Theorem 1: Norton’s Theorem

Statement :

Norton’s Theorem states that a linear two terminal network can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit consisting of a current I N in parallel with a resistor RN , where

• RN is the equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent

sources are turned off

• I N is short circuit current through the terminals.

If the circuit consists of the dependent sources the Norton’s resistance has to
be found out as RN = Voc / Isc

There can be two types of problems,

1. To find the Norton’s equivalent circuit across the open circuit terminals

2. To find a voltage or a current in the circuit by Norton’s Theorem.

Problems:

P1. Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit across the terminals a-b
Solution:

Steps to find out the Norton’s Resistance RN :

Step 1: Turn off the independent sources

(open-circuit the current source and short-circuit the voltage source)

Step 2: Find the equivalent resistance looking into the open circuit terminals

RN= 12 x 4 / 12 + 4

RN = 3 Ω

Steps to find out the Norton’s Current I N (Short circuit current):

Step 1: Short circuit the open circuit terminals and mark the I SC as shown.

Step 2: Find the short circuit current by a suitable technique

By Node Analysis:

Applying KCL at node a :

Substituting Va = 0 V in the above equation implies

Isc= 9 A

Therefore the Norton’s equivalent circuit across terminals a-b is

P2. Find I 0 in the network shown, using Norton’s Theorem

Solution:

Step 1: Separate the branch through which I 0 is flowing

Step 2: Find the Norton’s equivalent network across the open circuit terminals

Step 3: Connect the branch separated, back to the Norton’s equivalent circuit to
find I 0

Step 1: Separate the branch through which I 0 is flowing

Step 2: Find the Norton’s equivalent network across the open circuit terminals a-b

Find the RN across the open circuit terminals a-b by short-circuiting12 V source

RN = [ (6 K || 2 K) + 3 K ] || 4 K

RN = 2.12 K Ω

Find the I SC or I N through terminals a-b by short-circuiting a-b as shown

By Mesh Analysis:

Mark i1, i2, i3 as shown

KVL to Mesh 1:

4Ki1+ 2K(i1 - i2 ) + 3K(i1 - i3) = 0

9K i1 – 2K i2 – 3K i3 = 0 ........Eq1

KVL to mesh 2:

-12 + 6K( i2 – i3 ) + 2K( i2 – i1)=0

-2K i1 + 8K i2 – 6K i3 = 12........Eq2

KVL to mesh 3:

3K (i3 – i1 ) + 6K (i3 – i2)=0

-3K i1 – 6K i2 + 9K i3 = 0.........Eq3

Solving Eq1, Eq2 and Eq3 we have,

i1= 3mA, i2=6mA, i3=5mA

Isc = i3 = 5mA

Therefore the Norton’s equivalent circuit across terminals a-b is

Step 3: Connect the branch separated, back to the Norton’s equivalent circuit to
find I 0
By Current Division Method

P3. Find the Norton’s Equivalent network across the terminals a-b

Solution:

Since the network consists of the dependent source (Dependant sources cannot
be turned off) the Norton’s resistance has to be found out as

RN = Voc / Isc

Step 1: To find out I SC ( I N )

Short Circuit the terminals a-b and mark I SC as shown

Va = Ia = 0

Since Va is connected to ground through short circuit terminals a-b Va=0.

Hence the circuit gets reduced to…

KVL: -12 + 6K i =0

i = 12/6K = 2 m A

I SC = i = 2 m A

Step 2: To find out VOC

KCL at node a:

2000 Ia + 7 Va =12

VOC = 4/3 V

Therefore RN = VOC / I SC = 667 Ω

Therefore Norton’s equivalent circuit across the terminals a-b is given by

 Theorem 2: Thevenin’s Theorem

Definition :
Thevenin’s Theorem states that a linear two terminal network can be
replaced by an equivalent network consisting of an Voltage VT in
series with a resistor RT , where

• RT is the equivalent resistance at the terminals when the

independent sources are turned off
• VT is open circuit voltage across the terminals.

