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Formulae Book®
Mathematics XI & XII
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₹100
 FIRST YEAR
SYNOPSIS

Chapter 1 Power set :The collection of all subsets of a set A is

SETS called the power set of A. It is denoted by P(A). If
the number of elements in A=n i.e., n(A) = n, then
the number of elements in P(A) = 2n.
Sets and their representations : A set is a well-defined
collection of objects. There are two methods of Universal set : This is a basic set; in a particular
representing a set. context whose elements and subsets are relevant to
(i) Roaster or tabular form that particular context. For example, for the set of
vowels in English alphabet, the universal set can
(ii) Set builder form
be the set of all alphabets in English. Universal set
The empty set : A set which does not contain any is denoted by U.
element is called the empty set or the void set or
Venn diagrams : Venn Diagrams are the diagrams
null set and is denoted by { } or .
which represent the relationship between sets.
Finite and infinite sets : A set which consists of a
Operations on sets :
finite number of elements is called a finite set.
Otherwise, the set is called an infinite set. Union of sets : The union of any two given sets A
and B is the set which consists of all those elements
Subsets : A set A is said to be a subset of set B if
which are either in A or in B.
every element of A is also an element of B. In
symbols, A  B if a  A  a B. A  B  {x| x  A or x  B}
The set of real numbers is denoted by R

set of natural numbers N

Some
set of integers Z
subsets of
R set of rational numbers Q Some properties of the union operation.
set of irrational numbers T i) A  B  B  A
Also, ii)  A  B  C  A  B  C 
NZQR iii) A   A
T  R,Q  T,N  T iv) A  A  A
v) U  A  U
Equal sets : Given two sets A and B, if every
elements of A is also an element of B and if every Intersection of sets: The intersection of two sets A
element of B is also an element of A, then sets A and B is the set which consists of all those elements
and B are said to be equal. The two equal sets will which belong to both A and B. A  B  {x: x  A
have exactly the same elements. and x  B}.

Intervals as subsets of R : Let a,b R and a  b. Then When A  B  , then A and B are called disjoint
sets.
(a) An open interval denoted by (a,b) is the set of
real numbers {x: a < x < b}
(b) A closed interval denoted by [a,b] is the set of
real numbers {x: a  x  b)
(c) Intervals closed at one end and open at the
other are given by Some properties of the intersection operation.
[a,b) = { x : a  x < b] i) A  B  B  A
(a,b] = {x: a < x  b} ii)  A  B  C  A  B  C 
iii)  A  ; U  A  A

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 iv) A  A  A (i) Two ordered pairs are equal, if and only if
the corresponding first elements are equal
v) A   B  C    A  B    A  C 
and the second elements are also equal, i.e.
vi) A   B  C    A  B    A  C   x,y    u,v  if and only if x  u,y  v .
Difference of Sets (ii) If nA  p and n  B   q, then
The difference of two sets A and B, denoted n  A  B  p  q .
by AB is defined as set of elements which
belong to A but not to B. (iii)  
A  A  A  a,b,c  :a,b,c  A . Here (a,b,c) is
A  B   x : x A and x  B called ordered triplet.
Relations :
also B  A   x : x  B and x  A
A relation R from a non-empty set A to a
Complement of a set non empty set B is a subset of the Cartesian
product set A  B . The subset is derived by
The complement of A is the set of all
describing a relationship between the first element
elements of U which are not the elements of
and the second element of the ordered pairs in
A.
AB .
A    x : x  U and x  A. Also A  U  A
The set of all first elements in a relation R, is
Some properties of complement of sets called the domain of the relation R, and the set of
all second elements called images, is called the
(i) Law of complements: range of R.
(a) A  A  U (b) A  A   i) A relation may be represented either by the
(ii) De Morgan‟s law Roster form or by the set builder form, or by
an arrow diagram which is a visual
(a)  A  B  A  B representation of a relation.
ii) If n(A) = p, n(B) = q; then n  A  B   pq and
(b)  A  B  A  B the total number of possible relations from
the set A to set B  2pq
(iii)  A   A
Functions : A relation f from a set A to a set B is said
(iv) U   and   U to be a function if every element of set A has one
and only one image in set B.
Formulae to solve practical problems :
In other words, a function f is a relation such that
(a) n  A  B   n  A   n  B   n  A  B  no two pairs in the relation has the same first
element.
(b) If  A  B    , then n  A  B   n  A   n  B 
The notation f : XY means that f is a function
(c) n  A  B  C   n  A   n  B   n C   n  A  B  from X to Y. X is called the domain of f and Y is
called the co-domain of f. Given an element x  X,
n  A  C   n  B  C   n  A  B  C  there is a unique element y in Y that is related to x.
The unique element y to which f relates x is
Chapter 2 denoted by f(x) and is called f of x, or the value of f
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS at x, or the image of x under f.
The set of all values of f(x) taken together is called
Cartesian products of sets : the range of f or image of X under f. Symbolically.
Given two non-empty sets A and B, the set of all range of f = {y  Y | y= f (x), for some x in X}
ordered pairs (x,y), where x  A and y  B is called
A function which has either R or one of its subsets
Cartesian product of A and B
as its range, is called a real valued function.

A  B   x,y  | x  A and y B  Further, if its domain is also either R or a subset of
R, it is called a real function.

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 Some specific types of functions : than or equal to x, is called the greatest
i) Identity function: integer function.

The function f : R  R defined by Algebra of real functions :

y = f(x) = x for each x R is called the i) Addition of two real functions
Identity function.
Let f : X R and g : X R be any two real
Domain of f = R functions, where X  R .
Range of f = R
Then  f  g  : X  R defined by
ii) Constant function: The function f : R R
defined by y = f (x) = C, xR.  f  g  x   f  x   g  x  , for all x  X.

where C is a constant  R, is a constant ii) Substraction of a real function from another

function. Let f : X R and g : X R be any two real
Domain of f = R functions, where X  R .
Range of f = {C} Then,  f  g : X  R defined by
iii) Polynomial function: A real valued function  f  g  x   f  x   g  x  , for all x  X.
f:RR defined by
y=f(x) = a0 + a1x  ...  a n x , where n N , and
n iii) Multiplication by a Scalar
a0 ,a1 ,a2 ....an R , for each x R , is called a Let f : X R be a real function and  be any
polynomial function. scalar belonging to R. Then the product f
iv) Rational function:
These are the real is function from X to R defined by
f x   f  x   f  x  ,x  X.
functions of the type , where f(x) and
gx iv) Multiplication of two real functions
g(x) are polynomial functions of x defined in Let f : X R and g : X R be any two real
a domain, where g  x   0 . functions, where X  R. Then product of
v) The Modulus function: The real function these two functions i.e. fg : X R is defined
 x,x  0 by  f g  x   f  x  g  x   x  X.
f : R  R defined by f  x  | x | 
x,x  0 v) Quotient of two real function
x R is called the modulus function. Let f and g be two real functions defined
from X R . The quotient of f by g denoted
Domain of f = R
f
Range of f = R+  {0} by is a function defined from X R as
g
vi) Signum function: The real function
 f  f x
f : R  R defined by   x   , provided g  x   0,x  X.
g gx
| x |  1, if x 0
 , x0  vi) Domain of sum function f  g , difference
f x   x   0, if x 0
 0, x  0 1, if function f  g and product function fg .
  x 0

 x : x  D f  Dg 
is called the signum function. Domain of
where Df  Domain of function f
f = R. Range of f = 1,0, 1
Dg  Domain of function g
vii) Greatest integer function: The real function
f
f : RR, defined by f  x    x  ,x  R vii) Domain of quotient function
g
assumes the value of the greatest integer less

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 
 x : x  Df  Dg and g  x   0  sine 0 6 2
4
5 1
4
1 10  2 5
4
1
2
3
2
1

cosine 1 6 2 0
Chapter 3 10  2 5
3 5 1 1 1
4 4
2 4 2 2
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Relation between degree and radian : tan 0
2 3 25  10 5 1 52 5
1 not
5
3
3 defi-
The relationship between degree and radian ned
measurements is
Allied or related angles:
2 right angle  180o   radians
n
The angles   are called allied or related
180o 2
1 radian   57o16 (approx) angles. The value of any trigonometric

 n 
 function for     is numerically equal to
1o  radian = 0.01746 radians(approx)  2 
180
(a) the value of the same function if n is an even
Signs of trigonometric functions:
integer with algebraic sign of the function as
I II III IV per the quadrant in which angles lie.
sinx + +   (b) corresponding cofunction of  if n is an odd
integer with algebraic sign of the function
cosx +   +
for the quadrant in which it lies. Here sine
tanx +  +  and cosine tan and cot; sec and cosec are
cofunctions of each other.
cosec x + +  
Functions of negative angles :
sec x +   +
Let  be any angle. Then
cot x +  + 
sin      sin ,cos     cos 
Domain and range of trigonometric functions :
tan      tan ,cot      cot 
Function Domain Range
s sec     sec ,cosec      cosec
sine R  1,1 Some formulae regarding compound angles:

cosine (i) sin  A  B   sin AcosB  cos AsinB

R  1,1

tan (ii) sin  A  B   sin AcosB  cos AsinB

   R
R  2n  1 : n  Z 
 2  (iii) cos(A  B)  cosAcosB  sinAsinB

(iv) cos  A  B   cos AcosB  sin AsinB

cot R  n : n  Z R
tanA  tanB
(v) tan  A  B 
sec    R   1,1  1  tanAtanB
R  2n  1 : n  Z 
 2 
tanA  tanB
(vi) tan  A  B 
1  tanAtanB
cosec R  n : n Z R   1,1  cot Acot B  1
(vii) cot  A  B 
cot A  cot B
Sine, cosine and tangent of some acute angles : cot Acot B  1
(viii) cot  A  B 
0o 15o 18o 30o 36o 45o 60o 90o cot B  cot A

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 (ix) sin2A  2sinAcosA 
2tanA or sin2  4cos3   3cos 
1  tan2 A
Since, cos   0, we get
(x) cos2A  cos2 A  sin2 A  1  2sin2 A
2sin   4cos2  3  1  4sin2  or
1  tan A 2
 2cos2 A  1  4sin2   2sin   1  0.
1  tan2 A
2  4  16 1  5
(xi) tan2A 
2tanA Hence, sin   
1  tan2 A 8 4

(xii) sin3A  3sinA  4sin3 A 5 1

Since,   18o , sin   0 , therefore, sin18o 
(xiii) cos3A  4cos A  3cosA
3 4

3tanA  tan3 A
(xiv) tan3A  Also, cos18o  1  sin2 18o  1  6  2 5  10  2 5
1  3tan2 A 16 4
AB A B
(xv) cos A  cosB  2cos cos
2 2 cos 36o can be found as follows

AB BA
(xvi) cos A  cosB  2sin sin 6 2 5 2 5 5 1
2 2 cos36o  1  2sin2 18o  1   
8 8 4
AB A B
(xvii) sin A  sinB  2sin cos 5 1
2 2 Hence, cos36o 
4
AB A B
(xviii) sin A  sinB  2cos sin
2 2 Also, sin36o  1  cos2 36o  1  6  2 5  10  2 5
16 4
(xix) 2sin AcosB  sin(A  B)  sin  A  B 
Trigonometric equations :
(xx) 2cos AsinB  sin  A  B   sin  A  B  Equations involving trigonometric functions of a
variable are called trigonometric equations.
(xxi) 2cos AcosB  cos  A  B   cos  A  B  Equations are called identities, if they are satisfied
by all values of the unknown angles for which the
(xxii) 2sin AsinB  cos  A  B   cos  A  B  functions are defined. The solutions of
trigonometric equations for which 0   2 are
 A called principal solutions. The expression
A 1  cos A   if 2 lies in quadrants I or II
(xxiii) sin    involving integer n which gives all solutions of a
2 2  if A lies inIII or IV quadrants trigonometric equation is called the general
 2 solution.
 A General Solution of Trigonometric Equations
   if lies in I or IV quadrants
(xxiv) cos  
A 1 cos A
 2
(i) If sin  sin for some angle , then
2 2   if A
lies in II or III quadrants
 2
  n   1  for n Z, gives general
n

 A solution of the given equation

 if lies in I or III quadrants
(xxv) tan A   1  cos A  2
2 1  cos A  A (ii) If cos  cos for some angle , then
  if 2 lies in II or IV quadrants
  2n ,n Z , gives general solution of
Trigonometric functions of the angle 18 o the given equation.
Let   18o. Then 2  90o  3 (iii) If tan   tan  or cot   cot , then

Therefore, 
sin2  sin 90o  3  cos3    n  ,n Z , gives general solution for
both equations.

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 (iv) The general value of  satisfying any of the Integral powers of i :
equations sin2   sin2  ,cos2   cos2  and
    1
2 2
i  1,i2  1,i3  i2i  i,i4  i2 1
tan   tan  is given by   n  .
2 2
(i) If a and b are positive real numbers, then
(v) The general value of  satisfying equations
sin  sin and cos  cos simultaneously
is given by   2n ,n Z . a  b  1 a  1 b  i a  i b   ab

(vi) To find the solution of an equation of the (ii) a. b  ab if a and b are positive or at least
form acos   bsin   c, put  rcos  and one of them is negative or zero. However,
b a b  ab if a and b, both are negative.
 rsin , so that r2  a2  b2 and tan   .
a
Complex Numbers :
Thus a) A number which can be written in the form
acos   bsin   c, changed into the form a  ib , where a, b are real numbers and
r  cos  cos   sin  sin    c i  1 is called a complex number.
b) If z  a  ib is the complex number, then a
c
or rcos       c and hence cos       . and b are called real and imaginary parts,
r respectively, of the complex number and
This gives the solution of the given
written as Re  z   a,Im  z   b.
equation.
Maximum and Minimum of f() = a cos+bsin+c: c) Order relations “greater than” and “less than”
are not defined for complex numbers.
 a2  b2  c  f    a2  b2  c d) If the imaginary part of a complex number is
zero, then the complex number is known as
Chapter 4 purely real number and if real part is zero, then
PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION it is called purely imaginary number.
Algebra of Complex Numbers :
The Principle of Mathematical Induction :
a) Two complex numbers z1  a  ib and
Let P(n) be a given statement involving the natural z2  c  id are said to be equal if a  c and
number n such that b  d.
b) Let z1  a  ib and z2  c  id be two complex
i) The statement is true for n=1, i.e. P(1) is true
numbers then z1  z2   a  c   i  b  d 
and
Properties of addition of complex numbers :
ii) If the statement is true for n = k (where k is a
1. As the sum of two complex numbers is again
particular but arbitrary natural number), a complex number, the set of complex
then the statement is also true for n = k+1, numbers is closed with respect to addition.
2. Addition of complex numbers is
i.e. truth of P(k) implies the truth of P(k+1).
commutative, i.e, z1  z2  z2  z1
Then P(n) is true for all natural numbers n.
3. Addition of complex numbers is associative,
i.e.  z1  z2   z3  z1   z2  z3 

4. For any complex number z  x  iy, there

Chapter 5
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND QUADRATIC exist 0, i.e., 0  0i  complex number such
EQUATIONS that z  0  0  z  z, known as identity
element for addition.

