BACKBONE & CORE SWITCHING

TECHNOLOGY
➢What do you mean by telecommunication?

Telecommunications refers to the exchange of information by electronic and

electrical means over a significant distance. A
complete telecommunication arrangement is made up of two or more stations equipped
with transmitter and receiver devices.

➢What is a telecommunication system?

Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, words, writings,

images and sounds or information of any nature by wire, radio, optical or other
electromagnetic systems. Telecommunication occurs when the exchange of
information between communication participants includes the use of technology.

➢A telecommunications system is a collection of nodes and links to

enable telecommunication. Examples of telecommunications systems are the
telephone network, computer networks and the Internet.
Most modern telecommunication systems transfer information in
digital format.
Multiplexing
 Telecommunication Technology
• These are technologies for the transfer of information via electrical
or light technologies.

Common examples are:

• Visual Light communications ( fires, flashes of light, smoke signals)

• Radio and TV communication

• Telegraph communications

• Telephone communications
 Electrical And Electromagnetic Telecommunication
Technologies Include:
• Telegraph,

• Telephone, And Teleprinter,

• Networks,

• Radio,

• Microwave Transmission,

• Fiber Optics, Communications Satellites And

• The internet
What are the different types of telecommunication networks?

Types of telecommunication networks

➢Computer networks, ARPANET(Advanced Research Project

Agency n/w) , Ethernet, Internet, Wireless networks.

➢Public switched telephone networks (PSTN)

➢Packet switched networks.

➢Radio networks.

➢Television networks.
 Principles of Telecommunication services
Telecommunications services follow the following principles:
• The telecommunications networks are used to provide services to the users
• A service requires the execution of a series of programs by the originating and destination
entities
• The services are decomposed into different layers by the initiating entity, where each layer
undertakes a specified portion of the overall service. This makes the services more
manageable and allows interoperability between vendors. Most modern systems adhere
to the 7-layer OSI reference model
• The telecommunications services include information transfer, signaling, and billing
• Information is transferred over the network in the form of bits. These bits have different
forms depending on the type of the transmission media; electrical signals on copper
cables, pulses of light in fiber optic cables and electromagnetic waves traveling through
space
• Signals can be corrupted during transmission, due to interference
• Protocols incorporate error correction and detection mechanisms to overcome errors
 • Components of a Telecommunication System
• In its most fundamental form, a telecommunication system includes a transmitter to
take information and convert it to a signal, a transmission medium to carry the signal
and a receiver to take the signal and convert it back into usable information. This
applies to any communication system, whether it uses computers or not.
• Most modern day telecommunications systems are best described in terms of a
network. This includes the basic elements listed above but also the infrastructure and
controls needed to support the system. There are six basic components to a
telecommunications network.
1. Input and output devices, also referred to as 'terminals'
• These provide the starting and stopping points of all communication. A telephone is
an example of a terminal. In computer networks, these devices are commonly
referred to as 'nodes' and consist of computer and peripheral devices.
2. Telecommunication channels, which transmit and receive data
• This includes various types of cables and wireless radio frequencies.
3. Telecommunication processors, which provide a number of control and support
functions
• For example, in many systems, data needs to be converted from analog to digital and
back.
4. Control software, which is responsible for controlling the functionality and activities
of the network
5. Messages represent the actual data that is being transmitted
• In the case of a telephone network, the messages would consist of audio as well as
data.
6. Protocols specify how each type of telecommunication systems handle the messages
• For example, GSM and 3G are protocols for mobile phone communications, and
TCP/IP is a protocol for communications over the Internet.
• While early telecommunication systems were built without computers, almost all
systems we use today are computerized in some way.
 Essential Components
1. Computers (for information processing)

2. Input/output devices to send or receive data

Input devices: keyboard, microphone, video camera, computer

storage devices, etc.

Output devices: display, printer, speakers, storage media

3. Communication channels:

Telephone lines, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, wireless links etc.

4. Supporting hardware to connect heterogeneous subnetworks:

Modems, multiplexers, routers, etc.

