Pi: A Source Book

Third Edition
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
Lennart Berggren
Jonathan Borwein
Peter Borwein

Pi: A Source Book

Third Edition

Springer
Lennart Berggren Jonathan Borwein
Department of Mathematics Faculty of Computer Science
Simon Fraser University Dalhousie University
Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6 6050 University Avenue
Canada Halifax, Nova Scotia
Canada, B3H 1W5
Peter Borwein
Department of Mathematics
Simon Fraser University
Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6
Canada

Mathematics Subject Classification (2000): 01-00, 01A05, 01A75, 11-00, 11-03, 26-03, 65-03, 68-03

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Pi, a source book 1 [edited by1 Lennart Berggren, Jonathan Borwein, Peter Borwein.-3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.

l. Pi. I. Title: Pi. II. Berggren, Lennart. m. Borwein, Jonathan M. IV. Borwein, Peter
B.
QA484.P5 2003
516.22-dc22 2003066023

Printed on acid-free paper.

ISBN 978-1-4419-1915-1 ISBN 978-1-4757-4217-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-4217-6

© 2004, 2000, 1997 Springer Science+Business Media New York

Originally published by Springer-Verlag New York, LLC in 2004.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 2004

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Preface to the Third Edition

Our aim in preparing this edition is to bring the material in the collection of papers in the
second edition of this source book up to date. Moreover, several delightful pieces became
available and are added.
This substantial supplement to the third edition serves as a stand-alone exposition
of the recent history of the computation of digits of pi. It also includes a discussion of
the thorny old question of normality of the distribution of the digits. Additional material
of historical and cultural interest is included, the most notable being new translations of
the two Latin pieces of Viete (translation of article 9 (Excerpt 1): Various Responses on
Mathematical Matters: Book VII (1593) and (Excerpt 2): Defense for the New Cyclometry
or ''Anti-Axe''), and a thorough revision of the translation of Huygens's piece (article 12)
published in the second edition.
We should like to thank Professor Marinus Taisbak of Copenhagen for grappling with
Viete's idiosyncratic style to produce the new translation of his work. We should like to
thank Karen Aardal for permission to use her photograph of Ludolph's new tombstone in
the Pieterskerk in Leiden, the Smithsonian Institution for permission to reproduce a fine
photo of ENIAC, and David and Gregory Chudnovsky for providing a "Walk on the digits
of pi." We should also like to thank Irving Kaplansky for his gracious permission to include
his "A Song about Pi." Finally, our thanks go to our colleagues whose continued interest in
pi has encouraged our publisher to produce this third edition, as well as for the comments
and corrections to earlier editions that some of them have sent us.

L. Berggren
J. Borwein
P. Borwein
Simon Fraser University
December 2003
Preface to the Second Edition

We are gratified that the first edition was sufficiently well received so as to merit a second.
In addition to correcting a few minor infelicities, we have taken the opportunity to add
an Appendix in which articles 9 and 12 by Viete and Huygens respectively are translated
into English. While modem European languages are accessible to our full community-at
least through colleagues-this is no longer true of Latin. Thus, following the suggestions
of a reviewer of the first edition we have opted to provide a serviceable if fairly literal
translation of three extended Latin excerpts. And in particular to make Viete's opinions and
style known to a broader community.
We also record that in the last two years distributed computations have been made of
the binary digits of 7r using an enhancement due to Fabrice Bellard of the identity made in
article 70. In particular the binary digits of 7r starting at the 40 trillionth place are 00000
111110011111. Details of such ongoing computations, led by Colin Percival, are to be
found at www.cecm.sfu.ca/projects/pihex.
Corresponding details of a billion (230) digit computation on a single Pentium II PC,
by Dominique Delande using Carey Bloodworth's desktop 7r program and taking under
nine days, are lodged at www.cecm.sfu.ca/personalljborweinlpLcover.html. Here also are
details of the computation of 236 digits by Kanada et al. in April 1999.
We are grateful for the opportunity to thank Jen Chang for all her assistance with the
cover design of the book. We also wish to thank Annie Marquis and Judith Borwein for
their substantial help with the translated material.

Lennart Berggren
Jonathan Borwein
Peter Borwein
Simon Fraser University
July 5, 1999
Preface

Our intention in this collection is to provide, largely through original writings, an extended
account of pi from the dawn of mathematical time to the present. The story of pi reflects the
most seminal, the most serious, and sometimes the most whimsical aspects of mathematics.
A surprising amount of the most important mathematics and a significant number of the
most important mathematicians have contributed to its unfolding--directly or otherwise.
Pi is one of the few mathematical concepts whose mention evokes a response of recog-
nition and interest in those not concerned professionally with the subject. It has been a part
of human culture and the educated imagination for more than twenty-five hundred years.
The computation of pi is virtually the only topic from the most ancient stratum of mathe-
matics that is still of serious interest to modem mathematical research. To pursue this topic
as it developed throughout the millennia is to follow a thread through the history of math-
ematics that winds through geometry, analysis and special functions, numerical analysis,
algebra, and number theory. It offers a subject that provides mathematicians with exam-
ples of many current mathematical techniques as well as a palpable sense of their historical
development.

Why a Source Book?

Few books serve wider potential audiences than does a source book. To our knowledge,
there is at present no easy access to the bulk of the material we have collected.
Both professional and amateur mathematicians, whether budding, blooming, or begin-
ning to wilt, can find in it a source of instruction, study, and inspiration. Pi yields wonderful
examples of how the best of our mathematical progenitors have struggled with a problem
worthy of their mettle. One of the great attractions of the literature on pi is that it allows
for the inclusion of very modem, yet still highly accessible, mathematics. Indeed, we have
included several prize winning twentieth century expository papers, and at least half of the
collected material dates from the last half of the twentieth century.
While this book is definitely a collection of literature on, and not a history of, pi,
we anticipate that historians of mathematics will find the collection useful. As authors we
viii Preface

believe that one legitimate way of exhibiting the history of a concept is in gathering a
coherent collection of original and secondary sources, and then to let the documents largely
tell their own stories when placed in an appropriate historical and intellectual context.
Equally, teachers at every level will find herein ample supplementary resources: for
many purposes from material for special topic courses to preparatory information for semi-
nars and colloquia and guidance for student projects.

What Is Included?

We have chosen to include roughly 70 representatives of the accumulated literature on pi.

In the Contents each piece is accorded a very brief but hopefully illuminating description.
This is followed by an Introduction in which we highlight some further issues raised by the
collection. Finally, since the pre-Newtonian study of pi presents many more problems for
the reader than does the material after the time of Huygens, we have included an Appendix
On the Early History of Pi. We have also provided two other Appendices. Computational
Chronology of Pi offers a concise tabular accounting of computational records, and Selected
Formulae for Pi presents a brief compendium of some of the most historically or computa-
tionally significant formulas for pi.
The pieces in the collection fall into three broad classes.
The core of the material is the accumulated mathematical research literature of four
millennia. Although most of this comes from the last 150 years, there is much of interest
from ancient Egypt, Greece, India, China, and medieval Islam. We trust that readers will
appreciate the ingenuity of our earliest mathematicians in their valiant attempts to under-
stand this number. The reader may well find this material as engrossing as the later work of
Newton, Euler, or Ramanujan. Seminal papers by Lambert, Hermite, Lindemann, Hilbert
and Mahler, to name but a few, are included in this category. Some of the more important
papers on the number e, on zeta functions, and on Euler's constant have also been included
as they are inextricably interwoven with the story of pi.
The second stratum of the literature comprises historical studies of pi, based on the
above core sources, and of writings on the cultural meaning and significance of the number.
Some of these are present here only in the bibliography such as Petr Beckmann's some-
what idiosyncratic monograph, A History of Pi. Other works on the subject are provided
in extenso. These include Schepler's chronology of pi, some of Eves's anecdotes about the
history of the number, and Engels' conjecture about how the ancient Egyptians may have
computed pi.
Finally, the third level comprises the treatments of pi that are fanciful, satirical or
whimsical, or just wrongheaded. Although these abound, we have exercised considerable
restraint in this category and have included only a few representative pieces such as Keith's
elaborate mnemonic for the digits of pi based on the poem "The Raven," a recent offering
by Umberto Eco, and the notorious 1897 attempt by the state of Indiana 1 to legislate the
value of pi.

Lennart Berggren
Jonathan Borwein
Peter Borwein
Simon Fraser University
September 6, 1996
1Oddly enough, the third page of this bill is apparently missing from the Indiana State Library and thus may now
exist only in facsimile!
Preface ix

Some Points of Entry

For the reader looking for accessible points of introduction to the collection we make the
following suggestions:
• As general introduction:

35. Schepler. The Chronology of Pi (1950) 282

64. Borwein, Borwein, and Bailey. Ramanujan, Modular Equations, and
Approximations to Pi or How to Compute One Billion Digits of Pi (1989) 588

• As an introduction to irrationality and transcendence:

33. Niven. A Simple Proof that 7r Is Irrational (1947) 276

49. van der Poorten. A Proof that Euler Missed... Apery's Proof of the
Irrationality of ~(3) (1979) 439
24. Hilbert. Ueber die Transzendenz der Zahlen e und 7r (1893) 226

• As an introduction to elliptic integrals and related subjects:

30. Watson. The Marquis and the Land Agent: A Tale of the Eighteenth
Century (1933) 258
55. Cox. The Arithmetic-Geometric Means of Gauss (1984) 481

• As an introduction to the computational issues:

37. Wrench, Jr. The Evolution of Extended Decimal Approximations to

7r(1960) 319
47. Brent. Fast Multiple-Precision Evaluation of Elementary Functions (1976) 424
70. Bailey, Borwein, and Plouffe. On The Rapid Computation of Various
Polylogarithmic Constants (1997) 663

• For a concise synopsis, the final "Pamphlet" makes an excellent

self-contained entry. 721
Acknow ledgments

We would like to thank, first of all, the publishers and authors who graciously granted per-
mission to reproduce the works contained in this volume. Our principal debt, however, is
to our technical editor, Chiara Veronesi, whose hard work and intelligent grasp of what
needed to be done made the timely appearance of this book possible. We also wish to thank
the publisher, Springer-Verlag, for its enthusiastic response to this project, as well as Ina
Lindemann, our editor at Springer-Verlag, who saw the project through the press. Thanks,
also, are due to David Fowler, who supplied copies of the Latin material contained herein
from the work of John Wallis, as well as to David Bailey, Greg Fee and Yasumasa Kanada
for helpful conversations about the project. Finally, we wish to thank the Social Sciences Re-
search Council of Canada Small Grants Committee at Simon Fraser University for funding
(Grant No. 410-86-0805) part of the cost of preparing this volume.

Lennart Berggren
Jonathan Borwein
Peter Borwein
Simon Fraser University
September 6, 1996
Contents

Preface to the Third Edition v

Preface to the Second Edition vi
Preface vii
Acknowledgments x
Introduction xvii
1. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus-Problem 50 (-1650 B.C.) 1
A problem dealing with the area of a round field of given diameter.
2. Engels. Quadrature of the Circle in Ancient Egypt (1977) 3
A conjectural explanation of how the mathematicians of ancient Egypt approximated
the area of a circle.
3. Archimedes. Measurement of a Circle (-250 B.C.) 7
The seminal work in which Archimedes presents the first true algorithm for n.
4. Phillips. Archimedes the Numerical Analyst (1981) 15
A summary of Archimedes' work on the computation ofn using modem notation.
5. Lam and Ang. Circle Measurements in Ancient China (1986) 20
This paper discusses and contains a translation of Liu Hui's (3rd century) methodfor
evaluating n and also examines values for n given by Zu Chongzhi (429-500)
6. The Banii Miisii: The Measurement of Plane and Solid Figures (-850) 36
This extract gives an explicit statement and proof that the ratio of the circumference to
the diameter is constant.
7. Miidhava. The Power Series for Arctan and Pi (-1400) 45
These theorems by afifteenth century Indian mathematician give Gregory's series for
arctan with remainder terms and Leibniz's series for n.
8. Hope-Jones. Ludolph (or Ludolff or Lucius) van Ceulen (1938) 51
Correspondence about van Ceulen's tombstone in reference to it containing some digits
ofn.
xii Contents

9. Viete. Variorum de Rebus Mathematicis Reponsorum Liber VII (1593) 53

Two excerpts. One containing the first infinite expression of 7T, obtained by relating the
area of a regular 2n-gon to that of a regular n-gon.
10. Wallis. Computation of 1T' by Successive Interpolations (1655) 68
How Wallis derived the infinite product for 7T that bears his name.
11. Wallis. Arithmetica Infinitorum (1655)
An excerpt including Prop. 189, 191 and an alternate form of the result that gives Wm.
Brounker's continued fraction expression for 41 pi.
12. Huygens. De Circuli Magnitudine Inventa (1654) 81
Huygens's demonstration of how to triple the number of correct decimals over those in
Archimedes' estimate of7T.
13. Gregory. Correspondence with John Collins (1671) 87
A letter to Collins in which he gives his series for arctangent, carried to the ninth
power.
14. Roy. The Discovery of the Series Formula for 1T' by Leibniz, Gregory,
and Nilakantha (1990) 92
A discussion of the discovery of the series 7T14 = 1- 1/3 + 1/5 ...
15. Jones. The First Use of 1T' for the Circle Ratio (1706) 108
An excerpt from Jones' book, the Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos: or, a New
Introduction to the Mathematics, London, 1706.
16. Newton. Of the Method of Fluxions and Infinite Series (1737) 110
An excerpt giving Newton's calculation of 7T to 16 decimal places.
17. Euler. Chapter 10 of Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite (On the Use
of the Discovered Fractions to Sum Infinite Series) (1748) 112
This includes many of Euler's infinite series for 7T and powers of 7T.
18. Lambert. Memoire Sur Quelques Proprietes Remarquables Des
Quantites Transcendentes Circulaires et Logarithmiques (1761) 129
An excerpt from Lambert's original proof of the irrationality of7T.
19. Lambert. Irrationality of 1T' (1969) 141
A translation and Struik's discussion of Lambert's proof of the irrationality of 7T.
20. Shanks. Contributions to Mathematics Comprising Chiefly of the
Rectification of the Circle to 607 Places of Decimals (1853) 147
Pages from Shanks's report of his monumental hand calculation of7T.
21. Hermite. Sur La Fonction Exponentielle (1873) 162
The first proof of the transcendence of e.
22. Lindemann. Ueber die Zahl1T' (1882) 194
The first proof of the transcendence of 7T.
23. Weierstrass. Zu Lindemann's Abhandlung "Uber die Ludolphsche
Zahl" (1885) 207
Weierstrass' proof of the transcendence of 7T.
24. Hilbert. Ueber die Transzendenz der Zahlen e und 1T' (1893) 226
Hilbert's short and elegant simplification of the transcendence proofs for e and 7T.
25. Goodwin. Quadrature of the Circle (1894) 230
The dubious origin of the attempted legislation of the value of 7T in 1ndiana.
Contents xiii

26. Edington. House Bill No. 246, Indiana State Legislature, 1897 (1935) 231
A summary of the action taken by the Indiana State Legislature to fix the value of n
(including a copy of the actual bill that was proposed).
27. Singmaster. The Legal Values of Pi (1985) 236
A history of the attempt by Indiana to legislate the value ofn.
28. Ramanujan. Squaring the Circle (1913) 240
A geometric approximation to n.
29. Ramanujan. Modular Equations and Approximations to 7r (1914) 241
Ramanujan's seminal paper on pi that includes a number of striking series and
algebraic approximations.
30. Watson. The Marquis and the Land Agent: A Tale of the Eighteenth
Century (1933)
A Presidential address to the Mathematical Association in which the author gives an
account of "some of the elementary work on arcs and ellipses and other curves which
led up to the idea of inverting an elliptic integral, and so laying the foundations of
elliptic functions and doubly periodic functions generally."
31. Ballantine. The Best (?) Formula for Computing 7r to a Thousand
Places (1939) 271
An early attempt to orchestrate the calculation of n more cleverly.
32. Birch. An Algorithm for Construction of Arctangent Relations (1946) 274
The object of this note is to express n/4 as a sum of arctan relations in powers of 10.
33. Niven. A Simple Proof that 7r is Irrational (1947) 276
A very concise proof of the irrationality of n.
34. Reitwiesner. An ENIAC Determination of 7r and e to 2000 Decimal
Places (1950) 277
One of the first computer-based computations.
35. Schepler. The Chronology of Pi (1950) 282
Afairly reliable outline of the history ofn from 3000 B.C. to 1949.
36. Mahler. On the Approximation of 7r (1953) 306
"The aim of this paper is to determine an explicit lower bound free of unknown
constants for the distance of n from a given rational or algebraic number."
37. Wrench, Jr. The Evolution of Extended Decimal Approximations to 7r
(1960) 319
A history of the calculation of the digits ofn to 1960.
38. Shanks and Wrench, Jr. Calculation of 7r to 100,000 Decimals (1962) 326
A landmark computation ofn to more than 100,000 places.
39. Sweeny. On the Computation of Euler's Constant (1963) 350
The computation of Euler's constant to 3566 decimal places.
40. Baker. Approximations to the Logarithms of Certain Rational
Numbers (1964) 359
The main purpose of this deep and fundamental paper is to "deduce results concerning
the accuracy with which the natural logarithms of certain rational numbers may be
approximated by rational numbers, or, more generally, by algebraic numbers of
bounded degree."
xiv Contents

41. Adams. Asymptotic Diophantine Approximations to e (1966) 368

An asymptotic estimate for the rational approximation to e which disproves the
conjecture that e behaves like almost all numbers in this respect.
42. Mahler. Applications of Some Formulae by Hermite to the
Approximations of Exponentials of Logarithms (1967) 372
An important extension of Hilbert's approach to the study of transcendence.
43. Eves. In Mathematical Circles; A Selection of Mathematical Stories
and Anecdotes (excerpt) (1969) 400
A collection of mathematical stories and anecdotes about n.
44. Eves. Mathematical Circles Revisited; A Second Collection of
Mathematical Stories and Anecdotes (excerpt) (1971) 402
Afurther collection of mathematical stories and anecdotes about n.
45. Todd. The Lemniscate Constants (1975) 412
A unifying account of some of the methods used for computing the lemniscate constants.
46. Salamin. Computation of 1r Using Arithmetic-Geometric Mean (1976) 418
Thefirst quadratically converging algorithmfor n based on Gauss's AGM and on
Legendre's relation for elliptic integrals.
47. Brent. Fast Multiple-Precision Evaluation of Elementary Functions
(1976) 424
"This paper contains the 'Gauss-Legendre' method and some different algorithms for
log and exp (using Landen transformations)."
48. Beukers. A Note on the Irrationality of (2) and (3) (1979) 434
A short and elegant recasting ofApery's proof of the irrationality of t(3) (and t(2»).
49. van der Poorten. A Proof that Euler Missed . .. Apery's Proof of the
Irrationality of (3) (1979) 439
An illuminating account of Apery's astonishing proof of the irrationality of ~(3).
50. Brent and McMillan. Some New Algorithms for High-Precision
Computation of Euler's Constant (1980) 448
Several new algorithms for high-precision calculation of Euler's constant, including
one which was used to compute 30,100 decimal places.
51. Apostol. A Proof that Euler Missed: Evaluating (2) the Easy Way
(1983) 456
This note shows that one of the double integrals considered by Beukers ([48] in the
table of contents) can be used to establish directly that t(2) = pi 2 /6.
52. O'Shaughnessy. Putting God Back in Math (1983) 458
An article about the Institute of Pi Research, an organization that "pokes fun at
creationists by pointing out that even the Bible makes mistakes."
53. Stern. A Remarkable Approximation to 1r (1985) 460
Justification of the value of n in the Bible through numerological interpretations.
54. Newman and Shanks. On a Sequence Arising in Series for 1r (1984) 462
More connections between n and modular equations.
55. Cox. The Arithmetic-Geometric Mean of Gauss (1984) 481
An extensive study of the complex analytic properties of the AGM.
Contents xv

56. Borwein and Borwein. The Arithmetic-Geometric Mean and Fast

Computation of Elementary Functions (1984) 537
The relationship between the AGM iteration and fast computation of elementary
functions (one of the by-products is an algorithm for rr ).
57. Newman. A Simplified Version of the Fast Algorithms of Brent and
Salamin (1984) 553
Elementary algorithms for evaluating eX and rr using the Gauss AGM without explicit
elliptic function theory.
58. Wagon. Is Pi Normal? (1985) 557
A discussion of the conjecture that rr has randomly distributed digits.
59. Keith. Circle Digits: A Self-Referential Story (1986) 560
A mnemonic for the first 402 decimal places of rr .
60. Bailey. The Computation of 7r to 29,360,000 Decimal Digits Using
Borwein's Quartically Convergent Algorithm (1988) 562
The algorithms used, both for rr andfor performing the required multiple-precision
arithmetic.
61. Kanada. Vectorization of Multiple-Precision Arithmetic Program and
201,326,000 Decimal Digits of 7r Calculation (1988) 576
Details of the computation and statistical tests of the first 200 million digits of rr.
62. Borwein and Borwein. Ramanujan and Pi (1988) 588
This article documents Ramanujan's life, his ingenious approach to calculating rr, and
how his approach is now incorporated into modem computer algorithms.
63. Chudnovsky and Chudnovsky. Approximations and Complex
Multiplication According to Ramanujan (1988) 596
This excerpt describes "Ramanujan's original quadratic period-quasiperiod relations
for elliptic curves with complex multiplication and their applications to representations
offractions of rr and other logarithms in terms of rapidly convergent nearly integral
(hypergeometric) series."
64. Borwein, Borwein and Bailey. Ramanujan, Modular Equations, and
Approximations to Pi or How to Compute One Billion Digits of Pi
(1989) 623
An exposition of the computation ofrr using mathematics rooted in Ramanujan's work.
65. Borwein, Borwein and Dilcher. Pi, Euler Numbers, and Asymptotic
Expansions (1989) 642
An explanation as to why the slowly convergent Gregory series for rr, truncated at
500,000 terms, gives rr to 40 places with only the 6th, 17th, 18th, and 29th places being
incorrect.
66. Beukers, Bezivin, and Robba. An Alternative Proof of the
Lindemann-Weierstrass Theorem (1990) 649
The Lindemann-Weierstrass theorem as a by-product of a criterion for rationality of
solutions of differential equations.
67. Webster. The Tale of Pi (1991) 654
Various anecdotes about rr from the 14th annual IMO Lecture to the Royal Society.
xvi Contents

68. Eco. An excerpt from Foucault's Pendulum (1993) 658

"The unnumbered peifection of the circle itself."
69. Keith. Pi Mnemonics and the Art of Constrained Writing (1996) 659
A mnemonic for rr based on Edgar Allen Poe's poem "The Raven."
70. Bailey, Borwein, and Plouffe. On the Rapid Computation of Various
Polylogarithmic Constants (1997) 663
A fast methodfor computing individual digits ofrr in base 2.
Appendix I-On the Early History of Pi 677
Appendix II-A Computational Chronology of Pi 683
Appendix Ill-Selected Formulae for Pi 686
Appendix IV-Translations of Viele and Huygens 690
Bibliography 710
Credits 717
A Pamphlet on Pi 721
Contents 723
1. Pi and Its Friends 725
2. Normality of Numbers 741
3. Historia Cyclometrica 753
4. Demotica Cyclometrica 771
References 779
Index 783
Introduction

As indicated in the Preface, the literature on pi naturally separates into three components
(primarily research, history, and exegesis). It is equally profitable to consider three periods
(before Newton, Newton to Hilbert and the Twentieth Century) and two major stories (pi's
transcendence and pi's computation). With respect to computation, it is also instructive to
consider the three significant methods which have been used: pre-calculus (Archimedes'
method of exhaustion), calculus (Machin-like arctangent formulae), and elliptic and modu-
lar function methods (the Gaussian arithmetic-geometric mean and the series of Ramanujan
type).
In the following introduction to the papers from the three periods, we have resisted the
temptation to tum our Source Book into a "History of Pi and the Methods for Computing
it." Accordingly, we have made no attempt to give detailed accounts of any of the papers
selected, even when the language or style might seem to render such accounts desirable.
Instead, we urge the reader seeking an account of 'what's going on' to either consult a
reliable general history of mathematics, such as that of C. Boyer (in its most recent up-date
by U. Merzbach) or V. Katz, or P. Beckmann's more specialized and personalized history
of pi.

The Pre-Newtonian Period (Papers [1] to [15])

The primary sources for this period are, not surprisingly, more problematic than those of
later periods, and for this reason we have included an additional appendix on this material.
Our selections visit Egyptian, Greek, Chinese, and Medieval Arabo-European traditions.
We commence with an excerpt from the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus from the Middle
Kingdom of Egypt, circa 1650 B.C., representing some of what the ancient Egyptians knew
about mathematics around 1800 B.C. By far the most significant ancient work-that of
Archimedes of Syracuse (277-212 B.c.), which survives under the title On the Measure-
ment of the Circle follows. It is hard to overemphasize how this work dominated the subject
prior to the advent of the calculus.
xviii Introduction

We continue with a study ofLiu Hui's third century A.D. commentary on the Chinese
classic Nine Chapters in the Mathematical Art and of the lost work of the fifth century as-
tronomer Zu Chongzhi. Marshall Clagett's translation of Verba Filiorum, the Latin version
of the ninth century Arabic Book of Knowledge of the Measurement of Plane and Spherical
Figures completes our first millennium extracts.
The next selection jumps forward 500 years and discusses the tombstone of Ludolph
van Ceulen which recorded the culminating computation of pi by purely Archimedian tech-
niques to 35 places as performed by Ludolph, using 262 _gons, before 1615. We complete
this period with excerpts from three great transitional thinkers: Fran~ois Viete (1540-1603)
whose work greatly influenced that of Fermat; John Wallis (1616-1703), to whom New-
ton indicated great indebtedness; and the Dutch polymath Christian Huygens (1629-1695),
who correctly formalized Willebrord Snell's acceleration of Archimedes' method and was
thus able to recapture Van Ceulen's computation with only 230 -gons. In a part of this work,
not reproduced here, Huygens vigorously attacks the validity of Gregory's argument for the
transcendence of pi.