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 5. For any complex number z  x  iy, there imaginary part of the complex number is called the
always exists a number z  a  ib such that conjugate of z and it is denoted by z,i.e.,z  a  ib .
z   z    z   z  0 and is known as the Note that additive inverse of z is a  ib but
additive inverse of z. conjugate of z is a  ib .
Multiplication of complex numbers : Properties of Conjugates :
Let z1  a  ib and z2  c  id, be two complex 1. z  z
numbers. Then
2. z  z  2Re  z  , z  z  2i Im  z 
z1 .z2   a  ib  c  id    ac  bd   i  ad  bc 
3. z  z, if z is purely real.
1. As the product of two complex numbers is a
complex number, the set of complex 4. z  z  0  z is purely imaginary
numbers is closed with respect to
  
z.z  Re  z   Im  z  . 
2 2

multiplication 5.

2. Multiplication of complex
commutative, i.e. z1 .z2  z2 .z1
numbers is
6. z1  
 z2   z1  z2 , z1  z2  z1  z2

3. Multiplication of complex numbers is  z1   z1 

associative, i.e.  z1 .z2  .z3  z1 .  z2 .z3 
7. z .z    z  z  ,  z   z2  0
 2   z2 
1 2 1 2

4. For any complex number z  x  iy, there Modulus of a complex number :

exists a complex number 1, i.e., 1  0i  such Let z  a  ib be a complex number. Then the
that positive square root of the sum of square of real
part and square of imaginary part is called
z.1  1.z  z, known as identity element for
modulus (absolute value) of z and if is denoted by
multiplication.
| z | i.e., | z | a2  b2 .
5. For any non zero complex number z  x  iy,
1 In the set of complex numbers z1  z2 or z1  z2 are
there exists a complex number such that meaningless but
z
1 1 |z1 ||z2 | or |z1 ||z2 |
z.  .z  1, i.e. multiplicative inverse of
z z
1 a  ib are meaningful because |z1 | and |z2 | are real
a  ib   2 numbers.
a  ib a  b2
6. For any three complex numbers z1 ,z2 and z3 Properties of modulii of complex numbers :
, 1. | z | 0  z  0 i.e., Re  z   0 and Im  z   0

and z1 .  z2  z3   z1 .z2  z1 .z3 2. |z|| z || z|

z 1  z2  .z3  z1 .z3  z2 .z3 3.  | z | Re  z  | z | and  | z | Im  z  | z |

i.e. for complex numbers multiplication is 4. zz |z|2 ,|z2 ||z|2

distributive over addition.
z1 |z1 |
Division of Complex Numbers : 5. |z1z2 ||z1 |.|z2 |,  z  0
z2 |z2 | 2
Let z1  a  ib and z2   0   c  id. Then
z1  z2 |z1 |2  |z2 |2 2Re z1 z2 
2
6.
z1 a  ib  ac  bd   bc  ad 
  2 2 i 2 2
z2 c  id c d c d
z1  z2 |z1 |2  |z2 |2 2Re z1 z2 
2
7.
Conjugate of a complex number
8. z1  z2 | z1 |  | z2 |
Let z  a  ib be a complex number. then a complex
number obtained by changing the sign of

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 9. z1  z2 | z1 |  | z2 | Solutions of a quadratic equation :
The equation ax2  bx  c  0, where a,b and c are
10.
2 2
 
az1  bz2  bz1  az2  a2  b2 |z1 |2  |z2 |2  numbers (real or complex, a  0 ) is called the
In particular: general quadratic equation in variable x. The
values of the variable satisfying the given equation
2 2

z1  z2  z1  z2  2 |z1 |2  |z2 |2  are called roots of the equation.

11. As stated earlier multiplicative inverse The quadratic equation ax2  bx  c  0 with real
(reciprocal) of a complex number b  D
coefficients has two roots given by and
z  a  ib   0  is 2a
b  D
1 a  ib z , where D  b2  4ac , called the
 2  2 2a
z a  b |z|
2
discriminant of the equation.
Argand Plane 1. When D=0, roots of the quadratic equation
A complex number z  a  ib can be represented by are real and equal. when D>0, roots are real
a unique point P(a,b) in the Cartesian plane and unequal.
referred to a pair of rectangular axes. The complex
number 0  0i represent the origin 0(0,0). A purely Further, if a,b,cQ and D is a perfect
real number a, i.e., (a+0i) is represented by the square, then the roots of the equation are
point (a,0) on x-axis. Therefore, x-axis is called real rational and unequal, and if a,b,cQ and D
axis. A purely imaginary number ib, i.e., (0 + ib) is is not a perfect square, then the roots are
represented by the point (0,b) on y-axis. Therefore, irrational and occur in pair.
y-axis is called imaginary axis.
When D < 0, roots of the quadratic equation
Similarly, the representation of complex numbers are non-real (or complex).
as points in the plane is known as Argand
2. Let , be the roots of the equation
diagram. The plane representing complex numbers
as points is called complex plane or Argand plane ax  bx  c  0, then sum of the roots.
2

or Gaussian plane.
b
If two complex numbers, z 1 and z2 be represented      a
and the product of the roots
by the points P and Q in the complex plane, then
c
|z1  z2 | PQ     a
Polar form of a complex number: 3. Let S and P be the sum of roots and product
Let P be a point representing a non-zero complex of roots, respectively, of a quadratic
number z  a  ib in the Argand plane. If OP equation. Then the quadratic equation is
makes an angle  with the positive direction of given by x2  Sx  P  0.
x-axis. then z  r  cos   isin   is called the polar
Chapter 6
form of the complex number, where
LINEAR INEQUALITIES
b
r | z | a 2  b2
and tan   . Here  is called
a
argument or amplitude of z and we write it as arg Solution of an inequality :
(z) =  (i) The value(s) of the variable (s) which makes
the inequality a true statement is called its
The unique value of  such that  is called solutions. The set of all solutions of an
the principal argument. inequality is called the solution set of the
arg  z1 .z2   arg  z1   arg  z2  inequality.
To solve an inequality
z 
arg  1   arg  z1   arg  z2  (i) Add (or subtract) the same quantity to (from)
 z2  both sides without changing the sign of
inequality.

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 (ii) Multiply (or divide) both sides by the same a
(ii) ab  0 or  0  a and b are of opposite
positive quantity without changing the sign b
of inequality. However, if both sides of sign.
inequality are multiplied (or divided) by the
same negative quantity the sign of inequality b) If a is any positive real number, i.e., a > 0,
is reversed, i.e. „>‟ changes into „<‟ and vice then
versa. (i) | x| a  a  x  a
Representation of solution of linear inequality in one |x| a  a  x  a
variable on a number line :
(ii) | x| a  x  a or x  a
To represent the solution of a linear inequality in
one variable on a number line, the following | x| a  x  a or x  a
conventions are used:
(i) If the inequality involves '  ' or '  ' , draw
Chapter 7
filled circle () on the number line to indicate
that the number corresponding to the filled PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS
circle is included in the solution set.
(ii) If the inequality involves „>‟ or „<‟, draw an Fundamental principle of counting
open circle (O) on the number line to Multiplication principle : Suppose an event E can
indicate that the number corresponding to occur in m different ways and another event F can
the open circle is excluded from the solution occur in n different ways, then the total number of
set. occurrence of the two events in the given order is
m n .
Graphical representation of the solution of a linear
inequality : Addition principle : If an event E can occur in m
ways and another event F can occur in n ways, and
a) If the inequality involves '  ' or '  ' , draw
suppose that both can not occur together, then E or
the graph of the line as a thick line to indicate
F can occur in m  n ways.
that the point on this line are included in the
solution set. Permutations : A permutation is an arrangement of
objects in a definite order.
If the inequality involves „>‟ or „<‟, draw the
graph of the line as dotted line to indicate Permutation of n different objects: The number of
that the points on the line are excluded from permutations of n objects taken all at a time,
the solution set. denoted by the symbol n Pn , is given by
b) Solution of a linear inequality in one variable
can be represented on number line as well as
n
Pn  n! . …(i)
in the plane but the solution of a linear
inequality in two variables of the type where n!  n  n  1  n  2 …3.2.1
ax  by  c,ax  by  c,ax  by  c or
is read as factorial n, or n factorial.
ax  by  c  a  0,b  0  can be represented in
The number of permutations of n objects taken r at
the plane only.
a time, where 0  r  n, denoted by n Pr , is given by
c) Two or more inequalities taken together
comprise a system of inequalities and the n!
n
Pr 
solutions of the system of inequalities are the   r !
n
solutions common to all the inequalities
comprising the system. 0!  1

Two important results: When repetition of objects is allowed : The number of

permutations of n things taken all at a time, when
a) If a,bR and b  0, then
repletion of objects is allowed is n n .
a
(i) ab  0 or  0  a and b are of the same The number of permutations of n objects, taken r at
b
sign. a time, when repetition of objects is allowed, is n r .

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 Permutations when the objects are not distinct : 2. In the expansion, the first term is raised to
the power of the binomial and in each
The number of permutations of n objects of which
subsequent terms the power of a reduces by
p1 are of one kind, p2 are of second kind…pk are of
one with simultaneous increase in the power
kth kind and the rest if any, are of different kinds is
of b by one, till power of b becomes equal to
n!
the power of binomial, i.e., the power of a is
p1 !p2 !...pk ! n in the first term, (n-1) in the second term
Combinations : A combination is a selection of some and so on ending with zero in the last term.
or all of a number of different objects where the At the same time power of b is 0 in the first
order of selection is immaterial. The number of term, 1 in the second term and 2 in the third
selections of r objects from the given n objects is term and so on, ending with n in the last
term.
denoted by n C r , and is given by
3. In any term the sum of the indices
n! (exponents) of „a‟ and „b‟ is equal to n(i.e. the
n
Cr 
r! n  r ! power of the binomial).

The  r  1
th
Some important results : Let n and r be positive 4. term or general term is given by
integers such that r  n . Then
Tr1  nCr a nr br
(i) n
Cr  Cnr
n

Some particular cases :

(ii) n
Cr  nCr1  n1Cr
If n is a positive integer, then
n
Cr n r 1
 a  b
n
(iii) n
  nC0 an b0  nC1 an1b1  nC2 an2 b2  ...  nCr anrbr 
Cr1 r
...  n Cn a0 bn …(1)
Chapter 8
In particular
BINOMIAL THEOREM
1. Replacing b by –b in (1), we get
Binomial theorem :
a  b
n
 nC0 an b0 n C1 an1 b1  nC2 an2b2 
If a and b are real numbers and n is a positive
...   1 Cr anr br  ...   1
r n n n
integer, then  a  b  nC0an  nC1an1 n C2 an2 b2  ... Cn a0bn …(2)
n

n! 2. Adding (1) and (2), we get

.....  nCr a nr br  ...  nCn bn , where n
Cr  for
r! n  r !
 a  b   a  b
n n
 2  n C0an bo  nC2 an2b2  ...
0 r  n
 2 [terms at odd places]
The general term or  r  1
th
term in the expansion
3. Subtracting (2) from (1), we get
is given by
 a  b   a  b
n n
nr r  2  n C1 an1b1  nC3 an3b3  ...
Tr1  Cra b
n

 2 [sum of terms at even places]

4. Replacing a by 1 and b by x in (1), we get

1  x 
n
 nC0 x0  nC1 x  nC2x2  ...
Some important observations :
n Cr x r  ...  nCn1 x n1 n Cn x n
1. The total number of terms in the binomial
n
 a  b i.e. 1  x    n Cr xr
n n
expansion of is n  1, ie, one more
r0
than the exponent n.
5. Replacing a by 1 and b by x in …(1), we get

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 1  x 
n
 nC0 x0  nC1 x  nC2 x 2 ...
Chapter 9
 n Cn1  1 x n1  n Cn  1 x n
n1 n

SEQUENCE AND SERIES

n
i.e., 1  x    1 nCr x r
n r

r0 Arithmetic Progression(A.P.) : is a sequence in which

each term except the first is obtained by adding a
The pth term from the end : fixed number (positive or negative) to the
The pth term from the end in the expansion of preceding term.
 a  b is  n  p  2
n th
term from the beginning. Thus any sequence a1 ,a2 ,a3 ...an ,.... is called in
arithmetic progression if an1  an  d,n N , where
Middle terms :
d is called the common difference of the A.P.,
The middle term depends upon the value of n. usually we denote the first term of an A.P. by a and
a) If n is even: then the total number of terms in the last term by l

 a  b
n
the expansion of is n+1. (odd). The general term or the nth term of the A.P., is
given by
Hence, there is only one middle term, i.e.
an  a   n  1 d
th
n 
 2  1 term is the middle term
 
