HAWAIIAN HEALING CENTER:

A WEAVING OF NEURO-ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURAL PRACTICES

A DARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FUFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF ARCHITECTURE

MAY 2015

By

MAYRA RUIZ ARELLANO

DArch Committee:

Joyce M. Noe, Chairperson

Geoffrey Lewis
William Chapman

Keywords: Architecture, Neuroscience, Neuro-architecture, Healing

 © 2015
Mayra Ruiz Arellano
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to thank my parents, Luis and Silvia for their unwavering
support throughout this journey and my sister and brother, Karina and Luis Jr. for their
constant encouragement. I would also like to thank my partner in crime Jandi, without
your support and antics I would have lost my marbles. Finally my committee, thank you
for your guidance and belief in me.

ii
 ABSTRACT

Architectural design and neuroscience at first glance may appear to be two

seemingly different fields but for centuries intuitively, architects have been designing

based on the principles of neuroscience. Architects through trial and error have gained

knowledge of specific architectural elements and the potential these elements have to

affect the user. Recently this intuition has been coined “neuro-architecture”. With the

advancement of technology neuroscientist can accurately conclude how the human

body will react to specific architectural stimuli. The proposal is focused on encouraging

and furthering the symbiotic relationship between architecture and neuroscience in an

attempt to promote architectural design that moves and elevates the human condition.

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the findings of neuroscience and

promote their implementation into architectural design, creating a deeper

understanding of how the human body relates to architectural surroundings. The

methodology assumed closely follows the research typologies used in evidence-based

design. The first is a literature review of the findings in neuroscience research and their

application to architectural design. Second is an understanding of the anatomy of the

body, the senses, and neurobiology as this is the basis in determining the body’s primal

reaction to architectural stimuli. The final step of the process will be to create a

prototypical design in which research findings bridged and reinforce the connection

between neuroscience and architecture, resulting in a design that potentially has the

ability to elevate the human experience.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................. ii  

ABSTRACT ........................................ iii  

LIST OF FIGURES .................................. vi  

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .......................... 1  

Project Statement ....................................... 1  

CHAPTER 2. NEUROSCIENCE AND ARCHITECTURE ......... 3  

Emerging Field .......................................... 3  
What is Neuro-architecture? ............................. 4  
Developments ............................................ 4  
Applications ............................................ 8  
Memory and Alzheimer, Elderly ........................... 8  
Work Environments ...................................... 10  
Sacred Places .......................................... 13  

CHAPTER 3. PERCEPTION ........................... 16  

Memory ................................................. 16  
Encoding ............................................... 17  
Memory Storage ......................................... 18  
Memory Recall .......................................... 18  
Relation to Architecture ............................... 19  
Memory and Sense of Place .............................. 19  
Emotions ............................................... 21  
Mechanism .............................................. 24  

CHAPTER 4. VISUAL SPACE ......................... 30  

Light .................................................. 31  
Light + Architecture ................................... 32  
iv
CHAPTER 5. TACTILE SPACE ........................ 38  
Relation to Architecture ............................... 40  
Case Studies ........................................... 43  
Salk Institute, La Jolla, California ................... 48  

CHAPTER 6. WAI‘ANAE ............................. 53  

History ................................................ 53  
Traditional Hawaiian Healing ........................... 57  

CHAPTER 7. NEURO-ARCHITECTURE AND TRADITIONAL

CULTURAL PRACTICES ............................... 63  
Nature ................................................. 63  
Water .................................................. 64  
Touch .................................................. 65  

CHAPTER 8. DESIGN ............................... 67  

Site Selection ......................................... 67  
Design ................................................. 80  

CONCLUSION ...................................... 113  

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................... 115  

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Distribution of Neurosemantics ........... 5  

Figure 2 Trezevant Terrace Site Plan ............. 10  
Figure 3 Basilica of Assisi ...................... 11  
Figure 4 Salk Institute Courtyard ................ 11  
Figure 5 Salk Institute Walkway .................. 12  
Figure 6 Thorncrown Chapel ....................... 13  
Figure 7 Thorncrown Chapel Structure ............. 14  
Figure 8 Desmet Model of Emotion ................. 25  
Figure 9 Therme Vals ............................. 27  
Figure 10 Vinex Neighborhood ..................... 28  
Figure 11 Circus Zandvoort, Soetera .............. 28  
Figure 12 Circus Zandvoort, Soetera .............. 29  
Figure 13 Vision and the Brain ................... 31  
Figure 14 Black and White Diagram ................ 32  
Figure 15 Light and Shadow Variations ............ 33  
Figure 16 Skin Diagram ........................... 39  
Figure 17 Children Playing on Holocaust Memorial . 41  
Figure 18 Walkway at Holocaust Museum ............ 42  
Figure 19 Punahou School Map ..................... 43  
Figure 20 Thurston Chapel Pond ................... 44  
Figure 21 Thurston Chapel Courtyard .............. 45  
Figure 22 Thurston Chapel Stained Glass Window ... 46  
Figure 23 Thurston Chapel Exterior ............... 47  
Figure 24 Salk Institute Courtyard ............... 48  

vi
Figure 25 Salk Institute Construction ............ 49  
Figure 26 Salk Institute View Corridor Diagram ... 50  
Figure 27 Salk Institute Corridor Shadows ........ 51  
Figure 28 Salk Institute Corridor Shadows ........ 52  
Figure 29 Homeless Camp in Wai‘anae .............. 55  
Figure 30 Homeless Camp in Wai‘anae .............. 56  
Figure 31 Hawaiian Triangle of Life .............. 58  
Figure 32 Sharing of Ha or the Breath of Life
through Honi Ihu ................................. 66  
Figure 33 Map of Oahu ............................ 68  
Figure 34 Students working at Ma‘o Organic Farms . 69  
Figure 35 Hawaii Fisherman ....................... 70  
Figure 36 Wai‘anae Valley Homestead Housing ...... 71  
Figure 37 Fences Seperating Properties ........... 72  
Figure 38 Home Riddled with Vehicles ............. 73  
Figure 39 Example of Newer Homes ................. 73  
Figure 40 Example of Plantation Style Home ....... 74  
Figure 41 House Boarded up by DHHL ............... 74  
Figure 42 Homes of Kai Wai‘anae Homestead ........ 75  
Figure 43 Homes in Kai Wai‘anae Homestead ........ 76  
Figure 44 Collage of Kahuman Complex ............. 78  
Figure 45 Wa‘anae Boundary Map ................... 79  
Figure 46 Kahumana Site Plan ..................... 81  
Figure 47 Kahumana Private | Public Relationship . 82  
Figure 48 Kahumana | Design Site Plan ............ 83  
Figure 49 Design Concept ......................... 85  

vii
Figure 50 Site Plan | Silence Center ............. 87  
Figure 51 Silence Center Render .................. 88  
Figure 52 Site Plan | Ho‘ponopono ................ 90  
Figure 53 Ho‘oponopono Renders ................... 91  
Figure 54 Site Plan | Ho‘oponopono Meditation .... 93  
Figure 55 Ho‘oponopono Meditation Area Renders ... 94  
Figure 56 Site Plan | Services Center ............ 96  
Figure 57 Service Center Renders ................. 97  
Figure 58 Site Plan | Meditation Grotto |
Meditation Platform .............................. 99  
Figure 59 Meditation Grotto Render .............. 100  
Figure 60 Meditation Platform Render ............ 101  
Figure 61 Site Plan | Community Center .......... 103  
Figure 62 Community Center Renders .............. 104  
Figure 63 Site Plan | Visitor Center ............ 106  
Figure 64 Native Hawaiian and Medicinal Plants .. 107  
Figure 65 Visitor Center Renders ................ 108  
Figure 66 Site Plan | Rest Area A | Rest Area B . 110  
Figure 67 Rest Area A Renders ................... 111  
Figure 68 Rest Area B Renders ................... 112  

viii
i
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Project Statement

The goal is to incorporate the findings of neuroscience into an architectural

design. The design should be one that enhances the human conditions in respect to
health, social interactions, and knowledge.

The story of how Jonas Salk and his cure for polio captivated my attention since
my early architectural education. I was deeply fascinated with his story of how early in
his career, when he was still struggling to find a cure for polio; Salk retreated to Umbria,
Italy, to the monastery at the Basilica of Assisi. Salk would insist, for the rest of his life,
that something about this place—the design and the environment in which he found
himself—helped to clear his obstructed mind, inspiring the solution that led to his
famous polio vaccine. I thought to myself “How can architecture have such a deep
influence on person and their emotions?” and “How can we, as architects, understand
this idea and apply it to our designs to create architecture which is not mundane but
rather purposeful and meaningful?”

The best way to approach the project is to research and understand the findings of
neuroscience in relation to architecture and the case studies in which these findings
implemented. An understanding of the various architectural spaces which have been to
evoke inspiration or a sense of enlightenment and the key features that promote such
reactions is also important. The design process begins with the understanding of the
different stimuli, which contribute to a heightened sense of enlightenment.

The goal of this thesis is to display the integration of two seemingly unrelated
fields, architecture and neuroscience, and how this integration can lead to more
meaningful architecture, which is not mundane and provides more than simply a
structure for housing varying functions. If successful, I believe this could contribute to
the existing knowledge in the field of architecture by providing a new way of
1
approaching design and understanding of how architecture affects us on a
psychological level. The integration of these two fields is important because we as
architects are responsible for creating spaces that will influence mankind.

2
 CHAPTER 2. NEUROSCIENCE AND ARCHITECTURE

Emerging Field

Architecture and neuroscience have always been two vastly disparate

disciplines, yet they share a common background. There has been a rich history of
interest in both the field of architecture and that of the sciences. There was Imhotep
(2655-2600 BC), the famous Egyptian considered by many to be the first architect,
doctor, and engineer. Then there is Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), who is considered
the original Renaissance man, whose contributions to both science and architecture are
well known.1

“The premise is to consider how each variable of the environment affects certain brain
processes, that in turn, alter a specific outcome measures.” 2

In early 2002 Inspired by conversations between Norman Koonce and Jonas

Salk, leaders in architecture and neuroscience convened to explore these
opportunities.3 With support of the American Institute of Architects (AIA) College of
Fellows, John Eberhard, the 2003 Latrobe Fellow, founded the Academy of
Neuroscience for Architecture (ANFA).4 The mission of the Academy of Neuroscience
for Architecture is to promote and advance knowledge that links neuroscience research
to a growing understanding of human responses to the built environment.5

1
“Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture,” New School of Architecture & Design, accessed March 18,
2014, http://newschoolarch.edu/academics/school-of-architecture/academy-of-neuroscience-for-
architecture/.
2
Eve A. Edelstein, “Summary Report on Neuroscience & Architecture of Health Care Facilities: 2nd
Workshop” (summary report of discussions held at the Second Annual Woods Hole Workshop on
Neuroscience and Healthcare, Woods Hole, 2004), accessed March 18, http://www.anfarch.org/wp-
content/uploads/2013/11/NeuroscienceHealthCareANFA2004.pdf.
3
Ibid.
4
“Mission,” Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture, accessed March 18, 20014,
http://anfarch.org/mission/.
5
Ibid.
3
What is Neuro-architecture?

Neuro-architecture can be defined as built environment designed with principles

of neuroscience, which establishes spaces that encourage memory, improve cognitive
abilities, avoid stress and/or stimulate brain.6 Neuro-architecture merges the fields of
architecture and neuroscience with the scientific goal of gaining a better understanding
of the relationship between emotions and design by observing people's responses and
measuring the relevant regions of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, which
registers and expresses emotions, the hippocampus, which is responsible for
memories, and the hypothalamus, which receives messages from other parts of the
body.

Developments

Before the coined termed neuro-architecture came into existence, there have
been historic records examining the effect of architecture on the human body and mind.
Sthapatya Veda is a set of architectural and planning principles, which strictly govern
the orientation, and proportions of a building7, with the most important factor being the
entrance.8 Sthapatya Veda design principles originated from ancient Vedic texts, and
substantiate the knowledge of establishing a relationship between man and house.9 It
includes design principles conducive to well being. Similarly, a 5000-year-old text,
YiJing where the term fengshui originated, also delivers a set of principles to create
harmony between building and man.10

6
John P. Eberhard, Brain Landscape: The Coexistence of Neuroscience and Architecture (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2008).
7
Brandy Welvaert, “Vedic homes seek better living through architecture," Rock Island Argus, August 5,
2005.
8
Niall Toner, "Houses that boost health and wealth," Sunday Times (London, U.K.), July 27, 2007, 10.
9
Deepak Bakshi, “Understanding of Sthapatya Ved Knowledge,” Sustainable Sources, 1996, accessed
April 6, 2014, http://sustainablesources.com/understanding-of-sthapatya-ved-knowledge/.
10
Ibid.

4
Figure 1 Distribution of Neurosemantics
[Data from http://www.neurosemantics.com | graphic by author]

Although the science or study of the relationship between man and architecture
was not distinctively a field of study, a branch of knowledge that is taught and
researched as part of higher education, it was an active study, meaning the relationship
was studied through observation and participation outside an academic scope.

5
 These early concepts and resulting design paradigms are closely related to
environmental psychology and evidence-based design, and are derived from theoretical
or observational techniques. Both fields are interdisciplinary, drawing knowledge from
fields such as neuroscience, behavioral economics, architecture, and psychology,
resulting in information that has been scientifically proven which explains the complex
interactions between environmental factors and humans.

The study of neuro-architecture allows for an evolution in architectural design

practices. Significantly, the purpose of neuro-architecture is to provide the answers to
why an architectural space is able to provoke feelings of calmness, or awe, or how we
are able to remember the smell of wet grass, the feeling of cool concrete walls, the
sound of footsteps on hardwood floors, or the light as it passes through a slit in the
ceiling.

Throughout history, architects and architectural theorists have attempted to

provide meaning to architectural design. Meaning or understanding has been
predominantly achieved through the lens of psychology, the social sciences, and
observations.11 Findings therefore tend to be subjective, interpretive, and qualitative.
The study of the human brain, or neuroscience, attempts to give meaning or an
understanding of the way our brain inputs, stores, and receives information gathered
through our senses.

Neuro-architecture provides the link between how the brain processes

information, the body’s responses to external stimuli, and how this information is
translated to inform architectural design.12 The evolution of neuroscience, and
introduction of neuro-architecture, presents the opportunity to reconceive perceptual
and emotional attributes as objective qualities asserting to architectural design
application. Neuro-architecture as a process addresses an opportunity, a reaction, and
a projected outcome by providing the answers to why we react to certain conditions
and spaces.

