AGARD-LS- 147

I
AGARD LECTURE SERIES No.147

00

Practical Application of Finite Element Analysis to Aircraft Structural Design LTIC

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AGARD-LS- 147

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION ADVISORY GROUP FOR AEROSPACE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (ORGANISATION DU TRAITE DE L'ATLANTIQUE NORD)

AGARD Lecture Series No. 147 PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS TO AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The material in this publication was assembled to support a Lecture Series under the sponsorship of the Structures and Materials Panel and the Consultant and Exchange Programme of AGARD presented on 11 -- 12 September 1986 in Geilo, Norway, 15-16 September 1986 in Lisbon, Portugal, 29-30 September 1986 at McClellan AFB, CA, USA, 2- 3 October 1986 at Kelly AFB, TX, USA "and6-7 October 1986 at Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, USA.

THE MISSION OF AGARD

The mission of AGARD is to bring together the leading personalities of the NATO nations in the fields of science and technology relating to aerospace for the following purposes: - Exchanging of scientific and technical information; -- Continuously stimulating advances in the aerospace sciences relevant to strengthening the common defence posture; - Improving the co-operation among member nations in aerospace research and development; - Providing scientific and technical advice and assistance to the Military Committee in the field of aerospace research and development (with particular regard to its military application); - Rendering scientific and technical assistance, as requested, to other NATO bodies and to member nations in connection with research and development problems in the aerospace field; - Providing assistance to member nations for the purpose of increasing their scientific and technical potential; - Recommending effective ways for the member nations to use their research and development capabilities for the common benefit of the NATO community. The highest authority within AGARD is the National Delegates Board consisting of officially appointed senior representatives from each member nation. The mission of AGARD is carried out through the Panels which are composed of experts appointed by the National Delegates, the Consultant and Exchange Programme and the Aerospace Applications Studies Programme. The results of AGARD work are reported to the member nations and the NATO Authorities through the AGARD series of publications of which this is one. Participation in AGARD activities is by invitation only and is normally limited to citizens of the NATO nations.

The content of this publication has been reproduced directly from material supplied by AGARD or the authors.

Published August 1986 Copyright C AGARD 1986 All Rights Reserved ISBN 92-835-1536-6

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ii

LIST OF SPEAKERS Lecture Series Director: Dr AJ.Morris Department of Aircraft Design College of Aeronautics Cranfield, Bedford MK 43 OAL United Kingdom

SPEAKERS Mr I.C.Taig British Aerospace PLC Warton Division Warton Nr. Lytham St. Annes, Lancashire United Kingdom Dr V.B.Venkayya Air Force Wright Aeronautical Lab. Wright Patterson Air Force Base Ohio 45433-6553 USA

4-

_J
i

,, ,,
.. __ .J . .. ..

......

'A'

CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF SPEAKERS

iin Reference

three Lectures) INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT BASICS (covering the first by A.J.Morris STATING THE PROBLEM: THE STEP BEFORE F.E. MODELLING by I.C.Taig MODELLING FOR THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD by I.C.Taig THE USE OF THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD by V.B.Venkaayy BIBLIOGRAPHY

4 B

J I

INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT BASICS

A.J.

MORRIS

Professor of Computational Structural Analysin; College of Aeronautics, Cranfield Institute of Technology, Cranfield, Bedford. MK43 U.K. OAL

1.

PHILOSOPHY

The task we are setting ourselves is that of solving a complex structural design problem which lies beyond the scope of classical closed form mathematical solution. If wI have a digital computer at our disposal we would be well advised to employ it and, because of the nature of the digital process, we will riquire an approximate solution technique. In addition, we would want to choose our new technique to suit the special properties of the computer. We require, in fact, a solution technique which is numerically stable, easily programmed and can be adapted to a wide range of problem types without excessive interference by the user. From a structural viewpoint the finite element method provides the most satisfactory solution technique in this category. The essence of the finite element method involves dividing the structure into a suitable number of small pieces called finite elements. The intersections of the sides of the elements occur at nodal points or nodes and the interfaces between elements are called nodal lines and nodal planes. Often we may need to introduce additional node points along the nodal lines or planes. For structural problems involving static or dynamic applied loads we will be defining the behaviour of the structure in terms of displacements and/or stresses. Within each of our elements we need to select a pattern or shape for the unknown displacement or stress. In the case of a displacement field the shape function defines the behaviour of displacements within an element in terms ofunknown quantities specified at the element nodes. These nodal values are known as nodal connection quantities and allow the deformation behaviour in one element to be communicated to adjacent elements. In the case of an assumed stress field in the element the connection quantities are different but the underlying principle is the same. At once we see some of the power of the fi;nite element method specific element type (beam, plate, shell, etc.), the shape functions each element. Thus, a given element need only be programmed once and repeat the operations specified for one, general, element as often as because, for a are identical for the computer can required.

The structure is clearly going to be modelled by an assemblage of finite elements but this introduces a number of problems which need resolving. How does one actually numerically define a finite element in terms suitable for the romputer? How do we select elements which will be accurate enough to adequately represent the structural behaviour" How does one apply the design loads in a finite element analysis' How do we select the correct connection quantities" How do we tell the computer to assemble a collection of individual elements so that the actual structural behaviour represented is modelled"' The answer to these and other problems represent the 'Rules of the Game' for the finite element method. The engineer conversant with these 'Rules' is equipped to use the finite element method for the solution of real industrial based design problems. Furthermore, he is able to use effectively the major structural analysis finite element programs such 9s NASIRAN, PAFfC , FINE[ ASAS, which have become a routine part of structural analysis in all malor industries. These 'Rules' and their explanation form the basis of the current nrourse. 1.1 Element types

thus we have seen that the essence of thef inite element met hod is t to ,' a piecewise continuous approximat ing funct inn. As already indicated the select io oft Ih, terms to be approximated dictates the connection quantities: i) Displacement Elements these are uji;tjal nIrmerint s ourld t in thi- mai,ioi t 2' commonly emploted to perform st ructural analyses. In this canse the td!;p 1 ;In' ri--l field at all poFnints on the interior and the boundary of the element l I ;Jp)J v I\r;'cii'ff in) terms of a low order prlIynomial. As we shall see this q)IePS !i;f' I, ,t I,'If quant it ies in terms o f dIsplacementsf and their derivat yr's v ( etf Io,'1-f unit it ,, ti n' element boundary.

',t

, '1 10 it

' ','

'

,
'

,
't

,,
qua;illt
t Iliwi l
It

.1'-i, 1 1
1e-,. d ti,If
i

1
,if 'v.,i i "I ,' ' 'i

......... hie? t ii titi s&H5V , usua I ly deff ine)d i n t erms of lw 'tilr pitlynomials. The result of this .- i'1,. t1) (1U n tities. (u I I These can be awkward to 1 it )dutE(' displacement type connection 1'' i-i ( Ii ;It 1i1g such connections is properly
Ill pure, equlibrt)rium elements.

',

'

ll Hy H rid fI
describfe interior he stre
a
li

em..t. th h

'
I
', i

,t
't , t.,,i
II i

,,,I
,Ii.
> ,,

,.

twe

separate approximating
ng one approximating

fields
scheme

to
for the

I'
th-.

-, ,, dilI

l 11
thoeiriq

-mploiy i

,t

'

'i,

, t,

.i ;'' ,
1'L ,i
t-

I
,

apipp r'

i- 1ii-t

second disl I 'ii---' t which us t t it [IIIt i In

I 'l ..... ' I

I
.i, i

For example, employed , , the boundary. with piijtit t-' ;approximated by one set of polynomials boundary. This the element '1i lit;i Iauf'rt ents along ,, t t, pl;ai ng the role of a I agrange multipljir fit iiiti t if astress across the element boundaries.

thit; 1

',''

I aul-mi

ts

and/'ni

their

derivatives

at

specific

... ..
r,'t A 'tt ','i-i' -n'; fI,

'.
u
I
' -t i ' '' t'

t
it
t

u-;

,',:

,,,1
'''

lu',,

I, , -'

-,11 '

-I

-i ei-ri,.

, ',f ,I -.

'-

'-.,ip-it-,'.

t'

'

rt

method involved the use of matrix This process required that the main theory as the basic *' tt staqe using Plasticity u: i Iit u ria I and other principles whiLch latter nmethod and, thus, it became k own as the Direct
t -,, , fiie) rI s,

rute

eleimfent

it.' ii
'<

--

,i'

''

it.,

Appiriaitte

..

,.'i I tit

rat

lt

t , guP rather

an overview than rigorous

of the main manner.

features

of

the

IIIM1I NS ;teu.qr,

I[FIN( 'i 'MAIRIX ipie

iN

t.v*. 4,

te,,.

t''

Aue A,

A 2 and

sprig, as shown in the corresponding

Fig.2.1, forces

where the displacements by P 1 and P 2 .

at

the

nodet
p

rode Z
P1

Figure 2.1

Hookes

law P I P2

for

this k( &1-A

structure 2

gives

z the

k(A 2-LA1 stiffness of the spring.

where Using

is

matrix

notation

P
The is, stiffness it is In
K

.
matrix k lnas two important Symmetric and Singular. to
11 1

properties

which

are

clearly

demonstrated,

that

both order

start

the
2

process

of

generalisation

we

write

in

the

form

}
coefficient equal to node 1. Similarly, k12 at node 2 (or 1). axial to the is force required the force required at node 1 to at node 1 (or 2)

k12

k22

Thus k,, represents a stiffness produce a unit deflection at to produce a unit deflection Our developing next example the stiffness At I..1 21 1

involves the linear matrix is identical

that

shown of

at Fig.2.2. the above

The linear

principle for spring where

62

1-3

Y,1

o -o rd ina te

Transfor0 m;ation

So far we have tar idly assumed that the co-ordinates of the bar and the co-ordiorete This situation will not normally system in which the war is embedded are the same. prevail and we must consider the bar situated in a -on-coincidental co-ordinate system. [or convenience we shill take a two-dimensional Cartesian co-ordinate system and consider The bar now has two forces and displacements associated the bar situated as shown in Fig.3. The associated stiffness matrix must be s 4x41 matrix as with each of the two end nodes. forces FIand the Thus the relationship between the opposed to the 2x2 matrix. displacements 6i are given via the 4x4i stiffness thus (FI <2+

k11

k 1 22

k 13

k 14

22

k2

46

we recall that these represent the forces associated W' order to evaluate the terms ki as shown in Thu~s to find kil we set 61=1 and 62=63=6 4 =, with unit nodal displacements. Then the strain in the bar is given by 6 1 cosO/L which for 61=! becomes cos/t. F iq.2.4. Ftookes law now gives the force in the bar P AciOsO L

k IguLre 2.

F igure 2.4

Wran

now

reso lv e P

into

a, components

sic:

cs

EAcos 20

F
etc.

T'sin0

F Acoses in

Fherefore, 11
k I2

Acos
I k21
-1 -~

t-c s oIs~i(

fno A[

(co Cos 0

cossliir, S I )2

Cos 20

cs~sinh
-

cos~sinG Cos 2 2

sin 2

5yM .hjich
ta

cos~sinh sIn 2

earl ier 2x2 transformed into the x-y co-ordinate qyst em. In fact a ma tr ix h y ma y b e archive v ed by p re and pans t mulitplyiv n g Fthe 2W Fvtype In order to demorust rate this, consider two svst ems shown in) a tarnfnrmatior; matrix. the local nodal forces and dslcmnsin li=1,2 represent the Ft F iq. 2. whv'ro P,. A,, 4 represent thp same terms in the glohal Cx.W) systom. htr qyst em whilst F,, 6,. i=1.2.3, A2iO 64 Aluo~n, 12 =Alsin(iC. 65 ,AMco-;, 1hn; we h~ave AT is qimply the
o or ma ti on o f this

4-4

Hsnce

K
63
5

<2
0
0

Fiqure

2.0

censo
sinO

and

F I F2

ose

si

pI
p 2)

\,j

going

back

to

the

original

element

formulation

and

pre-multiplhing C,oJ ;f00Fc O

by

the

transformation

matrix

os 0

3) s i n
if w ';Lltutst It1tt for

k2 pO 4)sine
A IA2 using the transformation

roa

qiven

above:-

) 1J
r2

1C

A AE

csin o

s 1nrO

(1 1) ons -

-1 lWosO
1 s

sin
o

06

(6
2

s sinD6 64

F f0

s in

Iens20

cosO

sinO ts 4

2. 2

G[e)Prajised

'o-OrdinateP

Transformation that would (co-or inat , t ranr:foirmat ion cal, like to reformulate this process for convenience we shall employ

Ih,, nr fv i)Ls f;n ,t ion Illnsu trited relIatively simple mannIr. However we more suitable for computer implementation. s ho.wn in iiq.2.6.

j actiiv ri d int in a manner the notat ion

Thus transformation u

taking

x,yvu between the + + vsin1i vcosa

as the two is

global given

system arid x by the equations

,y

,v

,u

as

the

local

system

the

ucosa vsina

or

where

is

the

transformation

matrix

{cosa -sina

sinai Cosaj

If

we

now

consider u1

bar

element

with

nodes

(1)

and

(2)

as

shown

in

Fig.2.6

then

d1

{i } and
u2 1 v 2v Td

1l

\
u2 2

and

where

w i h(

co s o
-sin

s in a
C OSC

For three dimensions the matrix have bending as opposed to tension The matrix T is orthogonal

A becomes elements. and thus

3x3

matrix

and

other

terms

will

appear

if

we

T-1 :
therefore

-t

7Td

Thus the stiffness this transofrmation of this section:-

matrix can be transformed we start with (2.1) written

from local in global

to

global co-ordinates

co-ordinates, and

in

to perform the notation

In order t hus

to

convert

the

load

and

nodal

variables

we

use

the

above

transformation

matrix

d
thus and Ikd then

=
v

7td! =p =p

and

thus or

k7t k

k1 - k (Tt)t

and transformation given by

for

the

Plement

st iffness

matrix

from

local

to

global

co-ordinates

is

IkT

S SaIT' IhI

Iq

em 0 1 t

w t,h h t t wi e can n ttii ITsr iif aIt II Iift t FIrent la';t IT, I tP qr!; n-n-I-TtTI' I, A; rik IT) t rints n i a a (Imtt I I Tq ai Lt'] Io to e l IT), t o I p 1) 1 ,I' itt t in' tit) t hf I I l; i i ' T at 1 ct(-trI. I C ,-ms de r the spr1nq a se in hl a I, s ohow ii I I| g 2. 7 1('Ii lts it iFnf] it I I Tno, nltid IIoIdes with 12 deJo rees of f reedo m.I [i orI der1 [ I td fI p he(w the 0 1lridl ti tal l ,arm,rii; irf assemb led unTto a global represPt at (tin we Tietd ( Ink I )(ITs ideI- what happer[1ds v h i, oI ski 7 PM m eom n m o3de , f oni tI t s UpuI Iake) s f' Writf we I, 32 , trtt ) whtit h vil t

ntn th

0'~ 111 m IT

fl

II

de P

;it

4 .

I 'ie re 2 7

14:b'l.

"--s p,

1I ,(.
nU7,, L" q, q

6 ',
V.

U8 f

P.

4.mblnc

p
UI

X4 :4
31
I

v
0 1

p,1-) ~01'}

~I
ON1

5
1(t

~~'

24

L4 U

4P

ii) 421 41 42-

(V
R

As

5l

P-

mmm

umm

FIGURE

.I

1-7

W ith with

two, elements In li.?.7 we have shown tht their own tititjerident ltoad and displacemenit iz1 or 2 dependent upon the elemtent. In assembl ing the global stiffness the load PIF ... P12 to the displacements for eac-h of the elements such as

separated
bystem

pt P111 ,

from the P 2( ), P

tal , P

ai;strrihlagjf t'.

relates matrices t h at

matrix we must add ul ... u 1 2 , the i1l and (2). Thus

into the 12x12 matrix. whic-h individual 4x4 st if frn gs we look at node 4 rtd observe

"P 7
P 8H

1
I 1

(2)
2)

P 4

P2
-4

which requires that matrices are added

P(7 =

the appropriate ( ) 2 (1(1)

1

contributions )
+ k33

from the (1)

+ kV34

individual (1-) (1)

element

stiffness

1(1) (1 kkl 7 1

k 32

(1)

+ k31 (2or in global p7 = terms, k31 since I (2) (1(

1(2

1 U 2

+ k32 - U2) : U2
(1)

k33

+ 1 UT7); V4 V4
21

U8

(1)

U1

+ k32

U2

k(33
.3(2)

433 < 3
0

(2)

U7

+ (A34

(1)

+ k34

ut 8

k31

U 3 + k32

U4

and similarly for P8. When these are transcribed into the global stiffness matrix we 8 obtain the form shown in fig.2.8. By proceeding in an identical manner for each of the nodes, the full global stiffness matrix and load vector are assembled, In reality the load vector contains the actual loads on the structure and is not assembled in the manner shown . 2.4 Incorporation of Boundary Conditions

Having assembled the global stiffness matrix and load vector we are still not in a posit ion to solve for the unknown global displacements. We must now apply the boundary conditions which form part of the problem definition and which also fix the structure in space and prevent rigid body rotation. It is worth noting that if all the rigid body modes are not fixed then the element and global stiffness matrices arp singular. Once the houndary conditions are prescribed the structural analysis problem can be solved by inversion of the global stiffness matrix or by employing some other equation solving Procedure. As we have seen throughout our developments of the F-E method because we are dealing with a displacement formulation, we can only specify boundary conditions on the boundary 4,. In the F-E method these conditions are defined in terms of specified nodal displacemen-ts which may he zero if the structure is attached to a rigid support or may be non-zpro if some mnovm'mnt of the supports or attachment points is specified. In order to demonstrate the procedure for specifying boundary displacements and procedures for snolvng we divide rhe global displacement vector by partitioning into free nodal displacements LU and specified displacements U . The global stiffness matrix and load vector must also be similarly part it io ed thus
ouhsequent

the

>21 where th vector

K22}
P

1
represent the react ions at the nodes where the displacements
))*

are

sireci fied. E xpanding I11 22 2

-1 -

K21It 11 H12 + 21

P*

I-s

Since

the

displacements

U are

the

only

unknowns

then

we

can

solve

for

these

to

give:

K 11-1

{1
are

- k12 J}

2.2)

and

the reactions

given by:

21 If U 0

11 1I

22

21t12

12!U(

then we have

LI u -= k K 1 1 -- l -1-P

K21 K

Although for convenience we have assumed that the specified terms in the displacement vector are situated at the bottom of the vector column. In reality, this situation will never arise and could only be achieved by re-numbering the structure. However, for the case when U : P the scatering of the components of U within the displacement vector, causes no computational problem.. All we do is simply remove each row and column associated with each component Uj:= 0. Thus for each i we delete the jith row and column from the qlobai stiffness matrix K but preserve in store the terms for the matrix K12 to allow for subsequent recover> of the reactions, the way in which this is handled for our spring problem is shown in Fig.2.9. An equivalent technique is available for the case when U 4O in this case zero's are placed in the appropriate rows and columns of K and a 1 placed on the diagonal. Thus:if Hi then and K1 3 = is prescribed K 1 by P
-

as for

V i r j and i = 1,2. ... n

= 0

This is balanced b. replacing P, in the load vector This operat ion is equivalent to a partitioned matrix

for

1, ... n.

In order to remove the singularity property for the simple problem, we must prescribe some of the displacements U1 ... U 1 2 and for the present example the displacements U 1 through U6 are zero because the structure is rigidly held at these points as shown in Fiq.2.9. Because these are zero conditions we can employ 2.3 and delete the row and column associated with each prescribed displacement. This deflated matrix is no longer singular and the problem can now be solved to yield values for the unknown displacements U7 to U12 and values for the unknown reactions P1 to P6.

