PH-315 A.

La Rosa
INPUT and OUTPUT IMPEDANCE

I. PURPOSE
To familiarize with the concept of input and output impedance of a circuit. Evaluate the
benefits of using of transistors to design stiffer electronic circuits.

II. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
II.A The concept of circuit loading
II.B The emitter-follower circuit
II.B.1 Calculation of the effective (load) input impedance Z
in
in the emitter-
follower circuit
II.B.2 Calculation of the effective (source) output impedance Z
out
in the emitter-
follower circuit
II.B.3 Alternative derivation of the output and input impedances.
III. EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
III.1 Making stiffer sources: Emitter follower
III.1A Biasing the emitter follower
III.1B Input impedance of the emitter-follower circuit
III.1C Output impedance of the emitter-follower circuit
III.2 Matching impedance: measuring the 50 O output impedance.

Appendix-1 Thevenin equivalent circuit analysis
Appendix-2

II.A The concept of circuit loading
Fig 1 shows a voltage source, whose nominal output is V
in
. When connecting this source to
an external circuit, a user would expect the voltage across the terminals a and b to be V
in
. But,
because any real voltage source has an intrinsic internal resistance (r
source
), by attaching an
external load resistance R
L
, the voltage across the terminals a and b will b eless than V
in
. The
difference between V
ab
and V
in
is more dramatic when R
L
is less than or even comparable to the
internal resistance r
source
; this is illustrated through expression (1) and the corresponding graph
in Fig 1.
) / ( 1
1
Load
source
in out
R r
V V
+
= (1)


r
source

V
in
b b
R
Load

V
in

V
out

V
out
r
source

r
source

R
Load

Open circuit
V
ab
=V
in
V
ab
<V
in

V
in
/2


a a
V
in


Fig. 1 Circuit loading refers to the undesirable reduction of the open-circuit voltage V
ab
by
the load.

Solution to avoid loading the circuit: Use R
Load
>> r
source

(Rule of thumb: To use R
Load
> 10 r
source
)

Connecting circuits one after another
In electronic circuits, stages are connected one after another.
i) Sometimes it is OK to load the circuit, as far as we know how much the loaded is, and
particularly if Z
in
is going to be constant.
ii) Of course, it is always better to have a stiff source (Z
out
<< Z
in
), so that signal levels do not
change when a load is connected.
iii) However, there are situations in which it is rather required to have Z
out
= Z
in
. That is the case
in radiofrequency circuits to avoid signal reflections.
So, be aware to respond accordingly depending on the situation.


Z
out-1

Z
in-2

Amplifier-1 Amplifier-2

Fig. 2 Amplifiers are typically characterized by their effective
output and input impedances. This is particularly important
for analysis when cascading them one after another.

II.B The emitter follower circuit
We will use the effect of using a transistor to decrease the effective value of Z
out
and/or
increase the value of Z
in
. The emitter-follower circuit (see Fig.3) will be used as a test example
throughout this lab session. It is called an emitter follower because the output terminal (the
emitter) follows the input (the base) except by a diode drop voltage:
V 0.6 V V
B E
~ (2)
- The output voltage V
out
(in this case coinciding with V
E
) is a replica of the input voltage,
except for the diode voltage 0.6 V to 0.7 V.
- V
in
must stay at 0.6 V or more, otherwise the transistor will be off and the output will stay
at ground.
By connecting the emitter resistor R
E
to a negative voltage supply, one can allow negative
input voltages as well. Keep this in mind for your experimental section.

R
E

B
C
E
V
in
V
out
10V

V
in

0V

R
2
50KO
R
1
5.6 KO


Fig. 3 Emitter follower circuit.

