you can run

ifconfig eth0
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640 Appendixes

and see output similar to the following:

eth0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:C0:F6:98:37:37

inet addr:206.171.50.50 Bcast:206.171.50.63 Mask:255.255.255.240
UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1
RX packets:9470 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:7578 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 collisions:0
Interrupt:5 Base address:0x340

Here ifconfig reports that network interface device eth0 has an Internet
address (inet addr) 206.171.50.50, a broadcast address (Bcast) 206.171.50.63, and
network mask (Mask) 255.255.255.240. The rest of the information shows the fol-
lowing: how many packets this interface has received (RX packets); how many
packets this interface has transmitted (TX packets); how many errors of different
types have occurred so far; what interrupt address line this device is using; what I/O
address base is being used; and so on.
You can run ifconfig without any arguments to get the full list of all the up
network devices.
You can use ifconfig to bring an interface up, as in this example:

ifconfig eth0 206.171.50.50 netmask 255.255.255.240 \

broadcast 206.171.50.63

The preceding command starts eth0 with IP address 206.171.50.50. You can also
quickly take an interface down by using the ifconfig command, as in this example:

ifconfig eth0 down

This command takes the eth0 interface down.

netcfg
See the section on using netcfg to configure a network interface card in Chapter 9.

netstat
Syntax:

netstat [-r] [-a] [-c] [-i]

This program displays the status of the network connections, both to and from
the local system, as in this example:

netstat -a
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 641

This command displays all the network connections on the local system. To dis-
play the routing table, use the -r option. To display network connection status on
a continuous basis, use the -c option. To display information on all network inter-
faces, use the -i option.

nslookup
Syntax:

nslookup [-query=DNS record type] [hostname or IP] [name server]

This command allows you to perform DNS queries. You can choose to query a
DNS server in an interactive fashion or just look up information immediately, as in
this example:

nslookup -query=mx integrationlogic.com

This command immediately returns the MX records for the integra-

tionlogic.com domain.

nslookup -query=mx integrationlogic.com ns.nitec.com

This command does the same, but instead of using the default name server spec-
ified in the /etc/resolv.conf file, it uses ns.nitec.com as the name server. You
can also use -q instead of -query, as in this example:

nslookup -q=a www.formtrack.com

This command returns the IP address (Address record) for the named hostname.
You can run nslookup in interactive mode as well. Just run the command without
any parameters, and you will see the nslookup prompt. At the nslookup prompt,
you can enter “?” to get help. If you are planning on performing multiple DNS
queries at a time, interactive mode can be very helpful. For example, to query the
NS records for multiple domains such as ad-engine.com and
classifiedworks.com, you can just enter the following command:

set query=ns

Once you set the query type to ns, you can simply type ad-engine.com and wait
for the reply; once you get the reply, you can try the next domain name; and so on.
If you would like to change the name server while at the nslookup prompt, use the
server command, as in this example:

server ns.ad-engine.com
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642 Appendixes

This will make nslookup use ns.ad-engine.com as the name server. To quit
interactive mode and return to your shell prompt, enter exit at the nslookup
prompt.

ping
Syntax:

ping [-c count] [-s packet size] [-I interface]

This is one of the programs network administrators use most widely. You can use
it to see whether a remote computer is reachable via the TCP/IP protocol.
Technically, this program sends an Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) echo
request to the remote host. Because the protocol requires a response to an echo
request, the remote host is bound to send an echo response. This allows the ping
program to calculate the amount of time it takes to send a packet to a remote host,
as in this example:

ping blackhole.nitec.com

This command sends ping messages to the blackhole.nitec.com host on a

continuous basis. To stop the ping program, you press Ctrl+C, which causes the
program to display a set of statistics. Here is an example of output of the ping
requests the preceding command generates:

PING blackhole.nitec.com (209.63.178.15): 56 data bytes

64 bytes from 209.63.178.15: icmp_seq=0 ttl=53 time=141.5 ms
64 bytes from 209.63.178.15: icmp_seq=1 ttl=53 time=162.6 ms
64 bytes from 209.63.178.15: icmp_seq=2 ttl=53 time=121.4 ms
64 bytes from 209.63.178.15: icmp_seq=3 ttl=53 time=156.0 ms
64 bytes from 209.63.178.15: icmp_seq=4 ttl=53 time=126.4 ms
64 bytes from 209.63.178.15: icmp_seq=5 ttl=53 time=101.5 ms
64 bytes from 209.63.178.15: icmp_seq=6 ttl=53 time=98.7 ms
64 bytes from 209.63.178.15: icmp_seq=7 ttl=53 time=180.9 ms
64 bytes from 209.63.178.15: icmp_seq=8 ttl=53 time=126.2 ms
64 bytes from 209.63.178.15: icmp_seq=9 ttl=53 time=122.3 ms
64 bytes from 209.63.178.15: icmp_seq=10 ttl=53 time=127.1 ms
— - blackhole.nitec.com ping statistics — -
11 packets transmitted, 11 packets received, 0% packet loss
round-trip min/avg/max = 98.7/133.1/180.9 ms

The preceding output shows 10 ping requests to the blackhole.nitec.com

host. Because the program is interrupted after the 11th request, the statistics show
that ping has transmitted 11 packets and has also received all the packets, and
therefore no packet loss has occurred. This is good in that packet loss is a sign of
294754-2 AppB.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 643

Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 643

poor networking between the ping requester and the ping responder. The other
interesting statistics are the round-trip minimum (min) time, the average (avg) time,
and the maximum (max) time. The lower these numbers are, the better the routing is
between the involved hosts. For example, if you ping a host on the same LAN, you
should see the round-trip numbers in the one-millisecond range.
If you would like to have ping automatically stop after transmitting a number of
packets, use the -c option, as in this example:

ping -c 10 blackhole.nitec.com

This sends 10 ping requests to the named host. By default, ping sends a 64-byte
(56 data bytes + 8 header bytes) packet. If you are also interested in controlling the
size of the packet sent, use the -s option, as in this example:

ping -c 1024 -s 1016 reboot.nitec.com

This command sends a packet 1,024 (1016 + 8) bytes long to the remote host.

By sending large packets to a remote host running weak operating systems

(you know what they are), you might cause the host to become very unus-
able to the user(s) on the remote host.This could be considered as an attack
by many system administrators and therefore is very likely to be illegal in
most parts of the world. So be very careful when you start experimenting
with ping and someone else’s computer.

route
Syntax:

route add -net network address netmask dev device

route add -host hostname or IP dev device
route add default gw hostname or IP

This command allows you to control routing to and from your computer. For
example, to create a default route for your network, use the route command as
follows:

route add -net network address netmask device

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644 Appendixes

For example, to create a default route for 206.171.50.48 network with a

255.255.255.240 netmask and eth0 as the interface, you can run:

route add -net 206.171.50.48 255.255.255.240 eth0

To set the default gateway, you can run the route command as follows:

route add default gw gateway address device

For example, to set the default gateway address to 206.171.50.49, you can run
the following command:

route add default gw 206.171.50.49 eth0

You can verify that your network route and default gateway are properly set up
in the routing table by using the following command:

route -n

Here is an example of output of the preceding command:

Kernel IP routing table

Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Metric Ref Use Iface
206.171.50.48 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.240 U 0 0 6 eth0
127.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 U 0 0 5 lo
0.0.0.0 206.171.50.49 0.0.0.0 UG 0 0 17 eth0

Make sure you have IP forwarding turned on in /etc/sysconfig/

network and also in the kernel to allow routing packets between two dif-
ferent network interfaces.

tcpdump
Syntax:

tcpdump expression

This is a great network debugging tool. For example, to trace all the packets
between two hosts brat.nitec.com and reboot.nitec.com, you can use the fol-
lowing command:

tcpdump host brat.nitec.com and reboot.nitec.com

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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 645

This command makes tcpdump listen for packets between these two computers.
If reboot.nitec.com starts sending ping requests to brat.nitec.com, the output
looks something like the following:

tcpdump: listening on eth0

09:21:14.720000 reboot.nitec.com> brat.nitec.com: icmp: echo request
09:21:14.720000 brat.nitec.com> reboot.nitec.com: icmp: echo reply
09:21:15.720000 reboot.nitec.com> brat.nitec.com: icmp: echo request
09:21:15.720000 brat.nitec.com> reboot.nitec.com: icmp: echo reply
09:21:16.720000 reboot.nitec.com> brat.nitec.com: icmp: echo request
09:21:16.720000 brat.nitec.com> reboot.nitec.com: icmp: echo reply
09:21:17.730000 reboot.nitec.com> brat.nitec.com: icmp: echo request
09:21:17.730000 brat.nitec.com> reboot.nitec.com: icmp: echo reply

If you are having a problem connecting to an FTP server, you can use tcpdump
on your LAN gateway system to see what is going on, as in this example:

tcpdump port ftp or ftp-data

This displays the FTP-related packets originating and arriving in your network.
As you can see, this allows you to debug a network problem at a low level. If
you are experiencing a problem in using a service between two hosts, you can use
tcpdump to identify the problem.

traceroute
Syntax:

traceroute host or IP address

This program allows you to locate network routing problems. It displays the
routes between two hosts by tricking the gateways between the hosts into respond-
ing to an ICMP TIME_EXCEEDED request. Here is an example of traceroute output
that shows the route from my local system to the blackhole.nitec.com host:

traceroute to blackhole.nitec.com (209.63.178.15), 30 hops max, 40 byte packets

1 router (206.171.50.49) 4.137 ms 3.995 ms 4.738 ms
2 PM3-001.v1.NET (206.171.48.10) 32.683 ms 33.295 ms 33.255 ms
3 HQ-CS001.v1.NET (206.171.48.1) 42.263 ms 44.237 ms 36.784 ms
4 ix.pxbi.net (206.13.15.97) 106.785 ms 63.585 ms 101.277 ms
5 ix.pxbi.net (206.13.31.8) 86.283 ms 64.246 ms 69.749 ms
6 ca.us.ixbm.net (165.87.22.10) 71.415 ms 72.319 ms 85.183 ms
7 mae.elxi.net (198.32.136.128) 101.863 ms 80.257 ms 67.323 ms
8 y.exli.net (207.173.113.146) 71.323 ms 104.685 ms 110.935 ms
9 z.exli.net (207.173.113.217) 69.964 ms 137.858 ms 85.326 ms
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646 Appendixes

10 z1.exli.net (207.173.112.251) 81.257 ms 107.575 ms 78.453 ms

11 209.210.249.50 (209.210.249.50) 90.701 ms 91.116 ms 109.491 ms
12 209.63.178.15 (209.63.178.15) 83.052 ms 76.604 ms 85.406 ms

Each line represents a hop; the more hops there are, the worse the route usually
is. In other words, if you have only a few gateways between the source and the des-
tination, chances are that packets between these two hosts are going to be trans-
ferred at a reasonably fast pace. However, this won’t be true all the time because it
takes only a single, slow gateway to mess up delivery time. Using traceroute, you
can locate where your packets are going and where they are perhaps getting stuck.
Once you locate a problem point, you can contact the appropriate authorities to
resolve the routing problem.

Process Management Commands

The commands in this section show you how to manage processes (that is, the run-
ning programs in your system).

bg
Syntax:

bg

This built-in shell command is found in popular shells. This command allows
you to put a suspended process into background. For example, say that you decide
to run du –a / | sort –rn > /tmp/du.sorted to list all the files and directories
in your system according to the disk usage (size) order and to put the result in a file
called /tmp/du.sorted. Depending on the number of files you have on your sys-
tem, this can take a while. In such a case, you can simply suspend the command
line by using Ctrl+Z and type bg to send all commands in the command line to the
background, bringing your shell prompt back on-screen for other use.

If you want to run a command in the background from the start, you can
simply append & to the end of the command line.

To find out what commands are running in the background, enter jobs and you
see the list of background command lines. To bring a command from the back-
ground, use the fg command.
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 647

fg
Syntax:

fg [%job-number]

This built-in shell command is found in popular shells. This command allows you
to put a background process into foreground. If you run this command without any
argument, it brings up the last command you put in the background. If you have mul-
tiple commands running in the background, you can use the jobs command to find
the job number and can supply this number as an argument for fg to bring it to the
foreground. For example, if jobs shows that you have two commands in the back-
ground, you can bring up the first command you put in the background by using:

fg %1

jobs
Syntax:

jobs

This built-in shell command is found in popular shells. This command allows
you to view the list of processes running in the background or currently suspended.

Task Automation Commands

The commands in this section show you how to run unattended tasks.

Productivity Commands
The commands in this section help you increase your productivity.

bc
Syntax:

bc

This is an interactive calculator that implements a calculator-specific language

as well. Personally, I am not all that interested in learning the language, but I find
this tool very useful for doing quick calculations. When you run the command
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648 Appendixes

without any arguments, it takes your input and interprets it as calculator-program-

ming statements. For example, to multiply 1,024 by 4, you can simply enter
1024*4 and the result is displayed. You can reuse the current result by using the
period character.

cal
Syntax:

cal [month] [year]

This nifty program displays a nicely formatted calendar for the month or year
specified in the command line. If you do not specify anything as an argument, the
calendar for the current month is displayed. To see the calendar for an entire year,
enter the (Western calendar) year in the 1–9999 range, as in this example:

cal 2000

This command displays the following calendar for the year 2000:

2000

January February March

Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 26 27 28 29 30 31
30 31
April May June
Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30
30
July August September
Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
30 31
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 649

October November December

Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 1 2
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31

ispell
Syntax:

ispell filename

This program allows you to correct spelling mistakes in a text file in an interac-
tive fashion. If you have a misspelling in the file, the program suggests a spelling
and gives you options to replace it with a correctly spelled word. This is the spell
checker for text files.

mesg
Syntax:

mesg [y | n]

This program allows you to enable or disable public write access to your termi-
nal, as in this example:

mesg y

The preceding command enables write access to your terminal so that another
user on the same system can use the write command to write text messages to you.
The n option allows you to disable write access. If you do not want to be bothered
by anyone at any time, you can add mesg n to your login script (.login) file.

write
Syntax:

write username tty

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650 Appendixes

This program allows you to write text messages to the named user, provided the
user has not disabled write access to his or her TTY, as in this example:

write shoeman

This command allows you to type a text message on screen, and when you fin-
ish the message by pressing Ctrl+D, the message is displayed on the user shoeman’s
terminal. If the user is logged in more than once, you have to specify the terminal
name as well, as in this example:

write shoeman ttyp0

This allows you to write to shoeman and to display the message on terminal
ttyp0. If someone has multiple terminals open, you might want to run the w or who
command to see which TTY is most suitable.