11
John P. Eberhard, “Applying Neuroscience to Architecture,” Neuron 62, Issue 6 (2009): 753-756.
12
Ibid.
6
 Although the field is relatively new, the use of neuro-architecture to inform
building design is highlighted in an interview from the 2003 Fall issue of Society for
Neuroscience, where Eberhard and Gage explains why architects and neuroscientists
are beginning to work together.13

“Architecture has the most impact when the ideas used in building design reflect our
understanding of how the brain reacts in different environments. Neuroscientists can
help architects understand scientifically what have historically been intuitive
observations.” - Eberhard

“Neuroscience has reached a point in its understanding of the brain and how it is
influenced by the environment that neuroscientists can work with architects in their
designs for environments that enable people to function at their fullest within those
environments.” - Gage

Gage further explains that, “...changes in the environment change the brain, and
therefore they change our behavior.” 14 He argues that the brain does not stop growing
during our 20’s as previously thought. Neurogenesis, or the growth of new neurons in
adults, occurs in part by a changing environment.15 This information is available due to
advances in technology within the sciences. EEG machines are able to peek into the
human brain in order to understand how we understand the world. These advances in
technology allow scientists to empirically understand how the brain reacts to a variety
of stimuli, and therefore allowing architects to design for effective buildings. Neuro-
architecture is not simply a design inspiration or poetic concept, it is a design tool.

13
John P. Eberhard and Fred H. Gage, “An Architect and a Neuroscientist Discuss How Neuroscience Can
Influence Architectural Design,” in Neuroscience Quarterly Fall (2003), accessed April 6, 2014,
http://www.sfn.org/~/media/SfN/Documents/NQs/2003/NQ_Fall_2003.ashx.
14
Emily Badger, “Corridors of the Mind,” Pacific Standard, November 5, 2012, accessed April 6, 2014,
http://www.psmag.com/culture/corridors-of-the-mind-49051/.
15
Ibid.
7
 Architects including Juhani Pallasmaa, Steven Holl, and Peter Zumthor have
expressed the importance of how the brain interprets information or stimuli in regards
to architectural spaces and processes this data into an experience. The experience of
architecture is therefore enhanced by the knowledge of brain function and
interpretation. It is just another stepping-stone in the evolution of architectural design.

“Architecture articulates the experiences of being-in-the-world and strengthens our

sense of reality and self…” - Juhani Pallasmaa16

Applications

The Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture (ANFA) since its creation in 2003,
explores ways to link research conducted in neuroscience towards the practice of
architecture. The ANFA has held a number of workshops to identify hypotheses
derived from the functional requirements of healthcare facilities, elementary schools,
correctional facilities, sacred places, facilities for the aging, and neuroscience
laboratories.17 The workshops resulted in over 70 hypotheses, which have created the
basis for current and future research. Through the development of these hypotheses,
three main areas of application have been explored and implemented by professionals,
including facilities for the aging, work environments and sacred places.

Memory and Alzheimer, Elderly

According to Alzheimer’s Association, alzheimer’s is a type of dementia that

causes problems with memory, thinking and behavior.18 According to statistical figures,
over 5 million Americans are living with the disease and an estimated 16 million will be

16
Juhani Palasmaa, The Eyes of the Skin Architecture and the Senses (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons,
2005), 12.
17
John P. Eberhard, “Applying Neuroscience to Architecture,” Neuron 62, Issue 6 (2009): 753-756.
18
“Alzheimer’s Disease,” Alzheimer’s Association, accessed March 12, 2014,
http://www.alz.org/alzheimers_disease_1973.asp.
8
have the disease by 2050.19 Architecture affects not only how we perceive the world,
but also how we interact within it, and for Alzheimer’s patients, design is a crucial
element that influences behavior. For example, People with Alzheimer’s disease who
have private rooms containing their own personal objects exhibit less aggression and
anxiety and fewer psychotic symptoms.20

For two decades John Zeisel, president and co-founder of the Heathstone
Alzheimer’s Family Foundation and Hearthstone Alzheimer Care, has been developing
ways to improve the quality of life of Alzheimer’s patients taking cues from such studies
as mentioned above. His professional development has allowed him to link his training
in sociology to architecture and neuroscience. Zeisel uses many of the neuro-
architecture concepts to design specialized therapeutic environments, for instance, the
use of familiar visual cues such as pictures to assist with wandering behaviors.

Another example is his approach of therapy gardens, involving patients with

plants to strengthen the patient’s memory, making them suggest the time/seasons with
environmental modifications.21 Trezevant Terrace, an assisted living community with a
resident Alzheimer’s care home, located in Memphis, Tennessee serves as an example
of these design implementations. Askew Nixon Ferguson Architects sought the advice
of John Zeisel, in designing the memory care facility. The main feature of the facility is
the easily accessible garden comprising a simple circular path. Zeisel explains, that
gardens are crucial in helping dementia care residents feel less trapped and more
attuned time.22 The circular path is also used as a tool to aid wayfinding. The path
allows residents to explore and enjoy the outside surroundings while providing a visual
element, which guides them back into the facility in the event they have an episode
where they forget where they are or how to return to their private quarters.

19
“Latest Facts and Figures Report,” Alzheimer’s Association, accessed March 12, 2014,
http://www.alz.org/facts/overview.asp.
20
John Ziesel et al., “Environmental Correlates to Behavioral Outcome in Alzheimer’s Special Care Units,”
The Gerontologist 43 (2003): 697-711.
21
John Zeisel, Inquiry by Design (New York: CUP Archive, 1984).
22
John Ziesel, “Environmental correlates to behavioral outcome in Alzheimer’s special care units.”

9
Figure 2 Trezevant Terrace Site Plan
[Data from Site Map, http://www.neurosemantics.com | graphic by author]

Work Environments

The Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture presents Salk Institute, which

was designed by well-known architect Louis Kahn, as one of the early examples
involving neuroscience in work environments.23 Jonas Salk often shares his own
anecdotal story about his personal experiences in his attempt of finding a cure for polio
and his retreat to a 13th-century monastery to help explain how neuroscience impacted
the design. Salk had reached a point where he felt intellectually stuck and retreated for
several weeks to the Abbey at Assisi, Italy. Salk claimed that the architectural setting of
the abbey was helpful in stimulating his imaginations and providing mental clarity that
he created the concept for what would later become the polio vaccine as well as how to
produce it.24 Believing that the human mind continuously reacts to architectural
settings and from his personal experience at the Abbey, Jonas Salk together with Louis
Kahn collaborated in developing an environmental design creating workspaces that
would enhance creative ability.

23
“Genesis of the Salk Institute: The Epic of Its Founders Academy,” Academy of Neuroscience for
Architecture, accessed February 8, 2014, http://www.anfarch.org/news/genesis-of-the-salk-institute-the-
epic-of-its-founders/.
24
John P. Eberhard, Brain Landscape: The Coexistence of Neuroscience and Architecture (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2008).

10
Figure 3 Basilica of Assisi
[Photo by Aaron Logan, http://www.buswelt.de]

Figure 4 Salk Institute Courtyard

[Photo by Alfred Essa, https://www.flickr.com/photos/tatler/]

11
 Salk Institute achieves this by providing spacious, unobstructed laboratory
spaces that could be adapted to the ever-changing needs of science. Kahn flooded the
laboratories with daylight, creating per Salk’s request, a welcoming and inspiring
environment for scientific research.25 The building materials chosen were concrete,
teak, lead, glass and special steel, all which aided in creating the awe inspiring space
envisioned by Salk.

Figure 5 Salk Institute Walkway

[Photo by author]

25
“About Salk,” Salk Institute for Biological Studies, accessed February 20, 2014,
http://www.Salk.edu/about/architecture.html.

12
Sacred Places

More than two thousand years ago, Hippocrates observed that our well-being is
affected by our settings and throughout history, architectural settings have had
profound effects on people, changing our mood, behavior, sense of security, and even
spirituality. The human brain registers sensations through sight, sound, touch and
elements of architecture such as natural light, nature, materials, and silence impact the
human psyche.26 Sacred places have served to soothe and inspire. Sacred spaces can
be defined as any space that evokes special transcendent feelings within the visitor.27
Thorncrown Chapel is an example John Eberhard uses to illustrate how design can
impact the human brain and mind.

Figure 6 Thorncrown Chapel

[Photo from Photo Gallery, https://www.thorncrown.com]

26
Esther Sternberg, Healing Spaces: The Science of Place and Well-Being (Cambridge, Mass: Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, 2010).
27
John P. Eberhard, Brain Landscape: The Coexistence of Neuroscience and Architecture (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2008), 11.

13
 Thorncrown Chapel is located in Eureka Springs, Arkansas. In 1971, Jim Reed,
an Arkansas native purchased land in Eureka Springs, Arkansas to build his retirement
home. The property was located in the Ozark Mountains, where people would often
stop to admire the natural surroundings. This inspired him and his wife to build a glass
chapel, creating a space that would stimulate and emotional response in the visitors
mind. The chapel was to be a place for travelers to rest, reflect, and refresh.

The chapel itself is only 24 feet wide, 60 feet long, and 45 feet tall and
constructed of organic building materials. One of the main features of the chapel are
the elaborate trusses, which provide a constantly changing pattern of light and shadow
throughout the day.

Figure 7 Thorncrown Chapel Structure

[Section by E. Fay jones, https://eslave.wordpress.com | Photo from
http://rebivaleska.deviantart.com/art/Thorncrown-Chapel-4-340477257 | graphic by author]
https://www.flickr.com/photos/tatler/]

According to Eberhard, the available knowledge of the brain and mind can
provide plausible hypothesis about the cognitive and emotional experiences associated
with Thorncrown Chapel:

• Our sense of awe is influenced, in part, by having space above our head that is not
visible until we move our eyes (and probably our head) upward. Semir Zeki once
suggested that raising our eyes upward to see a spire on a cathedral was
transformative—it stirs some primal notions of something ethereal.

14
• The sensitivity of our suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) to light—driving the circadian
rhythms—influences our alertness. The play of light and shadow may trigger the SCN to
“play with alertness” in a way that we find stimulating.

• The hush of nature deep in the woods provides a “quiet” experience for our auditory
cortex that could be soothing, which suggests that the sense of “quiet” experienced by
urban dwellers may be more soothing (because of the ambient noise where they live)
than the experience of rural dwellers.28

Thorncrown Chapel serves not only as an example of the impact architectural

elements can have on the human mind and brain but also as an example of the
symbiotic relationship between architecture and neuroscience.

28
John P. Eberhard, “Applying Neuroscience to Architecture,” Neuron 62, Issue 6 (2009): 753-756.

15
 CHAPTER 3. PERCEPTION

“Every significant experience of architecture is multi-sensory; qualities of matter, space

and scale are measured equally by the eye, ear, nose, skin, tongue skeleton and
muscle.” – Juhani Pallasma29

The human mind and body are in a constant mode of perceiving, seeking out
experiences that are relevant, meaningful, pleasant, empathetic and motivational.
Perception is multi-sensory involving memory, emotion, visual, and tactile experiences,
all of which influence human behavior and response. Perception is a way in which
human beings keep track of our relationship to the world 30, directing our experiences
towards things, in an attempt to uncover and understand both the world and our
physical environment. Architecture has the ability to evoke such responses from us,
propelling us to think and understand the relationships created with our surroundings
through our experiences.

Memory

Memory differs from perception in that the event or stimulus is not happening in
the present moment. Although similarly guided by the senses, perception is the way in
which we view the world, and memory is the way we create identity and position within
the world.31

Memory allows for the accumulation of knowledge and the ability to recall
events, faces, objects, and places. It is important in evaluation, decision-making,
emotions, interaction, and movement.32 With every new experience, consciously or
unconsciously, we access memory to understand and provide meaning to experience.

29
Steven Holl, Juhani Pallasmaa and Alberto Perez-Gomez, eds., “An Architecture of the Seven Senses,” in
Questions of Perception: Phenomenology of Architecture (Tokyo: a+u Publishing Co., Ltd., 1994), 29-37.
30
Alva Noë, Action in Perception (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004).
31
Robert Kirkbride, Architecture and Memory (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008) Gutenberg-e
edition, accessed March 20, 2014, http://www.gutenberg-e.org/kirkbride/chapter4.html#s4.3.
32
“Memory Processes,” The Human Memory, accessed March 22, 2014, http://www.human-
memory.net/processes.html.
16
 The study of memory and the brain is a complex relationship that originated
within the disciplines of philosophy and psychology.33 Previous research has been
theoretical, observational, and subjective or qualitative. The study of memory, within
the field of neuroscience and related disciplines, provide key insights into the
physiological workings of the brain in regards to the formation, storage, and recollection
of information.

To understand the role of memory within the field of neuro-architecture, we must

first understand the process of memory and the mechanics of the brain. Advancements
in neuroscience have concluded that the area of the brain responsible or linked to
memory in relation to architecture is the hippocampus. The hippocampus is
responsible for analyzing and determining which informational inputs are committed to
long-term memory. More specifically, neuroscience has connected the architectural
experiences to the parahippocampal place area (PPA) of the brain. The PPA uses the
recognition of scenes versus the recognition of faces or objects, insinuating or
reinforcing a multi-sensory experience in the creation of long-term memory.34

Memory process is divided into three parts: encoding, storage, and recall.
Memory requires a combination of physiological and neurological processes as
explained by The Human Memory.35

Encoding

Contrary to previous metaphors describing memories as files stored in a filing

cabinet, or books on a shelf, memories are comprised from a combination of individual
and separate sensory inputs stored in neurons that are connected through synapses.
Encoding uses perception through the senses in addition to attention causing neurons

33
Robert Kirkbride, Architecture and Memory (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008) Gutenberg-e
edition, accessed March 20, 2014, http://www.gutenberg-e.org/kirkbride/chapter4.html#s4.3.
34
“Memory Processes,” The Human Memory, accessed March 22, 2014, http://www.human-
memory.net/processes.html.
35
Russel Epstein et al., “The Parahippocampal Place Area,” Neuron 23 (1999):115-125, accessed March
12, 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80758-8.
17
to fire more rapidly. The experience is therefore considered to be more intense,
increasing the chance to be encoded as a memory. The brain deciphers the information
through the central executive within working memory (formally known as short-term
memory) determining the importance of the information as long-term memory.36
Memory is also associative. New pieces of information are more easily remembered if it
can be related to previously acquired knowledge.