At first glance this circuit may appear useless, since it gives just a replica of V
in
. until one realizes
the following (see Fig. 4A),
- If a given current were needed to pass across the resistance R
E
, the circuit on the right
requires less power from the signal source than would be the case if the signal source were
to drive R
E
directly.
- That is, the current follower has a current gain, even though it does not have a voltage gain.
It has a power gain. Voltage gain isnt everything !
i




R
E

B
C
E
V
in
V
out
10V

0V

R
E

V
in
V
out
0V

r
source

r
source

I
I

/|
I
I
More
power

Less
power


Fig. 4A For the circuit on the left, the source needs to provide a power equal to I Vin. For
the circuit on the right, the source needs to provide a factor | less to drive the same current
on the load resistor.

Note: In the circuit above we are considering R
E
as the load resistance. In practice an additional
R
L
load resistance is connected (typically high). But its connection will be in parallel to R
E
,
in which case RE is the dominant resistance (since RL would be high).

The circuit in Fig 4A is re-draw in Fig. 4B just to highlight more clearly that the effective input
impedance of circuit with the emitter follower is greater than the one without it.



Z
in

Z
in
= input voltage / (input current)

Circuit
I
input
V
in





R
E

B
C
E
V
in
V
out
10V

0V

R
E

V
in
V
out
0V

r
source

r
source

I
I

/|
I
I

Z
in
= input voltage / (input current) Z
in
= input voltage / (input current)
= ( V
in
/ I ) = V
in
/ ( I

/| ) = | ( V
in
/ I )
Fig. 4B Comparison between input impedances. The emitter-follower circuit has an input
impedance | times greater.
















The circuit in Fig 4A is also re-draw in Fig. 4C just to highlight more clearly that the effective
output impedance of circuit with the emitter follower is smaller than the one without it.


Z
out

I
out

V
out

V
in

Z
out
= [ V
in
-V
out
] / (output current)

Circuit



R
E

B
C
E
V
in
V
out
10V

0V

R
E

V
in
V
out
0V

r
source

r
source

I
I

/|
I
I

Z
out
= ( V
in
-V
out
) / (ouput current) Z
out
= [ V
in
-V
out
] / (output current)
= ( I r
source
/ I ) = = [ ( I

/| ) r
source
| / I )
= r
source
= r
source
/ |
Fig. 4C Comparison between the output impedances. Notice, the effective output impedance of the
emitter-follower is a factor | smaller than the circuit on the left. [In the calculations we have overlooked
the V
BE
of 0.6-0.7 volt (typically one is interested in the variations of the changes of the voltages and
currents in the circuit rather than the steady values.]



From here you may want to jump to the experimental Section III,
which is devoted to the experimental measurement of the input and
output impedance of an emitter-follower circuit. Make sure the
transistor is working in the active region. After that you can come
back to this section.
Between this line and Section III (Experimental section) there are more precise analytical
calculations of the input and output impedance. These expression will make more useful
after you have implemented your emitter follower circuit.


II.B.1 Calculation of the effective (load) input impedance Z
in
in the emitter-follower
circuit
In what follows we will use lower cases to signify small signal (incremental quantities.
Typically one is interested in the variations of the changes of the voltages and currents in the
circuit rather than the steady values. Also, the distinction between the current gain h
FE
and
small-signal current gain h
fe
isnt always made clear and the term beta (| ) is used for both;
that is h
FE
= h
fe
= |. Horowitz and Hills book.

In the circuit shown in Fig.5 below, we are looking for an expression for
z
in
input voltage / (input current) = Av
B
/Ai
B

in terms of load impedance R
E
. Lets work out expressions for Av
B
and Ai
B

- First, an expression for Ai
B
is obtained from the charge conservation, I
E
= I
B
+ I
C
. For the
case of ac-input signals this implies,
Ai
E
= Ai
B
+ Ai
C

We know that I
C
= | I
B
, or Ai
C
= | Ai
B
; hence
Ai
E
= (| +1)Ai
B

or,
Ai
B
= Ai
E
/ (| +1) (3)


Av
B

Ai
B


Z
in
=


R
E

B
C
E
v
in
10V

0V

r
source

Equivalent

Z
in

Ai
B

Av
B

B
Ai
B

Av
B

Fig.5 Evaluation of the effective (load) input impedance Z
in
of the emitter-follower circuit.