Shell Commands
In this section, you will find some very basic shell commands.

alias
Syntax:

alias name of the alias = command

This is a built-in shell command available in most popular shells. This command
lets you create aliases for commands, as in this example:

alias dir ls -l

This command creates an alias called dir for the ls –l command. To see the
entire alias list, run alias without any argument.

history
Syntax:

history

This is a built-in shell command available in most popular shells. This command
displays a list of commands you have recently entered at the command line. The
number of commands that the history command displays is limited by an envi-
ronment variable, also called history. For example, if you add set history =
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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 651

100 to your .login file, whenever you log in, you allow the history command to
remember up to 100 command lines. You can easily rerun the commands you see in
the history by entering their index number with a “!” sign. For example, say that
when you enter the history command, you see the following listings:

1 10:25 vi irc-bot.h
2 10:25 vi irc-bot.c
3 10:26 which make

To run the vi irc-bot.c command again, you can simply enter !2 in the com-
mand line.

set
Syntax:

set var = value

This is a built-in shell command available in most popular shells. It allows you
to set environment variables with specific values, as in this example:

set foo = bar

Here a new environment variable foo is set to have bar as the value. To see the
list of all environment variables, run set by itself. To view the value of a specific
environment variable, such as path, run:

echo $path

This shows you the value of the named environment variable. If you use this
command quite often to set a few special environment variables, you can add it to
.login or .profile or to your shell’s dot file so that the special environment vari-
ables are automatically set when you log in.

source
Syntax:

source filename

This is a built-in shell command available in most popular shells. This command
lets you read and execute commands from the named file in the current shell
environment.
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652 Appendixes

unalias
Syntax:

unalias name of the alias

This is a built-in shell command available in most popular shells. This command
lets you remove an alias for a command, as in this example:

unalias dir

This command removes an alias called dir. To remove all aliases, use the * wild-
card as the argument.

Printing-Specific Commands
This section discusses commands that help you print from your Linux system.

lpq
Syntax:

lpq [-al] [-P printer]

The lpq command lists the status of the printers. If you enter lpq without any
arguments, information about the default printer is displayed.

lpq
Printer: lp@rembrandt ‘Generic dot-matrix printer entry’
Queue: no printable jobs in queue
Status: server finished at 21:11:33

The -P option specifies information about a particular printer. The -a option

returns the status of all printers.
With the -l option, lpq reports the job identification number, the user name that
requests the print job, the originating host, the rank in queue, the job description,
and the size of the job.

lpr
Syntax:

lpr [-i indentcols] [-P printer] [filename]

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Appendix B: Common Linux Commands 653

This command sends a file to the print spool to be printed. If you give no file-
name, data from standard input is assumed.
The -i option allows the option of starting the printing at a specific column. To
specify a particular printer, you can use the -P printer option.

lpr main.c

The preceding example attempts to print the file main.c.

lprm
Syntax:

lprm [-a] [jobid] [all]

The lprm command sends a request to lpd to remove an item from the print
queue. You can specify the print jobs the job ID or username is to remove, or they
can include all items.
To remove all jobs in all print queues:

lprm -a all

To remove all jobs for the user “kiwee” on the printer “p1”:

lprm -Pp1 kiwee

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304754-2 AppC.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 655

Appendix C

Internet Resources
THIS APPENDIX PROVIDES YOU with a list of Linux resources. Many Linux-oriented
newsgroups, mailing lists, and Web sites are available on the Internet. Although
you are likely to discover many more new Linux resources as time passes and as
Linux’s popularity increases, the following resources are likely to remain in good
health at all times. I use these resources on an almost daily basis.

Usenet Newsgroups
The following Usenet newsgroups can be a great place to learn about advances in
Linux, to engage in Linux-specific discussions, and also to find answers to ques-
tions you might have.

The comp.os.linux hierarchy

Linux has its own hierarchy of Usenet newsgroups. These groups are strictly Linux
only. Before you post an article or a question in any of these newsgroups (or any
Usenet newsgroup), make sure you know the charter of the group. In particular,
when you are looking for answers to questions or solutions to problems, make sure
you have read the available frequently asked questions, man pages, and how-to
documentation. If you post a question that has been answered in a FAQ or a how-
to document, chances are that some people who participate in that group might not
take it kindly. Also, be careful when you post the same question in multiple groups
(known as cross-posting) in the hope that you are increasing your chances of get-
ting answers. As long as your post is relevant to the group, it is okay.

COMP.OS.LINUX.ADVOCACY (UNMODERATED)
This newsgroup is intended for discussions of the benefits of Linux compared with
other operating systems.

COMP.OS.LINUX.ANNOUNCE (MODERATED)
This newsgroup is intended for all Linux-specific announcements. You will find
information on new Linux software, bug and security alerts, and user group infor-
mation here.

655
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656 Appendixes

COMP.OS.LINUX.ANSWERS (MODERATED)
The Linux FAQ, how-to, readme, and other documents are posted in this news-
group. If you have a question about Linux, check this newsgroup before posting
your question in any Linux newsgroup.

COMP.OS.LINUX.DEVELOPMENT.APPS (UNMODERATED)
This newsgroup is intended for Linux developers who want to discuss development
issues with others.

COMP.OS.LINUX.HARDWARE (UNMODERATED)
This newsgroup is intended for hardware-specific discussions. If you have a ques-
tion about a piece of hardware you are trying to use with Linux, look for help here.

COMP.OS.LINUX.M68K (UNMODERATED)
This newsgroup is for Motorola 68K architecture-specific Linux development.

COMP.OS.LINUX.ALPHA (UNMODERATED)
This newsgroup is for Compaq/Digital Alpha architecture-specific discussions.

COMP.OS.LINUX.NETWORKING (UNMODERATED)
This newsgroup is intended for networking-related discussions.

COMP.OS.LINUX.X (UNMODERATED)
This newsgroup is intended for discussions relating to the X Window System, ver-
sion 11, and compatible software such as servers, clients, libraries, and fonts run-
ning under Linux.

COMP.OS.LINUX.DEVELOPMENT.SYSTEM (UNMODERATED)
This newsgroup is intended for kernel hackers and module developers. Here you
will find ongoing discussions on the development of the Linux operating system
proper: kernel, device drivers, loadable modules, and so forth.

COMP.OS.LINUX.SETUP (UNMODERATED)
This newsgroup is intended for discussions on installation and system administra-
tion issues.

COMP.OS.LINUX.MISC (UNMODERATED)
This is the bit-bucket for the comp.os.linux hierarchy. Any topics not suitable for
the other newsgroups in this hierarchy are discussed here.
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Appendix C: Internet Resources 657

Miscellaneous Linux newsgroups

The following newsgroups are mainstream Linux newsgroups. Most of these groups
are geographically oriented and typically used for local Linux-related announce-
ments for Linux user group meetings and events.

◆ alt.fan.linus-torvalds

◆ alt.uu.comp.os.linux.questions

◆ aus.computers.linux

◆ dc.org.linux-users
◆ de.alt.sources.linux.patches

◆ de.comp.os.linux.hardware

◆ de.comp.os.linux.misc

◆ de.comp.os.linux.networking

◆ de.comp.os.x

◆ ed.linux

◆ fido.linux-ger

◆ fj.os.linux

◆ fr.comp.os.linux

◆ han.sys.linux

◆ hannet.ml.linux.680x0

◆ it.comp.linux.pluto

◆ maus.os.linux

◆ maus.os.linux68k

◆ no.linux

◆ okinawa.os.linux

◆ tn.linux

◆ tw.bbs.comp.linux

◆ ucb.os.linux

◆ uiuc.sw.linux

◆ umich.linux
304754-2 AppC.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 658

658 Appendixes

Unix security newsgroups

The following newsgroups are mainstream Unix security newsgroups. They often
discuss current security matters that might also apply to Linux.

◆ comp.security.announce

◆ comp.security.misc

◆ comp.security.pgp.announce

◆ comp.security.ssh
◆ comp.security.unix

Mailing Lists
Mailing lists provide a good way of getting information directly to your e-mail
account. If you are interested in Linux news, announcements, and other discus-
sions, mailing lists can be quite helpful. This is especially true of mailing lists that
provide a digest option. Such mailing lists send a digest of all daily or weekly mes-
sages to your e-mail address.

General lists
The following Linux mailing lists are general. They provide good general discus-
sions of Linux news and helpful information for beginning Linux users.

LINUX-ANNOUNCE
Subscribe to Linux-Announce by sending e-mail to linux-announce-request@
redhat.com with the word subscribe in the subject line of the message.

LINUX-LIST
To subscribe, send e-mail to [email protected] with the word subscribe
in the body of your message.

LINUX-NEWBIE
To subscribe, send e-mail to [email protected] with the words
subscribe linux-newbie in the body of your message.

LINUXUSERS
To subscribe, send e-mail to [email protected] with the words subscribe linux
users in the body of your message.
304754-2 AppC.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 659

Appendix C: Internet Resources 659

Security alert lists

The following mailing lists deal with Linux and computer-security issues. I strongly
recommend that you subscribe to the BugTraq mailing list immediately.

BUGTRAQ
Although BugTraq is not specific to Linux, it is a great bug alert resource. To sub-
scribe, send e-mail to [email protected] with the following as the body of
the message: SUBSCRIBE bugtraq your-firstname your-lastname.

LINUX-SECURITY
Red Hat Software, Inc. hosts this mailing list. To subscribe, send e-mail to
[email protected] with the words subscribe linux-security
in your subject line.

Special lists
The following mailing lists deal with two issues: Linux as a server platform and
Linux as a desktop platform.

SERVER-LINUX
To subscribe, send e-mail to [email protected] with the words subscribe
SERVER-LINUX in your subject line.

WORKSTATION-LINUX
To subscribe, send e-mail to [email protected] with the words subscribe
WORKSTATION-LINUX in your subject line.

Web Sites
Many Web sites provide Linux-oriented information. Here are a few good ones.

General resources
The following Web sites are general. Most of these sites act as portal sites:

◆ www.redhat.com/

◆ www.linux.com/

◆ www.linuxresources.com/

◆ http://linuxcentral.com/

◆ www.linuxcare.com/
304754-2 AppC.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 660

660 Appendixes

Publications
The following Web sites are official Web sites for various Linux publications:

◆ www.linuxgazette.com/

◆ www.linuxjournal.com/

◆ www.linuxworld.com/

Software stores
The following Web sites offer commercial Linux software:

◆ www.cheapbytes.com/

◆ www.linuxmall.com/

◆ www.lsl.com/

Security resources
The following Web sites deal with computer security:

◆ www.cert.org/

◆ www.securityfocus.com/

◆ www.replay.com/redhat/

◆ www.rootshell.com/

User Groups
A local Linux user group could be just the help you need for finding information on
Linux. You can locate or even register a new user group of your own in your area
by using the following URL: www.linuxresources.com/glue/index.html.
314754-2 AppD.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 661

Appendix D

Dealing with Compromised

Systems
SYSTEM ADMINISTRATORS INEVITABLY FIND themselves addressing computers that
have been hacked. When you do, remember these simple steps.

Unplug the system’s network cable

Keeping a compromised connection to the outside network (i.e. Internet) is the most
risky thing to do and it is highly recommended that you take it off the network
immediately. This advice is hard to follow if the compromised system is critical to
your business operations. You must consider the following:

◆ Although you might have discovered that your system has been compro-
mised, you might not know the full extent of how the attacker got into
your system and, therefore, it is likely that he or she can return to do fur-
ther damage.
◆ By keeping a compromised system on the network you might be aiding
the attacker in launching attacks on other networks, which can result in
legal complications and even fines against your organization.
◆ If you have valuable customer data in your compromised system, it might
still be available to the attacker(s).

Hopefully, the above are reasons enough to unplug your system. Document
when and how you have taken the system off the network.

Notify Appropriate Authorities

Contact your organization’s management and inform them about the incident at
hand. Have your management team formulate a plan of action in terms of legal and
law enforcement involvement. Many companies shy away from reporting incidents
in the fear of bad PR. This might be something that you need the management to
sort out.
661
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662 Appendixes

Most likely, you will be asked to answer three essential questions:

◆ When did this take place? You will have to wait until you perform the
first analysis to answer this question. You might not ever find out when it
actually took place.
◆ How bad is the situation? This one you can answer when you have
looked at all your data and compared them against a clean set.
◆ Can you stop it? Well, by taking the system off the network, you have
stopped the attack, and to stop the same attacker in the future you will
need to know what happened and take appropriate action.