From Newton to Hilbert (Papers [16] to [24])

These comprise many of the most significant papers on pi. After visiting Newton's contri-
bution we record a discussion of the arctangent series for pi variously credited to the Scot
James Gregory, the German Leibniz, and to the earlier Indian Madhava. In this period we
move from the initial investigations of irrationality, by Euler and Lambert, to one of the
landmarks of nineteenth century mathematics, the proof of the transcendence of pi.
The first paper is a selection from Euler and it demonstrates Euler's almost unparal-
leled-save for Ramanujan-ability to formally manipulate series, particularly series for
pi. It is followed by an excerpt from Lambert and a discussion by Struik of Lambert's proof
of the irrationality of pi, which is generally credited as the first proof of its irrationality.
Euler had previously proved the irrationality of e. Lambert's proof of the irrationality of
pi is based on a complicated continued fraction expansion. Much simpler proofs are to be
found in [33], [48].
There is a selection from Shanks's self-financed publication that records his hand cal-
culation of 607 digits of pi. (It is in fact correct only to 527 places, but this went unnoticed
for almost a century.) The selection is included to illustrate the excesses that this side of
the story has evoked. With a modem understanding of accelerating calculations this com-
putation, even done by hand, could be considerably simplified. Neither Shanks's obsession
with the computation of digits nor his error are in any way unique. Some of this is further
discussed in [64].
The next paper is Hermite's 1873 proof of the transcendence of e. It is followed by
Lindemann's 1882 proof of the transcendence of pi. These are, arguably, the most important
papers in the collection. The proof of the transcendence of pi laid to rest the possibility of
"squaring the circle," a problem that had been explicit since the late fifth c. B.C. Hermite's
seminal paper on e in many ways anticipates Lindemann, and it is perhaps surprising that
Hermite did not himself prove the transcendence of pi. The themes of Hermite's paper
are explored and expanded in a number of later papers in this volume. See in particular
Mahler [42]. The last two papers offer simplified proofs of the transcendence. One is due to
Weierstrass in 1885 and the other to Hilbert in 1893. Hilbert's elegant proof is still probably
the simplest proof we have.
Introduction xix

The Twentieth Century (Papers [26] to [70])

The remaining forty-five papers are equally split between analytic and computational selec-
tions, with an interweaving of more diversionary selections.
On the analytic side we commence with the work of Ramanujan. His 1914 paper,
[29], presents an extraordinary set of approximations to pi via "singular values" of elliptic
integrals. The first half of this paper was well studied by Watson and others in the 1920s
and 1930s, while the second half, which presents marvelous series for pi, was decoded
and applied only more than 50 years later. (See [61], [62], [63].) Other highlights include:
Watson's engaging and readable account ofthe early development of elliptic functions, [30];
several very influential papers by Kurt Mahler; Fields Medalist Alan Baker's 1964 paper on
"algebraic independence of logarithms," [40]; and two papers on the irrationality of ~(3)
([48], [49]) which was established only in 1976.
The computational selections include a report on the early computer calculation of
pi-to 2037 places on ENIAC in 1949 by Reitwiesner, Metropolis and Von Neumann [34]
and the 1961 computation of pi to 100,000 places by Shanks and Wrench [38], both by
arctangent methods. Another highlight is the independent 1976 discovery of arithmetic-
geometric mean methods for the computation of pi by Salamin and by Brent ([46], [47], see
also [57]). Recent supercomputational applications of these and related methods by Kanada,
by Bailey, and by the Chudnovsky brothers are included (see [60] to [64]). As of going to
press, these scientists have now pushed the record for computation of pi beyond 17 billion
digits. (See Appendix II.) One of the final papers in the volume, [70], describes a method of
computing individual binary digits of pi and similar polylogarithmic constants and records
the 1995 computation of the ten billionth hexadecimal digit of pi.
Extract from the Rhind Papyrus

Problem 50
Example of a round field of diameter 9 khet. What is its area?
Take away H of the diameter, namely 1; the remainder is 8. Multi-
ply 8 times 8; it makes 64. Therefore it contains 64 setat of land.
Do it thus:
1 9
}' 1;
this taken away leaves 8
1 8
2 16
4 32
"-..8 64.
I ts area is 64 setat.
 .--..:-..

Plate7! Problem 49
Porticns
Plate 72 Problem 50 Portions
of of
Plates 78-82 Plate 73 Problem 51 Aotes66-7C

PIote74 Problem 52
Problems Problems
56-60 Plate 75 ,lPlate 76 44-48
Problem53 ''''''''''', 54
Plate 77
Problem 55

Copyright British Museum.

2
 HISTORIA MATHEMATICA 4 (1977),137-140

QUADRATURE OF THE CIRCLE IN ANCIENT EGYPT

BY PROF. DR. HERMANN ENGELS,
TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF AACHEN

Summaries

The mathematicians of ancient Egypt approximated

the area of a circle by a square with astonishing
accuracy. The way to find this approximation is
not handed down. In this paper a conjecture is
given which seems to be much more simple than earlier
attempts.

Die Mathematiker des alten Agypten approxi-

mierten mit erstaunlicher Genauigkeit die Kreisfl~che
durch ein Quadrat. Es ist nicht Uberliefert, wie
diese Approximation entstanden ist. In der
vor1iegenden Arbeit wird darUber eine Vermutung
mitgetei1t, die wesent1ich einfacher ist als bisherige
Erk1arungsversuche.

The mathematicians in ancient Egypt approximated the area

of a circle by a square according to the ru1~: Shorten the dia-
meter of the circle by (l/9)th to get the side of the square.
This means a quadrature of the circle by 'lfr2 = 'If}d/2)2 :: (8d/9) 2,
wherefrom the excellent approximation 'If :: (16/9) = 3.1605.
The error is only 0.0189.
While M. Cantor [1907] still says that there is no way to
understand this construction, there is an interesting conjecture
of K. Vogel and O. Neugebauer [Becker and Hofmann 1951, 21]
which uses a half-regular octogon that approximates the circle
and nearly leads to the wanted solution [Vogel 1958]. But this
conjecture seems to be too sophisticated. We here give a
simpler one.
Cantor [1907] says that the Egyptian stone masons covered
their designs and the walls in order to form a relief with
orthogonal nets. Then the cutting points of the lattice lines
and the contours of the design were carried over in fixed ratios.
This technique seems to be the key to the comprehension of the
Egyptian construction.
(1) If one attempts to draw a circle and a square inter-
secting this circle and having equal area, then
nearly everybody intuitively gives a solution something
like Figure 1.
C(/II),rigl" © 1977 by Acatlt'mic f'rc.u, Illc.
A II rights of reprodllctioll if! allY form rcserl'cd.

3
138 Hermann Engels 11M 4

A
a

a 3/4 a
2

112 a

1/4a

Figure 1

Figure 2

4
11M 4 Quadrature of the circle in ancient Egypt 139

The points of intersection are found by taking a quarter and

three quarters respectively of the length of the side. While
this construction may arise from the feeling that this could be
the exact solution (more sophisticated treatment of this problem
only reinforces this feeling) and thus needs no geometrical
knowledge, another way to Figure 1 is to use the above mentioned
nets, as shown in Figure 2. We can assume that this technique
was used for many centuries and hence that the probability of
finding a picture like Figure 2 (and hence Figure 1) is nearly
one.
Thus we have two very plausible and simple ways to realise
this construction. The final Egyptian solution is to be found
in a second step.
(2) The net-technique presents the possibility of getting
a connection between a/2 and r in Figure 1. Assume,
that a square is divided into 256 subsquares (Figure 3).
Then it follows that a = iB/9)d, while a = (2/'/5)d
is correct.. But the relative error & is less than
.62 percent
and is hardly noticeable even for a large diameter d.
This explanation of the Egyptian construction assumes two
errors: an inaccurate determination of the square, and an

A
- j"'-....
~ B
I """
" '"
/r
I
V
"
'\

\.
\
I ~

V
I
I
M
Figure 3

5
140 Hermann Engels 1-IM 4

inaccurate calculation of MB. But both errors are not only very
small but also diminish each other: The area of the circle
passing through B (Figure 1) is If(/"5a/4)2 = (O,99083a.)2 < a 2 ,
which is slightly too small. But with 8/9 instead of 2/1~, the
result is the more accurate If(9a/16) 2 = (O.99701a) 2.
The fact that we have no record of the slightest hint of
hO\i to explain the Egyptian approximation (16/9) 2 may have many
reasons, but if the construction was re~ardcd as very simple,
we would not expect to find any written explanation. The con-
struction proposed is very simple and is based on the peculiarly
Egyptian use of square nets.

REFERENCES
Becker. 0 and J E Hofmann 1951 Geschichte der Mathematik
Bonn (Athcnaum-Verlag) p. 21
Cantor. M 1907 Vor1esungen Uber Geschichte der folathematik,
vol. 1 Reprint 1965 New York (Johnson Reprint)
Vogel, K 1958 Vorgriechische Mathem.Jtik, Part I : Vorgeschichte
und Agypten Hannover

* * * * * * * * * * * *

6
 MEASUREMENT OF A CIRCLE.
Proposition 1.

The area of any circle is equal to a right-angled triangle in

which one of the sides about the right angle is equal to the mdius,
and the other to the circumference, of the ci1'cle.
Let ABOD be the given circle, J( the triangle described.

Then, if the circle is not equal to J{, it must be either

greater or less.
I. If possible, let the circle be greater than J{.
Inscribe a square ABOD, bisect the arcs AB, BO, OD, DA,
then bisect (if necessary) the halves, and so on, until the sides
of t.he inscribed polygon whose angular points are the points of-
division-subtendsegments whose sum is less than the excess of
the area of the circle over J{.

7
92 ARCHIMEDES

Thus the area of the polygon is greater than K.

Let AE be any side of it, and ON the perpendicular on AE
from the centre O.
Then ON is less than the radius of the circle and therefore
less than one of the sides about the right angle in K. Also the
perimeter of the polygon is less than the circumference of the
circle, i.e. less than the other side about the right angle in K.
Therefore the area of the polygon is less than K j which is
inconsistent with the hypothesis.
Thus the area of the circle is not greater than K.
II. If possible, let the circle be less than K.
Circumscribe a square, and let two adjacent sides, touching
the circle in E, H, meet in T. Bisect the arcs between adjacent
points of contact and draw the tangents at the points of
bisection. Let A be the middle point of the arc EH, and FAG
the tangent at A.
Then the angle TAG is a right angle.
Therefore TG > GA
>GH.
It follows that the triangle FTG is greater than half the area
TEAH.
Similarly, if the arc AH be bisected and the tangent at the
point of bisection be drawn, it will cut off from the area GAB
more than one-half.
Thus, by continuing the process, we shall ultimately arrive
at a circumscribed polygon such that the spaces intercepted
between it and the circle are together less than the excess of
K over the area of the circle.
Thus the area of the polygon will be less than K.
N ow, since the perpendicular from 0 on any side of the
polygon is equal to the radius of the circle, while the perimeter
of the polygon is greater than the circumference of the circle,
it follows that the area of the polygon is greater than the
triangle K; which is impossible.

8
 MEASUREME~T OF A CIRCLE. 93
Therefore the area of the circle is not less than K.
Since then the area of the circle is neither greater nor less
than K, it is equal to it.

Proposition ~.

The area of a circle is to the square on its diameter as 11

to 14.
[The text of this proposition is not satisfactory, and Archi-
medes cannot have placed it before Proposition 3, as the
approximation depends upon the result of that proposition.]

Proposition 3.

The ratio of the circumference of any circle to its diameter

is less than 3t but greater than 3+~.
[In view of the interesting questions arising out of the
arithmetical content of this proposition of Archimedes, it is
necessary, in reproducing it, to distinguish carefully the actual
steps set out in the text as we have it from the intermediate
steps (mostly supplied by Eutocius) which it is convenient to
put in for the purpose of making the proof easier to follow.
Accordingly all the steps not actually appearing in the text
have been enclosed in square brackets, in order that it may be
clearly seen how far Archimedes omits actual calculations and
only gives results. It will be observed that he gives two
fractional approximati6ns to ";3 (one being less and the other
greater than the real value) without any explanation as to how
he arrived at them; and in like manner approximations to the
square roots of several large numbers which are not complete
squares are merely stated. These various approximations and
the machinery of Greek arithmetic in general will be found
discussed in the Introduction, Chapter IV.]
I. Let AB be the diameter of any circle, 0 its centre, AO
the tangent at A; and let the angle A 00 be one-third of a
right angle.

9
 94 ARCHIMEDES

Then OA : AO[=.v3: 1] > 265: 153 ............. (1),

and 00 : 0..4 [= 2 : 1] = 306 : 153 ............... (2).
First, draw OD bisecting the angle AOO and meeting AO
in D.
Now 00 : OA = OD : DA, [Eucl. VI. 3]
so that [00+ OA : OA = 0..4: DA, or]
00 + OA : OA = OA : AD.
Therefore [by (1) and (2)]
0..4: AD>571 : 153 .................. (3).
Hence OD 2 : AD2 [= (OA2+AD2): AD2
>(57P+ 1532) : 1532]
> 349450 : 23409,
so that OD : DA > 591i : 153 ..................... (4).

E - _ __
11

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~O~--------eB
Secondly, let OE bisect the angle AOD, meeting AD in E.
[Then DO : OA = DE : EA,
so that DO+OA: DA =OA: AE.]
Therefore OA: AE[>(591i+ 571): 153, by (3) and (4)]
> 1162k: 153 ..................... (5).

10
 MEASUREllIEN'r OF A CIRCLE. 95

[It follows that

OE I : EA 2> {(1162!)2 + 15S2 } : 1532
> (1350534M + 23409) : 23409
> 1373943H : 23409.]
Thus OE: EA > 1172!: 153 ..................... (6).

Thirdly, let OF bisect the angle A OE and meet AE in F.

'Ve thus obtain the result [corresponding to (3) and (.5)
above] that
OA : AF[> (1l62!+ 1172-!): 153]
> 2334i : 153 ..................... (7).
[Therefore OF' :FA2> {(2334t)2+ 1532 } : 1532
> 5472132,\ : 23409.]
Thus OF : FA> 2339-1 : 1.53 ..................... (8).
Fourthly, let OG bisect the angle A OF, meeting AF in G.
"Ve have then
OA : A G [> (2334; + 2339!) : 153, by means of (7) and (8)]
> 46731 : 153.
Now the angle AOe, which is one-third of a right angle,
has been bisected four times, and it follows that
LAOG=-}g (a right angle).
Make the angle AOH on the other side of OA equal to the
angle AOG, and let GA produced meet OH in H.
Then L GOH =n (a right angle).
Thus GH is one side of a regular polygon of 96 sides cir-
cumscribed to the given circle.
And, since OA : AG > 46731 : 153,
while AB=20A. GH=2,AG.
it follows that
AB : (perimeter of polygon of 96 sides) [> 46731 : 153 x 96]
> 4673! : 14688.

11
96 ARCHIMEDES

14688 667t
But 4673t = 3 + 4673!

[ < 3 + 46667721tJ
<3t·
Therefore the circumference of the circle (being less than
the perimeter of the polygon) is a fortiori less than 3t times
the diameter AB.
II. Next let AB be the diameter of a circle, and let AO,
meeting the circle in 0, make the angle OAB equal to one-third
of a right angle. Join BO.
Then AO: OB [=.;'3: 1] < 1351 : 780.
F1:rst, let AD bisect the angle BA 0 and meet BO in d and
the circle in D. Join BD.
Then LBAD=LdAO
= LdBD,
and the angles at D, 0 are both right angles.
It follows that the triangles ADB, [AOd], BDd are similar.

Therefore AD : DB = BD : Dd
[=AO: Od]
= AB : Bd [Eucl. VI. 3J
=AB+AO: Bd+Od
=AB+AO:BO
or BA +AO: BO=AD: DB.

12
 MEASUREMENT OF A CIRCLE. 97
[But AO: OB < 1351 : 780, from above,
while BA: BO=2: 1
1560 : 780.]
=
Therefore AD: DB < 2911 : 780 .................. (1).
[Hence ABt : BD' < (2911' + 780') : 780'
< 9082321 : 60~400.]
Thus AB : BD < 3013f : 780 ............... (2).
Secondly, let AE bisect the angle BAD, meeting the circle
in E; and let BE be joined.
Then we prove, in the same way as before, that
AE: EB[=BA+AD: BD
< (3013! + 2011) : 780, by (1) and (2)]
< 5924i : 780
< 5924i x -h : 780 x n
< 1823 : 240 ........................... (3).
[Hence ABt : BEl < (1823' + 2402) : 24U'
< 3380929 : 57600.]
Therefore AB: BE < 1838/1 : 240 ................... (4).
Thirdly, let AF bisect the angle BAE, meeting the circle
in F.
Thus AF: FB [= BA + AE : BE
< 366I!r : 240, by (3) and (4)J
< 3661/1 x 'U : 240 x H
< 1007 : 66 ........................ (5).
[It follows that
ABt : BF' < (1007' + 66 2 ) : 66"
< 1018405 : 4356.]
Therefore AB : BF < 1009! : 66 ..................... (6).
Fourthly, let the angle BAF be bisected by A G meeting the
circle in G.
Then AG: GB[=BA +AF: BF]
< 2016! : 66, by (5) and (6).

13
98 ARCHIMEDES

[And AB2 : BGt < {(2016il + 662 } : 66 2

< 4069284h : 4356.]
Therefore AB : BG < 20171: 66,
whence BG: AB > 66 : 20171- ...................... (7).
[Now the angle BAG which is the result of the fourth bisection
of the angle BAG, or of one-third of a right angle, is equal to
one-fortyeighth of a right angle.
Thus the angle subtended by BG at the centre is
-h (3. right angle).]
Therefore BG is a side of a regular inscribed polygon of 9G
sides.
It follows from (7) that
(perimeter of polygon) : AB [> 96 x 66 : 2017 t]
>6336: 2017t.
6336
And 201 71> 3tY-.
Much more then is the circumference of the circle greater than
3tY- times the diameter.
'l'hus the ratio of the circumference to the diameter
< at but> 3tY-.

14
 Reprinled from the AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL MONTHLY
Vol. 88, No.3, March 1981
ARCHIMEDES lHE NUMERICAL ANALYST

G. M. PHILLIPS
The Malilematica/ Institute, University of St. AIIOftws, St. AIIdmv.r, Scotlmtd

1. Introduction. LetPN and PN denote half the lengths of the perimeters of the inscribed and
circumscribed regular N-gons of the unit circle. Thus Pl - 3v'3 /2, Pl - 3v'3 ,P4 - 2\1'2, and
P4 - 4. It is geometrically obvious that the sequences {PN} and {PN } are respectively monotonic
increasing and monotonic decreasing, with common limit fI'. This is the basis of Archimedes'
method for approximating to 'IT. (See, for example, Heath (2).) Using elementary geometrical
reasoning, Archimedes obtained the following recurrence relation, in which the two sequences
remain entwined:
I/PlN-!(I/PN + I/PN) (Ia)
PlN - V(PZNPN)' (Ib)
We note that these involve the use of the harmonic and geometric means. Beginning with N - 3
and applying the recurrence formula five times, Archimedes established the inequalities
3~ <P96< 'IT < P96 < 3~. (2)
His skill in obtaining rational numbers 3~ and (the very familiar) 3~ so close to the irrational
numbers P96 and P96 can be more readily appreciated if we display all four numbers to four
decimal places:
P96 - 3.1410, 3~ - 3.1408
P96 - 3.1427, 3~ - 3.1429.

2. StabUity of the Recurreuce Relation. In any thorough study of a recurrence relation we

need to consider the question of numerical stability, that is, whether rounding errors are
magnified by the recurrence relation. As an example, consider the sequence {an} defined by
an - ~lf1ecoo'cosn(Jd(J. (3)
'IT 0

(The an are the Chebyshev coefficients for eX; see Clenshaw [1).) It is easily verified, on
integrating (3) by parts, that this sequence satisfies the recurrence relation
an+l- an_I - 2oo n • (4)
In principle, given ao and a" we may then use (4) to compute the value of any all' In practice,
the recurrence relation (4) does not provide a satisfactory method of computing this sequence,
because it is numerically unstable. To illustrate this, suppose we begin with ao - 2.5321 and
a, - 1.1303, which are correct to 4 decimal places. Using (4) and rounding each all to 4 decimal
places gives a2 = 0.2715, a3 = 0.0443, a4'" 0.0057, as ... -0.0013, and a6 - 0.0187. The true
values, to 4 decimal places, are a2 and a3 as above and a4 - 0.0055, as - 0.0005, and
a6 - 0.0000. We can now see, on re-examining (4), that the error in an+1 is approximately (-2n)
times the error in an, which shows why (4) is numerically unstable.
To examine the stability of (I) let us assume that, due to the effect of rounding errors, we
actually compute numbers P2N andPN instead of PZN andpN' where

George M. Phillips did research in the theory of numben UDder E. M. Wright at Aberdeen. He taught at
Southampton (1963-1961) before moving to St. Andrews, where he is now Reader in Numerical Analysis. He has
made research visits to the Univenity of Texas at Austin and, on several occasions, to the Univenity of Calgary.
His main research interests are in numerical analysis and approximation theory. He is coauthor (with P. 1. Taylor)
of Computers (1969) and Theory and A.pplications of Numerical A.nalysis (1973).-EditOf'S

165

15
166 o. M. PHILUPS [March

P1N - P1N(1 + 8). (Sa)

PN - PN(I + f). (Sb)
We call 8 and f the relative errors in P1N andpN' respectively. To find the relative error inP2N'
we have
(6)
Thus P2N (neglecting the rounding error incurred in evaluating the right side of (6» is the
number we would actually obtain, instead of P2N' Substituting (5) into (6), we have

(7)

as the relative error in P2N' Using binomial expansions in (1) we see that, for small values of 8
andf,

(8)

An analysis of (Ia) produces a result similar to (8), showing that rounding errors are not
magnified by the recurrence relation, which is thus stable.
3. Rate of Coa.erpace. We have a great advantage over Archimedes in being able to express
PN andpN in terms of circular functions. It is easily verified that
PN =- Nsin('fI/N) (9)
and
PN =- Ntan('fI/N). (10)
From (9) and (10) we can justify that (Ia) and (Ib) are indeed correct and, further, from our
familiarity with the Maclaurin series for sin II and tan II, we can establish the rate of convergence
of the sequences {PN} and {PN}' ConsideringpN first, we have from (9)

PN-N[(;) - ;!(;r + ;!(;r _... ] (II)

so that, for large N,

I ) I
'fI-PN=:::i'fl' N 2 ' (12)

We could give a more precise form of (12) by writing down the first two terms of the series (II)
plus a remainder term. We can now see from (8) that the error in PZN is approximately
one-quarter of the error in PN' More precisely, we have
(13)

By considering the series for tan('If/N), we see that the errors in the sequence {PN} decrease at
the same rate. An inspection of the values of PN and PN in Table I shows that one might guess
this resulL (An explanation of the last column of this table fonows later.) Given the superb
numerical skills of Archimedes, one is surely tempted to conjecture that he must have been
aware of the rate of convergence of his sequences.
4. "FIISfer" CoanqellCe. We have just seen that the convergence of the sequences {PN } and
{PN} is very slow, and it is interesting to consider how to improve on this. First we expand (10)
in a Maclaurin series to give

PN-N[(~)+i(~r+:s(~r+···]. (14)

16
1981) ARCHIMEDES n·m NUMERICAL ANALYST 167

N PN PN UN
3 2.598076 5.196152 3.464102
6 3.000000 3.464102 3.154701
12 3.105829 3.215390 3.142349
24 3.132629 3.159660 3.141639
48 3.139350 3.146086 3.141596
96 3.141032 3.142715 3.141593
192 3.141452 3.141873 3.141593

We may now eliminate the terms in I/N Z between (11) and (14) by writing
I I ,,'
UN - 3 (2PN + PN) - fI + 20 N 4 + ... , (IS)
so that
I ,,'
UN - fI ==: 20 N 4 (16)

and UN converges to" faster thanPN or PN' The first few values of UN are given in Table I. If we
re-calculate the numbers in Table I to greater accuracy, we find that UM gives an approximation
to " which is more accurate, by a factor greater than 1000. than either of Archimedes'
approximations PM and PM'
The technique of eliminating the term in I/N z could also have been done betweenpN and
PZN (or, equally, between P N and P ZN )' Thus, similarly to (16), we can show that, say,

also behaves like a multiple of IIN4 for large N. This process is c:aIIcd extrapolation to the limit.
(See, for example, Phillips and Taylor [3].) This process can be repeated; that is, we can
eliminate the term in I/N4 between ON and 0lN' In Table 2 we show the dramatic effect of
repeated extrapolation to the limit. Note that the last two numbers in the final column of Table
2 give fI correct to 9 decimal places, although it is only the effect of rounding error which has
prevented us from achieving agreement to twice as many places of decimals. If we re-c:alculate
the numbers PN in Table 2 to 20 decimal places and carry out five extrapolations (rather than
three given in the table), we obtain an approximation which differs from fI by less than 10 - I•• It
is remarkable that such accuracy can be extracted from Archimedes' raw material.

TABU! 2. The effect of repeated extrapolaticm to the limit.

Extrapolated Val.-
N PN ON Repeated Ex1npoIatiaa
3 2.598 076 211
6 3.000 000 000 3.133 974 596
12 3.105 828 541 3.141 104 721 3.141 580 063
24 3.132 628 613 3.141 561 970 3.141 592 4S4 3.141 592 6SO
48 3.139 350 203 3.141 590 733 3.141 592 651 3.141 S92 6S4
96 3.141 031 951 3.141 S92 534 3.141 592 6S4 3.141 S92 6S4

5. AaaIysIs 01 Convergence. In this final section we analyze the behavior of the recurrence
relation (I) with arbitrary positive starting values. In divorcing (I) from its geometrical context,
we shall change the notation and rewrite (I) in the form
I/QN+I-HI/QN + I/qN) (17a)
(17b)

17
168 G. M. PHIlLIPS [March

beginning with arbitrary qo, Qo> O. We examine separately the two cases 0 < qo < Qo and
0< Qo< qo·
Case 1. For 0 < qo < Qo we shall write
a _ qoQo
~: - cosl,
(Q 2
(18)
0- qo2)1/2'
so that
Qo. atan8, qo- asin8. (19)
Substituting (IS) into (13), we easily obtain
QI-2atan!8, (20)
It follows that
(21)
and hence the sequences {QN) and {qN} converge to the common limit
alJ.. qoQo cos-I(qo/Qo). (22)
(Q~ _ q~)1/2

The "Archimedes case" corresponds to qo- 3V3/2, Qo- 3V3.

Case 2. For 0 < Qo < qo we write

~: ... coshlJ, (23)

so that
Qo - a tanh 8, qo - a sinh IJ. (24)
Substituting (24) into (17), we obtain
Qt - 2a tanh !IJ,
It follows that

and hence the sequences {QN} and {qN} again converge to a common limit which, in this
case,is
alJ _ qoQo cosh-t(qo/Qo)' (25)
(d- QA)1/2
As an amusing application of this last result, let us choose

Qo- 21,
for any positive 1 *' 1. Then from (25) the sequences {QN} and {qN} have common limit
21(12 + I) I
--',=--.<.. og I.
(12 - I)

This gives a simple method for evaluating log I and repeated extrapolation may be used to
accelerate convergence. However, this is not proposed as a practical algorithm for computing
log I.

Aa-Ic" IS. I am indeb&ed to my eoDeapes J. M. Howie and J. J. O'Counor for iDterealiDg diswssioas

18
1981) A BRIEF HISTORY OF TIlE CATENARY CHAIN CON1ECTURES 169

on this topic. I also wish to thank John W. Wrench, Jr., for his valuable comments and for the trouble he took to
re-work independently the calculations embodied in Tables I and 2.

Refereaees
1. C. W. Oenshaw, Chebyshev Series for Mathematical Functions, Mathematical Tables, vol. 5, National
Physical Laboratory, H.M.s.O., London, 1962.
1. T. L Heath, The Works of Archimedes, Cambridge University Press, 1897.
3. G. M. Phillips and P. J. Taylor, Theory and Applications of Numerical Analysis, Academic Press, 1973.

19
HlSTORIA MATHEMATICA 13 (1986),325-340

Circle Measurements in Ancient China

LAM LAY-YONG

Departmel/l <!f Mathematics. National U"ivasity <!f Sin!(aporc.

