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Virtualmemory
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Incomputing,virtualmemoryisamemorymanagementtechnique
thatisimplementedusingbothhardwareandsoftware.Itmaps
memoryaddressesusedbyaprogram,calledvirtualaddresses,
intophysicaladdressesincomputermemory.Mainstorageasseen
byaprocessortaskappearsasacontiguousaddressspaceor
collectionofcontiguoussegments.Theoperatingsystemmanages
virtualaddressspacesandtheassignmentofrealmemorytovirtual
memory.AddresstranslationhardwareintheCPU,oftenreferred
toasamemorymanagementunitorMMU,automaticallytranslates
virtualaddressestophysicaladdresses.Softwarewithinthe
operatingsystemmayextendthesecapabilitiestoprovideavirtual
addressspacethatcanexceedthecapacityofrealmemoryandthus
referencemorememorythanisphysicallypresentinthecomputer.
Theprimarybenefitsofvirtualmemoryincludefreeingapplications
fromhavingtomanageasharedmemoryspace,increasedsecurity
duetomemoryisolation,andbeingabletoconceptuallyusemore
memorythanmightbephysicallyavailable,usingthetechniqueof
paging.

Contents
1Properties
2Usage
3History
4Pagedvirtualmemory
4.1Pagetables
4.2Pagingsupervisor
4.3Pinnedpages
4.3.1Virtualrealoperation
4.4Thrashing
5Segmentedvirtualmemory
6Addressspaceswapping
7Seealso
8Furtherreading
9Notes
10References
11Externallinks

VirtualmemorycombinesactiveRAMand
inactivememoryonDASD[NB1]toforma
largerangeofcontiguousaddresses.

Properties
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Virtualmemorymakesapplicationprogrammingeasierbyhidingfragmentationofphysicalmemorybydelegating
tothekerneltheburdenofmanagingthememoryhierarchy(eliminatingtheneedfortheprogramtohandleoverlays
explicitly)and,wheneachprocessisruninitsowndedicatedaddressspace,byobviatingtheneedtorelocate
programcodeortoaccessmemorywithrelativeaddressing.
Memoryvirtualizationcanbeconsideredageneralizationoftheconceptofvirtualmemory.

Usage
Virtualmemoryisanintegralpartofamoderncomputerarchitectureimplementationsrequirehardwaresupport,
typicallyintheformofamemorymanagementunitbuiltintotheCPU.Whilenotnecessary,emulatorsandvirtual
machinescanemployhardwaresupporttoincreaseperformanceoftheirvirtualmemoryimplementations.[1]
Consequently,olderoperatingsystems,suchasthoseforthemainframesofthe1960s,andthoseforpersonal
computersoftheearlytomid1980s(e.g.DOS),[2]generallyhavenovirtualmemoryfunctionality,thoughnotable
exceptionsformainframesofthe1960sinclude:
theAtlasSupervisorfortheAtlas
MCPfortheBurroughsB5000
MTS,TSS/360andCP/CMSfortheIBMSystem/360Model67
MulticsfortheGE645
theTimeSharingOperatingSystemfortheRCASpectra70/46
TheAppleLisaisanexampleofapersonalcomputerofthe1980sthatfeaturesvirtualmemory.
Mostmodernoperatingsystemsthatsupportvirtualmemoryalsoruneachprocessinitsowndedicatedaddress
space.Eachprogramthusappearstohavesoleaccesstothevirtualmemory.However,someolderoperating
systems(suchasOS/VS1andOS/VS2SVS)andevenmodernones(suchasIBMi)aresingleaddressspace
operatingsystemsthatrunallprocessesinasingleaddressspacecomposedofvirtualizedmemory.
Embeddedsystemsandotherspecialpurposecomputersystemsthatrequireveryfastand/orveryconsistent
responsetimesmayoptnottousevirtualmemoryduetodecreaseddeterminismvirtualmemorysystemstrigger
unpredictabletrapsthatmayproduceunwanted"jitter"duringI/Ooperations.Thisisbecauseembeddedhardware
costsareoftenkeptlowbyimplementingallsuchoperationswithsoftware(atechniquecalledbitbanging)rather
thanwithdedicatedhardware.