Create a Backup Copy of Everything

Once you have unplugged the system from your network, back up your data. Hook
up a monitor and a keyboard to your now-isolated system so you can access it
without putting other network components at risk. Then back up all contents of
tapes or other media.
You must not change anything before you have made a verifiable backup.
Consider performing a low-level disk-copy operation if possible. For example, if
you have a disk available that matches the specifications of your system disk, use
the dd command to copy the entire system disk to the identical disk (which you
have to attach to the system first). Make sure you verify the backup or disk copy
separately (on another system, if possible).
Ideally, if you can backup the system and data disks into identical disks and boot
them up on another stand-alone system, you can perform all your investigative
analysis in that second machine and leave the actual compromised system alone for
legal reasons.

Analyze the Compromised

System Data
Once you have a verified backup copy of all data on the compromised system, you
can start your analysis. If you used Tripwire (as advised in this book), you should be
able to detect the modified files and directories quite easily by comparing the read-
only database with the compromised files and directories.

1. Check the password file (/etc/passwd, /etc/shadow) for any unusual

entries in these files.
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Appendix D: Dealing with Compromised Systems 663

Look especially for UID 0 and GID 0 lines. If any user other than root is
assigned to UID or GID, you may have a lead. You can run grep ‘:0:’
/etc/passwd to detect such entries.

2. Look for log entries in /var/log/messages, /var/log/secure, or any

other log files relevant to your system.
For example, if you detected the intrusion because someone reported that
your Web site was defaced, look through the Web server log to see what
IP addresses have recently visited your Web site. Look for any unusual
activity.
3. Boot up the system in normal mode (possibly multiuser run-level 3) and
run the lsof > /tmp/lsof.out command to see what files are opened
in the system.
Review the /tmp/lsof.out file and see if you see any unusual program
opening any file or any unusual file being opened by an innocent-looking
program.
Unfortunately, detecting such activity requires a lot of past experience in
looking at lsof output of running systems. Novice users (or the victims of
a clever attacker) may not find this technique effective.
4. Run the top program on a shell to see what programs are running on
your system. You can also examine a ps auxww output, looking for any
unusual program currently running. Typically, attackers create a backdoor
to the system by leaving a Trojan horse program or a network daemon
running.
5. Run the watch netstat –p command to see what programs are connect-
ing (or trying to connect in your case) to the outside world. See if you see
anything unusual.

Restoring the system

The best step to take in the aftermath of a system compromise is to completely
reformat your hard disks — after you have made sure to back up all valuable data
and made all the copies needed to satisfy any legal requirements (which you should
find out from your legal counsel).
Completely redo the system to ensure that no trace of any Trojan program is left
on the system and also implement all the security measures discussed in this book.
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664 Appendixes

If you were successful in identifying the actual time of the incident when attack-
ers got into your system, restore from backup tapes that pre-date that time (if pos-
sible). When restoring your system, do the following:

◆ Do not use the same passwords as before. Change everyone’s password

and also change any database passwords that were used in any database
that were hosted in the system.
◆ If you know how the attack was performed, make sure you fix the
problem. One way to test your solution is to try out the same attack on
your system after you fix it.
◆ Inform CERT about your incident. You should also inform CERT
(www.cert.org) about this incident. Visit their official Web site to find
out who to call (and how to contact them via Web or e-mail).
324754-2 AppE.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 665

Appendix E

What’s On the CD-ROM?

THE CD-ROM THAT ACCOMPANIES this book contains many great security software
programs and files that will save you a lot of time. To navigate the CD-ROM
quickly, use a file browser program such as File Manager under the X Window
System systems or Windows Explorer under Windows systems.
To view the contents of the CD-ROM, Red Hat Linux users must mount the
CD-ROM using the mount command.
The following sections describe what you can find on the CD.

Book Chapters in Searchable

PDF Format
All the chapters of the book are included on the CD in PDF format so that you can
search and print information from it for your own use only. We have included
Acrobat Reader 5.0 for Windows platforms in the CD for your convenience.

Unix/Linux users must use the Adobe Acrobat Reader for their systems.
Other PDF readers may not work with searchable PDF documents.

Sample Book Scripts in Text Format

All sample scripts developed by the author are included on the CD in text format.
Copy each script from appropriate directory and modify as you need to.

Make sure you turn on execute permission for scripts to run.

665
324754-2 AppE.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 666

666 Appendixes

◆ Tripwire. Tripwire Open Source, Linux edition is a data/network integrity

software. You can learn more about Tripwire at http://www.tripwire.
com/products/linux.

◆ OpenSSL. OpenSSL is the open-source implementation of the Secure

Socket Layer (SSL) protocol. Many programs, such as Apache-SSL and
OpenSSH, need the OpenSSL source distribution.

The CD-ROM that accompanies this book includes software developed by

Ben Laurie for use in the Apache-SSL HTTP server project.

◆ OpenSSH. OpenSSH is a secure shell program that uses OpenSSL technol-

ogy to encrypt all network traffic. You can learn more about OpenSSH at
http://www.openssh.org.

◆ John The Ripper. John the Ripper is a password cracker, which detects
weak passwords. You can learn more about this software at http://www.
openwall.com/john/.

◆ Netcat. Netcat is a network utility program that allows a system adminis-

trator to debug and explore network security issues. It works with TCP
and UDP protocols.
◆ gShield. gShield is an iptables firewall. You can learn more about gShield
at http://muse.linuxmafia.org/gshield.html.
◆ cgichk.pl. cgichk.pl is a Perl script that acts as a simple CGI script scanner,
which looks for known vulnerabilities in Perl-based CGI scripts.
◆ Postfix. Postfix is a Sendmail alternative SMTP mail server. You can learn
about Postfix at http://www.postfix.org.
◆ SARA. Security Auditor’s Research Assistant (SARA) is security analysis
tool, which is based on the famous security assessment tool called SATAN.
To learn more about SARA, visit http://www-arc.com/sara.
◆ PortSentry. PortSentry is a port scan detection tool. You can learn about
this tool at http://www.psionic.com/abacus/portsentry/.
◆ Whisker. Whisker is a CGI vulnerability scanner, which detects known
CGI vulnerabilities in CGI scripts.
◆ SAINT. Security Administrator’s Integrated Network Tool (SAINT) is a
security assessment tool, which has been derived from the famous security
assessment tool called SATAN. You can learn more about SAINT at
http://www.wwdsi.com/saint/.
324754-2 AppE.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 667

Appendix E: What’s on the CD-ROM? 667

◆ Swatch. Swatch monitors log entries in log files and has the ability to
trigger alarms or events in case of security breaches. You can learn more
about Swatch at http://www.stanford.edu/~atkins/swatch/.
◆ tcpdump. tcpdump is a network packet dump and monitoring tool.
You can monitor specifics of each packet traveling via a network
interface using this tool. To learn more about this tool, visit http://
www.tcpdump.org.

◆ Perl. The source distribution of the Perl scripting language is included on

the CD. To install Perl on your Red Hat Linux system, extract the source
distribution in a directory such as /usr/local/src on your hard disk
and read the INSTALL file for details.
◆ Nessus. Nessus is a network security audit client/server tool. You can
learn about Nessus at http://www.nessus.org.
◆ LIDS. Linux Intrusion Detection System (LIDS) is a kernel-level intrusion
detection and protection system for Linux. You can learn more about LIDS
at http://www.turbolinux.com.cn/lids/. This software is included in
the CD.
◆ LSOF. LSOF shows the list of files opened by processes. You can learn
more about LSOF at ftp://vic.cc.purdue.edu/pub/tools/unix/lsof/.
◆ Nmap. Network Mapper (Nmap) is a network scanner and security auditing
utility. To learn more about Nmap visit http://www.insecure.org/nmap/.
◆ Vetescan. Vetescan is a suite of security vulnerability scanner and
exploit detection programs. You can learn about Vetescan at http://
www.self-evident.com.

◆ ngrep. ngrep is a network traffic equivalent of the famous Unix

utility called grep. It allows you to use regular expressions to match
data within an IP packet. To learn more about ngrep visit http://www.
packetfactory.net/Projects/ngrep.

◆ Apache Web Server. The latest release version of the Apache server
source distribution is included on the CD.

The CD-ROM that accompanies this book includes software developed by

the Apache Software Foundation (http://www.apache.org).
324754-2 AppE.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 668

668 Appendixes

Troubleshooting
If you have difficulty installing or using any of the materials on the companion CD,
try the following solutions:

◆ Turn off any anti-virus software that you may have running. Installers
sometimes mimic virus activity and can make your computer incorrectly
believe that it is being infected by a virus. (Be sure to turn the anti-virus
software back on later.)
◆ Close all running programs. The more programs you’re running, the less
memory is available to other programs. Installers also typically update
files and programs; if you keep other programs running, installation may
not work properly.
◆ Reference the ReadMe: Please refer to the ReadMe file located at the
root of the CD-ROM for the latest product information at the time of
publication.

If you still have trouble with the CD, please call the Hungry Minds Customer
Care phone number: (800) 762-2974. Outside the United States, call 1 (317) 572-3994.
You can also contact Hungry Minds Customer Service by e-mail at
[email protected]. Hungry Minds will provide technical support only
for installation and other general quality control items; for technical support on the
applications themselves, consult the program’s vendor or author.
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 669

Index
A alt.fan.linus-torvalds newsgroup, 657
alt.uu.comp.os.linux.questions newsgroup, 657
A records, 400, 403
anongid option, NFS server, 484
Abacus Project suite, 552
anonuid option, NFS server, 484
ACCEPT target, netfilter, 495
AOL Instant Messaging, 525, 526–527
access control. See also authentication
Apache Web server
access-discriminative service, 341–342
access from outside, 520
default access, disabling, 358
compiling, 89–95
finger daemon, 345
starting, 113
FTP, 445–448, 452–455
as xinetd service, 324
by IP address, 337–338
Apache Web server configuration, 95–103
by name, 337–338
AddModule directive, 103
permissions, 354–356
ClearModuleList directive, 103
Samba server, 477–478
disconnections, 97
by time of day, 338
dynamic modules, 103
xinetd and, 337–338, 341–342
KeepAlive directive, 99
access control list (ACL), 119–122, 163–164, 166, 173
KeepAliveTimeout directive, 99–100
access string, 185, 186
LimitRequestBody directive, 102
ACCESS_DB feature, 422–424
LimitRequestFields directive, 102
access-discriminative service, 341–342
LimitRequestFieldSize directive, 102
access_times attribute, 338, 342
LimitRequestLine directive, 102–103
account, PAM module, 244
ListenBacklog directive, 97
Ace Director, 85
MaxClients directive, 98
activity, monitoring system, 6–8
MaxRequestsPerChild directive, 98
add user script parameter, 477
MaxSpareServers directive, 98–99
AddHandler command, 374
MinSpareServers directive, 99
AddModule directive, 103
process control, 95–100
adduser icu command, 232
RLimitCPU directive, 100
admin_e-mail setting, 232
RLimitMEM directive, 101
Adobe Acrobat reader, 665
RLimitPROC directive, 101
Advanced Intrusion Detection Environment (AIDE),
SendBufferSize directive, 96
230–231
StartServers directive, 96
Advanced Power Management BIOS, 28
system resource control, 100–103
ADVANCED_EXCLUDE_TCP option, PortSentry, 556
TimeOut directive, 97
ADVANCED_EXCLUDE_UDP option, PortSentry, 554, 556
Apache Web server security, 351–398
ADVANCED_PORTS_TCP option, PortSentry, 554, 556
authentication, 382–390
ADVANCED_PORTS_UDP option, PortSentry, 554
CGIWrap support, 375–377
aging user accounts, 281–283
dedicated user and group, 352
alias, 71, 305
default access, disabling, 358
alias command, 650
directory index file, 356–357
allow directive, 382–384, 389, 463
directory structure, 352–354
Allow switching LIDS protections option, 159
logging, 379–382
allow trusted domain parameter, 477
overrides, disabling, 358–359
AllowOverwrite directive, 458–459
paranoid configuration, 359–360
allow-query directive, 410
permissions, 354–356
allow-recursion command, 411
allow-update command, 409
sensible configuration, 352–359 669
SSL, 394–398
AllowUser directive, 466
suEXEC support, 372–375
all_squash option, NFS server, 484
Web robots, 390–392
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 670

670 Index

Apache-SSL, 394–398 bg command, 646

apachetl command, 113 /bin/bash shell, 202
APPEND_ONLY access, 164, 165 /bin/csh shell, 202
arguments, 593 BIND, 400, 405–409, 412
arp cache, 513–514 bind IP Address, xinetd attribute, 329
assignment operators, 332 /bin/login file, 155
asymmetric encryption, 264, 266 /bin/mount/mnt/cdrom command, 665
ATA hard drive, 21–23 /bin/tcsh shell, 202
atcp, PortSentry mode, 556 blacklists, 416, 425–426
attachment, e-mail block device, support, 24
poisoned filenames, 431, 432 block size, 44–45, 146–149
stripping, 433–434 BLOCKED_FILE option, PortSentry, 554
unmangling, 435–437 BLOCK_TCP option, PortSentry, 554
auditing tools, 541–550 BLOCK_UDP option, PortSentry, 554
audp, PortSentry mode, 556 booting the kernel, 32–35
aus.computers.linux newsgroup, 657 bounce message, 128–130, 136
auth, PAM module, 244 bounce_size_limit command, 136
AUTH command, 429 broadcast address, 589
authby option, 532 buffer overflow, 173–174, 177–178
authentication. See also password bugtraq mailing list, 659
DNS Security Extension (DNSSEC), 412–413
HTTP, 385–390 C
IP or hostname, 382–385 C programming language, 175, 177
IPSEC, 528–529 cabling, network, 141
PAM-aware programs, 241–243 cache poisoning, 399
ProFTPD, 463–464 cache_mem, Squid option, 121
Samba server, 474–476, 479–481 cachemgr.cgi file, 123
Simple Authentication and Security Layer caching, negative, 122
(SASL), 426–429 cal command, 648–649
Windows NT server for, 479–481 CAP_CHOWN capability, 167
of zone transfer, 405–409 CAP_DAC_OVERRIDE capability, 167
Authentication Header, 528 CAP_DAC_READ_SEARCH capability, 167
Authentication Required error message, 387–388 CAP_FOWNER capability, 167
AuthGroupFile directive, 388 CAP_FSETID capability, 167
AuthName command, 387 CAP_HIDDEN capability, 169, 171
authorized_keys command, 294 CAP_INTI_KILL capability, 169, 170
AuthType command, 387 CAP_IPC_LOCK capability, 168
AuthUserFile command, 387 CAP_IPC_OWNER capability, 168
awk utility, 45 CAP_KILL capability, 167
CAP_LEASE capability, 169
B CAP_LINUX_IMMUTABLE capability, 168, 172
backbone, network, 82–83 CAP_MKNOD capability, 169
backing up data, from compromised system, 238, CAP_NET_ADMIN capability, 168, 172
662 CAP_NET_BIND_SERVICE capability, 168
backtick quotes, 362, 364 CAP_NET_BROADCAST capability, 168
bandwidth, IP accounting and, 85–87 CAP_NET_RAW capability, 168, 173
.bashrc file, 239 CAP_SETGID capability, 167
Basic_check_relay command, 475 CAP_SETPCAP capability, 167
bc command, 647–648 CAP_SETUID capability, 167
Berkeley Internet Name Domain. See BIND CAP_SYS_ADMIN capability, 169
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 671