Boundary.Conditions

Uq

, /

8.. 1 LL

MU

TT~~ TT
222

~~

~~

KZ

-~

~~~~ K77 K8 ~

1 2

SM

K 120U12'

P12)

f igure 2.9

3.

INE DISPLACEMENT

FINITE FLtENUN

FORMULIliAON

the main stepc, which a finite element s~stem Althoutih the direct methond shows all analysis prrobltm certain %ery passes through in achieving a so11lutin to a structural for example. important, aspects of element development cannot he covered by this approach. we have no way of deciding what connection quantities are appropriate to a specific Nor can we compute the load vectors for the elemf-ot, when subjected to ext ernal element . The direct approach does niot provide any infnrm3t ion concern inq the glenerat inn of forces. more qeneral element stiffness matrices. The way around these difficuLJties is to employ one of the oldest techoiques Linfortunaqtely availTable to the appliled mechanics specialist - the variat ional method. This full power. time doies not allow us to explore this Interesting method and show its may he tortunrate since the full intricaces oif the method do rePquire caNreful rrtUdy and can However, if we concentrate on developing arid applying he difficult, to understand. displacement elements only we can exploit this method to achieve the abo\ve stated requirements without ton much strain. For displacement elements the variational formulation devolves down to requiring the potent ial energy Functionral whrichtrcan then he differentisated to yield the solut ion Because we know that the solut inn state for an elastic body is terms of the state. displacement field is that which minimises the potential energy term. The potential as
the

pnoert ial of the

of

energy woirkm

mrp is dire

defined as However hy t the loads

the sum lat ter W thus,

of

external
tire

Inrad,.

this

term

time internal strain energy It arid the is mnre convenientlyv consiLdered

nipprs Il e

I--)

In the strain

the case enerqy.

of as

the simpleIbar usual, by I

shown in Fig.5.1 Wc~at with E Youngs

the external Modulus and

work lth,

is given strailn

b)

Pu

and

I
fiJgure, 3.1 Hence H e T1

U now

al.
this

Pu. term for the only free variable which we hae, namely the

tip

If we displacement

minimise u, then:

EcaZ

dc -dr-

dv

thus .1

Ea Functions

the

smple

equilibrium

solution.

Shape

In constructing an element we don't wish to be concerned with functions along element boundaries and even less do we want to be concerned with what goes on in the interior of an element. What we want is to be able to describe the displacement field in terms of discrete quantities at specific points in the element called nodes. These nodes are normally located un the element boundaries and connect one element to another. If we wish to use only nodal values for displacements then we need functions which describe the displacements at all points within the element and on its boundary in terms of these nodal values. The resulting functions are called shape functions. As an example of a shape function we consider the beam element where the connections are -aken to be the normal displacements and the rotations as shown in Fig.3.2. Taking a cubic interpolation function then w sett ing w w at x = 0 a 1+a 2x-a3 x 2 a4 3

o
w

01
w2 at x = L

We 1

can :

solve 1,2,3,4,

for in

the

a of w ,w ,O ,0 :

terms

where d -T

= =
w can

{w1,01,w2,02}f fla a 2' a 3

at all points on the beam through the

a
and thus expression w where N is the displacement

be defined

Nd given by 3x 2 L2 252/ L {N 1 N 2 N 3 N 4 } 2x3 t13 + x

3

where N N3 x2 3L2 2x3 L 2

2
N x
-

3
+ x L 3

/12, LL

Thus,

L2

3x 2 A L Jx2
r4L _ L
2

L~ 2

"L

F'L

The elements displacement w1 1 , 22

of the vector N, i.e. N i=1,2,3,4 w at all points within fhe element

are shape functions relating in terms of the nodal connection

the qualities

The functions Ni N3 take unit values at one end of the beam nd zero at the other and are, in fact, Hermitian interpolation functions. Thus if we had not wished to go through the derivation process we could have simply noted that we require functions taking unit value at a specified point reducing to zero at the other end of the interval and turned immediately to Hermitian functions. For co-continuity one can use Fagranqian interpolation. 3.2 Finite Element Formulation

In describing the concept of shape functions we have employed displacement functions only and this is maintained in the current section where element stiffness matrices are derived. Thus we only look at the displacement element formulation and leave element types such as equilibrium and hybrid formulation to other texts. This simplifying assumption is made for two reasons. First, the displacement element formulation is by far the most popular approach and is employed by all the major finite element analysis system. Spcond. the principles which underlie the development of displacement finite element stiffness matrices apply to these other types even though the basic functional employed may he different. In order to develop the stiffness matrix for a given displacement finite Ploment wvi assume that we have an approximate form for the diselacement field within the Plement qi.,r, by u. We also assume that we may have body forces F acting within the element and that surface tractions T may be applied over a region of the element surface defined bh 40. Under all these assumptions the potential energy term for an isolated element is nhtained by generalising the potential energy term rp introduced in the first section to Yield:

TV

4f{sf
d by
I
-45-

ff4 '

Fd,

4')IT ds
T

where D is the strain-strain for the element is given

matrix

standing

in

place

of

I and thi

n;train

"niqly dtisity

term

we

may define

the strain-displacement

relationships

by

the matrix

expression

then using the the strain

shape

function c

SNd

energy

becomes

2 and

&Z we define

d (SN f(N)

O(mNd D(BN)dv as the element stiffness matrix

1e DdvI

(3.1)

Turning next to the forces on the element which represents a qeneral isat ion of term in Pu for the bar and using the shape function matrix wr have

the

work

so

.. ....

-...

f~~ ~~
1

1-12 w h o p z'*
p

lI d.

' Nf Td
eqnergy for on isoilated element is

(5. 2 )

hurns the Sp 2

potent mal

given

by

the

expressionI

5np

In or dr t o etaluate U which, in this case, oence

___

thhe unkown nodal requires that we

displacements d we apply the dif'f-erentiate s in terms if

variati on the displacements

kd.'- p;=
p

or

kd

mat ri

tfa% ing develop ed the bas;is of our theory for creating the finite element stiffness k arn d t the consistent load vector p its appropriate to lnok at some simple examples.

5.2.1 1.

Examples Bar Element axial)

OW

figure

3.2

Cosider which we
at niode

the first used in 2 .

two nodal axial earlier sections.

or bar element of length t and cross sectional area At node (1) we have a nodal displacement u1 and u2

A,
1s

want a shape function which allows the displacement to take a value of unity at reducing to zero at node (2) and a second function which takes a value of unity att 2 ' reducing to zero at (1 ). These functions are shown in Fig. 3.2 but could have been ft)kind by demanding a linear variation in u along the bar, i.e.
nrode 1 1 U

We

a ia

Tti kiis NL
li~Au

For

a bar

e:

ax

and

Fj1

[ILI

L
L

I{Iigure

3.3

1-13

FL

ID(BNYAdx

AEL

i'

As

we

had

beforee to demonstrate is applied at x the bar produces body forces forces and how to = 2L/3 a unit only at a calculate in axial force/unit traction point p let directions, length forces in the us assume that a conceotrated a frict ion force caused (q). over the t thc conc-et surfacp rated as lroad force by air

In order c' of 1 ,nits flowIril along

case

of

We have no the traction

as

T applied case of

in) the thus,

N qdx
0

. NTc

as both c and q take unit

'alups;

{}dxL+{d

1.

P2

21/

is P1 = 1/3 and at node (2) P2 Thus the load applied at node (1) technique for generating nodal forces gives rise to a consistent s f-t consistent loads are compared with the actual loads in Fig.3.4. loads on the element are P 1 and P 2 representing forces at the nodes the displacement ut dnd u 2 . 2. Beam Element Bending

2 /3. Thh and for the bar Note that the only in the direction of

Now we turn to the beam bending problem in which we have nodes with From the section the nodal displacement w and the rotation U. quant itips, function matrix is given by

two connection 3.1 the shape

LFigure 3. 5

N
1 or a beam k the strain =a 2

3{ 2
is

+x
given by i.e.

(x
the

+3

YN
change

+2 x}

curvature /ax

x2

= a

BN

--

Foir

a beam

El

1-14 Thus

the

strain

energy

term

for

the

beam

is

given

by

d2w 2 {o ( 12 6L -12 6L 6C 4L2 -6L 2L2 -12 -6l 12 -6L 6L 2L 2 -6L

4

fL 0

Ei

L2J2

As before we now wish to nodal connection quantities,

calculated the nodal forces i.e. we wish to compute

on the element

appropriate

to

the

so

Assuming beam and

a self weight force q/unit volume, a point P load applied at a moment M applied dt x = 2L/ 3 then we have (see Fig.3.6).

the mid-point

of the

"X L,/
we have -I dN,'dx because the work term

x=2L/ for the moment

z

MO

= Mdw/dx

CL
Figure 3.6

If

the beam fL

]s of

rectangular I

section of dNI

width

'A'

and depth

'B'

then

"-NqABdx
o

+ N 2

"",1/2
M
.' P: qAB

1/2

L3 " / M1
+ M

2
12
+ P

L1118 -

1
4

M2

t 2/ 12

1 1-l/

t.3

Stress

Computation concept of stress evaluat ion relies on combining the stress-strain

The underlying
e xprassion

with

the strain-displacement
:-. Bu

expression

BNd

to qgie

each earlier

Of course, this element individually. section, i.e.

is from,

all

done at Using the

the element displacements

level so obtained

that

we compute from the solut

the ion

st re procefs,i

isn, nf

For

the

simple

bar

or

constant

strain

trianqular

elhements the strain

field,

and

thereflru'

the stress field is constant the stress will vary within is required with respect to select nodal values for the interior point and, thereby, There element In but The there 'rules 1) For
i) ii)

throughout the element. In the case of more complex elements the element as is the case with the beam element, some decii'ior where we compute the stress. At the element level one may co-ordinates and obtain nodal stresses. Or one may select, an compute element stresses away from the nodes. of how one treats the variations in stress as one moves

from

is to

also the element.

question

practice a variety of procedures is no substitute for common sense of thumb' are then:Nodal If Stresses th.e strain is varies constant with within

are followed to and the application

'make

sense' of of structural

the

stress output, knowledge.

element

unique at

values interior point (or points)

If the strain and interpolate. Averaging Stresses (unless Alternative ) liarious

co-ordinates,

evaluate

2)

Stress
i)

at given nodes 'stress Jump'). is to average

will

be different

for

different

elements

.*.

average

iil

stresses using these,

over iterative and

collection. methods options are through avaiable. a post-processor

11

'improvement' system would

schemes offer

A moderate system.

F-E

other

4.

ISOPARANETRIC

ELEMENTS matrices In order element and solid dnd to expand which allows structures.

Having looked at the procedure for generating element stiffness consistent load vectors we still lack a range of effective elements. this limited range we shall now examine the widely used isoparametric us to generate curved elements effectivefor membranes, plates, shells The essence of the element formulation approximate displacement field and to define field and the element shape are defined in as N then the approximate displacement field vector p is given by p = Nc where c defines an isoparametric is shown in Fiq.4.1 where posit ion vectors of the nodes 1, 2, 3, 4.

is to use a shape function to define the the element shape. Thus both the displacement lakino the shape function terms of nodal values. u given by u = Nd. Consequently the position the nodal position co-ordinates. An example of the position p is defined in terms of the

F igure 4. 1

'4.

Ax i al1

one-dimens ional I)

Co

1 tar

[ I tmenfs

r iinot riu devf ]l)pi ng i s rof)al i' (I o-or( r rit Ps in or l ot r il L-ustomer y to u se nat-itaL It is for our ore-dim-nsmijo)nal probhlm, 1 v1P vPluos t1. inat Ps range formulat ions; such co-ord fit th e bar. UsJing the ubual regardless ot the length Fig.4.2, we use t1, iliustrated in u we have Pcomponent for the field linear displacement

with

N.

Q-

={u}
0 2j

S-4 1
X" Li,

LL/2,
Figure 4.2 1 the element is to x2 with a total actually defined in the length of L. Thus a point

Although the co-ordinate t ranges of at x1 and continuing x-co-ordinate starting within the element is given by

again N

--

~-~

and

{}
2 du T-BNd s energy 2 term. for the bar is

Thus

The potential

I
TI

-fV-Ad -T1A,, jL -1FfuAdx

0
-

=
0

E1ud.

where A is the bar

cross-section area.

Substituting

for

E and u

gives

TV1

7(RTb-K)d
_

LVTRA
fL (I

or

AE

1 I t(BN)t (n)dJd,

dtNtFJd

f-1 d

TTJdE

(,4.1)

with,

in

this

case, dx

and

d( d'

dN --d
71s-dt

x2 2 1 :

, p

--

h~~~~~ [1 il

4p F. d

=-

Td

and
d t nat

w t b I

t r ais t 0 ru Ad bIs hI ti'to-noded as shown i n

t o) t he
formuIia IF i. 4 .

0-o0r

4 -nodi'rt)

t 10 of)'an he general1 isd toIu irc ILAPite nor any ofther h ighe r order Pelemenit.

;~iitItCi

f-iuutd

uI Ub C

~--Ip:
Liradrat i c

-9---

-t

0S-~

:1

cu oh c figure 4.3

Thle nor)1 differences are that the order of the stiffness matrix generated from the, p o tent t:IaI e n Ergq f u nct 1 onal1 4 .1 increases and the form J also etianges if thei nodes art- rot e q u id ist:ant about 0. These higher order shape t Unict inns are generateFd f rom t tie I agranqian Interpolat ion funct ions giv~en by the formula

-i.2

Isioparamefr i c

I Ilemetit s

in

I wo

and

TI rer'-Dimenstutins

w i tth

r oF 'onIIt tir1u It

The sa meI p r i nc i pIe s e mpInoy p ahbu to ogenePrajteP ax IalI eIe men It s iar h nPe X tet fIrdtPd trIit 1W,I 1 im e nst1on s w it ho0Ut ditff ICUlIt~ loi t his case we use twii natuJra'l Or mnt r Ions3ic c n- ,riiiri1iia t' wh cti are used to map t hre Ieemevn t nrnt ' rot' ivI ti unoItI -letig Ii qP sidefs . I f w e [ in SI der IlemePn ts mapped unt o the unOIt squtare wt ef it-ame thi' t -il I irclemenrts f emuerg'- as ftis-f,

-1k3,

-1

'7

-I20

Y35 .

13-

jI

iit'] t

Quiratrat Ir

Uluh Ic

W, sii'e t he o rjar~t I c of h i1 o rtrI' ordfttr P-1 ennui~ ; I low ii-; t ni model erur ed troundarte torit (it ijeifri-rt f- int ernal nodres wh ir-T must ti irrirridetise ruT. Thefse el cmePn ts uSeL th11e :ig q I rqi ig air iiin t etIp ol IHt o iiit finc' I Oni. huit muIL It I P I t 1i 0e t Ti0er I t he ('Iiot , h nU t Ironi f r OiM I' ar Tif 01irit 10a1t. I ir e,,ample the shape fitiicf iirii; f (i If tie Ini treat eimeit I ease q I er-1tiy

1i (. I

I I

TT

1I-n

-TT

Tn +
o iitier i i at r frhI s c I aiss it hivtin' i t er I Ii i firndeps anidt e I erisertI t hisie art'F h

A I t horigti I sq r stii I an f orn- t I onis :i r a use fu ft I wi a iso s; I tIle t ii c r et It e , dIt I( r t-I c'I Pm, ri It ! wthrit i i f ri 1nut m r I s. rrn e d 'se(r en d I p It y ' e I mi'n

In t h nineP d i metvrr S i ri I Ca S P WI-TIIch t weP e xsi rin iinn ihos r. I )mi i tr)e i-or0 i- dJi r ia t e sr y s;tem t oi arun T tie h, I t isi' t- tI i I II t It' I (I i if t m (I wthr r eh Iis 8 t UrFnt i ont o it x ;unit tto-~ri tf, fi' it'r i a i r-ir

I ti
ii

Ti, prIi tic i tIle o f t ariri sfori pm tIn o I tr . Co irn i dI r a sipr'cI f ic ti 1 h i ! t uric t 1 0i i1ai n b tC w IIttPn
ii

I-IS

3(11 3u

i;

an

a an

Figure 4.5 where is the .acobian matrix. i Since we know the terms au/ax, au/ay and require u/a30, Au An then the J inverse of 2 is required. This creates no real prohlem since FE systems are able to use the same inversion routine for both this task and the inversion of the stiffness matrix. However the values of the coefficients in I depnds on the ;ize, shape and orientat ion of the element. Elements which are mis-shapen can give rise to problems when the Jacobian matrix is inverted. In extreme cases the inversion process may break down more often, however, the element does nut bhavpe in the manner anticipated by the user. The shape functions N(s,n) can be generated and the stiffness matrix and consistent loads generated using 5i.l) and (3.2) and applying the appropriate transformation the inverse Jacobian. As in the one-dimensional case the integration variables and limits must be transformed but inthis case the term J which appeared in 4.1 is now the determinant of the Jacobean. All this complexity inevitably requires that the integration required by (3.K and t3.2) are performed numerically. Usually this task is performed using Gaussian inteqration where values of the function being integrated are taken at various sample points within the element, multiplied by a pre-determined weight and then summed. The sample points for a four quadrilateral element using a 3rd order (4x3) Gaussian integration rule are shown in Fiq.4.5. The concept which we have developed above is clearly part of a general process which can be extended to three-dimensions. In this way 'brick' or 'cubical' elements can be generated with side given by the elements displayed in Fig.4.4 or their serendipity counterparts. Because the principles are identical to those explained earlier, and the details of the formulation are complex, a description of 3-dimensionsal elements is omitted from the present course. 5 bphy nd PLATES AND SHELLS and shells is forms which

merit

A full consideration of the finite element analysis of thin plates the scope of the present course but these are important structural a hrief examinat ion.

Taking, first, the flat plate, the standard notation for moments, shear forces, shear forces and displacements are shown in F ig.n .1. If we take the usual Kirchoff assumptitn that plane sections remain plane the displacement field throughout thp plate is qix en hN
3w

z -1-

10v

with

w a;s

shown

in

gq. 5.2.

The

result ing strain

field

is

then

wawa

23

'2

andS i

we w

have, N

as usual,. a shape f h mncit

funct ion

N(x,y)

then

R oed

Figure 5.1 plate these are given by aw/Ay. The stiffness

whtere di is a fart or of nrodal connect ion quant ities, f or the flat the nodal values of the displacement w and the derivatives AWa/Ax, matrix can now he computed in the usual way sic: = 'tA I DF'NiD W IM'-

where h r

epresent,

the t

ri gidity nudatl load

matrix of

the

element qeneral

and

V its

volume. to give, for She

Ithe croisist ''ot ati, rilhbot ute I' l H'on

vector can he

,id as "sual

I-d

d'

Surftace
and for prescribed shear and moments on edges t= b

nd

rids

Figure

5.2

where ds is an along the edge happen to line

element (if length along the whilst V is the prescribed up with t~e x-y coordinates

edge and M is the prescribed Kirchoff s~ear. If the edges these terms become

normal of the

moment element

,M

with

Qx

I
with N

Mx,

Iwo typps of formulation have been used one which directly exploits the equat ions qgien above, the other using the brick or cubical elements outlined earlier. In the case of elements directly manipulating the Kirchoff theory equations difficulties were encounte-red in achieving conformability and, as a result, recourse was made to the hybrid formulat ion to create triangular and quadri lateral1 elPments. In additioon to the creat ion of disp Iacement and hybr id elements, there has also been several pure equiI 1ibrium formulat ions developed. The use of brick elements in this and reducing it to a 2-dimensional plate we havPe shape functions for w, 0 and 0 W = context involves as shown schematically , i.e. =NO taking a in 3-dimensionral element Fig .5.3. In this case

Nd,

Where Ox and was originally, U 7

Oy

are nodal values normal to the plate and V

x

for

the terms mid-surface,

Ox, Oy which By putting

are

rotations

of

linte

that

-/Ox

-zOy

we mio procPed through the normal isoparametrir formulation to produce at isoparairtric plate element. This formulational so allows us either to impose the Kirchotf hypfthesin and obtain a 'thin' plate element or to relax this and create a Mindlin 'thick' ilate element. However, in both cases the integration rules applied through the thicknress rI(' di fferP nt , that is, of reduced order to those tused ' in-plane' . Care must be t aker t i) iflmtini such unwanted phenomena as 'parasitic' shear. These difficulties occur because this procedure for generating plate elemen s is mimicing the orirlinal approach adoptid in thtn dpevelopment of plate theory where the three-dimensional elasticitv theor\ is sav temrnt utas I , reduced to two-dimensions. During the last century this procedure gave rise to many problems before eventually being resolved by Kirchoff and othiers. It is, thoerefore, rnot surprising that the numerically equivalent procedure of reducing a three-d i netrisi l hrr)ct element down to a standard flat ptlate element gives rise to problems. The tir 'ss; , t 'massaging' elements, part icularly with respect to prefrent ial integration., riprefseni ts ; hF'iirist ic approach whicht is almost universally adopted by developers of this t,) ,' of element in anr attempt to achiePe a rf- asonalb Ie leve of performance. Ht'csaItse of this manipulat Inn prncess it Is often ext remely difficult to otitain sri 'XPIlnut dtf irit in, .) fit the internal mathemat icaI structure of these elements. As a result It is Iimp ,rtarn th;iI '1iOmt' f orm of va I idat i o chieck Is carried out bePfr) these elements ar' ' ,it d it i I thf, s,)|Iit inn of real nal',si s prohlPms. thus far we hatae only cronsidprPei fhr' pure becnding case tfor the ploteprbti em. t-m wish to incorporate memliran, tpehav ioiur tish anI tie h-achie ved ;i st r;ight tiorward mnrlroi t)\ adding the appropriate components to ther st iffness formii-'lt inn. It the d(tnrmat iii l, t iF smals I enough for the, Ilnrie r tht ore , tri apply thrs.' do iii t coupI' w(' h I TI e bfout Fl tr o 1'm,' given a tase,. the retsuljt irrg st I t tie ;s mat Ix is dP(otJplI td wit I respect to th dritrilg oid ,;t retching tprms,. Hlnfrortuniately, this d (cnoipleri syste m does not apply itI tite I-s', f it i ' h,''l I,; ixtiri' a cotpled bending and it retcrhinq act ion is an Integral part of the s Tt r tiial) h1titi I ' to Ihis has seri ius impl inat i 'ris fir t a f niii t I' e I emepit apprr)x i mat ior t n t ti I ii hti,' I I t1 'ii i I ,iredrr to i Iu(st rate thte maint point 5 we tske f a it tbI c'-curi 't shi I strI ' ;is iitt, I I lt ifi '.It Irn
I

.".4 a ( I and

w ith

ani l r,

trihrjiror

;I

-ir i

rr r

3,
t

ra r

r vat ru

It'hi nriq f

t ri'a

( dr f

I r td

iit

I ,I v m t lris; o t

2 ni t) ti' bo 't I Ip I a1 ci'

rni'

;thPeI I midit in t ;uid It i

,iti it

ot -'

Ii -,

I',

'I

-2

1 u2
ct

T32 a
U2 (1 1 3a2 '+1

21;) O.LOu2

2)

12 1l

22

1 a 22 a2 12

11

1 aI

12)

12

2
)t2 0

l, aa2
1

?,
1 02 i gure 5.4

2a

12 1l a
1

with a,, I? the coetflctelP t s otf the first fUtidamental form of tihe skirface. u_ u, J arp-ro~mp,)rnerit% s, f displaceme.nt along the eo-o)rcliratp tjirpctions , disol~c rnt a atIo Iongt} ts, he normal t o R t he R s-hel are, the forms r';pe ctIe mem rot a2 ,out Sh wards I1rt 1( . '. -reIsLurf the radiui of cur% at 0 1'e q ort ir c" w It h R 1 th11e ra dius , 21: , i f a22l2 aa 2 de( ,U)u I-d rut t hte Kirrhof Jr ryati pl' t h en de, t 1 ed in f t tr) r c 1on . Ih' 2~ Rc1 If hn~pnthesis, is tprms 122 ot t he
S?
rain

lhe quantities a ndc w i s t he o-, J a Ie t h o. the median

iri~ oled

an d CLur\atLiJr(-s deftined above are a coup lt ng appears because t h + by

d isp Ia cepmplt s

J in it

commont
N

tor Iopl iw oenm riede thafe

121

lts

to

rid

ter

la

12
D
-

h 2

12

21 Df the
resulIt

where h 1 i
1 he

kh ' t he soefIIt hiciriss

membrane and bend ing

flretxura
an ts for

idamentalfr
i sot rop ic

ttesrac.
materials, associated

Teg
with

ti
thIS

Ni1

h 2

(11

Vc 22)

M I)

D~kll

vk 22)

N22

%1_2D :

<22

V1l 1

,EM

M22

~k2 2
D 1 -

)k 1klt

Nl

Z:

I2h2 - V)

Ft

M 2

\) )

12

fh 5.1211-v

),'

Yin.i's i
vector M Nnn R n1

odmelus
may be

and v Poisspn's
constructed

rat

ao. gthe boundary

an arbitrary

conditions

from which the

-ond sistth

load

are,

for

e-dqe,

Ntin

:tn

1-2 1

t3+

Mo vw

F ig ure 5 .6

Whorir oi n al thre brunidar; r u vatu r P

co-, 11i1 ht curve as

"son it b sho wo in

moi an nour fa P t ig. S.r; ttn.

wt i uch R, ft

air' r specrt v P I no rmal I f and a lung are the rorrPsporindinq radii of

the cent ral problem of modelling a thin shelf element is now expoosed. Unolike the linear theort of flat paltes the equations deining the strain measures, taken in conjunction with the equat ions specifying the rotations. N, ivi1,2, 3 after the imposit ion of the K i rhoff * and the form Hf the boundary equat ion show that a decoupld tienidinog and st retchinog
at iffness matric is not possible. The problem would be overcome if we couild define the

couples 0, and the displacements u1 . uf and w separately. However, this is not possible if a pure displacement approach is folowed anid alterat ives have been sought. The most popular is that due to the late Brns Irons and knownw as the seini-loof element. Tbis requires that the corner and mid-side nodes require conner-iion priant it ites u11 . uV,. w and at the loot nodes continuiuty of 6,is required; as shnwn in Fiq.r.7. Thus we have iuhieved the (tesired disconnect ion btefween displacements arnd rotations. Or iginial ly this 'leserit was derived on heuristic prioc Pipes from a set of~ stacked serendipity meintraire -leme"Ir but more recent work hasa shown thtia it is a tiytriit.

An ,rltprnat iv, or Apirrh similii to thit r'rplrrvi'r witth f lat plates Mtirre a 5-(timeisiiinal briu-k olomrr~nt us 1-eduro-e down to two dimr'nsiorral is, also used with thin stnrl Is. Rv nosing reduced integral ion andu oii in-r dev ices an at tempt is made to re-croateP a Kirchoff like shelf1 rmulat iii through heurist ic numerical means. This thackers' approach lii shel eimerits can somet imen; work ivt remelv well hut it PI is fraught with many pit -tal Is. nnric ai;inr thi. impoirtanice of val idat ion ct~reks is seen as a cent rat pillar in cresttuni some torin" ut coriidnice iii ele-ments where ttu inrt.rnal thneory,. on which their terivat ino in. based iq compl'tely maskeit Iy irumerical manipnulat ion.

6.

CONVf RM1NC
We

AND ACCURACY

OF

RFSU[ 15

element

%,me

wanit ti tie wn,hire as possible that the procedure we hrave followed in derivinq and qnliut urn mt hinds lead toi the correct solution arid to this end we want ti have rules to rirdi' irs. But, first, we need tri assess the kind rif so~lut inn we are likely

ti.1

tqruilitrrrrm

arid Compatibility element we can iexpect the follorwing:

For a displacement I' ftrio

ihir ruin is nut unless we have
i

uriralIly sat is fied ins idi' srn element low grante elements such as constant st rain bouindar ies

triangles

2'

t
-

iui

Iihriris oiften

is ont sat isfited across element a tgooid gouide toi acri rat-y
nor rdsal fnrc t -'mnrme i-rnd itionr
iit

V-

t piii
-

hir iiim ii t hr; is ar

as s is atif ied

iiprised

Lii

t girlthiurtm 4 a ui il tompati tilrIit

is s~atistfied i-herk an we y i

tietween applied s~hall sopr later with iii I

loads

and

react urns,

'r 6n

satalisrf ied

m nt a as tat isfed
that intiiie--lI'me-ni

tiIv htin Ia'ern' "Ipimi'its0 iirr acr s elIemeni t tioindirit r s shou t ;lit he I rrp at itii - I iriuilt ditn'iIan ,mr'rrt n' I meit hayve beeini diiv irti iin sucth a way 1 -mir ihility 14 virlaiteit, tthis shtouild tie avuridnit if pirasilale.

I iiifjri cNitis

ui I i t b

s if tisf

eI

o2

e rgerMie Clurr'%

flowi WI'w (,;n tlow t'11ioi f init e eleiment solut Jon We can %ow. t hatI we know what k ind i f ( <tOifI s3oIut iitrr d oets Ifti(Ieedilrol. ensure that 'jar t he p ronperIt i es which will at tempt t i li1s t T h at is we wi1s h t o ho assured that t he- formulat o n i s inut hi th atI . w'. t o the c or re ct afn sw e r. oIo n ica Ilv con v ergqe tio t he ro rr e ct answer at le isst friom ;iri monut rePf in e t he F -f mesh we will

energy v 1ew cond it i onis: 1'

pofint .

Ini order

to

ach ieve

t h is

requ irement

we s ho ulId sa tijs fy

the f

f olIo w ingq

Ad(mi1s si1bl1e

Shape

F Unct- ions:

The shape functi1o ns wh ich we use on the interior of the finite eilement Most heThus they must satisfy the natural ad m is s ible in t he sense defined earlier. boundary condit ions of the problem both at structural boundaries and across eleme-nt If the underlying differential equations are of order 2 m in their boundaries. de r ivat ives the corresponding variation functional Tin our case the pot ent ial1 energy. and boundary conditions of order m-l (.eP. beam m will1 haveP der ivat ives of order 2 2 4 4 boundary conditions =91 (dw/ds) and w). =P, P.E. t: fld w/,dx tld w'dx to handle a structural formulation with derivatives in the Thus for an element w itIh different ial equat Ion of order 2 m it must hat e an assumed di splacement field Cm cont inuJous on the inferior and be CmtI continuous across element boundaries. 21 Fxact Recovery Solut ions:

In essence th is is af constant strain condition and the element should be able To for the case of simple elements with simple polynomial recover it exactlIy, d isplIacemenit fielIds, such as the constant strain triangle, this fact. can be ,s I ab)I i s;hedd itr cc I. I In the case of more c om pl1ex el1em entsa such as d rpec t cv alI at ion it is not av ailable arid we' Must turn to the 'patch test''
f ic ioun if Sat jtic 4 R i g i d ttrd

Modes elements limit are now being

used put they creaqtr'

Iitrmr hifft p
11;"iiii ilr I) " 't I iCi

'Itirrt;-nnciirformirrg

isrli wi'ifiirnririij lII I

nI r' I 1;" tf
,

Iii

the
,'I;

I .'I-

no lireforlr f d ibr ect ion.

m Imi lI

rliof ihe mr'

iirr,)pIle'tr': thalt t heF I t Irnnmiula ciritfairins al tfre te-rm s up to t he rt5pec ItfIr' d

"~~~~''

"
II II

"rpIto udaIC '!a ;o Ii'h,

pri IV :af

a2
rifI en

a3

4v

2 2 a +ay 6~
v inoIst f, c nit n Iit rn

aIf; Ix rusi no rompi It i' Iii) sr' ti~ssd .

I -sid,; I

elI Pesrr t a wr i rh

are ;nv'iii;

hu

i it

Ie';ii I I !s*

avariety oF woynt in whicfi a f iit Il We' sha 1 1 1ooik at twii tritl iI

Im

;irralmns is
s~' .

canl hi'

persuaded

toi

acu r41

onIrrcrr: I-jIi-i iiii atl'3 J iiinfn W icti WillI I; if iCtuJri wt f I rill' f lirP we rieed ft0 mode I af I - I ii;f' I i tin o d tihe ''rig ire'' e I Ien ''ii, Ir e motfIe ''i ti'h W I), t ,S i , I f' - ir' I i . Iii u(jl r ie I r t nr ri etrin I ofIc . t Uir a I p roup er t 1 0es. r t-f ir I hifv e AIioi r a nd( st rifr irs atiriro tIhP ' t s of -fk'' av';iimp t )i ITtre nod(I'f numtiers et c. propeli I ie's.,i I fr e elementI ty pe elPIasE;t ii t, l- ;e i cI f-ir dii Ifiii, l ir'' (isp Iat-emeirt r; eftc . wtiriif it r'-'L ro f o at.; -'o'iI II ri (I -f aria Il/ ii I'; W I I I gj I P r I'; Ithna so rto tiqFgnePralI re a I 5 If rIicu r o. rur ncII I if ffi' tit 1 hWiirliI ( actul i tfnn I hop tri reue ori I canI d i'ri'umafatie a 'It airif! In tir joit tifr ,,r e ,rir. (rIur iicntil' I ri! toit u -d I enf s wi mi gift warrt t tr I- - i sir (I ri t 'ii'r t ima I' i fI~~~~~~~~~l'~~~~ speci1alI f lI give lIVPtr frihIe and requ ire ii'e I I rk fi -uniirif ,ii.;i (tifir e I,, inure iIrniit. ift f iritI o .
lI I f u'' Ii ra I T, IThu'si i r tI rrf fi itl ,irigq af me'tui ho wi ft tent resoIj t s3 (I tin r iri iiiri it I I ';ilt
fil r,

11 Jin I irri, ' Iot ,i II , hrtit

CSri i-,

hir r-Porrri

11(

ofI trers

r''gi fi reP tsf

U~ Sar 0s of t he I-F Pf1 tP ingq a nd c'n r rePIaf tingq

I' un n (I t i

o n irig

*t

means that c hangqe s i n t hr( cirl,'IftI'ir'renf I s !;f it ffre;s, mat rix fille of rri o I o II I1- ritnit t tI large ichangtes in Itfil' pjIfd lrrads can Cause 5 111 to ;iftp 11 I rigqea m at ri1x iir s m allI ifa irctf'ss' tief tif ia I ditopIIat- i mefint v toc tro r tiitrt a inePd F riom I he so 1f t 1i irrr )pr I ' jen t a, oiI *o I e s matI ri x thl orms r i rr fhl at i f fiine filt ri-tr whenlri h ittI-uni'iriii oninirg p e ot I I I h 'L t str It fc fr(Ioh I I 0 r 'if iv I r t t rie rrirtf(11 t ni Itt I' afr p. I f' I vs if o' if i I fe r r niti's I ti I fil'i r uiiirir r Ii ra" 1i r1
tIlI')

I-23

Itr incat ion e ror i nher0ent in digital computers. The phenomena Cano also he, o i oduc,'d whe' n ai reqgion o f hoiLh t ti ffness is suarrou 0nd0ped by a re gion of low stiff ne ss. It a I So occurs in1 thin shell problems where there is a major numerical difference et wepil bendinrgl anrod membrane strain enerqies. In theory . and in practice when serious the condition number of the stiffness hb scaling the stiffness matrix with t bus K
=

ill-cfnnditioning matrix can be respect to the

problems are anticipated, checked. This is first done maximum diagonal coefficient

51-g
diagonal Wmin)

with 5
matrix. the

1,/IX
The maximum condition and minimum eigenvalues number C(K) is then of K. defined are as then

where found

is a (Xmax, C&KI

and

spectral

zmax/Xmin number with d digits then the results computed are

If the accurate

computer represents a to S digits where, S Thus, S = d-log1 for thin C)K( shells

('(K

may

equal

1012

then

d-12 word length gii s d t 15 then the results are only accurate to one

and sai 7. 7. 1

if

the

nificaot

f iiure.

NONLINIAR

BEHAVIOUR

loot rooduc t 10in

Otiir phi losopioht tohrouiighout the course has heen too outl ine' thoe mairo teatures of finite e'lemeots with out qi irq tht' deta lis of the theory or methoods employed. This is particularly tho' case with toe iont-l iooear arnalyes of structures which is coomplex arid yv rio means c-omP[oltely understoood. %Peu rtht ]Ps' s it is an important aspPct at the design of structures and emphasis on effi cienot struictures is pushing many enoginoeer ing disc iplines, which have tradlit ionally r-elies on linear analysis, tuI consider rioo-Iinear h-hatoa nir. %on -lirearity caoo oi'ccur because tthe material itself 'xtoitoites a oon-Ilin ar b0ha01 iour ur e-cause the ogeometrio- mopmeont of the sttructure is larqg e'nouogth to c'auise crossro pi00n004 between strain fields. \aturall,,
r0000-1 . inr

the
's

'geometri c
7.2

tirst it . . inrearit.

of tthese Is ij termed 'material' To I he' soei t ouch onoibtoth 1 0al we

,)no,-Iuo,earits ahpto't n

aid

the

second

G;eometric In the rest. strain

Nun-I

using and lhe

order to keep lifte simple we illuosttrate the mait thptpro at qoomptrirc non -lin warity bar eleme' t Illustrated in Iqi 7. 1. Here we sOe, a bar originaIly of lenqth Z ing along the x-axis which is both rotated and distorted tr a new length +dE. -. in the deformed bar is cle'arly. E d1,/S , tht, iomp0 onent c, is u0, tout

F igure 7. 1

I
the

M
It the displacemnt rotation V: is not very large then we can cofmpute tto vloi ot 6 io

terms

of

IZ'2

V2

1v2
21

1.2

hence

.1.

1-24

Thus

cx

x2
=f

v )

and

in

the

limit du 1 fd' 2

If we now regard this as bar will have already been strained case the strain will, therefore, load increments cox and the new total
t~ 0 tC. E: =k

one

step in an incremental deformation process (unless this is the first increment). In consist of two parts, the strain accumulated strain increment ex thus

then the the general from previous

If we want to move on to comput inq the st iffriess linear so that we can applN Hookes law and the potential element of total length L final

matrix we recall that energy term becomes,

the for

material a bar

is

10
f inal1
where E P U are are Is the original the the loads incremental

llde

and

incremental

strain

displacements

laking

the

strain

energy

term

first

we

have

(
ao

d fcdc j> o L x

x ad

co

(
this

[L

dx

L f
0

c c

c x

dx

and,

if

we

neglect

small

order

terms,

term

becomes:

I
2 0

AE(do At u)v

f 0

(dY (7d nJ

dx

+
1)

AtE

do -

dx

where

A is

the

bar the

cross-sect nodal

ional displacements

area. as indicated in Fig.7.1, then our strain energy term