Memory Storage

Different stages of the memory storage process, allows or are used as filters for
the surplus of sensory information. Sensory storage lasts for 1-2 seconds. Short-term
or working memory can hold information for approximately 30 seconds. Long-term
memories can last a lifetime.37 As mentioned earlier, information related to one specific
memory is stored in different areas of the brain and are connected through synapses.
Memories are based on neural pathways, connections, and parallel processing of
information.

Memory Recall

Commonly known as remembering, memory recall is the process of re-playing a

pattern of neural activity. Memories are always representations of the past allowing for
an awareness and differentiation of the current situation, also called creative
reimagination. It is suggested that memory retrieval is an automatic process. The
accuracy of retrieved memories are not reliant on focused attention as in the encoding
process. However, the retrieval process becomes more efficient as the neural
connection pathways are reinforced and strengthened.

36
Saul Mcleod, “Working Memory,” Simply Psychology, last updated 2012, accessed February 25, 2014,
http://www.simplypsychology.org/working%20memory.html.
37
Jeffrey S. Nevid, Essentials of Psychology: Concepts and Applications (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Co., 2006).

18
 Relation to Architecture

We experience the world through our senses. Therefore, we also experience

architecture through our senses. According to Esther M. Sternberg, in Neuroscience
and Architecture,38

“…advances in neuroscience are now able to explain the ways in which we perceive the
world around us and navigate in space and the way our physical environment can affect
our cognition, problem-solving ability, and mood. Thus, an understanding of the
principles of neuroscience, particularly in the area of perception and spatial orientation,
can inform the design of built spaces to include environmental features that minimize
negative physiological, cognitive, and emotional effects.”

Sternberg further continues to communicate the relationship between

neuroscience and sense of place.

Memory and Sense of Place

Sense of place is often discussed in architecture literature. Daniel Liebskin,

Peter Zumthor, Juhani Pallasmaa, to name a few. Sense of place creates or promotes
a sense of identity. Sternberg differentiates space from place by the requirement of
interaction by the user. Place is constructed through movement and the connections
from one space to another. In the same way we process memories, we experience or
remember architecture through a series of connections.39 Within the realm of sense of
place, memory offers understanding and meaning through spatial memory, internal
sense of space, and orientation.

38
Esther M. Sternberg and Matthew A. Wilson, “Neuroscience and Architecture: Seeking Common
Ground,” Cell 127 (2006):239-242, accessed April 2, 2015, http://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-
8674(06)01304-3.
39
Ibid.
19
 Architecture therefore can be viewed as a journey of remembrance, having the
ability to impact what and how we remember and the strength or significance of that
memory. Architecture also holds the potential to create new neurons through a process
called neurogenesis. Neuron generation in the hippocampal region of the brain is linked
to enriched environmental stimuli and exercise.40

“We now know enough about how memories are stored and retrieved to demolish
another long-standing myth: that memories are passive or literal recordings of
reality…we do not store judgement-free snapshots of our past experiences but rather
hold on to the meaning, sense, and emotions these experiences provided us.” – written
by Harvard Professor Daniel L. Schacter41

To remember architecture is to remember not only the object, but the

associative feeling and emotion embodied within the experience. Zumthor eloquently
recalls a memory as an experience filled with vivid detail and emotion.42

”There was a time when I experienced architecture without thinking about it.
Sometimes I can almost feel a particular door handle in my hand, a piece of metal
shaped like the back of a spoon. I used to take hold of it when I went into my aunt’s
garden. That door handle still seems to me like a special sign of entry into a world of
different moods and smells. I remember the sound of the gravel under my feet, the soft
gleam of the waxed oak staircase, I can hear the heavy front door closing behind me as
I walk along the dark corridor and enter the kitchen, the only really brightly lit room in
the house.

[...] Memories like these contain the deepest architectural experience that I know. They
are the reservoirs of the architectural atmospheres and images which I explore in my
work as an architect.”

40
April Holladay, “How Does Human Memory Work,” USA Today, March 15, 2007.
http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/columnist/aprilholladay/2007-03-12-memory-first_N.htm.
41
Daniel L. Schacter, Searching for Memory: the Brain, the Mind, and the Past (New York, NY:
BasicBooks, 1996).
42
Zumthor, Peter, Maureen Turner, and Catherine Schelbert, Thinking architecture, 2nd expanded ed.
(Basel: Birkhäuser, 2006).

20
 Highlighted by Zumthor’s narrative, sensory input is integral to the formation of
memory and other architecturally related brain function, which will be further discussed
in subsequent chapters. They also lend to reactionary emotions and sentiments, which
are also important aspects in memory. The strength of a memory or the strength of the
connection between neurons can be increased by certain factors, producing easier
recall and a deeper sense of meaning and understanding.43

In sensing architecture, Lehman explains the role of memory in architecture as:

“Architecture uses human memory to help occupants both “do” and “learn. Yet, what
occupants probably remember most are the meaning, sense and emotion that an
environment helped provide. Perhaps it is out of these qualities that a truly great work
of architecture can simply help someone make a decision or even impact a culture.” 44

Perception, sensation, memory, and emotion are inherently connected and vital
to the study of neuroscience and architecture. Emotion is imperative in the formation
and retention of memory. Emotion increases attention. Attention increases neural
firing. Emotional elements of an event are processed as an unconscious pathway to
the amygdala. Emotion is therefore a response both neurological and physiological. 45

Emotions

The word emotion dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French
word émouvoir, which means, to stir up.46 There are numerous theories, which attempt
to explain the origin, experience, and function of emotions, of these three major
theories have emerged. The three major theories include: physiological, neurological,
and cognitive. Physiological theories suggest that responses within the body are

43
Jeffrey S. Nevid, Essentials of Psychology: Concepts and Applications (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Co., 2006).
44
Maria Lorena Lehman, "What is the Role of Human Memory in Architecture," Sensing Architecture,
June 15, 2009, accessed April 20, 2014, http://sensingarchitecture.com/1328/what-is-the-role-of-human-
memory-in-architecture/.
45
Karen Lawrence, "Neuroscience, Memory and Social Manipulation," Suite 101, September 21, 2008,
accessed May 9, 2014, https://suite101.com/a/memory-reliability-brain-science-and-society-a69750
46
“Emotion,” Merriam-Webster, accessed July 12, 2014, http://www.merriam-
webster.com/inter?dest=/dictionary/emotion.
21
responsible for emotions. Neurological theories debate that activity within the brain
leads to emotional responses. Finally, cognitive theories propose that thoughts and
other mental activity play an essential role in the formation of emotions.47

Emotion is often applied to a wide variety of phenomena, such as anger,

sentiments, moods and feelings. These phenomena are a reaction to an experience
conjured by the senses due to a specific subject, space, or event. Although the word
emotion lacks an exact definition, some theorists place emotions within a more general
category of affective states.48 The 4 different affective states include: emotions, moods,
emotional traits, and sentiments.

1. Emotions

Emotions are intentional because they imply and involve a relation between the
person experiencing them and a particular event, object or surrounding: one is afraid of
something, proud of something, in love with something and so on.49 In addition, people
are usually able to identify the subject of their emotion.50 We know whom we love, and
we know with whom we are angry. Besides being object-related, emotions are acute,
and exist only for a relatively short period of time. Usually, the duration of an emotion is
limited to seconds, or minutes at most. The cause that elicits an emotion (the stimulus)
can be an event in the environment (e.g. someone calling our name, catching sight of a
building), or some change within us, such as thoughts or memories.51

47
Kendra Cherry, “Theories of Emotion,” About.com, accessed June 4, 2014,
http://psychology.about.com/od/psychologytopics/a/theories-of-emotion.htm
48
Norbert Schwarz, “Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states,”
in Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: Foundations of Social Behavior, volume 2, ed. E.T. Higgins and
R. Sorrento (New York: Guildford Press, 1990), 527-561.
49
N.H. Frijda, “Varieties of affect: emotions and episodes, moods, and sentiments,” in The Nature of
Emotion, ed P. Ekman and R.J. Davidson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 59-67.
50
Paul Ekman and Richard J. Davidson, Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Questions (Series in Affective
Science) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
51
Paul Ekman and Richard J. Davidson, Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Questions (Series in Affective
Science) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).

22
2. Moods

Moods and emotions share similar characteristics but differ in that moods are
essentially non-intentional, while emotions are intentional. A secondary difference in
distinguishing between the two is moods are not directed at a particular subject but as
in the words of Frijda, at “the world as a whole.” 52 Moods have combined causes,
which we are generally unable to specify. It is difficult for us to isolate what specifically
caused a particular mood53 and at times are unaware we are in a certain mood.

3. Emotional Traits

Often confused with mood, emotional traits are not temporal. Emotional traits
define or characterize a certain individual.54 Personality is comprised in part by
emotional traits. Emotional traits range from compassion, love, joy, passion,
appreciation, knowledge, empowerment, happiness, positive expectation, optimism,
hopefulness, contentment, and apathy, to boredom, pessimism, frustration,
disappointment, doubt, jealousy, anger, hatred, guilt, grief, and fear.55 Emotional traits
attribute to the reason that people have different feelings toward the same architectural
object.56

52
N.H. Frijda, “Varieties of Affect: Emotions and Episodes, Moods, and Sentiments.”
53
Ekman and Davidson, Nature of Emotion.
54
D. Watson and L.A. Clark, “Emotions, Moods, Traits and temperaments: Conceptual distinctions and
empirical findings,” in The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions, eds. P. Ekman and R.J. Davidson
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 89-93.
55
“Emotional Traits Scale,” to be Account Able, accessed April 6, 2014,
http://2baccountable.wordpress.com/emotional-traits-scale/.
56
D. Watson and L.A. Clark, “Emotions, Moods, Traits and temperaments.”

23
4. Sentiments

Sentiments are similar and often confused with emotions but the main difference
between the two is that, sentiments are dispositional states, which could persist over a
lifetime. The confusion between emotions and sentiments is attributed to the
involvement of a person-subject relationship. 57 Frijda explains the difference by the
following example: being afraid of dogs (sentiment) and being frightened by a dog
(emotion), are essentially different states. Our sentiments are our likes and dislike, or
our attitudes towards particular architecture or events.58

Mechanism

Emotional responses to a given stimuli can vary from person to person and
culture to culture and although different variables can influence the way we react to our
surroundings, the way in which emotions are elicited is universal. In his research,
Designing Emotions, Pieter Desmet has created a basic model of emotions, which
describes the eliciting conditions of emotions with the use of three key variables:
appraisal, concern, and stimulus. Desmet uses this model with the three key variables
to examine if a stimulus elicits an emotion, and if so which particular emotion is
experienced.

57
N.H. Frijda, “Varieties of Affect: Emotions and Episodes, Moods, and Sentiments.”
58
N.H. Frijda, The Emotions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).

24
Figure 8 Desmet Model of Emotion
[Diagram by Peter Desmet, http://experiencingarchitecture.com/2010/02/11/how-do-emotions-work-basic-
model-of-emotions/]

He uses the following example to explain the basic model of emotion in an

architectural context to explain the three key variables:

Imagine Anne and Thomas searching for a new house:

The second house they visited was what Anne was looking for. The house
reminded Anne of the house of her favorite uncle. She immediately had the desire to
buy it. Although it was not the favorite architectural style of Thomas they decided to go
inside. To Anne’s (unpleasant) surprise there were holes in the wall. Thomas on the
other hand, was inspired by these strange holes and thought that they could become
very interesting windows. Anne already started to feel better about the idea of buying
this house. When they bought the house Anne was very proud about the windows they
made in the holes.

25
1. Appraisal

According to appraisal research, all emotions are preceded and elicited by an

appraisal.59 An appraisal is a non-intellectual, automatic evaluation of the significance of
a stimulus for one’s personal well-being. It is this personal significance of a product,
rather than the product itself, which causes the emotion. Because appraisals mediate
between products and emotions, different individuals who appraise the same product in
different ways will feel different emotions. Thus, the occurrence of Thomas’s inspiration
versus Anne’s unpleasant surprise in response to the holes in the wall is the result of
their different appraisals. Thomas, who felt inspiration, evaluated the holes as beneficial,
whereas Anne evaluated it as harmful. Similarly, a given individual who appraises the
same building in different ways at different times will feel different emotions. At first,
Anne felt unpleasantly surprised because she appraised the holes as harmful to her well
being, but later she felt proud because she appraised the same holes as beneficial.
Furthermore, a person can also appraise a given building in different ways
simultaneously, and thus experience ‘mixed emotions.’

2. Concerns

Every emotion hides a concern, that is, a more or less stable preference for
certain states of the world.60 According to Frijda, concerns can be regarded as points of
reference in the appraisal process. Thus, the significance of a stimulus for our wellbeing
is determined by an appraised concern match or mismatch: stimuli that match our
concerns are appraised as beneficial, and those that mismatch our concerns as harmful.
This principle also applies to architecture: a building elicits an emotion only if it is
appraised as relevant to a person’s concern. Why was Anne proud of the windows in
the holes? Because it matched with her concern for social acceptance. Why was
Thomas inspired by the holes in the wall? Because it matched his concern for creative

59
Roseman et al., “Appraisal theory: Overview, assumptions, varieties, controversies,” in Appraisal
processes in emotion, eds. K.R. Sherer, A. Schorr, and T. Johnstone (UK/New York: Oxford University
Press, 2001).
60
N.H. Frijda, The Emotions.

26
stimulation. The number and variety of human concerns is vast. Types of concerns
reported in the research literature are, for example, drives, needs, instincts, motives,
goals and values.61 Some of our concerns are universal, for example the concern for
safety, for love and for self-esteem. Others are more personal, like Thomas’ concern that
the house was not in his favorite architectural style. Some concerns, such as the
concern for happiness and righteousness, are abstract. Others are more concrete, such
as the concern for being home before dark or for owning a house.

3. Stimulus

According to Frijda 62, any perceived change has the potential to elicit an emotion. This
can be some event, e.g. someone saying something to us or encountering something in
a space. Anne’s unpleasant surprise was evoked by the event of seeing the holes in the
wall. Not only actual events but also remembered or imagined events have the potential
to elicit emotions. We all know from experience that thinking of someone we love is
sometimes enough to elicit strong emotions. Or merely fantasizing about a planned
summer vacation can fill us with anticipatory excitement. Similarly, Anne’s concern that
the house reminded her of the house of her favorite uncle. Below are specific examples
of how the basic model of emotions works for architecture.