If the circuit consists of the dependent sources the Norton’s

resistance has to be found out as RT = Voc / Isc

P1. Find V by Thevenin’s Theorem

o

Solution:

Step 1: Remove resistor 2K Ω from the circuit across which VO is

dropping
Step 2: Find the Thevenin’s network across the open circuit terminals a-
b
Step 3: Connect 2K Ω (Disconnected in Step 1) across the open circuit
terminals a-b and find VO.

Circuit can be visualized as,

Step 1: Remove resistor 2K Ω from the circuit across which VO is
dropping and mark terminals a-b

Step 2: Find the Thevenin’s network across the open circuit terminals a-
b

To find VOC:

Mark VOC across the open circuit terminals as shown:

Mark Mesh currents i a and i b:
By Observation:
Ia =4mA

Applying KVL to Mesh 1:

- 12 + 6K ( ia- ib )+ 3K ia = 0
9K ia - 6K ib = 12
Sub. I a = 4 mA,
Ib =4mA
To find Voc apply KVL along the dotted path:
- 3K I a – 4K I b + Voc = 0
Sub. I a and I b,
Voc= 28 V

To find RT :
Deactivate the independent sources

Ξ
RT = (6K || 3K) + 4K
R =6K
T
Ω
Therefore the Thevenini’s network is

Step 3: To find VO

Now connect 2 K Ω across a-b to find VO

KVL gives,
-28 + 6K i + 2K i = 0
i = 28/8K = 3.5 mA
Vo= 2K i1 = 7 V

P2. Find the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit across terminals a-b

Solution:

Since the dependant sources are involved R T is given by

R =V /I
T oc SC

Step 1: To find VOC

Applying KVL to LHS part:

-5 + 500 i + V ab = 0
500 i + V ab = 5

Applying KCL to RHS part:

10 i + V ab /25 = 0
250 i + V ab = 0
Solving equations we have
i = 0.02 A V =-5V
ab

V = V = -5 V
oc ab
 Step 2:To find I SC

Short circuit terminals a-b and mark I SC as shown

Mark Vab
Since Vab is connected to ground through a-b, Vab = 0

Since 25 Ω is in parallel with a short, 25 Ω is redundant

Therefore the circuit reduces to,

From LHS part, KVL gives

-5 + 500 i = 0
From RHS part,
I SC = - 10 i
and sub. i = 0.01 A

I = -0.1 A
SC
Therefore R T = V OC / I SC = -5 / -0.1

R = 50 Ω
T

Therefore the Thevenin’s network is,

P3. Find the Thevenin’s Equivalent network across terminals a-b

Solution:
Step1: To find Mark VOC (VT) across terminals a-b

Mark the branch currents i1 and i2 as shown

Applying KVL to mesh 1

-120 + 900 i1 + 600 i1 = 0

i1 = 0.08 A

Applying KVL to mesh 2

-120 + 1204 i2 + 800 i2 = 0

i2 = 0.05988 A

To find VOC:

Applying KVL along the pink path

- 900 i1 + 1204 i2 – VOC = 0

V = 0.095 V
OC

Step 2: To find RT

Turning off 120 V source

which can be visualized as

RT = (900 || 600) + (1204 || 800)

RT = 840.638 Ω

Therefore Thevenin’s network is

Summary:
1. Thevenin’s network is a Voltage in series with a resistor

2. Thevenin’s voltage is VOC across the terminals

3. Thevenin’s resitance and Norton’s resistance are the same.

4. Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent networks can be obtained by source

trensformatiom.

Theorem 3: Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

There are three cases to be considered in this

1. AC circuits with Impedance ( ZL ) as load

2. AC circuits with purely resistive load ( RL )

3. DC circuits with resistive load ( RL )

Conditions for Maximum Power Transfer :

where,

ZT = RT + j XT

ZL = RL + j XL
KVL to closed path:

-VT + ZT I + ZLI = 0

The average power delivered to the load is

Subtituting in equation in 1

For this P to be PMa x we can vary two parameters

– RL and XL in the load impedance.

Mathematically it can be done by differentiating P with respect to RL and XL

partially and equating it to zero respectively.

i.e,

Performing results in

This implies

From equations 3 and 4

If the Load ZL is purely resistive then

XL = 0 and ZL = RL

Substituting XL = 0 in 2

.................. 5

Equations 4 , 5 and 6 are the conditions for which the maximum power would
be transferred to the load.