Index 671

CAP_SYS_BOOT capability, 169 multiple, 593

CAP_SYS_CHROOT capability, 168 network access, 634–639
CAP_SYS_MODULE capability, 168 network administration, 639–646
CAP_SYS_NICE capability, 169 printing-specific, 652–653
CAP_SYS_PACCT capability, 169 process management, 646–647
CAP_SYS_PTRACE capability, 168 productivity, 647–650
CAP_SYS_RAWIO capability, 168, 171 regular expressions, 595–596
CAP_SYS_RESOURCE capability, 169 shell, 650–652
CAP_SYS_TIME capability, 169 syntax, 593
CAP_SYS_TTY_CONFIG capability, 169 system-status-specific, 630–632
cat command, 598–599 user administration, 632–634
CD-ROM, using companion, 665 wildcards, 593–594
central processing unit. See CPU Common Vulnerability Exposure (CVE), 549, 561
certificate, SSL use of, 265, 270 comparing files, 600–604
Certificate Authority, 265, 272–276 compiling the kernel, 31–32
Certificate Signing Request (CSR), 273–274 comp.os.linux.advocacy newsgroup, 655
CGI scanners, 566–569 comp.os.linux.alpha newsgroup, 656
CGI scripts comp.os.linux.announce newsgroup, 655
clues, hiding, 377–378 comp.os.linux.answers newsgroup, 656
disadvantages of, 105–106 comp.os.linux.development.apps newsgroup, 656
extensions, 378 comp.os.linux.development.system
risks of, 360–371 newsgroup, 656
wrapping, 372–378 comp.os.linux.hardware newsgroup, 656
cgichk.pl scanner, 566–568 comp.os.linux.M68K newsgroup, 656
CGIWrap, 375–377 comp.os.linux.misc newsgroup, 656
Change the configuration file link, SAINT, 543 comp.os.linux.networking newsgroup, 656
character devices support, kernel, 26–27 comp.os.linux.setup newsgroup, 656
chattr command, 172, 209, 210 comp.os.linux.x newsgroup, 656
cheapbytes Web site, 660 compress command, 619
CheckMail directive, OpenSSG, 289 compromised system, dealing with, 661–664
checksum, 210, 214, 215 comp.security.announce newsgroup, 658
chfn command, 632 comp.security.misc newsgroup, 658
chgrp command, 182, 190 comp.security.pgp.announce newsgroup, 658
chk_pwd_grp.pl script, 191–197 comp.security.ssh newsgroup, 658
chmod command, 185–186, 448, 599 comp.security.unix newsgroup, 658
chown command, 354, 448, 599–600 conditional flags, PAM, 245
chroot jail, 448–452, 464–465 conn %deault option, 532
chrootusers.pl script, 449–452 ConnectionCacheTimeout option, 127–128
chsh command, 202, 632 ConnectionRateThrottle command, 130–131
ciphers, cryptographic, 321–322 console support, kernel, 26
clear command, 600 consolehelper program, 260
ClearModuleList directive, 103 content publishing guidelines, 392–394
Cmnd_Alias, 305 copying files, with cp command, 601
cmp command, 600 copyright, 393
CNAME records, 404 core dump, 177
Code maturity level options, 15, 50, 158 corporate firewalls, 514–527
CommandBufferSize directory, 468 Apache server access from outside, 520
commands. See also specific commands DNS server access from outside, 520
DOS compatible, 628–630 FTP server access from outside, 519
file and directory, 598–619 identd server access from outside, 521
file compression and archive-specific, 619–624 continued
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 672

672 Index

corporate firewalls continued DenyGroup command, 466

internal firewall, purpose of, 515 device busy error message, 64
internal firewall, setting up, 516–518 Device variable, Tripwire, 223
logging packet information, 522 df command, 362, 586, 625–626
mail server access from outside, 521–522 diff command, 602–604
Network Address Translation (NAT), 524 DiG, 401
packet-filtering rules, testing, 524–525 DIGEST-MD5 CRAM-MD5 authentication, 429
peer-to-peer services, blocking, 525–527 digparse perl script, 401
primary firewall, purpose of, 515–516 direct memory access (DMA), 23, 43–44
primary firewall, setting up, 518 direct rendering infrastructure (DRI), 28
redirecting packets, 522 directory
stateful inspection, 523–524 browsing privileges, restrictions, 467
type of service (TOS) value, setting, 523 creation-and-deletion privileges, disabling,
cp command, 601 465–466
cps sec [wait sec], xinetd attribute, 329 index file, Apache Web server, 356–357
CPU, 9, 17–20, 100 making with mkdir command, 610
Crack, 279, 571 moving with mv command, 610
crash recovery, journaling filesystem and, 48 ownership, 181–182
cron_chk_pwd_gro.sh script, 197–198 permissions, 186 (See also permissions)
crontab -e command, 237 protecting with LIDS, 164–170
crypt( ) function, 316 removing with rm command, 611–612
cryptographic ciphers, 321–322 restricting access to a single directory, 466
cryptographic filesystems, 487 statistics display with stat command, 613
.cshrc file, 239 structure, Apache Web server, 352–354
CustomLog directive, 353, 355, 379, 381 world-accessible, 203–204
cut command, 601–602 <Directory> containers, 469
Cyrus SASL, 426 DirectoryIndex directive, 356
disable field, /etc/shadow file, 280

D DISABLE flag, xinetd, 330

Data Analysis link, SAINT, 547 disable-anonymous command, 445

dc.org.linux-users newsgroup, 657 disabled attribute, xinetd, 334

dd command, 147–148, 624–625 disable-gtk option, 559

de.alt.sources.linux.patches newsgroup, 657 DISABLE_MACRO_CHECK variable, 433

DEBUG variable, 434 disable-overwrite command, 445

DEBUG_VERBOSE variable, 434 disable-private command, 445

de.comp.os.linux.hardware newsgroup, 657 disable-upload command, 444

de.comp.os.linux.misc newsgroup, 657 disable-virtual command, 445

de.comp.os.linux.networking newsgroup, 657 DISCARD command, 423

de.comp.os.x newsgroup, 657 disk striping, 59

DEFANG_WEBBUGS variable, 434 disk usage, summary with du command, 604–605
default_destination_concurreny_limit distribution numbers, Linux, 12
command, 135 Dlint, 400–405
default_process_limit command, 134–135 dmesg command, 630

DefaultServer directive, 457 dmesg | grep file, 530

delete user script parameter, 477 DNAT target option, 496, 524
Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), 515–516 DNS Security Extension (DNSSEC), 412–413
denial of service (DoS) attacks, 97, 338–340, DNS server
399–400 access from outside, 520–521
deny directive, 384, 389, 454–455 BIND, 405–413
DENY target, netfilter, 495 chrooting, 412
DenyAll command, 466 configuration, checking with Dlint, 400–405
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 673

Index 673

firewalls and, 506–507 rejecting mail from e-mail address, 423–424

glue fetching, 411 rejecting mail from entire domain/host, 423
load balancing with, 85 rejecting mail using IP/hostname, 441
queries, limiting, 410–411 relaying mail from domain/host, 424
round-robin Domain Name Service, 85 relaying mail to domain/host, 424
security, 399–414 root privileges, running without, 438–439
split DNS configuration, 411 sanitizing incoming mail, 429–435
spoofing, 399–400, 410 Sendmail, 419–430
zone transfers, 405–409, 507 Simple Authentication and Security Layer
DNS_SERVERS variable, 573 (SASL), 426–429
Do not execute unprotected programs before spam, 415–417
sealing LIDS option, 159 EMAILREPORTLEVEL attribute, Tripwire, 230
DocumentRoot directive, 116, 353–354 emailto attribute, Tripwire, 220, 227, 228
$DOMAIN_CHAR_SET variable, 364 enable-paranoid command, 444
domain-level security, Samba, 475 encryption, 219–220, 263–266
domains, allowing access to users from trusted, 477 Enhanced Real Time Clock Support option, 30
du command, 147, 604–605 error behavior setting, 47
dump utility, 239 ErrorDocument directive, 388
Dynamic variable, Tripwire, 223 ErrorLog directive, 353, 355, 379, 381
ESTABLISHED, packet state, 523
E /etc/crontab file, 438, 439

e2fsprogs utility, 45–46 /etc/cron.weekly, 204

EDITOR environmental variable, 304 /etc/csh.login file, 202

ed.linux newsgroup, 657 /etc/exports file, 485, 486

edquota command, 626 /etc/fstab file, 200–201, 665

ehlo localhost command, 417 /etc/ftpaccess file, 446, 452–453

EIDE hard drive, 21–23, 42–43 /etc/ftphosts.bad file, 455

emacs program, 605–606 /etc/ftpusrs file, 446

e-mail. See also message, e-mail /etc/group file, 188–191, 191–197, 301

filtering using header information, 440 /etc/hosts.allow file, 486

filtering with procmail tool, 429–435 /etc/ipsec.conf file, 531

service, securing with OpenSSL, 267 /etc/ipsec.secret file, 533

e-mail server /etc/ld.so.preload, 176–177

choosing, 125–126 /etc/mail/access file, 422–423

performance, 125–140 /etc/mail/relay-domains file, 424

Postfix, 126, 133–136 /etc/mail/sendmail.cf file, 126–127, 420–422

qmail, 126 /etc/nfs.map file, 485

Sendmail, 126–133 /etc/ntmap.db database, 481

e-mail server security, 415–442 /etc/pam.d/ftp file, 320, 445

accepting select e-mail address from a /etc/pam.d/passwd file, 316

domain, 424 /etc/pam.d/srp-ftp file, 321

attachments and, 435–437 /etc/pam.d/srp-telnet file, 318

filtering mail using header information, 440 /etc/pam.d/su file, 301

MAPS Realtime Blackhole List (RBL) support, /etc/pam.d/sudo file, 303–304

425–426, 441 /etc/pam.d/system-auth file, 315–316, 474,

masquerading e-mail addresses, 442 479–480

open mail relay, 415–417 /etc/pam.d/telnet file, 318

open relay attack, vulnerability to, 417–419 /etc/pam_smb.conf file, 480

outbound-only service, 437–438 /etc/passwd file, 191–197, 279–280

Postfix, 440–442 /etc/pmta/config file, 137, 138

procmail, use of, 429–435 /etc/procmailrc file, 430–431, 435

334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 674

674 Index

/etc/profile file, 201, 202 decompression with unzip command, 623

/etc/proftpd.conf file, 456–457 descriptors, setting maximum number of,
/etc/rc.d/init.d/sendmail script, 437 137–138
/etc/rc.d/init.d/xinetd file, 327–328 immutable, 172
/etc/samba/smb.conf file, 142, 473–475, 481–483 integrity checker, 210–238
/etc/samba/smbpasswd file, 476 links, 186–188
/etc/security file, 256–257, 299–300 listing with ls command, 609–610
/etc/shadow file, 280–282 moving with mv command, 610
/etc/shutmsg file, 460 ownership, 180–182
/etc/sudoers file, 304–307 permissions (See permissions)
/etc/tpasswd file, 315, 316 protecting with LIDS, 164–170
/etc/tripwire/tw.cfg file, 220 removing with rm command, 611–612
/etc/tripwire/tw.pol file, 220, 224 statistics display with stat command, 613
/etc/userlist.ftp file, 446 type identification with file command, 607
/etc/xinetd.conf file, 326, 334–335 world-accessible, 203–204
/etc/xinetd.d/srp-ftpd file, 320 file command, 607
/etc/xinetd.d/srp-telnetd file, 317 filehandles, 35–37
Ethernet, 25, 75–85 filesystem
exec( ) function, 362, 365 cryptographic, 487
execute permission, 186 ext2, 44–48, 208–210
expire field, /etc/shadow file, 280 hierarchy structure, 198–201
Exponential Password System (EPS), 314–317 journaling, 48–53
exportfs script, 485 kernel support, 27
ext2 filesystem RAM-based, 68–71
block size, changing, 44–45 resizing, 65, 66
e2fsck utility and, 48 tuning, 44–48
e2fsprogs utility and, 45–46 vulnerability to hackers, 155
security features, 208–210 Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS), 198
tune2fs utility and, 46–48 filter table, netfilter, 492–494, 495–496
tuning, 44–48 filtering gateway, 491
ext3 filesystem, 49 find command, 45, 607–608, 635
extended network prefix, 591 finger daemon, access control, 345
finger username command, 309

