COMPUTER NETWORKS

UNIT-1

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UNIT I
Introduction: OSI, TCP/IP and other Networks models,
Examples of Networks: Novell Networks, Arpanet,
Internet, Network Topologies WAN, LAN, MAN
Physical Layer: Transmission media, magnetic media,
twisted pair, coaxial cable, fiber optics, wireless
transmissions.

UNIT II
Data link layer: Design issues in data link layer: Logical
Link layer, Logical Link control,framing, flow control,
Protocol-stop and wait, Sliding, Error detection and
correction, CRC, HDLC, ATM.

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UNIT III
Medium Access sub layer: ALOHA, MAC addresses,
carrier sense multiple access, ISDN, IEEE 802 X, Standard
Ethernet, Wireless LANS, Bridges.

UNIT IV
Network Layer: Virtual circuit and Datagram subnets-
Routing algorithm: Shortest path routing, Flooding,
Hierarchical routing, Broad cast, Multi cast, distance vector
routing

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UNIT V
Congestion Control and Algorithm: General Principles of
Congestion, Congestion Prevention Policies.
Internetworking: The Network layer in the Internet and in the ATM
Networks.

UNIT VI
Transport Layer: Transport Services, Connection management,
TCP and UDP protocols; ATM AAM Protocol layer.
Application Layer: Network Threats, confidentiality, authenticity,
DES and RSA algorithms.
Domain name system, Electronic Mail, WWW, Multimedia.

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Computer Networks Text books

 TEXT BOOKS :
 1. Computer Networks — Andrew S Tanenbaum,4th Edition.
Pearson Education/PHI
 2. Data Communications and Networking – Behrouz A.
Forouzan. Third Edition TMH.

 REFERENCES:
 1. An Engineering Approach to Computer Networks-
S.Keshav,2nd Edition, Pearson Education
 2.Understanding communications and Networks,3rd Edition,
W.A.Shay,

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INTRODUCTION:
 Communication: Sharing Information
 This sharing can be Local or Remote
 Local Communication occurs face to face
 Remote communication takes place over a distance
 Communication System has Five Components:

Rule1:
Rule1: Rule 2:
Rule 2: ….
…. Rule n:
Rule n:
Message
Sender Receiver
Medium
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INTRODUCTION:
 Message: The Message is the information to be
communicated
 Information includes text,numbers,pictures,audio
and video
 Sender: The Sender is the Device that sends the
data message
 It can be a computer ,workstation, telephone.
 Receiver: The Receiver is the Device that
Receives the data message
 It can be a computer ,workstation, telephone.

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Introduction:

 Medium :It is the physical path by which a message

travels from sender to reciever
 Examples: Twisted-pair, coaxial cable, fiber optics

 Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern data

communications.
 It represents an agreement between the communicating
Devices
 with out a protocol two devices may be connected but not
communicating

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Transmission Media:
 Data Flow: Communication between two devices can be
Simplex, Half-duplex or Full-duplex.

 Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is

unidirectional. Only one of the two devices on a link can
transmit, the other only can receive.
 Example: The Keyboard only introduce input. The
monitor can only accept output.

Keyboard monitor

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Transmission Media:
 Half-Duplex: Each station can both transmit and receive but
not at the same time
 when one device is sending ,the other can only receive, and

vice versa.

Direction of data at time 1

station station
Direction of data at time 2

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Transmission Media:
 Full –Duplex: Both Stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously.
Example: The Telephone Network
When two people are communicating by a telephone line,
both can talk and listen at the same time.

Direction of data all the time

station station

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Physical Structures:
 A Network is two or more devices connected through links
 A link is a communication path way that transfers data from
one device to another
 There are two possible types of connections:
 point–to–point
 multipoint

 point–to–point: It provides a dedicated link between two

devices
 multipoint: It is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link

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Physical Structures:
point–to–point:
Link
station station

Multipoint:

station station

server
station

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Types of Networks
 2 Types of Networks:
 Peer- to – Peer Networks

 Client-server Networks

 Peer- to – Peer Networks: In a peer-to-peer, each computer

holds its files and resources

 Client –server Networks: For accessing files and resources the

user should have administrative rights
 Security

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Topology:
 Two or more devices connected to a link
 Two or more links form a topology
 Categories of Topology:


Topology

Mesh star Bus Ring

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 Mesh Topology
 Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device.
 The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only
between two devices it connects.