History
Inthe1940sand1950s,alllargerprogramshadtocontainlogicformanagingprimaryandsecondarystorage,such
asoverlaying.Virtualmemorywasthereforeintroducednotonlytoextendprimarymemory,buttomakesuchan
extensionaseasyaspossibleforprogrammerstouse.[3]Toallowformultiprogrammingandmultitasking,many
earlysystemsdividedmemorybetweenmultipleprogramswithoutvirtualmemory,suchasearlymodelsofthe
PDP10viaregisters.
TheconceptofvirtualmemorywasfirstdevelopedbyGermanphysicistFritzRudolfGntschattheTechnische
UniversittBerlinin1956inhisdoctoralthesis,LogicalDesignofaDigitalComputerwithMultiple
AsynchronousRotatingDrumsandAutomaticHighSpeedMemoryOperationitdescribedamachinewith6
100wordblocksofprimarycorememoryandanaddressspaceof1,000100wordblocks,withhardware
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automaticallymovingblocksbetweenprimarymemoryandsecondarydrummemory.[4][5]Pagingwasfirst
implementedattheUniversityofManchesterasawaytoextendtheAtlasComputer'sworkingmemoryby
combiningits16thousandwordsofprimarycorememorywithanadditional96thousandwordsofsecondary
drummemory.ThefirstAtlaswascommissionedin1962butworkingprototypesofpaginghadbeendevelopedby
1959.[3](p2)[6][7]In1961,theBurroughsCorporationindependentlyreleasedthefirstcommercialcomputerwith
virtualmemory,theB5000,withsegmentationratherthanpaging.[8][9]
Beforevirtualmemorycouldbeimplementedinmainstreamoperatingsystems,manyproblemshadtobe
addressed.Dynamicaddresstranslationrequiredexpensiveanddifficulttobuildspecializedhardwareinitial
implementationssloweddownaccesstomemoryslightly.[3]Therewereworriesthatnewsystemwidealgorithms
utilizingsecondarystoragewouldbelesseffectivethanpreviouslyusedapplicationspecificalgorithms.By1969,
thedebateovervirtualmemoryforcommercialcomputerswasover[3]anIBMresearchteamledbyDavidSayre
showedthattheirvirtualmemoryoverlaysystemconsistentlyworkedbetterthanthebestmanuallycontrolled
systems.[10]ThefirstminicomputertointroducevirtualmemorywastheNorwegianNORD1duringthe1970s,
otherminicomputersimplementedvirtualmemory,notablyVAXmodelsrunningVMS.
Virtualmemorywasintroducedtothex86architecturewiththeprotectedmodeoftheIntel80286processor,but
itssegmentswappingtechniquescaledpoorlytolargersegmentsizes.TheIntel80386introducedpagingsupport
underneaththeexistingsegmentationlayer,enablingthepagefaultexceptiontochainwithotherexceptionswithout
doublefault.However,loadingsegmentdescriptorswasanexpensiveoperation,causingoperatingsystem
designerstorelystrictlyonpagingratherthanacombinationofpagingandsegmentation.

Pagedvirtualmemory
Nearlyallimplementationsofvirtualmemorydivideavirtualaddressspaceintopages,blocksofcontiguousvirtual
memoryaddresses.Pagesoncontemporary[NB2]systemsareusuallyatleast4kilobytesinsizesystemswithlarge
virtualaddressrangesoramountsofrealmemorygenerallyuselargerpagesizes.