Taking hecromes:

AE

(l

-U

(u'

c JVI
V2 -

AL 0V
AEco x
+--

2L

u2

If we observe we note that load moving that load we start pfinal

that the through

AEELn/L z P , the load being applied at the beginning of the increment term in the above energy expression is the work done by the initial the increment of displacement 01 - u2. We are, therefore, assuming with an applied load PO with an intial strain cax, finish with an applied with a final strain Cfinal and ul, u2, V1, V2 art the increments of last

displacement. We now suhst terms of U,, U2tute VI, these V2 we into haye the form for

rp and

the

proceed

to

differentiate

this

in

p
, -

1 k< -

S1-25

where

At A1

po

-1

is u1. and

the vector u2, V1, Vz

of

incremental

displacements

P the vector

of

incremental

loads

(Pfinal-p.)

The term K is the normal linear stiffness matrix and K 1 a geometric stiffness matrix which is considered not to vary throughout the load increment. It may be noted that a whole variety of assumptions have been made in obtaining these equations and other interpretations would give rise to alternative geometric stiffness matrices, though the overall principle would remain the same. The solution procedure requires that the form

(K

-~ K +

P p

is solved repeatedly becomes u\i) the itf the ith increment of

with K) reformulated at each step. Thus for a given increment 'i'u increment of the displacement vector P becomes AP(iW = ( )_p 1-l) the load vector. Hence the full solution-to the problem then becomes

total

7u(i)

and

for the

total

load _A

tota I o

This represents the basic approach to the solution of geometricalIy non-linear structures though the assumptions made in this particular example may be too restrictive for highly non-linear problems. A more general attack using the full tagrangian strain tensor loads to the form:
(I)

(K

(I)

K (I))-

p(I)

where the stiffness matrices K and K have first and second degree terms in the gradiemts of the incremental displacemerl vecto?. Oespite this added complexity the philosophy outlined above is clearly preserved. Whichever approach is adopted the numerical solution process is the same and may involve the Newton-Raphson method or some acceptable alternative. 7.3 Material Non-Linearity

The underlying concept behind material non-linearity is that the relationship between stress and strain is non-linear as shown in Fig.7.2. This may be non-linear elastic in which case unloading follows the same curve as that plotted on the loading cycle, i.e. curve A. Or if some 'plastic' deformation takes place then the unloading curve 8 is different from the loading curve A. In wishing to follow a curve like A we observe that the stiffness matrix is a function of a parameter which we will take as some form of representative, stress O3 though other parameters may be more appropriate to certain classes of problem. Thus we have that

1-2h
the nodal loads on a structure P are related to the nodal dI(iplarf'melft I tv :

K(Ou

0.

zA

5
_1-01X
fiqure

7.2

process

For to

a given final load vector Pt we shall have need for some form of iterative allow us to follow the non-linear behaviour depicted by curve A. forward approach thus 1 (i-1) ) p is simply to repeatedly solve the equation for

The most straight given values of stresses (1)

-I k

(o

Thus we start with the normal linear form for k, solve for o using o DBu compute (K(o) and re-employ this equation to create a new set of values for o and The load applied P is the final load pt which the structure is assumed to carry.

then so forth.

Unfortunately, this simple procedure sometimes fails to converge and a more stable approach is required. A variety of techniques are employed but all work on the basic premise that the stresses used in computing the stiffness should be a more accurate representation of the tress field in the stru ture for a given step in the iteration. Thus we try touse k(ozt i rather than k(o(i-I)) where the unknown o(i) is estimated from the known oai-1). For example, a first-order Taylor expansion could be used:
o(i) =

(i-i)

fashion that

This requires to the final

that load

we only pt. In

increment the order to fill

load and thus proceed in a step-wise in the terms of this expression we note

ac

_3

au u 0.'.
rp

= -p

with anda

DBu -

now

so,

for

AP
a~i

=
=

P(i)
E~-)

p (i-I)
D(ci-lBK-1(a

we have
-)l(P~i _pi-

and we may ( (i)_u(i

now ) 1)

incrementally update _

the displacements:-

(i--)

Once again we may start from the linear solution and proceed equations repeatedly until the final load Pt is reached.

by

employing

the

above set

of

This broad approach can be used for a range of non-linear applications; plastically, creep etc. In these cases special procedures can be used which take advantage of the specific behaviour being modelled. For example in the case of the elastie-plastic material model the elastic and plastic components can be divided out and treated separately. In this case the computational efficiency and stability of the iterative solution procedures may be improved. However, added complexities occur in realistic cases because certain parts of the structure may be unloading during the incremental loading process. In these situations great care is needed in tracking the loading history if acceptable accuracy is to be achieved.

8.
8.1

VIBRATION

PROBLEMS

AND 1-4

SOLUTIONS

I nt roduct ion So far can we he have able only considered 'als ' lyI do I.d n iw it . qi the so luto ion of static rlit -I 'T t nd thit V.ti f We now want tri fvt With time. w i lI rtt, w1l to ibidt protblems suhtjict structural des.ign , either as sttandard %ihi it i iq pr AIl m-n, I

rise
so that

to

responses
we

which

do
to

not Vary
deal with

anP
as 8.2

%very common
mitre complex fti ite We i

inm aircraft
aeroelast ic

structural
responses.

Element by

Tormualtion the taqranqe funct ion I for a dv riamnii al sst t'ii ac,

begin = I- T

defining

ip again is the potent ial energy and I is the kinetic eerPy. tor the moment we dissipat ive forces. With this funct ion we i-an now proceed to oibtain the appropriate variational principle which allows us to apply the displacement finite element method to dynamical systems. This is called laqrange's principle and slates: Of all possible time histories of displacement states which satisfy the compatibility equatinns and the constraints or the kinematic boundary condit ions and which sat ist the condilt ions at in itial and final times it1 and t2), the history correspondilng to the actual solut ion makes the Laqranqian functional a minimum: where

"imit

any

This t2

implies,

6
t1 now with

1 dt

I the

. Tlq,g ' and, dynamic displacement

thus,

L fieid

g dlq f4' where q is thte within the sitrup ctnre.

displac,-mi-nt Thus

field

associated

t dt z h(t

t -dl =[

1 d

t
It

d-a 5)6~

tI

TIhui
1t

It

wP

sat liSt v the

0 at tI

i nit ial t1

and t

f inral = t

boti rita rP c t 'itithdit d itio n ,

i .

e.

Rq

and when

11

m!

or l

q*

at

and

t2

,t

that

mj

is

the

momentum. tn is met t ht n t he var inat inal principle demands

th at it (tAl

Assiumi og that fhtis boundary cnndit arnd el s a t i s f y t tie c ortl i t i on )i

aaS-

aIf we

I
notiw intronduce a dissipat ioni func't int

t thiet

thtie principle

reqqutir

d (of > 1 dt 1 ,Q, - )'j

aft
* 11

Irnq

Sp

If I :

IF Ir t P p6 6 'dV

lemeI)t

I aId R arr

rlIvern hy

-T

LdV 6J'

a(Id

ii

has
P

already

been

discussed.
procedure d and for a use the displacement shape function finite matrix element we N to give take a vector of

iodal

foillowing displacement

our usual variables

u whe-re N has C-ertaln fluid

Nd
no components formulations). which are Thus functions of time (though 'time' elements are taken in

0a)

T( Ncl)dV

ga -

md

a ca
called the consistent mass and dissipation

ad

m and

are

matrices,

where

fe

Ndr*

and

f
level

NdV

recal

I Ing

that

at

the

element

1r -I-2

-1-p

thnn

the

elemnrtal t3
-

lagrangian

funct ion

is

ivern

hb

I
mM
-

d I(

S1
-

22 Rather t hat : than

a-

dkd

d p

work

at

the

element

we

assume

that

we

have

assembled

up

the

global

system

so

0 t41J -

UK

kg
R(g) R

2
2-

where U are dissipation Where,

the globai nodal displacements, matriices with P the global

load

MKC, vector.

the

global

mass,

stiffness

and

i=1

7
having our variat n

.
i:1

:I=

i=1

for

an F-[.

model

elements ional

and principles

m nodes at the global level requires

Applying

alr

1-29

If 8.i

there

is

no dissipation

the matrix C is

omitted.

Mass Matrices

The 'consistent ' mass matrix is so called because it is consistent with the stiffness matrix, employing the same shape function. As an example, consider the simpler bar element demonstrated earlier, then the displacement for this element is u where Nd

The consistent

mass matrix

is

then given by

the

expression

x-

)(X,/[

dl

where A is

the bar

cross-sectional

area.

Thus

In

the case

of the

cubic displacement

field

for the beam bending

where

{T-

(.

2.

7)

1t 56
-

22L
4 1l2

54
1 3t

-1 it,
- 3L2 I

~
2-

2a 2 2

54 -13L

131 - 512

156 -22L

-22L 41

Although the 'consistent' formualtion represents a logical method for generating mass matrices it is not the only approach. An alternatiie is the so-called lumped mass matrix where a certain amount of structural mass that surrcunds a given node is assumed to he concentrated or lumped at that node. In the case where there are both rotational and translatinnal components to the displacement fields the rotational part is sometimes neglected. Whilst the consistent matrix is usually fully ropolated the lumped matrix is
diago~nal.,

Thus,

in

the

case

of

the

axial

bar

the

total

mass

is

pAt

and

the

lumped

mass

matrix

t h "n ,

frnF the hbeam

the' total

ma';'; I;

the

same

and

the

lumped matrix

12

I - 3FF

I II t

rl t II ;

F I It I

FF1-t-t 1

1 i,

II ;

wh i c h

iS

s i

nio

lI
I) ns n Ana lIv sI vd t t'rerf I Fri tr Ft im f IH i F i ,c
II

8..4

F l)is

vee

ib ra it

tui, b iriq
osc i a I I1ast i
4-

harmrr

ic
FF1

elast iris.

ic- bfidx i n the aisece e Ut tdamp irri art hous rPe ovi nF tierse tF m" fF F iiFn | 1w h a;r

ri,
t q

t F iv
'

kir
hr hF

(1
m' i 1 c SI) IF ifi 1F o

aFn dF t Fik

riq

F;r

I ait t or t hr

Fr i

iti r i t ir I

F' uai e F

1F n

k - r

wtrerre shPe eIgqrPt) remoive

ior

is a \ectri eigenectorr. ioe frir this

of

t he thv 1lneap r

amplitudes Irtf the term w represents alqebrai' c rPI(I'inV

displacemernts u and th e nratural freqreric, rrn

1le

are rt

cal lid thFi rtrrat

w9 e d )rt t

mrid. aid ii
rr)f f'It

pproblem.

In

tthis

Case 3P

ti 1

",;Irue

the sinqulIarity rr f tthe it iffness n at iralI fr equncieps cr rrrs pronrd lrr Soil i1[r I thiIs t orr rUtrrrelem

mat rix tFo r-igi d we reed

tFo

brod,
tFn

obtain a srtritiorr. Ifided degqrees of frotedim. set the dpte~rminant of the

t h,

zh ri)

system

erjqruir

t hi'
F F'Ct tir

t henr
W

qji

v'i

iwi;

tFhr,'

ei

:il.ir';

if

thtr

sfstpm

and

this

is

interpreted

as

the

frequeni'\

: 2

w...

Ilo
Fre I)

o'd riit,
tI t' e t i t 'n

t
imp ,

si it i

thn Fr,'
it ( I

h(lie' sh;ti ppS

t h' r mor(Iai I A'crriT, e rt ,,

we
t'F r

hobserve
,pcrt and orr set

that
o it er i

the
t o

system has
. , thrfis u nit

n equat ions
Thus we s

to
ttr

a t o

rienrt
if

hapre

pr-ve-t-.)rs

elect

tIrrF st

pem rt

F Fth'

'ri

Norw

I rtF

.ww

then

ftt

;d part it

fonin

"

E 0 1+

1 1u (n -1

I-F

C
011

SO)

-r11

8.5

Figenvalue

Economisers

(fluyan

Reduction) scale structure is difficult, from to reduce the size of the eigenvalue in terms of 'master' and 'slave' and the slaves removed by a

Because the problem of solving for a large computing viewpoint, it is often found convenient problem. The process of reduction involves thinking degrees of freedom where the masters are restrained condensat ion.

size of matrices. sparsness

Although this process does decrease the number of degrees of freedom, and thus, the matrices to be handled it also removes the sparsness of the mass and st iffness By filling up the associated matrices the process removes the econnmics of and this has to he balanced against the advantage of reduced matrix size. Dividing into problem; 'master' nodal freedoms u m and 'slave' freedoms ut gives us a

tihe

partitioned

Fm
sm
We use the degrees of of freedom

fM

M=m

Am

sst

iMsm

Mss

Os
between the 'master' no loads are applied to and 'slave' 'slave' degrees

stiffness matrix to define the relationship freedom which is equivalent to assuming that in the statics problem, thus,

'Ism K5
This gives the

jo
relationship:

required

ss

ms

thu-s

{
wies the

= Am

{mk

which

condensed

system

7'K"-wi,

Ym
w2I" m Mb
i'

I
II

V, -w

IKIT
I-

TM k

I m~m~m~m = I l

Im ---

m-mm

'

I+ I c

l sq

In

I s

I(T,! A

mlll :t st ls')

ml

I) v (

. s I"

I; o l w I

;'

Il; IF, 1 1 ] a % I

I I

1 1' , I . ....

N z

-KT)IN
-r1,-

5 1

Ie',

I ut I, If,

"ould

v,,id'si'd ihi,

prohbl

m unly

prno ides

values
-m ui

for

and

to

recover

the

full

use

the

relatiionsihip

intioduc'd d,' w, hoI, hI' Aip Il '

in this It ts I I t t'

Prociess

tjaci tl.

bprcause thei assumed that these nodes while rrcoverinq

hitweenut Wsave de

and

.however,

there

will

be

errors

'ees of"tfreedom u are associated with are no loads. Actuatly, inertia loads should u and to this end we return to the' original

in
/

MI'

ms

Imm 02

iiKm

s m wm

-Ii

tip' Ili the no

Itp~iv i t]i ,nw' i) major i-f tiai al c'

trtt
'toti,'1D0

i'i.d'nvi,n
thee

-teitso litP
K

ir

mFn for ii2ii 'if M and

t he

reduced

system

are

knownt.

-:iiiLiiihl

it I iciipits the

pit

and

'maisti'rs' and select inq thte oinl the

'i laveis' are automated first stave for which process repeated withi

by
the

I , : :,n

i m the; largi'st - H osd mat r ice(s. I., _ iQa

We
it

mat r ices

are

thern

condpnsed

,'

iResponse

ModeI

Analusis

'unc oup led

equa tilts

ein''

'ho

nih

now turn to the solutinn rof structural problems where the structure is subject to 'dependeniit appl i ted load, for cootvenitence we shal l only deal with undamped st ructure, the samP arquiimp'nts applv wh-n certaini dampinq factors are introduced, 1i',. Rtaleiqth

o-.i
...

pr t h,'
, .l;o

I I,

rot ohse'rp that a geoe rl aI distuplI acemernrt f itl d for a st roe to re can hie conot ruc'tT'it motd' shapes fior the free-v Ibrat tIoi prn) t I'm. C I earl y an apprnx i mat P soIlut i i no r c-a t ruot''it t rum ao, suit a tI v tfuni t I(]1 - suant t hi' moidie shapes hateP cP r t a in prnpe r t i Ps uan uisi with itdvantage. Ihits a q n-' ral ditsplI acemint tield ui is g t e by K

Wh''' r i." i ;ra ' Ihh

re
t t n

t th' n mode shapes and fur a utrctiirewith n degrees of frPednm sude whiih ai't as wet ghti nto fuini't ion and are unknown talutei's. rpqegiri r I Solut i i1 s def'ined by the mattrix Pquat ion

aind

ari'

thi'

prnhI em

Mi,.Kii

with h

it

pihqt,';

ittit

Itu

fitor

ti givt

s,

whi,'r e

Pr-mult

iplyintg

by

$i

gives

I-l

t liltiq

thi'

uT

Iti hnr nri

l ifty

and rnormal]iI

prnpip

rt in';

of

the

syst;eI t'm we

htii

hi',

ij

Sj

w 2.lJ~i

h, M

I and

(p i

[w71

where

[w2]

is

a diagonal

matrix.

l w2

k0

w22

Thus

we

now

have

T'+[w2]

(p P1 (tl
as

which mai

be

re-written
2

z I

+wI

1I

PI

where

P 1

ip Pit 1 equations can then be some other way. integrated by one of the direct methods on the

the un-cOupled ',mpitpr or solved in

Bec'ause we are only rec,,ssarv to gPnerate many e pe r i merit a II

using the modal shapes of the actual shapes

as
-o

approximating functions it may these may also be generated

not be

9.
, 1

FIBRE COMPOSIIES
|nt roduct ion

The elements of the theory of finite elements which we have built up in the proceeding ,,i(it mosi can be applied to the application of composite fibre structures. In essence there is ti prfhlpm in modelling this type of material since our theory will admit of anisotropic oropertie[s, provided these are accounted for by putting the full anisotropic terms in stressstrain relations. However, in aeronautical applicaitons, it is common to assume that the st ruicture being analysed is adequately represented by a plate modal. In addition, for mans applications it is possible to further simplify the model by imposing the Kirchoff hvpothesis of) the henrding terms. This is the procedure which is followed in this short
s Iect ion .

9.2

Plate

Model

NN

I~~~

II iur

9.1I~

1-34
he
matrix if propert are

Model is
'uct of cinstruction ies. known . ed

assumed
I rum siin. the IThe a means propert example oururt iach

to

coins ist
lami/na lamina is the ies of

of
iof

a se iiis
given material layers in theory is F iq.9. to

ut
adjlacent

Iaypr s "I
oi laminae s const ructpd once tour the

materii al.
ton the by from the such stra fibre urtint
in

fdr
same layers and
iropic

layer a
.;a with resin laminae. hi. resin.

1
d In mod iivs This

const

fibre that

oriLentation

x-axib, the

buonided whole the

Morhot iopic propert

co'mputid 1 has

I IIust
simple are: palti

rated

fo llowing lam L iat e'd st ruct

assumption

fields

qiVeni

in

the

wh& n

, I

r*

* ,'-

it

, .t

n ,-p llain e and

the

one

ou t-o

f-p

lane

d ispl

ace

men ts

o f

the

pla 'temid-,I

..

nill

t,

, i

q,..1

Misidinq

the

strain

field

into

in-plane

strains

sltist'

lip-

w oxj3

A i,

that

the

si

-I

rq

tWii " lation - in I

now

a more coI imp licated

ftormilr

ati ion

we

hA

I I i

y'

7 h Us

K'~
the stress classical platen
resultants

2
U 22

Ut U2S 5 Q v 'Y

1 1(

U 12 U 22

23

K 5 k

z 13
, Q15

(S M

S'YM

and

moments

are

defined

in

thP

usual

way

for

standard

theory,

but

the

integration

is

taken across

a series of

laminap:-

St/ 2

ti

i-i

t SN (+II 2 -

N I

-t

N zi
"

i-i

M=

-Al -t

d Z

"212 2 1
S 22i-A /)AZr

2(1 1

7dz. tz

A IS

,ni

aA t

ni

a 1K 1

-AA

at

w ,c

No

B, 1

N,
Whir Ai.A'% q ncou
q

A N
ofn
stio -rh
Nf qat

'
es pros
i

i 'N

Ih vd
th t e t

~Nt
a

i
pa l i

Ia
c

i n
ssdt

A Ahe

e s
r

na I t ntd p sandr momn Antoh

~w

M, :

B22

B25>N

(c +,
r c s o

D22

DZ3

do

!'I{ have eleenthi noe

a i i yli as.!E pa1hstesm

f th pnlm Aoenia

re-

a soluion

occu

in B? th, j

Th d e

co

iyM ne

they va

lJ

pltBrb

r s

n c

tu

hivhlh s A r a i ns

(Alvi,,
and ittlPe

+ cur 1('

I-nnipledr
a A nr e flOW

Sli.-

itf

enpiat

i,)tis4

relat

inlq

the' SA FnSS

re'sultants

anid

mnlment s

tn! $he

'h an q e! Antn tife( I hi. the' apnp~r same in the irat e prnhlems Il)pnt erA I isi st eerqy Anlrm Atri a plate p-nrA ail/nin hy
*O

mas

Aenirdlq

anld

me'mBranef

A erm;i

with
Iirnh

resDpeA
* t'ues.

tn

esncri,'t).,
thus;

qutantities nonai
ncxer

elepment

nhtta ined is thern lffA ness matri w0 u , whieth will nnrmally ne t* in Sn)luti innfs n{c-cur anid pnte'nt ill

di

2wO

int AfAernt- lat w i1y ait rl . t.i',p'o

t his

I em

asl wit A. the

the wdded ft arid fed

ramfs it

I~t.' di
the system. ear

UiSSed( earl i er
ie"r pDlate prnqlrams ttnweve'r. snme prnhlrm e>xists
Nof

cnmplexity 0. nrtnl Man~y the,

arises tn main

in c-reate'

cunst F -[

ineA ing the~se analysis terms

the which prnqrams

mnatrices maN, then

A, he:

small, A -A

mu-rn-base'd.

malt.

dAn have

this

capability

as

part

nof

their

pre-prncessnr

thet ranqe.

SITAING

HIE PROBLEM:

THlE

,'TEP

8EFORE

F.E.

MODELLINGN

by lan C. Taig Chief Engineer, Research British Aerospace plc, Military Aircraft Division, Warton, Preston. Lancs. PR4 lAX
England

SUMMARY Structural analysis is concerned with finding practical solutions of physical problems in the real world; finite element analysis is one powerful tool used as part of this process. Before starting to set up a finite element analysis the task should be planned and the essential features of the real world problem should be identified. In this paper we look at seven steps in this process:- planning the analysis in relation to resources available, definition of the real structure, description of the structural context, statement of the purpose and nature of the analysis, formulation in finite element terms, definition of the facilities and resources available (the solution context) and,
finally, prescription of the solution requirements. In all cases, except formulation,

these topics are dealt with discursively, without recourse to mathematics. In discussing formulation, a simple "Engineers' Theory" of matrix structural analysis is presented as an everyday medium for defining and understanding the F.E. solution process.

1.

Introduction

Finite element analysis of a structure is not an end in itself - but a means to an end. The real objective is always to learn something about the behaviour of a real structure - an assembly, perhaps, of many physical parts made of real, imperfect materials and subjected to real loading conditions which can rarely if ever be precisely known. Boundary and support conditions are those which apply in the real world, whether we are considering a free body in a perturbed airstream, as is typical of a flying vehicle, or foundations in a heterogeneous ground medium for civil engineering structures. Not only is the primary objective to learn about real structure behaviour, we must also recognise that finite element analysis, whilst undoubtedly the most powerful and universally applicable tool available today, is not the only such tool. It rarely, if ever, addresses all aspects of the real world problem and it is often quite foolish to try to make it do so. For example, it is pointless to use a very fine mesh F.E. analysis to solve the problem of stress concentration around a circular hole in a region of uniform thin plate material under nearly uniform stress - a sound analytical solution ey -Is for that problem which can only be numerically approximated, at considerable expense -1d effort, by the F.E. method. In almost every such case the better course will be to use F.E. methods to determine characteristic stress levels in the region of the hole and apply analytical or empirical factors to obtain peak stresses. Again it is pointless to embark on any large or complex analysis without a reasonable appreciation of the size of the task, how long it will take and what it will cost in people and money terms. We would not think of contracting out a job to a bureau without asking for a time and cost estimate, setting deadlines and price limits. Yet how often do we launch an analysis in house without even asking the questions? In my experience, almost every time! In this lecture, I address the first stages of the analysis process - what might be termed the formal specification of the problem to be solved. This is not only to establish a sound basis for the finite element modelling which is to follow, but also to provide a record so that an independent investigator can follow what it was that the analyst intended. I am talking in non-mathematical terms and addressing the analyst's boss just as much as the analyst. 2. A Methodical Approach to Specification of the Task

The following steps should be followed, either formally or informally, by every structural analyst, before beginning a finite element analysis job. In the U.K., in recent years, the NAFEMS agency has strongly recommended(l) that Lhis process should be formalised and recorded using check lists or proformas. The ideal, in the author's view, (3, 4) is to build in the process as a front end to an F.E. analysis Pre-processor, producing a specification report as output. The suggested steps are:Analysis planning : assurinq at the right time to do the job.
-

that right people,

data and facilities will be in

place

Definition of the physical structure to be analysed and the sources of authoritative data describing it - especially the physical features of the structure which are considered relevant. Definition of the structural context of the analysis: i.e. what other structures or boundary media attach to and interact with the structure, what external and internal loading and temperature conditions apply etc.
-

_ Definition of purpose and nature of the analysis: what kind of results are being sought and for what stage in the design, or approval process are they intended; what kind of solution(s) are required and to what notional accuracy.
Formulation of the problem in broad finite element terms: how available F.E. solution procedures can be matched to the requirements; how structure loadings, boundary conditions, inertias, constraints can best be represented in broad terms; any special mathematical formulations required for adequate problem representation. One important aspect of problem formulation is treated in some detail later: this is an "Engineers' Theory" of matrix structural analysis.

Definition of the solution context: i.e. what people and what computing time and/or cost is admissible, above all what of valid answers?
-

facilities are available, is the deadline for delivery

Definition of solution requirements and presentation i.e. an explicit description of what results should be presented and in what form; in particular, how results should be processed, selected and presented so that users can understand and interpret them. 3. Analysis Planning

Someone, preferably an experienced supervisor, must first decide who is to carry out the analysis and whether that person or team is adequately experienced or qualified to do so. Again, in the U.K., NAFEMS has set out some guidelines(2) to help to establish analyst competence and ways of building up such competence. The analysis team must collectively have adequate understanding both of the structural design or validation problem under study and of the use of finite element methods to solve it. If the available staff do not already meet the requirement, either training or external consultation are necessary, and must be provided. Incompetent analysis is worse than no analysis!

Data must be available from an authoritative source, at whatever level is appropriate to the status of the project under study. In a large organisation this means having adequate drawings or sketches, loading, temperature and inertia data to a common product standard - all synchronised to fit into the analysis schedule. Other peoples' work must be co-ordinated with that of the stress analyst. Incompatible data invalidate an analysis before it has begun!

Computing resources must be available on an adequate scale at the time required. This means making an early estimate of the size and scale of the job being undertaken and ensuring that it can, if necessary, be broken down into manageable stages which will fit into computing schedules. Loss of data or delays from computer overruns are failures of the job planner, not of the computing service. Special attention may need to be given to the use of automated data preparation and results interpretation facilities. Often there are limitations to their availability: they may use particularly expensive and overloaded equipment or there may only be a few people skilled in their use. Planning must take a realistic view of these issues. 4. Definition of the Structure

In aerospace, it is very unusual for an analysis of a complete vehicle to be performed as one job. In those rare cases, the very complexity of the physical object is such that it is usually necessary to make some restrictive assumptions about the structure to be represented. In almost all cases, therefore, the analyst must first decide on the physical bounds of the structure to be solved. Usually we break airframes down into major components such as wings, fuselages, empennage structures, etc. or further into structural boxes, fuselage bays, bulkheads, floor structures or such substantial sub-components. Usually these represent physically bounded structural regions - often actually manufactured as individual, self-contained items. In all but the most local analyses (such as stress distribution in a single detail part or a local region of a component) the real structure will comprise many separate parts, all with finite section dimensions, imperfect intersections, local offsets, gaps, packings and tolerances and the myriad features which characterise real, as opposed to idealised structure. Drawings and/or computer-based geometry define all the surfaces, datums, detail features and intersections; the real structure definition begins by referencing these sources. Often the structure is being analysed whilst still in its formative stage the drawings or sketches are undergoing change:it is necessary to identify the standard assumed at the time. What detail features should be represented will depend primarily upon the analysis purposes: here some judgment or experience may be necessary. Usually there are two questions which may be asked:-

(1) do the analysis purposes require detailed information about stresses or distortions in the immediate vicinity of a physical feature (e.g. stress intensity in the neighbourhood of a particular notch or groove)? or (ii) is stress (e.g. the feature likely to have any noticeable effect on global distribution of a large lightening hole in an important shear web)?

These questions require an understanding of structural behaviour based on physical rather than on mathematical insight. At a later stage, a further question may arise:- can I handle all the features I want to represent in a single analysis? This may lead on to a need for substructuring or superelement analysis - a consideration in my next lecture, but it must always be the purpose of the analysis rather than solution expediency which should guide the decision "to represent or not to represent" in the first place. Yet, very often these questions are never even asked - as though their answers were pre-ordained! 5. The Structural Context

Two simple examples will illustrate the importance of the context - i.e. the structural environment in which the component actually performs its function. 5.1 Tension Cleat

One of the simplest, yet most puzzling structural components is the L-shaped cleat or club-foot fitting as shown in fig. 1. Such fittings are widely used, for example, to transmit tension/compression loads from stringers across a transverse diaphragm. To isolate the cleat from its structure and treat it as an independent item under prescribed loadings and boundary conditions as in fig. l(a) is to ensure disaster. The correct physical boundary conditions can only be determined by taking into account the distortion under load of the members which it connects - both the skin and/or stiffener on the one hand and the bolt, washer and support assembly on the other, as in fig. 1(c). No amount of analytical refinement of the fitting itself as in fig. l(b), (whether by finite element or any other means) can compensate for failure to place the component IN CONTEXT. Errors of over 100% are commonplace in this type of problem, irrespective of the modelling of the fitting, unless the adjoining structure is adequately represented. 5.2 Multi-hinged Control Surface A more obvious example of context concerns a multi-hinged structure such as the aileron or flap shown in fig. 2. In its un-deflected position it can often be analysed fairly satisfactorily as though attached to a rigid wing structure, but if the supports are redundant it will always be necessary to take account of hinges and actuating mechanisms, whose flexibilities are comparable with those of the component itself. When the surface is deflected, as in fig. 2(b), we must either use design devices to alleviate the effects of those components of hinge movement in the plane of the surface (e.g. by use of swinging links) or we must consider the redundant interaction of the deflected surface with the wing as the latter distorts, the aileron may be two orders of magnitude stiffer, when flexing in its plane, as compared with out of plane. A very obvious truth, yet one whichmost stressmen overlook once in their career! This is an extreme case, but it typifies a situation which characterises most aerospace structures. Whilst we normally analyse components in isolation, all interact with each other at their intersection boundaries and the only correct solutions are those which consider adjoining structures together, subject to loads and d;stortions which originate on both sides of the boundary. Contact problems, where interaction occurs only in compression, with separation in tension , are a special case requiring non-linear treatment or inspired pre-judgment of the solution! In all cases where components interact at a structurally redundant interface we must perform some kind of substructure interaction, whether we formally set up a full superstructure analysis or use iterative approximations. 6. Purpose and Nature of the Analysis

We have already seen the importance of defining the analysis objective as the essential ingredient in deciding on the representation of structural features. obviously, the analysis purpose can be significant in many.other ways. The whole strategy of modelling may be different if we are considering initial design, detail stress analysis up to ultimate loading or dynamic aeroelastic response within the normal flight envelope. Manageable dynamic or iterative redesign analyses will normally be treated more coarsely than detailed stress analyses. Their loading and inertia representation may need to be the more subtly defined because of this. In any event a clear statement of purpose is definition of the problem, 7. The Solution Context before modelling an essential ingredient in a proper begins.

Finite element analysis can today be carried out on anything from the humblest desktop micro-computer to a prodigiously powerful supercomputer. The capacity and speed of the machine available and the facilities (such as interactive terminals with pre- and post-

2-4 processor software) have an important bearing on how a structural problem should be modelled. Very few problems are intrinsically so complex as to be totally insoluble by even a modest computer - but the amount of ingenuity needed increases as the capacity available decreases. So much so that, for practical purposes, the machine capacity often sets limits on what is normally attempted. In our own case, non-linear analysis is always limited to relatively small and local substructure regions and optimisation is carried out on models with hundreds rather than many thousands of elements - limited by our large mainframe. A supercomputer is needed to extend the practical size limits and might then run into cost problems. Dynamic analyses, buckling, aeroelastic divergence, flutter, contact problems - all these are examples in which size will be limited to match the facilities available and the time and cost limits. Sometimes the facilities themselves give a false sense of what is practical. For example, modern mesh-generating programs are so powerful that it is possible to create meshes of vast size and considerable complexity with relatively little effort. Burying a problem in vast numbers of nodes seems easier than thinking out clever modelling devices. It is only when loads, inertias and sometimes even element details have to be defined consistently with the structure that the enormity of the task becomes apparent. We may easily overload any but the largest computing facility and extend the elapsed time for producing evaluated solutions beyond acceptable limits by following the ever-finer-mesh route. Such judgments can only be made if we are clear from the available. For example, as already suggested above, loading the biggest single task faced by today's stress analyst. So preparation aids are available for all stages of the analysis limits are acceptable. outset what facilites are data preparation is often we need to know what data and what time and cost

In a large company environment, where the mainframe or number-crunching supercomputer is simply there, availible as a "free" resource to all who want it, it is easy to slip into careless attitudes where jobs take as long as they take and cost what they cost - as though these were unalterabale facts of life! By any standards this is gross mismanagement both of resources and of timescale. 8. Solution Requirements