The nth term from the last is given by
b) In n is odd : then the total number of terms in a n  l -  n  1 d
 a  b
n
the expansion of is n+1 (even). So
The sum Sn of the first n term of an A.P. is given by
th
 n 1 
there are two middle terms i.e.   and n n
 2  Sn  2a   n  1  d    a  l  , where
2   2
l  a   n  1  d is the last term of the A.P., and the
th
 n 3
  are two middle terms.
 2  general term is given by an  Sn  Sn1
Binomial coefficients :
The arithmetic mean for any n positive numbers
In the binomial expression, we have a1 ,a2 ,a3 ,...an is given by

 a  b
n
n C0 an  nC1 an1 b n C2 an2b2  ...  nCnbn …(1) a1  a2  ...  a n
A.M. 
n
The coefficients n C0 , nC1 , nC2 ,..., nCn are known as
If a, A and b are in A.P., then A is called the
binomial or combinational coefficients.
arithmetic mean of numbers a and b
Putting a  b  1 in (1), we get
ab
A
n
C0  n C1  n C2  ...  n Cn  2n 2

Thus the sum of all the binomial coefficients is If the terms of an A.P, are increased, decreased,
n multiplied or divided by the same constant, they
equal to 2 .
still remain in A.P.
Again, putting a  1 and b  1 in (i), we get
If a1 ,a2 ,a3 .... are in A.P with common difference d,
n
C0  nC2  nC4  ...  nC1  nC3  nC5  ... then

Thus, the sum of all the odd binomial coefficients is (i) a1  k,a2  k,a3  k,.... are also in A.P with
equal to the sum of all the even binomial common difference d.
2n
coefficients and each is equal to  2n1 (ii) a1k,a2k,a3k, are also in A.P with common
2
difference dk  k  0  .
n
C0  nC2  nC4  ....  nC1  n C3  nC5  ...  2n1

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 and
a1 a 2 a 3
, , ... are also in A.P. with G  ab
k k k
d
(i) If the terms of a G.P. are multiplied or
common difference
k
 k  0 . divided by the same non-zero constant
 k  0 , they still remain in G.P.
If a1 ,a2 ,a3 .... and b1 ,b2 ,b3 ... are two A.P.,
then If a1 ,a2 ,a3 ,..., are in G.P., then a1k,a2k,a3k,...
a1 a2 a3
(i) a1  b1 ,a2  b2 ,a3  b3 ,... are also in A.P and , , ,.... are also in G.P with same
k k k
a1 a 2 a 3 common ratio, in particular, if a1 ,a2 ,a3 ,.. are
(ii) a1b1 ,a2b2 ,a3b3 ,... and , , ,... are not
b1 b2 b3 1 1 1
in G.P. then , , ,.... are also in G.P
in A.P. a1 a2 a3
If a1 ,a2 ,a3 .... and a n are in A.P., then (ii) If a1 ,a2 ,a3 ,... and b1 ,b2 ,b3 ,... are two G.P.s,
(i) a1  an  a2  an1  a3  an2  ... a1 a 2 a3
then a1 b1 ,a2b2 ,a3b3 ,.... and , , ,.. are
b1 b2 b3
a r k  a r  k
(ii) a r  k,0  k  n  r also in G.P.
2
(iii) If a1 ,a2 ,a3 ,... are in A.P. a i  0i  , then
(iii) If n th term of any sequence is linear
expression in n, then the sequence is an xa1 ,xa2 ,xa3 ,..., are in G.P  x  0 
A.P.
(iv) If a1 ,a2 ,a3 ,...an are in G.P., then
(iv)If sum of n terms of any sequence is a
a1an  a2an1  a3an2  ...
quadratic expression in n without the
constant, then sequence is an A.P.
Geometric Progression (G.P.) : is a sequence in which Sum of special sequences :
each term except the first is obtained by
(i) Sum of the first n natural numbers:
multiplying the previous term by a non-zero
constant called the common ratio. Consider a G.P. n  n  1
with first non-zero term a and common ratio r i.e.  n  1  2  3...  n  2
2 n1
a,ar,ar ,..,ar ,... (ii) Sum of the squares of first n natural
n1 numbers.
ar
Here, common ratio r 
ar n2 n  n  12n  1
n 2
 12  22  32  ...  n2 
6
The general term or nth term of G.P is given by
n1
a n  ar . (iii) Sum of cubes of first n natural numbers:
Last term  of G.P. is same as the nth term and is  n  n  1 
2

given by  = arn-1, and the nth term from the last is  n  1  2  3  ...  n   2 
3 3 3 3 3

l  
given by an  n1
r Chapter 10
The sum S n of the first n terms is given by STRAIGHT LINES

Sn 

a rn  1  if r  1 Slope of a line :
r 1 If  is the angle made by a line with positive
Sn  na If r = 1 direction of x-axis in anticlockwise direction, then
the value of tan  is called the slope of the line
If a, G and b are in G.P., then G is called the and is denoted by m.
geometric mean of the numbers a and b and is
given by

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 The slope of a line passing through points (vi) Intercept form: The equation of the line
P  x1 ,y 1  and Q  x 2 ,y 2  is given by making intercepts a and b on x- and y-axis
x y
respectively is given by   1 .
y2  y1 a b
m  tan  
x 2  x1
(vii) Normal form: Suppose a non-vertical line is
Angle between two lines : The angle  between the known with following data:
two lines having slopes m1 and m2 is given by (a) Length of the perpendicular (normal) p
from origin to the line.
tan   
m 1  m2 
.
1  m1 m 2 (b) Angle  which normal makes with the
positive direction of x-axis.
If we take the acute angle between two lines, then
The equation of such a line is given by
m1  m2
tan   xcos  ysin   p
1  m1 m 2
General equation of a line :
If the lines are parallel, then m1  m2
Any equation of the form Ax+By+C=0, where A
If the lines are perpendicular, then m1m2  1 . and B are simultaneously not zero, is called the
general equation of a line.
Collinearity of three points : If three points P(h,k),
Q(x1,y1) and R(x2, y2) are such that slope of Different forms of Ax+By+C=0
y  k y2  y1 The general form of the line can be reduced to
PQ = slope of QR, i.e., 1 
x1  h x 2  x 1 various forms as given below:
(i) Slope intercept form: If B  0, then
or  h  x1  y 2  y 1    k  y 1  x 2  x1  then they are
Ax  By  C  0 can be written as
said to be collinear.
A C A
y x or y  mx  c, where m 
Various forms of the equation of a line : B B B
(i) If a line is at a distance a and parallel to C
and c 
x-axis, then the equation of the line is y  a B

(ii) If a line is parallel to y-axis at a distance b C

If B  0, then x  which is a vertical line
from y-axis then it equation is x  b A
whose slope is not defined and x-intercept is
(iii) Point-slope form: The equation of a line
C
having slope m and passing through the
A
point  x0 ,y 0  is given by y  y 0  m  x  x 0 
(ii) Intercept form: If C  0, then Ax  By  C  0
(iv) Two-point form: The equation of a line x y x y
passing through two points (x1,y1) and can be written as  =1 or   1,
C C a b
 x2 ,y 2  is given by A B
C C
y2  y1 where a  and b  .
y  y1 
x 2  x1
 x  x1  A B
If C =0, then Ax  By  C  0 can be written as
(v) Slope intercept form: The equation of the line Ax  By  0 which is a line passing through
making an intercept c on y-axis and having
the origin and therefore has zero intercepts
slope m is given by
on the axes.
y  mx  c
(iii) Normal Form: The normal form of the
The value of c will be positive or negative as equation Ax+By+C=0 is xcos  ysin   p
the intercept is made on the positive or where,
negative side of the y-axis, respectively.

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 A B (ii) The condition that the lines a1 x  b1 y  c1  0
cos    ,sin    and
A B
2 2
A B 2 2
and a2x  b2y  c2  0 are perpendicular is
a1a2  b1b2  0 .
C
p (iii) The equation of any line through the point of
A2  B2
intersection of two lines a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 and
a2 x  b2y  c2  0 is
Note : Proper choice of signs is to be made so that p
a1x  b1y  c1  k  a 2x  b2y  c2   0 . The value
should be always positive.
of k is determined from extra condition given
Distance of a point from a line : The perpendicular in the problem.
distance (or simply distance) d of a point P (x 1,y1)
from the line Ax  By  C  0 is given by

| Ax1  By 1  C| Chapter 11
d CONIC SECTIONS
A2  B2
Circle :
Distance between two parallel lines A circle is the set of all points in a plane which are
The distance d between two parallel lines at a fixed distance from a fixed point in the plane.
y  mx  c1 and y  mx  c2 is given by
The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and
the distance from centre to any point on the circle is
|c1  c2 | called the radius of the circle.
d
1  m2 The equation of a circle with radius r having centre
(h,k) is given by  x  h    y  k   r2 . The general
2 2

Locus and equation of locus : The curve described by

a point which moves under certain given condition equation of the circle is given by
is called its locus. To find the locus of a point P x  y  2gx  2fy  c  0, where g, f and c are
2 2

whose coordinates are (h,k), express the condition constants.

involving h and k. Eliminate variables if any and
finally replace h by x and k by y to get the locus of
P.
Intersection of two given lines : Two lines
a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 and a2 x  b2y  c2  0 are

a1 b1
(i) intersecting if 
a2 b2

a1 b1 c1
(ii) Parallel and distinct if  
a2 b2 c2 (a) The centre of this circle is (-g,-f)
a1 b1 c1
(iii) coincident if   (b) The radius of the circle is g2  f 2  c
a2 b2 c2

Note: The general equation of the circle passing through

(i) The points x 1 ,y 1  and x 2 ,y 2  are on the the origin is given by x2  y 2  2gx  2fy  0.
same side of the line or on the opposite side General equation of second degree i.e.,
of the line ax  by  c  0, if ax1  by 1  c and ax2  2hxy  by 2  2gx  2fy  c  0 represent a circle
ax2  by 2  c are of the same sign or of if (i) the coefficient of x2 equals the coefficient of
opposite signs respectively. y 2 , i.e., a  b  0 and (ii) the coefficient of xy is
zero, i.e., h=0.

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 The parametric equations of the circle x2  y 2  r2
are given by x  rcos ,y  rsin . The parametric
equations of the circle x2  y 2  r2 are given by
x  rcos ,y  rsin  where  is the parameter and
the parametric equations of the circle
 x  h   y  k 
2 2
 r2 are given by

x  h  rcos ,y  k  rsin 

or x  h  rcos ,y  k  rsin  .

Main facts about the parabola

Forms of x2  4ay
parabolas y 2  4ax y 2  4ax x2  4ay
Parabola :
Axis y=0 y 0 x 0 x 0
A parabola is the set of points P whose distances
from a fixed point F in the plane are equal to their Directrix x  a xa y  a y a
distances from a fixed line l in the plane. the fixed Vertex (0,0) (0,0) (0,0) (0,0)
point F is called focus and the fixed line l the
Focus (a,0) (-a,0) (0,a) (0,-a)
directrix of the parabola.
Length of 4a 4a 4a 4a
latus
rectum

Equations x=a x = a y= a y = a
of latus
rectum

Focal distance of a point

Let the equation of the parabola be y 2  4ax and

Standard equations of parabola P  x,y  be a point on it. Then the distance of P from
The four possible forms of parabola are shown the focus (a,0) is called the focal distance of the
below in figure. (a) to (d). The latus rectum of a point, i.e.
parabola is a line segment perpendicular to the axis
x  a
2
of the parabola, through the focus and whose end FP   y2
points lie on the parabola.
x  a
2
  4ax

x  a
2

| x  a |

Ellipse : An ellipse is the set of a points in a plane,

the sum of whose distances from two fixed points
is constant. Alternatively, an ellipse is the set of all
points in the plane whose distances from a fixed
point in the plane bears a constant ratio, less than 1,

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 to their distance from a fixed line in the plane. The Focal Distance
fixed point is called focus, the fixed line a directrix
The focal distance of a point (x,y) on the ellipse
and the constant ratio (e) the eccentricity of the
ellipse. x2 y 2
  1 is
a2 b2
There are two standard forms of the ellipse, i.e.
a  e| x | from the nearer focus
x2 y 2 x2 y 2
(i)   1 and (ii)   1, a  e| x | from the farther focus
a2 b2 b2 a2

 
In both cases a  b and b2  a2 1  e2 ,e  1. Sum of the focal distance of any point on an ellipse
is constant and equal to the length of the major
In (i) major axis is along x-axis and minor along y- axis.
axis and in (ii) major axis is along y-axis and minor Hyperbola : A hyperbola is the set of all points in a
along plane, the difference of whose distances from two
x-axis as shown in figure. (a) and (b) respectively. fixed points is constant. Alternatively, a hyperbola
Main facts about the Ellipse is the set of all points in a plane whose distances
from a fixed point in the plane bears a constant
ratio, greater than 1, to their distances from a fixed
line in the plane. The fixed point is called a focus,
the fixed line a directrix and the constant ratio
denoted by e, the eccentricity of the hyperbola.
There are two standard forms of the hyperbola, i.e.

x2 y 2 y 2 x2
(i) 2
 2  1 and (ii) 2  2  1
a b a b

 
Here b2  a2 e2  1 ,e  1

Forms of the x2 y 2 x2 y 2 In (i) transverse axis is along x-axis and conjugate

ellipse  1  1
a2 b2 b2 a2 axis along y-axis where as in (ii) transverse axis is
along y-axis and conjugate axis along x-axis.
ab ab
Equation of y 0 x 0
major axis
Length of 2a 2a
major axis
Equation of x=0 y=0
minor axis
Length of 2b 2b
Minor axis
Main facts about the Hyperbola
Directrices a a
x y Forms of the x2 y 2 y 2 x2
e e hyperbola  1  1
a2 b2 a2 b2
Equation of x  ae y  ae
latus rectum Equation of y=0 x=0
transverse axis
Length of latus 2b2 2b2
rectum Equation of x=0 y=0
a a conjugate axis
Centre (0,0) (0,0) Length of 2a 2a
transverse axis