- Next, we want an expression for Av
B
that relates to Ai
E
and the load impedance R
E
.
For the case of ac-signals, expression (2) gives Av
E
= Av
B

Av
E
= R
E
Ai
E

Av
B
= R
E
Ai
E


(4)

Equating (3) and (4) one obtains,

E in
R
i
Z
B
) 1 ( + =
A
A
|
B
v
(5)
Since | is typically of the order of 100, then Z
in
is ~ 100 times greater than R
E
. For R
E
= 0.5 kO,
Z
in
~ 50 kO
[Notice the mathematical derivation above is independent of the particular accessory to the
circuit (see Fig. 5) that may be used to experimentally measure Ai
B
and Av
B
. It only requires that
the transistor is properly biased (i.e. working in the active region, so one can justify the use of
the expression I
C
= | I
B
.]


R
2
50KO
R
1
5.6 KO

v
in
R
E

B
C
E
v
in
10V

0V

Equivalent

Z
in
= (|+1)R
E

Ai
B

Av
B

B
r
source
r
source


Fig.6 HIGHER (LOAD) INPUT IMPEDANCE. The presence of the transistor has the net effect to
increasing the (load) impedance R
E
by a factor of | +1. The emitter-follower has high input
impedance.


II.B.2 Calculation of the effective (source) output impedance Z
out
in the emitter-
follower circuit
We will use upper case for DC voltages (like V
BB
and I
B
) and the lower case used for AC
small-signals (like vin, AiB, and vout).

In the circuit shown in Fig.7 below, we are looking for an expression for
Z
out
[ v
in
-v
out
] / (output current)
= (v
in
-Av
B
) /Ai
E

in terms of source impedance r
source
.

R
E

B
C
E
v
in
V
out
10V

V
in

0V

R
2
50KO
R
1
5.6 KO

r
source

R
E

v
in
v
out
0V

Z
out

Equivalent

Ai
E

Ai
E

Av
E
ut
Ai
E


Z
out
=



v
in
- Av
E





Fig.7 Evaluation of the effective (source) output impedance Z
out
of the emitter-follower circuit.

In the circuit on the left side of Fig.7, applying expression (2) for the case of ac-voltages gives,
Av
E
= Av
B
.
Accordingly,
v
in
= r
source
Ai
B
+ R
E
Ai
E

Using Ai
E
= (| +1)Ai
B

v
in
= r
source
Ai
E
/(| +1) + R
E
Ai
E

v
in
= [ r
source
/ (| +1) + R
E
] Ai
E
(6)

In the circuit on the right side of Fig.7,
v
in
= (Z
out
+ R
E
) Ai
E
(7)

From (6) and (7),
Z
out
= r
source
/(| +1) (8)


R
E

B
C
E
v
in
V
out
10V

V
in

0V

R
2
50KO
R
1
5.6 KO

r
source

R
E

v
in
v
out
0V

Z
out
=r
source
/(|+1)
Equivalent


Fig.8 LOWER (SOURCE) OUTPUT IMPEDANCE. The presence of the transistor has the net effect
to reducing the (source) output impedance r
source
by a factor of (|+1). The emitter-follower
lowers the (source) output impedance.


II.B.3 Alternative derivation of the output and input impedances.
We have obtained in two separate sections, II.B.1 and II.B.2, explicit expressions (5) and (8) for the
corresponding values of Z
out
and Z
in
of a emitter-follower circuit. Both expressions can in fact be obtained
from a single more compact expression that compares the input and output voltages, as shown below.


R
E

B
C
E
v
in
v
out
10V

V
in

0V

R
2
50KO
R
1
5.6 KO

R
E

V
in
V
out
0V

r
source

r
source

Ai
B

Av
B

Ai
E

Av
E


Fig.9 Emitter-follower circuit.

