APPLICATION OF GIS

Contents:

1. Mapping
2. Accident and Hotspot analysis
3. Application of GIS in Urban Planning
4. Application of GIS in Transportation Planning
5. Application of GIS in Environmental Impact Analysis
6. Application of GIS in Disaster Management and Mitigation
7. Determination of land use/land cover changes
8. GIS based Digital Taxation
9. Land Management Systems
10. Application of GIS in Traffic Density Studies
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1. Introduction:

The majority of the world’s population now resides in urban environments and information on
the internal composition and dynamics of these environments is essential to enable maintenance
of certain standards of living. The availability of urban land cover data is critical to policy
makers, particularly for town planners, because of their ability to monitor impact of planning
policies, the direction of urban growth and the development progress. Urban land cover in large
urban center including metropolitan areas continually changes over time and space, and local
government must be able to update their database to reflect current land use. However,
conventional methods of obtaining urban land cover data require a great deal of time, effort and
money to meet fast growing cities. Remote sensing can provide an important source of data for
urban land use/land cover mapping and environmental monitoring (Patkar, 2003). Urban land
cover/use mapping has received an increasing amount of attention from urban planners and
scientists including geographers. A numbers of significant studies were made for environmental
quality management. Thus, various techniques have been applied for mapping urban land
use/land cover. It helps in encroaching urban problems even of very small magnitude and dire.
Planning is a widely accepted way to handle complex problems of resource allocation and
decision-making. It involves use of collective intelligence and foresight to chart direction, order
harmony and make progress in public activities relating to human environment and overall
development. In order to provide more effective and meaningful direction for better planning and
development necessary support of the organization has become essential. Hence the need for a
suitable information system is increasingly being felt in all planning and developmental
activities, whether these are for urban or rural areas. Urban areas of today are more exactly
described as sprawling regions that become interconnected in a dendritic fashion (Carlson and
Arthur, 2000). The positive aspects of urbanization have often been overshadowed by
deterioration in the physical environment and quality of life caused by the widening gap between
supply and demand for basic services and infrastructure.

Urbanization is inevitable, when pressure on land is high, agriculture incomes is low and
population increases are excessive, as is the case of most developing countries of the world.
Urbanization has been both one of the principal manifestation as well as an engine of change.
The 21st century is the century of urban transition for human society. In a way urbanization is
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desirable for human development. However, uncontrolled urbanization has been responsible for
several problems, our cities facing today, resulting in substandard living environment, acute
problems of drinking water, noise and air pollution, disposal of waste, traffic congestion etc. To
minimize these environmental degradations in and around cities, the technological development
in related fields have to address to these problems caused by rapid urbanization, only then the
fruits of development will percolate to the most deprived ones. The modern technology of
remote sensing which includes both aerial as well as satellite based systems, allow us to collect
physical data rather easily, with speed and on repetitive basis, and together with GIS helps us to
analyze the data spatially, offering possibilities of generating various options (modeling), thereby
optimizing the whole planning process. These information systems also offer interpretation of
physical data with other socio-economic data, and thereby providing an important linkage in the
total planning process and making it more effective and meaningful. Therefore, it is essential to
know intensively about the characteristics and capabilities of these remote sensing data products
available to the urban and regional planners.

2. Remote sensing and GIS applications in urban planning:

In India, the complexity of urban development is so dramatic that it demands immediate