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Mesh Topology
 Advantages:
 Dedicated link guarantees that each connection can
carry its own data load, eliminating traffic
problems.
 security: When every message travels along a

dedicated line ,only the intended recipient sees it

 Disadvantages:
 Amount of cabling and No of I/O ports required.

 Bulk of wiring.

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Star Topology:

 In a star topology each device has a dedicated point to point

link only to a central controller called a Hub
 The devices are not directly linked to one another.
 It does not allow direct traffic between devices

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Star Topology:

 Not similar with mesh topology, If one device wants to send

data to another, it sends data to the controller ,which then
relays the data to the other connected device.
 Advantages:
 Less expensive

 Less I/O ports needed

 Robustness: If one link fails only that link is affected.

 Disadvantages:
 The dependency of the whole topology on one single point,
the hub. If the Hub goes down the whole system is dead.

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Bus Topology:
 A Bus Topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a
backbone to link all the devices in a network


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Bus Topology:
 Advantages:
 Ease of installation.
 Less cabling than mesh or star topologies.
 Disadvantages:
 A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at
installation ,then it is difficult to add new devices.
 A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission ,even
between devices on the same side of the problem.

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Ring Topology:

 Each device has a dedicated point to point connection with

only the two devices on either side of it.
 A signal is passed along the ring in one direction

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Ring Topology
 Advantages:
 Easy to install and reconfigure
 Easy to add or delete a device

 Disadvantage:
 Unidirectional traffic

 A break in the cable, it can disable the entire network.

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Network hardware
 Transmission technology
 Broadcast networks:
 Have a single communication channel that is shared by all the
machines on the network.
 Smaller networks.

 Point-to-Point networks:
 Consists of many connections between individual pairs of machines.
 Routing algorithms play an important role.
 Larger networks.

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Network Hardware

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LAN (Local Area Networks)
 LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of
up to a few miles in size.
 To connect personal computers and workstations in company offices and
factories to share resources (e.g. printers) and exchange information.
 LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three
characteristics: 1) their size, 2) their transmission technology, and 3) their
topology.
 Restricted in size
 Use a transmission technology consisting of a single cable to which all the
machines are attached, like the telephone company party lines once used in
rural areas.
 Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps, have low delay (tens of
microseconds), and make very few errors.

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Local Area Networks

 Two broadcast networks

 (a) Bus
 (b) Ring

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LAN (Local Area Networks)

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Metropolitan Area Networks:
 It is a bigger version of LAN
 Ex: Local Cable Television Network.
 It supports 802.6( IEEE standard) called DQDB
(Distributed Queue Dual Bus)
 DQDB consists of two unidirectional buses(cables) to
which all computers are connected.
 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that
interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic
area or region larger than that covered by even a large local
area network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered by a
wide area network (WAN).
 city-10km

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Metropolitan Area Networks

 A metropolitan area network based on cable TV.

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Wide Area Network
 Network spread geographically ( country or across
globe) is called WAN.
 WAN contain hosts these are connected by a
communication subnet.
 The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to
host.
 Ex: The telephone system carries words from speaker
to listener.
 Relation between hosts and the subnet
 Country : 100 km and 1,000 km

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 Definition of Router and Subnet

 Router: A router is a device that forwards data packets

along networks. A router is connected to at least
two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN
and its ISP's network. Routers are located at gateways,
the places where two or more networks connect.

 Subnet: If the network contains only routers, then it is a

subnet. Ex: gray area shown in previous slide

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Definition of Switch, Hub & Host
 Switch: In networks, a device that filters and
forwards packets between LAN segments. Switches operate at the
data link layer (layer 2) and sometimes the network layer (layer 3) of
the OSI Reference Model and therefore support any packet protocol.
LANs that use switches to join segments are called switched LANs
or, in the case of Ethernet networks, switched Ethernet LANs.

 Hub: A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are

commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains
multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the
other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.

 Host : A host is a computer that is connected to a network. The

term usually refers to a computer that is connected to a TCP/IP
network, including the Internet. Each host on such a network has a
unique IP address.
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A stream of packets from sender to
receiver

Point to point, store-and-forward, or packet-switched

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Wide Area Network

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 Internetworks: 10,000km
 Internetworks
 A collection of interconnected networks is called an
internetwork or internet.