Singapore 0511. Republic oj Singapore

AND

ANG TiAN-SE

Department of Chinese Studies. University of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur. Malaysia

This paper discusses the method of Liu Hui (3rd century) for evaluating the ratio of the
circumfcrcncc ora circle to its diamctcr. now known as 17. A translation of Liu's method is
given in the Appendix. Also examined are the values for 17 given by Zu Chongzhi (429-500)
and unsurpassed for a millenium. Although the method used by Zu is not extant, it is almost
certain that he applied Liu's method. With the help of an electronic computer, a table of
computations adhering to Liu's method is given to show the derivation of Zu's results. The
paper concludes with a survey of circle measurements in China. ., 1986 Academic Press. Inc.

*~.#0~263.~.~M~~~.~n~00~ •• ~M~·
iIl/lf1.t. ( 429 - 500 ) ~
j1J.~7r~~~, v.A~xi.f:1:I1 ,if~jllb'f<·
~m~~oo~ ••
,~~.~,¥.~-+.~*.M~· ~ ••••
.~~~.~,m~*m~.~7r~,.~~~v.A.~·*~~.~7r
••
~,.m~v.A.~~
*
00 J1j ~;fr 00 I: ~ ,
I:I1-~*.*,~~@.~*.·.m~~~
mv.A
# ~ , if ~ ~ ~ M * *. .,
1986 Academic Press. Inc.

Dieser Aufsatz erortert Liu Huis (3. Jahrhundert n. Chr.) Methode, das Verhaltnis des
Umfanges eines Kreises zu seinem Durchmesser zu berechnen, das heute als 17 bekannt is!.
Der Anhang enthalt eine Obersetzung von Lius Methode. Ebenso werden die Werte von Zu
Chongzhi (425-500) fiir 17 gepriift, die tausend Jahre lang nicht iiberboten wurden. Obwohl
die von Zu verwandte Methode nicht mehr existiert, ist es fast sicher, daB er sich Lius
Methode bediente. Mit Hilfe eines elektronischen Rechners wird eine Berechnungstabelle
beigefiigt, die sich an Lius Methode anlehnt, urn die Ableitung von Zus Ergebnissen zu
zeigen. Der Aufsatz schlieBt mit einem Uberblick iiber die Kreismessungen in China .
., 1986 Academic Press, Inc.

AMS 1980 subject classifications: 01A25, 28-03.

KEY WORDS: Liu Hui, Zu Chongzhi, computations of 17, decimal fractions, polygons, ratio of the
circle circumference to the diameter.

China, like any other early civilization, had its fair share of men who tried to
find as accurately as possible the area or the circumference of a circle. Two men
stand out prominently among these: Liu Hui la] I of the 3rd century and Zu
1 Lowercase letters in brackets indicate a Glossary listing (at the end of the paper),
325
0315-0860/86 $3.00
Copyright © 1986 by Academic Press, Inc.
All rights of reproduction in any rorm reserved.

20
326 LAM LAY-YONG AND ANG TIAN-SE HM 13

[)

FIGURE I

Chongzhi [b) of the 5th century. This paper first discusses the contributions of Liu
and Zu to calculation of the ratio of the circumference to the diameter, now known
as 1f, and their significance, and, second, offers a general survey of the evaluation
of Ihis ratio in China.
LIU'S METHOD
Problems 31 and 32 in chapter 1, entitledfang tian [c) (mensuration of fields), of
the Jiu zhang suanshu [d] (Nine chapters of the mathematical art) [I] assume the
area of a circle is half the circumference times half the diameter. In his commen-
tary on problem 32, Liu Hui explained the derivation of this formula, discussed
why the ratio of the circumference to the diameter was generally taken as 3, and
then derived a more precise value for the ratio. Liu's commentary-divided into
three sections for ease of reference in this paper-is summarized below and
offered in translation in the Appendix [2].
Section 1. Start with a regular hexagon inscribed in a circle of radius I chi [e].
The product of one side of the hexagon, the radius, and 3 (= ! x 6) gives the area
of an inscribed dodecagon. Repeat this process by taking the product of one side
of the dodecagon, the radius, and 6 (= ! x 12) to obtain the area of an inscribed
polygon of 24 sides. According to Liu's principle of exhaustion, if the process is
repeated long enough, eventually a polygon will be reached whose sides are so
short that it will coincide with the circle. This explains why the area of the circle is
the product of half the circumference and the radius. The value of 3 to 1 for the
ratio of the circumference to the diameter is imprecise as this is in fact the ratio of
the perimeter of the hexagon to the diameter. However, this inaccuracy was
passed down from generation to generation, Liu explains, because of an unwilling-
ness to strive for accuracy.
Section 2. This section summarizes the stages of Liu's computation of a more
precise value of the ratio. Let the side of an n-sided polygon = an and its area =
An. In Fig. 1, n = 6,
oe = radius =r = 10, Be = la6 = 5,
OB = b6 = Vrz - t4 a(
2 =, 8660254
. , DB = c(, = r - h(, = 1.339746,
De z = aiz = d + iai = 26.7949193445.

21
HM 13 CIRCLE MEASUREMENTS 327

The same process is repeated for a dodecagon of side al2 as follows.

b l2 = Yr2 - !aT2 = 9.659258, Cl2 =r - b l2 = 0.34742,

a~4 = cTz + laT2 = 6.814~G49466.
The process continues:
b Z4 = 9.914448, C24 = 0.085552, a~8 = 1.7110278813,

a48 = 1.30806, A96 = 24ra48 = 313ffi.

b 48 = 9.978589, C48 = 0.021411, a~ = 0.4282154012,
a96 = 0.65438, A 192 = 48ra96 = 314.&\, A 192 - A96 = :;g~,

314 662\ = AI92 < A < A96 + 2(A 192 - A 96 ) = 314~~g,

where A = the area of the circle.
Hence A = 314 (to the nearest integer) and S: A: s = 200: 157: 100, where S = the
area of the square circumscribing the circle and s = the area of the square in-
scribed in the circle. Therefore circumference/diameter = ll({.
Section 3. A = AI92 + 63265 = 314~. There is no clear explanation of how ~ is
derived apart from the fact that it bears some relation to the residual area A 192 -
A96 = Ws. It follows that S : A : s = 5000: 3927 : 2500 and circumference/diameter
= n~z. It is stated that this ratio can be verified by computing al536 and hence
deriving A 30n •

CONCLUSIONS FROM LIU'S METHOD

1. A problem in the Ahmes Papyrus (from ancient Egypt) gave the numerical
area of a circle, and the excavations at Susa in 1936 revealed the old Babylonians'
calculation of the circumference of a circle in relation to its inscribed hexagon
[Neugebauer 1952,47]. In instances such as these, historians calculate the value
of 1T from the area or other recorded figures. Archimedes lHeath 1897, 93-98] and
Liu Hui, however, are the only men from ancient history whose methods for
obtaining the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter are known to
modern historians.
2. Both Archimedes' and Liu's methods employed regular polygons inscribed in
the circle. Archimedes also had polygons circumscribing the circle. Both men
assumed the principle of exhaustion, holding that eventually a polygon will be
reached whose sides are so short that it will coincide with the circle. This principle
was first stated by the Greek philosopher, Antiphon, in the 5th century B.C. when
he began with a square inscribed in a circle [Heath 1921 1,222].
3. The genius of Archimedes is displayed in his method. Without knowledge of
subjects such as decimal notation and trigonometry, he was able to devise a
method with inscribed and circumscribed polygons of 96 sides which gave the

22
328 LAM LAY-YONG AND ANG TIAN-SE HM 13

values of 1T as greater than 3t¥ but less than 3~. His method of calculating the
approximate values of irrational square roots is still in the realm of speculation.
Compared with Archimedes' method, then, Liu's method is simple and elegant.
He used only inscribed polygons, and each stage of his derivation is clear.
4. Archimedes' method is solely concerned with the evaluation of the perime-
ters of the inscribed and circumscribed polygons from which the circumference of
the circle is deduced. It does not draw any conclusions about the area of the circle
in relation to the ratio 1T [3]. By showing that the area of a circle is the product of
half the circumference and the radius, Liu's method proved that the ratio of the
area of a circle to the square of its radius is identical to the ratio of the circumfer-
ence to the diameter, or, in other words, 1T.
5. One of the reasons for the simplicity of Liu's method is that he inherited a
tradition using a decimal number system. The existence of a word-numeral deci-
mal system in China can be traced to the oracle bone characters of the Shang
dynasty [Needham 1959, 12-13]. Since the Warring States period (480 to 221 B.C.)
counting rods, manifesting the place value of a decimal number system, were used
for computation LAng 1977, 97-98]. Liu's work serves as a fine example of the
depth of the ancient Chinese understanding and handling of large numbers and
decimal fractions as early as the 3rd century. In his text each numeral has a place
name and on the counting board L4] each rod numeral has a place position relative
to the other rod numerals. In the text, integral places of order 10, 10 2 , 10\ . . . ,
10 II are called shi lfJ. bai 19J, qiall lhJ, wan liJ, shi wan UJ, bai wall lkJ, qiall wall
[I], yi [m], shi yi [n], bai yi[o], and qian yi [p], respectively. For a decimalfraction,
the names of the first five decimal places are given as fen [q], Li [r], hao [s], miao
[t], and hu [u], respectively. In calculating a value to more than five decimal
places, Liu remarked that the "minute numbers" had no place names and so the
numeral in the sixth decimal place had to be converted to a fraction. For example,
b(, = 8 cun Lv] [5] 6fen 6 Li LO hao] 2 miao 5f, hu (see the Appendix, Section 2). In
this fashion, the lengths of all b" 's are truncated at the sixth decimal place. This
ensures a certain degree of accuracy for the values of subsequent a;' 's which are
truncated at the tenth decimal place. Without the "modern" notational decimal
point, each set of a~ numerals is considered by Liu in square hu [u] units. For
computing the area A 2n , the value of an is obtained from a~ by the square root
method and is truncated at the fifth decimal place. For example, a§6 = 4282154012
square hu and a9(, = 6fen 5 Ii 4 hao 3 miao 8hu (see the Appendix, Section 2). The
ancient Chinese had devised a method for computing the square root of any
number to any degree of accuracy. The earliest record of this method is found in
the Jiu zhang suanshu LQian 1963, 150; Wang & Needham 1955, 350-365]. Liu
was therefore well aware that a number of 2n digits would give a square root with
a number of fl digits or vice versa.
6. Liu's method, written for computation by the counting rod system, illustrates
the practicality and immense potential of this computational device. With this
system, abstract ideas had to be transformed into concrete ones for the handling
of counting rods on the counting board. Like the modern computer, the counting
rod system encouraged algorithms such as the one devised by Liu. The first

23
HM 13 CIRCLE MEASUREMENTS 329

decimal place was called fen [q] and, on the counting board, digits of the first and
subsequent decimal places were designated to specified positions. The concept of
decimal fractions existed, as it was merely an extension of the integral number
system. In the same way the concept of zero in a notational form existed. If there
were zero or no digit in a particular place value, the designated position on the
counting board for that place value was left blank. P. Beckmann remarks that the
Chinese discovery of the equivalence of the digit zero made them "far better
equipped for numerical calculations than their western contemporaries" [Beck-
mann 1970, 27].
7. Both Archimedes and Liu had discovered methods that would enable men of
later generations to calculate 7T to any desired degree of accuracy. With these
methods, the number of decimal places to which 7T could be calculated was merely
a matter of computational ability and perseverance. Thus, in 1593 Fran($ois Viete
and Adriaen van Roomen used Archimedes' method to calculate 7T to 9 and 15
decimal places, respectively. A few years later Ludolph van Ceulen computed 7T
to 35 decimal places [Beckmann 1970, 98-99]. There is strong evidence that Zu
Chongzhi used Liu's method to obtain his estimates of 7T. A mathematician,
familiar with the counting rod system and as talented as Zu, would have no
difficulty in applying Liu's method to an enlarged number or extending the num-
ber of decimal places in the computation and thereby calculating 7T to a higher
degree of accuracy than Liu.
ZU CHONGZHl'S VALUES FOR 7T

Zu Chongzhi' s values for 7T were not surpassed until a millenium later when al-
Kashi evaluated 7T correctly to 16 decimal places [Youschkevitch & Rosenfeld
1973,258]. It is interesting to note that Zu's fractional value of 7T in the form m
was also given by the Indians in the 15th century [Gupta, 1975, 3] and by Adriaan
Anthoniszoon in the 16th century [Beckmann 1970, 98].
As an addendum to Liu Hui's commentary, Li Chunfeng [w] stated that Zu
considered Liu's ratios inaccurate and therefore proposed to compute further
[Qian 1963, 106]. Zu's concern for a better approximation for 7T was essentially
due to his desire for the compilation of an astronomical system for the empire.
There is no doubt that Zu incorporated the method for approximating 7T into his
mathematical text, Zhui shu [x] (Method of mathematical composition), which is
not extant. There remain now but quotations in the official histories. For example,
the Sui shu [y] (Standard history of the Sui dynasty) [387-388] relates:
In ancient mathematics, the ratio of the circumference to the diameter was taken to be 3 to 1
but this was only a rough estimate. Though various efforts had been made by Liu Xin [z),
Zhang Heng faa), Liu Hui, Wang Fan [ab[ and Pi Yanzong lac), the results obtained so far still
lacked precision. Towards the end of the [Liu) Song period (420-479), Zu Chongzhi, a
historian of Nanxu [ad] district, found further approximations. He took 100000000 lunits] as 1
zhang [ae] along the diameter of a circle [of length 2 zhang) and found an upper value of 3
zhang 1 chi 4 cun [5) 1fen 5 Ii 9 hao 2 miao 7 hu and a lower value of 3 zhallg 1 chi 4 CUll 1fen
5 Ii 9 hao 2 miao 6 ha for the circumference [saying that] the true value must lie between the
upper and lower limits. His "very close" ratio (mi III [af» was 355 to 113 and the "approxi-
mate" ratio (Ylle /u lag]) was 22 to 7.

24
330 LAM LAY -YONG AND ANG TlAN-SE HM 13

It is to be noted from the above account that numbers were enlarged or, in other
words, extended to the left rather than the right in order to attain greater accuracy
in calculation. Thus Zu used a radius of 1 zhang, taken as 100000000 units, while
in Liu's figure the radius 1 chi equaled 1000000 hu. Obviously, it is easier to deal
with larger whole units than with decimal fractions extended to more decimal
places. From knowledge of Liu's method and Li Chunfeng's [w] statement, it
seems logical to infer that Zu' s method of finding the value of TT between 3.1415926
and 3.1415927 was based on Liu's theory. Based on this assumption, the present
authors proceeded to do the calculations on an electronic computer. Care was
taken to devise a program for the computer which adhered to the method used by
Liu Hui [6]. The following findings resulted.
1. According to Liu's method the values of bn , a~, and an are truncated at the
sixth, tenth, and fifth decimal places, respectively. If Liu's procedure is extended
and strictly followed, it is impossible to obtain Zu's estimates irrespective of the
value of n. The simple reason is that Zu's estimates for TT are up to the seventh
decimal place.
2. If an adjustment is made to enlarge the radius from Liu's 10 units to 1000
units as specified in the Sui Shu, then the values of bn and a~ can be truncated, as
in Liu's method, at the sixth and tenth decimal places, respectively. The proce-
dure terminates when n = 6144, and, to obtain Zu's values for TT, the values of
a6144 and a12288 have to be truncated at the eighth and ninth decimal places, respec-
tively. This is a deviation from Liu's method, where values of an are truncated at
the fifth decimal place. However, an extension of decimal places should not have
involved any difficulty for Zu. The figures obtained are shown in the table below.
b6 = 866.025403 b3K4 = 999.966533
= 133.974597 ('3M = 0.033467
("6
,
ai2 = 267949.1926413124 a;611 = 66.9321654633

bl2 = 965.925826 b 7611 = 999.991633

CI2 =34.074174 £"768 = 0.008367
ai. = 68148.3474941103 aiS36 = 16.7331113724

b 2• = 991.444861 b'''6 = 999.997908

("2. = 8.555139 C15Jb = 0.002092
a~8 = 17110.2772768368 a~072 = 4.1832822195

b48 = 997.858923 b 3072 = 999.999477

C4K = 2.141077 ('.'U72 = (1.000523
a~ = 4282.1535299291 (/6144 = 1.()458208283
Ofll44 = 1.02265381
b"" = 999.464587
c... = 0.535413 b6'44 = 999.999869
ai92 = 1070.8250495627 ('6144 =
, 0.000131
Ui22KH = 0.2614552241
b'92 = 999.866137 al2188 = 0.511326924
C'92 = 0.133863
aiR' = 267.7241816933

25
HM 13 CIRCLE MEASUREMENTS 331

From the above table and by Liu's method, where r = the radius, we have
A 2288 = r X a6144 x i x 6144 = r X 3141.592504
= r X 3141.5925 (truncated at the fourth decimal place)
AZ4576 = r x a12288 x i x 12288 = r x 3141.592621
= r x 3141.5926 (truncated at the fourth decimal place).
Again by Liu's method,
AZ4576 < A < A 122xx + 2(Az4576 - A 122xx)
A
3.1415926 < -z
r
< 3.1415927,

where A = the area of the circle.

The degree of accuracy for the approximation of 1T depends on the number of
places to which bn is calculated, and thereafter appropriate extensions of places
are performed on en, a~, and an. All these operations were known to the Chinese
and for Zu these would have posed no problem except perhaps perseverance.
Moreover, Liu's mathematical works were known to Zu. For instance, in one of
the extant fragmentary records, it is noted that Zu and his son Zu Geng [ah]
completed the well-known proof of the derivation of the volume of a sphere which
was left unfinished by Liu [Lam & Shen 1985].
How Zu obtained what he called his "very close" ratio lH for 1T is not known.
This value is correct to the sixth decimal place, and as for the value ofthe seventh
decimal place a better indication is obtained from his other figures of 3.1415926
and 3.1415927.

A SURVEY OF CIRCLE MEASUREMENTS IN CHINA

Like all other early civilizations, the ancient Chinese took the value of the ratio
of the diameter to the circumference as 3 in their mathematical calculations [7]. As
time went by, they realized that this value was a rough approximation, and so
tried to improve it. Liu Xin [z], an astronomer and calendar expert of the first
century B.C., was said to have been one of the earliest to attempt the improve-
ment. This was first mentioned in the Sui shu [y] [387-388], which did not provide
any mathematical procedure and hence has led historians of mathematics to look
for evidence elsewhere.
When Wang Mang [ail ascended the throne toward the end of the Western Han
(206 B.C.-A.D. 24), he commanded Liu Xin to construct a standard measure for
the kingdom. Liu Xin produced a vessel cut from a solid bronze cylinder and
called it the ]ia liang hu raj]. (For the words of the inscription on it, see the
Appendix, Section 3.) It was estimated that about a hundred ]ia liang hu were
made for distribution throughout the entire empire [Sun 1955, 11]. One such vessel
is still being kept in the Palace Museum in Beijing. Chinese historians of mathe-
matics who had the opportunity to examine the vessel, including Li Yan [ak], Qian

26
332 LAM LAY-YONG AND ANG TIAN-SE HM 13

Baocong [all, Li Naiji [am], Sun Zhifu [an], and Xu Chunfang [ao], thought that
Liu Xin had contributed a new value of 7T. Their conclusion was drawn from the
following procedure:
The diameter of the measure = V200 + 2 x 0.095 = 14.332 cun. Since the
area is given as 162 sq. cun, 7T(14.332/2)2 = 162 or 7T = 3.1547.
This argument of attributing the new value of 7T to Liu Xin by an inverse
operation does not seem convincing. In a recent paper on the same subject Bai
Shangshu [ap] [1982, 75-79] pointed out that in his study of six different kinds of
standardized vessels for smaller capacities made by Wang Mang [ai], he found
four different values of7T, namely 3.1547, 3.1590, 3.1497, and 3.1679. From this
inconsistency, Bai thought that it was unreasonable to suggest that Liu Xin as-
sumed 7T = 3.1547. Yet Liu Xin, being an astronomer and calendar expert, would
certainly not have used the ancient ratio of 3 in his mathematical calculations. His
task of constructing a standard measure called for precision, particularly in deal-
ing with solid objects. Furthermore, Sui shu [y] [387-388] says that Liu Xin was
prompted to find a new value of 7T to replace the old one. Thus, although the
theoretical record on his approach to the approximation of 7T is still wanting, it is
not too farfetched to suggest that Liu Xin did have some kind of improved value of
'TT' before constructing the standard vessels.
About a century later, Zhang Heng [aa] (A.D. 78-139) made the first explicit
effort to obtain a more accurate figure for 'TT'. The information comes from Liu
Hui's commentary on a problem in the Jiu zhang suanshu [d] regarding the deriva-
tion of a diameter of a sphere from its volume [Qian 1963, 156]. Liu Hui pointed
out that during the time of Zhang Heng the ratio of the area of a square to the area
of its inscribed circle was taken as 4: 3. Following the empirical ratio, it was
thought that the volume of the cube to the volume of the inscribed sphere must
also be in the ratio 4 2 : 32 , that is, D3: V = 16: 9 or V = -fs D3, where D is the
diameter of the sphere and V, its volume. Hence, the formula for finding the
diameter of a sphere from its volume is given in the Jiu zhang suanshu as D =
--Y16VI9. Zhang Heng realized that the value of the diameter obtained in this way
fell short of the real value, and he attributed the discrepancy to the value taken for
the ratio. He thought that this error could be corrected by adding an arbitrary
value of isD3 to the original formula, thus rectifying it to V = 196D3 + l6D3 = §D3.
This means that the ratio of the volume of the cube to that of the inscribed sphere
is 8 : 5 and implies that the ratio of the area of the square to that of the circle is
v'8: V5. From this, 7T was calculated as VlO.
According to a reference by Zu Geng [ah] cited in the Kaiyuan zhan jing [aq]
(Kaiyuan treatise on astrology) [25b, 26a] of the 8th century, Zhang Heng com-
pared the celestial circle to the width (i.e., diameter) of the earth in the proportion
of 736 to 232, which gives 7T as 3.1724.
As both of Zhang Heng's values were on the high side, Wang Fan [ab] (217-257)
investigated further the value of 7T. The Song shu Lar] (Standard history of Liu
Song dynasty) [675] says that, "having tested that 1 was a little long as diameter

27
HM 13 CIRCLE MEASUREMENTS 333

for the circumference 3, he [Wang Fan] corrected the circumference to 142 and
diameter to 45." This gives the value of 1T as IN or 3.155. While Wang Fan's
method of arriving at such a figure was not given in the historical sources, Yan
Dunjie [as] [1936a, 39-40] suggests that it could have been obtained soon after Liu
Hui proposed the value of 3.14 for 1T. Since Wang Fan thought 1T greater than 3, a
small fraction x should be added to 3, with 1T = 3 + x. As Liu Hui considered
3.14 a slightly low value for 1T, a small fraction y should be added to this, giving
1T = 3.14 + y. Taking y = /ox, we have 3 + x = 3.14 + ToX, resulting in x = ir; or
1T = ~¥,..
Yan Dunjie further suggested that perhaps the value of Yz/0,45 for 1T given by
Zhu Zaiyu [at] toward the end of the Ming dynasty could have been derived from
Wang Fan's value. This is only a hypothesis. What appears certain, however, is
that after the Han period there was considerable interest in a plausible method for
approximating 1T based on theoretical foundation. The mathematician who in A.D.
263 succeeded in giving one was Liu Hui.
Liu strove for precision and refused "to follow the ancients" (zhong gu Lau]).
He aimed at "cutting the circle" continuously until "a limit is reached when the
shape of the polygon coincides with that of the circle" so that the exact value
might be attained. As a pragmatic mathematician he advocated the value of 1T =
JRcf. but, as a theoretician. he believed that the true value of 1T might be ap-
proached as closely as possible by successive approximations. Whether Liu suc-
ceeded in "cutting the circle" to the extent of attaining a 1536-sided polygon or
not is open to speculation. In Jiu zhang suanshu xichao tu shuo law] (Detailed
diagrammatic explanations o/the "Jiu zhang suanshu"), Li Huang [av] (d. 1811)
was the first to suggest that the ratio 3927: 1250 was not Liu's contribution but Zu
Chongzhi·s. This sparked a great controversy involving several eminent historians
of mathematics. The more cautious ones. including Li Yan [ak], Yan Dunjie [as],
Du Shiran [ax], and He Luo lay], recognized Liu's derivation of 1T only up to the
96-sided polygon and completely avoided the mention of t~~~. Those who fer-
vently believed that Liu had established mr, for 1T were Qian Baocong [al], Xu
Chunfang lao], Wang Shouyi [az], Bai Shangshu lap], Hua Luogeng [ha], He
Shaogeng ebb], Mei Rongzhao [bc], Shen Kangshen [bdJ, and Li Naiji [am]. Op-
posing this view and crediting Zu Chongzhi with the invention were the mathema-
ticians Yu Ningsheng [be], Yu lieshi [bf], Sun Zhifu Lan], Li Di [bg] [8], and
Donald Wagner [1978.206-208].
What appears ambivalent in Liu's commcntary is the mention of Jia liang Izu
raj] in the Jin armory. Liu was said to have written his commentary two years
before the Wei [bh] kingdom was usurped by Sima Yan [bi], who established the
Jin [bj] kingdom (A.D. 265-420). But whether this was a complete commentary on
the whole text of Jiu zhang suanshu Cd] is open to question. In fact elsewhere in
Sui shu [y] [429], it says that Liu was making a study and a comparison of the Jia
liang hu and the hu measure of his time when he wrote the commentary on
chapter 5 (entitled shang gong [bk]) of the Jiu zhang suanshu in 263. Neverthe-
less, Liu continued to use 1T = W for all the eight problems involving spherical