Figure 9 Therme Vals

[Diagram by Peter Desmet, http://experiencingarchitecture.com/2010/02/16/how-do-emotions-work-4-
examples/]
61
Klaus R. Scherer, Appraisal considered as a process of multilevel sequential checking (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2001).
62
N.H. Frijda, The Emotions.

27
Figure 10 Vinex Neighborhood
[Diagram by Peter Desmet
http://experiencingarchitecture.com/2010/02/16/how-do-emotions-work-4-]
examples/

Figure 11 Circus Zandvoort, Soetera

[Diagram by Peter Desmet,
http://experiencingarchitecture.com/2010/02/16/how-do-emotions-work-4-]
examples/

28
Figure 12 Circus Zandvoort, Soetera
[Diagram by Peter Desmet,
http://experiencingarchitecture.com/2010/02/16/how-do-emotions-work-4-]
examples/

The basic model of emotions can apply to all human emotions as presented in
the examples above. These examples serve to explain the model in an architectural
sense in order to help us understand how architectural design and space can elicit an
emotional response according to our concerns. What is particularly interesting about
the examples presented involves examples 2 and 3, which use the same building, the
Circus Zandvoort. Although the stimulus remained constant, the concern varied,
affecting the appraisal process, which in turn changed the outcome of the elicited
emotion. Despite the fact that one stimulus can elicit various emotions, the basic model
of emotions can serve as a tool to understand and predict a desired emotion from an
architectural experience.

29
 CHAPTER 4. VISUAL SPACE

Regarded by Plato (in 360 BC) as humanity’s greatest gift, vision remains the
dominant source for sensory input. He believed that sight was the sense that creates
the pathway to God and truth.63

“The sight in my opinion is the source of greatest benefit for us, for had we never seen
the stars and the sun and the heaven, none of the words we have spoken about the
universe would ever have been uttered [...]” 64

If sensation is the process of gathering information, then perception is the

process of interpreting that information gathered from the environment. Bruce
Goldstein stresses that “the way in which neurons are wired together in the nervous
system influences our perception.”65 This signifies that perception is reliant on the
relationship between the self and the world. In regards to architectural objects and
spaces, visual perception allows for the interpretation and understanding of spatiality,
atmosphere, and visibility.66 Visual perception is the ability to interpret our surrounding
environment by processing information that is contained in visible light. Using visual
cues, impressions of space, form, surface/texture, color and light are formed and then
processed or translated to provide an understanding of the environment. The eye is the
only organ in the human body capable of interpreting visual stimuli, allowing the ability
to see.67

The process of seeing begins when the lens of the eye focuses an image or an
object in the surroundings onto the retina, which consists of a light-sensitive membrane
in the back of the eye. The retina itself is a part of the brain that serves as a transducer

63
Plato, Paul Negri ed., Gorgias and Timaeus (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 2012).
64
ibid.
65
Bruce Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 9th Edition (Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning, 2013).
66
Ciro Vidal Fontenelle, “The importance of lighting to the experience of architecture- the lighting
approach in architectural competitions,” KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2008, accessed June 2, 2015,
http://www.kth.se/polopoly_fs/1.176688!/Menu/general/column-
content/attachment/1%20Ciro%20Fontenelle%20-Lighting_in_architecture.pdf.
67
Robert Feldman, Essentials of Understanding Psychology, Seventh Edition (New York;McGraw-Hill,
2006).

30
for the conversion of patterns of light into neuronal signals. The retina contains
photoreceptive cells that detect the photons of light producing neural impulses or
signals, which are then processed in a hierarchical fashion by different parts of the
brain. The lens focuses on an image, focusing light on the photoreceptive cells of the
retina, producing neural impulses, which travel from the retina to the central ganglia in
the brain to be processed.68 Light therefore allows us to define what is around us,
changing the way we perceive the objects which it impacts. Light or the absence of
light has the ability to transform and shape a space.

Figure 13 Vision and the Brain

[Photo from Research, https://www.ophth.wisc.edu/research/stemcell/ | graphic my author]

Light

Vision or the facility of seeing, begins with light.69 The interaction between light
and material provide environmental cues to the understanding of our environment.
According to Neisser, the brain uses a combination of top-down and bottom-up
processing known as the perpetual cycle to decipher and interpret information. Top-

68
Neil R. Carlson, "6," Physiology of Behaviour, 11th ed. (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA: Pearson
Education Inc., 2013), 187-189.
69
Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, 69.
31
down processing is based on pattern recognition. Bottom-up processing is a direct
linear pathway of information from the retina to the visual cortex.70 Consequently, light
is not viewed as a single entity, but as a stimulus used in context. The focus is
therefore on the effects of light versus the physical properties of light.

Figure 14 Black and White Diagram

[Photo from Basic Visual Functions, http://www.skidmore.edu/~hfoley/Perc4.htm]

Light + Architecture

Light is categorized into three categories: general or ambient, task, and

highlights.71 The source can be either artificial or natural light. The effect of light has
the capacity to influence physical properties, atmosphere, and emotion. In
Experiencing Architecture, Rasmussen explains the importance of light within the realm
of architecture.

70
Saul Mcleod, “Visual Perception Theory,” Simply Psychology (2013), accessed February 25, 2014,
http://www.simplypsychology.org/perception-theories.html.
71
“Light In Architecture and Psychology of Light,” RS Lighting Design, accessed March 22, 2014,
http://www.rsltg.com/images/ArchID_-_Light_in_Architecture_and_Psychology_of_Light.pdf.
32
“Light is of decisive importance in experiencing architecture. The same room can be
made to give very different spatial impressions by the simple expedient of changing the
size and location of its openings.”72

Light as a visual experience was categorized into 7 descriptive terms by Alders

Liljefors including: level of lightness, spatial distribution of brightness, shadows,
reflections, glare, color of light, and color.73

Figure 15 Light and Shadow Variations

[Photo by Pandelitsa Lazari, http://degreeshow.mmu.ac.uk/2012/images/l/2960.jpg]

1. Level of lightness

“Every light is a shade, compared to the higher lights, till you come to the sun;
and every shade is a light, compared to the deeper shades, till you come to the night.”74
By definition, Adelson explains that lightness is the perceived reflectance of a surface,
representing the visual system’s attempt to extract reflectance based on the luminance
in the scene.75 Various levels of lightness or darkness affect the way in which we

72
Steen Rasmussen, Experiencing Architecture, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1962), 187.
73
Ciro Vidal Fontenelle, “The importance of lighting to the experience of architecture.”
74
John Ruskins, The Works of John Ruskin (London: George Allen, 1879).
75
Karin Fridell Anter and Ulf Klaren, Herald Arnkil ed., Colour and Light-Concepts and Confusions
(Finland: Aallto University, 2012), accessed March 4, 2014,
http://www.academia.edu/3666388/Colour_and_Light_-_Concepts_and_Confusions.
33
immediately perceive space. Being contrast sensitive, the variance of light levels lead
to differentiated perceptions of space including:76

spaciousness | confinement
visual clarity | haziness
relaxation | activation
private | public
pleasant | unpleasant

Lightness is often confused with brightness. Although both terms signify a value
of light, brightness is the perceived intensity of light coming from the image itself, rather
than any property of the portrayed scene. As Gilchrist explains, lightness differs from
brightness as: “lightness is the perceptual dimension that runs from black, through grey
to white... Lightness is perceived reflectance.... Brightness is the perceptual dimension
that runs from dim to bright. Brightness is perceived luminance.”77 Therefore,
lightness is how the brain explains the intensity of light within a complete scene, and
brightness is the perceived luminance of a material or object.

2. Spatial distribution of brightness

Similarly to lightness, variable levels of brightness and distribution of light affects

the psychological perception of a space. A contrast in light distribution creates a
stronger visual stimulus, demanding attention.78 In addition, these contrasts also
provide clues to importance, orientation, wayfinding, and spatial borders while creating
atmosphere.79

76
“Light In Architecture and Psychology of Light,” RS Lighting Design, accessed March 22, 2014,
http://www.rsltg.com/images/ArchID_-_Light_in_Architecture_and_Psychology_of_Light.pdf.
77
Alan L. Gilchrist, Lightness and brightness,” Current Biology 17 (2007), accessed April 8, 2014,
http://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(07)00878-0.
78
J Ejhed and A. Liljefors, Battre belysning (Better lightening) (Stockholm, Sweden: Statens rad for
byggforskning, 1990).
79
Ciro Vidal Fontenelle, “The importance of lighting to the experience of architecture.”

34
3. Shadows

Shadows are the resulting effect of the interference of light sources. Shadows
and darkness are essential for the sense of vision to determine the depth and distance.
“In great spaces of architecture, there is a constant, deep breathing of shadow and
light; shadow inhales, and illumination exhales, light.”80

The importance shadows play in our observation and understanding of spatiality

is considerable. Shadows can delineate between sharp or diffused edges and create a
sense of softness or rigidity. Differences in the brightness between light and shadow
inform our understanding of spatiality by creating differences in ambience and depth
perception.81

4. Reflections

Reflections are the way that we predominantly perceive light. Reflectance is the
proportion of incident light that is reflected from a surface. Reflectance, also called
albedo, varies from 0 to 1 or, equivalently from 0% to 100% where 0% is ideal black
and 100% is ideal white. In practice, typical black paint is about 5% and typical white
about 85%.82 Reflection is dependent on materiality and light absorption and
remittance.

80
Juhani Pallasmaa, Polemics: Architecture and the Senses (Great Britain: Academy Group Ltd., 1996), 33.
80
JPallasmaa, Polemics.
81
http://www.kth.se/polopoly_fs/1.176688!/Menu/general/column-content/attachment/1 Ciro Fontenelle
82
E.H. Adelson, “Lightness Perception and Lightness Illusion,” in The New Cognitive Neurosciences, 2nd
ed., ed. M. Gazziniga (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), 339-351.

35
5. Glare

Dissimilar to reflection, glare can come from a direct or reflected light source
Glare is the effect of extreme high contrast of light to the scene or environment. This
phenomenon can be a hindrance or an advantage. For example, a car headlight at
night directly in your field of view can cause an uncomfortable brightness contrast in
one’s field of vision. In opposition, the glare of the sun on a lake surface can be
perceived as beautiful or tranquil.83

6. Color of light

Light is electromagnetic radiations, which is the fluctuation of electric and

magnetic fields or simply put, light is energy. The interaction of energy and matter
results in color.84 Similar to color, the color of light can have both a physiological and
psychological effect on the human body. The main difference between color and light
color is the fact that light travels in wavelengths allowing its absorption through skin.
When colored light is absorbed into our body, it produces chemical reaction that can
affect the functions of various systems.85 Light can also have the ability to stimulate
higher cognitive brain activity, independently of vision.86

83
Harold Arnkil et al., “PERCIFAL: Visual analysis of space, light and colour,” (AICC 2011, Interaction
of Colour & Light in the Arts and Sciences-Proceedings), Zurich, 2011, accessed March 18,
http://www.academia.edu/3664218/PERCIFAL-Visual_analysis_of_space_light_and_colour.
84
Samina T. Yousuf Azeemi and S. Mohsin Raza, “A Critical Analysis of Chromotherapy and Its Scientific
Evolution,” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2005): 481-488, accessed July 4,
2014, doi: 10.1093/ecam/neh137.
85
Gilles Vandewalle, et al., “Blue Light Stimulates Cognitive Brain Activity in Visually Blind
Individuals,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience Vol. 5, No. 12, (2013): 2072-2085, accessed July 3, 2014,
doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00450.
86
Ibid.
36
7. Colors

Color is a sensory quality that has to be experienced.87 The ability to distinguish

different wavelengths, or colors allows us to gather more information from our
surroundings in order to differentiate objects from one another in our field of view.
Color can also affect our psychological state. There are four psychological primary
colors: red, blue, yellow, and green. Red is the most powerful of the four primary colors
although it is not technically the most visible. The effect of the color red is physical; it is
stimulating and raises the pulse rate, at time activating the “fight or flight” instinct. Blue
on the other hand is soothing, unlike red, it affects us mentally not physically. Lighter
hues of blue calm the mind and aid in concentration while darker blues stimulate clear
thought. Yellow on the other hand stimulates emotion, making it the strongest color
psychologically. Certain yellow help lift the spirit and self-esteem. Green stimulates
restfulness due to the fact that our eyes do not need to adjust to it. Green also gives a
sense of balance and harmony.88 Although colors can affect us on various levels, our
perception of the color of an object depends on several things:89

The range of wavelengths present in the incident light.

The wavelengths of light that the object reflects or absorbs.
The receptor cells in our eyes that detect the reflected light.
Our brain’s interpretation of the signals from those receptors

87
K Fridell Anter ed., Forskare och praktiker om färg, ljus, rum (Stockholm: Formas, 2006) 21–30.
88
“Psychological Properties of Colours,” Color Affects, accessed March 28, 2014, http://www.colour-
affects.co.uk/psychological-properties-of-colours.
89
“Light and Colour Perception or Why are Leaves Green,” Bensimonds.com, accessed March 21, 2014,
http://bensimonds.com/2013/05/30/light-and-colour-perception-or-why-are-leaves-green/.

37
 CHAPTER 5. TACTILE SPACE

The eye is the organ of distance, whereas touch is the sense of nearness,
intimacy and affection. The eye observes and investigates, whereas the touch
approaches and feels. So when the light makes space for shadow our other senses are
sharpened including the sensitivity to touch.90

In neurobiology touch is defined as “the special sense by which contact with the
body of an organism is perceived in the conscious mind”.91 Descartes balanced vision
with touch; he believed the sense of touch to be more certain and less vulnerable to
error than vision. As people age the senses begin to deteriorate with the exception of
touch. The ability to touch or feel the world around us allows us to learn, protect
ourselves, relate to others, experience pleasure, and aids us in understanding.

The sense of touch allows individuals to navigate through spaces, touching what
is perceived and perceiving what is touched. It gives one the ability to deduce, interpret
and make meaning of it in our memory and through learning.
The skin is the sensory organ for touch and it is the largest organ of the body with an
area of eighteen square feet and weight of nine pounds.92

Touch is comprised of various somatic senses (senses we feel with our body),
kinesthetic senses that, give us a conception of our bodies in space (proprioception),
and visceral senses, such as stomachaches or nausea. The skin has sensory neurons
each of which contains a specialized capsule on its peripheral end, which physically
links the nerve ending to surrounding skin tissue. Nerve endings, called

90
David Michael Levin, The Opening of Vision – Nihilism and the Postmodern Situation (New York and
London: Routledge, 1988).
91
Esther P. Gardner, Touch (Chinchester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2010), accessed June 6, 2014,
http://www.els.net [doi: 10.1002/9780470015902.a0000219.pub2].
Tiffany, Field, Touch (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2001).
92
Esther P. Gardner, Touch (Chinchester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2010), accessed June 6, 2014,
http://www.els.net [doi: 10.1002/9780470015902.a0000219.pub2].