attention and perspective physical planning of the cities and towns (Sokhi and Rashid, 1999).
The dynamic nature of urban environmental necessitates both macro and micro level analysis.
Therefore, it is necessary for policy makers to integrate remote sensing with urban planning and
management. Traditional approaches and technique designed for towns and cities may prove to
be inadequate tools when dealing with metropolis. New approaches are required, and new
methods must be incorporated into current practice. Until recently, maps and land survey records
from 1960 to 70 were used for urban studies, but now the trend has shifted to use digital,
multispectral images acquired by EOS and other sensors. The trend towards using remotely
sensed data in urban studies began with first-generation satellite sensors such as Landsat MSS
and was given impetus by a number of second generation satellites: Landsat TM, ETM+ and
SPOT. The recent advent of a third generation of very high spatial resolution (5m/pixel) satellite
sensors is stimulating. The high resolution PAN and LISS III merged data may be used together
effectively for urban applications. Data from IRS P-6 satellites with sensors on board especially
LISS IV Mono and Multispectral (MX) with 5.8 m/pixel spatial resolution is very useful for
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intensive urban studies. Advancement in technology of remote sensing has brought miracle in
the availability of the higher resolution satellite imageries. They are IRS-P6 Resourcesat imagery
with 5.8 m resolution in multispectral mode, IRS-1D Pan image with 5.8 m resolution, Cartosat-I
imagery of 2.5 m resolution with stereo capabilities, Cartosat-II with 1 m, IKONOS imageries of
Space Imaging with 4 m in multispectral mode and 1 m in panchromatic mode, Quickbird
imagery of Digital Globe with 61 cm resolution in panchromatic mode and so on. These high
resolutions of the sensors provide a new methodology in the application with newly raised
technical restrictions. Apart from cartographic applications, IRS-1D LISS IV (P-6) data will be
of great use in cadastral mapping and updating terrain visualization, generation of a national
topographic database, utilities planning and other GIS applications needed for urban areas. The
satellite will provide cadastral level information up to a 1:5,000 scale, and will be useful for
making 2-5 m contour map (NRSA, 2005). The output of a remote sensing system is usually an
image representing the scene being observed. Many further steps of digital image processing and
modeling are required in order to extract relevant information from the image. Suitable
techniques are to be adopted for a given theme, depending on the requirement of the specific
problem. Since remote sensing may not provide all the information needed for a full fledged
assessment, many other spatial attributes from various sources are needed to be integrated with
remote sensing data. This integration of spatial data and their combined analysis is performed
through GIS technique. It is a computer assisted system for capture, storage, retrieval, analysis
and display of spatial data and nonspatial attribute data. The data can be derived from alternative
sources such as survey data, geographical/topographical/aerial maps or archived data. Data can
be in the form of locational data (such as latitudes/longitudes) or tabular (attribute) data. GIS
techniques are playing significant role in facilitating integration of multi-layer spatial
information with statistical attribute data to arrive at alternate developmental scenarios.

Application of Remote Sensing technology may lead to innovation in the planning process in
various ways:

(i) Digitization of planning base maps and various layout plans has facilitated updating of base
maps wherever changes have taken place in terms of land development etc. Digital maps provide
flexibility as digital maps are scale free. Superimposition of any two digital maps which are on
two different scales is feasible. This capability of digital maps facilitates insertion of fresh survey
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or modified maps into existing base maps. Similarly superimposition of revenue maps on base
maps with reasonable accuracy is of great advantage compared to manually done jobs.

(ii) Since information and maps are available in digital format, correlating various layers of
information about a feature from satellite imagery, planning maps and revenue maps is feasible
with the help of image processing software like ERDAS Imagine, ENVI and PCI Geomatica,
ILWIS. Such super imposed maps in GIS software like Map info, Arc View, Auto CAD Map
and Arc GIS etc. provide valuable information for planning, implementation and management of
urban areas.

(iii) Remote Sensing techniques are extremely useful for change detection analysis and selection
of sites for specific facilities, such as hospital, restaurants, solid waste disposal and industry. An
attempt has been made here to demonstrate the potentials of remote sensing techniques in base
mapping, land use and land cover mapping, urban change detection and mapping, urban
infrastructure and utilities mapping, urban population estimation, management etc.

3. Remote Sensing Data in Urban Studies

Aerial photographs have long been employed as a tool in urban analysis. In India, city planning
has been largely confined to aerial photography. It is being used for generation of base maps and
other thematic maps for urban areas as it is proved to be cost and time effective and reliable.
Wealth of information pertaining to land features, land use, built up areas, city structure, physical
aspects of environment etc. are available from the aerial photography. Various types of cameras
and sensors black and white, color, color infrared are used for aerial photography. Because of
security concerns related to aerial photography, the use of photogrammetric techniques was
confined to smaller cities. Aerial photographs provide information that can significantly improve
the effectiveness of city and town planning and management in India. They are also relatively
low in cost, accurate, reliable and can be obtained on desired scale, But they are not useful in
large metropolitan areas. India is very much dependent on photogrammetry for providing
information for urban planning purposes. But since March 17, 1988 with the launch of its first
satellite (IRS-1A) equipped with LISS-I sensor acquiring 72.5 m/pixel data, the application of
remotely sensed data (from various sensors) in urban and regional planning processes has gained
momentum. LISS-I gathered data in four spectral bands (0.45 µm - 0.86 µm) was mainly used
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for broad land use, land cover, and urban sprawl mapping. The IRS-1C and 1D satellites
launched in 2003, carrying LISS-III and LISS-IV sensor with spatial resolutions of 23.5 m/pixel
and 5.8 m/pixel using Landsat MSS optical bands (0.52 µm- 0.86 µm), have contributed to the
effectiveness of urban planning and management. Early experiments with the first generation
satellites found the data very useful for mapping large urban parcels and urban extensions. The
development of Landsat TM data with 30 m/pixel spatial resolution has helped in mapping
Level-II urban land use classes. Some of the salient features of different satellite sensors and the
extractable levels of urban information are summarized in Table 1. Cities and towns in India
exhibit complex land use patterns, with the size of urban parcels varying frequently within very
short distance. The extraction of urban information from remotely sensed data therefore requires
higher spatial resolution. The overwhelming advantages of remote sensing methods over tactile
methods based on ground survey are the consistency which can be ensured in at least one stage
of data collection, the rapidity of survey and the small number of skilled workers required at the
data collection stage: it is possible, in principle at least. Unlike the preceding data sources, the
direct use of satellite imagery ensures that a minimum of interpretation has been carried out by
others. If the imagery is being collected especially for the purpose of the survey, the client will
be able to specify time and environmental conditions which are best for his purposes, such as
midday in winter conditions. For obtaining accurate land use data the following points should be
considered:

(i) Characteristics of imagery: scale of the photography, geometric fidelity, contrast, sharpness,
resolving power of film etc., waveband(s) used, photographic or digital format

(ii) Characteristics of land use: consistency of the relationship between form and function,
degree of multiple use, the amount of ground control, change since imagery was obtained

(iii) Characteristics of user : interpretation skill, use of stereoscopic techniques etc.

4. Main Requirements for Urban Planners

Apart from topographical mapping, planners also look forward to remote sensing (data products)
technology to provide them information on existing landuse and their periodic updating and
monitoring. In addition, with appropriate technique and methodology the same data products can
be used to:
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• Study urban growth/sprawl and trend of growth

• Updating and monitoring using repetitive coverage

• Study of urban morphology, population estimation and other physical aspects of urban
environment

• Space use surveys in city centers

• Slum detection, monitoring and updating

• Study of transportation system and important aspects both in static and dynamic mode

• Site suitability and catchments area analysis

• Study of open/vacant space

High spatial resolution satellite data are highly beneficial in the context of complex urban areas
where relatively small size and complex spatial patterns of the component scene elements (e.g.
buildings, roads and intra-urban open space) have restricted the use of the low-resolution space
borne sensors. These new images thus increase the amount of information attainable on urban
form at local level.

5. Urban Land Use Classification Criteria

Classification is, therefore, an activity of sub-dividing a group of objects in two or more groups,
i.e. to arrange objects into classes according to some system or principle. This can be based on
activity, economic function, physical appearance, or simple land cover. The guidelines could be:
i) The classification system should be applicable over a large area covering both city core and its
surroundings.

ii) Classification should be suitable for using remotely sensed data obtained at different time
periods

iii) The minimum interpretation accuracy and reliability in the identification of land use should
be about 85 percent subject to level of classification of different land uses.

iv) The nomenclature, definition and framework to the extent possible should be compatible
with existing terminologies adopted in planning agencies.
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v) Classification should be easier to understand and flexible.

v) Aggregation of similar or multiple land use classes should be possible at different levels of
requirement.

vi) The classes must be mutually exclusive, i.e. any geographical individual can only fall into
one class.

vii) Wherever possible, it must be based upon quantitative criteria

6. Problems and Issues

When remote sensing is used data many problems arise during interpretation of different urban
land use/land cover features, in which cloud patches on satellite data is important one. Another
problem in remote sensing data depending upon urban building size and spectral contrast with
the surrounding area is that some buildings in urban area may be identified, while others may
not. On the other hand, while individual houses cannot be always being identified, groups of
houses and city blocks can often be delineated and, in many instances, interpreted in satellite
images. In this context, urban remote sensing must be able to provide planners with certain key,
data sets that are pertinent to urban studies, notably:

(i) The location and extent of urban areas;

(ii) The nature and spatial distribution of different land use categories within urban areas;

(iii) The primary transportation networks and related infrastructure;

(iv) Census related statistics and socio-economic indicators;

(v) The 3-D structure of urban areas for telecommunications (inter-visibility) and environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) studies; and

(vi) The ability to monitor changes in these features over time and space.

The following urban issues are analyzed by using this technology:

Urban Land Use Inventory: It is quite natural that population growth increases the pressure on
the land, and the non-urban land is converted into urban areas. Population growth and city
expansion ultimately influence the land use pattern of any urban center. Knowledge of the
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patterns and intensity of land use is relevant in urban planning, but the preparation of a land use
inventory by conventional method is expensive and time consuming. The advantage of satellite
imagery interpretation in terms of accuracy, timeliness and cost is indisputable in comparison to
conventional methods.

Study of Urban Sprawl and Growth Trends: Since satellite based remote sensing systems
have unique capability to provide repetitive coverage for any pay of the world this makes it most
suitable for monitoring and updating of urban expansion by using very high resolution multi-
temporal remote sensing data especially for town and country planning.