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Point-to-Point Topologies

STAR RING TREE

complete Intersecting rings Irregular

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Wireless networks

 Wireless network refers to any type of computer

network that is wireless, whose interconnections
between nodes is implemented without the use of
wires .
 Wireless telecommunications networks are
generally implemented with some type of remote
information transmission system that uses
electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves .

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Network Software: Protocol Hierarchies

Layers, protocols, and interfaces.

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 Data Transfer
•No data is transferred directly from one machine to
another on that layer – the layers can only talk to the
ones above or below them on their host.

•A message from layer 5 will have to travel to layer

1, move across the physical medium, and then back
up to layer 5 on the different machine.

•Layer 1 is the only layer able to move data from one

machine to another, through the physical medium.

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 Network Architecture

•The Interface defines which primitive operations

and services the lower layers offers to the upper ones.

•A set of layers and protocols is called a network

architecture.

•A list of protocols used by a system (with one

protocol per layer) is called a protocol stack.

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Protocol Hierarchies (2)

 Example information flow supporting virtual communication in

layer 5.

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Layered Architecture (Review 1/2)

 Networks organized as a stack of layers?

 The purpose of a layer is to offer services to the layer
above it using an interface (programming language
analogy: libraries hide details while providing a
service)
 Reduces design complexity

 Protocols: peer-to-peer layer-n conversations

 Data Transfer: each layer passes data & control
information to the layer below; eventually physical
medium is reached.

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Review (2/2)

 A set of layers & protocols is called a Network

Architecture. These specifications enable
hardware/software developers to build systems compliant
with a particular architecture.
 E.g., TCP/IP, OSI

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Services to Protocols Relationship
 The relationship between a service and a protocol.

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Services to Protocols Relationship
 A service is a set of primitives that a layer provides to the layer
above it.
 A service relates to an interface between two layers, with the
lower layer being the service provider and the upper layer
being the service user.
 Service only defines what operations the layer can be
performed, it doesn’t say how operations are implemented.
 A protocol is a set of rules that governing the format and
meaning of the frames, packets, or messages that are
exchanged by the peer entities within a layer.
 Protocols are packets sent between peer entities on different
machines.
 Implementation of the service is not visible to the user of the service. 47
The OSI Reference Model

 This is the ―International Standards Organization Open

Systems Interconnection Reference Model‖, or the ISO
OSI Reference Model. .
 OSI model deals with connecting open systems.
 i.e. systems that are open for communication with other
systems.
 The OSI model has seven layers.
 Each layer should perform well defined function.

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The OSI Reference Model
Principles
 A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.
 Each layer should perform a well defined function.
 The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.
 The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow
across the interfaces.
 The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need
not be thrown together in the same layer out of necessity, and small enough
that the architecture does not become unwieldy.

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 Reference Models

The OSI
reference
model.

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Physical layer:
 It helps in the transmission of data between two machines that
are communicating through a physical medium.

 Streams of bits (Eg: 00010101000100)

 It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional

specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the
physical link between end systems (i.e. voltage levels, timing
of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission
distances, physical connectors).

 Makes sure that when one side sends a 1 bit ,the other side
receives it as a 1.

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Physical layer:

Simplified: Signals and media.

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Data link layer
 May divide upper layer packet into multiple frames.
 Frame boundaries.
 May introduce sequence numbers & acknowledgements.
 Some mechanism for error control and flow control( fast
transmitter from drowning a slow receiver) .
 Can be connection-oriented or connectionless
 Node to Node Delivery
 Retransmission: The packet is retransmitted if the source
fails to receive acknowledgement.
 If a line can be used to transmit data in both directions
(ack frames for A to B traffic compete with data frames for the B to A
traffic (Piggybacking))

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 Data link layer-Hop by Hop

Data Data Data Data

1 2 3 4 5
ACK/ ACK/ ACK/ ACK/
NAK NAK NAK NAK

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Data link layer

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Data link layer

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Network Layer

 Network layer is designed to facilitate

communication between systems across a
communication network
 It controls the operation of the subnet.
 Data divides into packets.
 Implements network routing and message delivery
through networks to the correct destination.
 It facilitates congestion control and provides quality
of service ( delay, transit time, etc).
 Routing: It deals with determining how packets will
be routed from source to destination
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Network Layer

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Differences between Lower and Upper Layers

 In the Lower layers from 1 to 3, the protocols are between

each machine and its immediate neighbors, not between
ultimate Source and Destination.