Pagetables
Pagetablesareusedtotranslatethevirtualaddressesseenbytheapplicationintophysicaladdressesusedbythe
hardwaretoprocessinstructionssuchhardwarethathandlesthisspecifictranslationisoftenknownasthememory
managementunit.Eachentryinthepagetableholdsaflagindicatingwhetherthecorrespondingpageisinreal
memoryornot.Ifitisinrealmemory,thepagetableentrywillcontaintherealmemoryaddressatwhichthepage
isstored.Whenareferenceismadetoapagebythehardware,ifthepagetableentryforthepageindicatesthatit
isnotcurrentlyinrealmemory,thehardwareraisesapagefaultexception,invokingthepagingsupervisor
componentoftheoperatingsystem.
Systemscanhaveonepagetableforthewholesystem,separatepagetablesforeachapplicationandsegment,a
treeofpagetablesforlargesegmentsorsomecombinationofthese.Ifthereisonlyonepagetable,different
applicationsrunningatthesametimeusedifferentpartsofasinglerangeofvirtualaddresses.Iftherearemultiple
pageorsegmenttables,therearemultiplevirtualaddressspacesandconcurrentapplicationswithseparatepage
tablesredirecttodifferentrealaddresses.

Pagingsupervisor
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Thispartoftheoperatingsystemcreatesandmanagespagetables.Ifthehardwareraisesapagefaultexception,
thepagingsupervisoraccessessecondarystorage,returnsthepagethathasthevirtualaddressthatresultedinthe
pagefault,updatesthepagetablestoreflectthephysicallocationofthevirtualaddressandtellsthetranslation
mechanismtorestarttherequest.
Whenallphysicalmemoryisalreadyinuse,thepagingsupervisormustfreeapageinprimarystoragetoholdthe
swappedinpage.Thesupervisorusesoneofavarietyofpagereplacementalgorithmssuchasleastrecentlyused
todeterminewhichpagetofree.

Pinnedpages
Operatingsystemshavememoryareasthatarepinned(neverswappedtosecondarystorage).Othertermsused
arelocked,fixed,orwiredpages.Forexample,interruptmechanismsrelyonanarrayofpointerstotheirhandlers,
suchasI/Ocompletionandpagefault.Ifthepagescontainingthesepointersorthecodethattheyinvokewere
pageable,interrupthandlingwouldbecomefarmorecomplexandtimeconsuming,particularlyinthecaseofpage
faultinterruptions.Hence,somepartofthepagetablestructuresisnotpageable.
Somepagesmaybepinnedforshortperiodsoftime,othersmaybepinnedforlongperiodsoftime,andstillothers
mayneedtobepermanentlypinned.Forexample:
Thepagingsupervisorcodeanddriversforsecondarystoragedevicesonwhichpagesresidemustbe
permanentlypinned,asotherwisepagingwouldn'tevenworkbecausethenecessarycodewouldn'tbe
available.
Timingdependentcomponentsmaybepinnedtoavoidvariablepagingdelays.
DatabuffersthatareaccesseddirectlybyperipheraldevicesthatusedirectmemoryaccessorI/Ochannels
mustresideinpinnedpageswhiletheI/Ooperationisinprogressbecausesuchdevicesandthebusesto
whichtheyareattachedexpecttofinddatabufferslocatedatphysicalmemoryaddressesregardlessof
whetherthebushasamemorymanagementunitforI/O,transferscannotbestoppedifapagefaultoccurs
andthenrestartedwhenthepagefaulthasbeenprocessed.
InIBM'soperatingsystemsforSystem/370andsuccessorsystems,thetermis"fixed",andsuchpagesmaybe
longtermfixed,ormaybeshorttermfixed,ormaybeunfixed(i.e.,pageable).Systemcontrolstructuresareoften
longtermfixed(measuredinwallclocktime,i.e.,timemeasuredinseconds,ratherthantimemeasuredinfractions
ofonesecond)whereasI/Obuffersareusuallyshorttermfixed(usuallymeasuredinsignificantlylessthanwall
clocktime,possiblyfortensofmilliseconds).Indeed,theOShasaspecialfacilityfor"fastfixing"theseshortterm
fixeddatabuffers(fixingwhichisperformedwithoutresortingtoatimeconsumingSupervisorCallinstruction).
Multicsusedtheterm"wired".OpenVMSandWindowsrefertopagestemporarilymadenonpageable(asforI/O
buffers)as"locked",andsimply"nonpageable"forthosethatareneverpageable.
Virtualrealoperation
InOS/VS1andsimilarOSes,somepartsofsystemsmemoryaremanagedin"virtualreal"mode,called"V=R".In
thismodeeveryvirtualaddresscorrespondstothesamerealaddress.Thismodeisusedforinterruptmechanisms,
forthepagingsupervisorandpagetablesinoldersystems,andforapplicationprogramsusingnonstandardI/O
management.Forexample,IBM'sz/OShas3modes(virtualvirtual,virtualrealandvirtualfixed).[11]