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 Foci  ae,0 0, ae  (3) the plane through P parallel to the xy-plane
intersects the z-axis at (0,0,z0)
Equation of x  ae y  ae
latus rectum
The space coordinates x 0 ,y 0 ,z0  are called the
Cartesian coordinates of P or simply the
Length of latus 2b2 b2 rectangular coordinates of P.
rectum a a
Distance formula : The distance between two points
Centre (0,0) (0,0) P  x 1 ,y 1 ,z1  and Q  x 2 ,y 2 ,z2  is given by
Focal Distance
x  x1    y 2  y 1    z2  z1 
2 2 2
PQ 
The focal distance of any point (x,y) on the 2

x2 y 2 A parallelopiped is formed by planes drawn

hyperbola 2  2  1 is
a b through the points  x1 ,y 1 ,z1  and  x 2 ,y 2 ,z2 
e| x| a from the nearer focus parallel to the coordinate planes. The length of
edges are x2  x1 ,y 2  y1 ,z2  z1 and length of
e| x| a from the farther focus
x  x1    y 2  y 1    z2  z1 
2 2 2
diagonal is
Differences of the focal distances of any point on a 2

hyperbola is constant and equal to the length of the

Section formula : The coordinates of the point R
transverse axis
which divides the line segment joining two points
Parametric equation of conics P  x 1 ,y 1 ,z1  and Q  x 2 ,y 2 ,z2  internally or
Conics Parametric equations externally in the ratio m:n are given by
 mx2  nx1 my 2  ny 1 mz2  nz1 
(i) Parabola : x  at 2 ,y  2at;  , , ,
y  4ax
2  mn mn mn 
  t  
(ii) Ellipse: x  acos ,y  bsin ;  mx2  nx1 my 2  ny 1 mz2  nz1 
 , ,  respectively.
x2 y 2 0    2  mn mn mn 
 1
a2 b2 The coordinates of the centroid of the triangle,
(iii) Hyperbola: x  asec ,y  btan , whose vertices are  x1 ,y 1 ,z1  ,  x 2 ,y 2 ,z2  and
x2 y 2
 1
where x 3 ,y 3 ,z3  are
a2 b2    3
  ;   x 1  x 2  x 3 y 1  y 2  y 3 z1  z 2  z 3 
2 2 2 2  , , 
 3 3 3 

Chapter 12 Chapter 13
INTRODUCTION TO THREE DIMENSIONAL LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES
GEOMETRY
Limits of a function:
Let f be a function defined in a domain I. Consider
Coordinate of a point in space :
a point a I .
An arbitrary point P in three-dimensional space is lim f  x  is the expected value of f at x= a given the
assigned coordinates  x 0 ,y 0 ,z0  provided that x0

values of f near to the left of a . This value is called

(1) the plane through P parallel to the yz-plane the left hand limit of f at a.
intersects the x-axis at  x 0 ,0,0  ; lim f  x  is the expected value of f at x =a given the
xa

values of f near to the right of a. This value is called

(2) the plane through P parallel to the xz –plane
the right hand limit of f at a.
intersects the y-axis at (0,y0, 0);

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 If the right and left hand limits coincide, the d d d
f  x   g  x   
common value is known as the limit of f at x=a and dx   dx f  x   dx g  x 
is denoted it by limf  x  . (iii) Derivative of the product of two functions is
xa

Some properties of limits given by the following product rule.

Let f and g be two functions such that both
 d   d 
limf  x  and limg  x  exist. Then
d
f  x  .g  x    f  x   .g  x   f  x  .  g  x  
xa xa dx  
 dx   dx 
(i) lim f  x   g  x   limf  x   limg  x 
xa xa xa
This is referred to as Leibnitz Rule for the
(ii) lim f  x   g  x   limf  x   limg  x 
xa xa xa product of two functions.
(iii) For every real number  (iv) Derivative of quotient of two functions is
lim f  x    limf  x  given by the following quotient rule
xa xa
(wherever the denominator is non-zero).
(iv) lim f  x  g  x   limf  x  limg  x   d   d 
 f  x   .g  x   f  x  .  dx g  x  
xa  xa xa 
limf  x  d  f  x    dx   
f x  
, provided limg  x   0 dx  g  x  
 
gx 
xa 2
lim
xa gx limg  x  xa
xa

Limits of polynomials and rational functions Chapter 14

If f is a polynomial function, then limf  x  exists MATHEMATICAL REASONING
xa
and is given by
Statements :
limf  x   f a 
xa A statement is a sentence which is either true or
An important limit false, but not both simultaneously.
xn  an Truth and falisity of a statement is called its truth
lim  nan1
xa x  a
value.
The above expression remains valid for any
Simple statements : A statement is called simple if it
rational number provided „a‟ is positive.
can not be broken down into two or more
Limits of trigonometric functions
statements.
sin x
(i) lim  1 (ii) limcos x  1 (iii) limsin x  0 Compound statements : A compound statement is the
x 0 x x 0 x 0

Derivatives: Suppose f is a real valued function, one which is made up of two or more simple
then statements.
f  x  h  f  x  The simple statements which constitute a
f   x   lim …(1) compound statements are called component
h0 h
statements.
is called the derivative of f at x, provided the limit
on the R.H.S. of (1) exists. Basic logical connectives There are many ways of
Algebra of derivative of functions The rules of combining simple statements to form new
derivatives to follow closely that of limits as given statements. The words which combine or change
below: simple statements to form new statements or
Let f and g be two functions such that their compound statements are called Connectives. The
derivatives are defined in a common domain. Then basic connectives (logical) conjuction corresponds
(i) Derivative of the sum of two function is the to the English word „and‟: disjunction corresponds
sum of the derivatives of the functions to the word „or‟; and negation corresponds to the
d d d word „not‟.
f  x   g  x    f x  gx
dx   dx dx The symbol „‟ denotes conjuction ; „‟ denotes
(ii) Derivative of the difference of two functions disjunction and the symbol „~‟ denotes negation.
is the difference of the derivatives of the
Negation is called a connective although it does not
functions.
combine two or more statements. In fact, it only
modifies a statement.

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 Conjunction: If two simple statements p and q are Therefore the negation of the disjunction would
connected by the word „and‟, then the resulting mean the negation of both p and q simultaneously.
compound statement “p and q” is called a
(D8) : The negation of disjunction pq is the
conjunction of p and q and is written in symbolic
conjunction of the negation of p and the negation
form as “pq”.
of q. Equivalently.
(D1) : The statement p  q has the truth value T
~ (pq) = ~ p  ~ q
(true) whenever both p and q have the truth value
T. Negation of a negation : The negation is not a
connective but a modifier. It only modifies a given
(D2) : The statement p  q has the truth value statement and applies only to a single simple
F(false) whenever either p or q or both have the statement.
truth value F.
(D9) : Negation of negation of a statement is the
Disjunction : If two simple statements p and q are statement itself. Equivalently,
connected by the word „or‟, then the resulting
compound statement “p or q” is called disjunction ~(~ p) = p
of p and q and is written in symbolic form as The conditional statement : If p and q are any two
“pq”. statements, “if p then q” formed by joining p and
q by a connective „if then‟ is called a conditional
(D3) : The statement pq has the truth value F
statement or an implication and is written in
whenever both p and q have the truth value F.
symbolic form as pq or pq. Here, p is called
(D4) : The statement pq has the truth value T hypothesis (or antecedent) and q is called
whenever either p or q or both have the truth value conclusion (or consequent) of the conditional
T. statement (p  q):
Negation: An assertion that a statement fails or The conditional statement pq can be expressed in
denial of a statement is called the negation of the several different ways.
statement. The negation of a statement is generally
formed by introducing the word “not” at some Some of the common expressions are:
proper place in the statement or by prefixing the (a) if p, then q
statement with “It is not the case that” or It is false
that”. (b) q if p

The negation of a statement p I symbolic form is (c) p only if q

written as “~p”. (d) p is sufficient for q
(D5) : ~p has truth value T whenever p has truth (e) q is necessary for p
value F.
The conditional statement pq reflects the idea
(D6) : ~p has truth value F whenever p has truth that whenever it is known that p is true, it will
value T. have to follow that q is also true.
Negation of conjunction: A conjunction pq consists Contrapositive of a conditional statement: The
of two component statements p and q both of statement “(~q)  (~p)” is called the contrapositive
which exist simultaneously. Therefore, the of the statement pq.
negation of the conjunction would mean the
negation of at least one of the two component Converse of a conditional statement: The conditional
statements. statement “qp” is called the converse of the
conditional statement “pq”.
(D7) : The negation of a conjunction pq is the
disjunction of the negation of p and the negation of The biconditional statement : If two statements p and
q. Equivalently. q are connected by the connective „if and only if „
then the resulting compound statement” p if and
~ (pq) = ~p  ~q only if q” is called a biconditional of p and q and is
Negation of disjunction: A disjunction pq is written in symbolic form as p  q.
consisting of two component statements p and q Quantifiers : Quantifieres are the phrases like
which are such that either p or q or both exist. “These exist‟ and “for every”

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 Validity of statements : Validity of a statement means
M.D. M 
| x i  M|
…(2)
checking when the statement is true and when it is
n
not true. This depends upon which of the Mean deviation for discrete frequency
connectives, quantifiers and implication is being distribution
used in the statement. Let the given data consist of discrete observations
(i) Validity of statement with „AND‟ x1 ,x2 ,....,x n occurring with frequencies f1 ,f2 ,....fn ,
respectively. In this case
To show statement r: pq is true, show
statement „p‟ is true and statement „q‟ is true. M.D.  x  
 fi | x i  x |   fi | x i  x | …(3)
(ii) Validity of statement with „OR‟  fi N

To show statement r: pq is true, show either M.D.  M 

f | x
i i  M|
…(4)
statement „p‟ is true or statement „q‟ is true. N
where N   fi
(iii) Validity of statement with “If-then”
(iii) Mean deviation for continuous frequency
To show statement r : “If p then q is true”, distribution (Grouped data).
adopt the following methods:
M.D. x  
fi | xi  x | …(5)
a) Direct method: Assume p is true and N
show q is true, i.e. p  q
M.D M 
fi | xi  M| …(6)
b) Contrapositive method: Assume ~q is true N
and show ~p is true, i.e., ~q ~p. where x i are the midpoints of the classes, x
and M are, respectively, the mean and
c) Contradiction method: Assume that p is
median of the distribution.
true and q is false and obtain a
(c) Variance : Let x1 ,x2 ,...,x n be n observations
contradiction from assumption.
with x as the mean. The variance, denoted
d) By giving a counter example. To prove the by 2 , is given by
given statement r is false give a counter
1
2    x i  x 
2
example. …(7)
n
Validity of the statement with “If and only If” : To (d) Standard Deviation : If 2 is the variance,
show the statement r: p if and only if q is true,
then , is called the standard deviation, is
proceed as follows:
given by
Step 1 Show if p is true then q is true. 1
  xi  x 
2
 …(8)
Step 2 Show if q is true then p is true. n
(e) Standard deviation for a discrete frequency
Chapter 15 distribution is given by
STATISTICS 1
 fi  x i  x 
2
Measures of dispersion :  …(9)
N
(a) Range :The measure of dispersion which is where fi 's are the frequencies of xi 's and
easiest to understand and easiest to calculate n
is the range. Range is defined as: N   fi .
Range = Largest observation – Smallest i1

observation (f) Standard deviation of a continuous

(b) Mean Deviation frequency distribution (grouped data)is
(i) Mean deviation for ungrouped data: given by
For n observation x1 ,x2 ,....x n , the mean 1
 fi  x i  x 
2
 …(10)
deviation about their mean x is given by N

M.D. x  
| xi  x | …(1)
where xi are the midpoints of the classes and
fi their respective frequencies. Formula (10) is
n
Mean deviation about their median M is same as
N fi x 2i    fi x i 
given by 1 2
 …(11)
N

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 (g) Another formula for standard deviation: Event „A or B‟ : If A and B are two events associated
with same sample space, then the event „A or B‟ is
N fi y 2i    fi y i 
h 2
x  …(12)
N same as the event A  B and contains all those
where h is the width of class intervals and elements which are either in A or in B or in both.
x A Further more, P  A  B  denotes the probability
yi  i and A is the assumed mean.
h that A or B (or both) will occur.
Coefficient of variation: It is sometimes useful to
describe variabililty by expressing the standard Event „A and B‟ : If A and B are two events
deviation as a proportion of mean, usually a associated with a sample space, then the event „A
percentage. The formula for it as a percentage is and B‟ is same as the event A  B and contains all
those elements which are common to both A and B.
Standard deviation
Coefficient of variation 
Mean
 100 Further more, P  A  B  denotes the probability
that both A and B will simultaneously occur.
Chapter 16 The Event „ A but not B‟ (Difference A-B) : An event
PROBABILITY A-B is the set of all those elements of the same
space S which are in A but not in B., i.e.
Random experiment : An experiment is random
means that the experiment has more than one
A  B  A  B.
possible outcome and it is not possible to predict Mutually exclusive : Two events A and B of a sample
with certainty which outcome that will be. space S are mutually exclusive if the occurrence of
any one of them excludes the occurrence of the
Outcome: A possible result of a random
other event. Hence, the two events A and B cannot
experiment is called its outcome
occur simultaneously, and thus P  A  B   0 .
Sample Space: A sample space is the set of all
possible outcomes of an experiment. In fact, it is Exhaustive events : If E1 ,E2 ,...,En are n events of a
the universal set S pertinent to a given experiment. sample space S and if
Event : An event is a subset of a sample space S. n
E1  E2  E3  ...  En  Ei  S
i) Impossible and Sure Events : The empty set i1
 and the sample space S describe events. In
fact  is called an impossible event and S, i.e., then E1 ,E2 ,...En are called exhaustive events.
the whole sample space is called a sure
In other words, events E1 ,E2 ,...,En of a sample
event.
space S are said to be exhaustive if atleast one of
ii) Simple or Elementary Event: If an event E them necessarily occur whenever the experiment is
has only one sample point of a sample space, performed.
i.e., a single outcome of an experiment, it is
called a simple or elementary event. Mutually exclusive and exhaustive events : If
E1 ,E2 ,....En are n events of a sample space S and if
iii) Compound Event : If an event has more than
Ei  Ej   for every i  j, i.e. Ei and Ej are
one sample point it is called a compound
event. n
pairwise disjoint and E i  S, then the events
iv) Complementary event: Given an event A, i1

the complement of A is the event consisting of all E1 ,E2 ,.....,En are called mutually exclusive and
sample space outcomes that do not correspond to exhaustive events.
the occurrence of A.
Classical definition : If all of the outcomes of a
The complement of A is denoted by A or A . It is sample space are equally likely, then the
 
also called the event „not A‟. Further P A denotes probability that an event will occur is equal to the
ratio:
the probability that A will not occur.
The number of outcomes favourable to the event
A   A  S  A  w : w  S and w  A The total number of outcomes of the sample space