38
mechanoreceptors, detect changes in shape of the capsule surrounding nerve endings,
producing an action potential, which is than propagated to the nervous system. These
nerve receptors known as touch or pressure receptors are one of several types of
receptors found in the human skin. Other touch receptors in the skin respond to pain,
temperature and to the presence of chemicals on the skin.93 When these receptors are
stimulated they send electrical pulses to neurons, which are specialized cells that relay
electrochemical impulses.94 The sensory neurons then work as a relay passing
electrical impulses from neuron to neuron until it reaches the spinal cord. The spinal
cord transmits the neuron’s electrical impulses to the thalamus where it is relayed to the
brain. In the brain the specific location at which each neuron synapses determines how
the electrical impulse is interpreted.95 The sense of touch is one of the most informative
senses, informing us of the way we “see” the world we live in.

Figure 16 Skin Diagram

[Diagram by Thomas Haslwanter, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Skin_proprioception.svg|
graphic by author]
by author]
93
Esther P. Gardner, Touch (Chinchester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2010), accessed June 6, 2014,
http://www.els.net [doi: 10.1002/9780470015902.a0000219.pub2].
94
“Nervous System,” Penn Medicine, accessed July 5, 2014,
http://www.pennmedicine.org/health_info/body_guide/reftext/html/nerv_sys_fin.html.
95
Elise Hancock, “A Primer on Touch,” Johns Hopkins University, accessed March 12, 2014,
http://www.jhu.edu/jhumag/996web/touch.html.

39
Relation to Architecture

Touch is an intimate sense, bringing us into an intimate contact with the world.
Touch is the sensory mode, which integrates our experiences of the world and
ourselves. Touching can also serve to amplify other senses such as sight. For example
we can see sunlight but it is not until it touches our skin that we truly experience it. By
touching the light, we enter into a relationship that invites us to leave behind superficial
ideas of what something is and find a deeper meaning. Skin has the ability to sense
more than sunlight; it can read texture, weight, density, and the temperature of matter.96

Architecture is more frequently experienced through sight but sense of touch

allows us to experience architecture in a more intimate approach. Through the sense of
touch we can experience more components of a structures construction than through
vision. Visually architectural components can appear to be similar giving the illusion of
the same visual impression and in this sense; touch can help distinguish the hardness,
depth, and temperature of seemingly similar components. Through touch, architecture
can be experience and unfolded in a series of parts, allowing a more intimate
connection to a particular structure. An example of the intimate relationship between
touch and architecture is the Holocaust Memorial in Berlin. The smooth concrete
entices the hand into stroking the surface.97 Through visual perception it can be
concluded that the concrete appears to be cold and the skin is known for mapping out
temperature spaces with absolute meticulousness98, further enticing our curiosity to
explore and experience such architectural elements.

96
Juhani Palasmaa, The eyes of the Skin Architecture and the Senses (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons,
2005).
97
Juhani Palasmaa, The eyes of the Skin Architecture and the Senses (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons,
2005), 41-45.
98
Zinat Yusufzai, “The Lucidity of Place,” (Master of Architecture thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University, 2001), 10-20, accessed April 4, 2014, http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-
11302001-161439/unrestricted/thesis-low-res.pdf.

40
Pallasmaa states:
“Architecture connects us with the dead… and enables us to see and understand the
passing of history, participating in time cycles that surpass an individual life” 99

Touch enables visitors to the Holocaust Memorial to tie together generations

and history. The design of the concrete slabs “stelae” produce an uneven, confusing
and uneasy feeling which is experienced and interpreted by the sense of touch through
the feet. By walking on the stelae the feet sense the uneven surface reminding the
visitor of the turmoil experienced during the Holocaust. Sight dominates how
architecture is experience but the sense of touch has proven to be as important if not
so more, in creating a stronger relationship between oneself and architectural
experiences.

Figure 17 Children Playing on Holocaust Memorial

[Diagram by Chocolatemedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorial_to_the_Murdered_Jews_of_Europe]

99
Juhani Palasmaa, The eyes of the Skin Architecture and the Senses (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons,
2005), 52
41
Figure 18 Walkway at Holocaust Museum
[Diagram by Chocolatemedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorial_to_the_Murdered_Jews_of_Europe]

42
Case Studies

The two examples chosen for case studies use the principles of neuro-
architecture and serve as examples outside the healthcare and educational facilities.
The Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture had various examples of how
neuroscience findings have been used to shape architectural design. Currently there
are few examples of this relation ship outside the educational and healthcare fields and
the two examples chosen are analyzed not for the type of facility they are but their use
of neuroscience in the design. The first example is Thurston Chapel, which is located
on the grounds of a school on the island of Oahu. For this analysis I will omit the
religious aspect of the facility and view it as a place of enlightenment. The second
example is Salk Institute, which is located in La Jolla, California. The institute is a
research facility for the study of neuroscience and the first structure that combined
neuroscience and architectural design. For this example I will also disregard the type
of facility and only focus on the applications of neuroscience it implemented into its
architectural design.

Figure 19 Punahou School Map

[Map from About, https://www.punahou.edu | graphic by author]

43
 Thurston Chapel is located on the grounds of Punahou School, which is located
in Honolulu, Hawai"i. Although the chapel is located on school grounds, it is open to
the public. The chapel is situated on top of the Ka Punahou natural spring. The
location allows for a direct visual and psychological connection to nature.
Neuroscientists have researched this connection to natural surroundings extensively
and it has been concluded that facilities with visible natural surrounds positively impact
the human psyche. The landscaped courtyard on chapel’s north side aids in providing
an oasis of serenity amid the bustling campus. Further integration of the pond is
achieved by the lowering of the chapel floor below the courtyard in order to bring it
physically closer to the pond.

Figure 20 Thurston Chapel Pond

[Photo by Katherine Crosier, http://insanity.blogs.lchwelcome.org/2013/07/27/retired-hardly/]

44
Figure 21 Thurston Chapel Courtyard
[Photo by Ronald Loui,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punahou_School#/media/File:Punahou_Chapel_and_Round_House.jpg]

Natural light and a variety of light color are introduced into the design of the
chapel. Color and natural lighting have the ability to affect the mood of the user. By
using subdued light inside the chapel, it creates a calmer atmosphere and attenuates
the high energy of the youth attending mass. The use of color aids in influencing mood
within the chapel. The roof design is square in plan and bisected diagonally; with the
north side raised nearly 2ft to create an opportunity for daylighting. In order to create
an atmosphere to promote enlightenment, natural daylight is crucial as seen in
Thorncrown Chapel.

45
Figure 22 Thurston Chapel Stained Glass Window
[Photo by Debra DiCandilo, http://www.pbase.com/debradicandilo/image/78555460]

46
 The rich expression of materiality found throughout the chapel is another key
concept. Materials influence our sense of touch and the visual impression architecture
leaves us with. Through the use of local material such as Koa wood and clay tiles, the
user is intimately linked to a sense of place. The contrast between the stucco, clay
tiles, copper, and wood serve to create a sense of calmness and tranquility through out
the grounds. The materials allow for an emotional connection to the chapel. It is wise
to note that Thurston Chapel was design and completed parallel to the emerging field of
neuro-architecture. This implies that architects have been instinctually designing
architecture in relation to neuroscience before the emergence of the field.

Figure 23 Thurston Chapel Exterior

[Photo from Punahou School: Campus Virtual Tour, http://www.punahou.edu/about/campus-and-
facilities/campus-tour/index.aspx]

47
Salk Institute, La Jolla, California

The Salk Institute was established in the 1960s by Jonas Salk, M.D., the
developer of the polio vaccine. His goal was to establish an institute that would explore
questions about the basic principles of life. He wanted to make it possible for biologists
and others to work together in a collaborative environment that would encourage them
to consider the wider implications of their discoveries for the future of humanity.100 Salk
Institute serves as an example where neuroscience and architecture came together to
produce a new type of architecture, which responds to the entire realm of the human
being.

The institute in plan is designed as a mandala, an ancient art that represents

natural order and hierarchy through the use of concentric shapes. The building is
designed to radiate inward from the exterior service areas (body). After the service
areas are the biological laboratories (mind), followed by the walkways, which serve to
represent gathering spaces (society). Finally to the central courtyard, which is
dissected by a simple band of water running its length, representing a place of stillness
(spirit). Salk Institute takes the visitor through a physical and psychological progression
from the body to the spirit, thus representing the human being as a whole.

Figure 24 Salk Institute Courtyard

[Photo by Liao Yusheng, http://figure-ground.com/salk/]

100
“History of Salk,” Salk Institute for Biological Studies, accessed February 1, 2014,
http://www.salk.edu/about/history.html.

48
 The institute employs a few key design features, which employ the findings of
neuroscience. The first of these features is the materials used in construction. Sense
of touch is one of the most important ways in which we experience architecture. Our
vision stirs up our curiosity and our touch satisfies that curiosity. Neuroscience tells us
that seemingly smooth concrete surfaces entice us to feel that surface and this is true
at the Salk Institute. When standing in the courtyard the visitor is drawn to the material.

Figure 25 Salk Institute Construction

[Photo from History of Salk, http://www.salk.edu/about/history.html]

49
 The next two features go hand in hand, water and visual connection to nature.
Water has the ability to create a sense of tranquility and purity. The water that
intersects the courtyard serves two purposes, the first being that it aids in creating a
certain atmosphere to induce clarity of mind and the second to guide the eye in
creating a visual connection with the surrounding ocean. As stated in the previous
example, the presence and ability to see/interact with nature promotes our physical and
psychological well-being. The structure itself frames the view, which is subtly guided
by the water.

Figure 26 Salk Institute View Corridor Diagram

[Photo from AD Classics: Salk Institute, http://www.archdaily.com | graphic by author]

50
 The third key feature is the use of light and shadow. Light and shadow can
have a profound effect on our emotions and on the way we perceive a space. Kahn
used the interplay of light and shadow eloquently in the institute. The lack of light in the
exterior walkways creates a sense of depth and drama. The movement of the sun
creates constantly changing shadows allows the visitor to experience the institute in
many different ways.

The changing light affects not only shadows but also our visual impression of
the materials, concrete that looked white/grey during midday, looks warmer with a light
orange hue. Although the material stays constant the way we visually see it changes
the manner in which we interact with the architecture. Salk Institute is the first building
that consciously attempted to create a symbiotic relationship between neuroscience
and architectural design. It has changed the way we view architecture and ones own
self in relation to the built environment.

Figure 27 Salk Institute Corridor Shadows

[Photo from Louis Kahn: The Space of Ideas | Essays, http://www.architectural-
review.com/essays/louis-kahn-the-space-of-ideas/8637503.article]

51
Figure 28 Salk Institute Corridor Shadows
[Photo by Alexander Zovic, http://www.zovic.se/?p=347]

52
 CHAPTER 6. WAI‘ANAE

The proposed project site is located in Wai ʻanae, on the southwestern coast of
the Island of Oahu. The site was selected due to various factors of which the most
important being that the project site area is located in a community that is underserved.
The Waianae Coast contains a high percentage of Native Hawaiians. The community is
gravely underserved in public transportation, markets, community areas, schools,
healthcare facilities and such. Neuro-architecture has the ability to provide an
architectural environment that is conducive towards learning and healing. The site was
chosen primarily for this reason, architecture should inspire and motivate its users, and
the population of the Wai ʻanae Coast would greatly benefit from a healing center that
could have the potential of bringing the community together and bridging the gap
between generations. Local Hawaiian culture is very much about family gatherings and
social interaction making this site the ideal location.

History

The city of Wai‘anae is located on the southwestern coast of the Island of Oahu.
Wai‘anae is one of the most developed rural or country areas on the island, secluded
from the hustle and bustle of modern city living. This coastal city also holds the largest
population of Native Hawaiian, which roughly comprises 30% of 10,506 local
population.101 The 3.4 square miles in which Wai‘anae is located is commonly known for
its sugar mill, fishing, agriculture and religion.

This community holds the oral history of the Hawaiian people, told by
storytellers from generation to generation. Through chant, which had been sung for
generations in their native land in the South Pacific, Hawaiians sailed thousands of
miles following the stars and eventually came upon what we now call Hawaii. The

101
“Waianae,” Places, accessed June 28, 2014, http://places.findthehome.com/l/26886/Waianae-HI.

53
Wai‘anae coast was named after the mullet that was once farmed in the area. The
name Wai‘anae is broken down into two words, Wai (pronounced why) means water
and enae (eh na ee) means large mullet. The community has a rich history, which was
first glimpsed upon by Captain James Cook in the late 1700’s. Captain George
Vancouver wrote in his reports of the fertility of the lands of Wai‘anae, having spotted a
fertile coconut grove.102 In the early 1800’s, a man named Boki, was chosen by King
Kamehameha I as a chieftain for the village of Wai‘anae. The year of 1811 gave rise to
the global trade industry of this community, when Western travelers noticed the
abundance of sandalwood of these fertile lands. By the early 1900’s the fertile lands of
Wai‘anae became one of the main sites for the sugar production industry. Although the
rich lands of Hawaii produced bountiful harvest of sugar cane, the industry soon came
to an abrupt end due to the effects of World War II.

After the war, many of the Hawaiian communities began rebuilding leading to
Hawaii becoming a prime holiday destination. The tourism and commercial industries
began to take hold in Hawaii, ultimately changing the pre-war character of the islands.
While many places in the Hawaiian chain experienced the impact of these industries,
Wai‘anae became one of a few places within Oahu that was able to preserve its pre-war
character. In modern times, this community has successfully developed a balance
between the tourism industry and Hawaiian culture. Wai‘anae to this day is still
considered country, avoiding the downfalls of more tourism-oriented cities such as
overdevelopment, vehicular and pedestrian congestion and loss of culture. Although
Wai‘anae and the surrounding communities have avoided commercialization, not all the
resulting effects have been beneficial.