28
334 LAM LAY-YONG AND ANG TlAN-SE HM 13

and circular measureItlents in that chapter. Based on the fact that the same value
for 1T was also used in the previous chapters (ten problems in chapter 1 and two
problems in chapter 4), it may be assumed that Liu might not have had the
opportunity of seeing a Jia liang hu before he set out to write his commentary on
the fang tian chapter. This note about the Jia liang hu in the fang tian chapter
could have been an addendum when Liu made a revision and updating of the
whole commentary soon after the collapse of the Wei kingdom in 265. Therefore,
as a mathematician whose life straddled two kingdoms, it was proper for him to
mention the armory where the Jia liang hu was kept as the Jin armory. The
revision would have spurred him to make a thorough investigation and calculation
ofthe dimension of the Jia liang hu. He would have discovered that the vessel was
not a perfect measure and that the value for 1T obtained from the vesscl was almost
the same as that he had derived earlier on. This realization led him to improve the
value for 1T by continuing the process of calculation of areas of polygons up to 192
sides. He finally arrived at 1T = n~~ and was satisfied with it. It is no surprise that
the great mathematician of the Tang dynasty Wang Xiaotong [bl] praised Liu as
one who could stretch his "thought to the minutest detail" (siji./wo rnang [bm])
[Qian 1963, 493].
Zu Chongzhi (429-500) came from a bureaucratic family of calendar experts [9].
The calendrical system of his time was the Yuanjia Ii [bn], compiled by Ho
Chengtian Lbo] (370-447). Zu found the system inaccurate and therefore unsuit-
able for civil use. He made two very bold attempts to rectify the system, by taking
the precession of equinoxes (sui cha [bp]) into consideration, and by deviating
from the traditional 19-year cycle (i.e., the Metonic Cycle) by putting 144 interca-
lary months in every 391 years. To gather the necessary data he needed precise
mathematical techniques. It was for this reason that he had to reexamine the
mathematical constants used in his computations.
Zu's expertise in astronomy and mathematics was unquestionable. Apart from
successfully composing an astronomical system known as the Darning Ii [bq], he
also wrote a mathematical text called Zhui shu [x], which was prescribed as a
textbook for advanced students of mathematics in the official academies of the
Tang dynasty. While the treatise on the Darning li is still available in the Song shu
[ar] [192 ff.], the Zhui shu was purported to have been lost toward the end of the
Northern Song dynasty (960-1127). The fact that students in the Tang academies
had to devote four out of their seven years to the study of this text suggests that it
must be an important and difficult treatise on mathematics. Ironically, as Sui shu
[y] [388] says, "the official students were unable to understand the profoundity of
the text so it was subsequently abandoned and neglected altogether."
Qian Baocong [1923, 56-57] and Sun [1955. 9] assigned Liu credit for 1T = 00
and believed that Zu continued. where Liu left off. The "very close" value of 1T =
ill by Zu was a great advance in the history of mathematics (see [Yan 1936b, 518-
519]). Mikami [1913, 50] even suggested that it should be named after Zu. As
regards the familiar Archimedean ratio of ¥, the general consensus is that it was
not Zu's discovery [to]. Prior to Zu it was thought that either Ho Chengtian Lbo]

29
 CIRCLE MEASUREMENTS 335

or Pi Yancong [ac] (fl. 445) had already found a value of 1T = 3.1428 through an
interest in astronomy. What is intriguing is the derivation of the "very close"
value of 1T = iii. Ho had earlier invented a "method of averaging days" (tiuo rifu
Lbr]) in his astronomical system. He took two fraction~, one known as the "strong
ratio" and the other as the "weak ratio," to determine the fractional day part for
the synodic period. It has been suggested by Qian [1923, 57-58] that Zu might
have used a similar method, taking Liu's Vi as the "weak ratio" and Ho's Y as
the "strong ratio" such that Vi < 1T < ¥. By using Ho's method of averaging,
he would have obtained the following ratio after the ninth iteration:
157 + (9 x 22) 355
50 + (9 x 7) = ill'
Whether Zu obtained his "very close" ratio by the method suggested above is
questionable. Apart from the extreme precision that was required for specific
purposes, such as in calendrical calculations, mathematicians in general were
quite happy with the approximate ratio of y. Li Chunfeng [w], for example,
employed 1T = ¥ in almost all his mathematical commentaries. One can, in fact,
say that after Zu Chongzhi the development of 1T was in limbo. It was not until the
tum of the 14th century that new scholars probed into the value of 1T. One such
person was the Yuan mathematician Zhao Youqin [bs], who returned to the ques-
tion of Zu's approximation for 1T. Following Liu's use of inscribed polygons, Zhao
Youqin continued the process persistently and reached a regular polygon of
16,384 (= 4 x 212) sides to derive 1T = 3.1415926, thus confirming Zu's accuracy
[Ruan 1799, 333-345].
Some interest in the evaluation of 1T was evidenced by the Ming mathemati-
cians. Toward the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century, Zhu
Zaiyu [at] found 1T = \12/0.45 and 1T = 3.1426968, while Xing Yunlu [btl adopted 1T
= 3.1126 and 1T = 3.12132034. Then Chen Jinmo [bu] and Fang Yizhi [bv] used 1T
= 3.1525 and 1T = N, respectively. Apart from these, there were other values such
as" and Y. None of these was, however, as accurate as Zu's value [11].
There was another attempt to exhaust the value of 1T by the method of "cutting
the circle." This is found in chapter 15 of Shu Ii jing yun [bw] (Collected basic:
principles of mathematics), which was commissioned by Emperor Kang Xi [bx]
and edited by Mei Gucheng [by] and He Guozong [bz]. Starting from an inscribed
hexagon of radius 10 12 , the mathematicians here found that the length of one side
of a regular 6 x 223-sided polygon was 121, with the sum of sides being
6283185307179. Again starting with a circumscribed regular hexagon and going up
to the same number of sides, they found that the side and sum of sides remained
the same. Hence, it was then fixed that 1T = 3.14159265 (a value correct to eight
decimal places).
Following the arrival of the Jesuits, the traditional approach to the evaluation of
1T came to a halt. Mathematicians, like Ming Antu [cal (d. 1765), Xiang Mingda
[cb] (1789-1850), Li Shanlan [ee] (1811-1882), and Zeng Jihong [cd] (1848-1877),
began to evaluate 1T by analytical methods.

30
336 LAM LAY-YONG AND ANG TIAN-SE HM 13

APPENDIX: TRANSLATION OF LIU'S METHOD ON CIRCLE MEASUREMENT

[Qian 1963, 103-106]
[Section J]
If half the circumference [of a circle] is the length and half the diameter is the width, then the product
of the length and width gives the area [of a circle]. Let the diameter of the circle be 2 chi Ie]. The length
of one side of a hexagon inscribed in the circle is equal to the radius. The ratio of the diameter to the
perimeter [of the hexagon] is I to 3. Next, referring to the diagram [12], if the radius is multiplied by
one side of the hexagon and then by 3, the product obtained is the area of an inscribed dodecagon. If the
circle is cut (ge Ice]) again so that the radius is multiplied by one side of the dodecagon and then
multiplied by 6, the product obtained is the area of an inscribed polygon of 24 sides. The more finely
[the circle] is cut, the less loss there is [in area]. Cut it again and again until one is unable to cut further,
that is, when the shape [of the polygon] coincides with that of the circle and there is no loss [in area].
Beyond one side of a polygon [from its mid-point to the circle], there is a remaining portion of the
diameter. Multiply this remaining portion by a side of the polygon to give a rectangular area which
extends beyond the arc [of the circle]. When a side of the inscribed polygon becomes so fine that it
finally merges with the [circumference of the] circle, then there is no remaining portion of the diameter.
When no remaining portion of the diameter is shown, this means that the area does not protrude out.
When a side [of an inscribed polygon] is mUltiplied by the radius, [this implies that] in the process of
extending the polygon, the number of sides is doubled. This is why half the circumference multiplied
by the radius is the area of the circle. The relation of circumference and diameter considered in this
manner gives the most satisfactory result.
The ratio of circumference to diameter is in fact not 3 to I. The figure 3 attached to the circumference
actually means that the perimeter of an inscribed hexagon is three times the diameter. Hence, if the
ratio [i.e., 3] is used to compute the length of an arc, the result obtained is not the arc but the chord.
The value of this ratio was, however, passed on from generation to generation indicating the reluctance
of the people to strive for accuracy. The learners, too, just followed the ancients and simply learned
the incorrect method. Nevertheless, without concrete examples, it is difficult to argue on [this inaccuracy].
Generally speaking, the forms of things around us are either square or round. If we understand the
ratio of their forms at close range, we can also determine this ratio when viewed from afar. Considering
the ratio in this manner, we can say that its use is indeed far and wide. For this reason, I have been
using drawings for verifications in order to construct a more precise ratio. However, I fear that if only
the method is given, the various numerical values involved may appear obscure and difficult to
explain. Therefore, I do not consider it laborious here to show the derivation of the ratio in various
stages with the necessary commentaries.

[Section 2]
Method of culling an inscribed hexagon into an illscribed dodecagoll. Put down [on the counting
board] the diameter of the circle, 2 chi Ie], and halve it to obtain I chi, which is the length of one side of
the hexagon. Let the radius oflength I clri be the hypotenuse (xian [cf]); half of a side of the hexagon, 5
cun [v] [5], be the gou [cg] (the shorter orthogonal side of a right-angled triangle); and it is required to
find the gu [chI (the longer orthogonal side). When 25 cun, which is the square of the gou, is subtracted
from the square of the hypotenuse, there is a remainder of75 cun. Find the square root up to the place
values of miao [t] and hu luI. Again move the number in the fa [ci] row back by one jump [of two
places] to find the other "minute numbers" (wei shu [cj]) [13]. These "minute numbers" have no place
names, so convert them into a fraction with 10 as the denominator so that they are approximated to f
Iru luI. Hence the gu is 8 cun 6fen [q) 6/i [r) 2 miuo [I) 5~ Jill luI. Subtract this from the radius to leave a
remainder of I cun 3 fen 3 Ii 9 hao [s] 7 miao 4i hu which we shall call the smaller gou [that is, the
shorter orthogonal side of a smaller right-angled triangle]. Then half the side of the hexagon will be
called the smaller gu and it is required to find the hypotenuse. The square [of the hypotenuse] is
267949193445 lsquare) Iru, after the remaining terms are discarded. The square root of this gives the
length of one side of a dodecagon.
Method of CUlling an inscribed dodecagon into an inscribed polygon of 24 sides. Again, let the
radius be the hypotenuse and half the side of the dodecagon be the gou. From this, find the guo Put

31
HM 13 CIRCLE MEASUREMENTS 337

down the square of the smaller hypotenuse of the preceding [triangle] and divide it by 4 to obtain
66987298361 [square] hu after the remaining terms are discarded, and this is the square of the gou.
Subtract this from the square of the hypotenuse and find the square root of the difference to obtain the
gu, which is 9 cun 6 fen 5 Ii 9 hao 2 miao 5~ hu. Subtract this from the radius to give a remainder
of 3 fen 4 Ii 7 miao 4t hu, which is called the smaller gou; half the side of the dodecagon is called the
smaller gu and from these, the smaller hypotenuse is derived. Its square is 68148349466 [square] hu
after the remaining terms are discarded. The square root of this is the length of a side of a polygon of 24
sides.
Method of cUlling an inscribed polygon of24 sides into one of 48 sides. Again, let the radius be the
hypotenuse and half the side of the polygon of 24 sides be the gou. From this, find the guo Put down the
square of the smaller hypotenuse of the preceding [triangle] and divide it by 4 to obtain 17037087366
[square] hu after the remaining terms are discarded, and this is the square of the gou. Subtract this
from the square of the hypotenuse and find the square root of the difference to obtain the gu, which is 9
cun 9 fen Iii 4 hao 4 miao 4~ hu. Subtract this from the radius to give a remainder of 81i 5 hao 5 miao 5i
hu, which is called the smaller gou; half the side of the 24-sided polygon is called the smaller gu and
from these, the smaller hypotenuse is derived. Its square is 17110278813 [square]hu after the remain-
ing terms are discarded. The square root of this is I cun 3 fen 8 hao 6/zu neglecting the lower terms and
this is the length of the smaller hypotenuse, which is also the length of a side of an inscribed polygon of
48 sides. Multiply this by the radius I chi and also by 24 to obtain 3139344000000 [square] hu. Divide by
I()()()()()()()()()() to obtain 313~g!. Isquarel C"" which is the area of an inscribed polygon of 96 sides.
Method of CUlling an inscribed polygoll of 48 sides illto olle of96 sides. Again, let the radius be the
hypotenuse and half the side of the polygon of 48 sides be the gou. From this find the guo Put down the
square of the hypotenuse of the preceding [triangle] and divide it by 4 to obtain 4277569703 [square] hu
after the remaining terms are discarded, and this is the square of the gou. Subtract this from the square
of the hypotenuse and find thc squarc root of the remainder to obtain the gil which is 9 e/lll 9 fell 7 Ii 8
hao 5 miao 8-& lzu. Subtract this from the radius to give a remainder of 21i I hao 4 miao h~ hu which is
called the smaller gou; half the side of the 48-sided polygon is called the smaller gu and from these, the
smaller hypotenuse is derived. Its square is 4282154012 [square] hu after the remaining terms are
discarded. The square root of this is 6fen 5 Ii 4 hao 3 miao 8 hu, neglecting the lower terms, and this is
the length of the smaller hypotenuse which is also the length of a side of an inscribed polygon of 96
sides. Multiply this by the radius I chi and also by 48 to obtain 3141024000000 [square] hu. Divide the
area by 10000000000 yielding 314M- [square] cun, which is the area of an inscribed polygon of 192
sides. Subtract the area of the 96-sided polygon from this to obtain a remainder of ill [square] cun and
this is called a residual area (cha mi [ck]). Double this amount [so that the numerator of the fraction]
becomes 210 and this amount represents the area outside the 96-sided polygon extending beyond the
arcs [of the circle]. This can be said to be the sum of the products of the chord (xiall [cf]) and the sagitta
(shi lcl]). Add this amount to the area of the 96-sided polygon to obtain 314m square cun which gives
an area covering the circle and protruding beyond it. This is the reason why 314lsquare] cun which is
the area of the 192-sided polygon to the nearest integer is taken as the standard area of the circle after
the smaller terms are discarded. Divide the area of the circle by its radius, I chi, and then double this to
obtain 6 chi 2 cun 8fen which gives the circumference. Squaring the diameter gives a square area of
400 [square] cun. Compare the area of the circle with this, and obtain the ratio of the areas of thc circle
to the [circumscribed] square as 157 to 200. If a square has 200 [square units] then its inscribed circle
has 157 [square units]. The rate for the circle actually contains some smaller units as well. Referring to
the diagram of the arc of a circle, we see a circle inscribed in the square and a square inscribed in the
circle. The area of the inner square is half the area of the outer square. If the area of the circle is 157
[square units] then the area of the inscribed square is 100 [square units]. Next, if the diameter, 2 chi, is
compared with the circumference, 6 chi 2 cun 8 fen, the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is
obtained as 157 to 50. Actually, the circumference still has other smaller units.

[Section 3]
There was in the armory of the Jin dynasty a copper hu [cm] measure constructed by Wang Mang
[ail during the Han dynasty. The inscription on it reads: "The standardized chia liang hu raj] measure
has a square with each side I chi long, and outside it a circle. The distance from each corner of the

32
338 LAM LAY-YONG AND ANG TlAN-SE HM 13

square to the circle is 9 Ii 5 hao. The area of the circle is 162 [square] cun, the depth is I chi and the
volume is 1620 [cubic] cun. The measure has a capacity for 10 dou [cn] (bushels)." If we use the
present ratio [i.e., W] to compute, we obtain the area [of the circle] as 161 cun and a fraction. The two
values are very close indeed. But as the present ratio is not precise, we have to consider the area of the
dodecagon as a basis to augment or diminish the area of m [square] cun. This yields & [square] cun.
Add this to the area of the 192-sided polygon to obtain 314n [square1 cun as the area of the circle. Put
down the square of the diameter 400 [square] cun and compare this with the area of the circle. If the
area of the circle is 3927 then that of the square is 5000. Taking this as the ratio [i.e., !m] we can say
that the area of the inscribed circle in the square of 5000 [square units] is 3927 [square units] and the
area of the square inscribed in the circle of area 3927 [square units] is 2500 [square units]. Divide the
area of the circle 314n [square] cun by its radius I chi and double the result to obtain 6 chi 2 cun 8/r;fen
which gives the circumference. Take the diameter 2 chi and compare it with the circumference, getting
1250 for the diameter and 3927 for the circumference. The ratio [of the circumference to the diameter]
thus obtained has been exhausted to very minute numbers. However, for practical purposes, the
former ratio [i.e., W] is still a simpler one. The area ofa 30n-sided polygon is computed from a side of
a 1536-sided polygon. When the lower terms are discarded, the ratio obtained is the same as the
previous one. In this way, the ratio is again verified.

NOTES
1. The Jiu zhang suanshu is printed in [Qian 1963, 81-2581. The data assigned to this book is
between 200 B.C. and A.D. 200; see [Needham 1959, 24-25].
2. There is a fairly large literature on Liu's method written in Chinese, of which one of the more up-
to-date is [Bai Shangshu 1983, 35-53]. In English, Liu's method is found in [Mikami 1913, 47-49],
which contains some misprints, and, more briefly, in [He Shaogeng 1983, 90-98J. In our translation,
we have tried to give as close an interpretation of the original text [Qian 1963, 103-106] as possible.
3. However, the ancient Greeks were aware that the area of a circle to the square of its radius is a
constant ratio [Euclid, Bk. XII, Prop. 2].
4. The phrase "counting board" means any flat surface suitable for the placement of rod numerals
and should not be confused with the specially constructed counting boards of medieval Europe.
5. Note that 10 cun [v] = I chi tel and 10 chi [e] = I zhang [ae].
6. We would like to thank Lam Chih Chao and Lam Chih Ming for the software program.
7. This is evident in the earliest mathematical texts of Zhou bi suanjing [co] (The arithmetic classic
of the gnomon and the circular paths of heaven) and Jiu zhang suanshu, as also in the Kao gongji [cp]
(Artificer's record) of the Zhou Ii [cq] (Record of the rites of the Zhou dynasty).
8. For an objective review of the polemic of this problem, see [Li Di 1982, 35-44].
9. For a brief biography of Zu Chongzhi, see [Li Di 1962]. See also [Ruan Yuan 1799353,91-105].
10. See [Qian 1923, 59; Yan 1936b, 43; Sun 1955, 9].
II. For a brief survey of this period, see [Xu 1957, 48].
12. Thc diagram is missing, but it should be similar to Fig. I.
13. For the square-root extraction procedure, see [Wang & Needham 1955, 350-356; Lam 1969,
93-97].

REFERENCES
Ang Tian Se. 1977. Chinese computation with the counting-rods. Papers on Chinese Studies, Univer-
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Bai Shangshu lap]. 1982. Cong Wang Mang liang qi dao Liu Xin yuan lu [cr] [From Wang Mang's
measuring vessel to Liu Xin's ratio of circumference to diameter]. Beijing daxue xuebao, No.2,
75-79.
- - - 1983. Jiu zhang suanshu zhushi [cs] [Annotations on Nine chapters of the mathematical art].
Beijing: Kexue chubanshe.

33
HM 13 CIRCLE MEASUREMENTS 339

Beckmann, P. 1970. A history of 7T (pi). All page references are to the second edition, Boulder, Colo.:
Golem, 1971.
Gupta, R. C. 1975. Some ancient values of pi and their use in India. Mathematics Education 9, 1-5.
He Shaogeng [bbl. 1983. Method for determining segment areas and evaluation of 7T. In Ancient
China's technology and science. Compiled by the Institute of the History of Natural Sciences,
Chinese Academy of Sciences. Beijing: Foreign Language Press.
Heath, T. L. (ed.). 1897. The works of Archimedes. All page references are to the reissued edition,
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- - - 1921. A history (~rGreek lIlathematics. 2 vuls. London/Ncw York: Oxford Univ. Press (Claren-
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Lam Lay- Yong. 1969. The geometrical basis of the ancient Chinese square-root method. /sis 61, 92-
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Lam Lay-Yong and Shen Kangsheng. 1985. The Chinese concept of Cavalieri's principle and its
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---lbgJ. 1982. Jiu zhang suanshu zhengming wentide gai shu [cuJ [A summary of the various views
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Hui], Wu Wenjun [cv], ed., pp. 28-50. Beijing: Shifan daxue chubanshe.
Mikami, Y. 1913. The development of mathematics in China and Japan. All page references are to the
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Needham, J. 1959. Science and civilisation in China. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Neugebauer, O. 1952. The exact sciences in antiquity. All page references are to the second edition,
Providence, R.I.: Brown Univ. Press, 1957.
Qian Baocong [aIJ. 1923. Zhongguo suan shu zhong zhi zhoulu yanjiu [cxJ fA study of 7T in Chinese
mathematical texts]. In Qian Baocong kexueshi lunwen xuanji Icy] [Selected essays of Qian
Baocong on the history of Chinese science], pp. 50-74. All page references are to the 1983 book
edition, Beijing: Kexue chubanshe 1983.
- - - (ed.). 1963. Slianjing shi shu [czJ [Ten mathematical manualsJ. Shanghai: Zhonghua shuju.
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jiben congshu. Taipei: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1968.
Song shu [arlo [Standard history of the Liu Song dynasty]. 1973 edition. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju.
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Sun Zhifu [an]. 1955. Zhongguo gudai shuxue jia guanyu yuanzhoulu yanjiu de chengjiu [dd]
[Achievements in the research of 7T by ancient Chinese mathematicians]. Shuxue Tongbao, No.5,
5-12.
Wagner, D. 1978. Doubts concerning the attribution of Liu Hui's commentary on the Chiu-chang
suan-shu. Acta Orientalia 39, 199-212.
Wang, L., and Needham, J. 1955. Horner's method in Chinese mathematics: Its origins in the
root-extraction procedures of the Han dynasty. T'oung Pao 43,345-401.
Xu Chunfang lao]. 1957. Zhong .man jiade jihexue yafljiu [de] [Research on geometry by Chinese
mathematicians]. Hong Kong.
Yan Dunjie [asJ. 1936a. Sui shu luli zhi Zu Chongzhi yuan luji shi shi [df] [An analysis of records for 7T
by Zu Chongzhi as found in the harmonics and calendar chapters of Sui shuJ. Xue yi zazhi [dg]
(Shanghai) 15, No. 10, 27-57.
- - - 1936b. Zhongguo suanxuejia Zu Chongzhiji qi yuanzhou lu zhi yanjiu [dh] [Chinese mathemati-
cian Zu Chongzhi and his work on 7T]. Xlie yi zllzhi [dg] (Shanghai) 15, No.5, 37-50.
Youschkevitch, A. P., and Rosenfeld, B. A. 1973. AI-Kashi (or AI-Kashani), Ghiyath ai-din lamshid
Mas'ud. In Dictionary of scientific biography, Vol. 7, pp. 255-262. New York: Scribner's.

34
340 LAM LAY-YONG AND ANG TIAN-SE HM 13

GLOSSARY

a jlJ. b :flI.JOI'.z c ;}JIB d r. . :f3f.;lt

e f{ f -t- g a h f"
i li j -t-71 k ali 1 f"li
01 iz. n -t-iz. (] "9" iz. p f" iz.

*
q <f) r JI s t #
u t- v -t w $i$}i(\. x tl;lt
y "45 z jlUk aa JUi ab I .
ac lk:~* ad mft. ae ::t af It'*
ag !V$ ah :f1l~ ai £#- aj $-tM
ak $fr al ft1:Jit. alii IfJJJHt. a.n fH?- Ttl
ne itr tt Ali up aiHJ1!J:. aq 1fjf;6~ ar *45
as .l"'ttif. at *~7jf au I!-ir av $i1.
aw ;ft.:f"jf.;ltfIB1?l!liJ!. ax *1::U Ii!; ay tor1§.

az I~)t ba ~!'JJt bb 'fiInlJJt be #t~J!!(

bd it.MUt be ~'T'1:. bf ~11-;P bg

*il!!
bh ft bi j]11]~ bj -'It bk jl)ph

bl .=E *'~ bm .\l!·fHl~ bn jf;#.-1Ji be 'fiIjf{*

bp ~! bq *BJIIJi br i)iJ81t bs M~ik
bt jftIii;Bi bu Pf. ~ 1J{ bv ;}j1U~ bw 1:l!iM'1l
bx Jll!!l by #j~~ bz 'fiIOO* ea BJl'?C1!I
cb lJt-tlt ('c $.~ cd t!(.~ ce jlJ
cf ~ cg 4J ch JI!t ci 1t
ej
cn
~It

4-
ck
cc
i!!*
)liJtfjf.~
el 9;:
ep ~:r:iG
em M
eq )iJ;fL

e r JA..=E #- t .. fl jlUUI .. es ;ft.*jt:;ltj£~ et ji:t.:j-¥*:f1lJOl'.z

eu ;ft.:f"jf.;lt .. ~riJ~u~.~ ev '*'x1t ew ;ft.*jf.;lt~jlJ.

ex J:fOOjf.45J:f.:t)liJ$J}f-~ cy it1:Jit.#¥.t*'X:i~dl
cz jf.~-t-45 da .-I-;lfjlt db l!it.j[; de • .A.1t
dd J:fOOw~.~**~OO)liJ.J}f-~~~~ de J:fjf.*~JL'fiI~J}f-~
df "45_IJi;t:f1lJOl':t.OO$ie..~ dg ~1:*;t
dh J:fOOJ:~*:f1lJOl':t.R.~III)liJ$.:tJ}f-~

35
 of the BanG Mlisa 261

[v.] THE RATIO OF THE Dll\METER OF ANY CIRCLE TO

ITS CIRCUMFERENCE IS ONE [THAT IS, IS THE SA1IE FOR
ALL CIRCLES].
For example, let there be two different circles, the circles ABC', D1:,Z
[see Fig. 38]. Let their diameters be BG', the diameter of circle ABC, and
EZ, the diameter of circle DL:Z. I say, therefore, that
diameter BC/circum ABC = diameter h7/circum DEZ,
which is demonstrated as follows:
If the two ratios were not equal, then let line BC/line ABC = EZ/HU,
where line HU is longer or shorter than line DEZ. First I shall posit
that it is shorter, if that is possible. And I shall bisect line HU at T and
I shall erect perpendicularly upon line HU at point H a line equal to

35 ct impossibilc 01//. Ar. hic edition but, quite properly, is not

36-37 medietatis ... circuli: - [. • - (J3C') in the Paris Arabic manuscript.» (Alld
37lincc .. .ipsum: - [''-r I - ¥ it is alrca4J fwol/'II frolll Ibis tbal/bc 1II1I11i-
plica/jOlt of /be rodills ~y tbe ba{f of al!]
(circ/lJlljcrellce ABG)
assigllcd arc is eqllal to Ibe area of tbe
;8 post circuli add. Ar. - [. '-r I - (ABG) scc/or cOlttaillcd by Ibis arc alld IJJ'O radii
39-45 Et. ••• figure: ~ .:,1 ~ ':'4 ..\!J cXIClldillf, 10 tbe ex/reI/lilies of Ibe arc.)
c.>1 ...,A...zjJ)..Al1 [....A.,..j J .)01] ~ 5 EZ: - :> • - (ED)
5-8 Dico .•. demonstratur 01//. Ar.
c.>.lll ~I ~w l!.JL-. .:,~ ..,;~ ..,..;
. 9 Si. .. una: 4:>1 L[ ~ r .:,li
.:,1 r. .J:....w u......; J ..,.~I ..1J.; ~ .k.:s: (ANd so f! il is 110t as Ille claillled)
10, 13 EZ: - • :> - (DE)
4J~ 12 si ... possibile 0111. Ar.
«The section in brackets is in the Ara·

36
 262 The Verba jiliortllJJ
stantem super lineam 1-1U orthogonaliter, que sit linea 1-1K. Et com-
15 plebo quadratum KT. Et quoniam linea HK est equalis medietati linee
EZ, et linea I-lT est brevior medietate linee DZE, erit quadratum KT
minus superficie circuli DE""Z. Verum, proportio linee K1-1 ad lineam
lIT est sicut proportio medietatis linee Be ad medietatem linee ABG.
Et multiplicatio linee KH in lineam HT est superficies KT. Et multi-
.0 plicatio medietatis linee BG in medietatem linee ABG est superficies
c•• circuli ABG. Ergo proportio superficiei circuli ABC I ad quadratum
KT est sicut proportio medietatis linee BG ad lineam KI-l duplicata.
Sed proportio medietatis linee Be ad lincam KII multiplicata est sicut
proportio linee Be ad duplum linee Kl1 duplicata. Sed duplum linee
KH est equale linee EZ. Ergo pro portio superficiei circuli A BC ad
quadratum KT est sicut proportio linee Be ad lineam EZ duplicata,
ac proportio superficiei circuli A BG ad supcrficiem circuli DEZ est
sicut proportio BG ad EZ duplicata, sicut decIaravit Euclides. Ergo
proportio superficiei circuli ./1BG ad superficiem circuli DEZ, et
ad quadratum KT, est una. Ergo sunt equales. Sed quadratum KT
iam fuit minus superficie circuli DEZ, quod quidem est contrarium
et impossibile. Non est ergo linea flU brevior linea DEZ.
Et per huiusmodi dispositionem scitur quod linea HU non est
longior linea Db? Et cum linea I-JU non sit longior neque brevior
35 linea DEZ, tunc est equalis ei. Et proportio linee BC ad lineam ABC
14 iinea Ofll. T 22 lineam Ofll. T / duplieata: multiplieata T
15 quoniam: quia T 23-24 Sed ... duplicata 0111. II hic sed if.
16 DZE: DEZ I-I var. lineae 21
17 KH ZlJIHRT HK P 23 medietatis 0'''. T
IS BG: AGH 24 linee z 0111. T I KH: HK T
19 KH: HKH 24-25 Sed .... Ergo 0111. T
20 medietatis 01Jl. T / BG: KG I-I 25 est: erit H
21 post ABG' add. II Sit igitur proportio 27 ac PZIII aut I-I a Afa
medietatis linee fiG ad lineam KI-I 28 sicut 2 ••• Euclides: per euclidem T
multiplicata sicut proportio linee BG 3 I quidem 0111. T
ad duplum linee KH duplieata (is/lfd 32 Non ... nu: Tgitur linea I-IU non est
10tl"" 0111. PAtaT hic; if. litletls 2j-24) / T I ergo 0111. If
Ergo: et ergo T 33-34 Et. .. DEZ 0111. Ala
21-22 proportio ... sieut: sieud cst T 33-35 Et.... el: nee longior igitur est
21 ABG': ADG !I equal is T

q-16 Et. .. DZE 0111 • ./lr.