Highlights:

1. AC circuits with Impedance (ZL ) as load

Pmax =| i |2 RL
2. AC circuits with Pure Resistive (RL ) load
Pmax =| i |2 RL
3. DC circuits with Resistor (RL ) as the load

Pmax = i2 RL
P1. Calculate the value of ZL for maximum power transfer and also calculate the
maximum power.

Solution:

Step1. Remove the Impedance ZL

Step2. Find the Thevenin’s equivalent network across the terminals a-b

Step3. Connect ZL=ZT* across the terminals a-b for the maximum power transfer.

Step4. Find Pma x = | I | 2 RL

Step1. Remove the Impedance ZL and mark terminals a-b

Step2. Find the Thevenin’s equivalent network across the terminals a-b.

To find Thevenin’s Impedance ZL:

Deactivating the independent sources we have,

ZT= 10 || (3 – j 4)

ZT= 2.97 – j 2.16 Ω

To find Thevenin’s Voltage VT or VOC:

KVL implies:

(3-j4) i + 20 +10 i = 0

i = -1.405 - j 0.432

KVL along the dotted path to find V OC:

- 10 i – 20 + 10∟45 + VOC = 0

Substituting i

VT = -1.121- j 1.391

= 11.44 ∟-95.62 V

Therefore Thevenin’s equivalent network is

Step3. Connect ZL=ZT* across the terminals a-b to find the maximum power
transfer.

KVL implies:

-11.44 ∟-95.62 + (2.9729)i + (2.9729)i = 0

i= -0.185 - j 1.916 A

i= 1.925 ∟-95.62 A

Step 4. To find Pma x

Pmax = | i | 2 RL

= (1.925)2 x 2.9729

Pmax = 11 Watts
P2. Calculate the value of RL for maximum power transfer and also calculate the
maximum power.
Solution:

Step1. Remove the Impedance ZL

Step2. Find the Thevenin’s equivalent network across the terminals a-b

Step3. Connect ZL=| Z | across the terminals a-b for the maximum power transfer.

Step4. Find Pma x = | I | 2 RL

From Step1 and Step2 (Refer P1), the Thevenin’s equivalent is

Step3. Connect RL=| Z |across the terminals a-b to find the maximum power
transfer.

RL = 3.675 Ω
KVL implies

-11.44 ∟-95.62 + (2.97 – j 2.16) i + 3.675 i = 0

i = 1.6377 ∟-77.62 A

Step 4. To find Pmax

Pmax = | i | 2 RL
2
= (1.6377) x 3.675

Pmax = 9.85 W

P3. Find the RL across the load for which maximum power will be transferred to
the load and hence find the maximum power
Solution:

Step 1: Remove the resistor RL and mark terminals a-b as shown

Step 2: Find the Thevenin’s network across the terminals a-b

To find VOC:

By observation:

i1 = 10 A
KVL to mesh 2:

-20 + 3 i2 = 0

i2 = 20/3 A

- 3i2 – 6i1 + VOC = 0

KVL along the dotted path

VOC = 6 i1 + 3 i2

Substituting i1 and i2

VT= VOC= 80 V

To find RT:

which can be visualized as

Since 3 Ω is in parallel with the short, it is redundant.

Therefore RT= 6 Ω
Therefore Thevenin’s network is

Step 3: To find Pmax

Connect RL = RT across the terminals a-b

KVL implies:
- 80 + 6 i +6 i = 0

i = 20/3 A

Pmax = i2 RL = (20/3)2 x 6 = 266.66 W

Summary:

1. Maximum power transfer theorem is the extention of Thevenin’s theorem.

2. The coditions for Maximum power to be transferred to the load are

i) For AC circuits if load is impedance then Z L=ZT*

ii)For AC circuits if load is purely resistive then RL=| ZT |

iii)For DC circuits RL=RT

3. Power is always a real entity and therefore for power calculations always
real part of ZL (i.e.,RL) is used.
Theorem 4: Superposition Theorem
Statement:

In any Linear circuit containing multiple independent sources, a current or a

voltage at any point in the circuit can be calculated as algebraic sum of Individual
contributions of each source when acting alone.