 In the Upper layers from 4 through 7, the protocols are

between end-to-end machines i.e., between source and
destination as shown in OSI Model architecture.

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Transport Layer
 Basic function is to accept data from above layers
and split up into small units , then pass these to the
Network layer and see that all arrive in the same
order at the other end.
 It also determines what type of service to be
provided to the session Layer.
 Port number (addressing)
 Segmentation(Data split into smaller unit)
 Flow and Error control
 End-to-End delivery (across networks)

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Transport Layer

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Transport Layer

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 Session Layer:
 Session layer establishes, manages, and ends the connections or
sessions b/w the applications on the communicating computers.
For ex: Web conf application has to maintain separate sessions
for each user participating in the conference . The server runs
one conference application , but tracks each session individually.
 It offers Dialogue control ( keeping track of whose turn it is to
transmit), Token management ( preventing two parties from
attempting the same critical operation at the same time).
 Synchronization :Session introduces checkpoints at various
places so that in case the connection is broken , it re-establishes
the connection and data transformation continued to the
database.
 It ensures that the data transfer starts from where it breaks.

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Session Layer:

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Presentation Layer:
 It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted (i.e. Data compression and cryptography is frequently required
for privacy and authentication).

 Encoding data in a standard, agreed upon way. Most user programs do not
exchange binary bits strings, they exchange things such as people's names,
dates, amounts of money, and invoices. These items are represented as
character strings, integers, floating point numbers, and data structures
composed of several simpler items.

 Specify details such as how data should be encoded, compressed, or

encrypted. For ex: text can be encoded as ASCII, graphics can be encoded
using standard format jpeg…
 Simplified: Common data format.

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Presentation Layer

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Application layer:
 It provides network services to the user's applications (i. e.
spreadsheet programs, word processing programs and drawing
programs).
 Closest to user.
 Provide services to applications outside the OSI model. It does
not provide services to any other OSI layer
 It adds all higher level protocols to given message
 HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol
 SMTP: Simple mail transfer protocol
 FTP: File Transfer Protocol
 POP: post office protocol
 Simplified: Browsers
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OSI REFERENCE MODEL

Message APDU
Application
Presentation Header
Data PPDU

Session Header
Data SPDU

TPDU
Transport Header
Data

Network Header
Data Packet

Data Link Header

Data Trailer Frame

Physical Data Bit/Byte Stream

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Summary:
What is a mnemonic device to help remember the OSI model 7
layers?
All People Seem To Need Data Processing

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Tcp / IP Reference model:

OSI TCP / IP
Application (Layer7)

Presentation (Layer6) Application

Session (Layer 5)

Transport (Layer 4) Transport

Network (Layer 3) Internet

Data Link (Layer 2)

Host-to-Network sub layer
Physical (Layer 1)

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Tcp / IP Reference model:
Application Layer:
This layer contains all of the higher-level protocols
TELNET (Virtual Terminal) – It allows a user on one
machine to log into distinct machine and work there.
DNS service must translate the name into the
corresponding
IP address…..Ex: www.example.com(198.105.232.4)
Mapping host name onto this network address
FTP
SMTP
POP
HTTP
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Transport Layer
Just like the OSI transport layer.
 There are two protocols defined for this:
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

 reliable, connection-oriented
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

 unreliable, connectionless

 TCP and UDP introduces the concept of ports

HTTP :80
SMTP :25
POP :110
FTP :21 and 20
TELNET :23

 By specifying ports numbers the data multiplexing is achieved.

 Multiplexing allows multiple network connections to take place
simultaneously
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Transport Layer

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Transport Layer:ACK

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Tcp / IP Reference model:

Internet Layer
 Routes data between hosts
 Connectionless
 Every packet routed independently

 Does not guarantee reliable or in-sequence delivery

 The internet layer defines an official packet format called

Internet Protocol (IP).
 The job of the Internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they
are supposed to go.
 The TCP/IP internet layer is similar in functionality to the OSI
network layer.