Located only 30 miles from the bustling center of Honolulu, Wai‘anae rarely
benefits from $14.52 billion yearly visitor expenditures.103 A White House press release
in November of 2012 stated the Wai‘anae Coast is one of the most economically

102
“Waianae, Honolulu County, Hawaii,” Hawaii State Info, accessed July 6, 2014,
http://www.hawaiistateinfo.com/waianae.php.
103
Daniel Nahoopii et al., 2013 Annual Visitor Report (Hawaii: Hawaii Tourism Authority, 2013),
accessed July 6, 2014, http://www.hawaiitourismauthority.org/default/assets/File/reports/visitor-
statistics/2013%20ANNUAL%20REPORT%20(final).pdf.
54
challenged communities in the state.104 Wai‘anae had the fifth-highest poverty rate at
18.8% according to analysis of U.S. Census data. This community is also home to the
largest homeless encampment in the United States. The encampment is commonly
referred to as “tent city” and of the 200 people currently residing in it 90% are native
Hawaiians.105

Figure 29 Homeless Camp in Wai‘anae

[Photo by Author]

104
Michael Levine, “White House: Waianae Among Hawaii’s Poorest Areas,” Civil Beat, November 2,
2011, accessed September 4, 2014, http://www.civilbeat.com.
105
Robert Johnson, “The Other Side of Paradise: Inside Hawaii’s Giant Homeless Community,” Business
Insider, August 2, 2013 http://www.businessinsider.com/what-homelessness-looks-like-in-hawaii-photos-
2013-8?op=1.

55
Figure 30 Homeless Camp in Wai‘anae
[Photo by Author]

Homelessness is not the only issue faced by these communities. Wai‘anae and
the surrounding communities are gravely underserved from infrastructure, education,
and public facilities to health services. Farrington Highway is the only access road into
these communities and constantly under construction with temporary road repairs
lasting for months at a time. Public transportation system consists of older generation
busses unlike the newer more efficient busses that service other cities.

There are only 3 schools located within the Wai‘anae city boundaries and
compared to other schools in Hawaii using 2010 test averages, the schools rated 7, 4
and 30 respectively based on a scale from 0 (worst) to 100 (best).106 All three of these
schools ranked among the worst in the state. The city is also home to the island’s only
industrial waste disposal site, the PVT Landfill, and immediately adjacent to the
Wai‘anae mall is a wastewater treatment plant whose unpleasant smell lingers in the
area.

106
“Waianae, Hawaii, ” City Data, accessed August 30, 2014, http://www.city-data.com/city/Waianae-
Hawaii.html#b.

56
 Although this community faces many adversities and is often overlooked, it is
home to some of Hawaii’s best beaches, fishing, and cultural richness. With 30% of its
population comprised of Native Hawaiians, Wai‘anae offers a unique opportunity to
learn and perpetuate the Hawaiian Culture. There are 8 major farms, which grow
traditional crops such as taro, banana, papaya, guava, lilikoi and lua leaf as well as
other crops such as corn, lettuce and eggplant. The farms promote the local
agricultural industry while also providing a variety of community and educational
programs for both youth and adults. The programs promote aina (land)-based
community development.107

Aside from the 8 larger farms, there is hundreds of local community and family
gardens scattered throughout Wai‘anae. These farms are not only providing an
opportunity towards becoming sustainable but are also a tool in an effort to revitalize
traditional Hawaiian culture and practices. Through these farms, the community is
instilling cultural ideas such as proper balance of mana (spiritual energy, power), which
is believed to be essential in maintaining harmony not only with oneself, but also with
others, the gods and nature itself.108 Hawaiian culture and practices are based on
spirituality and maintaining a proper balance between all things. This idea translates to
other aspects to traditional Hawaiian practices such as healing.

Traditional Hawaiian Healing

Traditional Hawaiian healing was at the core of Hawaiian culture prior to western
contact. The Hawaiian people believed that in order to be physically, mentally and
emotionally healthy, one must maintain a proper balance between the body, spirit and
nature. Illness was believed to be a result of a loss of pono (spiritual balance/harmony

107
Hawaii Business Magazine Staff, “More Than Just Farming, ” Hawaii Business Magazine November
2010, accessed January 22, 2015, http://www.hawaiibusiness.com/more-than-just-farming/.
108
R.K. Blaisdell, “Historical and cultural aspects of Hawaiian health,” in Social Process in Hawaii-The
health of Native Hawaiians: A selective report on health status and health care in the 1980's, Special Issue
ed.,Vol. 32, E. L. Wegner ed., (Honolulu:University of Hawaii Press, 1989), 1-21.

57
or right order).109 Unlike western views on healing, Hawaiian healing involved healing
the spirit in order to restore proper balance or pono, because it was believed that the
body, mind and spirit were one and therefore the body could not be healed without
healing the spirit first.110 The healing process followed several protocols beginning with
an individual first recognizing and assessing the actions that led to their imbalance,
which resulted in their illness. Taking accountability and responsibility for these actions
was a vital part of the healing process. After an individual determined the root cause of
the imbalance a kahuna or priest would assist the individual in preforming chants and
prayers to invoke the mana of the gods to restore spiritual balance along with the use of
medicinal plants. The kahuna played a vital role in the process of healing both in an
individual and within the community at large, providing guidance for the Hawaiian
people in maintaining a proper balance between the body, spirit and nature.

AKUA

MANKIND NATURE

Figure 31 Hawaiian Triangle of Life

[Data from Mai Iluna Mai by Kahu Kapiiohookalani Lyons Naone | graphic by author]

109
Kahu Kapiiohookalani Lyons Naone, Mai Iluna Mai: It Comes Form Above :General Native Hawaiian
Healing (Hawaii: Kumu A’oand Manawa Inc., 2005).
110
M. F. M. Oneha, “Ka mauli o ka ‘aina a he mauli kanaka: An ethnographic study from a Hawaiian sense
of place,” Pacific Health Dialogue 8 (2001): 299-311.

58
 In 1778 traditional Hawaiian culture and healing practices began to change with
the introduction of diseases through western contact. The Hawaiian people who
believed that illness was a result of imbalance now faced diseases such as smallpox,
measles and tuberculosis, which could not be cured through traditional healing
methods. The introduction of these new diseases to which the Hawaiian people had
little to no resistance to had a dramatic affect not only on the kahuna but the core of
traditional healing practices. The kahunas’ lack of success in treating these new
diseases led to doubt and lack of faith in traditional methods of healing among the
Hawaiian people. The lack of success by the kahunas led the Hawaiian people to look
towards western medicine instead of traditional healing practices for treatment, which
ultimately resulted in the abandonment of traditional cultural and healing practices.

In recent years there has been a call for the restoration of Native Hawaiian
culture and traditions including the Hawaiian language, music and dance and traditional
practices regarding healthcare. In an effort to preserve Hawaiian cultural traditions, The
Wai‘anae Coast Comprehensive Health Center through federal and private funding built
a facility for Native Hawaiian healing. Its doors open in August 2009, providing a range
of traditional healing practices offered by master practitioners. A Council of Elders or
Kupuna are responsible for preserving and upholding cultural Hawaiian ways of practice
oversees the center. The Native Hawaiian Traditional Healing Center promotes
traditional Native Hawaiian healing and cultural education, practices and traditions. The
primary practices, which begin with Pule and Oli, prayer and chant, include LomiLomi
(Hawaiian massage), La‘au Lapa‘au (healing with herbal medicine), La‘au Kahea
(spiritual healing), Pule (healing through prayer) and Ho’oponopono (conflict resolution).
It is said that when walking the grounds of the center, one can feel the mana or power
of the area.111

111
“Healing,” Waianae Coast Comprehensive Health Center, accessed February 2, 2015,
http://www.wcchc.com/Healing.

59
 The recent interest in restoring traditional cultural practices in the Wai‘anae
coast has created an opportunity to heal a community that has been plagues with
social and economical issues such as homelessness, poverty and loss of cultural
identity. Of the various healing practices mentioned above, Ho’oponopono could be an
ideal tool in the healing process of the community and individual alike. The
Ho’oponopono process was traditionally used by Native Hawaiians, primarily kahuna, to
resolve and discuss arguments, hurt feelings and deal with interpersonal problems.112
The process is a family-based form of conflict resolution used to maintain harmony
within an `ohana (family) and within a community. The Hawaiian cultural values of
collectivism and community are instilled in Ho’oponopono, where both the nuclear
family and extended family play a key role in restoring harmony within the individual,
family, and community.113

The Ho’oponopono process consists of several stages, including a protocol that

dictates how family members must conduct themselves during the process, which must
be strictly followed. The process begins with a kupuna (elder) or kahuna (priest) calling
for family members to gather. Family members gather with the understanding that their
participation is required until the process is completed, which is important as the
process may take several hours or several days. The family must observe two rules
during the process; the first is that all communication is controlled by the kupuna or
kahuna, the second is the prohibition on expression of emotional excess.114 Before the
process begins the practitioner is required to preform Ho’oponopono on himself or
herself in order to avoid the transferring of any imbalance and to insure proper spiritual
balance.115 Afterwards once the family is gathered and the rules understood, the
process is initiated with a pule (prayer).

112
Mary K. Pukui, et al., Nana I Ke Kumu, Vol. 1 (Honolulu: Hui Hanai, 1972).
D. N. Ishida, T. Toomata-Mayer, and J. F. Mayer, “Samoans,” in Culture and nursing care: A pocket guide,
eds. J. G. Lipson, S. L. Dibble, and P. A. Minarik (San Francisco, CA: UCSF Nursing Press, 1996), 250-
263.
113
Ibid.
114
E. V. Shook, E. V., Ho’oponopono: Contemporary uses of a Hawaiian problem-solving process
(Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985).
115
Kahu Kapiiohookalani Lyons Naone, Mai Iluna Mai: It Comes Form Above :General Native Hawaiian
Healing (Hawaii: Kumu A’oand Manawa Inc., 2005).
60
 The pule is then proceeded by identifying the problem, which includes
describing the hala (transgression) that has been created or believed to have
happened.116 During the process the feelings of those involved are acknowledged and
discussed in regards to the hala. The discussions during Ho’oponopono can be intense
and during this time, family members may take periods of silence to reflect on their
feelings. Once the hala has been thoroughly discussed and proper harmony restored,
family members kala or release one another from past transgressions and at this point,
the issue is resolved. Traditionally the Ho’oponopono process is then concluded with a
ceremonial feast or pani.117

All Hawaiian healing including Ho’oponopono is based on pono (right order;

spiritual harmony), which entails not only curing or providing relief from illnesses but
determining the root of the illness. In Hawaiian culture it is understood that ones own
actions can lead to an imbalance between the body, nature and the gods, these
imbalances manifested themselves as illnesses. Traditional healing practices focus on
first and foremost determining the root of the imbalance, it is believed that in order to
cure the illness, the root of the imbalance must first be addressed.

Healers to provide comfort from the symptoms, which manifest themselves in a

patient, often use medicinal plants but only as an aid, they are not the primary form of
healing. Kahuna often begin the healing process by first spending time speaking with
the patient, this allows the healer to better understand the person and most importantly
aid in determining the root of the problem.118

116
Ibid.
117
E. V. Shook, E. V., Ho’oponopono: Contemporary uses of a Hawaiian problem-solving process
(Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985).
Pukui, Nana I Ke Kumu, 60-80.
118
Kahu Kapiiohookalani Lyons Naone, Mai Iluna Mai: It Comes Form Above :General Native Hawaiian
Healing (Hawaii: Kumu A’oand Manawa Inc., 2005).

61
Traditional Hawaiian healing is based on the premise that any form of healing cannot
take place without first identifying the true cause of the imbalance. This fundamental
idea can serve as a tool to heal a community that has forgotten their cultural ties and
often marginalized by western culture. The fundamentals of traditional Hawaiian
healing have the ability to be the foundation for a new type of healing center, one that
uses all aspects of Hawaiian culture along with the principles of neuro-architecture to
create a center that heals not only the individual but the community at large.

62
 CHAPTER 7. NEURO-ARCHITECTURE AND
TRADITIONAL CULTURAL PRACTICES

When thinking of neuro-architecture and traditional Hawaiian culture, the link

between the two is not always apparent but much of Hawaiian cultural practices follow
the same principles outlined by neuro-architecture. These include understanding the
effects of natural elements such as water, sunlight and greenery, the importance of
touch and sight as well as the implications our emotions and memories can have on the
built environment.

Nature

One of the most important links between Hawaiian culture and neuro-
architecture is the importance of nature. Neuroscience research has expanded on the
effect the natural environment can have on both our physical and psychological well
being, Hawaiians understood the importance of nature long before research concluded
this. In Hawaiian culture nature is revered and provides healing of the mind and body.
It is important to note that in traditional Hawaiian culture, all aspects of the land, forest
and ocean, and people are interrelated. Hawaiians believed that respecting and caring
for nature would in turn lead to nature caring for the people.

This regard for nature in modern times is further illustrated by research, which
informs us of the effects the natural environment, can have on our well-being.
Hawaiians understood the healing powers of nature, such as the medicinal properties of
plants and fruits and of the balance created by the presence of nature. In modern times
the effects the natural environment has on our physical and psychological well-being
has been extensively documented. Neuro-architecture research has shown that being
in or viewing nature triggers parts of the brain, which are associated with empathy and

63
love to become more active.119 The presence of nature helps in reducing stress, fear
and anger therefore changing our mood to a more calm and balanced state. Hawaiians
had a similar belief in nature, understanding that harmony in nature creates harmony in
the person.120 Similar to ancient times and beliefs, neuro-architecture research
supports the idea that nature connects us to each other and the world at large
ultimately positively affecting our state of being.