5. Communications software
 Communication Channel
1. Twisted wires:
• The oldest transmission medium
• Low cost
• Relatively slow for data transmission
2. Coaxial Cable:
• Consists of thickly insulated copper wire
• Can transmit larger amount of data
• Faster than twisted wire
3. Fiber Optics Cables:
• Consists of thousands of strands of clear glass Fiber
• Thickness of the glass fiber is as small as the thickness of a human hair
• Data is transmitted into pulses of light
• More suitable for providing high-speed backbone network
• Advantages:
1. Lighter and more durable that coaxial cable and twisted wire
• 2. Can handle a very large volume of data
• Disadvantages:
1. Difficult to work with
2. Relatively expensive
 Pulse Code Modulation
• Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent sampled
analog signals. It is the standard form of digital audio in computers, compact discs,
digital telephony and other digital audio applications.
• PCM is the standard method used in PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) to
convert analog data into digital data and with PCM it is easy to combine digitized
voice and digital data into a single, high speed digital signal and propagate it over a
metallic and optical fiber cable.
• PCM is not a type of modulation but it is a form of digitally coding of analog
signals. In this pulses are of fixed length and amplitude. It is a binary system where
presence and absence of pulse represents either logic 1 or logic 0.
• With PCM, the analog signal is sampled at regular intervals by sampling process,
next quantization measures numerical value of samples and allot them table value
from suitable scale. Then encoding converts numerical value into binary data.
Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent sampled
analog signals. It is the standard form of digital audio in computers, compact
discs, digital telephony and other digital audio applications.
Block Diagram of PCM System
 PCM MUX , OPTICAL MULTIPLEX, 120 CHANNEL PHONE
MULTIPLEX OVER FIBER OR COAX, TELECOM MULTIPLEX
ADVANTAGES
• The PCM convenient for long distance communication.
• It has a higher transmitter efficiency.
• It has a higher noise immunity.
• It provides secure data transmission.
DISADVANTAGES
• The PCM requires large bandwidth as compared to analog system.
• Encoding, decoding and quantizing circuit of PCM is very complex.
APPLICATIONS OF PCM
• The PCM is used in the satellite transmission system.
• It is used in space communication.
• It is used in telephony.
• The compact disc (CD) is a recent application of PCM.
 Connection-Oriented Service
• Connection-oriented service is analogous to the telephone system that
requires communication entities to establish a connection before sending
data. TCP provides Connection-oriented services as does ATM, Frame
Relay and MPLS hardware. It uses handshake process to establish the
connection between the sender and receiver.
A handshake process includes some steps which are:
➢ Client requests server to set up a connection for transfer of data.
➢ Server program notifies its TCP that connection can be accepted.
➢ The client transmits a SYN segment to the server.
➢ The server sends SYN+ACK to the client.
➢ Client transmits 3rd segment i.e. just ACK segment.
➢ Then server terminates the connection.
 Connection-less Service
• Connection-less service is analogous to the postal system. In which
packets of data (usually known as a datagram) is transmitted from source
to destination directly. Each packet is treated as an individual entity, which
allows communication entities to send data before establishing
communication. Each packet carries a destination address to identify the
intended recipient.

• Packets don’t follow a fixed path that is the reason the packets received at
receiver end can be out of order. It uses packet switching for transmission
of data.

• Most network hardware, the Internet Protocol (IP), and the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides connection-less service.
BASIS OF
CONNECTION-ORIENTED SERVICE CONNECTION-LESS SERVICE
COMPARISON

Prior Connection Necessary Not required

Requirement

Reliability Ensures reliable transfer of data. Not guaranteed.

Congestion Unlikely Occur likely.

Transferring mode It can be implemented using circuit It is implemented using packet

switching and virtual circuit. switching.

Lost data retransmission Feasible Practically, not possible.

Suitability Suitable for long and steady Suitable for bursty Transmission.
communication.
Signalling Used for connection establishment. There is no concept of signalling.

Packet forwarding Packets sequentially travel to their Packets reach the destination
destination node and follows the same randomly without following the same
route. route.

Delay There is a delay in transfer of information, Because to the absence of connection

but once the connection is established establishment phase, the transmission
faster delivery can be achieved. is faster.

Resource Allocation Need to be allocated. No prior allocation of the resource is

required.
 Circuit Switching
➢ Circuit Switching establishes a physical path between the sender and receiver of the
message before a message is delivered.
➢ When a connection is established between a sender and a receiver, the entire
message travels through the established path from sender to the receiver.
➢ Once the message is delivered to the receiver, the source informs the network about
the completion of transmission and all the switches released. Then the link and other
connecting devices are used to set up another connection.
➢ Circuit switching is always implemented at the Physical Layer.
➢ Circuit switching can be explained with an example of a telephone conversation.
➢ In a telephone conversation, once a connection is established, between a caller and
the receiver, it remains connected, till the whole conversation is finished and both
the caller and receiver hang up their phone.
➢ The Circuit switching is not appropriate for data transmission because data is
transmitted in stream and the line remains idle for most of the times and hence, the
bandwidth is wasted. Circuit Switching can be implemented using two technologies
either Space Division Switching or Time Division Switching.
 Packet Switching
• Packet Switching is connectionless as it doesn’t establish any physical connection
before the transmission starts.