21-37 Et .... voluimus: - j.!.I- c:k...:;~ ~ .l:.!.. - ~ '-:" - JI - • ~ - ~ .:,1
....A-..zj .$<-1 - C j. - ~ - ~ '-:" 1- JI .;1.:. Ck... ~ - ~ '-:" I - .;1.:. JI - •j ~ - .;1.:.
~ d' J .l.:.!. - ~ '-:" -....A-..zj JI - • ~ - - .;1.:. ~ - ~ '-:" I - .;1.:. - JI - J. !.I -
U"'.l::1;\ 0 ..u .: .l.:.!. - ~ '-:" - JI - • ~ - - .;I.lI .JL. - j. !.l- e:-k-i l-t:;ll - j • ~

37
 of the Danu Musa 2,63
l/Z line EZ. This is line HK. And I shall complete square KT. And since
line I-IK = l/Z line EZ, and line l-IT < l/Z line DZE, square KT <
area of circle DEZ. Now line Kl-I/line 1-11' = l/Z line BCIllz line ABC,
and (KI-f . liT) = area KT, and (l/Z line BG' . l/Z line ABC) = area
circle ABC, and area circle ABC/square KT = (l/Z line BC/ line KH)2,.
But (I/Z BC/ line KI-l)z = (line BC/z line KI-1)2, and Z line Kl-I = line
EZ. Therefore, area circle ABC/square KT = (BC/EZ)2, and area circle
ABC/area circle DEZ = (BG'/EZ)2" as Euclid showed. Therefore, area
circle ABC/area circle DEZ = area circle ABC/square KT. Therefore,
area circle DEZ = square KT. nut earlier [it was inferred from the as-
sumption that] square KT < area circle DEZ. This indeed is a contradic-
tion and is impossible. Therefore, line HU is not less than line DEZ.
By a similar procedure it is [also] known that line HU is not longer
than line DEZ. And since line I-JU is not longer and is not shorter than
line DEZ, then it is equal to it; and line BC/line ABC = ZB/1-JU. And
B
U

I:

A D

K H

G
Fig. 38
Note: I have changed diameter EZ from a horizontal to a vertical orienta-
tion, in conformity with the drawing accompanying the Arabic text.

.
-.Ja.;.. ...,..:li ....;.L:. l.l... 4.:... .;A-I ':'~J - j • .) led Ihal (DE/BG)% = circle DZE/cirde
ABG. A'ld so KT% I circle ABG =
I.u. J-..!.t. J - j • .) - ~~ ,y. ~I - J <:..
circle DEZ I circle ABG. A'ld 10 KT%
- y 1.)[; .c.. J).I .r.l 4.i1 ~ ~.c:J1 = circle DEZ. Bllt it Illallllialler than it.
JI-<:y-~:-iS"-j • .)-¥ JI- • .) Thil is a cOlllradklioll. A'ld 10 Jille I-IU il
l~•.Jf ~;b Jl ~ .!.II.lS"'J - ?:.. y 1 - ¥ 110t shorler tball cirClJllljerCllce Dl::Z; alld
Iry a lilllilar dilposilioll it il dell/ollstraled
.u.);\ L. .!.II,) J
Ihat it il a lot lOllger thall it. Alld 10
(And 10 KTzlcircle ABC = TI-I I DE / eimtlll DEZ = BZ I cim(lll ABG
a BG)% = ({ DB / tBG): = (DEI alld il il thlfl for t11!Y two circlu olher Ihall
BG):. A'ld Eitclid hal n/reat/y delllollllra- Ibul!. Alld lhil il Illbat II'I! IIIilbed.)

38
 264 The Verba ji/ioruIJI
est sicut proportio ZE ad I-IU. Et linea J-IU est equalis linee DJJ7.
lam ergo ostensum est quod proportio diametri omnis circuli ad
lineam continentem ipsum est una. Et illud est quod demonstrare
voluimus.

[Vl.] CUM ERGO lAM MANIFESTUM SIT ILLUD QUOD

NARRA VIMUS, TUNC OPOR TET UT OSTENDAMUS PRO-
PORTIONEM DIAMETRI CIRCULI AD LINEAM CON TIN EN-
TEMIPSUM.
5 Et operabimur in hoc per modum quo operatus est in eo Archime-
nides. Nam nullus illius scientie invenit aliquid usque ad hunc nostrum
tempus preter ipsum in eo quod nobis apparuit. Et iste modus in
inveniendo proportionem diametri ad Iineam continentem, etsi non
ostendat proportionem unius eorum ad alterum ita ut per earn racio-
10 cinetur secundum veri tatem, tamen significat proportionem unius
eo rum ad alterum ad quemcunque finem voluerit inquisitor huius
scientie de propinquitate, scilicet si voluerit inquisitor scire proporti-
onem unius eorum ad alterum, verbi gratia, ut perveniat in prop in-
quitate Hlius ad hoc, ut non sit inter ipsam et inter veritatem propor-
15 tionis unius eorum ad alterum, cum posita fuerit diametrus unum,
57r
C. I
nisi minus minuto, quod est pars sexagessima diametri, possit I illud.
Et si voluerit pervenire in propinquitate illius ad hoc, ut non sit ei
finis inter ipsam et inter veritatem proportionis unius eorum ad alterum
nisi minus secundo, quod est pars sexagesima minuti, possit illud.
20 Et si voluerit ut perveniat in propinquitate illius ad quemcunque

36 ZE: linee ZE H / Et: sed T / lince pars 60" minuti, et post ilia ut perveniat
DEZ Ir. T ad quantum[cun]qlle finem voluerit
37 lam ... quod: ergo T / diametri. omnis computator raciocinari. T
tr. T 1-173 Cum .... quod 2 Onl. S
38 Et. .. est 0"'.
T 3 ad: et H /
38-39 demonstrare voluimus IfT fr. PZ", 4 ipsam H /
declarare voluimus Ma 5 in hoc 0111. II/in eo om. If
I [VI]: 7 AfaR. 6 ad hunc om. II
1-24 Cum .... ilIud: Que igitur sit propor- 10 rle significat scr. P nlg et Z", sl/pra i.
tio dyametri circuli ad lineam conti- ostendit / posl significat arlrl. AfaR i.
nentem ipsum operabimur siclld Ar- ostendit
chimenides solus, ita quod non fallatur 1I-12 huius ... inquisitor 0111. R (sed in
inquisitor in propinquitate veritatis PZIIIHMa)
proportion is ad alteram nisi minus 18 de proportionis scr. P. TIll!,. el Z", SIIpra
minuto, quod est pars 60" dyametri. Et vel mensure / OllIe proportionis add. .ilfa
si voluerit quod non medium nisi vel mensure
secundo servando (! riel. ?), quod est 19 pars sexagesima fr. H

39
 of the Banu Musa
line HU = line DEZ. Therefore, it has now been demonstrated that
the ratio of the diameter of every circle to its circumference is one. And
this is what we wished to demonstrate.

[VI.] HENCE, SINCE WHAT \VE HA VE RECOUNTED HAS

NOW' BECOME EVIDENT, THEN WE MUST SHOW [THAT IS,
FIND] THE RATIO OF THE DIAMETER OF A CIRCLE TO ITS
CIRCUMFERENCE.
And we shall proceed in this matter by the method which Archimedes
used for it. For up to our time no one except him has discovered any knowl-
edge of this, so far as we have seen. And this method of finding the ratio of
the diameter to the circumference, although it does not reveal a true
ratio that can be reckoned with, still does yield a ratio of the one to the
other which is an approximation to any limit the investigator of this
subject desires. That is, if the investigator wishes to know the ratio of the
one to the other approximately so that, for example, between it and the
true ratio there is less than a minute, Le., a sexigesimal part of the diameter
when the diameter is posited as one, that could be done. Andifhewished
to find an approximation of this to that so that less than a second, i.e.,
1/60 of a minute, exists between it and the true ratio, that could be done.
And if one wished to achieve an approximation of one to the other to any

. .. 5 Et ... in hoc 0111. Ar.

1-4 Cum •. jpsum: ¥ I JI)&AJI ~ ~ ~
(Theil lei IfS illtJesligote the ratio of Ihe 12-24 scilicet .... iIlud 0111. Ar.
tiialllcicr 10 the circllI/ifermcr.)

40
 266 The Verba filiorl/1I1
finem voluerit post illa duo, possit illud per illud quod narravit Archi-
menides. Et usi sunt hoc modo propinquitatis in omni computatione
in qua cadunt radices surde, cum computator vult raciocinari per
quantitatem eius. Et erit hoc ita. Incipiamus ergo declarare illud.
25 Lineemus ergo circulum AT13, cuius diameter sit AB, et ipsius
centrum sit punctum G [Fig. 39]. Et protraham ex centro G lineam
GZ continentem cum linea GB tertiam anguli recti. Et erigam super
punctum 13 linee G"13 lineam 13Z orthogonaliter. Manifestum est igitur
quod arcus qui subtenditur angulo J3GZ est medietas sexte circuli
30 AT13 et quod linea .BZ est medietas lateris exagoni continentis cir-
culum ATB. Et dividam angulum BGZ in duo media cum linea GE.
1'.t dividam angulum BGE in duo media per lineam GU. Et dividam
angulum BGU in duo media per lineam GD. Et dividam angulum

24 "'1..
de Et ... ita Icr. P 1I~f!,. e/ ZIII (e/ add. 28 igitur 0111. T
MaR P01l eius): in alio, cum ergo hoc 2.9 sexte PZ,11 seste Ma sexti I-l
sit ita / ante Incipiamlls odd. MaR IIlg. 8 31 BGZ: GBZ T
2 S circulus T / sit 0111. T 32 Et ••• GU 0111. T / BGE: BEG H
25-26 et. .. punctum: centrum T H BGU PZIIIMa BGN flT (-N pro -U
26 centrum sit ZllIHAla III,g. P hie etlfbiql/c in flT)
---_._-----------_._------.-._---------------

27 GZ: - ~ ~ - (CD) «Note: The Arabic 3; BGU: - ~ y - (Be) «Note: This is

printed text has ~ (1) everywhere - J C. Y - in the Paris MS.)) / GO:
Gerard has Z; I am not noting any -J ~-
other place. Incidentally, the Paris
(eZ) «Note: Arabic text has j (Z)
Arabic MS has C. (H) for ~ (e) and
wherever Gerard has D.»
an ambiguous mark))

41
 of the Banii Miisa 2.67
desired limit beyond these two, that could be done by the method which
Archimedes has recounted. And this method of approximation is used
in every computation involving surd roots when a computator wishes to
calculate with such a quantity. And it will be thus. Therefore, let us begin
to show this.
A

G T

UD/B \
HfM]
Fig. 39
Note: In MSS P and fI, both halves of the proof are represented on one
drawing, although that drawing is repeated. For Fig. 39 I have left off the
inscribed figure covering the second half of the proof (see Fig. 40). Also,
line GM, which is in the original Archimedean proof, is missing in this text
and its drawing.

Let us draw circle ATB, whose diameter is AB and whose center is

point G [see Fig. 39]. And I shall protract from center G line GZ, which
contains with line G B a third of a right angle. And I shall erect line BZ
perpendicularly on point B of line CB. It is evident, therefore, that the
arc which is sub tended by L BGZ is 1/2. of 1/6 of circle ATB and that
line J3Z is 1/2. of a side of a hexagon containing circle ATB. Then I shall
bisect L BGZ by linc GB, and L BG'E by line GU, and L J3GU by linc

42
 268 The Verba ftlioruflJ
BGD in duo media per lineam GH. Manifestum est igitur quod arcus
33 qui subtenditur angulo BGH est pars centes sima et nonagessima
secunda circuli ATB, et quod linea BH est medietas lateris figure
habentis nonaginta sex latera continentis circulum ATB.
Cum ergo hoc sit ita, tunc nos ponemus lineam GZ trecentum et
sex propter facilitatem usus huius numeri in eo quod computatur.
40 Cum ergo fuerit linea GZ trecentum et sex, erit quadratum eius nona-
ginta tria millia et sexcentum et triginta sex. Et erit linea BZ centum
et quinquaginta tria, quoniam angulus BGZ est tertia anguli recti et
angulus GBZ est rectus. Et erit quadratum linee BZ viginti tria millia
et quadringenta et novem. Et quadratum linee G B septuaginta millia
45 et ducenta et viginti septem. Ergo linea GB est plus ducentis er
sexaginta quinque. Sed proportio duarum linearum BG, GZ agrega-
tarum ad BZ est sicut proportio GB ad BE, propterea quod linea GE
dividit angulum BGZ in duo media. Et due linee BG, GZ agregate
sunt plus quingentis et septuaginta uno. Et linea BZ est centum et
30 quinquaginta tria. Ergo proportio G B ad BE est maior proportione
quingentorum et septuaginta unius ad centum et quinquaginta tria.
Ergo linea G B erit plus quingentis et septuaginta uno, cum fuerit BE
centum et quinquaginta tria. Et quadratum G B est plus trecentis et
viginti sex millibus et quadraginta uno. Et quadratum BE est viginti
55 tria millia et quadringenta et novem. Ergo quadratum GE est plus
trecentis et quadraginta novem millibus et quadringentis et quinqua-
ginta. Ergo linea GE est plus quingentis et nonaginta uno et octava
/ unius.

34 igitur PZmHMa om. T ergo R mg. 23409

;6 est: erit H 44 quadringenta HMaT quadreginta R
38-39 Cum .. .'sex: tunc T quadriginta P
38 trecenta H 45 et l om. H / Ergo: igitur T / GB : BG
39 huius om. T Zm / Gum ducentis desinit T
40 fuerit: fuit H / Cum ... eius: ponamus 46 GZ: EZ H
lineam GZ trecentum !!t 6 cuius linee 5Iad:acH
quadratum necessario erit T 51. fuerit: fuerit positum H
4 I milia H hiG et ubique 53-54 trecentis ... millibus: ;00 et 26000
42 quoniam: quia T H
43 BZ ZmMaR GZ PH 55 quadratum : 4 H
43-44 viginti ... novem del. m. reG. Pet add. S6 trecentis ... millibus: 300 et 49000 H

;8 Cum ... ita om. Ar. 40 Cum ... sex om. Ar.
39 computatur: 0? (investigated) 42-43 et2 ... recrus: -.) "':" ?: - (GBD)

43
 of the Banii Miisa 269
GD, and L BGD by line GH. It is evident, therefore, that the arc which
is subtended by angle BGH is 1/192. of circle ATB and that line BH is
1/2. of a side of a figure having 96 sides which contains circle ATB.
Since, therefore, this is so, then let us assume line GZ to. be 306 because
of the facile utility of this numba for computation. Therefore, since
GZ is 306, GZ2 = 93,636. And line BZ = 153, since L BGZ = (1/3)' 90°
and L GBZ = 90°. And BZz = 2.3,409, and GBz = 70,2.2.7. Hence,
line GB > 2.65. But (BG + GZ)/BZ = GB/BEbecause line GEbisects
L BGZ. And(BG + GZ) > 571 and line BZ = 153. Hence, (GB/BE) >
(571/153). Hence, line GB > 571, when BE= 153. And GBz > 32.6,041.
And BEz = 2.3,409. Hence, GEz > 349,450. Hence, line GE > 5911-.

44
 On the Hindu Q'lladmtul'e, of th" Cirrl~ 77

APPENDIX.
By K. BALAGANGADIIARAN

I
The main theorems of the foregoing article are collected below; underneath each
theorem, its enunciations in the original sloka form and in English are given. In Theorems
3-12, C denotes the circumference of a circle whose diameter is D. The abbreviations
employed to denote the references are all those of the article.
I may mention at the outset that the translations appended to the slokas are not
literal, aiming as they do at clarity rather than mere verLal faithfulness to their originals.
As for the slokas themselves, my sourees have been the Trivandrum edition of Karar,w.-
paddhati and the MSS. of Tantrasangraha in the Trippunittura Sanskrit College Library
and the Adyar Library. All my quotations from T, barring those under Theorems 6, II,
12, 13, follow the Trippunittura MS., the quotations under theHc thcorell1H followin~
Whish and the Adyar MS.
. 1 1
THEOREM 1. arc tan t = t- 3 t 3+5 t 5 _. . . (I arc tan t I ..;; 1T/4)
SlaM:
o~ ~~fTG'~r~TT;;r: 'fi'-Tc'ifj'qjlll~ lfi~
\)"ll 1':1'10 1 fqf~G'~ ~ ~~ I
~ CfiTfq'OfBr ~ ~ ~f~~Tf,~:f~­

.. .. -
+f,,~oihtlldf\llJl\Mllfa' ;;t"lCfN'!f~li€t II
[K (T.S.S.), 19, chap. Vr.]
Translation.-[Take any circular arc, as in the accompanying figure, whose" abscissa"
is not less than its" ordinate".] Multiply the" ordinate" of the are by the semidiameter
and divide it by the "abscissa". This gives the first term. Multiply this term by the
square of the" ordinate" and divide it by the square of the abscissa; a sPl'ond term results.
Repeat the process of multiplying by the square of the ordinate and dividing by the
square of the abscissa. Thus obtain succcssive terms and divide them in order by the
odd integers 1, 3, 5, . .. If now the terms whose order is odd are added to, and the tprms
whose order is even subtraeted from the preceding, what l'('mains is the eircllmference.
p

FIG. 3.

45
 78 K. Mukunda Marar and C. T. Rajagopal

That is to say, in the figure (with AOP <: 45°).

f PM 1 P M3 1 P M5
t
arc AP = OP OM - 3 OM3+5 OM6 -. ..J
Remarks.-(i) The words" ordinate" and" abscissa" and" arc" in the English transla-
tion do duty for the Sanskrit ~ (Iitera.lly bowstring) tfiTre and ~ (bow) respectively.
(ii) The restriction on the length of the arc is mentioned by the commentator~

THEOREM 2. If, in Fig. 3, AOP < 225', then

. 1 (arc AP)3
PM =:= arc AP- ij Opz '

arc AP * PM+ij PM3

OMz.
1

~~Nfii1tSj6C5~) f~~~,*trl{ I
~16G"'jqflT2"
~,~ fms:;;rrfr ~iffi, :r.or.:o'\*Q'l
\t~~11 0 ui'ISij't'4i1:
0 II
[K· (T.S.S.), 19, chap. VI.]
Translation.-The arc, when sma.ll, diminished by the sixth part of its own cube
divided by the square of the semidiameter, becomes the ordinate; and often, when small,
the arc is equal to the ordinate increased by its cube divided by six times the square of
the semidiameter.
Remarks.-(i) As in Theorem I, the restriction on the a.rc is due to the commentator.
(ii) The English" ordinate" now serves for the Sanskrit fm~T.

THEOREM 3. C=v'12D[1-3~3+5\2-7~33+ . . . J
Slolrii. :
alfflfCl1f Ii~f.. ® I~ c( t<lIcSC"l Ii ~ I
M«'ItI~q:;(U)I'ri\Tftf zncrf~ M~~ II
~nrnr.zm·rrrfe::
• ....:>.- ~D"n"
~1<1'!'4fij~Ii~"q'1 If''lI''ll4f't. I
f.. til4fl ..... 1Iij-
-~
~ ~ crf~
Co ""
00
II
[T, Qhap. II.]
Translation.-Extract the squa.re root of twelve times the diameter squared. This
is the first term. Dividing the first term repeatedly by 3, obtain other terms: the second
after one division by 3, the third after one more division and 80 on. Divide the terms
in order by the odd integers 1,3,5, . . . ; add the odd-order terms to, and subtra.ct the
even.order terms from, the preceding. Thc result is the circumference.

THEOREM 4. C= w-wG - ~)-wG - ~)- ...

• The same verse occurs in T, chap. II, with the last pads replaced by ~ 1fcrfo
"'ll"Idl .. ~lid I
"'

46
 On the Hindu Quadrature of the Circle 79

8ZoM:
0l:frnI..rtj1&jltig~: '!~~ f"'lq~'iI~'k1~mfrr I
Olfm ~ 'lfiti~I«"1oi ~ ~T ~lfTNfU~~"lf: II
[K (T.S.S.), 16, chap. VI.)
Translation.-Divide four times the diameter by each of the odd integers 3, 5,7, ...
Take away every quotient whose order is even from the one preceding it. Subtract from
four times the diameter the combined result of all such small operations. This gives the
exact value of the circumference.

THEORRM 5. C = 3D+4Df 33~3 - 53~5 + 73~7 - ... }

810M:
Olfrnrarr#umm
..., "\ q'~ ?lffiTlffrcfl{~:
~ ..., c-- I

f"fl!~ ~llut 'lfi1l'~: ~Tfq' q-f<fen::T~lf: II

[K * (T.S.S.), 16, chap. VI.]
Translation.-Divide four times the diameter separately by the cubes of the odd
integers, from 3 onwards, diminished by these integers themselves. These quotients
alternately add to and subtract from thrice the diameter. The circumference is again
obtained.

THEOREM 6. C = 16DLs:4 .1 - 35+14.3 + 5 5 :4.5 - . . . }

810M:
(I ti q S'i\ I«<Illl
~
II ¥q l;:Jll...,'" I~'iI i'flirrl lf~:
~ c\..., I
ffi'filGt""s~I~!fQlctlG:'qI(lI4."PII~1 1 f~ II
ijfl"fl{'5111~1 clf'Rf ~~lS<!olllijij"+fCf: q-fUV:T: I
[T, chap. II.]
Translation.~ixteen times the diameter is divided by the fifth powers of each of
the odd integers 1, 3, 5, ...... , increased by these integers themselves. The quotients
obtained in this order are added to, or subtracted from, the preceding, according as their
order is odd or even. What remains after these operations is the circumference.

THEOREMS 7 & S. C = SDf22~1 + 62~1 + 1021_1 + .. J

C = 4D-SD{ 42~1 + 82~1 + ... }
8Zoka:
G:'q1~~'il1(T~ ~V:T<fiAt f'1{CflCj~lffi~: I
~: t5'\JI (~!fomT f~'lf: ~flffct<flf(:tmT 'lf~lf: II
~~
.., <r~ 'lfl\i~ q:mf~');:p:r:lf"f I
~

[T, chap. II.]

• This stanza again is found in T, chap. II, with two minor alterations: ~11Rf being
replaced by <rrfuV:Tf~ and f~ by f"fl>rr I

47
80 K. l~[1(.k1tnd(, Marat' and C. '1'. Rajago1Jal

Tran.slation.-One less than the squares of the successive integers starting with 2
or 4 and increasing steadily by 4, are the successive divisors. Eight times the diameter
is divided separately by these and the results are added together to give the circumference
in the first case. In the second case the similar sum is subtracted from four times the
diameter to give the circumference.

THEOREM 9. (' == 3D+6D{ (2. 21~1)1-22+ (2. 42~1)1-.p+ (2.61:1)1-61+"'}

Sloka :
~ err f«<!"if';l:ct-
ci<ff~f~ifCI1'f;
... I

oolWt 'if ~ f~ ~
OlI'Tit fo.ffor~ qf-rf~T ~R! II
[K (T.S.S.), 17, chap. VI.]
Tran.slation.-Divide six times the diameter separately by the squares of, twice the
squares of the even integers (2, 4, 6, . . . . . .) minus 1, diminished by the squares of
the even integers themselves. The sum of the resulting quotients increased by thrice
the diameter is the circumference. .
. f 1 1 1
THEOREM 10. C =:= 4Dt, 1- ~+5 - ... ±n;=F (n+l)2+1 '
(n+l)/2 J
where n i8 odd antllarge.
Sloka:
o~ cnf'if.nor@t ~ olnm1T~l'f~d I
r~~ ~ ~ ~lffi{ ~ II
~ffi€~~I'lf ~ ~ fiJ<fm ~~ ;;nf~T I
;;m ~'IHI~lfMij@tllfT ~ T'ft~ flfR{ II
ii~: ~... ::non'
~'"
olf~~: S(11'CfO, I

.
~ fCI1Tqf ~ 1f;f ~ Cfi ("f1~Jl, II
~Ifq: qf"<fq: m flfT1'! or~ ~sfm:J;~ I
[T, chap. II.]
'l'ra1l.8lation.-Multiply the diameter by 4. Subtract from it and add to it alternately
the quotients obtained by. dividing four times the diameter by the odd integers 3, 5, 7, ...
Let the process stop at a certain stage giving rise to a "fillite sum". Multiply four times
the diameter by half thc even integer subsequent to the last odd integer used as a divisor
and then divide by the square of the even integcr increased by unity. The result is the
correction to be added to or subtracted from our finite sum, the choice of addition or
subtraction depending on the sign of the last term in the sum. The final result is the
circumference determined more exactly than by taking a large number of terms, i.e. terms
going beyond the stage at which Wf' stopped.

'I'HF.OHr~M II.

11 beiny ocld (/ lid //1 rye.