To conclude this catalogue of the banal and the obvious, we must get into the habit of stating what we want. Walk around almost any office using number-crunching computing and you see desk tops piled high, cupboards bursting, waste bins overflowing with un-read computer paper. Either that, or rows of zombies in front of screens, searching for the answers they now realise they want and finding they are not available in the form required. Output requirements should be thought about, written down, and where necessary negotiated, before the job begins, not when it is in its final stages. Selectivity, automated or not, is essential to efficient use of results. The computer can search for worst cases far more efficiently than the user - only when the unexpected happens does the human being really need access to the mass of data. So think what is the event. 9. Formulation of the Problem in Finite Element Terms needed, state what is needed and provide critera for selection before

When finite element analysis becomes a routine task, formulation of the real problem in F.E. terms often reduces to little more than the nomination of standard solution procedures. If we adopt such an approach, we can set off on a wrong course before the first modelling decision has been made. Very often it is possible to obtain numerical solutions to a problem without ever writing down a single equation - in routine cases this can become the norm. Indeed, the use of matrix algebra to describe the solution of specific problems rarely seems to be taught. Mathematics are used to define the behaviour of elements and to define problem formulaticn in general terms. But insufficient emphasis is normally given to a number of very simple concepts which place F.E. solution of problems on the same basis as, say, Engineers Bending Theory and the BredtBatho thin-walled tube theories. No conventional stressman would try to understand structural behaviour without recourse to these elementary tools. The same stressman rarely uses the matrix equivalents in thinking about F.E. Analysis and as a result often makes gross errors of judgment in those very areas of structural understanding where his experience is strongest. So before I start addressing any of the details of structural modelling, I would like to go back to first principles and look at some basic structural concepts expressed in the natural mathematics of finite elements, that is an Engineer's Theory of Matrix Analysis. 10. Basic Concepts and their Associated Matrix Relationships

There are several basic concepts which underpin the use of the finite element method to solve real physical problems. They translate the classical principles of equilibrium, compatibility, energy minimisation and so on into the language of matrix algebra. We consider:-

Discrete variables,

generalised

forces and displacements

and correspondence

Transformation of forces and displacements Co-transference, stiffness transformation and kinematic equivalonce

Stiffness matrix reduction and condensation and conclude with an example illustrating this "Engineers' Theory" in pract.ce. Correspondence

10.1 Discrete VariablesGeneralised

Forces and Displacements,

The discrete force and displacement variables used in finite element analysis are often regarded as point loads and displacements and in some cases have that significance. More generally they are parameters, associated with physical points, which define force and displacement functions over different parts of the structure. When stiffness matrices are written in terms of these parameters, they are usually expressed in terms of forces and displacements which correspond in the normal engineering sense, i.e. the displacements corresponding with a force parameter are those components which do work in association with the force components and vice versa. Some of the common associations of corresponding forces and displacements are shown in fig. 3. In particular, distribution of a force between points corresponds with a weighted average of point displacements, a balancing set of forces corresponds with a relative displacement and interpolated displacements correspond with weighted sums of forces. More subtly, as shown later, the continuous interpolation of displacements corresponds with the integration of weighted body, pressure or line loadings, where the weighting parameters are the same as the interpolation functions. The same line of reasoning carries through to a correspondence between strain - displacement and stress-force relationships. 10.2 Transformation of Forces and Displacements For the average engineering user, the most important of all concepts to grasp is the simplest - that of transformation. In any problem expressed in terms of discrete variables we may, for convenience, wish to change the variables themselves or their frame of reference. We are all trained to deal with change of axes or change of co-ordinate systems from Cartesian to polar or surface co-ordinates. These involve simple examples of transformations: the relationships by which quantities expressed in terms of one set of variables may be transformed to equivalent quantities expressed in terms of a second set. In finite element analysis we are most commonly concerned with linear transformations, i.e. those in which two sets of variables are linearly related to each other. Linear transformations allow us to deal with change of axes, constrained degrees of freedom (simple or complex), symmetry conditions, repeated boundary conditions, rigid body movements, kinematics of mechanisms, reduced basis and modal analyses and many other commonplace analytical situations. A linear transformation is written, of course, as a simple set of linear equations, expressing the vector of quantities in one frame of reference as the product of a transformation matrix times the vector in the other reference frame. Thus a set of
displacements U1 may be related to an initial set U by the equation

transformations obey the simple rules of association, so that if U 2 = T 2 U1 and U3 = T3 U2 , then U 3 = (T 3 T2 TI)U = (T 3 T2 )TI U = T 3 (T 2 TI)U. We cannot, of course, change the order of transformation and only in special cases - square, non-singular or one-for-one transformations - can we invert them. Simple change of axes, using identical numbers of mutually independent variables, is the commonest example of a reversible transformation. If T, is such a transformation then U = T11 U 1 . A rectangular transformation, i.e. one in which the number of variables changes, usually has a great deal of physical significance. Thus if T2 connects a larger number of variables U2 to a smaller number U1 the equation U 2 = T2 U, represents (multi-Point) linear constraints because we are saying that all the variables U2 can be expressed in terms of a smaller number of degrees of freedom U 1 . In many cases we can invert such a transformation in terms of a reduced (independent) set of the variables U 2 . Thus if [ 2 1 - [2b] U1 and Ta can be made square and non-singular
-1 Then U1
=

U1

= T,

U.

Such

-1 and U2b = T2b T2 a U2a

1

T2a Ua

Whence

rU2a

or
or

T-1!

L~b

TbT2 a

U 2a

aU2

2a

[r~

0 ----

which are constraint equations in

standard forms.

On the other hand,if T 3 relates a smaller number of variables U 3 to a larger number U2 , this represents an incomplete transformation. There are now an infinite number of reverse transformations which satisfy the basic equation U = T3 U2. Particular 3 solutions can be obtained by adding rows to T and dummy variables to U3 until a square, non-singular matrix ?3 is obtained

[U,] =

U=

-]1

[3,] .
U

U3Ti2T3

10.3

Co-Transference,

Stiffness

Transformation

and Kinematic Equivalence

In conservative systems, the concept of correspondence between forces and displacement can be extended to transformations in what Langefors called "the principle of cotransference." If (r, u) and (R, U) are pairs of corresponding forces and displacements and if u and U are linearly related by the transformation u = A U, then forces R and r are linearly related by the transpose of the same linear matrix, applied in the reverse direction: i.e. R = AT r. This is a simple consequence of conservation of energy and is not dependent on linear elasticity. If displacements u and forces r are related by a linear then the principle of co-transference enables us to create in terms of R and U. stiffness relation r the transformed stiffness = k u

Thus, R = AT r = AT K U = AT k A U ---This familiar result is normally derived directly by minimum strain energy or virtual work arguments, without pausing to state the co-transference principle. In this presentation we suggest that co-transference is the "engineer's equivalent" of a work principle applied to linear algebraic transformations and is valuable for its physical the principle in action in some common Some simple examples illustrate significance. transformation situations. The rigid link in fig. 4(a) couples points 1 and 2 in the u direction deformations leaves v freedoms uncoupled. We can express the constraint the equation U1 = U2 and by so doing miss the equivalent force relationship. and for small condition by If we write

UT- U1 and

the constraint equation can be written as

U[U = U = Pil=I
The principle by of co-transference

[iiJ

or

T U whereT T

il] 1
with U is given

tells us that the force R corresponding TT X where X M X1

The same matrix equations apply if the link is inclined to the (u, v) axes but in this case the vectors U, X, U, X and transformation T take on a modified form.
From fig. 4(b) U1 COS a + V, sin a = U2 This equation can be used to eliminate, COS a + V2 sin a say V 2 in which case [C I -C] [U1----]

V2

=(U 1

-U

2)

cot 0a + V1

Whence Uz[UJI

[0 0

j
11
we write 0] 02

-v here C m cot-- ------

This takes the previous form U = T U if

[
0 1

and U

V! =-

The

forces

P corresponding

with the constrained displacements

U are given by

TT R where R - [Xi]2

---

Y2

A more graphic example, which also From Pig. 4(c) we see that

illustrates

a second principle,

is

rotation of

axes.

[ =[U

Lv rcosa sina
-

[u :] which -sin co0sajlV'

is in
=

the same

form U1 = T Uif we write o-[u] and T

[cin a

sin ]

The transformed

forces N in

inclined axes

are given by

~J Y

[cs

Csi~y
by

which is obvious, in any case, by direct resolution. Rotation of axes is a spel-1al form of transformation with another important property. In this case we note that, simple resolution, the reverse force transformation is given by

Whence R - T
the characteristic

-1

R = T R as for displacements R for any vector R and hence T T - T-1

Rotational transformations in

property of an orthogonal matrix.

three dimensions have the same property.

It cannot be sufficiently emphasised that the identity of force and displacement transformations, as seen above, is a property only of orthogonal transformations (particularly axis rotations) whereas co-transference is a universal property of corresponding force and displacement systems. An important concept,which is easily understood and can be mathematically derived via the principle of co-transference, is that of kinematically equivalent forces. Let us suppose that the displacements v normal to a boundary AB as shown in fig. 5 are defined in terms of a finite number of nodal parameters U. Then v = A(Q) u where A(U) is a vector of interpolation functions in terms of the non-dimensional distance along AB. If we divide AB into n equal intervals, the displacements at the centre of each segment are given by:V = An segment U, where An is a matrix whose rows into vector A(l). tells us that the nodal the are obtained by substituting

%, for each
U are given by:-

Co-transference

forces R corresponding n-vector of

with

R = AT p,, If intensity

where Pn is

forces on each segment.

we write p, , the along the edge

force on the ith segment,

as w

1I

where wi

is

the normal

load

Then R Which in the

1 (n

T becomes -

limit as n - o

R = 1
loading, with respect

A()

w (t)

The forces R are described as kinematically equivalent to the continuous

to the displacement functions A (I).

line

For example, if v is A and B we have

a cubic displacement
3 2 2A

defined in

terms of displacements and slopes at

.....

v = [(2 E3_)

VB 9A~ The nodal forces kinematically equivalent to a uniform line loading w0 are then, integration:by

YA 1121
MA~ 12!

R 8

A/, w0 o

and those equivalent to a sinusoidal loading wo Sin

, &are

2 1/T1 3 10.4 Stiffness Matrix Reduction and Condensation In many cases, especially dynamic response analyses, we need to reduce the number of degrees of freedom in a structure for certain purposes whilst retaining the detail for others. We usually use the matrix equivalent of the Rayleigh-Ritz method and express the full set of degrees of freedom as a linear transformation of a reductd set of

diis[ lacement of defining coarser set here in any

parameters and derive a reduced stiffness as before. There are many ways the interpolation matrix, relating the detailed degrees of freedom to a and the selection of the best of these is too complex an issue to be covered detail.

A specialised procedure, often called static condensation, is used in substructure analysis for isolating boundary stiffnesses from those of internal structure. For this purpose we partition a stiffness matrix into regions a remote from and b at the boundary points and write:as

K K If a set of forces Ra is

ba

Kbb

ab

KaXb b we have

applied at the non-boundary stations a

K aa U a + Kab Ub
=

Ua= K ad

(Ra

-Kab

Ub

Whence boundary forces Rb = Kba i.e. Pb

%

Ua

+ K bb U
a + (
-

K a

)U

-0

The condensed boundary stiffness matrix is

given by:

Kbb = (Kbb - Kba Kaa - Kab ) : a familiar formula which is, in fact, expressible as a particular case of matrix reduction as described above. However, this particularly simple reduction is usually quite unsuitable for dynamic analyses because it physically represents the deformation of a structure loaded only at the points in domain b (i.e. under concentrated localised forces) when in dynamic or buckling analyses we need to represent deformations under distributed (e.g. inertia) forces whose resultants are represented by a reduced set of force magnitudes. Noting the equivalence, in mathematical terms, of corresponding force and displacement transformations, we can choose to define such transformations either by displacement interpolation (deflected shape functions) or by force combinations, whichever seems to be the more appropriate, physically. Another physically useful concept is to think of static condensation as the inverse of flexibility submatrix extraction. For if the stiffness matrix K is non-singular, its inverse F can be similarly partitioned as F
Fbb
=

LFba

aa

Fab

in which case
or Kbb = Fbb -.-

(Kbb

Kba

-a

Fbb I Kab )-I = Kbb-1

We cannot over emphasise the total distinction between static condensation (or its equivalent: flexibility extraction) in which stiffness is expressed in terms of a small number of freedoms with all other freedoms unconstrained and stiffness extraction in which all the unselected freedoms are fully constrained, usually to zero. 10.5 A Concluding Example of "Engineers Matrix Theory"

When structural assemblies are analysed as separate items, interacting at their boundaries, the analysis is usually treated, in the literature, as a formal substructuring calculation. This assumes that all the substructures are analysed together and solved as one large super-structure problem. More often than not, in practice, the various components will be analysed separately, using preliminary values, sometimes no more than guesses, for the interface loads. Conversion of approximate to accurate solutions and allowance for varying interface geometry (e.g. flap deflection) are straightforwardly handled by our simple theory, whilst often avoided as too complex in standard F.E. texts! Consider, as in fig. 6, a wing initially analysed with prescribed forces Rod at the attachment points (set a) of a flap. The wing deformations rest of the wing) are Usa. wing nodes unconstrained). at points a under these prescribed loads (and those over the Define Kaa as the condensed wing stiffnesses (all other

Now suppose we carry out a flap analysis to determine the true set of forces RP at the boundary. Additional deformations of the wing , Ua are given by
AU a Kaa ARa Kaa a (R
-

Rod)

Ua

U oa

Or

Ua = U oa + K ad

(R, - Rca)

Next look at the flap itself,

for which we have a stiffness matrix

K'

aaa

K'ba

K'bb

in local (flap) degrees of freedom - where partition a represents the attachment freedoms to the wing. In any flap configuration the local deflections Ua' are related to Ua by a transformation T which can be written down by inspection of the flap/wing kinematics. We write Ua = T U a'and correspondingly (Ra')w' = -TT RHa where the negative sign recognises that the reactions of the wing on the flap (RHa w are opposite in sign to the actions of the flap on the wing (Ra). The transformation T is not necessarily orthogonal or even square, non-singular since it may incorporate partial releases such as sliders or swinging links to minimise unwanted interference loadings. If The wing contributes an additional stiffness K waa = TT Kaa loads R' = {R a' R b' } are applied to the flap we have:waa + K ab
KJ[K

T to the a

partition

a
Ubi

[a
'

.....

LK

b]

From which Ua' may be determined in terms of the, as yet unknown, interaction forces Pa. Suppose we write the solution in the form Ua' = U0a ' - B Ra where U0a ' contains all the terms involving locally applied loads Thena,=TUa.' = T(U0a 'BRa)_ From the wing we have Ua = Uoa + Kaa (H. - Roa) So that (K.a +TB) Ra =T Uoa' - Uoa + Kaa Roa ------- 18 Whence Ra is determined in terms of the known prior lutions and all the displacements and stresses follow by substitution.

Examples such as this show that there is nothing difficult, either conceptually or mathematically, in formally stating and symbolically solving problems of interacting structures, complicated boundary conditions, internal or external constraints or any of the other practical problems of real structures which often cause difficulties, even for experienced finite element analysts. We contend that every engineer who is to use finite element methods for problem solving should acquire facility in the use of these simple concepts and techniques so that matrix manipulation of structures should become as familiar as Engineers' Bending, the triangle of forces, Euler buckling and the other standard concepts on which we base our understanding of structural behaviour. ii. 1. References Guidelines to Finite Element Practice. (U.K.) National Agency for Finite Element Methods and Standards, (NAFEMS), Department of Trade and Industry, National Engineering Laboratory, East Kilbride, Scotland August 1984. Guidelines for Assessing Personnel Competence in Organisations Carrying Out Finite Element Analysis. NAFEMS - Presently available to members only - to be published. I.C. TaigExpert Aids to Finite Element System Applications, in Applications of Artificial Intelligence to Engineering Problems. R. Adey(ed) Springer-Verlag and Computational Mechanics April 1986. I.C. Taig, Expert Aids to Reliable Use of Finite Element Analysis, in Reliability Methods in Engineering Analysis. D.R.J. twen(ed) University College of Swansea July 1986.

2. 3.

4.

Fi% I

AnajyisS of. a

easion Cleat

Fig.

2FIV-W.inq

Interaction-Eflfect

ofWn

Displacemnts

---- ------

Fig. Rx~es-m

Fig.

someg Simle DispLacemenlt Tansformations

Fig. 5

xinemstically Eguivalent Forces

Fig.

InteractionForces BetveenWin~a,,d Fa_Pp

MOD)ELLING

FOR THE

FINITE

ELEMENT

METHOD

by Ian C. Taig British Aerospace plc, Military Aircraft Division, Warton, Preston. Lancs. PR4 IAX England

SUMMARY Finite element modelling is not synonymous with mesh generation. The complex structures typical of aerospace, and many other industries, give limited choice for clever mesh definition but contain a host of features which need to be represented, tithet explicitly or implicitly within the finite element model. Topics covered in this paper include general modelling strategy, definition of a basic mesh, local modelling of structural features inclduing those which are below the basic mesh scale, element selection, load and inertia representation, kinematic constraints and symmetry. All topics are treated in a non-mathematical way, relating decisions which the analyst must make to the known facts about the analysis in the way that experienced people make such iUigments. This naturally leads to references to expert systems which are seen as having a major impact in this field.

1.

Introduction

Modelling of structures for finite element analysis is the whole activity whereby a real problem in structural analysis is formulated in terms suitable for solution using a finite element computer program. In its Guidelines to Finite Element Practice(l), the U.K. National Agency for Finite Element Methods and Standards makes it clear that modelling is NOT synonymous with mesh generation, as much of the literature on the subject would suggest. Determination of the appropriate mesh is but one aspect of the problem: many others are equally important and often give the analyst more difficulty. Likewise, accuracy of the finite element solution, per se, is only one of several criteria which influence modelling decisions. The growing body of literature on mesh generation, optimum gradation and adaptive refinement addresses an important issue in relation to F.E. analysis of continuum structure, in which the complex boundary and the (homogeneous) material properties
characterise the structure. In In aerospace structures this is rarely more than a small

aspect of the problem facing the designer and stress Engineer(2,

completely irrelevant. addressing the aerospace engineer,

3); sometimes it
from the

is

we start

fundamental position that our structures are so complex that the lowest level of significant structural detail (e.g. small holes, cracks, grooves, fillets etc.) is well below the scale at which a single comprehensive finite element model can explicitly represent it. We think from the outset in terms of multi-level analysis (ranging from The preglobal to local) whether formally interrelated by sub-structuring or not. dominant issue at the global representation level is the extent to which local features should be represented explicitly at all - not how the mesh should be best refined to provide accuracy in their vicinity. At the local level, mesh refinement is a major issue, but so too is structural context (i.e. all aspects of the interfaces with adjoining structure). Even at this scale, actual features such as discrete fasteners, composite lamination boundaries, fillets and lands can dictate practical, as opposed to optimal, mesh definiton. At all levels we are concerned about boundary conditions, load and inertia definition, realistic material behaviour etc., all to be represented at a cost and within a timescale we can afford as well as to give the accuracy we desire. Many of the decisions to be made are heuristic, i.e. based on judgment and experience, rather than mathematical or algorithmic. This is why they have received such scant attention in the scientific literature: a situation which is starting to change now that expert systems are becoming practically feasible and scientifically respectable(5). We attempt here to give a broad coverage of the subject by looking briefly at the following stages in modelling:-

High level structural representation and modelling strategy

(the generic types of elements to be used)

Basic mesh definition to represent the primary characterisitcs of the structure at an appropriate level of definition Local modelling of structural features, via explicit fine meshing, elements or implicit representation in modified element behaviour Specific element selection; Representation shapes, special

formulations and material properties loads and inertias

of local and distributed

Kinematic boundary conditions:

symmetry and constraints.

2.;tructural

Re)resentation

and Modelling

Strateg commonly associalad with framed structurcs and solld

We beqin by restricting aerospace: reinforced shells

our discussion to the structures of great complexity, beam and the previous paper(4). The first

fittings of complex geometry.

defined as recommended in

We assume that the "real World" problem is

question

adequately
is

to be addressed

what qeneric type of structural representation is appropriate: often the answers seem so obvious that the question is not asked, but we should take the time, occasionally, to to review our standard practices. Some high level issues which may arise are outlined below. 2.1 ShellsPlates or Solids?

For an aircraft fuselage or an undercarriage mounting bracket the answer to this question is obvious. But what of the solid missile wing, the undercarriage oleo leg, the thick skin at the root of a composite wing, the one-piece forged or machined airbrake? For such structures a balanced judgment is needed, weighing the analysis purposes and accuracy on the one hand against cost and complexity on the other. Some of the considerations affecting the decision are set out in Table 1 below. TABLE I Choice of Shell or Solid Representation

For Shell

For Solid
0

KStructure

is of characteristic shell or plate form or built up from such members Thicknesses small compared with other significant dimensions Mainly interested in stresses at extreme fibres or in displacements

Structure is form

of general 3-dimensional

Thicknesses are significant compared with other relevant dimensions Stress distribution through the thickness is likely to be important, especially when there are stress raisers in the depthwise direction Strength through the thickness or in out-of-plane shear is lower than inplane Progressive non-linearity may develop, moving in from the surface Specialised solid elements (e.g. orthotropic sandwich core) provide efficient representation of densely- packed structure or quasi-solid material

Homogeneous,

isotropic material

o Through-thickness

or out-of plane shear stresses unlikely to be significant Cost or job size are serious limiting factors

Adequately proven solid elements are not available No efficient shell-solid transition elements are available

Similar questions arise in frame and beam-type structures where we must decide on line elements versus representatively modelled sections. In all cases, we recommend that, other things being equal, the simplest representation is the best! 2.2 Membranes or Plate/Shells; Facets or Curvature

At first sight it may seem pointless to use facet membrane representation of any curved shell when there appear to be plenty of shell elements available. But not only are there order-of-magnitude size and cost differences, there is also no such thing as an impeccable curved shell element, which can be reliably used (and interpreted by ordinary mortals) without significant added complexity. One need only cite the old problem of the rotation component normal to the shell surface (and the many dubious practices used to suppress or circumvent it) to realise the practical difficulties. In academic circles, the use of lower order elements (e.g. linear isoparametrics) is almost unknown, yet in industry, where complex built-up structures are being analysed, these are still the norm. There are good reasons for this, despite the readily available ev4dence that "higher-order is beLter" from a cost: accuracy viewpoint. Linear elements are both easy to use and understand and are reliable (if not precise) in performance. They can be safely used in conjunction with statically equivalent loads without needing to bring in the added complexities of kinematic equivalence. Furthermore, if the structure (at the scale of the F.E. analysis mesh) is not a continuum, but an assembly (or intersecting network) of discrete members, then all theoretical advantages of higher order elements can be lost.

The issues which affect these high level representation arguments were explored in For example, Fig. 1 shows a so-called in a recent expert systems project(5). some detail called inferonce net, taken from ref. 5 which indicates how a recommendation to use membrane (as opposed to flexural) representation was derived.
Q

OR

13risr

Membane l[Lv s~n

madlu

I~q

Irlvat 1

ion

of

th,.

Membrane Mmbrane

1~~ed,r (Srngthn Recomendation

the diagram shows that three factors influence the strength of Wzithout joing into detail, (the predominance of) membrane recommendation in favour of membrane representation:loading supports the recommendation whilst (the presence of many) unsupported nodes and rule provides a Bayes' oppose it. offset sensitive <the probability that the akin is) The means of combining and weighting these factors, to emulate balanced human judgment. three influencing factors are themselves derived from other considerations such as material, ultimately leading back to direct analysis purposes or {the use of) brittle normal pressure Inot there significant) questions to be asked of the analyst, such as (is The judgments are seen to curvature or closely spaced supports)? reacted by circular The be complex hot they lead back to questions which are individually quite simple. way of making such judgments, practical expert systems methodology provides the first associated questions, readily accessible to people without wading through and their complex manuals. impossibly2.] 3

jmmetr

or

Hel eated

Struct ures

take advantage of it to As a general rule, if symmetry is present in a structure, boundary interactions) patterns (and their structural reduce the problem size.: likewise if problems but in others poses no practical this In some analysis systems, are repeated. For example, a fuselage structure may to a great deal of complexity. it can give rise length and asymmetric over another part. symmetric over part of its be structurally Whether or not we take advantage of symmetry, where it exists, depends upon how readily usually, asymmetric loadings) with the we can combine symmetric halves (and their, Often the complexity asymmetric portion of the shell to obtain the overall solution. - a and re-runs, makes the alternative of this task, to say nothing of the false starts doubled size for p)art of the analysis - look very appealing! are not available in the finite If fully automated and clearly explained facilities acquiring minefield without first it is foolish to enter this element system being used, theory" of in symbolic problem-solving using the "engineers' :;ome manipulative skill It requires some skill equivalent. matrix analysis of the previous paper)4) or its and experience just to get signs right and to avoid errors by factors of 2! runs on small problems be carried out and validated W" always recommend that trial Time must be allocated for building up this before attempting large analyses. confidence - it will usually be repaid in fewer abortive runs. 2.4 ModeligStrategy upon some of the stratigic We now look at some of to features issues which must be settled these more systematically. at

We have already touched of modelling. th" very start Mesh scale in relation

as roughly rectangular assemblies Many aerospace structures are designed and built The pattern of actual members and so en. stiffeners of skins, supporting members, a (possibly more than one) natural mesh scale, simply by following structure dictates

s~4
intersec' ions and improving proportions by regular sub division of slender pane)s.

Fgq.

Winn

Internal Structure

and Des2 ,

Anays sMesh

The wing shown

in

fig.

2 is

an example of a structure

whose natural

mesh is

clearly

dictated by the closely spaced spars. Whether this natural mesh is not fine enough, just right or too fine for general analysis is a question which must first be related to the analysis purposes and perhaps modified by size and cost considerations. With today's company computers it is rarely necessary to go coarser than the natural grid defined by the major supporting members (spars, ribs, frames, bulkhead etc.) but equally rarely feasible to get down to individual skin stiffeners for closely-pitched stiffened skins. It is almost never feasible to represent skin stiffeners in full section detail in a single pass analysis. We showed in a recent AGARD discussion paper that such an analysis might require 105 nodes x 6 dof. per node for a wing, more for a fuselage - a huge task for multi-case, multi-purpose analysis, for pre- and post-processing and for information handling. 0 Super-modelling and Sub-modelling

A totally different approach to modelling is appropriate if we choose a basic mesh scale much finer than the natural mesh as opposed to a similar or coarser scale. In the former case, which I shall subsequently term super-modelling we can base decisions on the continuum analysis reasoning favoured by the academic community. In the opposite case, hereafter called sub-modelling, continuum strategies are largely irrelevant. As suggested above, most major airframe components will fall into the sub-modelling category. Super-modelling will be confined to local regions and isolated structural members. The divergence in strategy is indicated in Table 2 below. TABLE 2 Indications for modelling srategv Super-modelling (more mesh than features) Graded meshes refining in regions of geometric or load-induced stress concentraion High order elements indicated 0 Explicit representation of the relatively few major structural members with mesh density appropriate to significance Stress gradients, principal stress contours, energy densities guide mesh definition related to mesh scale

Sub-modelling (more features than natural mesh) Meshes in multiples or sub-multiples of basic mesh, determined by structure
o o

Simple,

low order elements indicated

Minimal (single line or panel) representation of major skin-support members Mesh refinement, in local sub0 multiples of basic mesh, only at most significant stress raisers (continued over page)

'FABLE 2

(continued)

Super-modelling (more mesh than features) Accuracy principal critetion Adaptive refinement and postanalysis correction are appropriate

Sub-modelling (more features than natural mesh) Sub-scale features normally implicit in standard mesh elements; representation by subsidiary analysis, special elements and substructuring
0 Convenience, size, principal criteria

cost the

Substructuring and Superelements Substructuring is a device for breaking down an analysis into manageable parts. Only if there are several identical and repeated substructures does it offer any savings in either elapsed time or solution cost. Usually it adds a great deal of complexity to the analysis specification and actually increases the overall job size. We must distinguish between substructuring which is only recommended when there are sufficient supporting reasons, from partitioned data preparation, which breaks down the modelling process but not the solution into manageable and natural parts; this is recommended for all large and fairly complex structures. Reasons which support substructuring, in roughly descending order of importance are:(swing wings, deflecting control

Relative geometry of adjoining structures changes surfaces, etc. etc.)

o o

Different analysis teams assigned to tasks.

Single-pass analysis exceeds available computing time slot (may be better to try a bigger computer!) o Localised iterations required, e.g. non-linear analysis, contact problems etc. nearly statically

Several components very sparsely connected (higher priority if determinate)

o Multiple, repeating substructures (but probably better to

use modified

stiffness