• In packet switching before the message is transmitted, it is divided into some

manageable parts called packets. These packets are routed one by one from source to
destination.

• In packet switching, each packet may follow a different route to reach the
destination. Packets arrived at the destination are out of order but, they are
assembled in order before the destination forward it to the upper layer.

• Packet Switching is always implemented at the Network Layer. Packet switching

has two approaches Datagram Approach and Virtual Circuit Approach.
➢ Circuit switching and packet switching are the two switching methods that are used
to connect the multiple communicating devices with one another. Circuit Switching
was particularly designed for voice communication and it was less suitable for data
transmission. So, a better solution evolved for data transmission called Packet
switching.

➢ The main difference between circuit switching and packet switching is that Circuit
Switching is connection oriented whereas, Packet Switching is connectionless.

Conclusion
• For Data transmission, Packet Switching is the more efficient than
Circuit Switching whereas, when it comes to voice transmission
Circuit switching is more efficient than packet switching.
BASIS FOR
CIRCUIT SWITCHING PACKET SWITCHING
COMPARISON
Orientation Connection oriented. Connectionless.
Purpose Initially designed for Voice Initially designed for Data
communication. Transmission.
Flexibility Inflexible, because once a path is Flexible, because a route is
set all parts of a transmission created for each packet to
follows the same path. travel to the destination.
Order Message is received in the order, Packets of a message are
sent from the source. received out of order and
assembled at the destination.
Technology/Approa Circuit switching can be Packet Switching has two
ch achieved using two technologies, approaches Datagram
either Space Division Switching Approach and Virtual Circuit
or Time-Division Switching. Approach.

Layers Circuit Switching is implemented Packet Switching is

at Physical Layer. implemented at Network
Layer.
ISDN
 Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN)
• Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of
communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission of
voice, video, data, and other network services over the traditional
circuits of the public switched telephone network.

• Integrated Service Digital Network, or ISDN, is the original high-

speed internet service. ... ISDN internet service is basically a
telephone-based network system that operates by a circuit switch, or
dedicated line. It can transmit data and phone conversations digitally
over normal telephone wires.
 REQUIREMENT OF ISDN
➢ Need of transporting multiple type of data to their destination at
high speed

➢ Common interface for all types of data.

➢ Existing setup for low BW and typically analog transmission of

voice systems

➢ Advent of digital systems and computers & need of purely digital

transmission systems (Modems are dig to analog)

➢ Technical administration / maintenance is difficult for separate

networks for different services, e.g cable TV, data N/W, Telex,
Telephone N/W
 PRINCIPLES OF ISDN
➢ Support of voice (Tele calls) and non voice applications (digital data
exchange) using a limited set of standardized facilities.
➢ Support for switched and non-switched applications. Both circuit switching /
packet switching and dedicated lines
➢ Reliance on 64 kbps connections
➢ To provide circuit switching / packet switching connections at 64kbps
➢ At that time standard rate for digitized voice, today even at lesser rates
good quality is possible
➢ In future, permit greater flexibility
➢ Intelligence in the network
➢ Expected to provide sophisticated services beyond simple setup of circuit
switching call, and also more sophisticated services.
➢ Layered protocol architecture
➢ ISDN exhibit layered architecture which can be mapped to the OSI
model therefore standards already developed for OSI can be used, this
means low cost of implementation
➢ Variety of configurations
➢ More than one physical configuration is possible, this allows differences
in technology/ national policy/ needs and existing equipment of
customer.
ISDN Services
• Telephony : is a technology which allows voice and/or interactive
communication between two points through the usage of appropriate
equipment. Analog sound signals are translated into electrical signals after
a communication request is initiated.
• Telefax: the transmission of documents by fax.
• Telex: is an international system used especially in the past for sending
written messages. Messages are converted into signals which are
transmitted, either by electricity or by radio signals, and then printed out
by a machine in another place. (Teleprinters)
• Teletex: an enhanced version of telex.
• Cell switching: is associated with Asynchronous Transmission Mode
(ATM) which is considered to be a high speed switching technology that
attempted to overcome the speed problems faced by the shared media like
Ethernet. Cell switching uses a connection-oriented packet-switched
network.
• Frame switching: To speed up network traffic. For example, when a
10Base-T Ethernet hub is replaced with an Ethernet frame switch, each
sending and receiving pair of stations obtains the full bandwidth of
Voice Communication Over An
Analog Telephone Network
Voice & Data Communication Over
An Analog Telephone Network
Analog & Digital Services Over the
Telephone Network
Integrated Digital Network (IDN)
Integrated Digital Network (IDN)
ISDN
ISDN
ISDN LAYERS
ISDN Layers
BENEFITS OF ISDN (USER PERSPECTIVE)