Problems:

P1. Find io by Super position theorem.

Solution:

Let i0 = i01 + i02

where,

i01 is the contribution of 6 V source when acting alone and

i02 is the contribution of 4mA source when acting alone

Steps:

Step 1 : To find io1 which is the contribution of 6 V acting alone

Deactivating the 4mA source the circuit becomes

Applying KVL to mesh 1:

12K ia + 12K (ia – ib ) + 6 = 0

24K ia - 12K ib = -6 ......................Eq1

Applying KVL to mesh 2:

12K (ib - ia ) + 12K ib + 12K ib - 6 = 0

-12K ia + 36K ib = 6................Eq2

Solving equations Eq1 and Eq2,

ia = -0.2 mA

ib = 0.1 mA

io1 = ia - ib = - 0.3 mA
Step 2 : To find io2 which is the contribution of 4mA source acting alone

Deactivating the 6 V source the circuit becomes

Constraint equation:

i3 – i2 = 4mA

Applying KVL to mesh 1:

12K i1 + 12K (i1 – i2) = 0

24K i1 - 12K i2 = 0

Applying KVL to Supermesh:

12K( i2 – i1) + 12K i2 + 12K i3 = 0

–12K i1+ 24K i2 + 12K i3 = 0

Applying KVL to mesh 1:

12K i1 + 12K (i1 – i2) = 0

24K i1 - 12K i2 = 0

Solving equations 1, 2 and 3

i1 = -0.8 mA; i2 = -1.6 mA; i3 = 2.4mA

io2 = i1 - i2 = 0.8 mA

Step 3 : To find io

By Super Position Theorem,

i0 = i01 + i02
io= -0.3m + 0.8m

io = 0.5 m A

P2. Find Vo by Super position theorem.

Solution:

Let V0 = V01 + V02 + V03

where,

V01 is the contribution of 12V source when acting alone

V02 is the contribution of 6V source when acting alone

V03 is the contribution of 2mA source when acting alone

Step 1: To find Vo1

Deactivate 6V and 2mA sources

KVL to mesh2:

2K ib + 2K ib =0

ib = 0

Vo1 = - 2K ib = 0V

Step 2: To find Vo2

Deactivate 12V and 2mA sources

KVL to mesh2:

2K iy + 6 +2K iy =0

iY = -1.5mA

VO2= - 2K iY = 3 V

Step 3: To find Vo3

Deactivate 12V and 6V sources

i1 = i2 = 1mA

VO3 = 2K i1 = 2V
Step 4:

By Super position Theorem

V0 = V01 + V02 + V03

V0 = 0 + 3 + 2

V0 = 5 V
P3. Find i by Super position theorem.

Solution:

Let i = i1 + i2

where,

i1 is the contribution of 24V source when acting alone

i2 is the contribution of 7A source when acting alone

The dependant voltage source cannot be deactivated - keep it as it is.

Step 1: To find i1

Deactivate 7A source
Applying KVL:

-24 + 3 i1+ 2 i1+ 3 i1= 0

i1= 3 A

Step 2: To find i2

Deactivate 24V source

Constraint equation:

-iX + iY = 7A

KVL to Supermesh:

3 iX + 2 iY + 3 i2 =0

Sub. i2 = iX

3 iX + 2 iY + 3 iX=0

6 iX + 2 iY =0

Solving the equations

-iX + iY = 7A
6 iX + 2 iY =0

Implies,

iX = -1.75 A and iY =5.25A

i2 = ix = -1.75A

Step 3:

By Super position Theorem

i = i1 + i2

i = 3 – 1.75

i = 1.25 A
Summary:

1. Superposition theorem is applicable to circuits with multiple independent

sources only.
2. Dependant sources can be present.
3. At a time only one independent source should be acting, which gives its
individual contribution.
4. Algebraic summation of the individual contributions gives the actual
current/voltage in a circuit.
5. It is as good as cutting down complex problems into simpler ones.
Theorem 5: Reciprocity Theorem
Statement:

In any Linear Bilateral single source circuit, the ratio of Excitation to Response is constant when
the positions of Excitation and Response are interchanged.