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 Suppose that an event E can happen in h ways out i.e., P  w i   p for all w i  S, where 0  p  1
of a total of n possible equally likely ways.
n
Then the classical probability of occurrence of the Since P w   1
i
event is denoted by i1

h i.e., p  p  p  ...  p (n times ) = 1

PE 
n
1
 np  1, i.e., p 
The probability of non occurrence of the event E is n
denoted by
Let S be the sample space and E be an event, such
nh h that n(S) = n and n(E) = m. If each outcome is
P(not E)   1   1  PE
n n equally likely, then it follows that

Thus P  E   P  not E   1 P  E 
m Number of outcomes favourable to E

n Total number of possible outcomes
The event „not E‟ is denoted by E or E
(complement of E) Addition rule of probability : If A and B are any two
events in a sample space S, then the probability
 
Therefore P E  1  PE that atleast one of the events A or B will occur is
given by P  A  B   P  A   P  B   P  A  B 
Axiomatic approach to probability : Let S be the
sample space of a random experiment. The Similarly, for three events A, B and C,
probability P is a real valued function whose
domain is the power set of S, i.e. P(S) and range is P  A  B  C   P  A    B   P C   P  A  B 
the interval [0,1] i.e. P: P(S)  [0,1] satisfying the P  A  C   P  B  C   P  A  B  C 
following axioms.
Addition rule for mutually events : If A and B are
(i) For any event E, P(E)  0. disjoint sets, then
(ii) P(S) =1
P  A  B   P  A   P  B  [since P  A  B  = P     0,
(iii) If E and F are mutually exclusive events, then where A and B are disjoint]. The addition rule for
PE  F   PE  PF  mutually exclusive events can be extended to more
than two events.
It follows from(iii) that P() = 0
Let S be a sample space containing elementary
outcomes w1 ,w2 ,...,w n

i.e., S  w 1 ,w 2 ,..,w n 

It follows from the axiomatic definition of

probability that

(i) 0  P  w i   1 for each w i  S

(ii) P  w 1   P  w 2   ...  P  w n   1

(iii) P  A    P  w i  for any event A containing

elementary events wi
Probabilities of equally likely outcomes : Let a sample
space of an experiment be S  w 1 ,w 2 ,...,w n  and
suppose that all the outcomes are equally likely to
occur i.e., the chance of occurrence of each simple
event must be the same.

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 SECOND YEAR
SYNOPSIS

Chapter 1 y  Y there exists an element x  X such that

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS f  x   y.

Relation : A relation R from a non-empty set A to a

non-empty set B is a subset of the Cartesian (iii) A function f : X  Y is said to be one-one and
product A  B . The set of all first elements of the onto (or bijective), if f is both one-one and
ordered pairs in a relation R from a set A to a set B onto.
is called the domain of the relation R. The set of all
Composition of Functions :
second elements in a relation R from a set A to a set
B is called the range of the relation R. The whole set (i) Let f : A  B be two functions. Then, the
B is called the codomain of the relation R. Note that composition of f and g, denoted by g o f , is
range is always a subset of codomain. defined as the function gof : A  C given
by
Types of Relations : A relation R in a set A is subset
of A  A . Thus empty set  and A  A are two  
g o f  x   g f  x  , x  A.
extreme relations.
(ii) If f : A  B and g : B  C are one-one, then
(i) A relation R in a st A is called empty
relation, if no element of A is related to any gof :A  C is also one-one
element of A, i.e., R    A  A. (iii) If f : A  B and g : B  C are onto, then
(ii) A relation R in a set A is called universal gof : A  C is also onto.
relation, if each element of A is related to
(iv) Let f : A  B are g : B  C be the given
every element of A, i.e., R  A  A.
functions such that gof is one-one. Then f is
(iii) A relation R in A is said to be reflexive if aRa one-one.
for all a  A, R is said to be symmetric if
(v) Let f: A  B and g: B  C be the given
aRb  bRa,  a,b  A and it is said to be
functions such that gof is onto. Then g is
transitive if aRb and bRc  aRc  a,b,c  A. onto.
Any relation which is reflexive, symmetric
and transitive is called an equivalence Invertible Functions :
relation. (i) A function f : X  Y is defined to be
An important property of an equivalence invertible, if there exists a function g : Y  X
relation is that it divides the set into pairwise such that g o f  Ix and f o g  IY . The
disjoint subsets called equivalent classes function g is called the inverse of f and is
whose collection is called a partition of the denoted by f 1 .
set. Note that the union of all equivalence
classes gives the whole set. (ii) A function f :X  Y is invertible if and only
if f is a bijective function.
Types of Functions :
(iii) If f :XY, g : Y  Z and h : Z S are
(i) A function f : X  Y is defined to be one-one
(or injective), if the images of distinct functions, then h o  g o f    h o g  o f.
elements of X under f are distinct, i.e.,
(iv) Let f : X  Y and g : Y  Z be two invertible
x1 ,x 2  X,f  x1   f  x 2   x1  x 2 . functions. Then gof is also invertible with
g o f 
1
 f 1 o g 1 .
(ii) A function f : X  Y is defined to be onto (or
surjective), if every element of Y is the image
of some element of X under f, i.e., for every

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 Binary Operations : Graphs of inverse trigonometric functions :
(i) A binary operation * on a set A is function The graph of an inverse trigonometric function can
* : A  A  A. * (a,b) is denoted by a * b. be obtained from the graph of original function by
(ii) A binary operation * on the set X is called interchanging x-axis and y-axis, i.e., if (a,b) is a
commutative, if a * b = b * a for every a,b  X. point on the graph of trigonometric function, then
(b,a) becomes the corresponding point on the
(iii) A binary operation * : A  A  A is said to
graph of its inverse trigonometric function.
be associative if (a * b) * c= a * (b * c), for
every a,b,c  A. The graph of an inverse function can be obtained
from the corresponding graph of original function
(iv) Given a binary operation * : A  A  A, an
as a mirror image (i.e., reflection) along the line
element eA , if it exists, is called identity y  x.
for the operation * , if a * e = a = e * a, a A
(v) Given a binary operation * : A  A  A, with
the identity element e in A, an element a  A, Properties of inverse trigonometric functions :
is said to be invertible with respect to the    
operation * , if there exists an element b in A 1. sin 1  sin x   x : x , 
 2 2
such that a * b = e = b * a and b is called the
inverse of a and is denoted by a 1 . cos 1  cos x   x : x 0,  

Chapter 2    
tan 1  tan x   x : x  , 
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS  2 2

Inverse function : Inverse of a function „f ‟ exists, if cot 1  cot x   x : x   0,  

the function is one-one and onto, i.e., bijective.

Since trigonometric functions are many-one over sec 1  sec x   x : x  0,    
2
their domains, restrict their domains and co-
domains in order to make them one-one and onto    
cosec 1  cosecx   x : x   ,   0
and then find their inverse. The domains and  2 2
ranges (principal value branches) of inverse
trigonometric functions are given below:
2. 
sin sin1 x  x : x   1,1

Functions Domain Range (Principal 

cos cos1 x  x : x   1,1
value branches)

y  sin 1 x  1,1    

tan tan1 x  x : x R
 2 ,2
   
cot cot 1 x  x : x R
1
y  cos x  1,1 0, 

sec sec1 x  x : x  R   1,1 
y  cosec x 1
R   1,1     
 2 , 2   0 
cosec cosec1x  x  : x  R   1,1 
 

y  sec 1x R   1,1   3. sin 1

1
 cosec 1 x : x  R   1,1 
0,      x
2
1
y  tan 1 x R     cos 1  sec 1 x : x  R   1,1 
 ,  x
 2 2
1
tan 1  cot 1 x : x 0
y  cot x1
R 0,  x

   cot 1 x : x 0

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 4. sin 1  x    sin 1 x : x   1,1  a11 a12 a13 ... a1n 
 
a a22 a23 ... a 2n 
cos 1  x     cos 1 x : x   1,1 A  a ij    21
mn   
 
tan 1  x    tan 1 x : x R a m1 a m2 a m3 ... a mn  mn

cot 1  x     cot 1 x : x R 1  i  m, 1  j  n i, jN

sec 1  x     sec 1 x : x  R   1,1  The element, a ij is an element lying in the ith row

and jth column and is known as the  i,j

th
element
cosec 1
 x    cosec 1
x : x  R   1,1 
of A. The number of elements in an m  n matrix
 will be equal to mn.
5. sin 1 x  cos 1 x  : x   1,1
2
Types of Matrices :

tan 1 x  cot 1 x  : x R (i) A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has
2
only one row.

sec 1 x  cosec 1 x  : x  R   1,1  (ii) A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has
2
only one column.
xy
6. tan1 x  tan1 y  tan1 : xy  1 (iii) A matrix in which the number of rows are
1  xy equal to the number of columns, is said to be
 xy  a square matrix. Thus, an m  n matrix is
tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1   : xy  1 said to be a square matrix if m  n and is
 1  xy 
known as a square matrix of order „n‟.
2x
7. 2tan1 x  sin1 : 1  x  1 (iv) A square matrix B  bij  is said to be a
1  x2 nn

diagonal matrix if its all non diagonal

1  x2
2tan1 x  cos1 : x 0 elements are zero, that is a matrix B  bij 
1  x2 nn

is said to be a diagonal matrix if bij  0, when

2x
2tan1 x  tan1 : 1  x  1 i  j.
1  x2
(v) A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar
Chapter 3 matrix if its diagonal elements are equal, that
MATRICES is, a square matrix B  bij  is said to be a
nn

Matrix : A matrix is an ordered rectangular array scalar matrix if bij  0, when i  j

of numbers (or functions).
bij  k, when i  j, for some constant k.
The numbers (or functions) are called the elements
or the entries of the matrix. (vi) A square matrix in which elements in the
The horizontal lines of elements are said to diagonal are all 1 and rest are all zeroes is
constitute rows of the matrix and the vertical lines called an identity matrix.
of elements are said to constitute columns of the
In other words, the square matrix A  aij 
matrix. nn

is an identity matrix, if a ij  1, when i  j and

Order of a Matrix :
a ij  0, when i  j.
A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a
matrix of order m  n or simply m  n matrix (read (vii) A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null
as an m by n matrix). matrix if all its elements are zeroes. We
In general, an m  n matrix has the following denote zero matrix by O.
rectangular array:

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 (viii) Two matrices A  aij  and B  bij  are said 2. If A, B are, respectively m  n,k  matrices,
then both AB and BA are defined if and only
to be equal if
if n  k and   m
a) they are of the same order, and
3. If AB and BA are both defined, it is not
b) each element of A is equal to the necessary that AB  BA
corresponding element of B, that is,
4. If the product of two matrices is a zero
a ij  bij for all i and j .
matrix, it is not necessary that one of the
Addition of matrices : matrices is a zero matrix.

Two matrices can be added if they are of the same 5. For three matrices A, B and C of the same
order. order, if A = B, then AC = BC, but converse is
not true.
In general, if A  aij  and B  bij  , then the
mn mn 6. AA  A2 ,A.A.A  A3 , so on
sum of two matrices A and B is defined as a matrix
Transpose of a Matrix :
C  cij  , where cij  a ij  bij for all possible
mn

values of i and j. 1. If A  aij  be an m  n matrix, then the

Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar : matrix obtained by interchanging the rows

and columns of A is called the transpose of
If A   Aij  is a matrix and k is a scalar, then kA A.
mn

is another matrix which is obtained by multiplying Transpose of the matrix A is denoted by A

each element of A by a scalar k, i.e. kA  kaij  .
mn  
or A T . In other words, if A  aij  , then
mn

Negative of a Matrix : AT  a ji 

nm

The negative of a matrix A is denoted by  A . We 2. Properties of transpose of the matrices

define  A   1  A
For any matrices A and B of suitable orders,
Multiplication of Matrices : we have

A 
T
The multiplication of two matrices A and B is (i) T
A
defined if the number of columns of A is equal to
the number of rows of B.
 kA 
T
(ii)  kAT (where k is any constant)
Let A  aij  be an m  n matrix and B  bjk  be
 A  B
T
(iii)  AT  BT
an n  p matrix. Then the product of the matrices A
and B is the matrix C of order m p . To get the
 AB
T
(iv)  BT AT
 i,k 
th
element c ik of the matrix C, we take the i th
Symmetric Matrix and Skew Symmetric Matrix :
row of A and k th column of B, multiply them
elementwise and take the sum of all these products (i) A square matrix A  aij  is said to be
ie., symmetric if AT  A, that is, a ij  a ji for all
cik  ai1b1k  ai2b2k  ai3b3k  ...  ain bnk possible values of i and j

The matrix C  cik mp is the product of A and B. (ii) A square matrix A  aij  is said to be skew

Notes symmetric matrix if AT  A, that is a ji  a ij

for all possible values of i and j.
1. If AB is defined, then BA need not be
defined. (iii) Diagonal elements of a skew symmetric
matrix are zero.