➢ HIGHER SPEED

➢ LOW ERROR RATES

➢ SIMPLER ACCESS TO NETWORK SERVICES

➢ IMPROVED PRICE PERFORMANCE

➢ PROVISION OF NEW APPLICATIONS

 ISDN User Interface
➢More than one size of the pipe are needed (Tele to LAN)

➢Variable traffic in fixed capacity pipe

➢Dynamic mix of signals type and bit rates

➢ISDN requires complex control signals to provide required services

also to be multiplexed in the same pipe

➢In future, charging as per load instead connect time

 Transmission structure
• The digital pipe from subscriber and CO will be used to carry a no. of
communication channels

• The capacity of pipe and therefore no. of channels carried may vary
from user to user

• The transmission structure of any access link will be constructed from

following types of channels:
– B channel 64 Kbps
– D channel 16/64 Kbps
– H channel
 Transmission structure
B Channel
• B channel (64 Kbps) is basic elemental unit.
• It can carry voice/data/fax/slow scan video/ mixed traffic at fraction of
64 kbps
– In case of mixed traffic( 2 or more sub channels) all traffic must be
destined to same location.
– Three kinds of connections can be set up over B ch:
• Cct switched: call est takes place using CCS
(not on B)
• Pkt sw : user connected to a pkt sw node
• Semipermanent : does not require a call set up
protocol (like leased line)
 D Channel
• It serves two main purpose

– It carries CCS (Common Channel Signaling) info to

control cct sw calls on B ch

– Used for pkt sw, low speed data other svces

 H channel
• User info at higher bit rates

• Can be used as a single pipe for fast fax/ video/ high speed data/ high
Quality audio
OR
• Subdivide channels according to user’s own TDM scheme (mux info
at lower rates)

• These channel types are grouped into Txn structure that are offered as
package to user
 THE IDN
Telephone
Packet
switched
network
Data terminal “Digital
pipes”
Circuit
switched
network