Problems:

P1. Find VX and verify Reciprocity theorem.

Solution:

Step 1: To find the response VX

Mark the branch currents i 1 and i2

By current Division Rule:

Therefore VX is given by,

Step 2: Interchange the Excitation and Response

To find VX1 :

By Observation:

KVL to Mesh1:
(5+j5) i1 +2 i1 – j2 (i1-i2) = 0
Sub.
KVL along the dotted path:
- VX1 – (5+j5) i1=0

Since VX = VX1, Reciprocity Theorem is Verified .

P2. Find I and verify Reciprocity theorem.

Solution:

Step 1: To find the response I

KCL at node 1:
3V1 – V2=20 ........Eq1

KCL at node 2:

-V1 + 4V2=0 .......Eq2

Solving equations 1 and 2
V1=7.27 V ; V2=1.8181V

Step 2: To find the response II

Interchange the positions of Excitation and Response
KCL at node 1:

3V1 – V2=0 -----------Eq A

KCL at node 2:

-V1 +4V2=40 ............Eq B

Solving equations 1 and 2
V1=3.6363 V ; V2=10.9V

Since I = II, Reciprocity Theorem is Verified.

P3. Find The current through the ammeter and verify
Reciprocity theorem.

Solution:
Step 1: To find the Ammeter current

KVL at mesh 1:

5 i1 + 1 (i1-i2) + 10 (i1-i3) = 0

KVL at mesh 2:

1 (i2-i1)+ 5 i2 + 20 (i2-i3) = 0
KVL at mesh 3:

10 (i3-i1)+ 20 (i3-i2)- 50 = 0

Which give,

16 i1 - i2 + 10 i3 = 0

- i1 + 26 i2 - 20 i3 = 0

- 10 i1 - 20 i2 + 30 i3 = 50

Solving the above for i1, i2 and i3

i1 = 4.59 A , i2 = 5.4098 A and i3 = 6.8 A

I A = i2 – i = 0.8 A Flowing upwards

I
Step 2: To find the response IA

Interchange the positions of Excitation and Response

KVL at mesh 1:

5 ia + 50 + 10 (ia-ic) = 0

KVL at mesh 2:

-50 + 5 ib + 20 (ib-ic) = 0

KVL at mesh 3:

10 (ic-ia)+ 20 (ic-ib)+ 1 ic = 0

Which give

15 ia - 10 ic = -50

25 ib - 20 ic = 50

- 10 ia - 20 ib + 31 ic = 0
Solving the above for ia, ib and ic

ia = -2.8 A , ib = 2.64 A and ic = 0.8 A

I’A = ic = 0.8 A
I
Since IA = I A, Reciprocity Theorem is Verified

Theorem 6: Millman’s Theorem

Statement:

If ‘n’ generators of EMFs E1,E2,….En with internal impedances Z1, Z2,…Zn are
connected in parallel then the EMFs and the impedances can be combined to give
a single EMF E with internal Impedance Z, where

and

Proof:
Note that Z1, Z2……Zn are the internal impedances

Consider,

KCL at node E:

Since all the internal impedances are in parallel,

Problems:

P1. Find the current through 10 Ω by Millman’sTheorem.

Step 1: Remove 10Ω and mark terminals a-b

Step 2: To find E and Z
Therefore by Millman’s Theorem

Step 3: To find i through 10 Ω

Connect 10 Ω across terminals a-b

KVL:

- 10.125 + 1.875 i +10 i = 0

P2. Find R such that the maximum Power delivered to the load is 3mW

Solution:
Step 1: Remove RL and mark the terminals a-b

Step 2: Using Millman’s Theorem obtain one generator of emf E and internal
impedance Z across a-b

To find E:
To find Z:

Therefore by Maximum Power Transfer Theorem, for Maximum Power to be

transferred to the load in DC circuits RL = RT
Applying KVL:

To find R for Pma x = 3mW

Therefore 1KΩ Resistor has to be connected as the load resistor for maximum
power of 3mW to be delivered to the load.