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Thrashing
Whenpagingandpagestealingareused,aproblemcalled"thrashing"canoccur,inwhichthecomputerspendsan
unsuitablylargeamountoftimetransferringpagestoandfromabackingstore,henceslowingdownusefulwork.A
task'sworkingsetistheminimumsetofpagesthatshouldbeinmemoryinorderforittomakeusefulprogress.
Thrashingoccurswhenthereisinsufficientmemoryavailabletostoretheworkingsetsofallactiveprograms.
Addingrealmemoryisthesimplestresponse,butimprovingapplicationdesign,scheduling,andmemoryusagecan
help.Anothersolutionistoreducethenumberofactivetasksonthesystem.Thisreducesdemandonrealmemory
byswappingouttheentireworkingsetofoneormoreprocesses.

Segmentedvirtualmemory
Somesystems,suchastheBurroughsB5500,[12]usesegmentationinsteadofpaging,dividingvirtualaddress
spacesintovariablelengthsegments.Avirtualaddresshereconsistsofasegmentnumberandanoffsetwithinthe
segment.TheIntel80286supportsasimilarsegmentationschemeasanoption,butitisrarelyused.Segmentation
andpagingcanbeusedtogetherbydividingeachsegmentintopagessystemswiththismemorystructure,suchas
MulticsandIBMSystem/38,areusuallypagingpredominant,segmentationprovidingmemory
protection.[13][14][15]
IntheIntel80386andlaterIA32processors,thesegmentsresideina32bitlinear,pagedaddressspace.
Segmentscanbemovedinandoutofthatspacepagestherecan"page"inandoutofmainmemory,providingtwo
levelsofvirtualmemoryfewifanyoperatingsystemsdoso,insteadusingonlypaging.Earlynonhardware
assistedx86virtualizationsolutionscombinedpagingandsegmentationbecausex86pagingoffersonlytwo
protectiondomainswhereasaVMM/guestOS/guestapplicationsstackneedsthree.[16]:22Thedifference
betweenpagingandsegmentationsystemsisnotonlyaboutmemorydivisionsegmentationisvisibletouser
processes,aspartofmemorymodelsemantics.Hence,insteadofmemorythatlookslikeasinglelargespace,itis
structuredintomultiplespaces.
Thisdifferencehasimportantconsequencesasegmentisnotapagewithvariablelengthorasimplewayto
lengthentheaddressspace.Segmentationthatcanprovideasinglelevelmemorymodelinwhichthereisno
differentiationbetweenprocessmemoryandfilesystemconsistsofonlyalistofsegments(files)mappedintothe
process'spotentialaddressspace.[17]
ThisisnotthesameasthemechanismsprovidedbycallssuchasmmapandWin32'sMapViewOfFile,because
interfilepointersdonotworkwhenmappingfilesintosemiarbitraryplaces.InMultics,afile(orasegmentfroma
multisegmentfile)ismappedintoasegmentintheaddressspace,sofilesarealwaysmappedatasegment
boundary.Afile'slinkagesectioncancontainpointersforwhichanattempttoloadthepointerintoaregisteror
makeanindirectreferencethroughitcausesatrap.Theunresolvedpointercontainsanindicationofthenameofthe
segmenttowhichthepointerrefersandanoffsetwithinthesegmentthehandlerforthetrapmapsthesegmentinto
theaddressspace,putsthesegmentnumberintothepointer,changesthetagfieldinthepointersothatitnolonger
causesatrap,andreturnstothecodewherethetrapoccurred,reexecutingtheinstructionthatcausedthetrap.[18]
Thiseliminatestheneedforalinkercompletely[3]andworkswhendifferentprocessesmapthesamefileinto
differentplacesintheirprivateaddressspaces.[19]