Notice in Fig.9,
v
in
- r
source
Ai
B
- Av
E
= 0
Since Av
E
= v
out
,
v
in
- v
out
= r
source
Ai
B
(9)
To make R
E
intervene in expression (9), we use
v
out
= R
E
Ai
E

Since Ai
E
= (| +1)Ai
B

v
out
= R
E
(| +1)Ai
B

Ai
B
= v
out
/ R
E
(| +1) (10)

Replacing (10) in (9),
v
in
- v
out
= r
source
v
out
/ R
E
(| +1)

v
in
= v
out
(1 +
E
R
r
) 1 ( + |
source
)
in out
v v
) 1 (
1
R
1
1
E
source
+
+
=
|
r
(For circuit in Fig.9 that, uses a transistor) (11)
Compare this last expression for Av
out
with the case in which the transistor circuit were not
used (Fig.1):



R
1
1
E
source
in out
r
+
= v v
(For circuit in Fig.1, no transistor used) (12)

Notice in (11), one obtains the same result whether
- Considering an effective (source) output impedance r
source
/ (|+1) and load impedance
R
E
, or
- Considering a (source) output impedance r
source
and an effective input impedance
R
E
(|+1).


III. EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
III.1 Making stiffer sources: Emitter follower
III.1A Biasing the emitter follower
III.1B Input impedance of the emitter-follower circuit
III.1C Output impedance of the emitter-follower circuit


III.1 Biasing the emitter follower
It is necessary to bias the emitter-follower so that collector current flows while the input
signal vin changes. A voltage divider is the simplest way, which is shown in Fig. 10.
R
1
and R
2
are chosen to put the base halfway between the ground and V
CC
when there is not
input signal. Hence R
1
and R
2
are approximately equal.

TASK. Design and build the following emitter-follower circuit

R
E

B
C
E
v
in

in
v
out
V
CC
=10V

R
1

R
2

V
in

0V

R
2
50KO
R
1
5.6 KO

C



Fig. 10 Emitter follower circuit. Notice, we are interested
in using small signal ac-voltages at the input

Notice that the stiffer emitter-follower does not invalidate the calculation performed above
with the simpler emitter-follower circuit. The support for argument is shown in Fig.11. The
voltage divider is a DC bias that provides a DC base current that bias properly the transistor to
work in the active region. The connection of another AC-source (vin ) produces an additional AC
base current. (See also Appendix-1 below for Thevenin equivalent circuit analysis).




npn
E
V
CC
= + 10 V
R
E

R
2

B
v
out

C
I
C

R
1


v
in

r
source

Try r
source
= 1 KO

C
1
C
2
Equivalent



Try r
source
= 1 KO

Equivalent



npn
E
R
E

R
B

B
C
V
BB

V
CC
= +10V

I
B
(DC)
I
C

Ai
B

v
in

v
out

r
source

C
2
C
1

Fig. 11 Thevening equivalent circuit. Left: Emitter-follower circuit. Right: Equivalent circuit.
The drawing helps to differentiate the additional (AC) base current injected by the signal
generator (vin ) from the DC base current established by the bias circuit. Notice the upper case
used for DC voltages (like V
BB
and I
B
) and the lower case used for AC small-signals (like vin, AiB,
and vout).

Thevening analysis indicate the value for R
B
is,
R
B
= (R
1
//R
2
) and V
BB
= 5V (13)
Notice, if we want the base to be about half way between the the ground and V
CC
, that is
around 5 volts. Since V
BB
is already 5 volts a criteria to select R
1
and R
2
is that the drop of
voltage across (R
1
//R
2
) to be much smaller than R
E
I
E
,
(R
1
//R
2
) I
B
<< R
E
I
E

(R
1
//R
2
) I
B
<< | R
E
I
B
(R
1
//R
2
) << | R
E
(14)

How to choose R
E
?
If we decided to work with a collector current of 1 mA, and we want the output to swing
around the middle between the ground and V
CC
, then a 5 kO resistor would do the job.