Space Use in the Core Area: From the monitoring point of view of city area, information about
land use only may not be sufficient for city administrators and planners in congested core areas.
The true picture may only be visualized from available information on actual space use. Space,
however defined, has a location, and data necessarily refer to a point in time. In the absence of
suitable large scale maps for such detailed studies, the principal use of very high resolution
IKONOS satellite data provide a base for the survey/ recording of various activities in the field.
The rest were confirmed/ picked up during the field visit. Quantitative determination of space
use allows in understanding the distribution pattern of various activities and functional
characteristics within urban fabric, which is useful for quantifying the stress on existing
infrastructure.

Travel Route Pattern: Physical infrastructure of an urban centre comprises of transportation,

water supply, electric power supply, sewage etc. The transportation system is one of the keys to
rapid modernization, particularly in developing countries. Irrespective of whether roads act as a
catalyst for development or play a more passive role in development, it is necessary to work out
a judicious plan so as to avoid congestion, pollution and cost. The main objective of this type of
studies using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques is to make network analysis of tourist places
considering two factors: time and cost. This type of study provides a methodology for analyzing
the optimum transportation network of tourist cities, and can be very helpful when planning for
other cities also.

Urban Environment Analysis: Green spaces in cities exist mainly as semi-natural areas,
managed parks and gardens, supplemented by scattered vegetated pockets associated with roads
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and incidental locations. Embodying the garden city concept advocated by Ebenezer Howard
(1898) and the large urban park idea expounded by Frederick Law Olmsted in the US (Wilson,
1989), public green spaces have been increasingly designated in cities since the 1880s to
counteract environmental impacts of urban expansion and intensification. Plants notably trees,
have a wide range of environmental benefits, and urban green spaces often accommodate varied
assemblages of flora and small animals, providing readily accessible site with natural
ingredients.

The role of remote sensing in the case of green / open spaces mapping and analysis has become
important for managing, and maintenance of old and degraded spaces. However, in a number of
cases remote sensing can supplement or partially replace tedious ground survey methods.
Moreover, ground methods have limitations as whole area may not be accessed in one go and
information collected may not be as accurate as possible through remote sensing, aided by
limited ground survey. Remote sensing not only provides spatial data but also allows us to
compare temporal variations in spatial data, which is essential for green/open spaces
management.

Site Suitability Analysis:

A number of workers have identified various criteria including soils, hydrology, topography,
vegetation, climate, existing built up areas, transportation route etc. to find out suitable sites for
location of development activities. The most commonly technique for suitability analysis is
weighted suitability method. Weighted suitability is more complex; in order not to bias the
weighting the aspect scales should first be normalized that is used in the same numerical range.
The frequently used scale is in a 1-5 range:

5. Very good (much more than average)

4. Fairly good (more than average)

3. Good (average)

2. Fairly bad (less than average)

1. Very bad (much less than average)

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Such a scale can accommodate qualitative and quantitative data, but the scoring of quantitative
data to such a scale needs qualified professionals. The next step is assigning the weight factors.
This is, of course, the critical element in this approach. Weight factors are often based on a
mixture of implicit knowledge, personal experience and individual values that is usually called
"professional judgment".

Social Infrastructure: In most Indian cities, the municipal bodies have primary responsibility to
cater to the basic needs of the citizen by providing required essential services and infrastructure
facilities. But during the last century, cities throughout the developing world have seen an
extraordinary increase in their population size, which has put tremendous strain on the delivery
of the basic infrastructure services. A major concern of municipalities in developing countries is
the limited access to urban services of larger parts of the city population. Equitable distribution
is becoming the center of concern in planning the infrastructure facilities. There is an urgent need
to solve this problem of unbalanced distribution of infrastructure services. The social
infrastructure facilities basically include banks, post-office, schools, medical facilities, etc. For
each facility the proposed indicators are: (a) Number of facility/Total population of the ward, (b)
Number of facility/Total area of the ward.
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Conclusion:

Remote Sensing and GIS is capable of extracting urban land cover information with robust
results. Satellite remote sensing with repetitive and synoptic viewing capabilities, as well as
multispectral capabilities, is a powerful tool for mapping and monitoring the ecological changes
in the urban core and in the peripheral land use planning, will help to reduce unplanned urban
sprawl and the associated loss of natural surrounding and biodiversity. On the other hand,
moving further, interfacing of urban planning models with GIS should now receive due attention.
Incorporation of land use transportation models, network analysis, and simulation of urban
activities to evaluate different urban development alternatives in the GIS framework needs to be
explored for added advantage. Land use planning, community facilities planning, transport
planning, and environmental planning all can benefit from this information. Rapid development
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in city poses several challenges including problems associated with urbanization for urban
managers and policy makers. Meeting these challenges requires access to timely and reliable
information.