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Someoperatingsystemsprovideforswappingentireaddressspaces,inadditiontowhateverfacilitiestheyhavefor
pagingandsegmentation.Whenthisoccurs,theOSwritesthosepagesandsegmentscurrentlyinrealmemoryto
swapfiles.Inaswapin,theOSreadsbackthedatafromtheswapfilesbutdoesnotautomaticallyreadback
pagesthathadbeenpagedoutatthetimeoftheswapoutoperation.
IBM'sMVS,fromOS/VS2Release2throughz/OS,providesformarkinganaddressspaceasunswappable
doingsodoesnotpinanypagesintheaddressspace.Thiscanbedoneforthedurationofajobbyenteringthe
nameofaneligible[20]mainprogramintheProgramPropertiesTablewithanunswappableflag.Inaddition,
privilegedcodecantemporarilymakeanaddressspaceunswappableWithaSYSEVENTSupervisorCall
instruction(SVC)certainchanges[21]intheaddressspacepropertiesrequirethattheOSswapitoutandthen
swapitbackin,usingSYSEVENTTRANSWAP,.[22]

Seealso
Computermemory
Memoryaddress
Addressspace
Virtualaddressspace
CPUdesign
Page(computing)
Pagetable
Paging
Workingset
Memorymanagementunit
Cachealgorithms
Pagereplacementalgorithm
Segmentation(memory)
System/38
Memorymanagement
Memoryallocation
Protectedmode,anx86modethatallowsforvirtualmemory.
CUDAPinnedmemory

Wikisourcehasoriginal
textrelatedtothisarticle:
ThePagingGame

Furtherreading
Hennessy,JohnL.andPatterson,DavidA.ComputerArchitecture,AQuantitativeApproach(ISBN
1558607242)

Notes
1. Earlysystemsuseddrumscontemporarysystemsusedisksorsolidstatememory
2. IBMDOS/VSandOS/VS1onlysupported2KiBpages.

References
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ThisarticleisbasedonmaterialtakenfromtheFreeOnlineDictionaryofComputingpriorto1November
2008andincorporatedunderthe"relicensing"termsoftheGFDL,version1.3orlater.
1. "AMDVNestedPaging"(http://developer.amd.com/wordpress/media/2012/10/NPTWP1%201finalTM.pdf)
(PDF).AMD.Retrieved28April2015.
2. "WindowsVersionHistory"(http://support.microsoft.com/kb/32905).Microsoft.September23,2011.Retrieved
March9,2015.
3. Denning,Peter(1997)."BeforeMemoryWasVirtual"(http://cs.gmu.edu/cne/pjd/PUBS/bvm.pdf)(PDF).Inthe
Beginning:RecollectionsofSoftwarePioneers.
4. Jessen,Elke(2004)."OriginoftheVirtualMemoryConcept".IEEEAnnalsoftheHistoryofComputing26(4):
7172.
5. Jessen,E.(1996)."DieEntwicklungdesvirtuellenSpeichers".InformatikSpektrum(inGerman)(SpringerBerlin/
Heidelberg)19(4):216219.doi:10.1007/s002870050034(https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs002870050034).
ISSN01706012(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/01706012).
6. R.J.Creasy,"TheoriginoftheVM/370timesharingsystem
(http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~stjones/proj/vm_reading/ibmrd2505M.pdf)",IBMJournalofResearch&Development,
Vol.25,No.5(September1981),p.486
7. Atlasdesignincludesvirtualmemory(http://www.computer50.org/kgill/atlas/atlas.html)
8. IanJoyneronBurroughsB5000(http://web.mac.com/joynerian/iWeb/Ian%20Joyner/Burroughs.html)
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id=q2w3JSFD7l4C).JonesandBartlettPublishers.p.113.ISBN0867204745.
10. Sayre,D.(1969)."Isautomatic"folding"ofprogramsefficientenoughtodisplacemanual?".Communicationsof
theACM12(12):656.doi:10.1145/363626.363629(https://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F363626.363629).
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(http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/zoslnctr/v1r7/topic/com.ibm.zconcepts.doc/zconcepts.pdf)(PDF).
12. Burroughs(1964).BurroughsB5500InformationProcessingSystemReferenceManual
(http://bitsavers.org/pdf/burroughs/B5000_5500_5700/1021326_B5500_RefMan_May67.pdf)(PDF).Burroughs
Corporation.1021326.RetrievedNovember28,2013.
13. GE645SystemManual(http://www.textfiles.com/bitsavers/pdf/ge/GE645_SystemMan_Jan68.pdf)(PDF).
January1968.pp.2130.Retrieved28April2015.
14. Corbat,F.J.andVyssotsky,V.A.."IntroductionandOverviewoftheMulticsSystem"
(http://www.multicians.org/fjcc1.html).Retrieved20071113.
15. Glaser,EdwardL.Couleur,JohnF.andOliver,G.A."SystemDesignofaComputerforTimeSharing
Applications"(http://www.multicians.org/fjcc2.html).
16. J.E.Smith,R.Uhlig(August14,2005)VirtualMachines:Architectures,ImplementationsandApplications,
HOTCHIPS17,Tutorial1,part2(http://www.hotchips.org/wp
content/uploads/hc_archives/hc17/1_Sun/HC17.T1P2.pdf)
17. Bensoussan,AndrClingen,CharlesT.Daley,RobertC.(May1972)."TheMulticsVirtualMemory:Conceptsand
Design"(http://www.multicians.org/multicsvm.html).CommunicationsoftheACM15(5):308318.
doi:10.1145/355602.361306(https://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F355602.361306).
18. "MulticsExecutionEnvironment"(http://www.multicians.org/execenv.html).
19. Organick,ElliottI.(1972).TheMulticsSystem:AnExaminationofItsStructure.MITPress.ISBN026215012
3.
20. ThemostimportantrequirementisthattheprogrambeAPFauthorized.
21. E.g.,requestinguseofpreferredmemory
22. http://pic.dhe.ibm.com/infocenter/zos/v2r1/index.jsp?topic=%2Fcom.ibm.zos.v2r1.ieaa400%2Fswap.htm