matrix assembly) Remember that substructuring, taken through to rigorous solutions, complicates structure and load definition, solution (especially for dynamic and iterative solutions) and verification. More errors are likely and there are no pre- and post-processing advantages compared with simple data partitioning. When substructuring is used it is often necessary to analyse substructures independently with approximate (e.g. coarse mesh) interface conditions and only to carry out full interaction if there is reason to suspect that the interface conditions are causing local disturbances in stress patterns. There is a special form of substructure analysis, involving generalised prior solutions of standard components, considered later under the heading of implicit modelling. Another simplifying device is to analyse smaller structures whose boundaries overlap so that St. Venant's principle can be allowed to do its work and we make two estimates of behaviour in the overlap region. 3. Basic Mesh Definition

Having discussed some of the strategic issues which depend upon the mesh scale in relation to real structure, let us now return to the mesh definition in a little more detail. It is implied in the nature of most geometric pre-processor systems that structures to be analysed comprise components bounded by a relatively small number of continuous surfaces. It is predicated that the analyst's problem is to create a mesh by interpolation between the relatively coarse defining boundaries and that there is freedom to select intermediate mesh lines for convenience and accuracy. As we have seen already, this situation can apply when we are able to adopt super-modelling strategy, i.e. when dealing with relatively, small, self contained components. For the large majority of aerospace structures we are in a sub-modelling situation, where the defining boundaries of the structure are already very complex and, whatever scale we choose for analysis, there will usually be significant structure features at a smaller scale. Only in very local regions, where significant features are sparse, do we have the luxury of free choice of intermediate mesh lines. At the most we deal with standardised ways of blending a local mesh (such as a ring of nodes around a large hole) into a more-or-less rectangular pattern.

To cormali se t ho di scass ion , w, consider mesh defini t ion in two parts of a basic mesh pattern which is directly related to the pattern of structural and where the principal considerations are scale of the mesh and proportions elements ii) modification of the basic mesh to account for special structural this the local mesh and will consider it further in the next section. 1.t How Fine is Fine?

i)

creation

members of the

features - we term

We normally describe a mesh as coarse or fine and naturally associate these qualitative descriptions with the purposes of the analysis. Whilst these terms are self explanatory to the experienced analyst, they need some numerical interpretation for guidance of the relative novice; this depends on the size and complexity of the structure being analysed. For structures like aircraft wings and fuselages, coarse usually means representing all major intersecting members and doing no more than making a few integral sub divisions of natural bays of high aspect ratio. The natural mesh thus defined in fig. 2 would therefore be described as coarse. Where there are few intersecting members, for example in a sandwich core-filled flap as shown in fig. 3, a coarse mesh is defined by the minimum number of stations needed to give reasonable stress and displacement patterns across the lesser plan form dimension. Five or six stations across the width, corresponding pitch along the length and no additional stations through the thickness will be most peoples'idea of a coarse mesh.

Fi.

Minimu

Mesh for a Simple Flap

the expert system described in, ref. 5, the following formula is used (in a sense), for topologically cylindrical shells, to define the coarsest or minimum mesh size for a shell with few intersecting members. in "fizzy" Minimum mesh size2l where the symmetry factor is no symmetry. 50 x(l + 0.6 x Depth-ratio) x Aspect-ratio Symmetry-factor 3.5 for double symmetry and 1 for

1.8 for single symmetry,

The flap of fig. 3 with no symmetry, aspect ratio 4 and depth ratio 0.1 evaluates to 212 nodes which compares with the 231 nodes shown for 6 chordwise stations. The formula applies to within about 20% for a wide variety of shell cross sections, but needs modification for multi-surface shells (e.g. fuselage with internal floors, walls or engine tunnels and ducts). Returning to the more complex structures such as fig. 2, the decision whether or not we need a basic mesh finer than the natural one depends on our assessment of "how fine is the natural mesh already?" A measure of this is the natural mesh ratio defined as Natural mesh. To complete the formal description of the decision process we have Minimum mesh -aftegorised analysis purposes into three broad groups:Coarse purposes are those which create no special demands for refinement The natural mesh of Fine purposes are those which may require the natural mesh ratio refinement beyond

depoendent upon the magnitude

Very fine purposes are those which certainly require a finer level of diet il
that provided by the natural mesh.

th,sn

Refinement in this context means integral sub division of natural mesh pitches and maintenance of element aspect ratios in an acceptable range (we normally use to 2 for Examples of skins, up to 5 for internal webs, with "near square" the preferred shape). categorisations which we have adopted (as general guidelines subject to override by the analyst) are tabulated below. TABLE 3 Categorisation of Analysis Purposes

Coarse Purposes Initial sizing of structure Global optimisation Global flexibility determination Static aeroelastics Global dynamic response Dynamic stability (flutter)
___Panel

Fine Purposes Design stress analysis Global static stability Post-buckled, quasi-static response Damage tolerance analysis Thermal response Global + local dynamic response
flutter

Very Fine Purposes Check stress analysis Fracture mechanics Laminated structure analysis Global + local stability Acoustic response

Combining all these factors with others pertinent to particular tasks makes the ultimate But in the end we came down to a relatively simple decision complex and subjective. choice: "one, two, three or more sub divisions of the natural mesh, or none at all?" Numerical assessments are possible but they can only be approximate, within rather large tolerarces. One way of dealing with this, in expert systems design, is to give weighted recommendations based on formulae and fuzzy set theory so that we might advise the user (based on information on purposes and knowledge of the natural mesh proportions):No sub-division 1 sub-division 2 sub-divisions 3 sub-divisions
::-

:
:-

0.07 0.56 0.32 0.05

Strengths of recommendation in range 0-1 We use

making it a matter of personal preference or convenience which option to adopt. this approach frequently in our FEASA system(5). 3.2 Graded Meshes

The previous discussion relates to a "typical" mesh which is implied to apply fairly uniformly over a structure. If we are in the sub-modelling situation (with more features than mesh points) this fairly uniform coverage is usually appropriate. But in situations like the flap in fig. 3 it is obvious that the major load concentrations and localised deformations will occur in the immediate vicinity of the hinges. The uniform mesh of fig. 3 is clearly not ideal and we are faced with two basic options:a) treat the hinge zones as local features and use local sub division and blending techniques as discussed later in section 4. b) use a gradually graded mesh in which a smooth transition is made between the uniform mesh remote from the hinges and the local mesh defined by the hinge geometry and attachment features. Mesh gradation is a topic in its own right with an extensive and often esoteric literature. Basically there are two distinct approaches, namely a priori methods, in which we base decisions on knowledge available before analysis, and a a posteriori methods in which we use the results of one or more analyses to improve a trial mesh. The latter topic leads on to self-adaptive mesh refinement, hierarchical elements and many other topics outside the scope of this lecture (see, for example, Babunka(6), Zienkiewicz(7) and Brandt(8) ). A priori methods rely heavily on experience to know how fine to make the local node spacing and how to blend into the remote mesh. Often, if automatic mesh generators are used, the options for blending are very limtied. Regions of structure must be sub divided into combinations of topological rectangles and/or triangles with a limited range of possibilities for specifying interpolation parameters. In arriving at a judgment, the practical engineer will take into account many factors in addition to accuracy, for example:-

Profiles of thickness changes or laminations expected principal stress trajectories mesh continuity for ease of presentation and interpolation maintaining sound element proportions picking up sub-scale features such as bolt holes

My own preference is to keep to near-square quadrilaterals and if necessary to sub-divide without blending, by using constraints on boundaries where nodes are incompatible. Standard blending patterns, such as from squares to circles with approximately geometric progression in mesh spacing, fit well with use of automation.

4.

Local Modelling of Structural Features

This is perhaps the most important aspect of the whole modelling topic for the a"rospace engineer. Knowing what to represent, how to represent it and in how much detail is the art which separates the expert from the novice, the good analyst from the bad. In the previous paper we emphasised that it is pointless to try to achieve more than finite element analysis can deliver. Stress concentrations at tiny holes, crack tips and so on are best dealt with by appropriate local analysis, which is not to say that the products of such analysis should not be incorporated implicitly in the F.E. model. What we want to avoid is the pursuit of indefinitely fine meshing in r-qiuno of near singularity. In a recent paper(9) we introduced (or more accurately gave a respectable name to) implicit mnodelling and implicit mesh refinement as the pragmatic alternatives to explicit fine meshing and comprehensive substructure analysis. They are, in fact,concepts which have been embodied from the very first day that finite element analysis was used in anger, yet this may be the first attempt to give them systematic consideration. The first issue in local modelling is thus to answer the following question. 4.1 Explicit or Implicit Modelling?

We are now looking at sub-scale features of the structure, i.e. structurally significant features whose defining geometry is at a smaller scale than the basic grid, previously discussed, and at major features which perturb the basic grid, such as cut-outs and doors in otherwise continuous skins. The alternative approaches are:o Explicit modelling in which we represent the important geometry of the features by appropriate local mesh and element selection and blend in to the basic mesh Implicit modelling, in which we continue the basic mesh with no more than minor changes (duplication of occasional nodes to allow flexible coupling is as far as we go) but modify the section properties of elements and/or their materials so as to simulate When using implicit modelling the effect of the features as seen by adjoining structure. it is assumed that the analysis will yield good boundary conditions to enable a subsequent local analysis of the features to be performed. Implicit modelling is thus a hybrid form of substructure analysis which may or may not use F.E. methods at the detail level. If F.E. methods are used we give the process the special name implicit mesh refinement. As far as the global analysis is concerned, these issues are transparent; there is absolutely no complication of the analysis compared with a straightforward model with no local features. Once more we are faced with a judgment which owes more to engineering appreciation of behaviour and practicalities of analysis operatio" than to finite element theory. In table 4 we list some of the influencing considerationF.
TABLE 4

Factors Indicating Explicit or Implicit Modelling For Explicit Modelling Large scale of features (comparable or greater than basic mesh size) Major fixtures such as mounting carrying significant loads with For Implicit Modelling Small scale of individual features (relative to basic mesh) Large numbers of similar features Adequate theoretical treatment, given characteristic load levels (e.g. fracture mechanics, standard stress raisers, etc.)

fittings

Critical importance of investigating the features, per se, particularly if ..... No adequate local treatment available

4.2

Explicit Modelling - Nodes or Know-how?

When we decide to represent features explicitly we are still faced with an important choice - whether to use a relatively coarse representation, relying on understanding and subsidiary analysis to fill in the detail or whether to "bury the problem in nodes" and let the F.E. method sort out the details. In the extreme, the latter approach is cited as a potential use of supercomputers - to solve complex structures without any need for analytical skill. In most cases, reliance on nodes in lieu of physical understanding is a dangerous practice. It is certainly expensive in solution time and possibly in data manipulation time too. There are, of course, cases where it is wholly appropriate. For .-xampl. in a very complex stress and deformation situation, such as might arise at an i-cs panl in a laminated composite skin (with single sided reinforcement) as shown in fii. 4, (ocal fine meshing may be the only feasible solution. The combination of edge -tf,.,ts, local fastener holes, asymmetric reinforcement and local non-linear behaviour mak's it advisable to isolate the region as a substructure which can be analysed to a !,' ...... t r'fin',menf impractical over the structure as a whole.

_77,

I -

SBolt

o,-tO~l, ............
AsymmIetri re frce nt

SI

\and
\ ,'

"

la"

Fig 4

Plate iith Access Hole -_Quadrant

of Substructure

More generally, however, we would recommend relatively coarse meshing, to obtain the stress or displacement trends in the region rather than directly estimating peaks. In the common case of stress raisers at cut-outs or fillets it is well known that the F.E. method usually displays the classic features of the law of dimimishing returns. In a NAFEMS benchmark test, (10, 11) typical convergence to a correct peak stress is illustrated in fig. 5

2< .

4-node

quads

tnlod

,Iss0t

1I,-node quads

I--'xtrujolat

on

by fair curve

0.

4 So

...

eN50
N .

100
of F- 111,1-,1

1"_0

Pig.

A NA7RDl

Benchwark

Tent Showing Conv!rge

eRate .

The coarsest solution, using a ring of 2 x 4-noded straight-sided quadrilaterals around periphery, returns 81% of the correct answer at the peak stress point. Using a faired curve either along the centre line or around the hole periphery the same analysis can yield 95% of the true solution, as good as we can obtain directly from three times as many nodes.

may

jse

we, wOuld suggest that, for modelling cut-outs and fillets, a norm,il 1,f I ,, I elements, 4 or 7 nodes per quadrant around a curved boundary, 2 elements,

or - nodes per half side at a rectangle. At most, 2 rings of such elements may be needed hefore blending into the basic mesh. Very fine analysis may double the numbers of elements and beyond this we are dealing with individual cases to be treated on their
merits.

-(a-

Taking

another

quite

different

example,

stiffener

supporting

skin,

as

shown

in

fig. 6, is better represented by a "cubic" beam with offset attachment and shear deformation (at I node x 4 d.o.f, per node, per longitudinal station) than by membrane If we are concerned with interaction between flats (at 3 or 4 nodes x 3 d.o.f.), stiffener and skin stability, we can either treat this by continuous stiffened skin analysis using stress levels derived from the beam representation or adopt a full flexural treatment of the stiffener allowing for attachment at the fastener line, needing 5 or 6 This complexity is very rarely justifiable as it is questionnodes x 6 d.o.f, per node. able whether there is any improvement in accuracy.
4.3 Explicit Modellin - Joints and Attachment Fittings

In airframe structure analysis, a most important, yet often neglected modelling Bolted, riveted consideration is the representation of joints and associated fittings. and even bonded joints can contribute significantly to overall structural flexibility. Attachment brackets, with their pins, bushes and fasteners, have a major influence on the distribution of load in our structures. ___In assessing the flexibility of joints it is always necessary to look at the details of load transfer because we often transmit substantial loads through thin material in flexure or via pins with significant offsets. However it is rarely necessary to represent this detail explicitly in any other than the most detailed local analyses.

fig . I

Pli1o

Cel t

efsoheirns

in a

-in k

ti;,,,'

Usually, explcit modelling of a joint and its attachment points (e.g. lug centres) as structural

fixtures means representing all major nodes, either individuaely or at

stations representing local node groups. It is always necessary to identify separate nodes on two sides of a joint and represent flexible material between them. In representing attachment fittings we need to be careful to provide stiff load paths in the plane of webs and flanges and flexible paths out of plane. Where significant loads are transmitted in flexure, as in the base of the bracket in fig. 7 (or the cleat in fig. 1 of the previous paper) it is important to remember that it is flexibility, not stiffness, which matters. Thus if we are to ignore anything in these fittings it is the high-stiffness in-plane-loaded parts, not the flexible, flexurally loaded parts of the load path. It is always better to make a simple engineering estimate of bracket flexibility by assuming load paths and summing strain energies in the varies members than to ignore the fittings for lack of meaningful data. Better still, use the implicit modelling approach of ref. 9 at their and run some typical F.E. analyses on various brackets and derive flexibilities attachment points therefrom. One or two analyses may be sufficient to define representative flexibilities for 10 or more flap/slat/aileron/airbrake mounting brackets or 100 cleats. Simple lap, angle and buttstrap joii-ts depend bending in sheets and plates with offset loadings, Until recently, data on joint flexibility have not now being rectified to some extent by ESDU(12). ness of titanium bolts in aluminium alloy skins. more than been Fig 8 on the flexibility of on the flexibility of widely available, but shows a typical curve fasteners, the fittings. this is for stiff-

k S S k tt

Foundation stiffness per Stiffness of single bolt

unit thicknessi]ont S,

0.18

x E0 t, 18

1.0

Steel bolts in aluminlroum alloy

Titanium bolts 1. aluminium alloy

in

0,8/
X

0,8 Clamped head

0.8 0.6
Test data

08/Test

data

06

Clanped head

0 2
F... he-d

0.2
Free head

0
Fig. a olte Joint stiffnesa Data Bolts in Single

1/
Shear)

,,

The commonest joints in sheet and plate structures are continuous line joints. In these it is rarely necessary to model individual fasteners, so data as in fig. 8 are normally used to estimate stiffnesses related to pairs of approximately coincident nodes
at basic grid spacing. Stiffness at these nodes represents the aggregate behaviour of a

group of fasteners and improved accuracy can be obtained by allowing, displacement variations between adjoining elements at a joint.

say,

linear

Individual fastener modelling, or at least higher order relative displacement functions, may be needed in load diffusion situations, such as the end of a stiffener or
reinforcement. Fastener load peaks rapidly towards we the and of the member so that subtlety in deriving the the

first

two or three fasteners may carry the bulk of the load.

from a coarse analysis if use a little

Even in this case we can

get very good results

equivalent joint flexibilities. We can carry out a subsidiary calculation of load distribution at a stiffener end and calculate equivalent 'lumped' fastener flexibilities using, for example, a careful strain energy analysis. For complete load transfer at a multi-fasterner overlap joint, ESDU(II) provides a simple computer program to determine effective joint flexibility. 4.4 Implicit Modelling or Use of Equivalent Stiffnesses

As soon as we decide to perform an analysis at a scale larger than that of many structural features we must decide what to do about those features. Our options are:(i) model them explicitly and in some detail, as above

(ii)

model them explicitly but at a coarse scale as suggested for continuous joints. represent them implicitly by modifying basic element properties

line

liii) (iv)

ignore them altogether and correct the results by subsequent local nalysis

Option (iv) is favoured by most stressmen for obvious reasons and in many cases it is perfectly valid. The criterion to be used is whether or not the local features will have any discernible effect beyond the boundaries of the element in which they occur. Features which are continuous or frequently repeated, such as stiffeners on a skin or a series of lightening holes in a web, cannot and would not be ignored in any circumstances. Most sub-scale features can be classified as reinforcing (stiffeners, bosses, lands etc.) or weakening (holes, grooves, notches etc.) or joints. As a rough guide, such features can be ignored under the following circumstances. Feature Type Reinforcing features Can be ignored if:Reinforcement is not continuous AND Aggregate volume of reinforcements <10% of basic element volume No more than 20% section lost in any

Weakening

features

continuous loadpath across the element AND Aggregate volume of perforations <5% of basic element volume

Joints

Aggregate flexibility over periphery of element <10% of element flexibility under relevant uniform loading

These rough rules are intended to ensure that features is within 1 10% of the basic element Coarse-scale explicit representation

the strain energy in the element with under any relevant loading.

its

This will be the normal method used for continuous reinforcing members, in rectangular or trapezoidal panels, as well as for many joints. The earliest way of representing stiffeners was by lumping into equivalent edge members, which is the crudest coarse-scale device. A better treatment in pure displacement or hybrid analysis is to apply consistent deformations along element boundaries using the identical interpolation forms used for sheet, plate or shell members and derive special stiffnesses at nodes, as in ref. 9. If not available as standard within the F.E. system, it is fairly simple to add one's own special elements on this basis. The alternative is a true implicit modelling method using "smearing" of stiffeners into an equivalent orthotropic sheet as discussed below. Modification of basic element properties This is usually the simplest method to introduce into a standard F.E. analysis as it involves no special mesh, no special elements and no solution complications. On the other hand it may require the most work by the analyst if it is to be used effectively. It is the recommended practice for dealing with most weakening features, discontinuous reinforcements and continuous reinforcements if special elements are too difficult to implement. Considering membrane loading of plates as an example, then, if we assume that orthotropic material properties are available as a standard option, there are three material constants and an orientation angle which can be adjusted to simulate the behaviour of a modified basic element - four variables in all. In most cases it is sufficient to perform simple engineering analyses on sirgle elements under constant direct shear and in-plane bending loadings in order to derive equivalent material properties. Many standard formulae(3, 11) are available to determine such stiffness equivalents for commonly occurring features. For example table 5 below is derived from ref. 3, in turn presented in ref. 11: it relates to the effective stiffness of shear webs with standard weakening features.

TABLE 5 Equivalent Stiffness of Weakened Shear Webs Effective Type of Web Shear Effective area A of web dassNiated wib Beams in flexure Pnl STs iht, rdel tlange

Stiffeners (equivalent Gt) C

Plain webs Honey comb

bt

__

sandwich Webs Shear-buckled plain web Web with lightening holes Corgtdwb

Ct

for skins 0.b Ct

6 Lesser of 15t' or br/6 1st

2

Cr (l.-D/ a t aZero

t(-t 6 normal to corgain

2 Zero normal) to bt parallel)corruga2 itions 15t bt 6

2

Web with shallow swages

Gt

Lesser of 1St

or bt

normal) )to parallel )swages

GtZero (astelladrv we ' +i

along line of casrellations

zeroangt le -btnormal )o 3casteLLarions

D) hole diameter

d 1mt-io n"

a.- deve loped lengt h

pta~tnot depth pitch

FIG

Pkd1-No

tl

WM

Ah F:

IG. th ise~o~

Younq 'smo,-

If.-..n

"In many

cIes

muc 1-el as T1 lonituina is mouu qto

th, by

iC

*.t

we orh wishx trop

nes

i
ishiW od>-o ththeYon;
I,

tt(uso
llt;Id
-h

wa
cosdee it,
but

ehv

~ ii'

. t~

."T

wtish

tort

.- 14

re-stating

some

of our preferences:-

'Generally, quadrilateral elements out-perform triangles of comparable ndo(h density though triangles are often easier to fit into graded meshes; we always recommend quadrilaterals wherever possible, triangles only for mesh blending in critical areas.

non-

'We prefer low order elements wherever we are sub-modelling (more features and details than mesh points) as they are simpler, easier to use and more reliable for the non-expert. 'We prefer higher order elements situations, for their better accuracy in continuum analysis and super modelling and economy in regions of stress concentration. recognising that this is no more than

historic

'We normally use pure displacement elements attachment to familiar things.

We recognise the practical advantages of stress-based or hybrid elements in giving boundary representations which are closer to the stressman's requirements than displacement formulations but are wary of difficulties in recovering true displacements and of unpredictable performance outside proven applications. 'My own preference is for an element which does not yet exist in a satisfactory form, but which we hope to launch in the near future - a quadrilateral with in-plane nodal rotation (drilling) and a satisfactory capability to represent in-plane flexure without numerical integration fixes. 'In solid elements, the same basic rules apply: low order for sub-modelling, high order for supermodelling. There are some very bad performers about and it is worth while delving into element validation tests before making a final choice. Some useful special elements are available such as orthotropic shear elements to represent honeycomb core in sandwich structures. 6. Load and Inertia Modelling

In these days of automated aids to mesh generation (which is a purely geometric and topological problem), the preparation of loading data, which depend on element formulation as well as on factors wholly extraneous to the structural analysis, can become the dominant task in analysis data preparation. Two main factors can contribute to this problem:Aerodynamic from the structure. data are usually derived as load parameters related to a different mesh

'Representation of continuous capabilities of the chosen structural

loading is only possible within the limited elements.

The grid-to-grid transformation problem can prove quite tricky, especially in transonic and supersonic cases where abrupt loading changes are associated with shock fronts. Where point load values are used in both aerodynamics and structural representations, a direct, statically exact, transformation is desirable. Some general methods are available but more often the analyst must provide his own. If pressure values are used in the structural analysis, these will normally be interpolated from the aerodynamic loads, leading to a possibility of small errors in static load balance (which may show up as more significant errors at supports or constraints). In any case a detailed load and moment balance check is an essential part of any such transformation. The process is very tedious and time consuming unless it is programmed in advance. We strongly recommend that all teams who regularly carry out structural analysis of flying surfaces should equip themselves with automated routines tailored to their requirements. This may appear to be a serious overhead cost, but the alternative is a great deal of repetitive, error prone and costly work for every analysis. Whilst most structural analyses accept normal-to-surface loads either as pressure values or as equivalent nodal loads, depending on the complexity of the elements adopted, special attention is needed when distributed loads are applied in-plane at element boundaries. Here we must be careful to introduce kinematically equivalent loads(4) if we are to avoid serious distortion of stress patterns near to the boundaries. This again can be tedious and time consuming unless the job is handled via general purpose computer routines - so the same advice applies as before - equip yourself with the automation routine rather than repeatedly waste time and effort. Inertia modelling is another difficult and time-consuming task if local accuracy is needed. In fine mesh analysis it is often adequate to use simplified distributed mass representations and many analysis systems provide a facility for specifying accelerations from which quasi-static inertia forces may be calculated. In coarse mesh analysis and

most importantly in reduced fine mesh analysis (for dynamic response) it is rarely satisfactory to use simple lumping of masses at the coarse mesh nodes. We need to use kinematically equivalent inertia loads in direct coarse-mesh analysis and consistently transformed inertia matrices (which will include cross-coupling terms) when using reduced stiffnesses. Facilities provided in standard analysis packages are often

SI inadequate to handle these jobs properly. In this paper we can do no more than recommend the analyst to seek the advice of reputable experts, if the system is inadequate. 7. Kinematic Boundary Conditions: Constraints and Symmetry theory This handle

Many practical structural analysts, brought upon traditional, statics-based find difficulty in understanding kinematic boundary conditions and constraints. difficulty is often compounded by the fact that the finite element systems

commonly arising cases automatically, requiring only formalised data inputs from the user. Elegant treatments of symmetry as sub-cases of a universal concept, as in MSC/NASTRAN(13),can further distance the average engineer from real understanding. However, in the engineering theory of the previous lecture the concepts are simple, but as so often happens, applications of those simple concepts can become complex. 7.1 Constraints

Single point constraints, in which we usually equate one or more displacement components to zero to represent structural support, cause few problems. Multipoint constraints, which couple degrees of freedom at neighbouring points cause more difficulty. However, these are so commonly used that every analyst should make a conscious effort to understand them and acquire facility in describing and manipulating them. Some of the common applications are listed below:-

applying symmetry conditions theory analysis, e.g. "plane sections remain plane and

interface with engineers' undistorted" -

representing rigid members allowance for local offsets interpolation between otherwise incompatible meshes treatment of partial releases - hinges and slides (e.g. treatment of

introduction or elimination of special degrees of freedom "drilling" rotation in shells) Engineers' Theory Interface

This is a good example of the use of constraints because of its familiarity to every mechanical engineer. In fig. 10 we show an analysis mesh representing the end of a cantilever beam whose outer parts are adequately described by simple beam theory. At the interface we may either prescribe a set of forces as derived from standard beam theory or we impose the fundamental kinematic assumption: plane sections remain plane and undistorted, zero lengthwise displacement (pure flexure). In this simple twodimensional example, this means defining the u-displacements as linearly varying with distance from the neutral axis and v- displacements as equal at all points. There are always two way of writing down the constraint conditions:a) b) via a set of constraint equations expressing an imposed relationship between the nodal displacements as a transformation relating the complete set of nodal displacements to a smaller number of displacement variables.

The second method is more general because the reduced variables need not be a subset of the nodal variables. They can be physically appropriate to the job. In this case, we would naturally choose vertical shear V and rotation e as our variables. Mathematically the two formulations are equivalent and the constraint equations can always be derived from the transformation. In this case the two forms are as follows:Constraint equations

Yl

Y2

ul]

0
0

u 2

e.

H
v3
0
iFq. 10
En
0

u4

1
1

-0
0

,neers

-~

__

__4

Transformation

[u 1
2 U4
-,

0o 0
0

Y
Y

~
1

V]

or

=TI

LJ
0 0 0(8 displacements defined in terms of 2 remaining degrees of freedom)

V V3

1 4

The transformation version is in this case simpler, more physically meaningful and directly provides the means of representing the corresponding 'orce relationship(4).
LMJ (

2 X3 X4 y1 2

3 Y4

This is a special case of a rigid member constraint coupling four nodes. It allows total separation of the two parts of the beam with a consistent interface between them. It will most probably produce a stress distribution on the finite element side of the interface different from the EBT distribution on the other side, but static equivalence in terms of shear force and bending moment is assured. Other Direct Constraint Conditions Rigid elements, local offsets, local mesh interpolations can all be treated as above. In all cases the two ways of writing the constraints are available: in some cases one is the more natural in some cases the other. In all cases, transformation gives more generality and the added bonus of corresponding force definition. The transformation or constraint equations can always be written down by inspection from the geometry of the system. An important point to note is that all such geometric relationships must be consistent with nodal geometry to an order of accuracy comparable with that used in the finite element progam, otherwise significant errors in static equilibrium may arise. It is therefore recommended that computer routines be written (if not provided as standard) to derive all transformation coefficients directly from nodal geometry. Partial Releases - Hinges and Slides One standard treatment is to use duplicate nodes referenced by appropriate elements on either side of the release and to couple the constrained freedoms in just the same way as described above. The transformation route allows us to use relative displacemert as one of the defining degrees of freedom rather than relate absolute displacements. 7.2 Symmetry and Repeated Boundary Conditions