48
 On the Hindu Quadrature of the Circle 81

Slolca:
~~~)s;:lf) fqf~ ~tf ~: I
31rff ~q 1<;>(JiCl4 #iCfi) TR'{f ~ Tf: II
~um) ~ql'"!t:1HI'l'lii'€llI<;>(Ji~(il ~: I
f~~~lJl~<ijll(q<?t ~ en ~ II
[T, chap. II.]
Translation ....:....Next is given another correction more precise than the foregoing.
The square of half the even integer next greater than the last odd-integer divisor, increased
by unity, is a multiplier. This multiplier multiplied by 4, then increased by unity and then
multiplied by the even integer already defined, gives a divisor. Multiply and divide
four times the diameter by our multiplier and divisor respeGtiv('ly. The result is an
improvement on our previous correction.

THEOREM 12. C: 2D+4Df22~i - 42~1 +.

n being even and large.
Slolca :
;rqrf~ f~) ~;;PT ~n:r faf~T f~<T I
'1fi'f'i0 1'l <€I S"q:t<.<f tRf~t:tfgffi@1?:n:) faf~: II
[1', chap. II.]
Translation.-Divide four times the diameter separately by the squares of the evcn
integers (2, 4, 6, ... ) diminished by unity. The quotients alternately add to and subtract
from twice the diameter, the process terminating at a certain stage and defining a "finite
sum". Take the odd integer subsequent to the last eyen integer squared, square it,
add 2 to the square, double the sum, and with the result thus obtained, divide four times
the diameter. This quotient added to or tmbtracted from the finite sum defined, leads to
a corrected value of the ciroumference.

II
The passage from the work AryabhaFya oj .4ryabha!acarya with the B~ya oj NUn-
ka!IJhasomsutvan, referred to in footnote 18 of the article is part of the following.
~: T\qY«tc:rr ~~ 1'!ct!"lIl(1?i<h1:I<RfT I ~ I m'lIT ~ll'd'flk·H'1. I ~: I if;or
lIRif ¥fIq'll.f'j ozrm) f~: ~, ffof<r 1fiq-+11'l: tJ"fW-r: Tf: mcrqcr lJ;c:r ~ I ihr 'tf

~: q-f~ffiff;f<C1qClffi4C1 l1~) O1ffif)sftf mcrqcr lJ;c:r, 'ti~~4"1 lfl'fif l1T<rlfT'i'\'<1~):

iRrftf if f~lfCWt ~ I l1~lf<."'fA' .1~C1IV;j(.q IcrlJ~ ~ I f'1 ("Ill C1eci 11 'f'fTftf
if ~mo mer: II [A I (T.S.S.), 41/.]
Translation.-Why then is it that discarding the exact va.hU', only the apl1roximate
one has been mentioned here? This is the answer: bceause it (the exact value) cannot
be mentioned. If the diameter, measured with respec~ to (by comparison with) a parti-
cular unit of measurement, is commensurable, with respect to that sa.me unit of measure-
ment, the circumference is incommensurable (the circumference cannot he exactly measured
by the same unit); and if with respect to any unit the circumference is commensurable,
then, with respect to that same unit, the diameter is incommensurable. Thus there will
6

49
82 K. M ulcu1Ula M arar and C. T. Rajagopal

never be commensurability for both with respect to the same unit of measurement. Even
by going a long way, only the "degree of commensurability" can be made very sma.ll,
absolute commensurability can never be attained.

III
Prince Rama Varma (12th prince of Cochin) has brought to light a fact which goes
some way towards substantiating the conjecture that the proofs in Yukti·B~a are
almost as old as Tardrasarigraha. He has in his possession a Sanf!krit manuscript
commentary on Bhaskara's Lfliivati, by an unknown Kcraliya. This commentary, which
bears the title Kriyakrarnakari, contains the proofs of ma.ny of our theorems in forms
which lead one to suppose that they are the originals of the proofs in Yukti.B~a.
There is a verse in the commentary:
~ ~TA~"'I'I¥cti
~tf ijCjf~ srvJ1=lf I

~ f'lf4l<t>stCfiU ~lf ~­
cw:rr: CfiY.rfs"*~~{'qfT:Frt f~ II
the first two padas of which are identical with those of the third benedictory stanza in
the commentary attached to Tardrasarigraha. This identity corroborates the statement
in the verse that the author of Kriyakramakari is a student of NilakaJ;ltha and its Kali
day of compilation (suggested by the underlined chronogram in the verse) is the
1681915th. Thus Kriyakramakari would seem to be a work belonging to the same
period as Tantrasangraha (4602 Kali era); and it is not unlikely that a close study of it
will lead to valuable conclusions regarding the origin of the mathematical arguments in
Y ukti. Boo,a.

6B

50
 CORRESPONDENCE 281
CORRESPONDENCE.
LUDOLPH (OR LUDOLFF OR LUCIUS) VAN CEULEN.
To the Editor of the Mathematical Gazette.
DEAR Sm,-In the archives of St. Pieter's Kerk in Leiden, Holland,
this epitaph is recorded:
mc IACET SEPULTUS MR. LUDOLFF VAN CEULEN, PROFESSOR
BELGICUS, DUM VIVERET MATHEMATICARUM SCIENTIARUM
IN ATHENAEO HUIUS URBIS, NATUS mLDESHIMIA ANNO 1540,
DIE XXVIII IANUARn, ET DENATUS XXXI DECEMBRIS, 1610,
QUI IN VITA SUA MULTO LABORE CIRCUHFERENTIAE CIRCULI
PROXIMAM RATIONEM AD DIAMETRUM INVENIT SEQUENTEM.
QUANDO DIAMETER EST 1, TUM CIRCULI CIRCUMFERENTIA
PLUS EST QUAM
314159265358979323846264338327950288
1.0c0OOOC~OOOC~~~OOOC~OOOO
ET MINUS QUAM
314159265358979323846264338327950289
10c0~~~~~~~~OOO~
SED QUANDO DIAMETER EST
1~~~~~~~~~OOOO
TUM EST CIRCULI CIRCUMFERENTIA PLUS QUAM
314159265358979323846264338327950288
& MINUS QUAM
314159265358979323846264338327950289.
On my first visit to Holland in 1935 I tried to locate van Ceulen's
tombstone, in the hope of presenting the Mathematical Association
with a rubbing of this interesting inscription; but the grave had
changed hands several times, and the coveted epitaph, if still in
existence at all, was facing downwards on the underside of some
stone recording on its upper surface the usual entirely fictional
virtues of some lesser Dutchman, who employed his leisure in some
more conventional way than the calculation of 1T by a method not
far in advance of that which Archimedes had employed eighteen
centuries before.
In preparation for a renewed attempt to recover the original
epitaph, I have lately appealed to Dr. C. de Jong, President of the
" Liwenagel " (Leeraren in Wiskunde en Natuurwetenschappen &an
Gymnasia en Lycea), roughly the equivalent of our Mathematical
Association. His answer, I think, will be of some interest to our
members.
"LEIDEN, 21st March, 1938.
DEAR MR. HOPE-JONES,
It was a great pleasure to me to be able to help you in your
attempts to discover the epitaph of Ludolph van Ceulen in St.
T

51
282 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZETTE
Pieter's Church at Leiden. With the help of Miss Le Poole I have
succeeded in finding out some points, '!'.·hich will surely interest you.
We ha-re discovered that Ludolph's grave was exchanged for another
grave by his widow, Dec. 31st, 1610. In the yenr 1626, Aug. 10th,
the gra ve was sold by the Church. masters to J onkhecr Christoffel van
Sac, and afterwards to Mr. Adrinen van Hogeveen (1718). Accord.
ing to the .archives; Ludolph's first grave was nr 6 in the " Higb
Choir '. ~ow, after a long search, I have found a piece of a tomb.
stone there, carrying the number 6, but nothing el.!e. Part of this
stone has· been cut off so as to fit to one of the great pillars of the
Church, in this way:

STONE

PILLAR

For this reason I doubt if it will be worth while to turn the stone
upside.down ; , for, in the most favourable case, you will find only
part of nn Ceulen's epitaph, and certainly not the whole of it.
I shall be very glad to help you further if you want so. In this
case I would like you to give me further directions: 'I regret that I
shall not be in town during the coming School Holidays.
Yours sincerelv,
• C. DE JO~G."
It is presumably through some error in the archives that van
Ceulen's widow is recorded as having exchanged his gra\'e on the
same day on which, according to his epitaph, he was .. denatus ",
or .. dis born ".
I hope that I may speak for all members of the Mathematical
A880ci~tion, not only in passing a vote of censure on the Vandili
who destroyed such a treasure, but e\'cn more in thanking Dr. de
Jong most heartily for his co· operation in solving the mystery of
its disappearance.
Yours truly,
W. HOPE·JO~ES.
23rd March, 1938.

52
 ;98 VA R [ 0 R V;\( D ERE n V SMA TilE MAT [ C [ S

CA1'\'T XVIII.
7'o~}go1Jomm cirm/o ort/iIM!': illjC,'ipIOi'/tI:1 ad cirm!lIYJ1 ratio.
Q U;hlr,lYir l';ll',lbolcn Archil11cdl'~ inll:riprionc conrinua triallgulorum
,:xilh'nrillm c.., )..d.,.~ p~~~, ~<'ni'llnI.'nim tri,lllglllo m:n;imo par.lbo-
Ix intl-ripro, lill'crinfl:rlplit tl'i,lI1~lIl,l 111 continU,l rationc ad maximum iI-
Iud conlbnrcr Iii b1llladl'l1 1'1.1 in infinitum: Idco conelulir p,lrabolcn cllc
mJ.ximi illills tri"nguli fi.:fljllitcrri,lIn, At it.! circltlulll lI11adr:uc llcfdvit
Antiphon, quoni,1-111 circulll il~ll:ript.! continuc tri.lngula cxiJhll1t c..,/,d"Ylf
~f":~!f' &. \'.lgO, .An ir.irLJr circulus non potcrir lju.ldrari ? Si cnim figma
compofit.l ex rri:!I1gulis in rarionc lilblluadrupla ;ld d;l[ul1l maximuJl1 td-
;1I1gululll conll:itlltis 111 inhnirum, fir au idem Id<'luircrtia, innnitormn .lli·
qua {cicnti.! ell:. It ligur.l llUOlll1C 1,1:111;,\ porcrir componi ex triangulis
circlilo in illhnirum continue inlCripris c.., )..;'r:', liccr ~f~-;-lf' & V:1go. Et
compolir;! ilia .,d 111:l:dmul11 triangulum illicriprulll :llilluam h:1bebit ra-
ti0I1C111. V'1!cbul1[ ;'!lIrCI11 Euclida:i :ldCcrcntcs anguluJl1 m:1jorcm ::Icuto
&: minorcm obrulll 1l01l cll~ rl'i:tul11, Circ! h'1:c, ut'liccat Iibcrius Philo{o-
phari de inccl"rJ. ilI.1 &. inconll:.il1 ti l'0lygoni ClljU(vis ordinatc inCcripri au
pol)'bonul11 inhnicol'lllll farnum, 1i:1I, Ii pl.1':l.'t, circulllln, ita propene.
PRO I' 0 SIT I 0 I.
Si eidcm circulo infi:ribJlHlIr duo ordll1:1t.l polygon;}, numerus alltCI1l
larcrum vel anglilofllJll primi , lit lilbdllplus ad IlUI11Cnllll I:1tCrlll1l vel ::111-
gulorllll1 {cclindi: erir polygol1l1ll1 pril11um .ld {cclIlldum. ricllt apotomc
btcris primi ad di.ll11ctrllll1.
Apotomcn laleds va co lirbu:nr.'lll
l'C1il'hcria:.quam rc:linquit i; fi:micircu-
10 Col cu: lalus lirbrcnditur.
In cirClllo igitnr cl1jus A ccnuum,
dbmctcr Be, inlcrib:.lur polygonum
ql1odcl1n'luc: ordinatllll1, cujus latus lit
n
1\ D. 5ceb \'CrO circumfcrc:ntia D bi-
BF---------~------~C flri~m in E, I"llbtcndarur n E. IUqllc
inferihatur aliud polysonul1l ordin:l'
lum cl1jus Ialus lit BE. Numerus igi-
lur latclUlll \'c1 :mgulorul1l polygoni
primi. ctit fubduplus:;d numerl1llllatc-
rum \'c1 angulorum fccl1nJi. Conne-
cblU! :Iutcm DC. Dieo pol)'gonl1l11
primuill cujus I:ltus I3D ad polygonun1
Iceun-

53
 RESPONSORVM. LInER VIII. ,99
kCllllJlllll cujus l.aus fiE vel [I) cn~,U[ DC ad Be. IUIlS~llrur ('111111 DA, ED. Cunlbr
igittlr 1'0lygOIlUIll pril11ulI1 rut trial1glllrs II A D, <Juor cxllt.lllr latera vel al1gllli I'olygolli
primi. Polygullul11 aurcm lee,ulltillill eOlllbt rutidem tral'e7.lis BE [) i\. 1'0lygolluI11 Igi-
ttH prillluITI ad polygol1ulll lccundum fc bbct , Ut triangulul11 1l.A D ad trapezium
llEDA. ~od (1llldcllI tral'CZilloll BE [) A dl\'iditlll' ill duo triangula BA D, Bf:D, quo-
rUIll bafis communis cit B D. Tliallgub JlItCIll 'lUOrt1l11 cadcm cit balis litllt lit altitudi-
ncs. Agalur itaquc [crnidiJll1ctcl' A E, Ircans 13 D in F. ~olliam igitllf ~ircnlllfcrcnria
13 D {caa ell bit:ll'ialll in E. aeb A E ((-c.1I Il J) ad ICCtus angulos. ita{l"c A F dbltilll-
do rriallguli B D A, & FE alriwdu nianguh BED. C:(:lare rrt.lIIgulul11 B A J) ad {l'iJngu-
lum BED cll, ut!lF ad E F, s.: l"<lllll'"IICiido II ;.lIIgIl11l1l1IU l).d Iriangllia 11 A I), II L I>
limul jUIlCta, id efl ttapezilllll BED A , Ilell! A F ad A E. (~u:t adel) in ratiolle elir ('ri.lIll
l'olygollum primul1l ad 1'0lygollUIlI ICClllI.JlIl11. Sl'll II F ad A lO Il'u A Il d~,lIt DC ad He.
Ell:cnim anglllus HDC ICUU~ liCllt BFA. 0;. ilko litllt parallrla: A F, DC. Ell i,~illir l'u-
Jygonulll primul11, cU/u5brll.1 !lJ).ad l'ulygollullIlcclIlldum, eujlls lams BE vel ED, {ieur
DC ad B C. Quod erar o(tclldcIlJum.

PROPOSITIO II.
Si eidem circulo inlCribantlll' pl)lytiona ordlluta in inlinitllill , & IlU-
mcrus bterulll pril11i lit .Id I1l1l11LTlIllll.ltcrum kcul1.fj (ilbdul'lll~, ad Illl-
mcrum vcra latcruill tcrrii IllDqu.ldrlll'lus , til/ani Illboauplus , llllinri
ilib(cxdccuplus, & e.l dcinccl's continua r.!ClOlH: Illlhfllpb.
Erit polygonull1 primlllll .ld tcrriulll ) ficm l'l.lIHllll fllb apo[ol1lis late-
rum polygoni pril1li & f~cul1l1i ad llu.ldrawl11 a di.lIllCtro.
Ad l1u;lrtulll vcro , ficm lolidlll11 (lib apotlll1lis IatCflll11 primi (ccundi &
tcrtii polygoni ad <:II bUill ;1 dial1lccro.
Ad llllinrull1, ficm pl.1Il0.pl.lIllll1l {ilb ap(){()lllis Lucrum primi!'.'eundi
certii & (luarri ad lllladr.lco- quad 1';l[1I111 ;1 dl.llllccro
Ad (cxtUI11 , fiem plano-lolidulll {lib apotolllis J.ucrum pril1li iccundi
tertii quarti & lluinci polygoni ad quadr:lto-cubull1 a. di,ullctro.
Ad ICptil11ul11, fiem lolido-(()lidlll1l (lib al'ocomis Lucrum primi (cculldi
tertii qllarci tIuinti & fcxti polygolli ad cuho- cubul11 ;1 di.lllll:tro. Et co
in inlinitlllll COlltillllO pwgrclru.
Sir cnim aporomc Jarcris polygoni ptimi 13, (ccundi C. tertii D, qu~ni F, qllillti G,
(cxti H. Er lir diametcr cirelili Z. Ex ~nrcccdclltc igirllr I'fol'oli[iol1(, I'0!l'gullum pri-
mum ad 1'0lygol1l1l1l Icculldlll11 crir, u t II ".I 1':. It.1<JIlC 'Ill'.>.! lie l'X II ill polygollutn {c-
cundum,crit xqualc ci quod hr cx Z i It polygonulll pri 11111 Ill; polygonum vcro IcellndulTI
ad tcrtium erit. Ut Cad Z. Et pcr conlcqllcns, quod fir litb po1ygono (eculldo & 13, id
efl quod fit litb primo &. Z ad id quod fit Illb polygono tcnio &. n, licllt Cad Z, ~are
quod fit litb [,olygono primo &. Z '111.1 d r.lIu , Xl]llalc ell ci <]llod lit lilb pol)'gClnCl tenio
& plano 13 in C. Ell igitllr poln:OIlUIll I'rimlllll ".1 pOI)'gOlltllll tcnium, lieur pl.tnulll B
ill C ad Z <Juadralllm. Et (Juod lit lili) tenio &. plano fl ill C, .l:'lllale crir ci 'Iuud tit li,ll
primo & Z quadrato. Rurllrs ('x eadcll1 alltccedentc prol'oliriollc dt,nr polygolltllll ter-
tium ad polygonum quartull1, licll! Dad Z. lOt per collk'lucns. Quod fit lub tl'ftio &
phrlo n in C, id cll quod fit (ilb prilllo & Z lJlladrato ad id 'Illml fie fi,b 'lllar to &. plano
n in C, cll (ieU[ Dad Z. Quare quod lit lith primo & Z (ubu • xquale etit d quo,] (it (ilh
quano &. (olido B in C in D. Eit igitllr pOlygOlllllD plillll1ll1 ad {]lIartulll, fiellt B in C in
Dad Z Cl1bUlll. Eademquc dClllunl1ratiollis Illclhodo CI it ad quintull1 • (int[ 13 ill C in
D in Fad Zqlladraro-(luadrarulll. Ad (CXtlllll, fiell[ 13 in C in Dill F jn G ad Z l1nadra-
to,cubum. Ad fcplimum, fieur n in C in D in Fill G in H ad Z cllbo·cubulll. Et co COI1-
llami in infinitum progrdlu.

Co R 0 L-

54
400 V A RIO R V M D ERE B V S 11 A THE 1.1 AT] CIS

COR 0 L L A a. I V M.

Iraquc quadr.Hum circulo in(criptum erit ad circulul11, ficur latus I11ius

qu.ldrati ad potdl:atcm diamctri illtiilim;llu adplicatam ad id quod fit
continuc fi.lb apotomis l.ucrum 0.101;0111, hcxdccagol11, polygoni trigim:l
duorumlatcrum , {cxaginta qllamor, ccntum viginti octo, ducentorlllU
ql1illl]11.1ginta lex, & rclll]lIorul11 omnium in ea rationc angulorum latc-
nunvc (ilbdllpb.
Sit cnim quadratl1tn eirclIlo inli:riptllm polygolllllll priml1lll , oQ;ogonum crit (ceun-
dum, hcxdc.:~gonlll11 tcrtium. polygonum lfig'II[.\ dllo\"m!.lIcrum qua'lUm,& co con-
tinuo UI',ii!ll'. ha'l"': e,.il! 1lI 'JII.hll'.lIl1.1ll (lIu,lo inr.:ril'lIl111 ",J polyglll1l1l1\ extrcmlllll
teu inilnillHum I.orcrum, h(llll]Uod lit lub apotomis !.ucrulIl tC!ragoni, oCl:ogoni, hex-
dcc.lgoni, ::.: rdiqllorulll Oll1lllllm in ca UlIllnc (ubdupla in infinilllm, ad potcllatctn
diamclri :.lrifiimalll. Et pCI' adplic.lIionclll CUII1IlIlIl\Cm, {i':Ut apotomcs l~tcris quadra-
ti ad potell.Hcm .Jiamcui altilhmam a'!plicatalll nd id ']110'\ lit tllb al'otomis latcrum
oCl:ogoni. hcxdccJ£oni, &: rcliljllorum olllninlll in ca ralionc lubdupla in infinitum.
'tIl alllCnl Jpotomc l:mris quadrati circulo inkripti ipli Iateri a:qllalis, & polygollum
inlinirulll!ll lalcrum circulus ipfc.
Sit cirCl/li di.lIIlC1cr 1. L4ltu 'l:I.ld,,,ti ci cir",lo ill/iripti fit 4/ 1, 'l".ttlTlftlllll ipfiWl1. ApotolllC 14-
mil ac1ogol:i i/~1- ii:' Apotolllc 14 tcr;,llc.'l:dcc4golli 4/ t -1- 4/ 1 .;- 4/;-. .ApotOJ/lC l,lICr" pol]-
gOllitrigill:.dlicrtlllll.mrl/ll' '/ ~.-. :/' ~. ApotolllC I.. :eril poI;golli [cx.rgiIll4 '1" 4-
J 1. r 1. ·'1-, 1. +' i.' 2.

1II0r /"UTIIIII . ; 1-i- 4/ ,_--/ ._"_""____ -.- :. Ec co cominl/o progrrJfiI.

l. -. I 1 'i- 4/ l. _j_ v'"
Sit 4111;;0: tli~llIItcr I. CirCIIllu, N. £rit-i- .Id, N. fimt 4/~ .Id ullit4tm'.ftl/~/iC4t41H Ad id
'1/1od fit c... 4/ .i. _, _.v T , iil AI' -,-' -\- 41' -.'~ ;:::'-. ill:V.~ 1- ,.1"1: .I~- _ .
• ' -::. • s--,-/,,_
:.
• -·+N'.!..-'-1/1
2. a I -:1,-,

Sit di.1nlCtCt X. Circulus A planum. E, it X quadratum ~ ad A planum, Gelll L. X

quadrati .;- ad X pOlclt:.tlllll maximam adplie;otam ei quod lit ex radiec binomia X qua-
drari .~-,-:- r.ldlcc ~~quadraro-qlladrari ~",in radiccm binomialll X quadrati 7,plus radicc
binomi.c X 'luadulO,,]uadrati f ,-t- raJ icc X quadrato- quadrato. quadr:llo. quadrau-i-.
in r:I<!'ccm bmomia: X qundrati f, plus radicc bio1omia: X quadrato-quadrati.;" + radl-
ec binomia: X (jlladrato'(r'adrato-quadraro-quadrati -t- radiee X quadfato. qua- -i-,
dr3to-qu3drJ.to-qlladraro-<luadrato.qu.1Jralo. qUlduto. quadrati ~. ill fadi.:cllI Ike. in
infinitum cblcn'ala unifurl1li methodo. •
CAP V T XIX.
n~';;d(av,fi($ ad ufiim .5l1atlJC1JMtlci CdlJOl1is mcthodica.
AT vus, U llobilcs lidcrum ob{Cl"V .Horcs , milla f.lail matxotcchni,l ad
vcr.1ll! Cydomctri.ll11 rcvoco,llOc efl:, ad legirimum ly1athcmatici Ca-
nOllis U!lilll. Ut cnim vlligo PCCC:ltl1l' in CjllS f.lbricil,lic criam in ulil. Itaquc
dum rCllO\'iltlll' mCllS ad Canol1cl1l in(j1c.1ion1l111 libel', Allillyticx mca:
mcrhodi, qll:llolco cxpcdirc me;1 cnanglilis planis ac lilhxricis, ultra co-
piilll1 f.lcin ad cxcitandlJlll vefl:r.l fl:lIdia pcr ali'l11od laborum,(ll1Os (idlillC-
tis in ab,:ds AH:ro!1omil.:is, lilblcv.ll!1CI1. NCl]lIc VCW obl'lIcl1t vas Inul-
titudinc Pl'i1.:CCptJ. T llm ("nilll lIf.'gociull1 vigimi & lIno ~fd0fA-£V~I' {cre
abl()I\'u.

55
 RESPONSORVM. LIBER VIII. 4 01
6E~O~DY 1.
TRIANGVLJ PLANI RECTANGVLl
Datis angulis, damul" latera in partibus Callonis.
Enilnvero,
Ex CllNoniclI (eric prim4:
Pcrpmdicflltlmfiel jimi!ejimli 411gll/i lI(uli. Blljis ,jil1lli rclitJlli cretlo. Hrpolt-
l1ufo,jil1lli toro.
Vel,
Ex firic (eowda :
Pcrymdim/tIllJ lieljimile profitlui IIngllli 1I((1li. Blljis ,jillUi toto. HrPOltllllfo,
Irlll1jJilllloJ.c IIngllli 11(I11i.
V cI dcnique,
E:I: flrie Uri ia:
perpendicu/ffllJ fiel jimilejiillli toto. Bajis,projil1lli angflli rtliqlli. l-/.rlo/(1II1-
ft. IrllnJliI1I1if.c rjlrfdem.
Vel edam,
Mixtim ex CII110nLr [erie Irin4:
Perpmdim/llmfitljimile differenti", inter IrllnjJinflofoTl1 lI11gllli 1I(lIti (} jil1f1m
reliqlli to rcElo. Bajis.ji11lli 4((1li. HJpole1mJ4. proJinui cjltfiJe1l1.
Vel,
Pcrpcndimillm fiet limite dijfr.rmti.e inter jil1l1m IInguli II(t1li (} trllnffinrloJam
c c
re1itp'i reE/o. Bajis,jilJlli rdiqlli reE/o. HypOltl1u/a,proji11lIi ejllJdtm.
Vel deniquc ,
Ptrpmdim[,l111fiN jimile Irlll1lJinuofo Angllii 401ti. Bajis,lrAnlJil1llofo rclifjffi e
reElo. Hyp0/(/1Itfl. IIdgreglllo'projinHs II(Uli (} proji"us reliqui creE/D.
6E~O~DY 11.
Trianguli pbni rcebnguli.
D,u:l hyporcllu[t :lC pcrpclldicuIo vel bare, dalltur anguli,
Enimvero eric,
1'1 krpOfelwJ4 4djinum totUl11, illl perpmdim/tlm lidjin/lm IIl1gu!i II(1fli. EI ila
bajis lidjinllm relif/lli creElo.
Alicer eric,
PI bajis ad jimllll totllm, itll hypotmllfo lid Ir,mjJillf'oflm IInglili lI(f1ti.
Vel,
PI prrpmdiClllllm lidji1ll11l1 toWill, ita !Jypo/Cnttfi lid Ir,11IjJillllofom Il11gflli r(-
c
liff',i rtf/o.
Ill.
Trianguli plani rctl:anguli.
Daris pcrpcndiculo & balc, dantur anguli.
Enimvero eric,
n bafis ad ptrpmdiwllll11 , illl jiRm torus ad proJintl1n IInS"li II(flli.