F firewall, 514–527
fake oplocks parameter, 142 Apache server access from outside, 520
fast Ethernet, 81–82 cache-only service, 506–508
Fast switching option, 497 corporate, creating, 514–527
FastCGI, 114–117 Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), 515–516
fdformat command, 626 DNS server access, 506–507, 520
fdisk command, 63, 626 FTP server access, 509, 519
fg command, 301, 647 identd server access from outside, 521
fgrep command, 606 internal firewall, purpose of, 515
fiber channel disks, 21, 40 internal firewall, setting up, 516–518
fiber optics, 83 logging packet information, 522
fido.linux-ger newsgroup, 657 mail server access from outside, 521–522
file Network Address Translation (NAT), 524
compression with compress command, 619 packet-filtering, 491–511
compression with gzip command, 620 packet-filtering rules, creating with iptables,
compression with zip command, 624 498–501
decompression with gunzip command, 620 packet-filtering rules, testing, 524–525
decompression with uncompress command, 623 peer-to-peer services, blocking, 525–527
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 675

Index 675

POP3 server access, 508–509 forwarding clients, 342–344

primary firewall, purpose of, 515–516 fpu (floating-point unit), 19
primary firewall, setting up, 518 fr.comp.os.linux newsgroup, 657
proxy-arp, transparent, 512–514 free command, 630
redirecting packets, 522 FreeS/WAN, 529–536
simple, creating, 511–512 fsck, 47
Small Office/Home Office (SOHO), 501–511 ftp command, 635
SMTP server access, 508 FTP server
SSH server access, 510 access from outside, 519
stateful inspection, 523–524 access-discriminative service, 341–342
type of service (TOS) value, setting, 523 accessing from internal network, 509
Web server access, 504–506 cryptographic ciphers, 321–322
firewall security tools, 541–587 ProFTPD, 455–471
CGI scanners, 566–569 security, 443–471
cgichk.pl, 566–568 SRP-enabled, 319–322
Crack, 571 WU-FTPD, 443–455
GShield, 575 xinetd and, 335–337, 341–342
intrusion detection, 571 Fullname field, /etc/passwd file, 279
IPTraf, 565–566
John the Ripper, 570–571
Linux Intrusion Detection System (LIDS), 571 G
log monitoring and analysis tools, 562–566 gateway, IP accounting on a Linux network, 86–87
logcheck, 562–565 General Public License (GPL), 215, 571
LSOF, 581–586 getwd cache parameter, 144
Malice, 569 GID, 191, 484–485
Nessus security scanner, 558–561 GID field, /etc/passwd file, 279
Netcat, 575–580 glue fetching, 411
Ngrep, 586–587 GnutellaNet, 526
nmap, 550–552 grep command, 586, 608
packet filters and sniffers, 572–575 group command, 355
password crackers, 569–571 Group directive, 375, 458, 469
port scanners, 550–562 groupadd command, 119, 189, 354, 449, 458, 460,
PortSentry, 552–558 632
Security Administrator’s Integrated Network groupmod command, 632
Tool (SAINT), 541–549 groups
Security Auditor’s Research Assistant (SARA), consistency, checking, 190–198
549 creating, 189–190
snort, 572–575 deleting unused, 188
strobe, 561–562 ownership, changing, 189–190
swatch, 565 permissions, 188–190
Tcpdump, 580–581 groups command, 632
Tripwire, 571 Growing variable, Tripwire, 223
VetesCan, 550 GShield, 575
Whisker, 568–569 guest account parameter, Samba, 474
Firewall Support option, SAINT, 545 guest ok parameter, Samba, 474
fj.os.linux newsgroup, 657 guestgroup command, 449
flags, xinetd attribute, 329 gunzip command, 620
flood attack, TCP SYN, 97 gz extension, 620
ForkEachJob command, 132 gzip command, 620
FORWARD chain, filter table, 493–494
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 676

676 Index

H identd server, access from outside, 521

identity key, 294
Hang up console when raising a security alert
IDONLY flag, xinetd, 330
option, 158
ifconfig command, 639–640
hannet.ml.linux.680x0 newsgroup, 657
IgnoreAll variable, Tripwire, 223
han.sys.linux newsgroup, 657
IGNORE_FILE option, PortSentry, 554
hard disk
IgnoreHidden directive, 468
direct memory access (DMA) support, 43–44
IgnoreNone variable, Tripwire, 223
EIDE/IDE, 21–23, 40–44
IgnoreRhostshas directive, OpenSSG, 288
Fiber Channel, 21
image file, kernel, 31–32
kernel configuration, 20–24
IMAP, Stunnel and, 536–538
SCSI, 21–23, 39–40
immutable attribute, 210
terminology, 21–22
immutable files, 172
tuning, 39–44
INCLUDERC setting, 431
hard link, 187
incoming directory, 469
HARD_SERVER_LIMIT, 98
index.html file, 356–357
hardware, kernel configuration, 16–25
index.pl script, 357
hardware RAID, 67
inetd daemon, 323
hashing, 210
inodes, 69
HASKERNIDCK, 582
INPUT chain, filter table, 493–494
HASSECURITY, 582
instances, xinetd attribute, 330, 338–339
hdparam tool, 40–44
instant messaging, 525–527
head command, 608
integrity checker, file
HelloWorld.pm script, 110–111
AIDE, 230–231
hex dump, 577, 578–579
home-grown, 210–215
hidden tags, 366–371
ICU, 231–238
HideNoAccess directive, 468
Tripwire, 215–230
history command, 650–651
Integrity Checking Utility (ICU), 231–238
Homedir field, /etc/passwd file, 279
Intel Physical Address Extension (PAE) mode, 19
HOME_NET variable, 573
Inter Process Communication (IPC), 26
host command, 639
interactive mode, Tripwire, 225–227
Host_Alias, 305
INTERCEPT flag, xinetd, 330
HostKey directive, OpenSSG, 288
interfaces parameter, 477–478
hostname command, 639
Internet Protocol Security (IPSEC), 528–535
hosts allow parameter, 478
Internet resources, 655–660
hosts deny parameter, 478
mailing lists, 658–659
.htaccess file, 104, 386, 388, 389
newsgroups, 655–658
.htgroup group file, 388
user groups, 660
htpasswd utility, 386, 388
Web sites, 659–660
HTTP authentication scheme, 385–390
Internet Traffic Archive, 581
HTTPS (Secure HTTP) connections, enabling, 506
Intrusion Detection System (IDS), 569
hubs, 80–81
intrusion detection tools, 569, 571
Hudson, Tim J., 266
INVALID, packet state, 523
I/O monitoring, 8, 9
I ioperm/iopi, 171
ICMP scanning (ping-sweep), 550
IP accounting, 85–87
ICU. See Integrity Checking Utility (ICU)
IP address
icu_server_name setting, 232
access control by, 337–338
id, xinetd attribute, 330, 342
FTP access restriction by, 454–455, 463
ID prediction scheme, DNS, 399–400
network addresses, 589–592
IDE hard drive, 21–23
IP forwarding, 118, 502
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 677

Index 677

IP masquerading, 494 make menuconfig command, 14

IP spoofing, 406 memory model, 19–20
ipchains module, 496, 497 method selection, 13–14
ipfwadm module, 496, 497 mouse support, 27
iproute module, 513–514 multimedia support, 28
ipsec auto command, 535 network device support, 24–25
ipsec look command, 535 networking support, 25–26
ipsec showdefaults command, 531 parallel port support, 27
iptables program, 496–501 PCI support, 26
IPTraf, 565–566 PCMCIA/CARDBUS support, 29
ispell command, 649 plug and play device support, 24
it.comp.linux.pluto newsgroup, 657 power management support, 28
PPP support, 29
J pseudoterminal (PTY) support, 30
Java servlets, 117–118 real-time clock support, 30
JFS, 49 software RAID support, 30
jobs command, 647 sysctl support, 26
journaling filesystem, 48–53 System V IPC support, 26
joystick support, kernel, 28 USB support, 25
Kernel Linux IP Security (KLIPS), 530
K key extension, 287
keyingtries option, 532
KeepAlive directive, 99, 288
KeyRegenerationInterval directive, OpenSSG, 288
KEEPALIVE flag, xinetd, 330
khttd module, 105
KeepAliveTimeout directive, 99–100
kill command, 334
kernel
killall command, 284, 317, 320, 346–348, 583
booting new, 32–35
KILL_HOSTS_DENY option, PortSentry, 555
compiling, 31–32
KILL_ROUTE option, PortSentry, 554, 558
configuration, 13–31
KILL_RUN_CMD option, PortSentry, 555
custom, 11–35
klipsdebug command, 532
HTTP daemon, 105
installing new, 33
lean, 35–37 L
LIDS patch for, 156–160 LAN performance. See network performance
netfilter, enabling, 496–498 last command, 309, 633

packet filtering support, 86 last field, /etc/shadow file, 280

source code, downloading, 11–12 ldd utility, 174

symbolic link to /user/src/linux, 12–13 LD_PRELOAD environment variable, 175–177

kernel configuration, 13–31 leftid option, 533

block device support, 24 leftrsasigkey option, 533

character device support, 26–27 Lempel-Ziv coding algorithm, 619

code maturity level options, 15 level2 oplocks parameter, 142

console support, 26 libpcap, 572, 581

CPU support, 17–19 libsafe program, 173–178

direct rendering infrastructure (DRI), 28 LIDS. See Linux Intrusion Detection System (LIDS)
disk support, 20–24 LILO, configuring, 33–34
filesystem support, 27 Limit directive, 465–467, 469

hardware, 16–25 LimitRequestBody directive, 102

joystick support, 28 LimitRequestFields directive, 102

loadable module support, 16 LimitRequestFieldSize directive, 102

logical volume management support, 29 LimitRequestLine directive, 102–103

334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 678

678 Index

link locate command, 609

creation with ln command, 609 <Location> directive, 109
hard, 187 log file size, limiting, 339
permission and, 186–188 log level parameter, 144
soft, 187–188 LOG target, netfilter, 496
Linux Capabilities, 166–173 logcheck, 562–565
hiding processes from everyone, 171 LOGFILE variable, 431, 434
immutable flag protection, 172 logical volume
intruder, responding to, 173 adding a new disk or partition to, 62–65
list of, 167–169 creating, 56–59
network administration, disabling, 172 defined, 54
ProFTPD support, 455, 469–471 management support, kernel, 29
protecting daemons, 170–171 management utilities, 61–62
raw device access, disabling, 171 mounting, 65
scanner detection, 172–173 removing disk or partition, 65–66
Linux Intrusion Detection System (LIDS) size, increasing, 65
Access Control List (ACL) and, 163–164 unmounting, 64
administering, 163–173 Logical Volume Management (LVM), 54–66
building LIDS-based system, 156–160 adding new disk or partition, 62–65
compiling, 161 compiling, 54–56
configuring, 161–163 creation of logical volume, 56–59
disabling raw device access by processes, 171 installing, 54–56
hiding processes, 171 with journaling filesystems, 53
immutable flag protection, 172 logical volume management utilities, 61–62
installing, 161 physical volume management utilities, 60
intruder, responding to, 173 removing disk or partition from volume group,
kernel configuration, 156–160 65–66
Linux capabilities, 166–173 volume group management utilities, 60–61
network administration, disabling, 172 login application, PAM module for, 246–247
overview of, 155–156 LoginGraceTime directive, OpenSSG, 288
protecting daemons, 170–171 LogLevel directive, OpenSSG, 288
protecting files and directories, 164–170 log_on_failure, xinetd attribute, 331
raw device access, disabling, 171 log_on_success, xinetd attribute, 330, 336–337
scanner detection, 172–173 log_type, xinetd attribute, 330, 336, 339
Web site, 156 loopback device, 24
linux-dnsbl.mc file, 420 loopback network address, 589
linuxgazette Web site, 660 lpq command, 652
linuxjournal Web site, 660 lpr command, 652–653
linuxmall Web site, 660 lprm command, 653
linuxworld Web site, 660 ls command, 12, 180, 609–610
list servers, 658–659 lsattr program, 210
ListenAddress directive, OpenSSG, 288 lsof, 581–586
ListenBacklog directive, 97 lsof > /tmp/lsof.out command, 663
ln command, 13, 609 lynx command, 635–636
load
balancing, 84, 85 M
limiting with max_load attribute, 339–340 mac address, 514
monitoring with IPTraf, 566 macros, poisoned, 432–433
loadable module support, kernel configuration, 16 mail command, 636–637
Local Director, 85 MAIL FROM checking, 417
localhost command, 321
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 679