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 (iv) For any square matrix A with real number Chapter 4
entries, A  AT is a symmetric matrix and DETERMINANTS
A  AT is a skew symmetric matrix.
Determinant : To every square matrix A  aij  of
(v) Any square matrix A can be expressed as the
sum of a symmetric matrix and a skew order n, we can associate a number (real or
symmetric matrix, that is complex) called determinant of the matrix A,
 i,j
th
written as det (A)or |A| where a ij is the
A
A  A   A  A 
T T

element of A.
2 2
(i) Only square matrices have determinants.
Invertible Matrices : (ii) For a matrix A, |A| is read as determinant of
A and not, as modulus of A.
(i) If A is a square matrix of order m  m , and if
there exists another square matrix B of the Determinant of a matrix of order one :
same order m  m , such that AB  BA  Im ,
Let A  a  be the matrix of order 1, then
then, A is said to be invertible matrix and B is
determinant of A is defined to be equal to a.
called the inverse matrix of A and it is
Determinant of a matrix of order two :
denoted by A1 .
a b 
Let A  a ij     be a matrix of order 2. Then
(ii) A rectangular matrix does not possess its c d
inverse, since for the products BA and AB to the determinant of a is defined as:
be defined and to be equal, it is necessary
det  A  | A | ad  bc.
that matrices A and B should be square
matrices of the same order. Determinant of a matrix of order three :
The determinant of a matrix of order three can be
(iii) If B is the inverse of A, then A is also the determined by expressing it in terms of second
inverse of B. order determinants which is known as expansion
of a determinant along a row (or a column). There
(iv) Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is
are six ways of expanding a determinant of order 3
unique.
corresponding to each of three rows (R1, R2 and R3)
(v) If A and B are invertible matrices of same and three columns (C1, C2 and C3) and each way
order then  AB  B1 A1 . gives the same value.
1

Consider the determinant of a square matrix

Inverse of a Matrix using elementary Row or Column A  aij  , i.e.,
33
Operations :
a11 a12 a13
1
To find A using elementary row operations, | A | a 21 a 22 a 23
write A  IA and apply a sequence of row a31 a32 a33
operations on A  IA till we get, I  BA. The matrix
Expanding |A| along C1, we get
B will be the inverse of A. Similarly, to find A1
11 a 22 a23 21 a12 a12
using column operations, then, write A  AI and | A | a11  1  a21  1 
a32 a33 a32 a33
apply a sequence of column operations on A  AI
will we get, I  AB. a12 a13
a31  1 
31

a22 a23
In case, after applying one or more elementary row
(or column) operations on A  IA (or A = AI), if we  a11  a22a33  a 23a32   a 21  a12a 33  a 13a 32 
obtain all zeros in one or more rows of the matrix
 a31  a12a23  a13a 22 
A on L.H.S., then A1 does not exist.
In general, if A  kB, where A and B are square
matrices of order n, then | A | k n |B|,n  1,2,3,......
Properties of Determinants :
For any square matrix A, |A| satisfies the
following properties.

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 (i) | A || A|, where A  transpose of matrix A. (iii) Value of determinant of a matrix A is
(ii) If we interchange any two rows (or obtained by the sum of products of elements
columns), then sign of the determinant of a row (or a column) with corresponding
changes. co-factors. For example,
(iii) If any two rows or any two columns in a | A | a11 A11  a12 A12  a13 A13 .
determinant are identical (or proportional), (iv) If elements of a row (or column) are
then the value of the determinant is zero. multiplied with co-factors of elements of any
(iv) Multiplying a determinant by k means other row (or column), then their sum is
multiplying the elements of only one row (or zero. For example
one column) by k. a11 A21  a12 A22  a13 A23  0 .
(v) If we multiply each element of a row (or a Adjoint and inverse of a matrix :
column) of a determinant by constant k, then
(i) The adjoint of a square matrix A  aij  is
value of the determinant is multiplied by k. nn

(vi) If elements of a row (or a column) in a defined as the transpose of the matrix
determinant can be expressed as the sum of  A ij  , where A ij is the co-factor of the
  nn
two or more elements, then the given
determinant can be expressed as the sum of element a ij . It is denoted by adjA.
two or more determinants. a11 a12 a13 A11 A 21 A31
(vii) If to each element of a row (or a column) of a
If A  a21 a22 a23 , then adjA  A12 A 22 A32 ,
determinant the equimultiples of
corresponding elements of other rows a31 a32 a33 A13 A 23 A33
(columns) are added, then value of where A ij is co-factor of a ij .
determinant remains same.
(viii) If all the elements of a row (or column) are (ii) A  adjA    adj A  A | A | I, where A is square
zeros, then the value of the determinant is matrix of order n.
zero. (iii) A square matrix A is said to be singular or
(ix) If value of determinant „‟ becomes zero by non-singular according as |A| = 0 or | A | 0,
substituting x = ., then x   is a factor of respectively.
„‟ (iv) If A is a square matrix of order n, then
(x) If all the elements of a determinant above or |adjA || A |n1 .
below the main diagonal consists of zeros,
(v) If A and B are non-singular matrices of the
then the value of the determinant is equal to
same order, then AB and BA are also non-
the product of diagonal elements.
singular matrices of the same order.
(vi) The determinant of the product of matrices is
equal to product of their respective
Area of triangle :
determinants, that is | AB|| A| |B| .
Area of a triangle with vertices  x1 ,y 1  ,  x 2 ,y 2  and
(vii) If AB  BA  I, where A and B are square
x 3 ,y 3  is given by matrices, then B is called inverse of A and is
 
1
x1 y1 1 written as B  A1 . Also B1  A 1  A.
1
x y2 1 . (viii) A square matrix A is invertible if and only if
2 2
x3 y3 1 A is non-singular matrix.
Minors and co-factors : (ix) If A is an invertible matrix, then
1
(i) Minor of an element a ij of the determinant of A 1 
| A|
adj A 
matrix A is the determinant obtained by
System of linear equations :
deleting i th row and jth column, and it is
(i) Consider the equations:
denoted by Mij . a1 x  b1 y  c1z  d1
(ii) Co-factor of an element a ij is given by a2x  b2y  c2z  d2
a3 x  b3 y  c3z  d3 ,
Aij   1 Mij .
ij

In matrix form, these equations can be

written as AX  B, where

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 a1 b1 c1  x  d1  (ii) In an interval, function is said to be
      continuous if there is no break in the graph
A  a2 b2 c2  ,X   y  and B  d2 
of the function in the entire interval.
a3 b3 c3   z  d3 
Discontinuity :
(ii) Unique solution of equation AX  B is given
The function f will be discontinuous at x=a in any
by X  A 1B, where | A| 0. of the following cases:
(iii) A system of equations is consistent or
inconsistent according as its solution exists (i) lim f  x  and lim f  x  exist but are not equal
xa xa
or not.
(iv) For a square matrix A in matrix equation (ii) lim f  x  and lim f  x  exist and are equal but
xa xa
AX  B not equal to f(a).
(a) If | A| 0, then there exists unique
(iii) f(a) is not defined.
solution.
Continuity of some of the common functions :
(b) If | A| 0, and  adj A  B  0, then there
Function f(x) Interval in
exists no solution. which f is
(c) If | A| 0, and  adj A  B  0, then system continuous
may or may not be consistent. 1. The constant function,
i.e. f(x) = c
Chapter 5 2. The identity function, R
CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY i.e. f  x   x

3. The polynomial
Continuity of a function at a point : function, i.e.
Let f be a real function on a subset of the real f  x   a0x n  a1x n1
numbers and let c be a point in the domain of f.
Then f is continuous at c if  ....  an1x  an
limf  x   f  c  4. |x a|   ,  
xc

More elaborately, if the left hand limit, right hand

limit and the value of the function at x  c exist
5. x  n ,n is a positive   ,    {0}
integer
and are equal to each other, i.e.,
6. p(x)/q(x), where p(x) R –{x:q(x)=0}
limf  x   f c   lim f  x  and q(x) are
xc xc
polynomials in x
then f is said to be continuous at x = c.
Continuity in an interval 7. sinx,cosx R

(i) f is said to be continuous in an open interval 8. tanx, secx   

R  2n  1 : n  Z 
 2 
(a,b) if it is continuous at every point in this
interval.
(ii) f is said to be continuous in the closed
9. cot x,cosecx

R   n : n  Z 
interval a,b if
10. R
a) f is continuous in  a,b  and ex

b) limf  x   f a  and
11. log x 0, 

xa
12. The inverse In their
c) lim f  x   f  b trigonometric respective
xb
functions, i.e., domains
Geometrical meaning of continuity : 1 1
sin x,cos x etc.
(i) Function f will be continuous at x=c if there
is no break in the graph of the function at the

point c,f  c  . 

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 Continuity of composite functions
Let f and g be real valued functions such that
1.
d
dx

sin 1 x  1
1  x2
 f o g  is defined at a. If g is continuous at a and f 1
is continuous at g(a), then  f o g  is continuous at
2.
d
dx

cos1 x  
1  x2
a.
3.
d
dx

tan1 x  
1
1  x2
Differentiability 1
f  x  h  f  x 
4.
d
dx

cot 1 x  
1  x2
The function defined by f   x   lim ,
 
h0 h d 1
wherever the limit exist, is defined to be the 5. sec 1 x  ,| x | 1
dx | x | x2  1
derivative of f at x. In other words, a function f is
1
differentiable at a point c in its domain if both
f c  h  f c
6.
d
dx

cosec 1 x   ,| x | 1
| x | x2  1
lim , called left hand derivative,
h0 h Exponential and logarithmic functions :
f c  h  f c
denoted by Lf   c  , and lim , called (i) The exponential function with positive base
h0 h b >1 is the function y  f  x   bx . Its domain
right hand derivative, denoted by Rf   c  , are finite
is R, the set of all real numbers and range is
and equal. the set of all positive real numbers.
(i) The function y  f x is said to be Exponential function with base 10 is called
the common exponential function and with
differentiable in an open interval (a,b) if it is base e is called the natural exponential
differentiable at every point of (a,b) function.
(ii) The function y  f x is said to be (ii) Let b > 1 be a real number. Then we say
differentiable in the closed interval [a,b] if logarithm of a to base b is x if bx  a.
R f   a  and L f   b  exist and f   x  exists for Logarithm of a to the base b is denoted by
every point of (a,b). log b a. If the base b  10, we say it is
common logarithm and if b=e, then we say it
(iii) Every differentiable function is continuous,
is natural logarithms. logx denotes the
but the converse is not true.
logarithm function to base e. The domain of
Algebra of derivatives
logarithm function is R  , the set of all
If u, v are functions of x, then positive real numbers and the range is the set
du  v  du dv of all real numbers.
(i)  
dx dx dx (iii) The properties of logarithmic function to any
base b > 1 are listed below:
d dv du
(ii)
dx
 uv   u dx  v dx 1. log b  xy   log b x  log b y
du dv x
v u 2. log b    log b x  log b y
d u dx dx
(iii)   y
dx  v  v2
3. log b x n  nlog b x
Chain rule is a rule to differentiate composition of
du log c x
functions. Let f= vou. If u  u  x  and both and 4. log b x  , where c >1
dx log c b
dv df dv du
exist then  . 1
du dx du dx 5. log b x 
log x b
Following are some of the standard derivatives (in
appropriate domains) 6. log b b  1 and log b 1  0

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 (iv) The derivative of e x w.r.t., x is e x , i.e. Chapter 6
APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
d x
dx
 
e  e x . The derivative of log x w.r.t, x is

1 d 1 Rate of change of quantities :

x
; i.e.
dx
 logx   .
x
Logarithmic differentiation is a powerful technique
d
For the function y  f  x  ,
dx

f  x  represents the 
to differentiate functions of the form rate of change of y with respect to x.
v x 

f  x   u x   , where both f and u need to be Tangents and normals :

positive functions for this technique to make sense. A line touching a curve y  f  x  at a point  x1 ,y 1 
Differentiation of a function with respect to another is called the tangent to the curve at that point and
function.  dy 
its equation is given y  y 1     x  x1  .
Let u  f  x  and v  g  x  be two functions of x,  dx  x1 ,y1 
then to find derivative of f(x) w.r.t. to g(x), i.e., to The normal to the curve is the line perpendicular to
du the tangent at the point of contact, and its equation
find , use the formula
dv is given as:
1
du
du dx
y  y1 
 dy 
 x  x1 
  dx 
dv dv   x1 ,y1 
dx
The angle of intersection between two curves is the
Second order derivative :
angle between the tangents to the curves at the
d dy d2y point of intersection.
 is called the second order derivative of
dx dx dx2 Approximation
y w.r.t.x. It is denoted by y  or y 2 , if y  f  x  .
f  x  x   f  x 
Since f   x   lim , we can say that
Rolle‟s Theorem : x0 x
Let f : a,b  R be continuous on [a,b] and f  x  x   f  x 
f   x  is approximately equal to
differentiable on (a,b), such that f  a   f  b  , where x

a and b are some real numbers. Then there exists at  approximate value of f  x  x   f  x   x f   x 
least one point c in (a,b) such that f   c   0. Increasing/decreasing functions :
Geometrically Rolle‟s theorem ensures that there is A continuous function in an interval  a,b  is:
at least one point on the curve y  f  x  at which (i) strictly increasing if for all
tangent is parallel to x-axis (abscissa of the point x1 ,x 2   a,b  ,x1  x 2  f  x1   f  x 2  or for all
lying in (a,b)).
x   a,b  ,f   x   0 .