Water

Water is another important link between neuro-architecture and Hawaiian

culture. Water was and is a major aspect in Hawaiian culture; it played an integral role
in both lifestyle and cultural practices. Wai (water) was believed to be sacred in
Hawaiian culture, and along with the land belonged to the gods. Wai was an essential
source of life giving prosperity to the Hawaiian people and provided a source of
healing.121 Hi’uwai is an ancient Hawaiian healing practice of cleansing the body, mind
and spirit creating mind balance through the use of fresh and salt water. In this
traditional practice water serves the function of purification renewing a persons sense
of happiness and vitality.122

The healing practice of hi’uwai by Hawaiians meant there was an understanding

of the positive effects water can have on the body and mind. Similar to the Hawaiians’
understanding of the importance of water to the well-being, neuro-architecture has
made similar conclusions. It is understood that water affects us on various levels. On
the physical level water at different temperatures has the ability to alter our physical
state of being. Cold water for example whether splashed on the face or bathed in,

119
Richard M. Ryan et al., “Vitalizing effects of being outdoors and in nature,” Journal of Environmental
Psychology 30 (2010): 159, accessed January 5, 2015, DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.10.009.
120
Kahu Kapiiohookalani Lyons Naone, Mai Iluna Mai: It Comes Form Above :General Native Hawaiian
Healing (Hawaii: Kumu A’oand Manawa Inc., 2005).
121
Julie S. Williams, From the Mountains to the Sea - Early Hawaiian Life (Honolulu: Kamehameha
Schools Press,1997), 77.
122
‘Ōlohe Lua Aīwaīwa and La‘akea Suganuma, “Keeping Our Traditional Purification Practices Pure,”
Awa Development Council, accessed February 18, 2015, http://www.awadevelopment.org/wp-
content/uploads/2014/01/KEEPING-OUR-TRADITIONAL-PURIFICATION-PRACTICES-PURE.pdf.
64
stimulates the body’s muscles increasing blood flow and oxygen to the brain,
stimulating the mind.123 Cool water’s stimulation of the body similar to the effects of
hi’uwai in traditional Hawaiian healing, promotes increased vitality and resistance to
disease. Warm water has the effect of relaxing muscles, increasing circulation in the
body and through steam, allows the mind to enter a state of relaxation.

Traditional Hawaiian healing used water as a medium for creating balance and
harmony in an individual’s overall state of being and in recent years neuro-architecture
research has led to scientific evidence supporting this idea. Water can have a
therapeutic effect on the mind by placing us back in touch with the balance and
harmony of nature. The sound of flowing water, we associate with meditation and
relaxation soothes the mind and the body. The sight of water similar to that of nature
evokes feelings of delight and serenity. Hawaiians were well aware of the profound
effects water had on a person’s mind, body and spirit which in modern times is now a
guiding principle in neuro-architecture design.

Touch

Neuro-architecture through research and investigations has greatly emphasized

the importance of touch, even more than sight, in our understanding of the built
environment as well as in our psychological state of mind. French philosopher, Denis
Diderot states, “I found that of the senses, the eye is the most superficial; the ear the
most arrogant; smell the most voluptuous; taste the most superstitious and fickle; and
touch the most profound and philosophical.124 The sense of touch not only allows us to
understand the world around us but also provides us with a channel of communication.
Of all the senses, touch is the most social sense, providing a fundamental means to the
world around us.125

123
Dian D. Buchman, The Complete Book of Water Healing (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002).
124
Freddie L. Peaco, “Braille in the Environment,” in Braille into the next millennium, Judith Dixon ed.
(Washington, D.C.: National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped: Friends of
Libraries for Blind and Physically Handicapped Individuals in North America. 2000), 314-333.
125
R. L. Klatzky, and S. J. Lederman, ”Touch,” in Experimental Psychology, Volume 4, Handbook of
psychology, ed., A. F. Healy and R. W. Proctor and I. B. Weiner (New York: Wiley, 2002), 147-176.
65
 In regards to neuro-architecture, touch serves as a medium, which ties us to our
past, evokes emotion and can at times heal. Hawaiian culture uses touch in ways that
are similar to those applications in neuro-architecture. In Hawaiian culture and healing
practices touch is an important tool used in creating deep bonds within an ohana
(family), a way to teach and to heal. Lomi Lomi (softening) is a form of Hawaiian
message that utilizes touch to manipulate the body to heal and restore balance.126
Another form of touch employed in Hawaiian culture is the practice of honi ihu, which is
the touching of the nose when greeting. This practice is an expression of family
members or members of a community exchanging ha (breath), which conveys the
degree of closeness in the relationship. This type of interpersonal touch releases
oxytocin, a hormone linked to stress, whose effects help in reducing stress experienced
in everyday life.127 Through touch kupuna taught younger generations arts such as
weaving, navigation, cultivation and healing. The sense of touch played an integral role
in Hawaiian spirituality, healing and overall way of life.

Figure 32 Sharing of Ha or the Breath of Life through Honi Ihu

[Photo by Richard Walker, http://archives.starbulletin.com/2003/09/10/news/index2.html]

126
Kahu Kapiiohookalani Lyons Naone, Mai Iluna Mai: It Comes Form Above :General Native Hawaiian
Healing (Hawaii: Kumu A’oand Manawa Inc., 2005).
127
Di Simplicio M. et al., “Oxytocin enhances perception and memory for positive versus negative
emotional information in healthy male volunteers,” Journal of Psychopharmacology 23 (2009): 241-8.

66
 CHAPTER 8. DESIGN

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the findings of neuroscience and

promote their implementation into architectural design, therefore creating a deeper
understanding of how the human body relates to architectural surroundings. This
understanding was the driving force for the design. The design creates a weaving of
neuro-architecture and traditional Hawaii cultural practices in an attempt to formulate a
different type of design, one that would have the ability to begin to heal a community
riddled with various social issues.

Site Selection

The process of site selection first began with the decision to concentrate on the
Wai ʻanae coast. This decision was made due to various influences. The first came
from the understanding of what neuro-architecture attempts to create through design.
Its purpose is to create a design that is holistic; taking into account the needs of the
user, cultural values and the effects the design will have on the user. This led to the
decision to focus on the Wai ʻanae coast because of the many social issues that plague
the city. Wai ʻanae provided an opportunity to develop a design, which integrates the
findings of neuro-architecture and cultural practices to provide an architectural
environment that is conducive towards healing of both the ohana and the community as
a whole. Selection of the site came after a deep exploration of the city. Wai ʻanae,
although riddled with many social issues such as homelessness, poverty,
unemployment and breakdown of family relationships holds many treasures. The city is
home to some of the richest soils in the world, providing the opportunity for small farms
and families to grow their own crops. Some of the larger farms such as Maʻo Farms
has seized this opportunity not only to provide locally grown produce to the island but
to also provide opportunities to the youth of Wai ʻanae through their youth leadership
program.

67
 Site Context
Oahu, HI

Graphic Scale:

5 mi
5 km

Wai`anae
Nānākuli
Makakilo
Ewa
Airport
Honolulu

Figure 33 Map of Oahu

[Image from Google Maps,https://www.google.com | Data from HoLis,
DPP, C&C of Honolulu, http://gis.hicentral.com, graphic by author]

68
Figure 34 Students working at Ma!o Organic Farms
[Photo from Ma‘o Organic Farms, http://ulupono.com/portfolios/ma-o-organic-farms]

The Wai "anae is one of the island’s most abundant fishing grounds.
Traditionally fishing played a vital role in Hawaiian spirituality and relationship to nature,
which still holds true in modern times. The coast of Wai "anae is home to some of the
most spectacular beaches and sunsets. The water, beaches and natural environment
create a welcoming spirit to residents and visitors alike. Here the sense of ohana is not
lost. Local families often gather for festivities and social interactions near the cities
healing waters. The issues faced by the city often overshadow these qualities, but
represent parts of a culture that once thrived in the area and is the foundation of the
culture of Wai "anae.

69
Figure 35 Hawaii Fisherman
[Photo by Susan Seubert, http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/city-guides/undiscovered-maui-
photos-]
traveler/#/maui-fisherman_22676_600x450.jpg]

After exploring Wai "anae, the focus shifted to selecting a site that would be
appropriate and conducive to goals of the design. Since Native Hawaiians make up
30% population of Wai "anae the process of selecting a site concentrated around
Hawaiian Homestead Lands that were either developed or in the process of
development. Unfortunately the development of lands designated for homesteading in
Wai "anae was a low priority for the Department of Hawaiian Homelands (DHHL), the
governing body over Hawaiian lands. This complicated the process since lands, which
had been previously developed, were not conducive to the goals of the design.

70
 The first site, Wai "anae Valley Homestead is home to 369 single-family
residences located in the Wai "anae valley. The community is set in the lush landscape
of the Wai "anae valley. Although the setting creates a beautiful backdrop, the overall
design of the community is lacking. The Wai "anae Valley Homestead community is a
continuous line of homes and fences, lacking any sort of open area such as parks or
playgrounds for community interactions.

Figure 36 Wai !anae Valley Homestead Housing

[Photo by Author]

71
Figure 37 Fences Seperating Properties
[Photo by Author]

The homes in the homestead range in drastically, some having a more modern
design while others resemble old Hawaiian plantation homes creating a divide on a
social level. Many of the homes are run down and unkept distracting from the beauty
which surrounds them. Some of the homes are not used at all, boarded up as a result
from the loss of integrity. There is little social interaction that occurs between
neighbors as yards are fenced in and cars often litter those yards that are not. Overall
while the homes provide a shelter for many Hawaiian families their condition and design
do not promote the collectivism valued in Hawaiian culture.

72
Figure 38 Home Riddled with Vehicles
[Photo by Author]

Figure 39 Example of Newer Homes

[Photo by Author]

73
Figure 40 Example of Plantation Style Home
[Photo by Author]

Figure 41 House Boarded up by DHHL

[Photo by Author]

74
 The second Wai "anae Kai Homestead, is located near the coastline off of
Farrington Highway in Wai "anae. These homes vary drastically from those of the
previous homestead site. Here dilapidated homes are replaced by new identical
homes, much in the cookie cutter sense. Although this particular community provides
Hawaiian families with newer more modern homes, the same issues regarding
community and lack of social interactions exist.

Figure 42 Homes of Kai Wai !anae Homestead

[Photo by Author]

75
Figure 43 Homes in Kai Wai !anae Homestead
[Photo by Author]

The homes provide little to no yards for families and neighbors to interacts.
There are no parks, playgrounds or open areas to invite gatherings and social
interactions. The Hawaiian culture is one based heavily on community and both social
and personal relationships, which neither of these two communities seem to value or
implement through their design. After considering the pros and cons of these two sites,
it was concluded that neither would be appropriate for the intended design.

Later investigations of the area led to a site that proved to be conducive to the
overall design. The site is located on the city’s eastern most boundary, surrounded by
lush natural landscapes and local farms. The sight is located on a parcel of the
Kahuman Complex. The Kahumana Complex consists of 4 distinct campuses situated
on over 50 acres in the Lualualei Valley in west Oahu. The complex is an alternative
farm-based community that helps in addressing the needs of those who reside in the
community. The community has a diverse mix of people including farmers, social
workers, and social entrepreneurs, people transitioning from homelessness, visitors,
76
locals, youth and people with disabilities. The organization’s goal is to create a
balanced individual as well as community through their holistic approach and social
programs. Kahumana’s social programs focus on:

Homelessness
- Transitional housing program for 130 families
- Wrap around supportive services and case management with the goal of long term
permanent housing.

Disability
- Day Program for Adults with developmental disabilities
- Personal Assistant Services
- Youth
- Day Care, Pre-school, After school programs, Farm to School Program, Intersession
Camps.

Kahumana’s social ventures are revenue generating social businesses, 100%

part of our non-profit 501(c)3, that directly serve their social mission by providing work
and training opportunities for the people they serve. They also provide a venue for the
general public to get involved:

Retreat and Learning Center

- Retreat Programs related to sustainability, permaculture, organic farming, wellness,
youth
and leadership development, disabilities studies, social justice in Hawaii, spirituality,
hawaiian
& world culture.
- Farmstay opportunities on the Organic Farm

Organic Farm and Cafe

- An expanding diverse fruit and vegetable organic/biodynamic farm that offers
work/training opportunities for staff / interns / woofers.
77
- An on-farm cafe that serves farm-fresh food while teaching culinary and hospitality
skills to people in the programs.

Commercial Kitchen: School Meals and Catering

- Commercial kitchen currently delivers over 5000 meals per week to over 35
schools using healthy balanced menus and local organic produce from the on-
site farm.128

Figure 44 Collage of Kahuman Complex

[Photo by Author | From left to right: Kahumana café, café special of the day, agriculture field,
agriculture service]
area, pond, aquaponics, Kahumana transitional housing, adults with disabilities center]

128
“Kahumana Organic Farm,” Kahumana Community, accessed January 8, 2015, kahumana.org.

78
 Site Context
Wai`anae Coast, Oahu, HI

Graphic Scale:

2000 ft
1 km

Wai`anae Boundary
Kahumana Organic Farm,
Cafe, Retreats
Proposed Site
Kahumana Transitional Housing

Figure 45 Wai 'anae Boundary Map

[Image from Google Maps,https://www.google.com | Data from HoLis,
DPP, C&C of Honolulu, http://gis.hicentral.com, graphic by author]

79
Design

The complex provided an opportunity to integrate traditional Hawaiian healing

and neuro-architecture into a design that could strengthen and heal the community.
The design takes principles from both field and attempts to integrate them in a way that
would allow both residents and visitors alike to find a balance, whether it is emotional,
physical, or spiritual. The transitional housing is located on an adjacent site providing
an opportunity to create a stronger cohesion between public and private spaces.

The site is located between the café, retreat and organic farm, which are mainly
used, by visitor, and the transitional housing that is primarily for residents only. One
side of the complex is public with a sense of openness and the ability to wander. The
other side is the private section, which is the location of the transitional housing. This
portion of the complex gives a sense of being private with its large stone gate and signs
requesting visitors to sign in at the office. By developing a design that is placed
between these two spectrums, it allows for a more holistic integration between the
existing structures, workers, visitors and residents. One of the goals of the design is to
promote social interaction and heal the connections lost among neighbors, visitors and
community.

80
 The proposed design incorporates features such as agriculture, landscape and
water, which are currently found on the site. These features play an important role in
creating the desired atmosphere of relaxation and tranquility. The decision to
incorporate these features relates to the Hawaiian culture view of nature. It is revered
and is one of the three aspects of maintaining balance. For this reason the natural
elements of the site were used as a guiding aspect and highlighted in the design.

The design of the site focused around creating a journey for residents and
visitors, where they can begin the process of being pono or in balance. A major
component of the design is the idea of Hoʻoponopono, which translates to conflict
resolution or cleansing of the mind. In traditional Hawaiian Healing it is important to
solve the root of the problem versus only treating the symptoms. Healers will begin
healing sessions by first spending up to 3 hours talking with their patient. This allows
the healer to understand and discover the root of patient’s ailments. It is believed that
symptoms are not the issue but merely an indication that one of the three points stated
earlier is off balance. The design uses this thought process to create an environment
which allows visitors and residents to get to the root of their problems while providing
support services to aid in achieving balance. The site consists of two different
journeys, that of the visitor and that of the resident.