Method of analysis
Underlying our method of analysis is to consider the emitter follower as a black box, which to
the effect of measuring its effective load it will be considering having input impedance Z
in
, and
to the effect of driving a subsequent circuit stage it will be considered having output impedance
Z
out
. Our objective in this lab is to calculate and measure these two impedances (of the same
emitter follower circuit.) See figures 5 and 7 above.
Experimental procedure
- First, ensure the transistor in the emitter followers is working in the active region.
In this case, do not hook yet any ac input signal yet. This step is just to make sure the
transistor is working in the active region under DC bias voltage.
Measure V
EB

Measure the base current, and verify if the value agrees with the Thevenin analysis.
- Next, apply an ac input voltage vin.
Use a coupling capacitor (try C
1
= 0.1 F, for example).
- For a given input frequency (1 kHz, for example), increase gradually the amplitude and
check the max amplitude the circuit tolerates before the output signal gets distorted.
- Establish the range of frequency at which the circuit works as an emitter follower.
Find out what happens when the frequency is lowered. Check if there is distortion
when too low frequencies are used.
Repeat the procedure above by experimenting a smaller capacitance (10 nF).

III.1B Input impedance of the emitter-follower circuit
- Measure the input impedance of the circuit
The diagram on the left in Fig. 12 shows in a very straightforward manner that the input
impedance can be determined experimentally by measuring the base-voltage Av
B
and the input
base-current Ai
B
. We want to measure Av
B
/Ai
B
.
The diagrams on the right in Fig. 12 show two optional ways of implementing the
measurement. For Av
in
use an ac-voltage of amplitude ~ 20 mV. (Notice, in the first option an
additional small resistance R
x
has been introduced for the purpose of measuring Ai
B
.)

R
E

B
C
E
R
x

2
Oscillos-
cope
Ai
B

Z
in

Ai
B

Av
B

0V

Transformer
Av
B

1
Av
in

Accessory circuit
v
out
R
2

R
1


R
E

B
C
E
R
x

Ai
B

0V

Av
B

Av
in

v
out
R
2

R
1


10 V

10 V

A


Or
C= 1 F
C= 1 F

Fig. 12 Left: Black box diagram representing the emitter-follower. Measuring Av
B
/Ai
B
gives
the value of Z
in
. Right: Optional experimental implementations for measuring Av
B
and Ai
B
. In
the first option, the measurement of Ai
B
is implemented by using a small resistance R
x
and
setting the oscilloscope inputs to ac-mode; invert channel 2 and measure v
1
v
2
in order to obtain
the input current Ai
B
. In the second option, an ammeter is inserted to measure directly Ai
B
.
Verify also that Av
out
follows Av
B
(i.e. ensure the transistor is working in the active region.)


TASKS: Verify also that Av
out
follows Av
B
(i.e. ensure the transistor is working in the active
region.)
Verify if the predicted value given in (5) is close to the experimental value you
measured in the section above.


V
in
R
E

r
sourc
e

Source
Av
in

Av
out

r
source

Source
Av
in

Input
impedance: R
E

Effective input impedance:
(1 + | ) R
E

R
E

B
C
E
10 V

0V

V
out
R
2

R
1


C= 1 F

Fig. 13 Schematic comparison of the effective input impedance caused by R
E
, depending on
whether or not a transistor is used. The higher impedance of the latter is an advantage
feature.



III.1C Output impedance of the emitter-follower circuit
Similarly to the procedure for finding the input impedance,
Method-1 Using a variable resistance R
LOAD
.
We will consider the emitter follower circuit (Fig. 14, left diagram) as a black box (right diagram)
for the purpose of finding its equivalent output impedance.

Z
out

Av
equiv

R
LOAD

R
E

B
C
E
10V

0V

r
source

A v
in

R
LOAD

Av
out

Av
out

C= 1 F

Fig. 14 The follower emitter circuit (left) and its equivalent circuit (right)

In this setup, the output voltage across R
LOAD
is given by,
equiv out
v v A = A
+
LOAD t
LOAD
R
R
ou
Z
(13)

By choosing two different values for R
LOAD
, R
1
and R
2
, one obtains,


out
Z
out

Av
equiv

R
1

Av
out



out
Z
out

Av
equiv

R
2

Av
out


Fig. 15 The equivalent follower emitter circuit hooked to two different output loads.