Index 679

mail server, access from outside, 521–522 max xmit parameter, 143
Mail Transport Agent (MTA) MaxClients directive, 98, 469
choosing, 125–126 MaxDaemonChildren command, 131
open mail relay use by, 415–417 maximal_queue_lifetime command, 136
Postfix, 126, 133–136 Maximize-Reliability, TOS value, 523
PowerMTA, 136–139 Maximize-Throughput, TOS value, 523
qmail, 126 Maximum Transport Unit (MTU), 143, 149
Sendmail, 126–133 MaxInstances directive, 458
maildrop directory, 134 max_load, xinetd attribute, 331, 339–340
MAIL_FROM option, 161 MaxMessageSize option, 127
mailing lists, 658–659 MaxMultSect value, 42–43
MAILMETHOD attribute, Tripwire, 229 MaxQueueRunSize command, 132
MAILNOVIOLATIONS attribute, Tripwire, 230 MaxRequestsPerChild directive, 98
MAILPROGRAM attribute, Tripwire, 229, 230 max-smtp-out directive, 138
MAIL_RELAY option, 161 MaxSpareServers directive, 98–99
MAIL_SOURCE option, 161 may field, /etc/shadow file, 280
MAIL_SWITCH option, 161 mcopy utility, 629
MAIL_TO option, 162 MD5 algorithm, 266
make && make install command, 559, 573 mdel utility, 629
make bzImage command, 32 memory
make certificate command, 395 Apache Web server usage, 101
make clean command, 304 kernel configuration, 19–20
make config command, 13, 157 monitoring with vmstat utility, 8
make depend command, 31 monitoring with Vtad, 9
make install command, 41, 401 Squid use of, 121
make kinstall command, 530 total, reporting of, 146
make linux command, 576 Memory Type Range Register (MTRR) support, 19
make menuconfig command, 13, 14–15, 157 merging files with cat command, 598
make menugo command, 529 mesg command, 649
make modules command, 32 message, e-mail
make mrproper command, 14 bounced, 128–130, 136
make nc command, 576 queue processing, frequency of, 128, 136
make release command, 217 size, maximum, 127, 135
make xconfig command, 13 message queue
makemap command, 423, 481 bounced messages, 128–130, 136
Malice, 569 frequency of processing, 128, 136
man command, 597 full, 132–133, 135–136
man pages, 596–598 memory, saving, 131–132
mangle table, netfilter, 494–496 message lifetime, 136
MANGLE_EXTENSIONS variable, 433, 435 number of messages in a run, 132
MAPS (Mail Abuse Prevention System) Realtime message-authentication code (MAC), 266
Blackhole List, 416, 425–426, 441 message_size_limit command, 135
MARK target, netfilter, 495 meta key, 605
MASQUERADE target, netfilter, 495 mformat utility, 629
masquerade_domains command, 442 MinFreeBlock command, 133
masquerade_exceptions command, 442 Minimize-Cost, TOS value, 523
masquerading, 442, 494, 515–518, 524 Minimize-Delay, TOS value, 523
master boot record (MBR), 156 MinQueueAge command, 130
math emulation support, 18–19 MinSpareServers directive, 99
maus.os.linux newsgroup, 657 MIRROR target, netfilter, 495
maus.os.linux68k newsgroup, 657 mkdir command, 610
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 680

680 Index

mkfs command, 626 network. See also network performance

mlabel utility, 630 backbone, 82–83
mnt/cdrom command, 665 cabling, 141
mod_access module, 382 connections, finding opened, 584–585
mod_auth module, 385 device support, kernel, 24–25
mod_cgi module, 95 prefix, extended, 591
mod_console, securing access with, 260–261 segmentation technique, 77–80
mod_fastcgi module, 115 support, kernel, 25–26
mod_linuxprivs module, 470–471 Network Address Translation (NAT), 494,
mod_perl module, 106–115 528–529, 575
monitoring tools network interface card (NIC), 25, 86
IPTraf, 565–566 Network packet filtering (replaces ipchains)
logcheck, 562–565 option, 86, 497
swatch, 565 network performance, 75–87
tcpdump, 580–581 bandwidth determination using IP accounting,
mount command, 627 85–87
mount count setting, 47–48 fast Ethernet, 81–82
mountd program, 485–486 load balancing using DNS server, 85
mouse support, kernel, 27 network backbone use, 82–83
moving files/directories with mv command, 610 network segmentation technique for, 77–80
MSN Messenger, blocking, 527 switches versus hubs, 80–81
MS-TNEF, 433–434 traffic flow, 83–85
Mtools, 628 Neulinger, Nathan, 375
multimedia support, kernel, 28 NEW, packet state, 523
must field, /etc/shadow file, 280 newsgroups, 655–658
mv command, 13, 610 NFS server performance, 141, 145–151
MX records, 417 daemon number, optimal, 149–150
disk I/O speed, 145
N Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) value, 149
NAMEINARGS flag, xinetd, 330 packet fragments, monitoring, 150–151
Namesys, 49 read/write block size, optimizing, 146–149
Napster, 525, 526 socket input queue size, 150
nat table, netfilter, 494, 495–496, 524 NFS server security, 483–487
ncurses, 565 disabling access to certain directory, 484
negative caching, 122 mapping users, 484–486
Nessus security scanner, 558–561 noexec option, 487

nessus-adduser utility, 559 nosuid option, 487

netcat (nc), 575–579 portmap setting, securing, 486

netcfg command, 640 read-only access to exported directory, 483

netfilter, 492–501 squashing root user, 486
contents of, 492 nfsd program, 149–150, 485–486

enabling in the kernel, 496–498 ngrep, 586–587

filter table, 492–494, 495–496 nice, xinetd attribute, 331, 340, 342

iptables program, 498–501 nmap utility, 550–552

logging, 522 no_access, xinetd attribute, 331, 334

mangle table, 494–496 noaccess option, NFS server, 484

nat table, 494, 495–496, 524 nobody user, 352, 458, 486

stateful inspection, 523–524 NODELAY flag, xinetd, 330

Web site, 492 noexec option, 487

netstat command, 641 nogroup command, 352, 458, 460

no.linux newsgroup, 657
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 681

Index 681

noretrieve directive, 452–453 size, maximum, 143

NORETRY flag, xinetd, 330 sniffing, 278, 279
Normal Service, TOS value, 523 stateful inspection of, 492, 523–524
no_root_squash option, NFS server, 484, 486 packet-filtering firewalls, 491–511
nosuid option, 487 PAM. See Pluggable Authentication Modules
nslookup command, 417, 641–642 (PAM)
pam_smb module, 479–481

O parallel port support, kernel, 27

octal numbers, 182–184 partition
OK command, 423, 424 adding new to logical volume, 62–65
okinawa.os.linux newsgroup, 657 removing from volume group, 65–66
only_from, xinetd attribute, 331, 337, 342 pass phrase, 219–220, 273–274, 295
only_from directive, 438 PASS_MAX_DAYS entry, 281

open( ) function, 365 PASS_MIN_DAYS entry, 281

open mail relay, 415–419 PASS_WARN_AGE entry, 281

OpenNap, 526 passwd command, 316, 633

openrelay command, 417 password

OpenSSH, 285–298 aging, 281–283
configuring, 286–293 changing after system compromise, 664
connecting to server, 293–298 choosing, 279
downloading, 285 clear-text, 283
installing, 285–286 consistency, checking, 282–283
standalone method, 289–292 Exponential Password System (EPS), 314–317
stopping, 292 guessing program, 279
as xinetd service, 293 guidelines for, 310
OpenSSL, 266–270 login prompt entry of, 278
OpenWall project, 173 packet-sniffing discovery of, 278
opportunistic locks (oplocks), 142–143 pass phrase, 273–274
optional, PAM control flag, 244 plain text, 476
Options directive, 357–358 root account, 299, 301
order directive, 384, 389 Samba server and, 474–476
Outlook Rich Text, 433 Secure Remote Password (SRP), 313–322
OUTPUT chain, filter table, 493–494 shadow, 280–283
overrides, disabling user, 358–359 storage of, 279, 280
ownership. See also permissions password, PAM module, 244

changing using chgrp command, 182 password field, /etc/passwd file, 279

changing using chown command, 181–182, password field, /etc/shadow file, 280

599–600 password server parameter, Samba, 475

establishing, 181 PasswordAuthentication directive, OpenSSG, 289

group, 189–190 PATH environment variable, 366

hard link, 187 PCI support, kernel, 26

overview, 180–181 PCMCIA/CardBus support, kernel, 29
soft link, 187–188 peer-to-peer services, 525–527
performance
P EIDE disk, 40–44
e-mail server, 125–140
packet
hard disk, 39–44
fragments, monitoring, 150–151
importance of, 3–4
masquerading, 515–518, 524
monitoring with ps utility, 4–6
raw read, 143
monitoring with vmstat utility, 8–9
raw write, 143–144
redirecting, 522 continued
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 682

682 Index

performance continued module types, 244

monitoring with Vtad utility, 9–10 modules, 248–255
network, 75–87 PAM-aware application, establishing, 245–248
NFS server, 141, 145–151 ProFTPD use, 463–464
Samba server, 141–145 system resources management, 258–259
tracking activity with top utility, 6–8 Pluto, 530, 532
Web server, 89–103 plutodebug command, 532
perl cgichk.pl command, 566 plutoload command, 532
perl whisker.pl, 568 plutostart command, 532
Perl-compatible regular expressions (PCREs), 440 point-to-point protocol (PPP) support, kernel, 29
permission mode, changing with chmod POISONED_EXECUTABLES variable, 431
command, 599 POISONED_SCORE variable, 432–433
permissions POP3 mail server, 508–509, 538
access string, 185 Port directive, 287, 360, 458
actual number use, 182–184 port number, xinetd attribute, 331
Apache Web server, 354–356 port redirection, 342–344
changing with chmod command, 185–186 port scanner, 360, 550–562
configuration file, setting, 239 Nessus, 558–561
default, 240 netcat as, 579–580
default permission model, setting system-wide, nmap, 550–552
201–202 PortSentry, 552–558
executable, setting, 240 Strobe, 561–562
FTP, setting default, 447 Port Scanner Detector in kernel option, 160
hard link, 187–186 Port25, 126
importance of, 179–180 PORT_BANNER option, PortSentry, 555
overview of, 180–181 portmap setting, 486
ownership and, 180–182 PortSentry, 552–558
permission string, 185 Postfix, 126
policy, creating, 239–240 connections, number of concurrent, 135
set-UID and set-GID programs, 204–208 downloading, 133
soft link, 187–188 full queue, handling, 135–136
user group, 188–190 installing, 133–134
PermitEmptyPasswords directive, OpenSSG, 289 message lifetime, 136
PermitRootLogin directive, OpenSSG, 288, 300 message number in queue, 135
per_source, xinetd attribute, 331 message queue frequency, 136
physical volume management utilities, 60 message size, limiting, 135
pico command, 611 number of processes, limiting, 134–135
pine command, 637 reloading, 134
ping command, 536, 642–643 starting, 134
pipe (|) symbol, 365 Postfix security, 440–442
plug and play device support, kernel, 24 filtering e-mail using header information, 440
Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM), 243–261 MAPS RBL use, 441
access control by time, 255–257 masquerading e-mail addresses, 442
access restriction, 257 rejecting e-mail using IP/hostname, 441
configuration file, 243–245 POSTROUTING chain, 494, 504, 524
description, 241 power management support, kernel, 28
EPS PAM module for password authentication, PowerMTA, 136–139
315–316 PREROUTING chain, mangle table, 494, 523
how it works, 242 print commands, 652–653
mod_console, securing access with, 260–61 printenv command, 379
module control flags, 244–245 PrintMotd directive, OpenSSG, 288
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 683

Index 683

private key, 264, 273–274, 287, 294, 406, 413 ps auxw | grep sshd command, 293
private network, using redirection to access, 344 ps utility, 4
processes pseudo terminal (PTY) support, kernel, 30
attached to an open file, finding, 582–583 pstree command, 5–6
disabling raw device access, 171 PTR records, 400, 403
filehandle limit, 36 pub extension, 287
hiding from everyone, 171 public key, 264, 271–272, 294, 406, 413
monitoring with ps, 4–6 publishing guidelines, 392–394
monitoring with vmstat utility, 8 pwck command, 283
protecting daemons from being killed by pwd command, 611
root, 170–171
stack protection with libsafe, 173–178 Q
vulnerability to hackers, 155 qmail, 126
processor qmgr_message_active_limit command, 135
finding by cat command, 18 quarantine command, 430
Intel Physical Address Extension (PAE) mode, 19 queue directory, 136
kernel configuration for, 17 QueueDirectory option, 132
procmail tool, 429–435 QueueLA command, 131
/proc/net/ipsec_tncfg file, 535 queue_minfree command, 135
ProFTPD, 455–471 queuereturn option, 128–129
access restriction by IP address, 463 queue_run_delay command, 136
access restriction to single directory, 466 queuewarn option, 129
benefits of, 455 quota command, 627
chroot jail, 464–465 quotaon command, 627
command buffer size, controlling, 468
command privileges, limiting, 465–467
compiling, 456
R
RAID, software, 30, 66–67
configuring, 456–461
RAM-based filesystem, 68–71
connections, counting, 462
ramfs, 68–71
directory browsing privileges, restricting, 467
raw device, disabling access by processes, 171
directory creation/deletion privileges,
raw reads/writes, control of, 143–144
disabling, 465–466
/rc.d/init.d/sendmail restart command, 423
downloading, 456
read raw parameter, 143
file transfer, simplifying, 466–467
read size parameter, 143
hiding files, 468
read-only access, 164, 165, 186, 200–201
installing, 456
ReadOnly variable, Tripwire, 223
Linux Capabilities use with, 469–471
read/write block size, optimizing, 146–149
monitoring, 462
Real Time Clock (RTC) support, kernel, 30
PAM use with, 463–464
Realtime Blackhole List (RBL), 416, 425–426
securing, 462–471
reboot command, 260
as standalone service, 459–460
recurse attribute, Tripwire, 221
upload-only server, establishing, 466
recursive queries, 411
who is connected, 462
redirect attribute, 342–344
as xinetd service, 460–461
Redirect hostname port, xinetd attribute, 331
Promisc command, 86
Redirect IP address, xinetd attribute, 331
protocol, xinetd attribute, 331
REDIRECT target option, 496, 524
proxy-arp firewall, 512–514
redirecting clients, 342–344
ProxyPass directive, 113
redirecting packets, 522
ps auxw | grep command, 583
redirector program, 122–123
ps auxw | grep pmta command, 137
redundancy, network backbone and, 83
ps auxw | grep sendmail command, 439
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 684