Mean Value Theorem : (ii) strictly decreasing if for all

x1 ,x 2   a,b  ,x1  x 2  f  x1   f  x 2  or for all
Let f : a,b  R be a continuous function on [a,b]
and differentiable on (a,b). Then there exists at least x   a,b  ,f   x   0
f  b  f  a  Let f be a continuous function on a,b and
one point c in (a,b) such that f   c   .
ba differentiable in (a,b) then
Geometrically, Mean Value Theorem states that
(i) f is increasing in [a,b] if f   x   0 for each
there exists at least one point c in (a,b) such that the
tangent at the point (c,f(c)) is parallel to the secant x   a,b 
joining the points (a,f(a)) and (b,f(b)).
(ii) f is decreasing in [a,b] if f   x   0 for each
x   a,b 

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 (iii) f is a constant function in a,b if f   x   0 i) x  c is a point of local maxima if f   c   0
for each x   a,b  and f   c   0. In this case f  c  is the local
Maxima and minima : maximum value.
A point c in the interior of the domain of f, is called ii) x  c is a point of local minima if f   c   0
(i) local maxima, if there exists an h > 0, such
and f   c   0. In this case f(c) is the local
that f  c   f  x  , for all x in  c  h,c  h  .
minimum value
The value f  c  is called the local maximum
iii) The test fails if f   c   0 and f   c   0 . In
value of f.
this case, go back to first derivative test.
(ii) local minima if there exists an h  0 such that
Working rule for finding absolute maxima and or
f  c   f  x  , for all x in  c  h,c  h  . The value
absolute minima :
f  c  is called the local minimum of f.
Step 1: Find all the critical points of f in the given
A function f defined over [a,b] is said to have interval
maximum (or absolute maximum) at
Step 2: At all these points and at the end points of
x  c,c  a,b , if f  x   f  c  for all x  a,b  . the interval, calculate the values of f.
Similarly, a function f(x) defined over a,b is said Step 3: Identify the maximum and minimum
to have a minimum [ or absolute minimum] at values of f out of the values calculated in
step 2. The maximum value will be the
x  d, if f  x   f  d  for all x  a,b
absolute maximum value of f and the
Critical point of f : A point c in the domain of a minimum value will be the absolute
function f at which either f   c   0 or f is not minimum value of f.

differentiable is called a critical point of f.

Working rule for finding points of local maxima or Chapter 7
local minima: INTEGRALS
(a) First derivative test : Integrals :

i) If f   x  changes sign from positive to

d
Let F  x   f  x . Then, we write
dx
negative as x increases through c, then c is
a point of local maximum, and f(c) is local  f  x dx  F x   C. These integrals are called
maximum value. indefinite integrals or general integrals, C is called
a constant of integration. All these integrals differ
ii) If f   x  changes sign from negative to
by a constant.
positive as x increases through c, then c is
If two functions differ by a constant, they have the
a point of local minima, and f(c) is local
same derivative.
minimum value.
Geometrically, the statement
iii) If f  x  does not change sign as x
increases through c, then c is neither a
 f  x dx  F x   C  y say  represents a family of
curves. The different values of C correspond to
point of local minimum nor a point of
different members of this family and these
local maxima. Such a point is called a
members can be obtained by shifting any one of the
point of inflection.
curves parallel to itself. Further, the tangents to the
b) Second Derivative test: Let f be a function curves at the points of intersection of a line x=a
defined on an interval I and c I. Let f be with the curves are parallel.
twice differentiable at c. Then Some properties of indefinite integrals :
(i) The process of differentiation and integration
d
f  x  dx  f  x 
dx 
are inverse of each other,

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  f  x dx  f  x   C,
dx
and where C is any 9.  1x 2
 sin1 x  C
arbitrary constant.
dx
(ii) Two indefinite integrals with the same 10.  1  x2
  cos1 x  C
derivative lead to the same family of curves
and so they are equivalent. So if f and g are dx
two functions such that
11.  1 x 2
 tan1 x  C

d d
f  x  dx  g  x  dx,  f  x dx
dx
dx  dx  
then 12.   cot 1 x  C
1  x2
and  g  x dx are equivalent. 13. 
dx
 sec1 x  C
x x 1
2

(iii) The integral of the sum of two functions

dx
equals the sum of the integrals of the 14.  x x2  1
  cosec1 x  C
functions i.e.,

  f  x   g  x dx   f  x dx   g  x dx. 15.  ex dx  ex  C

1
(iv) A constant factor may be written either 16.  x
dx  log | x | C
before or after the integral sign, i.e.
ax
 af  x dx  a f  x dx, where „a‟ is a constant. 17.  a x dx 
loga
C

(v) Properties (iii) and (iv) can be generalised to

a finite number of functions f1 ,f2 ,...,fn and the
18.  cot xdx  log |sinx | C

real numbers, k1 ,k 2 ....,k n giving 19.  secxdx  log |secx  tanx | C

  k f  x   k f  x   ...  k f  x dx
1 1 2 2 n n
20.  cosecxdx  log |cosecx  cot x | C
dx 1 x a
 k1  f1  x  dx  k2  f2  x  dx  ...  kn  fn  x dx 21.   log C
x2  a2 2a xa
Methods of integration : dx 1 ax
There are some methods or techniques for finding
22.  a x
2 2
 log
2a ax
C
the integral where the antiderivative of function f
dx 1 x
cannot be selected by reducing them into standard 23.   tan1  C
x2  a2 a a
forms. Some of these methods are based on
dx
1. Integration by substitution 24.  x a
2 2
 log x  x2  a2  C
2. Integration using partial fractions dx x
3. Integration by parts 25.  a x
2 2
 sin1  C
a
Some Common Integrals dx
xn1 26.   log x  x2  a2  C
1.    C,n  1 x a
n 2 2
x dx
n 1
27. x 2 2 a2
2.  dx  x  C  x2  a2 dx 
2
x  a  log x  x2  a2  C
2
x 2 2 a2
28.  x2  a2 dx  x  a  log x  x2  a 2  C
3.  cosxdx  sinx  C 2 2
x 2 2 a2 x
4.  sinxdx   cosx  C 29.  a2  x2 dx 
2
a  x  sin1  C
2 a
5.  sec xdx  tanx  C ex f  x   f   x  dx  ex f  x   C
2
30. 
Integration by Substitution
6.  cosec xdx  cot x  C
2

 f  g  x  g x dx
7.  secxtanxdx  secx  C
  f  u  du
8.  cosecxcot xdx   cosecx  C

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 Integration by Partial Fractions
S. form of the Form of the partial
px  q  A
d
dx
 
ax 2  bx  c  B  A 2ax  b   B
No. rational function fraction To determine A and B, equate from both
1. px  q A B sides the coefficients of x and the constant
,a  b 
 x  a  x  b x  a x b terms. A and B are thus obtained and hence
the integral is rduced to one of the known
2. px  q A B
 forms.
x  a
2
x  a  x  a 2 4. For the evaluation of the integral of the type
 px  q dx , proceed as in (3) and transform
3. px2  qx  r A B C  ax2  bx  c
 
 x  a  x  b x  c  x a x b x c the integral into known standard forms.
4. px 2  qx  r A

B

C
Definite integral :
x  a  x  a 2 x  b
 x  a   x  b
2
b

5. px 2  qx  r A Bx  C
The definite integral is denoted by  f  x  dx, where
 , a
 x  a  x 2
 bx  c  x  a x 2  bx  c a is the lower limit of the integral and b is the
upper limit of the integral. The definite integral is
Where x  bx  c
2
cannot be factorised further
evaluated in the following two ways:
Integration by Parts (i) The definite integral as the limit of the sum
f  x g x dx dx
 f  x  g  x dx  f  x   g  x dx  
      
b

(ii)  f  x  dx  F  b  F a  ,
a
if F is an antiderivative
The integral of the product of two functions = (first
of f(x).
function )  (integral of the second function ) 
Integral of [(differential coefficient of the first The definite integral as the limit of the sum :
function)  (integral of the second function )]. b

The definite integral  f  x  dx

a
is the area bounded
Integrals Reducible to Standard Forms
dx by the curve y  f  x  , the ordinates x  a,x  b and
1. To find the integral  , we write
ax  bx  c
2
the x-axis and given by
 2 b c  b   c b2  
2 b

 f  x  dx   b  a  lim n f a   f a  h   ...f a   n  1 h 

1
ax  bx  c  a x  x    a  x      2  
2

 a a  2a   a 4a  
 a
n

 f  x  dx  limh f a   f a  h   ...  f a   n  1 h ,

b
Now, put x   t so that dx  dt and
2a h0
a
c b2
writing   k 2 . The integral is
a 4a2 ba
1 dt where h   0 as n  
reduced to the form  2 2 depending n
2 t k
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus :
 c b2 
upon the sign of   2  and hence can be (i) Area function : The function A(x) denotes the
 a 4a  x

evaluated. area function and is given by A  x    f  x  dx.

2. To find the integral of the type a

dx (ii) First Fundamental Theorem of integral Calculus:

 ax2  bx  c
, proceeding as in (1) obtain Let f be a continuous function on the closed
interval [a,b] and let A (x) be the area
the integral using the standard formulae.
function. Then A   x   f  x  for all x  a,b  .
3. To find the integral of the type
px  q
 ax2  bx  cdx, where p,q,a,b,c are (iii) Second Fundamental Theorem of Integral
constants find real numbers A, B such that Calculus :

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 Let f be continuous function defined on the b d

closed interval [a,b] and F be an antiderivtive Area   xdy     y  dy

of f. c c

b The area of the region enclosed between two

 f  x  dx  F  x   F  b  F a 
b

a curves y  f  x  ,y  g  x  and the lines x  a,x  b is

a

Some properties of Definite Integrals : given by the formula.

b b b
P0 :  f  x dx   f  t dt Area   f  x   g  x   dx, where f x gx in
a a a

a,b
b a
P1 :  f  x  dx    f  x  dx, in particular,
a b
If f  x   g  x  in a,c  and f x  gx in
a

 f  x dx  0
a
c,b ,a  c  b, then
c b
Area   f  x   g  x  dx   g  x   f  x   dx
b c b
P2 :  f  x  dx   f  x dx   f  x dx
a a c a c

b b
P3 :  f  x dx   f  a  b  x  dx
a a
Chapter 9
a a DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
P4 :  f  x dx   f  a  x  dx
0 0
2a a a
Differential Equations :
P5 :  f  x  dx   f  x  dx   f 2a  x  dx (i) An equation involving derivative
0 0 0 (derivatives) of the dependent variable with
 a respect to independent variable (variables) is
2 f  x dx, if f 2a  x   f  x  ,
P6 :  f  x  dx   0
2a
called a differential equation.
 0, if f 2a  x  f x . (ii) A differential equation involving derivatives
0
     of the dependent variable with respect to
a a
only one independent variable is called an
P7 :  i   f  x dx  2 f  x dx, if f is an even
ordinary differential equation and a
a 0
differential equation involving derivatives
function i.e. f   x   f  x 
with respect to more than one independent
a
variables is called a partial differential
(ii)  f  x dx  0,
a
if f is an odd function i.e., equation.
(iii) Order of a differential equation is the order
f   x   f  x  .
of the highest order derivative occurring in
the differential equation.
Chapter 8 (iv) Degree of a differential equation is defined if
APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS it is a polynomial equation in its derivatives.
(v) Degree (when defined) of a differential
Areas bounded by curves : equation is the highest power (positive
The area of the region bounded by the curve integer only) of the highest order derivative
y  f  x  , x-axis and the lines x  a and x  b  b  a  in it.
(vi) A relation between involved variables, which
is given by the formula:
satisfy the given differential equation is
b b
called its solution. The solution which
Area   ydx   f  x  dx
a a
contains as many arbitrary constants as the
order of the differential equation is called the
The area of the region bounded by the curve
general solution and the solution free from
x    y  ,y  axis and the lines y  c,y  d is given arbitrary constants is called particular
by the formula: solution.

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 (vii) To form a differential equation from a given
function, differentiate the function Chapter 10
successively as many times as the number of
VECTOR ALGEBRA
arbitrary constants in the given function and
then eliminate the arbitrary constants.
Vectors : A quantity that has magnitude as well as
(viii) The order of differential equation
direction is called a vector.
representing a family of curves is same as the 
number of arbitrary constants present in the The unit vector in the direction of a is given by

equation corresponding to the family of a
 and is represented by â.
curves. |a |
(ix) „Variable separable method‟ is used to solve Position vector of a point P  x,y ,z  is given as
such an equation in which variables can be 
separated completely, i.e., terms containing x OP  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ and its magnitude as
should remain with dx and terms containing 
|OP| x2  y2  z2 , where O is the origin.
y should remain with dy.
The scalar components of a vector are its direction
(x) A function F  x,y  is said to be
ratios, and represent its projections along the
homogeneous function of degree n if respective axes.
F  x, y    n F  x,y  for some non-zero The magnitude r, direction ratios (a,b,c) and
constant . direction cosines (l, m, n) of any vector are related
(xi) A differential equation which can be as:
dy a b c
expressed in the form  F  x,y  or  ,m  ,n  .
dx r r r
dx The sum of the vectors representing the three sides
 G  x,y  , where F (x,y) and G  x,y  are 
dy of a triangle taken in order is 0
homogeneous functions of degree zero, is The triangle law of vector addition states that “If
called a homogeneous differential equation. two vectors are represented by two sides of a
(xii) To solve a homogeneous differential triangle taken in order, then their sum or resultant
dy is given by the third side taken in opposite order”.
equation of the type  F  x,y  , make the
dx Scalar multiplication :
substitution y  vx and to solve a  
If a is a given vector and  a scalar, then  a is a
 
homogeneous differential equation of the vector whose magnitude is | a||  ||a|. The
dx  
type  G  x,y  , make the substitution direction of  a is same as that of a if  is positive
dy 
and, opposite to that of a if  is negative.
x  vy.
Vector joining two points :
(xiii) A differential equation of the form
If P1  x1 ,y 1 ,z1  and P2  x 2 ,y 2 ,z2  are any two points,
dy 
 Py  Q, where P and Q are constants or
dx then P1P2   x2  x1  ˆi   y2  y1  ˆj  z2  z1  kˆ
functions of x only is known as a first order 
x  x1    y 2  y 1    z2  z1 
2 2 2
liner differential equation. Solution of such a |P1P2 | 2
differential equation is given by
Section formula :
y  I.F.    Q  I.F.  dx  C, where IF  e
Pdx
The position vector of a point R dividing the line
(xiv) Another form of first order linear differential segment joining the points P and Q whose position
 
dx vectors are a and b
equation is  P1 x  Q1 , where P1 and Q1
dy
are constants or functions of y only. Solution
of such a differential equation is given by

x  I.F.   Q1  I.F dy  C, where I.F.  e

P1dy

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 (i) in the ratio m : n internally, is given by 2. If  , m, n are the direction cosines of a line,
 
mb  na then 2  m2  n2  1
mn 3. Direction cosines of a line joining two points
(ii) in the ratio m : n externally, is given by
 P  x 1 ,y 1 ,z1  and Q  x 2 ,y 2 ,z2  are

mb  na
mn x2  x1 y 2  y 1 z2  z1
, , ,
Projection : PQ PQ PQ


 a.b
x  x1    y 2  y 1    z2  z1 
2 2 2
Projection of a along b is  and the projection where PQ  2
| b|
  4. Direction ratios of a line are the numbers
   a.b 
vector of a along b is    b̂. which are proportional to the direction
 | b|  cosines of the line
Scalar or dot product : 5. If  , m, n are the direction cosines and a,b,c