It is common practice to analyse structures which have reflective or cyclic symmetry as single segments subject to appropriate loadings and kinematic constraints. In the extreme case, axial symmetry, we analyse a single cross section which is rotated around the axis of symmetry. If there are N repetitions of the basic segment (or fundamental region) then, in general, we can solve the structural problem completely by performing N analyses of the fundamental region. This means N different sets of boundary constraints and N corresponding sets of loading cases. For axisymmetric structures and we reduce the problem to a finite approximation by using Fourier series. There are, of course, many practical situations where the principal loading cases of interest are themselves symmetric in some way: we may then reduce the number of separate solutions to the number of symmetric loading conditions. Returning to the general case, it is useful to clarify our ideas about the treatment of symmetry by reference to a simple example - the singly-symmetric plate of fig. 11. A most important point to establish at the outset is that the analysis in terms of a repeated fundamental region is basically an application of super-position of loads and displacements: the various symmetric components (in this case the symmetric and antislmmetric loads and constraints) apply to exactly the same structure. Provided that we retain the full force and displacement set at the axis of symmetry (including those freedoms set to zero in imposing the boundary conditions) the same stiffness matrix applies both to symmetric and antisymmetric systems. However, to relate the stiffness of a fundamental region to that of the structure as a whole clearly requires a transformation of displacements and forces. This transformation is needed for two purposes:i) ii) to relate the co-ordinate systems on each side of a symmetry axis to a single global system to equate displacement at nodes on the symmetry axis for all repeated elements.

This transformation is distinct from and must not be confused with the displacemetnt and force summation and decomposition relationship s which connect symmetric suib-analyses solutions. with resultant In our example, we analyse the right hand half of the symmetric plate in terms of symmetric displacements Us and antisymmetric UA (which include the zeros which prescribe the boundary conditions). The resultant displacements {Ur U.} on right and left halves are given by:-

k AJ

N.-

"N

or the asstrrption thet U is Cefirc. io ro-ordinates "hich are reflected a-cUt ths axis, as- Stovn in fig. I. gives t e se relationshi i Tin 1 displacedeconpcsitior , of resultant iits into soxmoettic and antis Vnse tric F:arts:-

> " I . -L-.... . 'UL "

IJ["rI

],
}

and

for forces:-

A.ntisymmetres F0.

U[

-Up
i- 5 .etrlc Plate

II

We re-emphasise that these are decomposition and super-position relations, NOT curresponding force and displacement transformations. [The symmetric and antisymmetric force components are i x the forces corresponding with symmetric and antisymmetric reflected pairs of displacements]. We associate the same the stiffness equations as stiffness K0 US UA for a half structure with both solutions, writing

I5 = K IA = K

subject subject

to ub = 0 to vu = 0 Different

where ub and vA are u- and v- displacements partitions of K0 are, of course, used in the The quite distinct U combines two I) 1i) If change equate the '

at the axis of symmetry. two solutions. U and U

ments

transformation which relates functions as described above. sign of U'o - displacements the to the

to the global

displace-

left

of the in left

axis and right halves. axes

boundary displacements in both separate structures

U'represents

the displacements

t hen

(Urb

(c o I< I-Il
0I 0 0 1 'b

referred

to global

Ii

Whilst,

with

iffer-nt

partitioning

of U'

we have

ri Li
The resulting ulobal stiffness in

(u r

(Vr)

!)
TT

U,

transformation T T, T2 can he used in the normal way for expressing terms of the identical stiffnesses K of the half structures K'

L<

01
! K

The same repeated

principles, irnvolving sub-structure intqrat

the distinction ion alpply to all

between solution superposition and the more complex treatments of symmetry.

onc I us ions

We have attempted, within th-' 1i pr- i, appr''ciat ion of Irat ici I iPs .itn aierospa(ce engineer onc,',rnod m,' I; rq-]n tat ion has tou h , ;p- ,r. 0 mui- i: ,

.I n;-'",
w'

of

manageable

lecture,

to

give

, F'F mo ,,l Ii nq, as seen from the viewpoint of I on-ar, quasi-static analysis. The id,,, h, realm of mesh generation which is

-I S the dominant subject in the extensive literature. None in depth, but we have tried throughout to draw attention of these to those issues s rat,,d here basic princlple(s which

enable engineers to expand their understanding of a subject as they acquire experience, in detail applications. Most of the underlying ideas in this paper go back to the esrliest days of finite element method development, when physical understanding was essential in order to use the very spartan and specialised tools then available. We observe today that there are many engineers who have slick facility in handling the "mechanics" of finite element analysis but lack that basic understanding which they bring to bear in traditional This is a gap which will not be closed by the current trend structural engineering. of burying structures in nodes. We are building up a vast capability for generating plausible nonsense faster and more convincingly than ever before. We consider that particular attention needs to be given to recognising the important and unimportant features of a structure, a number of alternative ways of modelling those which are important and treatment of the tricky topics such as kineIt is also considered important that we train engineers to use a matic constraints. simple 'language' of matrix structural analysis to provide a means of articulating basic concepts with precision but with minimum complexity. Finally, we see a growing role for expert systems to supplement the excellent manipulative facilities of modern computer analysis with simple, heuristic know-how. Combining the new ways with the old is a safer way forward than blind progression towards even bigger, more powerful black boxes. References 1. 2. 3. NAFEMS Guidelines to Finite Element Practice. National Engineering Laboratory, East Kilbride, Department of Trade and Industry, Scotland 1984

Taig I.C. and Kerr, R.I. Some Problems in the Discrete Element Representation of Aircraft Structures in B. Fraeijs de Veubeke(ed.) AGARDograph 72, Pergamon 1%4 Taig, I.C., Modelling and Interpretation of Results in Finite Element Structural Analysis presented at First World Congress on Finite Element Methods in Structural Mechanics, Bournemouth 1975 Taig, I.C., Stating the Problem: Lecture Series No. 147 The Step Before F.E. Modelling in AGARD

4. 5.

Taig, I.C., Expert Aids to Reliable Use of Finite Element Analysis. in Reliability of Methods for Engineering Analysis (D.R.J. Owen, ed.) Proceedings of Conference at Swansea 1986 Babu~ka, I., The Self-adaptive Approach in the Finite Element Method. in J.R. Whiteman (ed) Mathematics of Finite Elements and Applications Academic Press, London

6.

1975

7. 8. 9. 10.

Zienkiewicz, O.C., Gago, J.P. de S.R., Kelly, D.W., The Hierarchical Concept in Finite Element Analysis. Computers and Structures Vol.16 No. 1-4 pp 53-65 1983 Brandt, A., Multi-level Adaptive Solutions to Boundary Value Problems. Mathematics of Computing Vol. 31 No. 138 pp 333-390 1977

Taig, I.C., Implicit Modelling and Mesh Refinement for Complex Structures in International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering Vol. 22 pp 17-38 1986 Kamoulakos, A., Davies, G.A.O., Hitchings, D., Benchmark Tests for Various Finite Element Assemblies. Department of Trade and Industry, National Engineering Laboratory (Report C.1) East Kilbride, Scotland August 1985 Sharman, P.W. NAFEMS Membrane Stress Concentration Benchmark and the PAFEC Elements, Finite Element News Issue 3 pp 36-41 June 1986 ESDU Structures Sub-Series Vol 16 Component Idealisation for Finite Element Analysis.Data Items 84042, 85034, 85035 ESDU International Ltd. London MSC/NASTRAN Hand book for Linear Static Analysis, Schwendler Corporation, California U.S.A. R.H. MacNeal (ed) The MacNeal

11. 12. 13.

THE USE OF THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD V. B. Venkayya, Aerospace Engineer Flight Dynamics Laboratory Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories AFWAL/FIBRA, Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433-6553

SUMMARY These lecture notes are primarily intended to provide a quick overview of the solid mechanics problem for engineers using a general purpose finite element system in the solution of aerospace structures problems. It gives a brief outline of the solid mechanics problem and some of the available options for its solution. The finite element method is explained in more detail with particular emphasis on the use of membrane elements in aerospace structural analysis. The intention of these notes is to support a class
room lecture.

1.

INTRODUCTION

In the last thirty years the Finite Element Method (FEM) has developed into a powerful tool for solving a variety of engineering problems. These problems, at present, encompass a number of disciplines including aerospace, civil and mechanical engineering. The genesis of the FEM can be traced to the 1920's and 30's civil engineers used it extensively for the static analysis of articulated frames in the sopeined ne when vaistas ofo enumnerical anablymsis inheneprabladtemfinite peleent, methodps inpriulaer. ofdscpinces name of slope deflections and moment distribution methods. These methods were well developed for mechandigital computer of the emergence 1950's the Itand opened new vistas time. for numerical analysis in general the finite the element method at the in particular. Since were in vogue which ical calculators then the FEM has grown rapidly from simple static strength analysis to extensive dynamic analysis of one, two and three dimensional structures problems. At the same time the scope of the method was extended to the solution of a variety of field problems including fluid mechanics, heat transfer, fluid-structure interaction, acoustic cavity analysis and a number of interdisciplinary problems. Now the method is no longer limited to linear analysis only. It has extensive applications in non-linear mechanics problems as well. The decades of the 50's and 60's have seen intense research in element development, improvements to numerical solutions, and the associated sparse matrix manipulation schemes for the solution of large finite element assemblies. This was followed by the development of large scale applications software and innovative extensions in solid mechanics as well as other disciplines in the 1970's. In the 1980's there are at least 15 to 20 general purpose finite element programs being marketed throughout the world. These programs have extensive element libraries to meet the requirements of most complex engineering problems. At present the use of the FEM in mechanical design has become as common as the availability of electronic computers. The extensive data preparation requirements of the FEM have spawned the development of user friendly pre and post processors which significantly increase productivity in the design office. They facilitate rapid error checking of the input data and interpretation of the output of large finite element models. However, availability of good finite element programs is not synonymous with their correct application. The pre and post processors do not necessarily assure a true correspondence of the mathematical model and the physical system. Proper modeling requires a thorough understanding of the physics of the problem as well as some understanding of the details of the theoretical basis of the program being used. Just a superficial understanding of the input instructions of a finite element system is inadequate, because it can lead to erroneous models which can give unconservative results and premature failures. It must be clearly understood that finite element programs are only sophisticated mathematical tools. Their use or abuse depends on the user's understanding of the problem and system limitations. The finite element model of a physical system generally consists of a description of the geometry, material properties, boundary conditions and applied forces. The geometry involves the selection of an appropriate grid to represent the continuum, suitable elements to connect the grid, and the properties of the elements. The important decision to be made in selecting a grid is the spatial distribution of the mesh size. This distribution of the grid depends on the overall objectives of the analysis. If the purpose of the analysis is to determine the overall load paths of a large built-up structure, then a relatively coarse mesh is adequate and desirable from cost considerations. On the other hand, if the objective is to capture details of the steep stress gradients and discontinuities such as cracks and cutouts, then a finer mesh is required, at least around the stress raisers. It is advisable to handle these two objectives in separate models rather than in one big model. For example, in dynamic analysis where the interest is to determine the overall dynamic behavior as represented by the frequencies and mode shapes, a coarse model of a built-up structure is cost effective, whil. a detailed stress model would require a much finer grid. The basic tenet of discrete methods is that a finer mesh gives more accurate results. However, a finer mesh requires not only more computational effort but also is difficult to check for model errors. It is also worthwhile pointing out that accuracy improves with a finer mesh only when the elements capture the behavior of the structure reasonably well. Another observation to be made is that, in general, higher order elements require a coarser mesh and vice versa for the same accuracy. In finite element modeling selection of appropriate elements is one of the most important decisions. Both the accuracy of the analysis and the cost are dependent on the type of elements used in the model. The behavior of the structural element can be described by one or more differential equations. These differential equations are in turn approximated by the so-called shape functions which are derived from basic polynomial functions. The more complex the behavior of the element, the higher is the order of the shape functions necessary to represent its behavior. For example, a simple truss element (a rod) transmits forces by uniform tension or compression. If the possibility of its buckling is excluded, its behavior can be represented by a first order differential equation or a linear polynomial function. The behavior of a three-dimensional beam, on the other hand, is more complex in the sense that the bending

42

(about two axes), axial tension or compression, torsion and shear have to be represented by different differential equations. For example, bending and torsion representations require fourth order differential equations. Under certain symmetry conditions they can be uncoupled, otherwise they are usually coupled. To represent this behavior shape functions must be at least of the order of cubic polynomials. Similarly the lowest order polynomial representation of membrane plate behavior is linear, while higher order representations can only capture the stress gradients within the element itself. The bending behavior of plates is governed by a fourth order partial differential equation, and the corresponding polynomial approximations must be at least of the quintic order. In making an analysis of large structural components such as a wing, fuselage etc., modeling with simple (low order) elements is most desirable. These simple models can provide reasonably accurate information about the overall load paths, and the simplicity of the elements allows easier interpretation of the results. They are also ideal for parametric studies in preliminary design and optimization. The use of higher order elements is appropriate while making a detailed analysis of local areas, such as a plate with a cutout or a crack or local buckling of a panel etc. In general, the higher order elements are less forgiving when there are violations of the basic assumptions from which they were derived. For example, lumping of masses or forces at grid points based on inspection or intuition is not acceptable in finite element models involving higher order elements. Consistent formulation is almost mandatory in such cases. Because of these limitations dynamic analysis of large built-up structures with significant nonstructural mass attachments becomes quite cumbersome with higher order elements. Modeling material properties of isotropic and/or anisotropic materials in the linear elastic range is relatively simple and presents no difficulties. When the materials behave nonlinearly or beyond the elastic range, modeling becomes more difficult because of the nonuniqueness of solutions associated with the loading and unloading sequences. Modeling of the boundary conditions is another very important issue in establishing the correspondence between the physical system and the mathematical model. The degree of supports (partial or full fixity) and the internal and external dependence of the motions of various degrees of freedom (single point or multipoint constraints) are some of the important considerations in developing boundary conditions of a finite element model. Correct representation of the boundary conditions is crucial for obtaining good results from an analysis. The external or the internal environment of the system is described by the applied forces on the finite element model. These forces can be due to aerodynamic, thermal, gravity (body forces), centrifugal forces, etc. depending on the environment in which the system operates. Any errors in the force representation will be directly transmitted to the results of the analysis. Both lumped and consistent formulations can be used with reasonable accuracy in the case of linear elements. For higher order elements only consistent formulations are element models. recommended. Similar rules apply for the mass representation in finite

As pointed out earlier, the effective use of a general purpose finite element system requires a reasonable understanding of the formulation and the limitations of the system and an indepth understanding of the physical system and its behavior under the action of external forces. The next few sections provide a cursory background to solid mechanics problems in general and the finite element method in particular. Hopefully this background provides some guidelines for accurate modeling of practical structures. 2. SOLID MECHANICS PROBLEM

An aircraft structure is a deformable body, and the understanding of its behavior under the action of external and/or internal forces is essential for a successful design to meet the performance requirements. A typical aircraft operates in a severe dynamic environment. This dynamic environment is generally approximated by a set of equivalent static, dynamic, thermal and body forces for design purposes. These forces are assumed to be deterministic or treated as truly random in nature. The essential point is that we have the means to determine the loading conditions on a structure, so that its deformable behavior can be predicted and an adequate structure can be designed. The finite element method is most often used for predicting the behavior of structures subjected to loads. Even though the finite element method can be applied to the solution of a variety of engineering problems, its original development was in response to the solution of solid mechanics problems. A brief description of the extent and the scope of solid mechanics problems is appropriate before presenting the finite element method. The boundary that its behavior deformable body shown in Fig. la is subjected to a set of continuous or discrete forces and conditions. The body is assumed to be supported adequately to prevent any rigid body motion, so deformable behavior can be studied independently. For linear problems the rigid and deformable can be determined independently, and the combined effect can be obtained by superposition.

CONWINUOUS

DISCRETE

STATIC. DYNAMIC THERMAL. BODY FORCES FIG. Ia. Deformable Body FIG. lb. A cut through the Deformable Body

of the body after The state motion of a point from its

deformation can be defined by the displacement vector W, which represents the This displacement vector, V, can be new position A'. position A to its initial

4iefined by the three unknown three orthogonal axes [y

displacement

components u,

v,

and w respectively in

the direction

of the

u(x, y,

z,

t)

The three displacement components are functions of the spatial coordinates (x, y, z) of the point in the body. For dynamic problems they are also dependent on time. Knowledge of the displacements alone is not enough to determine whether the body can withstand the applied forces. For design we need to know the

state of strains and stresses in the body.

Fig.

lb shows a cut through the body to examine the state of

the internal forces in the body. Fig. Ic shows the free-body diagram with internal stress resultants as force and moment vectors. Fig. Id shows the normal and shear stress components on an infinitesimal element.

6,,

COJ

,/"'

FIG.

ic.

Free

Body Diagram

FIG. The corresponding normal and shear strain the corresponding stresses are represented by

Id. are

Stress Components on an Infinitesimal implied. The six components of strain

Element and

components

(z
[

E % EY

(2)

XX 1%,V(Izz

XV

yz

zX

(3)

The solution of the solid mechanics problem implies a knowledge of these 15 unknowns as continuous functions of space and time. The list of 15 equations necessary to solve for the 15 unknowns is as follows:

Equilibrium equations
Strain-displacement relations Stress-strain relations Number of equations

(3)
(6) (6) (15)

The equilibrium equations derived from Newton's Laws can be written as follows:

The equilibrium

equations are written here in terms of the stress gradients an infinitesimal element. When they are written in terms of stress resultants dimensions, the three equations translate into three force and three moment

and the

body forces

X, Y,

Z on

on a body with finite equations as follows:

I X

tY

(5)
i =M0 =0 ZMv ii =0 Zz-0 i 0

"he

six strain-displacement

relations

can

be written as

(A )a

+2

(6)

The above strain-displacement

strain-displacement relations

relations contain both linear and non-linear terms.

can be written as

The linear

+
The six straies -str cartgv ai relations

+-c
bolhlilly n the gera z o ok

+L
-lines La a

L
erwTor

where

and p

are the

stre

n ao d s

stain

L"

vect

ors and

ea isD the

%T

icfconstian

+Z

oeator

The si

relations tants

ma

rix

tei symmticabuy

the

diaonal.

Aoogeneral

oaw t

where c

and t

are the strial

and

ependent elastic

Additn constants

smetry u

reduesents

whichu Adiinlsmaetrix elast~ic th constants. a1nd eperandvectosadEi theortcly r stres body cand, th ou so ts In n isotrpaned fomatEq.a h an bew ritenatl aost theserto 9e lsofthemanterial. strtess orhtopcmteili onsan ts. Aotypicalplanbe tworal Lnamen e raioo the adproisson's

n re duc~ensth it eat

The sar steize bstyan relaticonss Thare rie elastic yfu constants. marxi ym tr

Thsre a

re the d

uy

of eginetalezl

an ongitudinal

ese abou t

dignll h ouio

the elsi eea

ty n he-iesongtdnal

andstoi

transverse considered

direction, the shear modulus and Poisson's ratio. as plane-stress orthotropic materials.

Most fiber-reinforced

composites are

4-

The fifteen coupled differential equations presented in the foregoing discussion define the solid mechanics problem. However, additional relations must be considered to satisfy special requirements. For example, the six strain components are expressed as functions of only three independent displacements and as such there exists a dependency between the strains. This dependency is represented by the following compatibility conditions.

S.2
A4 1& +

1).

Physically these compatibility the body (without breaks).

conditions can

be

interpreted

as assuring continuity

in

the deformation of

The solid mechanics

problem must

also satisfy

the boundary

conditions as given by

-i-

(12)

where X, Y, Z are the body force components in direction cosines of the surface normal at the

the x, y and boundary.

z directions respectively,

and

Z, m,

n are the

The strain, stress and material property (elastic constants) transformations between the desired coordinate systems are the additional equations required in the solution of solid mechanics problems. The strain transformation equation in three dimensions is given as

where E and -' are the strains shown in Fig. 2.

defined with respect

to the

x,

y,

z and

x',

y',

z'

axes respectively

as

YY (An

I1

,7

Z(W.) FIG. The strain 2. Relationship Between the x, is y, z Coordinate System and the x', y', z' Coordinate System

transformation matrix

given by

F- ~

rnr9msr(~ ~ r

2Jill, ~am'Mz

kam2 (omM+ i ,'

"I(3 M',+9r 3) ?.

L~A

~ aw3

an

(mn,rn,-M~jj,

Q,

if the strain

transformation

matrix is

partitioned

into 3x3 matrices,

it

can

be written as

X~XI BA1 T 1i 'l

The submatrices The stress TAA,...TBB can be identified from Eq. (l4).

AL(15)

transformation

equations can be written as 0

T
partitioned form as

(16)

where

the stress

transformation

matrix T

is

given in

(17

TAA

T13B

17

The elastic follows:

constants transformation

matrix can be

derived from the strain

energy invariance

condition as

where the

strain

transformation matrix T,-

is

given by
-

T problems are given by

(19)

The strain

and stress

transformation

matrices

for plane stress

TS IN'( COEIS

COS' SIN 2 0

C0S 9(

-SIN

IN2L

COS 26

equations in fifteen unknowns can theoretically provide a differential coupled partial The fifteen The solutions must also means for the complete solution of three dimensional solid mechanics problems. unknowns the three displacement Among the fifteen the compatibility and boundary conditions. satisfy as funccomponents are really the independent variables, and the remaining 12 unknown., can be expressed differential Then we need to solve the three coupled partial tions of these three independent variables. equations which are given as

L +

-0

2' d

V~"+
2
where 2 is the three dimensional Laplacian operator

+ +-

, 3xand e is the volume dilatation given by e x

" 0v"

-(23) 3z

yy

zz

(24)

partial The solution of a general three dimensional solid mechanics problem by way of solving coupled We must find ways of an insurmountable task. equations, whether they are 15 or 3, is still differential In the next section an outsimplifying the problem, even if it means limiting the scope of the problem. line is presented of some of the simplifications and methods available.

3.

SOLUTION OF SOLID MEC14ANICS

PROBLEM

consists As discussed in the previous section the general three dimensional solid mechanics problem These solutions must also solution. equations for their differential of 15 unknowns and coupled partial In addition, the formulation and interpretation compatibility and boundary conditions. the strain satisfy In view of this material properties and other transformations. stress, of the problem involves strain,

complex*ty it is not realistic or possible to obtain a closed form solution for a general threedimensional solid mechanics problem. A more realistic goal is to specialize these equations to specific problems whose behavior we can intuitively predict. Such specialization results in * One dimensional problems
'

Plane

stress

problems problems problems shear problems and shear elasticity problems problems

* Plane strain
*

Axisymmetric SSending and

* Inplane,

bending,

* Three-dimensional

An example of a one dimensional problem is a simple tension (compression) rod. Its behavior can be predicted by one first order differential equation. If this one dimensional element is subjected to bending $in one plane) in addition to the axial force, then its behavior can be predicted by two uncoupled differential equations, assuming that the axial force is small enough to neglect the coupling effects. A first order ordinary differential equation (ODE) predicts the axial deformation and a fourth order differential equation predicts the bending behavior. Similarly, if this line element is subjected to bending in a second plane and twisting about its own axis, then two more differential equations are necessary to predict their behavior. These four differential equations are coupled or uncoupled depending on whether the internal force coupling exists. The plane stress and plane strain problems are two dimensional problems. Their behavior can be predicted by two first order partial differential equations. Similarly, axisymmetric problems can be described by a single ODE. The essential point of this discussion is that by limiting the scope of the problem based on the projected behavior, we can significantly reduce the complexity. However, this continuum approach based on the solution of differential equations imposes severe restrictions because of the continuity requirements and the need for satisfaction of the compatibility and boundary conditions. Because of these restrictions, the continuum (or the differential equations) approach is limited to simple components and loading conditions as shown in Fig. 3.

VI1(.

3.

Simple Components with Loading Conditions

structure is built out of many structural components. It is inherently disconn i lifferential equation representation of the details is at best infeasible. For example, an iirrif wing sfrlownin Fig. 4 consists of spars, spar caps, ribs, rib caps, skins and stiffeners. Spars, rn;3 3,n1 sins between the joints can be represented by plane stress or bending plate elements. Simi.mr~y, -par caps, rib caps and stiffeners between the joints can be represented by rods or beams. The enavior of each of these structural components is governed by differert differential equations, and their h.avior at the joints and across the joints is uncertain and cannot be adequately described by differenti-i equations.

"*,

Stpti a~aircraft

FI(G.

4.

Aircraft Wing

For such structures discrete approaches are more appropriate. The purpose of the discrete approach is to replace the governing differential equations by a set of algebraic equations whose solution can be adapted to a digital computer much more naturally. The basic principle behind the discretization is to obtain the solution of the problem at discrete points, instead of as continuous fuictions of the spatial coordinates. Then the solution between the discrete points can be obtained by interpolation or extrapolation. The first step In discretization is to transfer the effect of the continuum to preselected discrete points on the structure by the use of interpolation functions. This procedure is akin to the popular notion of

lumping (low-level interpolation). Now the unknowns are the behavioral quantities (displacements) at the discrete points, and the relations are expressed in terms of algebraic equations. The second step is to solve for these unknowns at the discrete points. The third step is to obtain the solution between the points by the same interpolation as the first step. Solid mechanics problems are generally
*

classified

into:

Boundary value problems Initial value problems

Mixed problems

A structure is a solid body of finite dimensions. The behavior of the body is prescribed at least partially at the boundary. The boundary conditions can be either kinematic (displacements, velocities, etc.) or in terms of forces. The name boundary value problem derives from this finiteness in spatial coordinates. Initial value problems refer, primarily, to the variable time. As in vibrations and heat conduction problems the initial state is prescribed but not necessarily at other times. For such problems if the state is prescribed at two different times, they will be called two point boundary value problems as distinct from the boundary value problems. A combination of initial and boundary value problems are called mixed problems. The vibration of beams, plates, etc. are some examples of mixed problems. The boundary refers to space, and initial refers to time in such problems. There prominent are a number of discrete methods for the solution of boundary value problems. Some of the

ones are:
*

Finite differences procedure

* Rayleigh-Ritz
*

Galerkin's Method Finite Element

*

Methods

Stiffness Method Flexibility Method element method will be discussed in much more

We will detail. initial

briefly outline the

first

three methods.

The finite

value problems are

generally solved
*

by Collocation

* Subdivision Numerical integration Methods

Runge-Kutta Mixed problems are solved by

Separation of the boundary and initial

I

value problems.

Combining both methods.

FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD The finite difference method can be summarized by the following six equations steps:

* Formulate the

governing differential structure

SApproximate
*

the

by a discrete grid operator at each grid to algebraic = F unknowns u and stresses point equations of the form

Apply Reduce

the finite

difference

the differential

equation(s) K

0 Solve

the algebraic equations internal

for the strains

Determire

displacements,

Formulation of the governing differential

equations in the first step can be accomplished either by equilibrium considerations or by a variational approach. Approximation of the continuum by a discrete grid Involves selecting points in the structure where the behavioral variables like displacements, etc. can be determined by interpolation. For a given degree of interpolation the coarseness or fineness of the grid depends on the expected gradients of the behavior variables. High gradient regions need a finer grid and vice versa. The function of the difference operator is to replace the differential quantities by the unknown behavioral quantities at discrete points. An example of a central difference operator is given in

4.g.

The 7

resulting

iet

)! iigerraic

equati,,ns

contain

a known

coefficient

matrix

K,

the unknown

behavior variable Jisplacements vectr u and a known vector F (applied forces). The K matrix is a function of the geometry, elements, and material properties of the structure. If the vector u represents displacements, then the strains can be obtained by the strain-displacement relations which were given in the previous section. From the strains we can obtain the stresses using the stress-strain relations.

',

UL-i

(L

(A&I

UL*2

,)=
-A -2

[ ...
(00 G

.. ..
-------(

.. @
. }

as'

FIG. RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD finite

5.

Central Difference Operator

As in the case of the following steps:

difference

method the

Rayleigh-Ritz method can

be summarized by the

"* Formulate the total potential "* Approximate the unknowns by a

n ukx, V, z)
=

(strain series

energy and

external

work)

L
1=1

ai(x

v,

Z)

(x, aI

y,

z)----+ Coordinate functions Unknown of the total coefficients

must satisfy

the

kinematic B.C. functions

of the coordinate s the a

"* Minimization "* Solve

for the

potential w.r.t.

gives a set of algebraic equations

K - = F as and obtain the and stresses. displacements from the second step.

* Determine the strains

The Rayleigh-Ritz method gives a lower bound solution in the case of displacements and an upper bound solution in the case of frequencies etc. In other words the Rayleigh-Ritz approximation normally of the structure. overestimates the stiffness GALERKIN'S METHOD An outline of the Galerkin's method
*

is

as follows: equations

Formulate

the

governing differential either

* Approximate

the solution

by a series

or a polynomial

Substitute

the solution into

the differential error over 0

equations and the region zero

obtain the

error term e

* Make