684 Index

Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID), root_squash option, NFS server, 484, 486
30, 66–67 round-robin Domain Name Service, 85
reference monitor security model, 156 route command, 643–644
RefuseLA command, 131 RPC scanning, 551
regular expressions, 440, 595 rpcinfo program, 485–486
ReiserFS, 49–53 rpm program, 620–622
REJECT command, 423, 424 RSAAuthentication directive, OpenSSG, 289
REJECT target, netfilter, 495 RSAREF library, 270
RELATED, packet state, 523 rulename attribute, Tripwire, 220
RELATED+REPLY, packet state, 523 run level command, 328
RELAY command, 423, 424 rw command, 181
RELAY_ENTIRE_DOMAIN feature, 424
RELAY_HOSTS_ONLY feature, 424 S
Reload or refresh in the browser requests, 387 SAINT. See Security Administrator’s Integrated
Remote OS Identification by TCP/IP Network Tool (SAINT)
Fingerprinting, 551 Samba server performance, 141–145
Remote Procedure Call (RPC), 323 log level parameter, 144
removing file/directory with pico command, 611 opportunistic locks (oplocks) use, 142–143
replay.com Web site, 660 raw reads, control of, 143
require directive, 388 raw writes, control of, 144
required, PAM control flag, 244 read size parameter, 142–143
RequireValidShell directive, 469 strict locking parameter, 144
requisite, PAM control flag, 244 strict sync parameter, 144
reserved field, /etc/shadow file, 280 TCP socket options, 142
restore utility, 239 user accounts, creating automatically, 144–145
RetryFactor command, 130 write size, control of, 143
REUSE flag, 329 Samba server security, 473–483
Reverse-ident scanning, 551 access control by IP address or hostname, 478
RFC error codes, 423 access control by network interface, 477–478
rhosts module, 252 domain-level, 475
RhostsAuthentication directive, OpenSSG, 288 OpenSSL, 481–483
RhostsRSAAuthentication directive, OpenSSG, 289 pam_smb module for authentication, 479–481
rightid option, 533 passwords and, 474–476
rightrsasigkey option, 533 security level, choosing appropriate, 473
RLimitCPU directive, 100 server-level, 475
RLimitMEM directive, 101 share-level, 474
RLimitPROC directive, 101 trusted domains, allowing users from, 477
rlogin command, 637–638 user-level, 474
rm command, 13, 611–612 sanitizer, e-mail, 429–434
rm-rf command, 298 SATAN tools, 541
ro option, NFS server, 483 satisfy directive, 389–390
Robot Exclusion Protocol, 390–391 /sbin/lidsadm command, 163
root access /sbin/lvchange utility, 61
guidelines, 298–299 /sbin/lvcreate utility, 61
LIDS reduction of, 155–156 /sbin/lvdisplay utility, 61
limiting, 299–300 /sbin/lvextend utility, 61, 65
password, 299, 301 /sbin/lvmchange utility, 62
set-UID programs and, 205 /sbin/lvmdiskscan utility, 62
squashing root user, 486 /sbin/lvmsadc utility, 62
su command to become root, 300–302 /sbin/lvmsar utility, 62
sudo command to delegate, 302–307 /sbin/lvreduce utility, 61
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 685

Index 685

/sbin/lvremove utility, 62 FTP use of, 319–322

/sbin/lvrename utility, 62 setup, 313–314
/sbin/lvscan utility, 62 Telnet use of, 317–319
/sbin/mkreiserfs utility, 64 Web site, 313
/sbin/pvchange utility, 60 Secure Socket Layer (SSL), 263–266
/sbin/pvcreate utility, 60, 64 Apache, 394–398
/sbin/pvdata utility, 60 encryption, 263–266
/sbin/pvdisplay utility, 60 how it works, 265–266
/sbin/pvmove utility, 60 message-authentication code (MAC), 266
/sbin/pvscan utility, 60, 62 obtaining, 266
/sbin/sysctl command, 79 OpenSSL, 266–270
/sbin/vgcfgbackup utility, 60 POP3 mail server connection, 538
/sbin/vgcfgrestore utility, 60 Samba, running with, 481
/sbin/vgchange utility, 60 Samba compilation with, 481
/sbin/vgck utility, 60 Samba configuration with, 481
/sbin/vgcreate utility, 60 Stunnel, 536–539
/sbin/vgdisplay utility, 61, 63 Security Administrator’s Integrated Network Tool
/sbin/vgexport utility, 61 (SAINT), 541–549
/sbin/vgextend utility, 61, 64 analyzing results, 547–549
/sbin/vgimport utility, 61 auditing procedure, 543–547
/sbin/vgmerge utility, 61 configuring audit parameters, 543
/sbin/vgmknodes utility, 61 downloading, 542
/sbin/vgreduce utility, 61, 66 features, 541–542
/sbin/vgremove utility, 61 installing, 542
/sbin/vgrename utility, 61 starting, 543
/sbin/vgscan utility, 61 vulnerabilities detected by, 542
/sbin/vgsplit utility, 61 Web site, 542
scanner security alert mailing list, 659
CGI, 566–569 Security Auditor’s Research Assistant (SARA), 549
detecting, 172 security parameter, Samba, 473
port, 550–562 security=domain parameter, Samba, 475
SCAN_TRIGGER option, PortSentry, 555 SECURITY_NOTIFY variable, 431
SCORE_HISTORY variable, 433 SECURITY_NOTIFY_SENDER variable, 432
SCORE_ONLY variable, 433 SECURITY_NOTIFY_SENDER_POSTMASTER variable, 432
screening router, 491 SECURITY_NOTIFY_SENDER_RECIPIENT variable, 432
script SECURITY_NOTIFY_VERBOSE variable, 431–432
CGI, 105–106, 352 SECURITY_QUARANTINE variable, 432, 434
FastCGI, 115–117 SECURITY_QUARANTINE_OPTIONAL variable, 432
mod_perl, 106–114 security=server parameter, Samba, 475
SSI, 378–379 security=share parameter, Samba, 474
script command, 238 SECURITY_STRIP_MSTNEF variable, 433–434
ScriptAlias directive, 353, 377 SECURITY_TRUST_STYLE_TAGS variable, 434
SCSI hard disk, 21–23, 39–40 security=user parameter, Samba, 474
searching, with fgrep command, 606 Send security alerts through network option, 160
searching, with find command, 607–608 SendBufferSize directive, 96
searching, with grep command, 608 Sendmail
SEC_CRIT variable, 223 configuration, 420
SECRET variable, 432 connection cache options, 127–128
Secure Remote Password (SRP), 313–322 downloading, 419–420
downloading, 313 full queue, handling, 132–133
Exponential Password System (EPS), 314–317 continued
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 686

686 Index

Sendmail continued show avail command, 348

installing, 420 show run command, 348
load, limiting, 131 showdefaults command, 531
message bounce interval control, 128–129 shutdown command, 260, 630–631
message number, control of, 132 siggen utility, 224–225
message queue frequency, 128 SIGKILL signal, 176
problems with, 125–126 signed zone, 412–413
retrying failed messages, 129–130 Silicon Graphics, Inc. (SGI), 49
saving memory, 131–132 Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL),
simultaneous connections, control of, 130–131 426–429
size of messages, maximum, 127 single quotes, 595
Sendmail security, 419–430 sleep command, 375
accepting select e-mail address from a Small Office/Home Office (SOHO) firewalls, 501–511
domain, 424 cache-only service, 506, 507–508
ACCESS_DB feature, 422–424 client service, accessing new, 510–511
attachments, 435–437 configuration, sample, 501
MAPS Realtime Blackhole List (RBL) DNS client service, 506–507
support, 425–426 external Web browser access to your Web
outbound-only, 437–438 server, 505–506
procmail, use of, 429–435 external Web server access, allowing, 504–505
rejecting mail from e-mail address, 423–424 FTP client service, 509
rejecting mail from entire domain/host, 423 IP forwarding, 502, 504
RELAY_ENTIRE_DOMAIN feature, 424 POP3 client service, 508–509
RELAY_HOSTS_ONLY feature, 424 script for, 502–504
relaying mail from domain/host, 424 SMTP client service, 508
relaying mail to domain/host, 424 SSH client service, 510
root privileges, running without, 438–439 smbpasswd command, 476
sanitizing incoming e-mail, 429–435 SMP system, real-time clock support for, 30
Simple Authentication and Security Layer SMTP mail server, 508, 539
(SASL), 426–429 SMTPHOST attribute, Tripwire, 229
serial port support, kernel, 27 SMTPPORT attribute, Tripwire, 229
server certificate, 270–276 SNAT target option, 496, 524
server path, xinetd attribute, 332 sniffers, 572–575
server_args attribute, 330, 332, 447 snort, 572–575
ServerKeyBits directive, OpenSSG, 288 socket input queue size, 150
server-level security, Samba, 475 socket_type, xinetd attribute, 332
server-linux mailing list, 659 soft link, 187–188
ServerName directive, 457 software RAID support, 30, 66–67
ServerRAID controller, 67 soho-firewall.sh script, 502–504
ServerRoot directory, 352–354 SO_KEEPALIVE flag, xinetd, 330
ServerType directive, 457, 459 SO_RCVBUF option, 142
session, PAM module, 244 SO_REUSEADDR flag, 329
set command, 651 sort command, 612–613
set-GID (SGID) program, 207–208 SO_SNDBUF option, 142
set-UID (SUID) program, 176, 204–208, 302, 487 source code, downloading kernel, 11–12
setuid.pl script, 204–205 source command, 651
severity attribute, Tripwire, 221 source dependencies, checking, 31
shadow password, 241, 280–283 spam, 415–417, 440
share-level security, Samba, 474 spoofing, 399–400, 406, 410
shell commands, 650–651 spool directive, 137
Shell field, /etc/passwd file, 279 squash_gids option, NFS server, 484–485
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 687

Index 687

squashing the root user, 486 su icu command, 233

squash_uids option, NFS server, 484–485 subnetting, IP networks, 590–592
Squid proxy-caching server, 118–123 sudo package, 302–307
Squirm, 123 sudp, PortSentry mode, 556
SSH server, 510. See also OpenSSH suEXEC, 372–375
sshd, running as xinetd, 345–346 sufficient, PAM control flag, 244, 258, 316
ssh-keygen command, 295 suspend command, 301
SSL. See Secure Socket Layer (SSL) swapoff command, 627–628
ssl CA certDir parameter, 482 swapon command, 627–628
ssl CA certFile parameter, 482 swatch, 565
ssl client cert parameter, 482 switches, 80–81
ssl hosts resign parameter, 482 symbolic link, 12–13, 187–188, 329
ssl require clientcert parameter, 482 symmetric encryption, 264, 265–266
ssl require servercert parameter, 483 Symmetric multi-processing (SMP) support option, 19
ssl server cert parameter, 482 SYN/FIN scanning using IP fragments, 550
ssl server key parameter, 482 syntax, command-line, 593
SSLBanCipher command, 397 Sysctl support option, 26, 158
SSLCacheServerPath command, 397 syslog, 583
SSLCacheServerPort command, 397 SyslogFacility directive, OpenSSG, 288
SSLCertificateFile command, 397 system commands, spoofing of, 361
SSLeay library, 266 system( ) function, 361, 365
SSLEnable command, 397 System V IPC option, 26
SSLFakeBasicAuth command, 397
SSLRandomFile file command, 397 T
SSLRandomFilePerConnection command, 397 tail command, 614
SSLRequireSSL command, 397 talk command, 638
SSLSessionCacheTimeout command, 397 tar command, 622
SSLVerifyClient command, 397 Target Selection link, SAINT, 543
SSLVerifyDepth command, 397 TCFS, 487
stack dump, 177 tconf command, 314–315
StartServers directive, 96 tcp, PortSentry mode, 556
startx command, 298 TCP ACK scanning, 550
stat command, 613 TCP FIN scanning, 550
stateful inspection of packets, 492, 523–524 TCP ftp proxy (bounce attack) scanning, 550
static Web pages, speeding up, 103–105 TCP ping scanning, 551
stcp, PortSentry mode, 556 TCP ports, scanning for, 551–552
stdout, 598 TCP SYN flood attack, 97
stop command, 334 TCP SYN (half open) scanning, 550
storage appliances, 67–68 TCP wrapper, 326, 345
storage area network (SAN), 21, 40, 67 tcpd, 326, 345
strace ./go command, 206 tcpdump, 580–581
strict locking parameter, 144 tcpdump command, 644–645
strict sync parameter, 144 TCP_NODELAY option, 142, 330
StrictModes directive, OpenSSG, 288 TCP_PORTS option, PortSentry, 554, 556
strings command, 614 tcpslices, 581
strings ./go command, 206 Telnet
Strobe, 561–562 access control, 337
Stronghold, 266 clear-text password use by, 283
Stunnel, 536–539 disabling, 283–284
<style> tag defanging, 434
continued
su command, 300–302, 633–634
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 688