equiv out;1
v v A = A
+
1
1
R
R
t ou
Z
and
equiv out;2
v v A = A
+
2
2
R
R
t ou
Z


Solving for Z
out
(see proof at the end of these notes, appendix 2),
1
1
1
2
2
(
(
(

A
A

(
(
(

A
A
=
out;2
out;1
out;2
out;1
v
v
v
v
R
R
R Z
t ou
(14)

- As we expect Z
out
to be very low ( 100 O) compared to the input impedance, you may have
to use very low values for R
1
and R
2
(potentially 30 Ohms).
- Alternatively, in the description above, R
1
can be the input impedance of the oscilloscope,
and R
2
a low value resistance R
2
.
i) Connect the output to the oscilloscope (assumed here that the impedance of the
oscilloscope is infinite; R
LOAD
= R
1
=). This allows measuring the amplitude of Av
equiv
.
equiv out,1
v v A = A
+
LOAD t
LOAD
R
R
ou
Z

equiv
v A =
+
1
1
R
R
t ou
Z

equiv
v A


1
R

That is,
= A
out,1
v
equiv
v A (measured by simply connecting the output
of the transistor to the oscilloscope.)

ii) Use an arbitrary external resistance R
2
(typically low values work better, like 30 Ohms for
example) as R
LOAD
, and measure the corresponding
out.2
v A .
equiv out,2
v v A = A
+
2
2
R
R
t ou
Z

out,2
equiv
v
v
A
A
= +
2
2
) (
R
Z R
t ou

(
(
(

A
A
=
(
(
(

A
A
= 1 1
2 2
out,2
out,1
out,2
equiv
v
v
v
v
R R Z
t ou


Note about checking the results:
Even if you get smaller values for Z
out
, how to know if the results make sense? That is, how
do we know the output resistance without and with the transistor has decrease by a factor
of |? In fact, the latter may not have been fulfilled (check your results once you measure
independently the output impedance of your signal generator, as requested in the next
section of this lab).
One alternative way to verify our results is to do the following:
- Insert a resistance of 1k ohm between the ac-voltage source and your circuit. That is, we are
adding a 1k ohm to the output impedance.
Repeat the procedure to measure Z
out
.
Check if your new results has increased the value for Z
out
by 1kO/|.

Method-2
The shortcoming of method-1 is that it requires the testing R
LOAD
(Fig. 14) to be too small (which
may disturb the working point of the transistor).
Another way is to use the circuit of Fig. 13 and measure directly,
Z
out
[ Av
in
- Av
out
] / (output current)
= (Av
in
- Av
out
) /Ai
E

This will require to measure v
in
-v
out
, which will be very small. One way to attempt its
measurement is to use the oscilloscope to monitor v
in
(in channel-1) and v
out
(in channel-2),
invert the second signal, and then use the scope in summing mode. For Ai
E
you can use
(Av
out
) / R
E


In both methods, be aware of the role played by the capacitor impedance. Choose the proper
frequency such that a) the capacitor impedance is minimum, but at the same time b) the used
frequency is within the frequency-bandwidth response of the transistor.

III.2. Matching Impedance
50 O Output Impedance

50 O
This is a real resistor, physical placed at the
output (as literally drawn in the figure.) A
high quality resistor, with the lowest
reactance possible, is preferred.

Alternatively, you can think this is the
Thevenins equivalent circuit.

V

50 O Impedance Cable

50 O cable
This is a 50 O complex
impedance cable


50 O Input Impedance


50 O C
stray



MEASUREMENTS
Some signal generators are specified to have 50 O output impedance AND expect to be
connected to 50O input impedance devices. ONLY if the latter requirement is satisfied, the
reading of the output voltage will coincide with the actual output voltage.


2 V
pp

50 O
50 O
1 V
pp

V
A

The input and output impedance create a voltage divider, hence the voltage readings (2 V
pp

and 1V
pp
) shown in the figure.