84
Figure 49 Design Concept
[Image from Google Maps,https://www.google.c om | Data from HoLis,
DPP, C&C of Honolulu, http://gis.hicentral.com, graphic by author]

85
 Although both residents and visitors share the same site, their experiences will
differ. The main difference in experience is that the visitor will be given the opportunity
to learn about the healing center and kahumana complex, where the resident is already
aware of this. The goal of the resident’s journey is to create an opportunity for the
person to be open and confront their issues at the core. The journey begins by
preparing them for hoʻoponopono by introducing a natural environment, which will aid
in creating an atmosphere of tranquility and relaxation. Natural environments such as
greenery and water and have shown reduce a persons stress levels and clear their and
altering their state of mind. The journey leads to a great rock wall signifying a change in
mood and behavior. The wall serves as a threshold creating a sense of spirituality, by
evoking memories of Hawaiian sacred places. The path continues to what is called the
place for silence. In traditional healing it is said that in order for a person to learn they
need to be silent. This space allows for that. The architecture and the scale express a
change in behavior in needed.

86
 e Rd
Kuwal
estead Rd
u a l u a lei Hom
L

Figure 50 Site Plan | Silence Center

[Image from Google Maps,https://www.google.c om | Data from HoLis,
DPP, C&C of Honolulu, http://gis.hicentral.com, graphic by author]

87
 Neuroarchitecture Principles:

� Materiality
� Atmosphere
� Scale

Figure 51 Silence Center Render

[Pillars from San Francisco Botanical Garden, http://sfbotanicalgarden.org,
graphic and photo by author]

88
 After experiencing the space of silence residents are directed to individual
counseling areas or hoʻoponopono spaces. These areas are primarily open air allowing
the participants maintain a visual connection with the natural environment. Water is
incorporated into the design and serves two purposes. The first being to create a
physical separation from other counseling spaces as well as to create a sense of
privacy. The second is to aid in creating an atmosphere of tranquility. The white noise
produced by the water walls allows residents to feel a sense of privacy while also
mitigating the any ambient noise.

The materials wood and stone create a sense of warm and spirituality
respectively. The stone is black basalt reminiscent of that used in sacred places such a
heiau. The slat design of the walls allows sunlight to enter and for the resident to feel
the warmth of the sun and the coolness of the light breezes that flow through the site.
The design takes into consideration the effects natural lighting can have on a person’s
mood and psychological state utilizing them to create an environment appropriate for
mental cleansing.

89
 e Rd
Kuwal
stead Rd
a l u a l e i Home
Lu

Figure 52 Site Plan | Ho‘oponopono

[Image from Google Maps,https://www.google.c om | Data from HoLis,
DPP, C&C of Honolulu, http://gis.hicentral.com, graphic by author]

90
Neuroarchitecture Principles:

� Nature
� Materiality
� Water

Figure 53 Ho'oponopono Center Renders

[Photo from Streatham, http://gertsamtkunstwerk.typepad.co.uk,
graphic by author]

91
 From here residents have the option to retreat into a private meditation area to
collect and gather their thoughts after their counseling session or to proceed to the
service area. Traditionally during the process of hoʻoponopono, members often have
the option of taking what is called silence time, to think about what has transpired
during the session. The private meditation spaces provide a place for a member to
retreat and think. The meditation spaces are surrounded by natural vegetation to aid in
relaxing and creating calmness in the mind and body. The structures, which consist of
thin vertical slats, create a circular space in which the individual will feel protected and
have a sense of privacy without being completely enclosed.

The meditation space is situated adjacent to a water pool, allowing an individual,

if he/she choses, to partake in the calming and invigorating effects of water. The water
allows the individual to enter a different state of mind, momentarily releasing any stress
or worries they might have. Hoʻoponopono can be an intense and exhaustive process,
and by providing individuals the ability to interact with water, the design promotes the
balance of mind and body.

92
 e Rd
Kuwal
stead Rd
a l u a l e i Home
Lu

Figure 54 Site Plan | Ho‘oponopono Meditation

[Image from Google Maps,https://www.google.c om | Data from HoLis,
DPP, C&C of Honolulu, http://gis.hicentral.com, graphic by author]

93
Neuroarchitecture Principles:

� Nature
� Water
� Perception

Figure 55 Ho'oponopono Meditation Area Renders

[Photo from Sundy House, http://www.tripadvisor.com | graphic by author]

94
 The service area provides residents the tools to achieve balance. Once the root
of the problem is discovered, residents will have access to services, which will enable
them to heal the symptoms of the problem. The services are a collection of four
structures connected by a walkway. The service structures were design in this manner
to evoke feelings of community. The concept of the healing center is not only to heal
the individual or family but also to heal the community as a whole. By providing
residents service structures that evoke these feeling, the resident will feel more inclined
to participate and interact with other residents partaking in the services offered. By
promoting a sense of community the design create an opportunity for residents and
visitors to socialize and learn from one another.

The design of the service structures is similar to that of the of the hoʻoponopono
areas, which is reiterated throughout the healing complex. The design is open air to
provide natural daylighting with the slats providing enough cover from the sun. But
unlike the counseling spaces, these structures use the slats to provide a sense of
privacy instead of water. The privacy the slats create is not necessarily to separate but
to give individuals a sense of intimacy. The ability to see into the service spaces allows
for residents and visitors to join services already in progress. By presenting a sense of
openness, the design promotes participation and interaction among individuals. The
use of water is also incorporated but not in the structures themselves. It is located
adjacent to the services, creating a similar effect that of the meditation pools. The
services signify the process of healing is complete.

95
 e Rd
Kuwal
stead Rd
a l u a l e i Home
Lu

Figure 56 Site Plan | Services Center

[Image from Google Maps,https://www.google.c om | Data from HoLis,
DPP, C&C of Honolulu, http://gis.hicentral.com, graphic by author]

96
 Neuroarchitecture Principles:

� Nature
� Water
� Memory

Figure 57 Service Center Renders

[Photo and graphic by author]

97
 Once residents feel that the root of their imbalance is discovered and have
begun the healing process, they are given the option to a private meditation area
without having to attend a counseling session. This area is primarily for those who have
gone through the previous journey and simply need a space to get away to be alone
with their thoughts. These meditation areas differ from those found at the
hoʻoponopono area by their design.

The first meditation space is designed to be more natural, using stones found on
the site and surrounding areas to form a grotto where meditation and contemplation
can take place. By designing a more natural environment the design allows the user
whether it be the resident or visitor to feel a deeper connection with nature. The grotto
partially encloses a person giving a sense of security and privacy, while still allowing a
direct view to nature and water. The design of this meditation area uses nature, water
and materials to create an atmosphere allowing individuals to find harmony and balance
with nature.

The second meditation area consists of a wooden platform surrounded by the

natural landscape. The space can also serve as a rest area for visitors to gather their
thoughts and relax. The wood gives the individual a feeling of warmth and comfort,
blending in to the landscape around it. The materials and the landscape allow
individuals to enter a different state of mind, one that is more in balance. Nature
creates strong feelings of unity with others experiencing the healing center and a
stronger connection with nature.

98
 e Rd
Kuwal
stead Rd
a l u a l e i Home
Lu

Figure 58 Site Plan | Meditation Grotto | Meditation Platform

[Image from Google Maps,https://www.google.c om | Data from HoLis, DPP, C&C of Honolulu,
http://gis.hicentral.com, graphic by author]

99
 Neuroarchitecture Principles:

� Nature
� Water
� Materiality

Figure 59 Meditation Grotto Render

[Photo from Miuki Mikado, http://miuki.info | graphic by author]

100
 Neuroarchitecture Principles:

� Nature
� Materiality
� Atmosphere

Figure 60 Meditation Platform Render

[Photo from Explore, http://mbgarden.org | graphic by author]

101
 The community center is a part of the experience at times. It provides a space
where residents and staff can have their own area for hoʻoponopono. The community
center is also for the farming community to discuss issues or hold meetings as well as
for the community at large. Although the space is designated as area for conflict
resolution, it can also be used as a place of celebration for the Kahumana community.

Similar to the other designs the community center uses slats to create a sense
of openness while providing protection from the natural elements. The lack of walls
allows for flexibility and encourages social interaction. The community center provides
a place where visitors, residents and workers can begin to strengthen and heal social
bonds allowing the expression of ideas, beliefs and culture. While the other services
aim at healing the individual or the family, the community center aims at healing the
community as a whole.

102
 e Rd
Kuwal
stead Rd
a l u a l e i Home
Lu

Figure 61 Site Plan | Community Center

[Image from Google Maps,https://www.google.c om | Data from HoLis, DPP, C&C of Honolulu,
http://gis.hicentral.com, graphic by author]

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Neuroarchitecture Principles:

� Nature
� Water
� Atmposhpere

Figure 62 Community Center Renders

[Photo and graphic by author]

104
 The visitor experience differs slightly, not necessarily in the process of healing
but in how one begins that process. The visitor enters through the public side allowing
them to experience the café and retreats. If a visitor chooses to enter the healing
center they must first pass through the visitor center. The visitor center serves two
purposes, the first is to inform about the healing center and the efforts of the kahumana
organization. This provides an opportunity for visitors who are interested, to become
further involved in the healing center. Since a majority of the services currently offered
are based on volunteering, a visitor who feels they can be an asset to the goal of the
healing center can partake in providing others their own expertise, whether it be
financial or emotional.

The second purpose is to invite visitors to participate in the healing center. The
visitor center is meant to create a sense of belonging and inclusivity for those who are
not residents of the complex. The goal of the healing center is to heal not only the
individual but the community at large and by developing a structure that allows visitors
to feel comfortable it become more inclusive creating a sense of belonging within the
center itself. The design of the visitor center is open air with slat walls to allow the
visitor to view what is beyond the center evoking a sense of curiosity. The sense of
curiosity will lead visitors to explore the different aspects of the healing center from the
services, meditation spaces to the agriculture allowing them to fully experience all the
healing center has to offer.

105
 e Rd
Kuwal
stead Rd
a l u a l e i Home
Lu

Figure 63 Site Plan | Visitor Center

[Image from Google Maps,https://www.google.c om | Data from HoLis, DPP, C&C of Honolulu,
http://gis.hicentral.com, graphic by author]

106
 MEDICINAL PLANTS

NONI TI KUAWA AWA

GROUND COVER

NEHE IHI EWA HINAHINA

SHRUBS

POHINAHINA KULUI NAIO

TREES

LOULU WILIWILI OHIA ILIAHI

Figure 64 Native Hawaiian and Medicinal Plants

[Data from Native Plant Propagation Database, http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/hawnprop/,
http://www.hawaiiannativeplants.com/ourplants/ | graphic by author]

107
Neuroarchitecture Principles:

� Nature
� Materiality
� Light

Figure 65 Visitor Center Renders

[Photo and graphic by author]

108
 Rest areas are scattered along the paths providing visitors the opportunity to
pause in an environment that promotes relaxation and reduces stress. Some of these
rest areas are located within the agricultural section of the site. Here visitors can learn
and experience traditional agricultural practices and produce. For example they can
learn how taro is cultivated, participate in the process of pounding taro into poi and
finally enjoy this product at the café. The landscape itself is a tool, which can be used to
teach visitors about traditional healing practices and medicinal plants. Native Hawaiian
and medicinal plants are incorporated into the landscape to strengthen the emotional
connection between the body and nature. The visitor experience is about learning not
only about the healing center but how traditional Hawaiian culture and healing practices
are interwoven into the design.

Similar to the residents’ experience, the visitor experience will involve natural
landscaping to aid in changing moods from stressed or anxious to one more calm and
balanced. Being surrounded by nature a visitor is compelled to be more open and
embrace the effects each portion of the healing center will have on their mind, body and
soul. The visitors are not provided with a direct path to the threshold of the center,
instead they are given glimpses of structures on their experience further engaging their
curiosity. As mentioned earlier this is meant to prepare them for the healing process.
The visitor can partake in any one or all of the services, their experience once they
cross the threshold will be the same as that previously described in the resident
experience.

109
 e Rd
Kuwal
stead Rd
a l u a l e i Home
Lu

Figure 66 Site Plan | Rest Area A | Rest Area B

[Image from Google Maps,https://www.google.c om | Data from HoLis, DPP, C&C of Honolulu,
http://gis.hicentral.com, graphic by author]

110
Neuroarchitecture Principles:

� Nature
� Materiality
� Light

Figure 67 Rest Area A Renders

[Photo and graphic by author]

111
Neuroarchitecture Principles:

� Nature
� Materiality
� Memory

Figure 68 Rest Area B Renders

[Photo and graphic by author]

112
 CONCLUSION

This Hawaiian Healing Center has brought to light the undeniable link between
architecture and neuroscience and how through neuro-architecture, architects can
begin to develop spaces and structures better suited for our needs. The goal of this
research was to investigate the findings of neuro-architectue and promote their
implementation into an architectural design, in order to create a deeper understanding
of how the human body relates to architectural surroundings. By understanding how
the human body reacts to various stimuli, I believe that architects in the future will be
able to provide designs that are more meaningful.

Neuro-architecture is a fairly new field that is rapidly progressing towards the

development of guidelines that can ultimately be integrated into the design process.
Through the research and various case studies, it became apparent that long before the
development of the field of neuro-architecture, people were aware of the positive and
negative effects the environment can have on our mind, body and spirituality. The
Hawaiian people were greatly attuned to this and had a culture centered using this
knowledge to create balance and harmony.

The research not only created an understanding of how the human body is
affected by external stimuli on a neurological level and an understanding of how the
information gathered by neuroscientists can be used to guide architectural design but it
has demonstrated through the design of the healing center, that cultural values and
practices can be strengthen through neuro-architecture. I believe the design of the
health center demonstrates the ability of neuro-architecture, as a tool, to develop
architecture that has a deeper meaning and effect on a community and its users.

113
 The links between neuroscience and architecture are constantly discussed and
investigated by the Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture (ANFA). Currently the
body of work has primarily focused on the fields of health care and work environments.
This has limited the body of work available to architects, planners and students to learn
from and the possible areas of implementation. Neuro-architecture has captured the
attention of architects and scientists alike driving the future exploration into other fields.

I believe that this research can serve as an example and catalyst for students
and architects in gaining knowledge through the findings of neuro-architecture to
ultimately gaining a better understanding of how every aspect of a design can affect the
user. Neuro-architectue steers architects towards a somewhat new way of thinking
about the relationship between the structures we design and the effects they can
potentially have on the human body both physical and psychological. I truly believe
that neuro-architecture is the link that will allow architects to implement knowledge
about the human body into future designs in an effort to create architecture that is more
meaningful, attuned to our needs and can improve our overall wellbeing.

114
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