688 Index

Telnet continued
netcat compared, 576
U
ucb.os.linux newsgroup, 657
redirecting clients, 343–344
udp, PortSentry mode, 556
SRP-enabled, 317–319
UDP packet fragments, 150–151
telnet command, 638
UDP ports, scanning for, 552
Thawte, 272
UDP raw ICMP port unreachable scanning, 550
ThreadsPerChild directive, 98
UDP_PORTS option, PortSentry, 554, 556
time command, 147
UID
TimeOut directive, 97
checking for duplicate, 191
timestamp command, 614
mapping root to particular UID, 484–485
/tmp/lsof.out file, 663
squashing, 484–485
/tmp/smtp.hex file, 578
UID field, /etc/passwd file, 279
tn.linux newsgroup, 657
uiuc.sw.linux newsgroup, 657
top utility, 6–8
ulimit command, 138
TOS target, netfilter, 495
UltraDMA burst timing feature, 44
touch command, 614
umask command, 201–202, 447, 458, 615
tracepath command, 149
umich.linux newsgroup, 657
traceroute command, 380, 645–646
umount command, 64, 584, 627–628
traffic flow, network, 83–85
unalias command, 652
transaction log, 48
uname command, 631
Transaction Signatures (TSIG), 405–409
uncompress command, 623
Transport Layer Security (TLS), 266
uniq command, 615
traverse_tree( ) warning message, 235
Universal Database Server (UDB), 113
tree command, 5–6
Unix security newsgroups, 658
Tripwire, 571
Unix-to-Unix Copy (uucp) program, 188
compiling, 217–220
unlimited, xinetd attribute, 331
as cron job, 227
unlinked locally open file, finding, 583–584
database creation, 224
unsafe system calls, 361–366
downloading, 216
unzip command, 623
e-mail settings, 229–230
upload directive, 453–454
encryption, 219–220
upload privileges, restricting for anonymous FTP
installing, 217–220
users, 453–454
interactive mode, 225–227
uptime command, 632
obtaining, 216
USB support, kernel, 25
overview of, 205–216
user access, 277–311
policy configuration, 220–224
aging accounts, 281–283
property/mask characters, 221–222
monitoring users, 307–308
protecting, 224–225
OpenSSH, 285–298
report, receiving by e-mail, 228–230
password consistency, checking, 282–283
role attributes, 220–221
risks of, 277, 278–279
signatures, 224–225
root account management, 298–307
updating database, 228
security policy, creating user-access, 309–310
variables, built-in, 223–224
security policy, creating user-termination,
Trojan program, 216, 663
310–311
Try not to flood logs (NEW) option, 159
shadow passwords, 280–283
TTL target, netfilter, 496
shell services, eliminating, 283–284
tune2fs utility, 46–48
user accounts
tw.bbs.comp.linux newsgroup, 657
aging, 281–283
type of service (TOS), setting, 523
creating Samba, 144–145
User directive, 375, 458, 469
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 689

Index 689

user group, 660 virtual private network (VPN), 528–536

creating, 189–190 configuring LANs for, 530–535
permission, 188–190 creation, 530–536
private, 189 FreeS/WAN, compiling and installing, 529–530
useradd command, 144–145, 189, 282, 634 IPSEC and, 528–535
User_Alias, 305 securing with OpenSSL, 267
UserAlias directive, 469 starting connection, 535
userdel command, 282, 310, 634 stopping connection, 535
UserDir command, 374 testing connection, 536
userhelper program, 260 virtual terminal support, kernel, 26–27
user-level security, Samba, 474 <VirtualHost> container, 375
usermod command, 302, 354, 634 visudo command, 304
username vmstat utility, 8–9
checking for duplicate, 191 volume group management utilities, 60–61
packet-sniffing discovery of, 278 Vtad utility, 9–10
username field, /etc/passwd file, 279
username field, /etc/shadow file, 280 W
/usr, read-only, 200 w command, 308
/usr/binnc commands, 576 wait, xinetd attribute, 332
/usr/bin/ssh-keygen command, 294 wall command, 638–639
/usr/local/bin/dlint command, 404–405 warn field, /etc/shadow file, 280
/usr/local/bin/ftpcount command, 462 WARNINGSTATE, 582
/usr/local/bin/ftpwho command, 462 watch netstat -p command, 663
/usr/local/bin/snort file, 575 watermark, 393
/usr/local/etc/nessus/nessusd.conf file, 560 wc (word count) command, 617–618
/usr/local/ICU directory, 232 Web bugs, 434
/usr/local/sbin/dnssec-keygen command, 406 Web Director, 85
/usr/local/sbin/pamsmbd command, 480 Web pages, static, 103–105
/usr/sbin/lsof, 584 Web robots, 390–392
/usr/sbin/siggen utility, 224 Web server performance, 89–123. See also Apache
/usr/sbin/tripwire command, 224, 225, 227, 228 Web server
/usr/sbin/twadmin command, 224 compiling Apache server, 89–95
uudecode command, 623 configuration, 95–103
uuencode command, 624 Squid proxy-caching server, 118–123
static Web pages, speeding up, 103–105
V Web applications, speeding up, 105–123
/var/lib/tripwire/report directory, 227 Web server security, 351–398. See also Apache
/var/log directory, 205, 278 Web server security
/var/log/messages file, 408–409, 446, 522, access restriction, 382–392
557–558, 663 Apache-SSL, 394–398
/var/log/secure file, 177, 663 CGI risks, reducing, 360–372
/var/spool/cron/icu file, 238 CGI scripts, wrapping, 372–378
/var/spool/mail/quarantine file, 430, 432, content publishing guidelines, 392–394
434, 435 firewall and, 505–506
Verisign, 272 logging, 379–382
version numbers, Linux, 12 paranoid configuration, 359–360
VetesCan, 550 risks, understanding, 351–352
veto oplock files command, 143 sensible configuration, 352–359
vgscan utility, 60 SSI risks, reducing, 378–379
vi program, 616–617 Web sites, 659–660. See also specific sites
334754-2 Index.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 690

690 Index

whatever.mc file, 420–421 access-discrimination service creation,

whatis command, 618 341–342
whereis command, 618 compiling, 325–329
which command, 618–619 configuring for services, 329–333
which perl command, 401 default, strengthening, 334–335
Whisker, 568–569 denial-of-service (DoS) attacks, limiting risk of,
who command, 308, 634 338–340
whoami command, 634 downloading, 325
whois lookup, 362, 380 forwarding clients, 342–344
who.sh script, 308–309 imapd and, 537
wide area network (WAN), 82 installing, 325–329
wildcards, 593–594 Internet daemon, running, 335–337
Windows 2000/NT server, for authentication, 479 limiting load, 339–340
winmail.dat file, 433 limiting log file size, 339
workstation-linux mailing list, 659 limiting rate of connection, 340
write command, 649–650 limiting server number, 338–339
write permission, 186 obtaining, 325
write raw parameter, 143–144 overview of, 323–325
WRITE_ONLY access, 164, 165 ProFTPD service, 460–461
WU-FTPD server, 443–455 redirecting clients, 342–344
access for select group, 446 reloading, 333
access restriction by IP/network addresses, run level, 328–329
454–455 Sendmail and, 437–439
access restriction by noretrieve directive, sshd, running, 293, 345–346
452–453 starting, 333
access restriction by username, 445–446 stopping, 334
chroot jail, 448–452 TCP wrapper (tcpd) for, 326, 345
denying access, 446 xadmin service, 346–348
downloading, 443 Xmas scanning, 550
installing, 444
logging, 452 Y
permissions, setting default, 447–448 Yahoo! Messenger, blocking, 527
upload privileges, restricting for anonymous Young, Eric A., 266
users, 453–454
Z
X Z extension, 619
X Window System support, kernel, 27, 28 zip command, 624
X11DisplayOffset directive, OpenSSG, 288 zip extension, 624
X11Forwarding directive, OpenSSG, 288 Zlib, 285
XFS journaling filesystem, 49 zone transfers, 405–409, 507
xinetd, 323–348
access control by name or IP address, 337–338
access control by time of day, 338
344754-2 GNU.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 691

GNU General Public

License
Version 2, June 1991
Copyright © 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license
document, but changing it is not allowed.

Preamble
The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to share
and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is intended to guaran-
tee your freedom to share and change free software — to make sure the software is
free for all its users. This General Public License applies to most of the Free
Software Foundation's software and to any other program whose authors commit
to using it. (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by the GNU
Library General Public License instead.) You can apply it to your programs, too.
When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. Our
General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the freedom to
distribute copies of free software (and charge for this service if you wish), that you
receive source code or can get it if you want it, that you can change the software or
use pieces of it in new free programs; and that you know you can do these things.
To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone to deny
you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights. These restrictions translate to
certain responsibilities for you if you distribute copies of the software, or if you
modify it.
For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or for a
fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that you have. You must make sure
that they, too, receive or can get the source code. And you must show them these
terms so they know their rights.
We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and (2) offer
you this license which gives you legal permission to copy, distribute and/or modify
the software.
Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain that every-
one understands that there is no warranty for this free software. If the software is
modified by someone else and passed on, we want its recipients to know that what
they have is not the original, so that any problems introduced by others will not
reflect on the original authors' reputations.
344754-2 GNU.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 692

Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software patents. We wish

to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free program will individually obtain
patent licenses, in effect making the program proprietary. To prevent this, we have
made it clear that any patent must be licensed for everyone's free use or not
licensed at all.
The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and modification
follow.

Terms and Conditions for Copying,

Distribution, and Modification
0. This License applies to any program or other work which contains a
notice placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed under
the terms of this General Public License. The “Program", below, refers to
any such program or work, and a “work based on the Program" means
either the Program or any derivative work under copyright law: that is to
say, a work containing the Program or a portion of it, either verbatim or
with modifications and/or translated into another language. (Hereinafter,
translation is included without limitation in the term “modification".)
Each licensee is addressed as “you".
Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not cov-
ered by this License; they are outside its scope. The act of running the
Program is not restricted, and the output from the Program is covered
only if its contents constitute a work based on the Program (independent
of having been made by running the Program). Whether that is true
depends on what the Program does.
1. You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's source
code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously
and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice
and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the notices that refer to this
License and to the absence of any warranty; and give any other recipients
of the Program a copy of this License along with the Program.
You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and you
may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee.
2. You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion of it,
thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and distribute such
modifications or work under the terms of Section 1 above, provided that
you also meet all of these conditions:
a) You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices stating
that you changed the files and the date of any change.
344754-2 GNU.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 693

b) You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in whole
or in part contains or is derived from the Program or any part thereof,
to be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third parties under the
terms of this License.
c) If the modified program normally reads commands interactively when
run, you must cause it, when started running for such interactive use in
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an appropriate copyright notice and a notice that there is no warranty
(or else, saying that you provide a warranty) and that users may redis-
tribute the program under these conditions, and telling the user how to
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tive but does not normally print such an announcement, your work
based on the Program is not required to print an announcement.)
These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole. If identifiable
sections of that work are not derived from the Program, and can be rea-
sonably considered independent and separate works in themselves, then
this License, and its terms, do not apply to those sections when you dis-
tribute them as separate works. But when you distribute the same sections
as part of a whole which is a work based on the Program, the distribution
of the whole must be on the terms of this License, whose permissions for
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Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest your
rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to exercise the
right to control the distribution of derivative or collective works based on
the Program.
In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program
with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of a
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3. You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it, under
Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of Sections 1
and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following:
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forming source distribution, a complete machine-readable copy of the
corresponding source code, to be distributed under the terms of
Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software
interchange; or,
344754-2 GNU.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 694

c) Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer to dis-

tribute corresponding source code. (This alternative is allowed only for
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Subsection b above.)
The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for
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If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering access to
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even though third parties are not compelled to copy the source along with
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expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy,
modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is void, and will automati-
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However, nothing else grants you permission to modify or distribute the
Program or its derivative works. These actions are prohibited by law if
you do not accept this License. Therefore, by modifying or distributing the
Program (or any work based on the Program), you indicate your accep-
tance of this License to do so, and all its terms and conditions for copy-
ing, distributing or modifying the Program or works based on it.
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Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the original
licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to these terms
and conditions. You may not impose any further restrictions on the recipi-
ents' exercise of the rights granted herein. You are not responsible for
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7. If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent infringe-
ment or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues), conditions are
imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or otherwise) that
contradict the conditions of this License, they do not excuse you from the
344754-2 GNU.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 695

conditions of this License. If you cannot distribute so as to satisfy simul-

taneously your obligations under this License and any other pertinent
obligations, then as a consequence you may not distribute the Program at
all. For example, if a patent license would not permit royalty-free redistri-
bution of the Program by all those who receive copies directly or indi-
rectly through you, then the only way you could satisfy both it and this
License would be to refrain entirely from distribution of the Program.
If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under any
particular circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to apply
and the section as a whole is intended to apply in other circumstances.
It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any patents
or other property right claims or to contest validity of any such claims;
this section has the sole purpose of protecting the integrity of the free
software distribution system, which is implemented by public license
practices. Many people have made generous contributions to the wide
range of software distributed through that system in reliance on consis-
tent application of that system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he
or she is willing to distribute software through any other system and a
licensee cannot impose that choice.
This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to be a
consequence of the rest of this License.
8. If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in certain coun-
tries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the original copyright
holder who places the Program under this License may add an explicit
geographical distribution limitation excluding those countries, so that dis-
tribution is permitted only in or among countries not thus excluded. In
such case, this License incorporates the limitation as if written in the body
of this License.
9. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of
the General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be
similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address
new problems or concerns.
Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program
specifies a version number of this License which applies to it and “any
later version", you have the option of following the terms and conditions
either of that version or of any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of
this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free
Software Foundation.
344754-2 GNU.F 11/5/01 9:05 AM Page 696

10. If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free programs
whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author to ask for
permission. For software which is copyrighted by the Free Software
Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes make
exceptions for this. Our decision will be guided by the two goals of pre-
serving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and of pro-
moting the sharing and reuse of software generally.

No Warranty
11. BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO
WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY
APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING
THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PRO-
GRAM “AS IS" WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER
EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A
PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND
PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PRO-
GRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY
SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION.
12. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO
IN WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY
WHO MAY MODIFY AND/OR REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMIT-
TED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GEN-
ERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING
OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING
BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INAC-
CURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAIL-
URE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS),
EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE
POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.

End Of Terms And Conditions

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