The scalar or dot product of two given vectors a are the direction ratios of a line, then

and b having an angle  between them is defined 
a
;m 
b
;n 
c
as a b c
2 2 2
a b c
2 2 2
a  b2  c2
2

  
a.b |a || b| cos 
Vector or cross product : 6. Skew lines are lines in the space which are
  neither parallel nor intersecting. They lie in
The cross product of two vectors a and b having different planes.
angle  between them is given as
    7. Angle between skew lines is the angle
a  b |a || b| sin  n where n̂ is a unit vector
ˆ
 between two intersecting lines drawn from

perpendicular to the plane containing a and b any point (preferably through the origin)
 
and a,b,nˆ form a right handed system. parallel to each of the skew lines
 
If a  a1 ˆi  a 2 ˆj  a3kˆ and b  b1 ˆi  b2 ˆj  b3kˆ are two 8. If  1 ,m1 ,n1 and  2 ,m2 ,n2 are the direction
vectors and  is any scalar, then cosines of two lines and  is the acute angle
  between the two lines, then
a  b  a1  b1  ˆi  a2  b2  ˆj  a3  b3  kˆ
 cos    1 2  m1m2  n1n2
a   a1  ˆi   a2  ˆj   a3  kˆ
9. If a1 ,b1 ,c1 and a2 ,b2 ,c2 are the directions

a.b  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3 ratios of two lines and  is the acute angle
ˆi ˆj kˆ between the two lines, then
 
a  b  a1 b1 c1   b1c2  b2c1  iˆ   a2c1  a1c2  ˆj   a1b2  a2b1  kˆ a1a2  b1 b2  c1c2
a2 b2 c2 cos  
 a  a22  a32 . b12  b22  b32
2
1

Angle between two vectors a and b is given by
10. Vector equation of a line that passes through
 
a.b a1b1  a2b2  a3b3 the given point whose position vector is a
cos         
|a|| b| a1  a22  a32 b12  b22  b32
2 and parallel to a given vector b is r  a  b .
11. Equation of a line through a point  x 1 ,y 1 ,z1 
Chapter 11 and having directions cosines , m, n (or,
THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY direction ratios a, b and c) is
x  x 1 y  y 1 z  z1
  or
1. Direction cosines of a line are the cosines of  m n
the angles made by the line with positive  x  x 1 y  y 1 z  z1 
directions of the co-ordinate axes.    
 a b c 

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 12. The vector equation of a line that passes 20. The vector equation of a plane which is at a
through two points whose positions vectors distance p from the origin, where n̂ is the
  
 
   
are a and b is r  a   b  a . unit vector normal to the plane, is r.nˆ  p.

13. Cartesian equation of a line that passes 21. Equation of a plane which is at a distance p
from the origin with direction cosines of the
through two points  x 1 ,y 1 ,z1  and  x 2 ,y 2 ,z2 
normal to the plane as  , m, n is
is x  my  nz  p .
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 22. The equation of a plane through a point
  
x2  x1 y 2  y 1 z2  z1 whose position vector is a and
   
14. If  is the acute angle between the lines perpendicular to the vector n is  r  a  .n  0
       
r  a1  b1 and r  a2  b2 , then  is given or r.n  d, where d  a.n .
   
b1 .b2 b1 .b2 23. Equation of a plane perpendicular to a given
1
by cos     or   cos   line with direction ratios a,b,c and passing
b1 b2 b1 b2
through a given point  x1 ,y 1 ,z1  is

15. If
x  x1 y  y 1 z  z1
  and a  x  x1   b  y  y 1   c  z  z1  = 0.
1 m1 n1
24. Equation of a plane passing through three
x  x 2 y  y 2 z  z2
  are equations of two non-collinear points  x1 ,y 1 ,z1  ,  x 2 ,y 2 ,z2 
1 m2 n2
lines, then the acute angle  between the two and  x3 ,y 3 ,z3  is
lines is given by cos    1 2  m1m2  n1n2 . x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
16. The shortest distance between two skew lines x 2  x1 y2  y1 z 2  z1  0 .
is the length of the line segment x3  x1 y3  y1 z3  z1
perpendicular to both the lines
25. Vector equation of a plane that contains three
17. The shortest distance between the lines
      non-collinear points having position vectors
r  a1  b1 and r  a2  b2 is  
 
    
  

a,b,c is  r  a  .  b  a   c  a   0
 
 b  b .a
1 2 2

 a1 
26. Equation of a plane that cuts the co-ordinates
b1  b2
axes at  a,0,0  , 0,b,0  and  0,0,c  is
18. Shortest distance between the lines: x y z
  1
x  x1 y  y 1 z  z1 a b c
  and
a1 b1 c1 27. Vector equation of any plane that passes

x  x 2 y  y 2 z  z2 through the intersection of planes r.n1  d1
  is   
a2 b2 c2 and r.n2  d2 is  r.n1  d1     r.n 2  d2   0,
x 2  x1 y2  y1 z 2  z1 where  is any non-zero constant.
a1 b1 c1 28. Cartesian equation of any plane that passes
a2 b2 c2 through the intersection of two given planes
A1 x  B1 y  C1z  D1  0 and
b c  b2c1    c1a2  c2a1    a1 b2  a2b1 
2 2 2

A2 x  B2 y  C2z  D2  0 is
1 2

  
19. Distance between parallel lines r  a1  b  A x  B y  C z  D    A x  B y  C z  D   0
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2

        
and r  a2  b is 29. Two lines r = a 1 +  b1 and r  a2  b2 are
 
  
 

coplanar if  a2  a1 . b1  b2  0 
b   a 2  a1 

| b|

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 x  x1 y  y 1 z  z1 Infeasible Solutions : Any point outside feasible
30. Two lines   and region is called an infeasible solution.
a1 b1 c1
x  x2 y  y 2 z  z2 Optimal (feasible) Solution: Any point in the feasible
  are coplanar if region that gives the optimal value (maximum or
a2 b2 c2
minimum) of the objective function is called an
x 2  x1 y 2  y 1 z 2  z1 optimal solution.
a1 b1 c1 0 Following theorems are fundamental in solving
a2 b2 c2 LPPs.
31. In vector form, if  is the acute angle between Theorem 1 : Let R be the feasible region (convex
 
the two planes, r.n1  d1 and r.n2  d2 , then polygon) for an LPP and let Z  ax  by be the
  objective function. When Z has an optimal value
1
n1 .n2
  cos   (maximum or minimum), where x and y are subject
n1 . n 2
to constraints described by linear inequalities, this
   optimal value must occur at a corner point (vertex)
32. The acute angle  between the line r  a  b
 of the feasible region.
 b.n
and plane r.n  d is given by sin     Theorem 2 : Let R be the feasible region for a LPP
|b|.|n| and let Z  ax  by be the objective function. If R is
bounded, then the objective function Z has both a
maximum and a minimum value on R and each of
Chapter 12
these occur at a corner point of R.
LINEAR PROGRAMMING If the feasible region R is unbounded, then a
An Optimisation Problem : A problem which seeks maximum or a minimum value of the objective
to maximise or minimise a function is called an function may or may not exist. However, if it
optimisation problem. An optimisation problem exists, it must occur at a corner point of R.
may involve maximisation of profit, production etc Corner point method for solving a LPP : The method
or minimisation of cost, from available resources comprises of the following steps:
etc. i) Find the feasible region of the LPP and
A Linear Programming Problem (LPP) : determine its corner points (vertices) either
A linear programming problem deals with the by inspection or by solving the two equations
optimisation (maximisation/minimisation) of a of the lines intersecting at that point.
linear function of two variables (say x and y) ii) Evaluate the objective function Z  ax  by at
known as objective function subject to the each corner point.
conditions that the variables are non-negative and Let M and m, respectively denote the largest
satisfy a set of linear inequalities (called linear and smallest values of Z.
constraints). A linear programming problem is a iii) (i) When the feasible region is bounded, M
special type of optimisation problem. and m are, respectively, the maximum and
minimum values of Z.
Objective Function : Linear function Z  ax  by, (ii) In case, the feasible region is unbounded.
(a) M is the maximum value of Z, if the open
where and b are constants, which has to be
half plane determined by ax  by  M has no
maximised or minimised is called a linear objective
function. point in common with the feasible region.
Otherwise, Z has no maximum value.
Decision Variables : In the objective function (b) Similarly, m is the minimum of Z, if the
Z  ax  by,x and y are called decision variables. open half plane determined by ax  by  m
Constraints : The linear inequalities or restrictions has no point in common with the feasible
on the variables of an LPP are called constraints. region. Otherwise, Z has no minimum value.
The conditions x  0,y  0 are called non-negative Multiple optimal points : If two corner points of the
constraints. feasible region are optimal solutions of the same
Feasible Solutions : Points within and on the type, i.e., both produce the same maximum or
boundary of the feasible region for an LPP minimum, then any point on the line segment
represent feasible solutions. joining these two points is also an optimal solution
of the same type.

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 Chapter 13 P B  C   P B P C 
PROBABILITY
and P  A  B  C   P  A  P  B  P C 

Conditional Probability : If E and F are two events Partition of Sample Space : A set of events E1 ,E2 ,...,En
associated with the same sample space of a random is said to represent a partition of a sample space S
experiment, then the conditional probability of the if
event E under the condition that the event F has
a) Ei  Ej  ,i  j;i,j  1,2,3,...,n
occurred, written as P  E| F  , is given by
b) Ei  E2  ...  En  S, and
PE  F 
P  E| F   ,P  F   0 c) Ei  , i.e. P  Ei   0 for all i  1,2,...,n
PF 
Theorem of Total Probability :
Properties of Conditional Probability : Let E and F be
events associated with the sample space S of an Let E1 ,E2 ,...,En  be a partition of the sample space
experiment. Then: S. Let A be any event associated with S, then
(i) P  S| F   P  F | F   1
  
n
P A   P Ej A|Ej
(ii) P  A  B |F  P A|F   PB|F   P A  B|F  , j1

Baye‟s Theorem : If E1 ,E2 ,....En are mutually exclusive

where A and B are any two events
and exhaustive events associated with a sample
associated with S.
space, and A is any event of non zero probability,
(iii) P  E | F   1  P  E| F  then
Multiplication Theorem on Probability : Let E and F be P Ei  P A|Ei 
P Ei | A  
two events associated with a sample space of an n

experiment. Then P E P A|E 

i1
i i

P  E  F   P  E  P  F|E  ,P  E   0 Random Variable and its Probability Distribution

 P  F  P  E|F  ,P  F   0 A random variable is a real valued function whose
domain is the sample space of a random
If E, F and G are three events associated with a experiment.
sample space, then
The probability distribution of a random variable X
P  E  F  G   P  E  P  E|F  P G|E  F  is the system of numbers
Independent Events : X: x1 x2 …. xn
Let E and F be two events associated with a sample P(X): p1 p2 … pn
space S. If the probability of occurrence of one of
them is not affected by the occurrence of the other,
n
then we say that the two events are independent. where pi  0,i  1,2,...n, pi  1
Thus, two events E and F will be independent, if i1

a) P  F|E   P  F  , provided P  E   0 Mean and Variance of a random Variable :

Let X be a random variable assuming values
b) P  E|F   P  E  , provided P  F   0
x1 ,x2 ....,x n with probabilities p1 ,p2 ,..pn ,
Using the multiplication theorem on probability, n

we have respectively such that pi  0, pi  1. Mean of X,

i1

c) PE  F   PEPF  denoted by  [or expected value of X denoted by

E  X ] is defined as
Three events A, B and C are said to be mutually
independent if all the following conditions hold: n
  E X    x ipi
P A  B  P A PB i1

P  A  C   P  A  P C  and variance, denoted by 2 , is defined as

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 n n
2   x i    pi   x2i pi  2
2

i1 i1

or equivalently
2  E X  
2

Standard deviation of the random variable X is

defined as
n
variance  X   x    pi
2
i
i1

Bernoulli Trials :
Trials of a random experiment are called Bernoulli
trials, if they satisfy the following conditions.
i) There should be a finite number of trials
ii) The trials should be independent
iii) Each trial has exactly two outcomes: success
or failure
iv) The probability of success (or failure)
remains the same in each trial.
Binomial Distribution
A random variable X taking values 0,1,2,…,n is said
to have a binomial distribution with parameters n
and p, if its probability distribution is given by

P  X  r   nCr prq nr , where q=1-p and r=0, 1,2,..,n

Corrected 15/2/15

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