the weighted integral

of the c

.:idxdydz
*

Solve the

resulting set of algebraic equations Ka = F displacements

* Determine the

strains

and

Galerkin's method is similar to the method of residuals frequently discussed in connection with the application of the finite element method to other engineering problems. The three methods discussed so far have some similarities and some differences. The last two methods give a symmetric system of equations. These methods are explained in the context of static analysis. However, their extension to dynamic analysis involves energies associated with the inertia and dissipation terms. The last method we identified for the solution of boundary value problems is the finite element method. This method is also of primary interest to this lecture series. Before discussing this method

in

implication in and their and flexibility the familiar concepts of stiffness we will intr'dice Pt3",_ element method, tne :n iddition to prov.ding an overview of the finite structural analynis. .Iisrete to the other three methods. dis-ission points out some similarities stiftfness and flexilility AND ELEX!BI'IAY STIFFNESS with the help of a simple linear spring (See Fig. 6) We will introduce the concept of stiffness Since it is a subhecteJ to a force P at the end A which resulted in a displacement u at the same end. relation linear spring, the displacement u will be linearly proportional to the applied load P, and this can be expressed by 1 Kh of the spring. (25)

where K is

the proportionality

constant which represents

the stiffness

FI;.

6.

Simple Linear Spring

From

Eq.

(25)

the stiffness

of the

spring can for,?

be written as per onit displacement

of a structural So the stiffness For example, if displacement. - in produces a uniform stress

element may be defined as the force necessary to produce a spring is a simple tension/compression rod, the applied this the rod

unit force P

(26)

The strain

in

the rod is

given by

S= E
and the elongation u is given by

(27)

AL

=L

Pe

AEL

(28)

or AE (29)

The axial

stiffness

of the rod

is

given by (30)

The flexibility

of the

spring,

F,

can be defined

by u=FP (31)

and

Is

given by F =
-

di,-lacement due to a unit

force

(32)

Then the flexibility

and

the stiffness

of the

spring are related by

F = K-

(33)

i.e.

flexibility

= the inverse

of the stiffness

and

vice versa.

Now we will extend this concept of stiffness and flexibility to a built-up system consi:;t*.i ny springs, displacements and force components. We will call this system a multi-degree if freedom !;ystem. Tha number of degrees of freedom of a system is defined by the number of independent coordinates necessary to fully identify its position in configuration space. For example, a particle in space can have a maximum of three degrees of freedom. These three degrees of freedom correspond to motion in the direction of the three orthogonal axes. However, the number of degrees of freedom of the particle can be less if its motion is restricted. For example, a particle restricted to plane motion will have only two degrees of freedom. Similarly, if it is limited to moving along a line, then it has only one degree of freedom. A rigid body in space can have a maximum of six degrees of freedom, three translational degrees of freedom corresponding to motion of the center of mass along the three orthogonal axes and three rotational degrees of freedom corresponding to rotations about the same axes. With the knowledge of these coordinates it is possible to completely define the position of the rigid body in space. As stated before, if any restrictions are imposed on the motion of the rigid body, then the number of degrees of freedom will be less than six. A deformable body in space will have an infinite number of degrees of freedom, since every point in the body can deform independently of the others, and there are an infinite number of points in the body when treated as a continuum. When this body is discretized by a finite number of points, then the degrees of freedom of the body will also be finite. Each of these discretized points can have up to a maximum of six degrees of freedom. So far the degrees of freedom of the system were defined with reference to the configuration space. Time dependence of the motion is not considered significant. However, if the motion is time dependent, then the state of the system cannot be defined by displacements alone. We must add to this degree of freedom definition velocities as well. Such a space is called a state space, and the number of degrees of freedom in the state space is twice that of the configuration space. The discussion in this lecture series is limited to the configuration space. In Fig. 7a the point A is connected to three springs which in turn are fixed to supports at the other ends. Assuming that the point A has no finite dimensions, then it has two degrees of freedom if its motion is limited to the plane of the paper. The two degrees of freedom are identified by 1 and 2. u and u are the displacements, and P and P are the force components in the two directions respectively. The force-displacement relations for this iwo degree of freedom system can be written as P' K u The full matrix equation is (34) written

where P, K and u are matrices and are identified by a wiggle under.

as

[:[K :] Lii
= Now the first column of the stiffness matrix is defined as the force system necessary to maintain a displacement configuration in which u =7 and u -0. Fig. 7b shows the displacement configuration corresponding to the first column.

(35)

K&-~
_

3,P

LU'O

F;,

7a.

Two Degree of Freedom System

iik

lL-O

K1 1

11.

'b.

D1isplacement Configuration u l,

A=O

F[t;.

7c.

DlsplaccmLnt ConfI

iiration Ul=O.

u,=l

Similarly the second column of the stiffness matrix is defined as the force system necessary to maintain The actual stiffness matrix is given See Fig. 7c. the displacement configuration in which u1 _O and u 2 z?. by

r1

Coo

K(2) K Do

S
] Lull

Cos Sin', (

2)

(1 +K (2)S K

(36>

So it is possible to construct the stiffness of a multi-degree of freedom system column by column by giving a unit displacement ',. the direction of each degree of freedom while all other degrees of freedom are fixed.

.he flexibility

of the same

two degree

of freedom

system can

be defined

as

The first column of the flexibility matrix can be defined as the displacements resulting from the
application of a force system in from P which P -1 and -1= and and P2 i. can be defined as: to mintain a displacement P2=0. Similarly the second column represents the resulting

displacements In

summary

the stiffness

flexibility

column of the stiffness * The jth while all configuration in which u:1 I

matrixsis a force system necessary are zero. other u is a displacement

matrix * The jth column of the flexibility other forces are zero. 1 while all system P

configuration resulting

from a force

is the force in the ith direction due to a unit displacement The element K other dispiacements are zero. all The element F.. other forls all is the displacement are zero. in the ith direction due to a unit force

in

the jth direction

while

in

the jth

direction while

For a given structure with is given by stiffness

the same degrees of freedom

the

relationship between the

flexibility

and the

(38) provided Fig. K is a non-singular the stiffness matrix. the flexibility definitions for a three degree of freedom cantilever beam

8 gives

and

.K . 31 K21

31

K2

K 11`22

1Z 12

~32
'K33 K2 23 13J 33
STIFFNESS . .[ .Stiffness and Flexibilitv Definitions FLIXIBILITY for a Three [Degree of Freedom Cantilever Beam

By method the displacements are the unknowns and the forces are the known quantities. In the stiffness matrix using the properties of the structure, we can determine the unknown constructing the stiffness The method outlined here for method. The reverse is true in the case of the flexibility displacements. matrix is cumbersome to say the least when the number or the flexibility the stiffness determining either In of degrees of freedom of the structure is large and the elements of the structure are more complex. element analysis is presented. the next section a formal derivation of the displacement method of finite The method is computer. for implementation on a digital The displacement method is most amenable Membrane elements are most suitable for (membrane) elements. discussed in the context of plane stress determining the overall load paths of large built-up structures. a. FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

element analysis the continuum is replaced by a discrete model consisting of a finite In the finite The rationale in such an approximation is that the number of nodes connected by elements (members) (2-5]. in the elements) can be expressed as a function of the response at the response between the nodes (i.e.,

FIw re 1 t i ip betweec t ne two responies is approx imated by var i.s Irpulsti ) r orape !rrotios. '.he type of functions depends on the complexity of the problemr at nanid L~r'icl~nruces the original differential equations of the continuum to a set f' algebraic oswhic' 'an ',eSoIVed, 'nrich more readily on digital computers. -he equ,)tto'r of the finite element analysis can be derived conveniently by considering the strain o" tr deformed system. For example, if the elastic body is idealized by m finite elements tngq >1cm Pe Fig. q), then the. strain energy of the ith element can be written as

~urtt'

,.nrc anod are the stress and strain vectors and V. is the volume of the element, "'ss Ctlcoj, t~e relation between stress and stra in can'be written as

For a linearly

Nodes-

'4

(~)

ontnuum(i)Finie

Ee~rrnt

ode

(a)

~u

antiuu

inite (b

Element Model

Fis a ssqmm'tric- natrix of na-'rial elastic constants. For typical plane stress problems the '1 stio 1constants niatriv is -)f r.n r3. For an isotropic material in plane stress problems the xo -,"rt f 3re as ftO!1149

4--rand are the elastic modulus and Poisson's ratio of' the material respectively, -thtr~pic material the elastic constants matrix is given by

For an

2) 7
L0
4nrer

l-,

2
the

aod F, are the l'ngitudinal and transverse moduli, respectively, in the directions of the pr pet-ty axes. is the ratio of transverse to longitudinal modulus 'F 't and G,and ,are o'c~ndlj~and Poisson's ratio respectively.

Th-17'rs of the finite element approximation is that the internal, displacements of the elements .'pr-i3r-I a:- functions of th liiplacements of the discrete nodjes to whiph they are conriectol. As an -xa'mpl-' ' lo!al )orflnint, -cystm and the nodal d~groes of fr-piom of the triangular membrane element
ire

S4-14

vv

hMA MM
V6

I b) r la, a

v u4&--ne Element

(a) Bar Element

V4

/-1 vle -D2-1 -- 4

WC Quadrilateral or Sher Pane

FIG. The functional ments is relationship between

10.

Elements and Local internal

Coordinate System displacements and the discrete nodal displace-

the element's

given by

where the matrix w represents the displacements in the element which are functions of the spatial coordinates (x, y) for mimbrane elements. The shape function i is a rectangular matrix, and its elements are also functions of the spatial coordinates. The vector v represents the nodal displacements in the direction of the element degrees of freedom in the local coordinate system (Fig. 10). Now the straindisplacement relations can be written as

-'

-i

((44)

where D is

a differential

operator.

For

a plane stress

problem D is

given by

Substitution of Equations

40,

43 and

44

in

39 gives the expression

for strain

energy

in

the following form

Ti

-i Yi

(46)

where k, is by

the element

(member)

stiffness

matrix with respect to the discrete

coordinates v and

is

given

k1 =
VI

-t

(4Dt7)

vi

or
P()

(8
.
( -i

I
)t
-i

=k kp ~

-(

dV

(48)

is 's ire cero. tioi of the

the stress s~a~e due to the element displacement configuration in which v =1 while all other Similarly jiq is the strain state due to the unit displacement configuration in the direcqth degree of freedom. These two conditions are shown in Fig. 11 for the degrees of freedom 1

,ind 2 of the membrane triangle. It should be noted that besides assuming appropriate shape functions, the integration in Eqs. (47) or (48) is one of the difficult tasks in the case of complex elements in finite element analysis. However, for membrane elements this integration does not present any difficulties as will be seen in the next section. For more complex elements the usual practice is to adopt numerical integration schemes [6,7]. MC MC

MB
(a) First Unit Mode FIG. I .

k
Ti

/ B
(b) Second Unit Mode

Examples of Unit Displacement Modes theorem, the relation between the element nodal forces and the

From Eq. (46) and Castigliano's first displacements may be written as

=~. k.' i Similar force-

9 9

KIvj- il

where s.is the element nodal force matrix corresponding to the displacement matrix v..

isplacement relations for the total structure can be derived from the strain energy of the structure. The total strain energy of the structure can be written as the sum of the energies of the individual m m

In gener-l, for most structures, it is convenient to define a local coordinate system for each element and a global coordinate system for the total structure. In such a case the element and structure generalized coorlinates can be related by

where a. is the compatibility matrix. Its elements can be determined by kinematic reasoning alone provided tAe structure is kinematically determinate. The matrix V is the generalized displacement vector of the structure in the global coordinate system. It is interesting to note that Eq. (51) not only transforms element displacements from local to global coordinates but also gives information about how the elements are connected to the structure. From Eq. (51) and the principle of virtual work it is easy to show that the transformation between the forces on the structure and the element internal forces is given by

= at S.

(52)
The transformation given in

where P is the force vector on the structure in the global coordinate system. Eq. (52) is sometimes referred to as a contragradient transformation. Substitution of Eq. (51) in (50) gives the expression for the total strain

energy

in

the

form

r
where K, the total matrices. stiffness matrix of the structure,

t K u
is written as the sum of the component stiffness

(53)

ai k
Again using Castigliano's first theorem the relation between the generalized force matrix

(514)
P corresponding

to the displacement

matrix u may be written as

[i(55)

In most structural analys.s problems the stiffness matrix K is sparsely populated. It is essential to take advantage of this fact in solving the load deflection equations (Eq. 55), particularly in the case of problems with a large number of degrees of freedom where the cost of computation can be prohibitive otherwise. Gaussian elimination, with modifications to take into account the symmetry and sparseness of the stiffness matrix, is one of the effective methods for the solution of the load deflection equations. Basically Gaussian elimination involves decomposition of the stiffness matrix by K = L D Lt (56)

where L is the unit lower triangular matrix and D is a diagonal matrix. The advantage of this decomposition scheme is that the matrix retains some of the sparseness characteristics of K which consequently reduces the number of computations. Also L and D can be assigned the same storage as K. The next step is the foward substitution by L Y= P where the matrix Y is given by Y = D Lt u (57)

(58)

In Eq. (57) the solution of Y can be accomplished by simple forward substitution. Once Y is obtained, u can be solved by back substitution using Eq. (58). The last two steps together are generally referred to as Forward-Back Substitution (FBS). Solution of Eq. (55) for multiple load vectors involves the decomposition of the stiffness matrix once and repetition of FBS as many times as there are load vectors. With the help of these basic equations the steps in the finite element analysis can be outlined as follows: 1. Input information consists of a. Geometry of the structure Node Coordinates Element Connections Section Properties b. c. d. e. 2. Material properties Boundary conditions Loading Clues for appropriate (desired) output.

Element information consists of a. b. c. Determination of the local coordinate system for each element. Selection of the appropriate shape functions (Eq. Determination of the element stiffness matrix (Eqs. (43)). (47) or (48)). (54) without

3. Transformation of the element stiffness matrix to the global coordinate system (Eq. summation).

4. Determination of the structure stiffness matrix by summation of the component stiffnesses (Summation in Eq. (54)). 5. 6. 7. 8. Incorporation of the boundary conditions. Solution of the load-deflection equations (Eqs. (55), (56), (57), and (58)). (51)).

Determination of the element displacements in their local coordinate system (Eq. Determination of the stresses in each element (Eqs. (44), (43), and (40)).

9. Output the structure displacments, energies, etc.

element stresses and other information such as element strain

The next section consists of the details of the stiffness matrix formulations for the four membrane elements and their application.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS

The discussion in this section is 1. 2. 3. Bar Axial Force Member) Membrane Triangle Membrane Quadrilateral S.hear Panel

limited basically to four finite elements:

The four elements and their local coordinate systems are shown in Fig. 10. The bar is a constant strain line element and is equivalent to a rod element in the NASTRAN [8] program. The membrane triangle is a constant strain plate element similar to TRMEM in NASTRAN. The membrane quadrilateral is constructed out of four (non-overlapping) constant strain membrane triangles (element 2) with a fietitious interior node. This interior node is later removed by static condensation. This element is similar to QDMEM2 in NASTRAN. The shear panel is also constructed out of four non-overlapping triangles with a fictitious interior node. However, only the shear energy is considered in determining the stiffness of this element. Although the formulation is somewhat different, this element gives comparable results to the NASTRAN SHEAR element or the so-called Garvey shear panel [9]. The basis for the derivation of the shear panel is empirical, and it is primarily intended to elminate some of the difficulties encountered in using membrane triangles and quadrilaterals. For example, in beam problems (rectangular beams, !-beam, Box Beams including multicell wings and fuselage structures) the high stress gradients in the webs do not justify the use of constant strain triangles or quadrilaterals derived from these triangles. in fact, use of such elements for the web3 (spars and ribs in wings) overestimates the stiffness significantly. Aerospace engineers have offset this difficul;t to a large extent by judicious use of membrane elements in conjunction with the shear panels. In fact tne early finite element models of wings and fuselages consisted primarily of bars and shear panels. However, the present practice of using membrane triangles and quadrilaterals for the top and bottom skins, bars for the posts, spar and rib caps, and shear panels for the spars and ribs eliminates to a large extent the need for determining the equivalent thicknesses and cross-sectional areas in the bar and shear panel model. The molels consisting of these elements are most satisfactory for determining the primary load paths in builtip structures such as wings and fuselages. In addition the simplicity of these elements makes interpretalion of the results easy and also keeps the analysis costs low because the stiffness matrices of these lements can be generated in a fraction of a second. Most of the remaining discussion of the membrane elements is extracted from References H!01 and [111 which describe in detail programs ANALYZE and OPTSTAT. PAR (ROD) ELEMENT

Basically this element is an axial force member. Its primary use is in two and three dimensional truss structures. it is also used extensively as spar and rib caps, posts around shear panels, stiffners and other line elements in aircraft structures. The local coordinate system of this element is shown in v and v2 represent the Fig. 10. The positive x-axis is directed along the line joining the two ends. element end displae-ments. The corresponding two end forces are sa and s The Jisplacement field in the element is assumed to be linear which gives constant strain. For a linariy elastic material this assumption yields constant stress as well. if w, tne lisplacement at any point along the length of the bar, w = ax + b is given by (59)

where a and b are two undetermined coefficients and x is the coordinate of the point in the local coordinate system , then the end displacements v, and v 2 are given by

Vl

x1
=

L:](60)
[a
~;
Then the shape func-(x - xi1 is given by (62) (61)

where xI and x are the coordinates of the two ends in the local coordinate system. tion (Eq. (43)3 corr spondlng to this linear displacement field can be written as

S1
From the strain-displacement relations,

- x 2 ),

the axial strain in the element 3W

From the principle of virtual work Eq. written as

(48)

ij

f
V

the individual elements of the member sitffness matrix can be

x X dV v :L = (_~-i (i)C~j)

AE63

(63)

where A is the cross-sectional area, L is the length of the member, the mtat e rta The member stiffness matrix is given by

and

E is

the modulus of elasticity

of

AE

(64)

The member

force matrix is

given by

s
The stress in the member is given by ax

k v

(65)

E ex

(66)

or S1 _S

a
The strain energy in the element is given by

-A

(67)

Ti or

Y S

it

(68)
V

Ti=

x ex A L

(69)

TRIANGULAR MEMBRANE ELEMENT It is used to construct the memThe membrane triangle is the basic plate element in the program. The membrane triangle can be used brane quadrilateral as well as the shear panel with some modifications. These include top and bottom skins effectively in all cases where the primary loading is inplane forces. of aircraft wings, flanges of I and box beams when they are subjected to constant normal stresses (tension or compression) and skins of sandwich construction. Howewver, they are not suitable for situations where high stress only gradients exist.
For example, they are unsuitable for spars and ribs of wings and other

If used in lifting surfaces, webs of I and box beams and flat plates where the primary load is bending. Fig. 10 shows the triangular element such cases, they overestimate the stiffness or generate singularity. v represent the inplane diswith 41s local coordinate system. The generalized coordinates vi, v ,---, The displaoemenA field in the element is placements of the three nodes in the local coordinate system. For a linearly elastic material the assumed to be linear. This gives constant strain in the element. stress in the element will also be constant. The linear displacement field in the element can be represented by

wx = a 1 x + b1 y + c1 Wy = a 2 x + b2 y + c 2
where w and w are the x-y displacements in the plane of the plate in the local coordinate system, betc. are thX six undetermined coefficients. Eq. (70) can be written in matrix form as follows:

(70)

al,

Cl a2

(71)

The six unknown coefficients can be uniquely determined by the six boundary conditions at the nodes.

V
v3 v 5. . v V 2v4

Xl X2

Yl Y2

1 1

0
0

0
0

a
0
b C( . a b2

x3 . 0 o 0 0

. Y . 3 . . 1.. . 0 . . .0 . . 0 .
0 0 0 0
- - -

(72 )

- - - - - - -

i
x2 3

Ya 1 Y2 1
_1

0 0

v6

x3

Y3

c2

are the coordinates of the three nodes of the triangle in the local coordiwhere xl, y1 ' --- , x and y It should be nAted that the nodal displacements are grouped into x and y directions, so that nate system. The inversion of the nodal coordinate matrix on the right hand side partitions into a diagonal matrix. Now the shape the partitioned diagonal matrix involves simply the inversion of the component matrix. matr ix is ' given by
X -

(73)

where the matrix x is

given by X 0 (74)

LO
and the Z matrix is given by

00

xyl

Z -K -----..
The coordinate matrix X is given by

(75)

X =

x2 x3

Y2 Y3

11

(76)

i.e. the jth represents a unit displacement mode: It is interesting to note that each column of Z column of the i,verse represents a displacement mode in which v.=1 while all other nodal displacements are This fact is used to advantage in determining the elements of the member stiffness zero (See Fig. 11). matrix. From linear straln-displacement relations the strains can be written as Cx ?w 5 x = (77)

y ' Y

b 2y 2

(78)

9W Exy = From the principle of virtual work (Eq.

as

w a+x =

(79)
+

(48))

the elements of the member stiffness matrix can be written

J(it)J

k j = i v a( i t(( E' ki(ia)

dV

) dV

(80 )

and F(J) are the stress and strain matrices corresponding to the unit displacement modes where ( E is the elastic constants matrix with respect to the element stiffness axis explained under Eq. (76). If the material axis and the (See the local coordinate system of the triangular element in Fig. 10). element stiffness axis coincide, E would be the same as E given in Eq. (42) for orthotropic materials.

In layered composite element>, however, coincide and transformation of E to the This transformation can be accomplished instance the element strain energy with as

the material axis and the element local axis do not generally element local axis is necessary before using it in Eq. (80). by considerations of energy invariance with axis rotation. For respect to the material and the element local axes can be written

T 1
-m 2

(81)

E -M '821

where m is the strain matrix with reference to the material property axis. I is the strain matrix with reference to the element local axis. The strain matrices with reference to the material and element local axes are related by

Em =
where T, the strain transformation matrix, is given by

(83)

2 Cos

Sin 2 9 22 Cose

-Sin20 1 7Sin2S (84)

Sin2,

L-Sin2e

Sin2e

Cos2S

and where , is the angle between the element local axis and the material axis. By substituting Eq. (83) in (81) and invoking the condition of energy invariance with axis rotation, the expression for the elastic constants transformation can be written as

Tt E

(85)

The linear displacement variation in Eq. (70) can be replaced by the volume of the element:

implies

constant strain,

therefore the integral in

Eq.

(80)

XI t

(86) B

where 'X is the determinant of the nodal coordinate matrix which represents twice the area of the and t is the thickness of the element. Now the stiffness matrix of the element is given by

element

(I) t

n),I E(2)

.......

(1)t

(67

(2)t E

(1)

(2)t E

(2) .......
~(87)

.(2)t

(6)

""
k=t t

"

The stress

matrix

in

the

element

is

given by

=E r
The stresses obtained by Eq. (88) are with respect to the element local axis. It is often necessary tranform these to the material property axis. This transformation can be obtained by to

(88)

m =!Ts
where ' is the elelent the stress matrix with respect to the material local axes to the material axis is given by axis. The stress

(89)

transformation matrix from

Cos 2 e Is =
1

Sin 2 Cos 2 0
1

Sin2e -Sin2e Cos2e (90)

2e -s

2-Sn2a PSn2e

The member

force matrix

is

given by s~kv S = k v(91)

The strain

energy

in

the element

is

given by

1
= 1 Xl t

t r (92)

or

Ti

St V

(93)

The next important step in the evaluation of the stress state in an element is the selection of a suitable failure criteria because of the combined stresses (o , o and ,, in the plate elements. For isotropic materials the energy of distortion or the Von-Mises crierion accepted as most satisfactory. The effective stress according to this criterion is given by

322
eff= (2X+
When the allowable stresses are different in according to the modified energy of distortion

1/2

2- Ox Oy+

3oxy)

(94)

different directions, the effective stress criterion can be obtained by

-,

ratio

(ESR5

<x

XI
xx : ).

a /1
+ (Z )

1/I
(5

Y'

where XX and YY are the tension or compression allowable in the x and y directions respectively, the shear allowable. Then the margin of safety (MS) is determined by

and

ZZ

is

I-ESR MS MS=ESR

(96)

The requirement

of a positive margin of safety constitutes

a stress

constraint in

optimization.

The failure criterion as given by Eq. (95) is adequate for isotropic as well as equivalent orthotropic structures. However, in the case of fiber reinforced layered composite materials, the question becomes much more complicated and there is little agreement on the type of criterion to be used. The

fiber failure, matrix failure,

delamination,

and the effects of cut outs and bolt holes can trigger

different failure modes. It is difficult, if not impossible, to combine all these effects into a single neat failure criterion as in metal structures. The present practice consists of a number of emperical criteria whose justification sometimes appears to be more emotional than rational. A review of some of these criteria is given in References [12,131. The "OPTSTAT" program uses the failure criterion given by Eq. (95) for isotropic and equivalent orthotropic structures. For layered composite structures the fiber failure is used as a failure criterion. However, it is a relatively simple matter to modify this criterion to suit other requirements. The composite element in "OPTSTAT" consists of stacked orthotropic membrane elements. Each orthotropic element (layer) in the stack represents the combined effect of all the fibers in one direction. The stiffness of the composite element is obtained by adding the stiffnesses of the component orthotropic elements representing all the fiber directions. This addition of the stiffnesses can be written as

Y k [ j=J *2

(97)

where k represents the stiffness of all the fibers in one direction and ; represents the number of fiber directijns in the composite element. The matrix k for each direction of fibers is determined by Eq. (87). It is also assumed, for the summation i Eq. (97) to be valid, that the stiffness matrices k in each composite element are determined with respect to the same set of reference axis such as the local element axis. The composite element in "OPTSTAT" has at present a provision for four fiber orientations. These

fiber orienta

;iY.s s3i- lo.

9 , and +450.

It

is

further assumed that the composite element is made of a

balanced laminate. By adjusting the relative percentakeG of the f'ibcra. the optimum directional properties of the laminate can be obtained. In assessing the failure of the laminate a weighted average of tho effective stress ratios is considered instead of the failure of the individual fibers. This weighted average ESR is computed by

ESR

0 ESRo + C90 ESR 9 0 + 045 ESR

+ "-45 ESR_

45

(98)

where ESR0 ,

O EPR Rgo

.and 4 and

45 are the

are the percentage of fibers in effective stress ratios

thE 00, of the

90

and +45c respectlvely. 00, 900, 450 and -45layers.

Similarly

A:-AERAL y MEMBRANE

ELEMENT

The AjaJrilaterai element is most frequently used to represent membrane skins unless the corners etc. re.ire the use of the triangular element. Fig. 10 shows the local coordinate system and the generalized .- ,orj1nates displacements) v 1 through v 8 . The element is assumed to be a flat plate, and all nodes are amsimed to lie on a plane connecting the first three nodes (1, 2, and 3). In effect the warping in the element is ignored. This approximation results in an overestimation of the stiffness of a truly warped quadrilateral element. In most cases the effect of the approximation is small, and it can be further reduced by reducing the mesh size of the model in the regions of high warping. However, if the warp is too large, the quadrilateral should be broken up into two or more triangles. As mentioned earlier, the stiffness of the quadrilateral four component triangles as shown in Fig. 12. A fictitious averaging the coordinates of the four nodes as given by element is determined by breaking it into node in the quadrilateral is located by

x5X

l1 + x2

3 +

(99)

Yl

+ Y2 + Y3 + Y4

(100)

Y5 =4

v84.

vs 6 3v

1 V

23

FIG.

12.

Quadrilateral

or Shear Panel Divided into Four Triangles

The stiffness of the four triangles is then computed by Eq. (87) in the local coordinate system shown in Fig. 10. Addition of the four stiffness matrices gives a 10 x 10 stiffness matrix with two degrees of freedom included for the fifth node. This fictitious node is later removed by ststic condensation before adding to the total structure. The procedure for static condensation is outlined next. The force displacement relations of the 5 node quadrilateral are written as

Q z tQ EQ

(101)

where the subscript refers to the quadrilateral element with 5 nodes. the degrees of freedom of the fifth node, can be written as

Eq.

(101),

partitioned

to isolate

[Ii7 il
Eq. (102) can be written as two separate equations

(102)

RI = k

r +1

(103)

2 FIT=

III

rI

I 'I Ill

(104)

node does not actually exist Since the fifth this node. This condition gives

in

the original

model,

no external

forces can be applied to

(105)

Substitution of Eq.

(105) in (103) gives

k I
From Eq. (106) I
-

k
'III

k-( -LIf, 1

-1111

-1

(106)

the stiffness matrix of the original quadrilateral can be written as k = kI - kI I I ki, I , (107)

The stiffness as obtained by Eq. (107) is added to the total structure after appropriate coordinate transformations to the global coordinate system. When the structure displacements are determined, fifth node displacements can be determined by Eq. (105). Now the stresses in each triangle can be mined as before. The effective stress ratio is determined for each triangle separately (Eq. (95)), then a weighted average is used in computing the effective stress ratio and the margin of safety. weighted average is computed by (ESR)I A, + (ESR) 2 'S2 + (ESR) S -I + A2 + A3 + A4
3

the deterand This

A3 + (ESR)

4 6(4

(108)

where (ESR) through (ESR) are the effective stress ratios of the four triangles. -1 through L4 are the respective planform areas of the triangles. In the case of fiber reinforced composite elements a further averaging across the thickness of the elements is used, as in Eq. (97), in determining the effective stress ratio. Now the margin of safety MS is computed as before by Eq. (96). SHEAR PANEL As the name indicates the shear panel is devised for the purpose of representing shear transmitting elements. For example, in wing structures the top and bottom skins can be represented by membrane (triangle and quadrilateral) elements. If the same elements are used for spars and ribs, the resulting finite element model grossly overestimates the stiffness of the structure. What this means is that the displacements obtained by this model will be smaller, or if this model is used for dynamic analysis, the frequencies of the structure will he much higher and cannot be matched with the results obtained from ground vibration tests. This behavior is due to the assumption of constant strain (stress) in the membrane element formulations. Most web elements in box or I-beams carry primarily shear and some normal stresses. In other words their deformation is primarily due to shear and not due to normal stresses. The nDrmal stresses in webs usually have steep stress gradients, and the assumption of constant stress (or strain) is not justified. To offset this difficulty, and yet preserve the simplicity of the constant strain elements, a shear panel was formulated (Ref. 9) with the assumption that it carries only shear stresses. The bars and other membrane elements that surround the shear panel are supposed to carry the normal stresses. Such a situation does not actually exist in reality and thus the shear panel is an emperical element. However, the models built on such an assumption appear to produce satisfactory results. Until recently it was a common practice in aircraft companies to model wings, fuselages, and empennage structures simply by bars and shear panels to obtain primary load path information. In such idealizations it was a common practice to assign a third of the cross-sectional area as spar and rib caps and the remainder for the shear panels. It should be pointed out that every shear panel must be surrounded on all four sides by normal stress carrying elements such as bars or membrane or bending elements. If the natural model does not contain such an element on any side of the shear panel, a nominal ,or fictitious) bar (post) must be provided. Otherwise the model will have a singularity. The shear panel can be constructed out of four triangles with the fictitious node inside as in the membrane quadrilateral discussed earlier. However, the stiffness matrices of the component triangles are Jetermined by considering only the shear strain energy (Eq. (86)). k