vd, .
1-'1 perpmdi(!r1l1m ad bafill. ilajil1lH toms lid proJil1um Anguli rtliq"; eYfc10.
TIU AN-

56
 FRANcrSCI VIET1E
1,fvNIMEN

ADVERSVS NOVA
eye L 0 1\1 E T RIC A ~
Sell,

ANTII1EAEKr~

57
 437

FRANCISCI VIET.IE
MVNIMF.N

ADVERSVS NOVA CYCLOMETRICA,

SCLI ,

ANT I n E A E K T ~.

USE R V N T illi operam infelicirer, l1ui filis, quas Sccu-

ric!as vocanr, figllris conati li.lIH cirClllllm rrigint:L lex
iCgmentis hexagoni ad;tllllarc. ~id cnim cern cx ma-
,. gnirudiniblls plane incerris potcranr rcfolvendo confc-
1IO'~K7"'. qui ~ kqualiaxqualibus addal1t vel fllbrrah:Lllf,per xqua-
.... lia di vidant aut Illulriplicent, il1verrant , permutcnt, ae
denique per quofcunque proportionul11 gradus dcpri-
mant, vel :moIIal1t, hilum fua Zeteli non proficienr. fcd in vicium, quod
Logici appellant cUTI1f-d. T~ ai-nl,ua.r@-, Diophanrxi a.iIJ~TI1rg., incidcnt, aUI:
clc~·HlIn {alfo fcipfos deludcnt ealculo, ut prxfcnlil1cIlt, fi qua lux cis ad-
ful{i(lct verx analyticx dodrinx. Sunt autem imbelles, qui f-0VO~f-Hf jihs
bipcnncs rcformiJanr, &: jam ab iis fauciarum deflcnt Archimcdcm. Sed
vivit Archimedes. Neque el1im cum olfendunt yd;doXa.CP~f-a.rg. ~ n
dA'10f{, tfd;d'o!J;'1cpocpoe)/X1 , Allapodixes, verba magnifica. ~o ramen un-
clique {ill[ tutiores,
'N.. ubigrro! clrpCOJ, inta[/d1"c ("dib"J al'ma ,
{cd dVOlTfAEK."rJ. qui bus primum fefe l1111nianr,profcro, fubminil1:ratllrus m ··
)..£1-'-,,,;,, {i fonc hollium ferocior audacia ell:.

PROPOSITIO I.

AM 8 I T V S dodecago.ni circulo infcripti, minorel1l lubet ration em

ad dlal11ctrum, tnpb (ClllllOaava.
Centro Aintcrvallo quoclIllqUC An Jc(cribltllr circulus n CD. in quo hlmatllr n c
ci rcumfcrcllli;1 hCX.1!;Olli, ')11.1: ICCCIUl" bif:uialll in D, &. (1Iblcn.1.1rur D 13. Ell igilur D B
latus dodecagoni, 'luO duodcclll'laro ilJ E, eril DE X(lllJlis :Il11bilUi dodccagoni cirCll-
10 13 DC in(aipti. Agltllr autclll diamcter D F. Dleo j) E ad D F, r3tioncm habcre mi-
norClll tripla tct']uioL'1.1V.l.
]lIngantul" cnim 13 C , 13 A, ip(Jm'lue 13 C di3111ctcr D F (ecct in G.. Ergo bifariJIn
&: ad angulos rc.:1:os (ccabie. Tri.1l1gulo aUtclU D 13 G con(huarur Illude uiJngu-
lum DEB.
~onia111 rdh Tl C tllbtcnJitllr circumfcrcntia: hexlgoni, ideo 13 A (cu D A ipG nc
cit xqualis. ~3rc cOllililUtJ A C teu 13 C parril1111 octo, fit 13 G carundem qUJtuor.
Quadratulll vcro abs A G cit 48, &. idco A G lie major 6 : :. Ip(a alltcm D G minor
17]' Et CUIlI conCtieutOl fit DE duoJccupla iplius D 13 , cric quoque E 1-1 duodccupl.1
H hh 1 ip(jus

58
 43 R 11 v N J MEN A D V E R S V S Nov A.
ipous 13 G, & D H duodecupb. ip!illS D G. 0!!3rc elil E H c3rundcrn p:millrn 48. D H
\'CIa rninorI;. 11111110 'minor 11 :; • Quadr:llum amenJOl Iatcrc 48 , ell: 1304; abs I pc-

---------
D

ro, 169' QuO!: duo qU3dr~t3 conlicinnt14 7; , non eri3rn 1500, qU3dratllrn :llatere 50.
Quare rect3 DE, cnjus quadratulll xqu31c en q1l3dr3lis E H, D 1-1, minor en 50. At ve-
ra ratio 50 ad 16; ell tripla (dquiochva 3CCur:UC. Ratio ibillJ[ DEad 'D F, minor cll td-
1'1.1 fefquioctava. Quod crat ollendcnJum.
Ollllli,IO Aril/lllltlicJ toflll flimlia eft 111.1111 GeolllClriof. M.fgllillldincs rlfriarl1/cs rofliolla/ivus 111/-
mery, irrlftiollA/rs irTariolMI,VIIS commode drJigllttnrllr. Qlli pcr IlIImcrOI l/I"gllil/ldl/lCS IIIctitllr ,ft
[rIO (AIClilo .tlilfs is tfeprcllClllllt, ']U4/11 rt ip[a Jillt, lion arli [cd olTllficis mlpA 'fl·
11111110 I'ero, ait l'rodus, efl ~19,uy,1"c.~ ":"p,c;Esie.9 ,'W,UETpi"". A"urate (t'pputallti cOIlf/irut4
r
tfiolm(lro p.mis IlIlills , ambitus d~dcc4golli illfcripli jil 1.llltS Vlllo/lli.,. 7l.- ;:l8S. Qlli contT4
prolllilltiol v'cm, CrrJII'ei j'l IHm[rlru GcomC/ra , vel illllll/lltrU Epilogifla.
Amvitlu aUttll1 circllii ad di4lJlClrUlllm.fjorcm (1ft tripl.1 fehuioliava.Jiellri mil/oTcllllrip/4 fefqui-
ferrill/A 11011 tf'lvitAvit boll/emu l>!ollhclII.lIl(OTUIII f'bola. III tllllil "ere dm:ollflr.vit Arc/limedcs. NOli
igilllr ; fillfo Epi/ogi[rllo ;'Ul"etlltflllll f"it "-"'1m!-,"' oq,6x\uG'li""if. Lintalll T,l/alll rffi ,irW/MT;
ilfJtlll ttTlllillH (0IlWlt4111MjoTtllJ, (Olltrar;IIm [rllmnre A"IJimcd, c" -Pif l(.O"lof i .. o!t«, & ip(iml
cri~1II (/CIIIOliflrAIII' ElltoCIO, ae SCI/eralittr dCflllicilte muw, 'i' ...we; me.5'(; 'XIS"';;' X""fJ.!-'wv
"""'id,/w;;-'aj -du,' oG9>iv.
PROPOSITIO II.
SCll1idiamctri circuli;1
ql1ldrataria divi{x par:
:i centro ad Cjuadr:!ta-
ri:Ull, major cl~ media
proportion:!li inter {cmi-
diamctrul11 & duas quiu-
tas {cmidiall1ctri.
Sit <]uJdrans circuli A C, n
<juadrat.lli.l 13 D; IllmJrur A E
x'lllJlis dUJbus quintis femi-
di.lmctri A B vel A C ; medi~
E~----~--------~----~C
vcro I'rllpurtion:1lis intcr A E,
A C, lir A F. Dieo AD majo-
rem dIe qll,lm A F.
Ex iis Cllil11, 'lUX ,Ic <jU:1drl-
toria :i l';tppu Jemonllrata
lilll!, IcmiJlamc[cr A II IeI'
AC,mc-
F

59
 CYCLOMETRICA,SEy,ANTrIlEAEKT~. 439
A C, mcdia en: proponiollalis inrcr circumfcrclltiam 13 C & A D. Sir A 13 partium 7.
CirclImfcrcnria 13 C, qua: quadrans ell: pcrimerri, crirminor II. Nam diamctrocxitlen-
rc '-j., pnimclcr minor el1: 44. Sit 3111CIll A B j5. CirClImfcrcmia B C minor eril H.
~od \"Cru lit tub A D, B C, l1:gnalc ctll]lIadrato ex A 13. Quarccrir A D major 11';'.
~aliull1 alltclll A 13, id cll: A C, valet;5, talium ell: A E 14; A F VCi'O minor 11.' •• bir
igitul' A D major gualll A F. ~,od erat oll:cndcndul11.
/ta'lue/i ex diollllctrO A Il abftilldollur rca.: A G ipji A F ,tllttalil , & cOlllplc.tlttr parAIIc/0XTall/-
1111/111 G H I) A , ip(ulII (ril 'np>,,,,",,,,,, 11011 quadrAIIIIII. Etclllli (omplcbilllr qlladrallllll13 C,alla
dl.lgoll;,/ 13 K 1I011lr,lI/jiliil per II , fed fa alillt/cd I pllII{/1I111 Hl1Ioli," aD PIIll{JO. ~od ad vilall-
1111111 l'[wdograpbclII': pr41.,val .UIIlOI.1/Jc.

PROPOSITIO III.
Q.:IJdr;1Wlll Jb ambitu circllfi, minus ell: dccuplo (Illadrati i dia-
metru.
Sir Cllilll diamerer 7. Diamerri gnadratlll11 erir 49. lptills vcro dccnplul11 490. At
ambit'" Cil(lIlilllillu[ cr;t H, & prollldc ljll.ldrJtlIlll ab alllbiw minns -j.<:4'
FII;r .lfIU:I/ fJ.'c AI'.,blllll ill ,,,,,,dr.lI/do c;rfll/o ]AIII"111 cxplof.' {cIllWli." QUJllralUI11 ab a",bi·
III circulI fifo declIplllllllJIl.ll1;.lli;i d:al1lcrro. Neqllc J'cro fa",dw eft, 'lUI .dJ·erjiu delllo/it.m-
Iml ,lrLlJ/.'ilcdf/;/ """71;"'::"';, AII~?ud,[t., prOpOfilCrir.
PRO P 0 SIT 10 IV.
Circulus ad hCX;lgOI1Ulll ci in(cripmm rationcI11 habet I11Jjorcm,quam
[ex ad tluinquc.
Circuio, cujus A Cel][[l1l11, in(clibltur hcxJgonutn DC D E F G. iDico.circulum cUjllS
A centrum ad hcxagonutll BCDEFG r.llioncm hlbtre majorem, quam Jex ad quinque.
luntl:is enim A 13, A C, 13 C, cadat ill B C pcrpcndicul;uis A Z.
QllOnial11 igitur in nian-
gulo A 13 C crllra A n, A C x-
<]ualia (tllll. batis (db ell: bi-
fariam ill Z &. (unt a:qLlalcs
n Z Z C. Trianglllllm .1Item
xquiIJtcrtll11 cll A 13 C. CrulJ.
enill1 a\1lbo tlillt (l;miJiJlllc-
trio Sed & balis, CUI11 (j t la-
[liS hCX.lgOlli . Icmidi;lllletro

cit a:'lllJlis. ConrJillHa igitllr

!clllidialllc,ro II A lell /l.C ;0,
IiI 13 Z tell Z C 15, A Z ver~ lir
minor 1 G.cnjlls lJ"Jdr;Hlllll ell
G76.l)lttCrcllIia \'cro <juadra-
tortlll1 A II, n Z ell: dllllta:.:]t . / '0 /
- '

~
G7i Q~lOd lit porro Ii,b B Z,
A Z r~Ll.!Il;';lllllll1, II i:\llglllo \ / 26. )
13 /I. C cll a:'lll.1k. DlICJ,lI£
il~'1t1C t; ill 1(;. Jillnt 19'). \ .--------
B Z.» __ -~--~
C
QlI .. llllll1 Igillll' '1".:d~J[lI11l
J\ B CI:t 9°0, lai:UJ:l lLi;:nru-
11l:1I An C nit mi.\lJS 190;;'c!
(0:11I:ibIiS di\'ilil pCI' ;0) (xi-
/le,\(, 'lll;ld';Jto A 11;0. llianf,;ulllll1 A 13 C erit min,us I;. IlIngJntll: A D, A E. A F,/1. G.
Conlbt i~illlr hcxa:-;ol1l1l11 13 C l) E F G trianglllis lex a:qualibus ipli B A C. Quare qua-
Jiul11 (l'l.ldr'lfnm A IJ clir ,0, r~lil\m bexagolllllll erit minlls 78. Vc!qualium (luaJratLIlll
A 13 em 'l'lltll11:l';t.diu:n Iicx.,So ntHll etit minus pa[[ibus trcdecim.
Hhh At

60
 440 1\1 v N I MEN AD\' E R S V S Nov A
At vero, en ll[ pcrimeter circ~lli ~d Ji:lI11nllllll , ill suod fit rub pcrimclro circuli &:
quadrantc diametri ad id gnod Ilt IllD dlll1lCrru & qll.1tlralllC dialllcrri. Sed id quod fit
rub pcrimctro circuli & quadl3mc JiJmel[i, efl x'1l1alc Clrculo. Quod autcm fit li,b dia-
mctro & qU.ldrantc diamcni, ip(ulll cll quadr.Hum:i l~midial1lctro. Ergo e~ Ul perime-
c
ter ad diametrllln, ita circulus ad qn~dratlllll (cruit!lanlerro. Qualium autcm diamete[
ell I. lalium perimeter major eltl; ;', & tallto nUllifdlius major :~ (eu 3
Qualium 3-i.
igitur quadratum !cmidiamcrri A L! elit <J.UllllJUC, lit ante, t3liuIU circulus cnt major 15~.
Hcxagonum autcm in ii(Jcm partibus hlit minus I;. Quare citcuius ad hcxagonum ci
in(cnpll1111lllajorem Ill.1bebir rarionel1l <J1I31ll J 5:' ad J!, id ell, qualll 115 ad J 0 '" , {eu (, ad
4 ':-~" & ralllu cvidclllillS m,'Jul'em, lJlIanllcx ,,,I'jllillljllc. Quod er:lt ollendendulll.
Non igi;lIr Kox?;i.,. :;rp;;.r.u:Jt ,ir(ll/IIII/ 'I1I.,dr.wI , 'III; (((III /'(x.r.~ol1o (,- 'lllilltl. p.1rli 1ux"golli {l,,-
IUllIIC ,(,/",,11'111, Will fir 1II.1,0r {fumtlrllll 1/IIlItc! "b Ar</III11Ci/C ,:" ~.:: i,I',·",. :~·X,.i', pr.t{lrlIltOI. Sc/Jo/.t
u
AIIUIII/loflroi. 1'1,,10111101. fum, profrffom r.IIIIlld,. t.!.!!~IC TIL' pI illOpili (;COIIICIr/(;. obluU "lIIilli. Et )'t-
ro III rir(ultllll Inll"oImlll m","y,·iY~ , fic 11/ d4rlllll ,{({Cpu (Ol/lpm[.rIIOllfl/l (4I1d" f;'~ /1;nwdilllwl
li/(utloum vrrfiu f"'UIIJ ;01111 (/UIII'IClltor.
PROl'OS[T[O V.
Triginta (ex Ilcxagoni (cgmcllta 1l)3jOl'a (unt circulo.
QlOniam c!lim circulus ad hexagolllllll ei il1(criptllm majorem habct rationem, CJuam
[cxad guingue. (eu as ad deltantem , ideo diftcrenria illrer cirClllllll1 &. hcxagollllm erir
l111jor lextante circuli. Sed .Ii/fen circulus ab hexagono per (ex (cgmellta hexagoni. Sex
igitur {cgmenra hexagoni {uperant {cXtalltel11 circuli, atque adeo triginta [ex [egmenta
crunt alli: circulove majora. ~lOd erat ollcndcndul11.
PROPOSITIO VI.
Omnc (cgmcntlll11 circuli majus dl: (cxtantc (cE'toris limilis • limiliccr-
que dcfcripci in co circulo, cujus [cmidiamcccr b:lli fcgmcnti propoliti eft
a:qualis.
In defcripto fi,b A cemro. cireulo nD C'(ubtendatur quxvis circllmfcrentia BD;tan-
gat autcm circulum rcCla nE, &. ccntr6 13 inrcrvallo 13 D defcribatur circulus alter DfF.

E ___

Ciremnfcremia igitur ED iimilis erir (emilTi circumferentix B D. haque (umatur D i

circumferclltiJ iplius DEdllp!:t,& jungantur llF.AD. Siltlilcs igitur erunt {cCl:orcs BAD
FB D. Dico (cgmentul11 circuli II DC comentum reClJ 13 D &: circumfcrcmia • cui c:
fubtcnditur, dIe ma jus !extante (cCloris F II D.
Dc(cri

61
 CYCLOMETRICA,SEY,ANTrnEAEKT!:. 441
De(cribatur enimlinea (piralis, cujus principium 13, rranliruspcr D, cXlftente DD tan-
tJ p:mc ptincipii convcrlionis BE?-,quanta pars en anguilis EnD quarllor rcCi:oruln.Sc-
duris i);llUr E 13 D tertia pars en fp3l1um cumentum rcCi:a 13 D & fj,irali. Id c:nim poa
Ardlllllcdcm Pappus dcmonllravit propulitione XXII. libri 1V. M.lth::naric:J[unl collc-
ai,lI1um. SeCi:otis vero FI3D (pacium idem erit pus confequenter fcxtupla. dupluscnint
cunllrulklls eft /etlot F B D ad (eCi:orcm EI3D. NC(1ue vero (piralis concurrer cl1m cir-
cubri. It! cnim dfct abli.lCdum.Sed ncque fpiralis in progrdfu egredierur circulum priuC-
(1uam ad D pllllCi:um pervenerir. Sccemr enim angulus E B D urcunque :i reCta DG H,
intcrcil'icntc fj,iralem in G, circumfcrellliam in H. ReCi:3 iJ;itur 110 ad retlanl BG erit,
m angulus EnD a.langulum EllG;id cfl,lIl circumfcrclltia BI) ad circumferenti:lI11 BU.
ex con.iitiollibm hc1icwn.Ar major ell ratio circumferelltia: 130 aticircumferellti:lI11 BH.
'luam li,btcnr:'C 011 a,1 /i,htcnt:lI1' III-I. l\1.1)urcs c/lim circulllfer("llIix at! minores maju-
rem Il;IbclII rariunelll, (IUalll rca.c.,,1 redas, 'Iu.c iif~l~m circumfcrc"tiis li,btent!untllr.
ctl;lrc rcLl .. Hil rc~'1am BG exccclct. l,lcmllue ill qlllbul11bcr rcdis, angulum EBD (e-
c.ulI/bus. accilln. )t3'lue !r;\Il(ibit f('irali~ fi,b circumlcrc:mia B 1) , &: aliquod Ipaciulll
inter Ie &: circumfcrClltiam rciin'luct. Q.!.!u 'luidem fj,acio fi'gme/Hum circuli COII-
tC/Hum rech II D &: circullltcrclIlIa, ("xce.!rt fl'.lCiulll, 'luu,1 at> eadelll reaa & Ij,irali
cOl11l'rehen.iilllr, & fex[3llti fcll:oris F LI 0 oOenlillll en :rlJu3Ie. Scgmenrull1 igirur iI-
Iud clir maj\1S fextJllte fc:Ci:oris F li D. Quod erat dcmonflr3ndum.

COR 0 L L A R I Y M.

Atque hinc quoque Inanifell:um ell:, triginta (ex (egmenc3 hexagoni cC-
(e circulo majora.
Ql1ando enim evenier B D dIC (egmcnrum hcxagoni , (eCi:orcs F D 0, BAD erune z-
ql1alcs, (Illoniam fi.IOtlll11 circulorum IClllidiame[[l1l D, A 0 c:runt a:(Juales. Sc:x igiru[
fcgmenra hcxagoni c:tlInr fcaorc B A 0 majura .• atquc adco trisinta lex fcsmcm3 ma-
jota lex li:Ci:uribus. id en, toto circulo.

Potll;1 nOli m;'/lu gmerAlt TIICoTtHIA , pcr polr4hol.(I , Alit pot;IU tA , q//;h,u p"TAbolA qllA/irAnrUT,
Groll/etriCd /IIcd,,, tlm/olljlTdlldlllll ;t4 PTOPOlli, Omne fcgmentull1 circuli majlls cn fcCquiter-
tio trI.lllgllli ifofcelis ipfi fegmento immor3 bafe int" ipri. SCUII/dlllll quod jI.ttim AdpATehit
lIIol/0Ttlll flF' r.ctiO/1f1ll mgilll.r Jt:.: [tgllltl'lorlflll 1](X.'g01]i Ad {imr/ulII,qIlAIII 48 Ad 47. 11111110 tti41f1
,fC{lIrol,i'IJ ji'prlll4mi (ol.r lTigl11ld 'l"41110r {t.~I/1CIII" , & (P.rcilllll p.Ullo III,,;IU b~{{t [tgllltllli, [td lIIi-
IIIIS dDd,.lIl re, d"prcllCllilet1lt1r cOl11plcre c;rcllllllll. l./I£t AIIUIIII'Jptroc/]m frgllltlltlfilprA r,.itllltm UII-
,i.e "rwi. ;101 q",/i, c:.:iubuc.

PROI'OSITIO VII.

In dato circulo :i fegmenro hexagoni trigelimam fcxcam parccm ipfius

cireul! abfcindcrc.

n
Sit .latus circulu~, cllius Accntrum, di.ll11cter C, fegmel1tlllll hcxagoni B D. Opor-
ret in d.lIo circulo BOC .1 fcgmcnto hexJguni B D contento rcCi:a 11 0 & circumfcrcn-
ti:l cui fubtenJitllr, trigcfin131ll fcXtall1p3r1em iplius circuli B 0 C :lb/cindere.
Tang:\l circululll rcCi:a BE, &. dcfcribatur linca fpiralis, clljus pdncipium n, Iranlirus
p~r 0, cxiflellte no tant3 parte principii con"erlioni~ BEZ. (1uanr:l pars angulus EnD
ell qu.lIl1"r [eCi:orum, &: centl"U n intecv:lllo B D defcrib3rur circulus 0 E. ScCi:oris igi-
tur En 0 tenia pars ell fpariul11 comcntUI11 rcll:a 110 ~ li,irali. Ell Jutem DD a:qualis fi:-
n
.midi.llllctru A. en cnim liD latushcxa~olli ex hypothcli, &: angulus EnD en [den, rc-
ai, CIlI11 fit B 0 circumlcrentia alllplilllJo bcllis rcCi:i. ScCi:or igilll[ EnD c/luncia cir-
culi. & fpaliulll confi:quenter fpirale 3D trien. uncia:, id en, trigelim:l (extOl pars circuli.
Tranlib;r :lu{cm fi,irahs pcr /rgmentum. non c{iall1 concmrcr cum circulari, vel circula-
rCln

62
441.. M v N J MEN AD V E 1\ S v s Nov A.
rem abfcinclet in progrdfu abs B ~ntcqu~m ad pUllchlln D pcrvcncrir, ut e(); dcmonfica-

.......
-..... .

B A c

tum. In dato igitur circulo nD C ab{cilTa elll fcgmcnto hCl:agoni B D trigdima fcxta
pars iplius ~irculi. ~od f.lcerc oponcbat.
Aqu;! h,)c (cuto tandem (cpccmplici mollis & hcbctis {ccuricb: acics
{atis obwlJ. elto.
~od li qui iplius 7r£AE"E6JIMt.,;';~ hypocypolin dcfidcrcnt. in his nc va-
cent, brevi bus paginis cam confpiciunto.
ANALYSIS CIRCULI
{ccundum rrfAE"'1r;:~.
I.
Cirwlfu' conjlal fix jcaip"j "0,"":'011;.
IT.
Scalprflm /uxago»i ctmjfaf figmento 1)~xago1Ji & Iri.wgNlo h~'\'i1gtmi ,fill INa'
jorc.
Ill.
Tria11g"lflm /J(xagoni flfl m.fjlf.S co'~fli1t [rgmrnlo !JC,\'.fgOl1i 6- ficuricl".
IV.
S(Cflric/4 cOlifal dllobm.frgllJ(lJlis Im;.1goni dr complmmllo flcflricl.c.
V.
Comp/cmcn/1I111 (ewricl.t conJlII/fi!!,IIJUJIO he:.:.f[,oni 0- rcjidllo ftgmm/i.
VI.
RllrJiIJ (OmplemUl/llm fimricl.t. cOl1.flal Irillng(llo minore & rpdNo triaogul
minoris. Ell lIf/fUn fri.mglllllm minf(J 111;11/11 pars friafJgllli /;o;agoni, fill 1J14
joris.
LEM

63
 CYCLOMETR.ICA,SEv,ANTInEAEKT:E. 443
LEMMATA DYO VER.A,

Primum.
Deccm minora trianguJa xqualia [Ullt (cx [cglllcntis hexagoni & duo-
bus complc111cncis [ccuricla:.
~orum enim triangululll hcx~goni conlbt fegmcnto &: fecuriela. fecuriel:!. vero
duo bus Icgmenris &: cOl1lplemcnto : idco duo trianj;ula hexagoni conll:ant fcx fegmen-
lis &: JllobliS cOllll'lel1lCllIis. Scd duo triangilla hcugolli feu majora xll113ha limt
dcccm minoriblls. Ergo lleeelll minora rriangula x,)ualia crullt fcx Icgl1lemis &:.Iuo-
bus complcmcnti!. Q.!!.od crat oncn.lcndlll1l.
Sccundum.
QEadragiIHa minora triangula xqualia !i1l1t circllio & duobus comple-
mcntls {cclIriclx.
~oniam cnim circulus xqUltllr fex fcalpris hex~goni, fex aurem fC31pm a:qllalia Cint
fex tnangillis hcxagoni &: fex Icgmcmis, lex porro triangulalu:xJgoni valcal1t rriginta
triangula minora: ideo circulus oz:quarur triginra rrianglllis milloribus &: fex frgmentis.
lItrobique ~dJan!Ur duo complemcnta Iccuricla:. Circulus igitur una cum dllUbus com-
l'lcmcnus (ceuricla: xquabilllr trigima triangulis minoribus &: (cx fcgmcmis &: dllobu$
cumplemcmis. Sed rex fegmema &: duo complementa valent dcccm minora triangula
per :lIltecedens Lcmma: Ergo quadraginta minora triangula a:quantuc (ex (cgmcntis
hexagoni &: duobus eOl1ll'lcmcmis fecuriela:. Quud erat ollcndcndum.
it E T .6. A r I O N.
Dico triangulum minus xquari (uo rcliduo.
!l'r A"'!4~If.
~onia1ll enim circulus cum duobus complcmcntis fccurida: ( qua: quidcm valent
duo triangula minora, & duo rcliJua minoris tri:lllguli) a:quantuc trigint3 lex minori-
bus triangulis &: inti'p~r qU~tuor. Utrinque: auferal1tuc duo rriangula minora. IIlic
cum aUfCrCl1tllT de dUlJbllS complementis, rdinquenr duo rcCidua uiangllli. Hie cum
:lufcrcll[ur C ()llatlloC tri.1ngulis , rclinquc:m duo triangula. Ergo duo re:lidua zquanruc
duo bus tri.1ngulis.
Elenchus .il7lllil.c,.,;.x(.
Ab a:qualibus toris non ab a:qllalium parte aufcrenda a:qualia funt. lit qua:: rdin-
qlluntur mancanr :equali:!. Aufcrrc ex a:qualiuln pane: ell adlilmerc rcliquum toto e
rcliquo cUe a:'lllJlc. Ut hie circulum a:quari triginra fcx minoribus triallgulis. IIIud yero
pcruegalllr, & cn fallitlil11um. Sibi dClllonll:r:lllda concedere • ell: velie: vidcri de:mon-
llrativc ccratc.

AD it E T.6. A rIO N A L I V D, L E M MAT A DV 0 V ERA,

Primum •
. V~g~nt! quatllorquartx t~iang~li hcxagoni &.: rc~ (cg;llcnca (unt xqua.
ha vlgllltll}Uatuor lcgmcntlS & Lex complcll1cnris kcuriclx.
Qllollial1l cnim triangulum hcx3goni conll:at tribus fcgmel1tis .'1,(. coml'lem~nto fc-
curicl:r, cir.:ulus aure!ll componarur ex {ex trianglliis &: {ex (~gmcmis: ideo viginti qua-
mur t~gllU·nta cum lcx complcmt'nris circullllll adxquant. Er quia quaruor quartz in-
rebrll!~l COl11pOI1~lIIt. :rqll.lb.lIlt qllOqUC: circuillm viginri qU31uor quana: trianguli he-
x.'£o!l/ UIl.l CUIll lex (.-glllc·l1tis. Qu:c aUtem uni a:quantur :I;'lualia lilllt inrer (c. Quare
':igillli qn.1fIlI!rqu:lfl.1: cri:Jnguli !lcxagoni & fex Icgl11cnta a:qu3lia funt vigimi quatuoc
IC:S"l1enns &: lex complclllenus !ccllnda:, Quod erat oll:endclldum.

Iii SCCUIl-

64
 444 M v N 1 MEN A D V E R. NOV A eYe L. S E V) ANTrrr£AEKT~.

Secundum.
Si fuerint cres m~gnirudines inxqualcs, qu~rum media {umpta vicdies
& quater, & addita minima: (exies flllnprx, eandem magnirudinem COI11-
pOllac qU:llllminima fumpta vicefies & quater, & addira maxima: fexies
lumpta: : differentia inter quadruplum media: & triplum minima: eric
maxima: xqualis.
Sit enim mininu 11. me,li.1 D. maxima A. Ergo ex hypothcli 13 6. rlu,~ D 14. :rqua-
bitur A 6 plus B 14. Unin<jllc allreratur 1I q. IgilLl[ lJ l.f minus B.S x()lI"bimr A 6.
Et omnibus pcr rcx divilis. D 'I- minus ll) x'lllabitn[ A. ~lod iprulll ell quod cnul1-
ciatuc.
A N A 11 0 il ElK TON <:> E £11' II M A.
SUllt tres inxgu:lles figur:c planx & inter fe commcn{llrabi!cs; mini-
ma, {cgmcnrum hexagonl; media. quatirans tri.1I1!;uli hcxagonii maxima,