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Packet switching and circuit switching:
 Packet switching :
 Messages are divided into packets before they are sent
 Each packet is then transmitted individually and can even
follow different routes to its destination.
 Once all the packets forming a message arrive at the
destination, they are recompiled into the original message.
 Circuit switching:
 It is normal telephone service, is based on a circuit-
switching technology, in which a dedicated line is allocated
for transmission between two parties.
 Circuit-switching is ideal when data must be transmitted
quickly and must arrive in the same order in which it's sent.
This is the case with most real-time data, such as live audio
and video.

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Tcp / IP Reference model:

 Host-to-Network Layer
 Host has to connect to the network using some
protocol to send IP packets to it.
 Varies from host to host and network to network.
 Packaged in frames
 Has a Frame header that includes address and control
information
 Has a frame trailer that is used for error detection.
 Access the communication network

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Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model initially

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TCP/IP Model overview

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TCP/IP Model overview

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 The differences between the TCP/IP and
OSI models.
 OSI model clearly defined the distinction between services,
interfaces and protocols, where the TCP/IP model does not.
 This fits in nicely with OO programming concepts as the layer hide
information.
 Protocols can easily be replaced in the OSI model, but not in the
TCP/IP model.
 OSI reference model was devised before the protocols were invented.
With the TCP/IP the reverse was true the protocols came first, and the
model was really just a description of the existing protocols.

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 The Differences (cont’d)
 The OSI model has no biases for protocols, but the OSI
model was overly general and did not help with the creation
of new protocols.
 OSI model has seven layers and the TCP/IP has four layers.
 OSI supports connectionless and connection-oriented in the
network layer, but TCP/IP supports only connectionless in
the network layer.
 OSI supports only connection-oriented in the transport
layer, but TCP/IP supports both in the transport layer, giving
user a choice.

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Novell Netware:
• The most popular network system in the pc world.
• Novell Netware is based on the client-server model
• Novell Network also looks like TCP/IP reference model.

SAP File server ……. Application

Transport
NCP SPX
IPX Network
Ethernet Token ring ARC net Data link
Ethernet Token ring ARC net Physical
Novell Netware:
• SAP: Service Advertising protocol
• Before a client can communicate with a server it
must know what servers are available on the
network. This information available through SAP.
• The servers are File servers, Database servers,
Remote servers.
• SPX: Sequential Packet Exchange
• It is a Transport layer protocol providing packet
delivery services (only transport).
Novell Netware:
• NCP: Network core protocol ( heart of the
Netware)
• Connection-oriented Transport protocol
• other services: Finding errors
Flow control
Segmentation
• IPX: Internet Protocol Exchange (unreliable
connectionless protocol) that delivers packets across
the internet. IPX is functionally similar to IP,except
that it uses 10-byte address instead of 4-byte address.
 Novell Netware:
• Bytes
2 2 1 1 12 12
Check Packet Transp Packet Destina Source Data
sum length ort type tion address
control address

Used to mark various control packets

How many networks the packet has traversed
How long the entire packet is
Error-checking scheme
Novell Netware:
• Ethernet: A standard method for connecting
computers to a LAN using coaxial cable
– 10mbps/100mbps speed
• ARCnet:It is another type of LAN technology
that uses Token Bus scheme.
• Token Ring: Used in LAN.
• collection of individual Point-to-point links that
happen to form a circle.
 ARPANET
• The ARPANET was designed in the 1960s for the US
Defense Department, as it could stand circuit-
switched telephone networks as they were too
vulnerable, so they develop new bombproof,
distributed packet-switching network technology. It
got its name from the provider of the funds, the
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA).
• The subnet would consist of minicomputers called
IMPs (Interface Message Processors) Connected by
transmission lines .For higher reliability ,each IMP
would be connected to at least two other IMPs.
ARPANET

• The subnet was to be a datagram subnet, so if some

lines and IMPs were destroyed, messages could be
automatically rerouted along alternative paths.
• Each node of the network was to consist of an IMP
and a host, in the same room connected by a small
wire.
• A host could send messages of up to 8063 bits to its
IMP, which would then break these into packets of
size 1008 bits forward the independently to
destination.
ARPANET
The software was split into two parts ,Subnet and
host. The subnet software consisted of the IMP end
of the host-IMP connection ,the IMP-IMP protocol,
and a source IMP to destination IMP protocol
designed to improve reliability.