Externallinks
OperatingSystems:ThreeEasyPieces(http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~remzi/OSTEP),byRemziH.Arpaci
DusseauandAndreaC.ArpaciDusseau.ArpaciDusseauBooks,2014.Relevantchapters:Address
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Spaces(http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~remzi/OSTEP/vmintro.pdf)AddressTranslation
(http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~remzi/OSTEP/vmmechanism.pdf)Segmentation
(http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~remzi/OSTEP/vmsegmentation.pdf)IntroductiontoPaging
(http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~remzi/OSTEP/vmpaging.pdf)TLBs
(http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~remzi/OSTEP/vmtlbs.pdf)AdvancedPageTables
(http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~remzi/OSTEP/vmsmalltables.pdf)Swapping:Mechanisms
(http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~remzi/OSTEP/vmbeyondphys.pdf)Swapping:Policies
(http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~remzi/OSTEP/vmbeyondphyspolicy.pdf)
"TimeSharingSupervisorPrograms"(http://archive.michiganterminal
system.org/documentation/documents/timeSharingSupervisorPrograms1971.pdf)byMichaelT.Alexander
inAdvancedTopicsinSystemsProgramming,UniversityofMichiganEngineeringSummerConference
1970(revisedMay1971),comparestheschedulingandresourceallocationapproaches,includingvirtual
memoryandpaging,usedinfourmainframeoperatingsystems:CP67,TSS/360,MTS,andMultics.
LinuxMM:LinuxMemoryManagement(http://linuxmm.org/).
BirthofLinuxKernel(http://gnulinuxclub.org/index.php?
option=com_content&task=view&id=161&Itemid=32),mailinglistdiscussion.
TheVirtualMemoryManagerinWindowsNT,RandyKath,MicrosoftDeveloperNetworkTechnology
Group,12December1992(https://web.archive.org/web/20100622062522/http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en
us/library/ms810616.aspx)attheWaybackMachine(archivedJune22,2010)
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtual_memory&oldid=662886528"
Categories: Virtualmemory SchoolofComputerScience,UniversityofManchester
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon18May2015,at05:08.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmayapply.
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oftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.

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