Notice in the case above that if, for example the output voltage were 1 Vpp (1 volt peak-to-
peak) the voltage at A would be 2 Vpp


HOW TO TEST IF


Output
voltage
50 O v
Reading
Output voltage
### #### ###


Task: Verify whether or not your signal generator has a 50O output impedance.
i)
ii)

50 O
V
A
To oscilloscope
Expected output
voltage: V
A

Output

Now, connect a 50 O resistor as shown in the figure below. If the voltage drops to 50%, then
the output impedance is 50O.


50 O
50 O
v
A
To oscilloscope
Expected output
voltage: (1/2) v
A

Output





Appendix-: Thevenin equivalent circuit analysis
The example presented here is for a transistor amplifier circuit. But the essence of the Thevening
analysis is valid also for a emitter-follower circuit.
We can use the Thevenins theorem to show the equivalence between the circuits in Fig. 9 and
Fig. 11.


I
C

V
CE

100 A
20 mA
C
R
15V
+ 15 V
P
AV
CE

AI
C

I
B
=50 A
AI
B
B

E
R
C

R
B

B
V
CE

C
I
C

I
B

V
in

V
CC
(+ 15 V)
V
out


Fig. 9


R
1
5.6 KO

npn
E
V
CC
= + 10 V
R
C
1 KO

R
2
50KO
B
V
out

C
I
C

V
in


Fig. 11 DC bias circuit (accomplished by the resistance R
1
and R
2
).




This is made more evident by re-drawing Fig. 11 as shown in Fig. 12 below.
Through the Thevenin theorem one can claim that both circuits, the ones at the left and right
sides of Fig.12 are equivalent. Analyzing the shaded area one obtains:
- The Thevenin voltage V
BB
is the open-circuit voltage (voltage across XY in the circuit
when no external load is applied)
1
2 1
R
R R
V
V
CC
BB
+
= . (V
BB
=1V.)
- R
B
designates the Thevenin equivalent series resistance. The short circuit currents (i.e.
the currents when X and Y are shorted) are V
CC
/R
2
and V
BB
/R
B
respectively. Since the
circuits are equivalent these two current must be equal. Hence,
BB
CC
B
V
V
R
R
2
= ; using the
value for V
BB
obtained above, results
2 1
1 2
R R
R R
R
B
+
= (R
B
=5 ).

npn
E
X
R
C

R
2
50KO

B
V
out

C
R
1
5.6 KO

V
CC
=
+10V
npn
E
R
B
B
V
out

C
V
BB

V
CC
=
+10V

Y
X
Y
V
CC

=+10V

R
C
1 KO


Fig. 12 DC bias circuit and its Thevenin equivalent. The latter helps to calculate the different
parameters associated to the intended operating point of the transistor (using the analysis
described in the previous section) based on the values of R
1
and R
2
.


Appendix-2

Proof of expression (14):
equiv out
v v A = A
+
LOAD t
LOAD
R
R
ou
Z


When using R
LOAD
= R
1
and R
LOAD
= R
2
respectively, one obtains,
equiv out;1
v v A = A
+
1
1
R
R
t ou
Z
and
equiv out;2
v v A = A
+
2
2
R
R
t ou
Z


( )
( )
1
2
2
1
R
R
t
t
ou
ou
Z
Z
R
R
+
+
A
A
=
out;2
out;1
v
v

( ) ( )
2
1
2
1
R R
t t ou ou
Z
R
R
Z +
A
A
+ =
out;2
out;1
v
v


2
1
2
1
1
2
1 R R
R
R
R
R
Z
t ou
=
A
A
+
A
A
(
(
(

out;2
out;1
out;2
out;1
v
v
v
v

(
(
(

(
(
(

A
A
A
A
=
out;2
out;1
out;2
out;1
v
v
v
v
1
2
1
2
1 R
R
R
Z
t ou

(
(
(

A
A
(
(
(

A
A

=
1
1
1
2
2
out;2
out;1
out;2
out;1
v
v
v
v
R
R
R Z
t ou





i
Horowitz and Hill, The Art of Electronics