-

X! t -

( ) G M ) xy xy

(109)

whre3 s hesharmoulsan (i) .(j) where is the shear modulus, and and (v are the shear strains due to the unit displacement modes discussed earlier. There is one point that must be made here. The shear stress (strain) in an element changes with the orientation of the reference axis. Thus the stiffness matrix of the element can be sensitive to the reference axis. For rectangular elements the shear strain energy would be the same regardless of which side is selected for the reference axis. However, for quadrilaterals the stiffness matrix dots depend on the reference axis. The errors produced by such departures are usually not signi,. b', it i:: -cr'h,-,ic to make note of the assumptions involved. As in the quadrilateral element the shear stresses in all four triangles are determined separately but with respect to the same reference axis. Of course, the normal stresses in the shear panels have no meaning. The margin of safety is determined by a weighted average of the effective stress ratios (ESR) as in the quadrilateral. The strain energy is determined by considering only the shear stress and strain. It should be noted that the shear panel can be used only as an Isotropic or equivalent isotropic element. There are three major steps in building finite element analysis software. The first step is deriving the appropriate shape functions for the elements, so that these elements can model the behavior of the structure adequately. The order of the shape function should reflect, at least to a degree, the order of the differential equation that models the physics of the problem. The volume integration indicated in Eq. (48) is the second major step. Numerical integration is most appropriate for handling arbitrary

boundaries and higher order slope functions. Most finite element programs use Gaussian quadrature. The third major step is the solution of the load deflection equations. Gaussian elimination or variations of it are most appropriate for taking advantage of the symmetry and sparseness characteristics of the global matrices. 5. HIGHER ORDER INTERPOLATION AND SOLID ELEMENTS

So far we have discussed membrane elements with linear polynomial functions as displacement approximations. Here we will discuss the higher order interpolations, isoparametric formulations and the solid elements. ROD ELEMENTS Fig. element. 13 shows linear, quadratic and cubic polynomial approximations for displacements of the rod

u(x) (DISPLACEMENT) F _ __ -

x (DISTANCE)
U, U2

" u(() =

ax + b

LINEAR

" uls)

= ax,

+ bx + c

QUADRATIC

x,

U, C--II

U2

U3

"u(x)

= ax' + bx' + cx + d

CUBIC

U, % ,

U,

U3

U 4

t - X2

F[G.

13.

Polvnomial

Approximations

for DLsplacements

of the Rod Elemocnts

The number of grid points of the element are equal to the number of coefficients tion. The functions for these elements are defined as u m+l =*u i=1

of the polynomial

func-

(130)

where m is the number of segments of the element, . are the shape functions and u. are the discrete displacements at the nodes or grid points. There are wo ways to determine the shapelfunctions. The direct way, as was done in the previous section, involves solving for the coefficients of the polynomial functions by assigning the discrete displacement values at the grid points whose coordinates xi are known. For example the value of u I is given by 1I = 1x + CX x1 +d(111) x4- ,X2 4- d

for the cubic case. Similarly by substituting the displacement values for the other grid points, the coefficients a, b, and d can be solved in terms of the unknown displacements uI, u , u3 and u . Now sutstituting the coefficients into the original displacement equation, an expresiion for the shape function can be obtained. However, t:,z prrc-durp is cumbersome when the order of approximation is higher. The use of Lagrangian interpolation is much more appropriate for higher order approximlinsn c

m+1

i ui

m = NUMBER OF SEGMENTS

(112)

i=1

m+1

IT

(x. xj)

j=1 M+1 =LAGRANGIAN INTERPOLATION FUNCTION

T+1 (113)

j=1 j;~i

is the ith shape function, x is the spatial coordinate of the ith grid point, and x is the diswhere The shape functions for each of the three tance which the displacements are o be interpolated. approximations are given in Fig. 14.

a LINEAR u(x)
,(x)

4,,

U, +4,, U, U ,
0, = "-, X,-X, u U2 u -

x "x_ X, X,

"*QUADRATIC
Ul

x2 U2
X2

U.3 x.
-

UI +03 + ,u, u(x)=,u, +4,ua

(x-x,) (x-x3) (x-x,Xx-x,)

X,

'(xx ) (X X,( X -X (x,-x,) (x,-x,)

(x

"* CUBIC
U'UW)
=

; X

U13 I X,

U4
4

(P 1U, -

U1

+-(P43U3 + 01 U.

X*

021X) ) (x-x,) ( (x-x 0,x) (x,-X) X (X, )-(x,-x,)

X) (X3.XJ (XlmX2) IXI-XI)

(xx,) (x-x) (x-x,) (x2-xJ(xI -s3)(2x,-,)

X)
I). ,

(xx') (x-x

xx ,)

,.)

(xx.) (x-x) (xX) ) Xd)Ix, .g) Ix. X

. .

Funt ons for the Ro< Etlements 1'sino

1_aran!Lin 'Iterpolatlon

SHAPE FUNCTIONS - PLANE STRESS ELEMENTS Ihe shape function for a bilinear plane stress element is defined as before in Fig. 15.

BILINEAR ELEMENT
0 .e_~
-

y
b
t 3

la V)

U
=

IU,V, U2 V2 U2 Va U4 W41

4, 0 V, 0 4O ' .0 q), O 0 4' 0 'p 0 'V30 %] a, + FU, x '

+ '.,,, )v3,a +.VU2 413

x a

b,.X a y

S=

(V V I +) 'FV3, +

4)%V.

L~'~~

FIG.

15.

Shape Function for a B!linpar Plnne Stress Element

This shape function represents linear displacements along the edges and a product of x and y terms in the interior. It represents an incomplete polynomial but nevertheless gives satisfactory results.

Extension of the bilinear formulation to an arbitrary quadrilateral >O. ' the concepts of parametric mapping and isoparametric elements. When the lisp, !. . and its boundary are approximated by the same shape functions, then the eeoment i.s :d eement. This isoparametric mapping is shown in Fig. 16. lsoparantric mapping maK r tion over the domain of odd shaped elements easier, particularly in obtiining element s.fr Also in the case of higher order elements the curved boundaries can be mo.,Pled more accarat<', the boundary of the elements is also represented by higher order approximati."as. Y 1

y.v

1l

F, (4.'1)

y =F2 (,rl

F[(V.

16.

ITsoparametric

Mapping The shape functions for

The n'w independent non-dimensional coordinates and n are defined as shown. bilinear, biquadratic and cubic quadrilaterals are given in Fig. 17.

- BILINEAR ELEMENTS
4

* BIGUADRATIC ELEMENr
4 3

MIPONT 0 NODES 6 "(1 NE-, ' +Tflri)(12

ALONG Ii

= 0

+tt')(1 Till

ALONG'rji =0
LErIq)(1i -Ts 1,

6{ 6S 2 S

['ERNER N `'S

(/ 1 + t- I )(1

CUBIC
4 30

'
12 1 Fl(;. I.

9i32 (I + 4 4 9132 ( (l1

)(1

)1 0 (1
+nij
-

9pq 1) AT T( 9

-t 1 rn

= 1132 (1 +-4,, for Biliuoar,

l{)9(f

t = 1)AT1i = -1O1ATCORNERS +rl)

and Cubic Quadrilater:als The

Shape Functions

Biquadratic

shape

The isoparametric formulation of the solid elements pa functions for the linear quadratic elements are given

allels that or i Fig. 18.

the membrane elements.

"*LINEAR

(8 NODESI
Ni 118 (1 + )(11 + n'i I +t i

"* QUADRATIC (20 NODES)

AT CORNERS Ni = 118 (1 +
AT 4,
=

I(I + Y111)(1 + Y j)(IV , + '

1, =

i + 'in -2)

0
Ni=

, = 1
%A (I-,)(I

+ 'rTin(1 + !ffj

AT'1, N,

0
=

Y,

I
= )I +

1
+ Till

Y (I

II
F1G.

Y. 11- y i)IT + TI TI) (I + fi

18. Shape Functions for the Linear Qiuadratic Elements

7ie :s'p~foie~r l-, ma;pplng involves a Thange of coordinates from the x, y, z to the transt'or mat ion Mu.'st be reflected in the formulation of the element stifrnens matrix. t:'ness m-Strix in the x, y, z coordinate system and the required transformations to the Fig. in ore given Ti s

system, I9. The element ", system

ELEMENT STIFFNESS EVALUATION

II LWRDI5 ISANSFORM TION

JACOBIAN MATRIX OF TRANSFORMATION

v , e,

FIG.

I.

E I IMVnt S t if fness irans to rma tion f rom the x, v z i ,ordinato System to the -, u, ; Coordinate System

NUMERIAL

INTEGRATION

1,1

The integration indicated in the element stiffness matrix can be quite cumbersome, and most often numerical integration is the only recourse for higher order elements. The basis for deriving moat numerical integration quadratures is the approximation of the integrand by a finite degree polynomial which can be integrated readily. For example, consider an integral I defined as h

.,here

the

integrand F~x)

is

complex

and

cannot

be readily

evaluated.

In

such

a case

the function

F(s)

can

be approximated

by an nth degree polynomial F x)

m-s shown = a + a + .. + a n

(115)

There are (n.1) unknown coefficients (as) in the above approximation. A criteria is necessary for evaluation of these coefficients. One such criteria is to require that the approximate function satisfy the exact functional values at (n1) equal points between the interval a and b. Now the interval a to b is divided equally into n divisions, and the coordinates of the (n+l) points are given by xo, x 1.'.' xn The criteria can be expressed by a matrix equation F =XA

where -F

is

the

vector

of function values at the FtI

(n+1)

points

.....

tF ,

'

17)

A is

the

(n,!)

vector of polynomial coefficients . r

The

matrix

is

given by

Ii

(118)

X -z

$1

4-2S Now the vector of polynomial coefficients can be determined by

A
Then the polynomial F(x) can be written as

= XI F

(120)

F(x)

xI F e .. .

(121)

The polynomial integrand can be integrated with ease. The degree of the polynomial and the associated criteria for determining the coefficients of the polynomial are the limiting factors. There are a number of improvements to this basic concept. Before outlining two of the improved approximations, let us examine an alternative to the above procedure. When the degree of the polynomial approximation is high, finding Xe is not the most convenient or desirable procedure. Instead the alternative is to use nth degree Lagrangian interpolation as in the case of the shape functions. In terms of the Lagrangian interpolation functions, F(x) can be approximated by

F(x)

0 Fo

F1 -

-----..+n

Fn

(122)

where the Lagrangian

interpolation

functions are given by

m+|

T[

-x xj
INTERPOLATION FUNCTION

j=1
I| -LAGRANGIAN m+1 (123)

Ixix I)

The function values at (n+1) points are F,FI ,...,Fn. the Newton-Cotes interpolation which is written as h f a F(x)dx = (b-a)

An improvement to the Lagrangian

interpolation is

n ICF i=o

(124)

n
where R is the remainder. The Ci are the in ling points. segments. These constants are given numerical Newton-Cotes constants for numerical integration with n samptables. The interval a to b is divided into n equal

b-a

(125)

The well known trapezoidal rule of integration corresponds to n=1, and Simpson's rule corresponds to n=2. The accuracy of the Newton's-Cotes approximation can be improved by either increasing the order of approximation or by repeated use of a lower order approximation. The Gauss-quadrature for numerical integration is a further improvement over both of the above methods. Most finite formulations in practice use Gauss-quadrature and it is given by I I I n k z
'(

The coefficients

and

the integration

points are given by Abscissa(s) Weight Coefficient 1.0 0.5555555555

+0.57735026919 +0.77459666924

0.0
+0.86113631159 4 +0.33998104358

0.88888888888
0.34785484514 0.65214515486

The recommended integration order for plane stress isoparametric elements is Integration Order RecommendeC 2x2 2x2 2x2 3x3 as follows: 2x2x2 3x3x3

as follows:

Element 4-Node Rectangle Element 4-Node Distorted Element 8-Node Rectangle Element 8-Node Distorted Element

Maximum Order 2x2 3x3 3x3 4x4

A similar recommendation for solid elements is Linear Elements Quadratic and Cubic Elements ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FOR SOLID ELEMENTS

The stress-strain relations for three dimensional elements with thermal effects is = .Ge{c - t} where G is the elastic constants matrix and E is matrix for the three-dimensional isotropic case is the thermal strain matrix. given by

given by (127)

The elastic constants

"VV
0 (P-)V 0 0

0 0 o o

0
0

0
0

0( o o
where E is Young's modulus and v is given by Et= lei = Poisson's ratio.

c o

o o

-a)o(128) o

jL-a/a 0 o Ci-aWZ~

The thermal strain is

(a A A

a xy a x z

Izx(

1 9

(129)

= [a a a o 0 o0T The relationship between the element's interior temperature and the nodal temperatures is 1 = e given by (130) connected. is the shape

Sis

the vector of temperatures of the grid points to which the element is function, and T is the temperature distribution assumed in the element.

The elastic constants matrix for a three dimensional element made of anisotropic material is

given by

CE,E,

C F,F-

CEE2,

o
C

C
CE,E

G ,C 44
SYMME.TRIC

0
C5

(131)

CE=

E Ez _

where E Poissons elastic Section

a's are the The in the three material axes direction. , E and E are the moduli of elasticity The are the shear moduli in the three material axes directions. and G G aAd G4, raiios, constants can be tr~sforme to any other coordinate system by the transformation indicated in 2 and repeated here.

S=T
where the transformation matrix I is the same as that given for the strain The thermal coefficient transformation is given by -1 transformation in Section

(132)

2.

-M

(133)

matrices, stresses, So far the discussion has centered around the generation of element stiffness Once the element information is generated in the local coordinate system, the global etc. strains, matrix, etc. can be generated by transforming the information from the local coordinate system stiffness To solve matrix (see Eq. (54)). to the global coordinate system and adding to obtain the master stiffness In the case of simple linear need load matrices (see Eq. (55)). for the unknown displacements we still elements these load matrices can be generated by a consistent formulation or by a lumping procedure element approxiwill be within the bounds of the finite Either way the results derived from inspection. Then the This is not the case when higher order isoparametric elements are used in the model. mation. recommended procedure is to generate the load matrices consistent with the formulation of the element For example, the nodal (grid) forces due to a distributed surface pressure must be matrices. stiffness obtained by

f tds

(134)

is the vector of grid forces at the discrete grid points of the elements due to the pressure where P Similarly, the grid forces of a solid element due to distributed body distributed over the surface. forces can be written as p
=

(135)

where R is

the

body force vector. formulation for the discrete thermal load can be written as

The consistent

!T

t f %

dv

(136)

where C is

given by C = DC

(137)

In concluding the solid elements discussion it is worthwhile pointing out the expected output for In general, most of the solid element information is generated in the basic coordinate these elements. Then the information can be transformed to the global coordinate system as desired system of the element. at each grid point. The element stresses are computed by

D~u

~T(138)

The stress

output for the

following elements is Linear Element -

generally

given at and at the center

eight corner points

Quadratic

and Cubic Elements

'

Eight corner points

* Center of each edge

I

Center of the element

This output generally consists of

* Principal stresses
* Principal angles * Mean stress

* Octahedral shear stress

The mean

stress

or

hydrostatic stress

is

defined

as

v the octahedral shear stress is defined as

.4 )

(139)

3./2
S +

n)2

(14)
(n)

'o = [3f(Sx + 5)n where Sx, 6. Sy and S are the principal stresses. 'ND PLATES

(Sy + an)2 + (Sz +

BENDING ELEMENTS - BARS (BEAMS)

So far the discussion has centered around plane stress (membrane) elements and solid elements. Bending elements are necessary when transverse forces are significant, and when the elements cannot carry For example, a wing box constructed out of spars, ribs, skins and these forces by membrane action alone. rods can transmit the overall loads quite well by membrane action alone, even though the aerodynamic lift The bending caused by the aerodynamic lift forces produce significant bending and shear in the wing box. is resisted by internal couples generated by the tension and compression in the bottom and top skins of However, locally the skins have to carry the pressure the wing where the shear is carried by the spars. Also compression in the top load between the substructure supports (spar and ribs) by a bending action. This buckling resistance must also come from the bending skin can trigger panel buckling in the top skin. So the bending behavior is an Important modeling consideration in finite element action of the plates. analysis. Bars The three dimensional Among the line elements only the axial force member has been discussed so far. line element which will be referred to as a bar or a beam is the most versatile element in the finite eleThis element can be used very effectively for developing stick models of most aerospace ment library. These stick models are very useful in conceptual design for studying the overall dynamic structures. For example, when details of the overall internal structure are not fully develbehavior of a vehicle. oped (or are not known), the dynamic behavior, such as frequencies, mode shapes, etc., can be adequately These predicted for a preliminary assessment of the stability and control characteristics of the vehicle. elements are easy to model, and they permit rapid parametric studies for improving the handling qualities of the vehicle. Three of The most general three dimensional bar element has six degrees of freedom at each end. The degrees of freedom of the bar these are translational and three are rotational degrees of freedom. element are shown in Fig. 20.

j8

"
3
FIG. 20.

1 9

10

Degrees of Freedom

,f the Bir Element

This bar element can resist an axial force (tension or compression in the x-direction), shear in the y and These are the six z directions, twisting about its own axis (x-axis) and bending about the y and z axes. The axial stress-resultants corresponding to the six displacement degrees of freedom at each end. (tension/compression) behavior of the bar can be assumed to be governed by a first order differential The Similarly, the torsional behavior is governed by a first order differential equation. equation. bending and shear behavior in each of the two planes (xy and xz) is governed by one fourth order differThe implicit assumption in the foregoing discussion is that these beha~iors are ential equation. For most beams (cross-sections with at least one axis of symmetry or the reference planes are uncoupled. In such a case the element stiffness corresponding to the the principal planes) this assumption is valid. 12 degrees of freedom can be written by superposition of the four stiffiiesses.
(141)
-

A +*-B.,

-Bxz + I

where k A I8xy IBxz IT 12x12 Bar element stiffness matrix 12x12 Axial stiffness contribution 12x12 Bending stiffness in the xy plane 12x12 Bending stiffness in the xz plane 12x12 Torsional stiffness

all of these matrices are symmetric about the diagonal.

Elements of k

AE

11 4

44 .

-Aht

(1'42)

The remaining elements are zero. A is the cross-sectional elasticity, and L is the length of the bar. Elements of k

area of the

bar,

E is

the material modulus of

-2

8,8

L'KL z

12EI

k,

2,6

=k,

2,12

k 6,8 =-k 8,12 = L 2

LI El Lz
+

k6,6

k 12,12 = Lk L2

rz + zr EFz

(143)

k 6,12

412

The remaining elements are zero. G is the the cross-section about the z-axis, and K Elements of kx

shear modulus of the material. I is the area shear reduction factor

is in

the moment of inertia the y-direction.

of

-k

k9

= ry

j-Lfj
v (144)

3,5

3,11

5,9

9,11

+I

E. k,ll = 4-

The remaining elements are zero. I is the moment of inertia k is the area shear reduction factor in the z-direction. z Elements of kT k4,4 k=k 4,7

of the

cross-section about the y-axls,

and

=k 7,7

[1

J
(145)

The remaining elements are zero. J is the torsional constant. A list of approximate formulas for the torsional constants is given for popular sections in the Appendix. For most beams the deformations due to shear are small compared to bending, and the terms containing the area shear reduction factors can be neglected. Exceptions are when the bars are very short and their cross-sectional dimensions are large (deep beams). The length referred to in the previous statement is not the element length, but refers to the span of the beam between the supports. Generally, cross-sectional constant (J). there are area (A), four important cross-sectional properties for bar elements. These are the the moments of inertia about the y and z axes (I , Iz), and the torsional

The bar element can be made very versatile by allowing offset provisions at the two ends, by allowing pin flags of up to 5 degrees of freedom at each end, and also by allowing an offset in the elastic and mass C.G. axis. The latter provision allows for the modeling of wing surfaces as beam elements and simulates the bending-torsion coupling behavior. Then the element stiffness needs modification accordingly. Pending Behavior of Plates

Most plate structures are subjected to both inplane and out of plane forces. The out of plane forces normally induce bending in the plates. If the nonlinear interaction of the inplane and out of plane

behavior is small, then these two effects can be uncoupled. The inplane behavior can be represented by membrane elements as discussed earlier. The bending behavior can be derived separately, and the two effects can be superimposed to obtain the combined behavior. This procedure is analogous to the bar element formulation. Except in the case of significant nonlinearities, this procedure is valid for plates made of isotropic materials and symmetric and balanced laminates. For unsymmetric laminates, however, the coupling between the inplane and out of plane behavior cannot be avoided, even when the nonlinear effects are small. This coupling and uncoupling behavior can be explained simply by writing the strain displacement and stress resultant strain curvature relations. The displacements of a point in the plate can be represented -lw u u
-

by u,

v,

w,

and they are given by

W0

v= v-

1w Z -1v

(146)

where uo, vo and wo are the midplane displacements of the point.

Similarly the strain curvature relations can be written as

, !,

ov

jn tre

the mid-surface strains and kx o x 0

- uo x x )v

k< and

are the plate curvatures.

These are

2o x k v x2 -w 3

uo o

vo

kwo

The stress-strain

relation

in

a laminate can be written

as (149) 4th and 5th rows and columns from the G

"Q1 r
The elastic constants matrix matrix written in Eq. (128). Q Is given by removing the 3rd,

Now the relation between the stress curvature strains can be written as

resultants

(inplane

forces and moments)

and the stretching

and

Nxy

NrAll
andA

Ala Alf j

B
B

1
16

FE,&a
y0 0(150)

Mj M,

|, Ate Az I BE, B22 ab 2 _A1 S(50 3 Ae.5 Abj_ I B11 E3,

LB,, L,
where the coefficients AIj, aIj

Sl~ s et, a c,(

01

0 2ab 2 D a.r,

K,
K,,

Bar. E,G!,rb

and DIj are given by

A, jZ :! /

i..3 s4 7-Z

Bi

_Q

LDLj = .

Q 6 -Z '1 Z

(151)

For an isotropic or composite plate with a balanced and symmetric laminate, the B matrix is zero. As a result the inplane and bending behavior can be uncoupled providee the nonlinear interaction between them is not significant. Based on the above discussion the equivalent stress-strain law for inplane behavior

4-34

can be written as

[61
(c~ =

-.Alt h
Al

Ala1 ~~ k,, A,3 Aa Aj

.~ E
(152)

For

bending the equivalent stress-strain

law can

be written as

(153)

If

the inplane-bending behavior

can

be uncoupled,

then

the plate element + k

stiffness

can be written

as

k-

(15'4)

where . is the membrane element stiffness matrix derived (for the triangle and the quadrilateral) earlier. However, it was derived only with respect to the inplane displacement degrees of freedom. To expand this matrix to include the bending degrees of freedom, we can simply add rows and columns of zeros. For membrane elements the two degrees of freedom corresponding to the two displacements were specified for each grid point. The degrees of freedom for bending behavior consist of a transverse displacement (normal to the plate) and rotations about the two orthogonal axes in the plane of the plate (see Fig. 21).

FIG.

21.

Degrees of

Freedom for

the Bending Triangle and

Quadrilater.l

The stiffness matrix of the bending elements can also be expanded to include the membrane degrees of freedom by adding rows and columns of zeros. 'When the membrane and bending behaviors are superimposed, the element provides stiffness against five degrees of freedom. The degree of freedom corresponding to rotation about the normal to the plate does not have stiffness, and this fact must be taken into account in order to avoid singularities in the solution of the load deflection equations. The bending behavior of a plate is governed by a fourth order partial differential equation with the transverse displacement as the dependent variable. The approximating polynomial for the bending element must reflect this fact. Some proposed polynomial approximations for the bending element are listed here. Triangular Plate Bending Element + + aa+ =3 14X + aKx + a + al~-Xy + ,2x + a5 + ar jxY 4 3 +3 x2 xv')

W(

X'

(155)

Rectangular w(x,y)

Plate Bending Element

V -

a~3 + axv

, Irv + ag

ll3v3 + alxV

+ a x

+a+a

ay

+ a3+

+ aloXvI"

(156)

Similar or variations of these approximations were used by various investigators. Most of these are incomplete polynomial approximations, and there is a certain arbitrariness and controversy. The incompleteness is due to the fact that the number of unknown polynomial coefficients has to be consistent with the number of displacement degrees of freedom assigned to the element. Once the displacement approximations are defined, then the procedure for deriving the element stiffness matrices is similar to that outlined In Sections 4 and 5. 7. MASS PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS FOR DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

In dynamic analysis we need to consider the inertia forces in addition to the elastic forces on the structure. The inertia forces require mass properties. The element mass matrices can be generated by either a lumped mass or a consistent mass approach. The basis for a lumped mass approach is simply by inspection or a linear approximation at best. For example, the distributed mass of a rod can be lumped at each end by half its total mass. Similarly, for a triangular element a third of the mass can be lumped at each grid point and so on. The consistent mass approach on the other hand is derived logically from the Kinetic energy of the system and the assumed displacement functions. The procedure is akin to the element stiffness matrices derivations. The term consistent refers to the formulation being consistent with the stiffness derivation.

The kinetic energy of a vibrating

(time dependent

motion) ,d'

element can be written (5;

fi - " f'i

Substituting the assumed displacement functions in terms of the shape point displacements (see Eq. (7D)) into Eq. (157) gives

functions

and the discrete

grid

(158)

where the element mass matrix mi is

given by

Jo
The total kinetic energy in the structure is

.:..v

'159)

the sum of t)e kinetic energies of the elements

* ,-i.

160)i

i=I Now a transformation from the local coordinate system to the global system gives

Sm(16)

where

refers to

the global

displacement

vector and

M is

the global

mass matrix and

is

given by

-i IL

(162)

The Jetails of the transformation are similar to that indicated for the stiffness matrix in Now the equations of dynamic analysis can be derived by substituting the kinetic energy and terms into >agrange's equation.
lu + C 4 Ku P( t) l

Section 4. strain energy

(163) The first term represents the inertia forces (derived from the kinetic energy), the second term is from tne dissipative forces, and the third term represents the elastic forces. The term on the right hand side of Eq. (163) represents the applied forces. Equation (163) is a second order matrix dynamic equation of the system, and it (or variations of) is the basis for predicting the dynamic behavior of mechanical systems. A few important points are worth noting before leaving this the cnsistent section. are acceptable for linear (first

SBoth the lumped mass approach and order) elements.

mass approach

I The lumped mass approach has a tendency to overestimate the mass and gives approximation to the frequencies.

lower bound

"* The "* For

consistent mass approach gives Rayleigh-Ritz procedure. higher order isoparametric order

an upper bound approximation

to the frequencies

as

in

elements the

lumped mass approach is, non-structural

generally,

not acceptable.

" In the case of higher judiciously. 8. STRUCTURAL

elements concentrated

masses must be handled

ANALYSIS SOLUTIONS analysis problems will be explained here with the help of the analysis equations.

Finite element

1. Static Analysis
The static structural analysis is represented by the load P 4 Ku deflection equations (164)

where P represents the applied load vector. P may consist of many independent load vectors representing independent flight conditions. The solution of the above equation3 is generally carried out in three steps. a. Decomposition: Involves factorization of the stiffness matrix

K = L121.t

(165)

4-3t, where L is a unit lower triangular matrix and D is b. Forward Substitution: a diagonal matrix.

Involves the solution of Y from LY = P (166)

c.

Back Substitution:

Involves the solution of u from the relation

DL = Y (167)

The reason for performing a static structural analysis in three steps is that the procedure takes advantage of the sparseness and symmetric properties of the stiffness matrix. If there is more than one load vector, only the last two steps have to be repeated. That is, one decomposition and n FBS (Forward and Back Substitutions) are necessary, where n represents the number of load vectors. Once the load deflection equations are solved (for u), the element displacements can be determined by a simple coordinate transformation (see Section 4). From the element displacements the strains can be determined by the strain-displacement relations. The stresses are then determined by the stress-strain relations. 2. Normal Modes Analysis The equations of

The normal modes analysis represents the solution of a free vibration problem. free vibration analysis are given by
'Ira + Ku

(168)

That is

no damping or external forces.

The solution of this harmonic equation can be written as u = ["

SX ('t + ) (169)

Substitution of this solution into the dynamic equation gives

5(170) KU

or K
-

-(171)

This equation belongs to a class of generalized eigenvalue problems with symmetric matrices. There are many methods for the solution of this problem. These are generally classified into transformation methods The tracking and tracking methods. The transformation methods find all the eigenvalues together. methods, on the other hand, find the desired eigenvalues and eigenvectors only, usually one at a time or in small groups. Some examples of these methods are listed here. Givens Method Determinant Method Inverse Power Method Subspace Iteration Sturm-Sequence and Bisection - Transformation Method

- Tracking Methods

A normal modes analysis is the basic step in most dynamic analyses of large systems (many degrees of freedom), because these systems can only be solved by reducing to a smaller number of equations. This reduction is most effective when the solution Is represented by a small set of independent coordinates associated with the normal (natural) modes of the structure. 3. Complex Eigenvalue Analysis The damped free vibration of a structure can be represented by
mu + C"' + Ku = 0 (172)

This second order coupled differential equation can be represented in state space in the following form

S=
where X and X are given by

AX

(173)

IIII(174)

an 'e; 'in! '

matrix

A in

given by

The solution

of

Eq.

(173)

can

be written

as

This issa

complex eigenvalue

problem.

The eigenvalues

will

contain

real and

imaginary parts

XA

i 1

(177)

The inverse power method and the upper Hessenberg method (similar to Givens) available for the solution of the complex eigenvalue problem.

are

some of the methods

'When the order of the system is very large, a complex eigenvalue analysis can be too expensive. In sjcc cases a modal reduction before a complex eigenvalue analysis is recommended. This modal reduction involves a real eigenvalue analysis (normal modes), and then the full system is expressed in terms of a reduced number of normal coordinates. EEENS A ES

I']

loresi, A. Englewooi

P.,

"Elasticity N.J.,

in 1965.

Engineering Mechanics,"

Prentice-Hall,

Inc.,

Cliffs,

onkiewiocz, 7. C., :,ondon, 'q71.

"The Finite Element

Method in

Engineering

Science,"

McGraw Hill

Co.,

U
,

Proemrnilecki,

I. S.,

"Theory

of Matrix

Structural Analysis,"

McGraw-Hill, Analysis,"

New York,

1968.

'ook, Robert John Wiley & Sons, .Rao, ,"The

c.,"Cncepts and Applications of Finite element Inc., New York, 1981. element Method in Engineering,"

Finite

Pergamon

Press, in

Oxford,

England,

!982.

UK:

Irons, F. M., AIAA Journal,

"Engineering Application of Numerical Vol. 4, IQ66, pp. 2035-2q37.

Integration

Stiffness Method,"

`7

Bathe, K. J. and Wilson, E. L., "Numerical Methods Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1976. MacNeal, Garvey, Venkayya, S. R. H., J., V. B. (Editor), "The and "The NASTRAN Theoretical Shear A., Panel," -

in

Finite

Element

Analysis,"

[86 11
'!']

Manual,

Levels

16

and May

1',"

March

'7'.

Quadrilateral Tischler, V.

Aircraft

Engineering,

"ANALYZE

Analysis of Aerospace Ftructures

with -- itbra'c-

Elements,"
311]

AFFDL-TR-78-170.
V. A., "OPTSTAT - A Computer Program for the Optimal Loads," Technical Memorandum AFFDL-TM-FBR-'9-67. Theories of 19-22. Isotropic and Anisotropic )eszgn Cf

Venkayya, V. 8. and Tischler, Structures Subjected to Static

[12]

Sandhu, R. S., "A Survey of Failure September 1972, AFFOL-TR-72-71, pp. Tsai, S. pp. 5-8. W., "Strength

Materials,"

[137

Characteristics

of Composite Materials,"

April

1965,

NASA

CR-224,

\X

!,IRS I )NA!, SII FEN-SS OF

LIINE

Il.'IOENT

CIRCULAR SECTION

SJ=

IT

a.

3 2_

ELLIPTICAL SECTION

/6

a 2 + b2

SOLID SECTIONS RECTANGLE

a-J
THIN RECTANGLE t

J b CL
3a

((-0.63

ARBITRARY SOLID SECTIOoo

_TT
16

a3
a +b2

a AND b ARE ECQUIVALENT ELLIPSE DIMENSIONS RULES FOR EQUIVALENCE 1. AREA OF ELLIPSE - AREA OF GIVEN SECTION 2, P. I. OF ELLIPSE P.I. OF GIVEN SECTION

LLOSL'O SLCTIONS

-=

A
t
BY A LINE CONNECTING CENTERS

MEAN AREA BOiNoDE OF THICKNESS

fPit',,ALL

OPEN SLCITWNS

Io
4)

LEFFLCT OF V.ARPICG

S"-i+-

COS,',. ',LD SLCTIONS

r 1)

BIBLIOGRAPHY This bibliography covering 1978-1986 has been prepared in supix~rt of LS-147 using references fron the NASA amd INSPEC databases by the Royal Signals and Radar Establisnent, Mailvern, 1brcs, IT-

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