Customer
ISDN Other
ISDN CENTRAL network
PBX interface OFFICE

Data
Subscriber loop & base
ISDN channel structure
Alarm
Other
services

CONCEPTUAL VIEW OF ISDN

Local area network
(from user pt of view)
PDH & SDH
 PDH & SDH
➢ With the rapid development of internet industry, the information
content transmitted, exchanged and handled by network has greatly
risen. As the transmission system of internet, PDH fails to meet the
application of internet now, so SDH comes into being as required.
➢ PDH stands for Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy and SDH stands
for Synchronous Digital Hierarchy.
➢ Both PDH and SDH are terminologies associated with digital
multiplexers used in exchanges. The different hierarchies having
different bit rates are combined. These hierarchies will comprised of
many such bit streams/channels (either 24, 30 or multiples).
 PDH
➢ PDH, abbreviation from plesiochronous digital hierarchy, is a popular
technology applied in the networks of telecommunication in order to
transport huge amounts of data over digital transport equipment like fibre
optic or microwave radio systems.
➢ In PDH, digital multiplexer’s inputs are of same bit rate and are derived
from different clocks from different oscillators. Each will differ within
tolerance of few clock periods. Hence it is called plesiochronous.
➢ The term plesiochronous is derived from Greek plēsios, which means
near and close time and refers to the fact that PDH networks operate in a
state where different parts of the network are nearly synchronized, but
not quite perfectly synchronized.
➢ In PDH there are two main standards i.e. 30 channel one used in Europe
and 24 channel one used in North America/Japan. Basic rate is 64 Kbps
in North America(designated as DS0/T) and in Europe (designated as
E0/E).
 Rates derived from 1.544 Mbps basic rate including bit stuffing in 24 channel case
are mentioned below.
1.544 x 4 gives 6.312 Mbps (96 channels)
6.312 x 7 gives 44.736 Mbps (672 channels)
44.736 x 6 gives 274.16 Mbps (4032 channels)
44.736 x 3 gives 139.264 Mbps
44.736 x 12 gives 564.992 Mbps
 Rates derived from 2.048 Mbps basic rate including bit stuffing in 30 channel
case are mentioned
• 2.048 x 4 gives 8.448 Mbps (120 channels)
• 8.448 x 4 gives 34.368 Mbps (480 channels)
• 34.368 x 4 gives 139.264 Mbps (1920 channels)
• 139.264 x 4 gives 564.992 Mbps (7680 channels)
 Limitations of PDH
➢ In PDH, different frame is used for transmission and in data layer. Hence
multiplexing and de-multiplexing is very complex.
➢ Accessing lower tributary requires the whole system to be de-multiplexed.
➢ The maximum capacity for PDH is 566 Mbps, which is limited in
bandwidth.
➢ Tolerance is allowed in bit rates.
➢ PDH allows only Point-to-Point configuration.
➢ PDH does not support Hub.
➢ Every manufacturer has its own standards; PDH also has different
multiplexing hierarchies making it difficult to integrate interconnecting
networks together.
 SDH
➢ SDH, short for synchronous optical networking, are standardized technology
that is used for high-speed data transmission of telecommunication and digital
signals. It can transfer multiple digital bit streams synchronously over optical
fiber.
➢ In SDH, digital multiplexer’s inputs are of same bit rate and are derived from
common clock. Hence it is called synchronous. At low transmission rates data
can also be transferred via an electrical interface.
➢ SDH system is designed to replace PDH system for transporting large quantities
of telephone calls and data traffic over the same fiber without synchronization
problems, providing a simple and flexible network infrastructure.
➢ As PDH was not scalable to support high capacity bandwidth and hence was not
suitable to accommodate growing traffic need. SONET was developed as
American Standard while SDH as European Standard.
➢ SDH supports various topologies such as point to point, ring, star, linear, bus
etc. It uses TDM and octet multiplexing. It uses extremely precise timings. It
employs both electrical and optical specifications.
➢ Word (group of bits) Interleaving is used in SDH to combine digital signals.
• SDH uses basic rate of 155.52 Mbps and four times multiples of this
i.e. 622.08 Mbps and 2488.32Mbps. Basic SDH rate of 155.52 is also
known as STM-1. STM stands for Synchronous Transport Module.
SDH is referred as SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) in USA
due to optical interfaces used.
Working Principal of SDH
 Merits / Advantages of SDH
➢ A more simplified multiplexing and demultiplexing technique.
➢ Synchronous networking and SDH supports multipoint networking.
➢ Capability of transporting existing PDH signals.
➢ Easy growth to higher bit rates which enhances the administration and
maintenance process.
➢ It is capable of transporting broadband signals.
➢ It is multivendor and supports different operators.
➢ It provides network transport services on LAN such as video conferencing,
and interactive multimedia.
➢ Optical fiber bandwidth can be increased without limit in SDH.
➢ Switching protection to traffic is offered by rings.
➢ SDH allows quick recovery from failure.
 PDH SDH

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

In PDH, reference clock is not synchronized In SDH, Reference clock is synchronized

throughout the network. throughout the network.

There is no synchronization between payload and There is synchronization between payload and
frame. frame.

PDH system has different frame structures at SDH system has consistent frame structures
different hierarchy levels. throughout the hierarchy.

Physical cross-connections are provided on the Digital cross-connections are provided at different
same level in PDH. signal levels in SDH.

In SDH, rates are derived from basic rate of

In PDH, rates are derived from basic rate of 1.544 155.52 Mbps. The maximum up to 40 Gbps rates
Mbps. The maximum capacity is about 566 Mbps. can be derived from basic rate mentioned.

There is no universal standard for PDH. Universal standard exists for SDH.

PDH is incompatible with other signals such as SDH is compatible with other signals such as
ATM, FDDI, DQDB etc. ATM, FDDI, DQDB etc.

Multiplying method used in PDH is complex. Multiplying method used in SDH is simple.

Implementation cost of PDH is lower. Implementation cost of SDH is higher.

 Conclusion
• With the advent of the information society, PDH fails to satisfy the internet
requirements for transmitting signals.

• Though PDH has proved to be a breakthrough in the domain of digital

transmission , it is replaced by SDH which is a very useful technology used
in the telecommunication sector.

• As the transmission system, SDH is able to transport large quantities of

digital signals over the same fiber without synchronization problems,
providing a simple and flexible network infrastructure.

• SDH system has brought a considerable amount of changes in the

telecommunication networks that are based on the optical fibers as far as
performance and cost are concerned.