comp!cmellrum fi:curicl.c hexagolli.
Potuir in:l.'qualiras,& inx'ltlaliratis gr~JlIs Jemonlh.ui;at (ymmcniam a(ymmetri3l11-
ve nCl110 Jcmullflra\'crie, quin tI i.lI1gululll hexagoni ,liuJ vc rc[tdlllcum circl1lo pri-
mum comp.l\'.1verir. Ea vero (Ol11l'a[al;O aJbllc l1ckimr, ,;)t ij:),i 0 .nf i ", 'i, c.. :;"Oi. 'Y~­
~(JL8" K(17l!f.

.... E T t. 0 11 0 P r :os M A.

Itaque qualium gll:ldrans trianguli hex~goni eritpartium quillquc,ra-

Hum fegmcnrum dIe quatuor needle eft.
fl.'f :>:m~ f~/f.
Sircnim fegmcntum hexagoni n, C]uadrans triangl1li hexagoni D.complementu111 (e-
cuticla: Z.~onialll igitur trcs (une in:cC]ualcs magnltlldines, atquc harum J3 minima, D
media. Z maxima. & fe habent incer /i: tIC nutl1etlls :td numerum. Ello D paniutl1 quin-
que. [alium J3 erir trium aur <]uatuot, & nihil pr:1:tcrea. Sit autem, led ri hrri po!lir, par-
rium tdum; cx primo igilur & (ceundo Lemmatc etit Z undccim. haque cOlllplcmcn-
rum cOlllhbir duo bios fcgmentio & doJrantc legmcnti. Sen/us autem ICpl1gn:lI. Qua-
re ell J3 quatuor.
Elcnchus «rro'i/,o').';c<J;.
Porita D magnitl1dine I'arriulll quinql1c. pote!1: oflcndi n major df.: panibus trmus.
An vero ideo II erit <luJtuor, cuncl'll;, ctiam co, quod nc!citur, habere Ii: B ad D, ut
numcrum ad numcrum f Omnino e:l conclufjo af).Jlogil1ica eft Quid enim fi Il fbtua-
[urquatllor partll1m CUIll aliqu3 rationali fr3tl:iuncub. An quatllorcuill fcmi!li: (enon
habete ad <]uiuquc, lit numctllm ad numerulll, hoc ell, llt 9 3d 10. alius quam "1\0,,,-
S-Wif ~ "),w."e'Of!.;,.,,. IH'ga\'erit? Sane potita D panium J I, fie I3 pJuio Ilujor 9; Z ve-
ro paulu minor t7 , {cclIl1dl1111 lil1litcs Ardlilllc,ho~. I'x his autCI1l duobus ~.60.t"'e,;"'·
llinlanarullt rcJiqua ~l)..,~Y..;;T~;" ;~ctrJ,; tfA'bXd'" Ti' '~~){)\1< ,~. TC« r ,:tptWV d:;'iJ~")"H;"'" (f'~';'l\ ..
(-<",C;;. "

SECUN·

65
 445
SECVND LE nEAEKYOMAXIA2:

II
hyporypous ~ T~ ave9cr9m"J'[~.
l

N circulo cujus Acen- c

. , trum (um:uur circlifc-
"k _ _~ _ _~D
.~ ,'. rcmiahcxagoniBCD,
& connet\:antur A B,
AD. BD. Ex AB autcm abo
fcind:lCur rct\:a, cujus quadra-
tum ad quaJratlllll An (c ha-
bcat, ut unum ad lillinquc. Sit
illa BE, &pcr E agatur ipli A
AD parallela, (ccans BD in F.
ltaquc triangulum n E F
triangulo BAD hat xquian-
gulum, & cjufdcm (ubquincu-
plum.
"--------
L E M M A I. V E R V M.

Trigiora fcprcm triangula B E F majora limt circulo Be O.

In adnor3tis enim ad Mathcmaticum Canonem ollcnfus ea circulus ad quadrawm
fernidiamctri fe habere: proximc, lit 31, 415. ~n.6,s;6 ad 10,000,ooo.00o.Po(ito :lUtem
latere A B. ideft. fcmidi;lmC[rO, panicularum 100,000, trianguli A B D a:quilatcri alti.
tudo en 86, 60l. .:: :~:.
Itaque.
Tdangulum A B D fit 4. BO. 117. 01 9
Triangulum BE F. S66,01f.4 0 4
Ttiginra fcptclll triangula BE F, 3 1 • o.p. 9 ;9.948
l.xccdclllia circulum 3 1>415,9 16.H6
Per particulas 61 7,01;,,,,"11

L E M M A II. V E R V M.

Circulus BCD nOD cLl: major triginca (cx (cgtncncis BCD F.

~inimo circulus n C D longe minor eft trigill[a [ex [egmcJltis BCD F.SeCl:or cnim
DAD (C1[3pars ell lotiUS circuli
Itaquc
Qualiull1 circulus eft 3 I, 4 I f, ,16,53 (;
Taliurn (eaot BAD ell: 5> 1.; 5, 987, iS 6
Aufcr.1tur triangulum A B D carundem 4,55 0 ,117. 01 9
Rclinquitue (cgmcntum hcxagoni fpaciunlVc mixtili·
ncum BCD F. 9 0 5. 8 (;0,7; 7
Tee duodena 311tcm t:llia (egmcnra funt ; 1, <110. 986, 5; z.
Excedcntia circululll per pUliculas 1,195,059.99°

Iii .z.

66
446 Mv N 1 MEN AD V E K. NOV A ~ • '- L. ;, " "J\.NTUIEAEKTl:.

'¥ E T I!. 0 II 0 P I l: M A.

Ergo criginta {cptCl11 trianguia BE F funt majora triginta [cx fcgmcn.

cis il C D F.
Elcnchus a:GlI»-.o/A si",.
In GrJIl1Il1Jticis, dare n3vibus Aufiros. & dare naves Aufiris, funt z:que fignilicantia.
Sed in Geoll1ctricis, aliud cO: adfumpli(fc circulum BCD non elfc majorem triginta
(ex fc~mclllis U CD F, aliud circulo Jl CD non elfe majora triginta fexfegmcnta nCDF.
lIb adfumptiuncula vera ell, !lxc fal(a.
CUIlI igitllr ita arguo
Tngllll.1 jcpulII ITi,lt/glll.z /IIAjorA font cirCIIlo.
sed mgilllol fcx {rgrnrrJlolI10IJ {illlt /IIdjorol C/Twlo.
Ergo tngll1l.1 {iplClIl tTi'lIlg.ulollllotJ~r.z {tllli/rigtnla fcx Jiglllwlil.
Syllogilllcc concludo, led [aHo, quia [allum adlumo.
Fceeo allICin inlegcs Logicas cum in hanc [ormulam fyllogj(illum in fiituo.
OrculllS /1111l0T rJllTIgilllot /tpU/IIITi'lIlglllis.
C'I'wIIlS nOll tJl m"lor rrigin/4 Jix Jigrllw/is.
Ergo ITigilllol jipUII/ rriAr/glll" {Illll IIlAjora trigilltA fix figlllClltii.
EO: antem o~9"'''.w.-9. 1f1;,t.)..utlt, non J\a.NO~?~'. Cum cnim initio vere propofuilfenc
Cyc!C)mctrJ: circullIm non clle nlajorcm triginra fex fcgmcntis hexagoni, )cgcrunt ex
poll[a,10 non elfe minorem, arquc inde fuum c1icucrunt [al(um Corollarium.

F N I S

PRAN-

67
 244 I IV ANALYSIS BEFORE NEWTON AND LElBNIZ

13 WALLIS. COMPUTATION OF 7T BY SUCCESSIVE INTERPOLATIONS

After 1650, ana.lytic methods began to receive more attontion and to replace geometric
methods based on the writings of the ancients. This was due partly to the acceptance into
geometry of those algebraic methods that Descartes and Fermat had introduced, and partly
to the still very activo interost in numorical work-intel'polatiol1, al'proximl,tion,logl,rithms
-a, heritage of the sixteenth and el,rly seventeenth centuries. 'l'his tradition Wa.!! strong in
England, where Napier and Briggs had labored.
This analytic method advanced rapidly through the efforts of John Wallis (1616-1703),
of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, who in 1640 became the Savilian profoSiior of geometry
at Oxford. He was one of the founders of the H.oyal Society and, through his work, in-
fluenced Newton, Gregory, and other mathematicians. In his Arit/unetic(J, injillitoTUm
(Oxford, 1655), he led explorati01l8 into the realms of tho infinite with daring analytic
methods, using intcrpolation and extrapolation to obtain new results. Thc title of the book
shows the difference between Wallis' method-he called it "arithmctica "; we would say
(with Newton) "analysis"-and the geometric method of Cavalieri. li'irst Wallis derived
Cavalieri's integral in an original way. Thereupon, he plunged into a. maelstrom of numerical
work and, with fine mathematical intuition to guide hilll ill his interpolations, arrived at the
infinite product for 7T that bears his name. See J. ]'. Scott, Tlte rnatltemutical wor"~ of Jolm
WaUis (Taylor and Francis, Oxford, 1938); also A. Prag, "John Wallis," Quelle/l 'und
Studien zur Ge8chichte der Matlte11l.atik (B) I (1931), 381-412.

Proposition 39. 1 Givcn a series of quantities that are the cubes of a series of
numbers contiuuoUldy incrcasing ill arithmetic proportion (like the IIcrieH of
cubio numbers), which begin from a point or zero (say 0, 1,8,27,64, ... ); we
ask for the ratio of thiil series to the sorieN of jUNt "H many lIumbol'lI equal to tho
highest number of the jirst Hodos.

In pl'GvioUB propositions Wallis has dorivod tho limit.

.
1

I ..Ie
lim .!!:...!.- == _1_
....... ,.."+1 1.: + 1
for Ie == 1,2. This Proposition 39 prepares for tho CaBO Ie == 3; it. shows Wallis's typical
inductive and analytio lDethod.

68
WALLIS. COMPUTATION OF 1t BY INTERPOLATIONS 13 I 245

The investigation is carried out by the inductive method, as before. We have

0+1=1 2 1 1
1 + 1= 2 = 4 = 4 + 4;
0+1+8=9 3 1 1
8 + 8 + 8 = 24 = 8" = 4 + 8;
o + 1 + 8 + 27 = 36 4 1 1
27+ 27 + 27 + 27 = 108 = 12 = 4: + 12;
o + 1 + 8 + 27 + 64 = 100 5 1 1
64 + 64 + 64 + 64 + 64 = :120 = 16 = 4 + 16:
o + 1 + ... + 125 = 225 _ ~ _ ! ..!.. J_
125 + ... + 125 = 750 - 20 - 4 ' 20'
o + ... + 125 + 216 = 441 7 1 1
216 + ... + 216 = 1512 = 24 = 4 + 24;
and so forth.
The ratio obtained is always greater than one-fourth, or i. But the excess
decreases constantly as the number of terms increases; it isl, 1, y~, fo, ,10, 2"4, ...
There is no doubt that the denominator of the fraction increases with every
consccutive ratio by a multiple of 4, so that the excess of the resulting ratio over
1- is the same as. 1 : 4 times the number of terms after 0, etc.
Propo8ition 40. Theorem. Given a scries of quantities that arc the cubes of a
series of numbers continuously increasing in arithmetic proportion beginning,
for instance, with 0, then tho ratio of this Reries to the series of just as many
number!! equal to the highest number of t,he first series will be grenter than t.
The excess will be 1 divided by four timOR the number of terms after 0, or the
cube root of the first term after 0 divided by four times the cube root of the
highest term.
Thc sum of the series 03 + 13 + ... + l3 is l : 1 £3 + l ~l 1 £3, or, if m is the

number of terms, i' p + ~ l3 = ~ ml3 + ~ ml 2 • This is apparent from the pre-

vious reasoning.
If, with increasing number of terms, this excess over i diminishes con-
tinuously, so that it becomes smaller than any given number (as it clearly does),
when it goes to infinity, then it must finally vanish. Therefore:
Propo,~ition 41. Theorem. If an infinite series of quantities which are the cubes
of a se~ies of continuously increasing numbers in arithmetic progression, begin-
ning, say, with 0, is divided by the sum of numbers all equal to the highest and
equal in number, then we obtain t. This follows from the preceding reasoning.
Propo8ition 42. Corollary. The complement AOT [Fig. 1] of half the area of
the cubic parabola therefore is to the parallelogram T D over the same arbitrary
base and altitude as 1 to 4.
Indeed, let AOD be the area of half the parabola AD (its diameter AD, and
the corresponding ordinates DO, DO, etc.) and let AOT be its complement.

69
 246 I IV ANALYSIS BEFOIt.E NEWTON AND LEIBNIZ

A~=-__-T___Tr-~T

DI---~

Df-----~

Fig. 1
o o

Since the lines DO, DO, etc., or their equals AT, AT, etc. are the cube roots ll
of AD, AD, ...• or their equals TO, TO, . .. , these TO, TO, etc. will be the
cubes of the lines AT, AT, .•. The whole figure AOT therefore (consisting of
the infinite number of lines TO, TO, etc., which are the cubes of the arith-
metically progressing lines AT, AT, ... ) will be to the parallelogram ATD
(consisting of just as many lines, all equal to the greatest TO), as 1 to 4, accord.
ing to our previous theorem. And the half.segment AOD of the parabola (the
residuum of the parallelogram) is to the parallelogram itself as 3 is to 4.

In Proposition 44 the result of these considerations on the quotient of the two series
};r.l i lc and }; nlc (n + 1 terms) is laid down in a table for k = 0, 1,2.... , 10. Wallis dis·
criminates for i" between the series of equals (k = 0), of the first order (I.: = I), of the second
order (k = 2), and so forth (seriea aequalium, primanorum, secundanorum, and so forth).

PropoBition 54. Theorem. 3 If we consider an infinite series of quantities begin.

ning with a point or 0 and increasing continuously as the square, cube, bi.
quadratic, etc. roots of numbers in an arithmetic progression (which I call the
series of order k = l, t, 1, ... ), then the ratio of the whole series to the series
of all nwnbers equal to the highest number is expressed in the following table:
k Result
! i
1 1, or as 1 to
{;l,
I Wallis U88II the termR ratio lfIdIduplicala. BUblriplicaea eta •• ta denoto square. cubic. eta.,
roots; the ratio ftdxlupl-k.ata of AliBI is AlB. These terms are not clBHllical. and may be
medieval. Wallis UBeII thom bere and in his MalIlUi8 univerBalia (Oxford, 1657), chap. 30.
The term duplicate ratio is clBBBical; see Euclid. Eleme1illl, Book V, Definition 9: if alb = ble.
then ale haa the duplicate ratio of alb, honce ale = alibi. Similarly, 'riplicale ratio in
Definition 10 means the ratio of cubes. See G. EnllBtrom, "Ueber den Ursprung des Termes
'ratio Bubduplicata '," Biblio'heca mall."natica [3] 4 (1903), 210-211; 6 (1005). 410; 12
(1011-12), 180-181.
a Propositions 54 and 59 are supplementary, with tho tabulation of f~ :II< dz = 1/(k + 1)
for all positive rational k.

70
 WALLIS. COMPUTATION OF 7t BY INTEItl)OLATIONS 13 I 247

Wallis calls these series of order t, !, ... aeries aubaecundanorum, aubtertianorum, etc.
Proposition 59 givcs the full table for k = pIg (Table 1).

~ 0 1 2 3 : 10
1 .1
I t I
"3" 4
t I
11
Ouadroticae 2 i t ~ ! :
i
Table 1 Cubicae 3 3
i ! i A
... ... ... .. . ...
!
'"
Oecimonae 10 ffi W Ii ij : ~
l> 4' ~ ~c·
'"
1! ~. e
e.c·
;
&. 2
~ 3
3
3

Wallis's table uses for p the terms aequalium, primanorum, etc., and for q the terms
qua.draticae, cubicae, etc. if q = 2, q = 3, etc.

Propoaition 64. If we take /lon infinite series of quantities, beginning with a

point or 0, continuously increasing in the ratio of any power, an integer or a
rational fraction, then the ratio of the whole to the series of as many numbers
equal to the highest number is 1 divided by the index ofthis power + l.4

At the end of the explanation Wallis adds: "If we suppose the indcx irrational, say V3,
then the rat.io is as 1 to 1 + va,
etc."
In Prop. 87 we havc thc analogous result for negative powers (the term" negative" is used).

Propoaition 108. If two series be given, one that of equals, the other of the
first order, and if the first term of the latter series is subtracted from the first
term of the series of equals, the second term from the second term, etc., then
the differences give one-half of the total first series. However, whcn we add the
term, the aggregates are found to be f of the series ofequals. 5
For instance, let R be t.he arbitrary term of the series of equals and the highest
term of the series of the first order. Let its infinitely small part be denoted by
a = R/oo, and let A be the number of all terms (or the a.ltitude of the figure);
this num ber will go to infinity. Then the sum of the aggregates is:

• Hero tho theorem of note 3 is oxplicitly formulatod as .. Theoremo. universalis."

6 This moans. in our notation. H (1 - x) dx ... l. g
(1 + x) dx = f.

71
248 I IV ANALYSIS DEFORE NEWTON AND LEIDNIZ

R-Oa R + Oa
R -Ia R + Ia
R - 2a R+2a
R-3a R + 3a
etc. etc.
R-R R+R
AR -lAR AR + lAR
The sum of all equal terms is clearly AR. The sum of thc terms of the series of
the first order is half ofit: lAR. Now AR - lAR = lAR, AR + lAR = -IAR.
This means that thc former scries is to the serics of equals as 1 to I, and the
latter as t to 1.
PropOBition 111. Theore·m,. If from a series of equals are subtracted, term by
term, the terms of a series of the second, third, fourth, etc. order, these dif.
ferences give i, I, t of the total series of equals. If we add, thc aggregates arc
t, i,!, etc. ofthis total sum. 6 Indeed, take the terms
R2 + 0a2 R3 + 0a3 R4 + 0a4
RI! + Ia2 R3 + Ia3 R4 + la4
R2 + 4a 1l R3 +. Sa3 R4 + l0a4
R2 + 9all R3 + 27a3 R4 + 81a"
........ ......... .........
until RII + RI! R3 + R3 R4 + R4
Then the sums arc (Prop. 44)
AR2 + lARll, AR3 + lAR3, A.B" + lAR4.
Hence the sum of the differences gives
1 - i = i. 1- 1 = 1. 1- i = f. etc.
and the sum of the aggregates gives
1 +i = t. 1 +i = i. 1 +i = t. etc.
Proposition II7 .... We replace the la. 2a. 3a, etc. of prcvious propositions
by a. b. c. ete .• to show better the procedure of tho operation:?
Series Squares Cubos
R -0 R2 - OR + 00 R3 - ORII + OOR - 000
R -a RII - 2aR + all H3 - 3aRIl + aaR - a3
R - b RII - 2bR + bll
R - c RIl_2cR+cll
etc. etc.
R-R RII - 2RR + R2
AR- !
• In our notation, f~ (1 ± 11:.) dir: ... 1 ± 1/(n + 1). n jiIo O.
7 In our notation. f~ (1 - 1I:)1c dir: =
1/(k + 1) =
kl/(k + 1)1. k jiIo O.

72
 WALLIS. COMPUTATION OF TC BY INTERPOLATIONS 13 I 249

Hence
I - l = !; I -.~ + ! = 1; 1- t +! - 1 = 1;
1 x 2 I x 2 x 3
or i; 2 x 3; 2 x 3 x 4'
and flO on. We multiply continuously the numbers in arithmetic progression by
each other (as many as agree with the value of the power), beginning with 1 and
2 and then regularly increasing with 1.
Prop08ition 121. Corollary. The ratio of the [area of a] circle to the squaro of
the diameter (or of an ellipse to any of i~s circumscribed parallelograms) is as
the series of square roots of the term-by-term diffcrences of the infinite series of
equals and the series of the sccond ordcr to this serics of cquals. 8
Indecd, if we call R [lrig. 2] the radius of the circle (of which a = RIa:> is the
infinitesimally small part), and if we construct an infinite number of per-

Fig. 2

•R
pendiculars or 8inU8 recti in order to complete the quadrant, then these per-
pendiculars are the mean proportionals between the segments of the diameters
(as is well known), or
botween R + 0, R + la, R + 2a, R + 3a, etc.
and R - 0, R - la, R - 2a, R - 3a, etc.
whoso rcctangles are R2 - 00, R2 - la2, R2 _ 4a2 , R2 - 9a2, etc.
tho mean prop. a.re VR2 - 00, VR2 - la2, VR2 - 4a2, V R2 - 9a2, etc.
Honco, whatever thc ratio of tho sum of these rootH is to that of their maxi-
mum (the radius), such is also the ratio of 1\ quadrant of the circle (which con-
sists of thcsc roots) to the square of the radius (which consists of these maxima).
Therefore it is also the ratio of the whole circle to the square of the diameter.

For this ratio Wallis writes 1 : 0 (in our notation 1T14).9

Propo.sition 132 [l!'ig. 3]. If we subtract term by term from the infinite series
of equals the series of the first order (or, if wo like, of {th order), of order
8
9
In our notation,n VI - x 2 dx = ,,/4.
Tho standard notation" for 4 : 0 is duo to \VilliamJones (1675-1749), afriond of Nowton,
who MSistod him in having Rome of his manuscripts published (soe Seleetion VA). In a
textbook of 1706 he wrote" for 3.14159 etc. Euler ndopt",d it and provided for its universal
B(!Coptn.nco through his lntrodltctio in analllRin infinitorum (LB\IIlI\nne, 1748).

73
 250 I IV ANALYSIS DEFORE N}<~WTON AND LEIDNIZ

I
'V; ,(I
'
'. , , n· ", :~
,
,( I,
'" f R, O P. '~1 CXXXIl.
,
': .
't '
'" ,,' , ,.MIl
, , ' ~" ' It "1 ,'" I . , 1,
: ._J~~:-;:l" : 'I' "
",
,
.'.1 ,
~., .
• " . ' : . ,' ,,~, " - : 'IhffITtma ., - I ' '
I
l"fIfI ,. '0'.' .
" , ..
" t'.. .:t~- " ~." ,."~I\.'
,,; . I ~ I .:i.t~f~.1 •
I I
.. 4 ~ ~ ...} ' . )". .. t" 1 .. 1 '" ....' • ', ', .1~ I I" I ",
. : f 1','~'~" §I , expoMtw.: ' in~ita· .
,t , 'i ~,,,?~ , manol'\\tl~vel :
JI ,;,: <" .. Su (ccuml'\n9~:::' i:l"'
, 1AC;~iUIIPHII
, :11 "j/. , '·~adra~,"<:.)l~ DJQI~~
,:,' '. gnwn f(nerD
.
: : «fabella' ~~di~t~.
~ .. r~ l '
"

'tt " .. ~ .

,, ,
. ,

i ":,1 ':' 'I '

• .. ~'..JIJ-.: • II,.! I' • L" .,~ .. I, • I : &. ' .

Fig. 3

74
 WALLIS. COMPUTATION OF n BY INTERPOLATIONS 13 I 251

[lIp =] i, i, etc., thcn tho series of differences and the series of order [10: =] 2,
3, 4, etc. formed from them have tho same ratio to the series of equals as has 1
to the numbers in [Table 2].10

~ 0 1 2 3 4 : 10
X i 0 I 1 t 2 i
0 1 1 1 1 1 : 1 -i co 1 to I
l' to i ~o A (l a k.+ll

1 1 2 3 4 5 1.1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 3 6 10 15 : 66 1 to 1 0 l to !i fo AX~
3 1 4 10 20 35 1 t 1 11- 2 2t 3 t ~

... ... .. . ... .. , .. . ... ...

2 2
i to 1 ~o t 10 V ~o
10 1 11 66 206 1001 : 64154
-2 l- --I It 3 41 6 .y
~-
Ax2rl.~
21-0
"'2
u-.
-r
Table 2 Table 3

This follows from the preceding. Any intermediate number in this table is the
sum of tho two numbers next to it, one above and the other to the left.
Prop08ition 184. In the preceding table we can interpolate in the following
way [Fig. 4].
Propoaition 189. We can now interpolate other series in the preceding table
[as in Table 3].11
Prop08ition 191. Problem. It is proposed to determine this term 0 as closely
as possible in absolute numbers.

Wallis finds, by further interpolation (seo the row for p = t in Table 3, from whieh co.n be
derived
11 < to
-to t etc.,
t < 0' )

10 In our notat.ion,
o
II
(1 _ Zllp)" d.z = 1(1 + 1) .•. (I + p - 1), I = Ie + I, Ie, p Ol= O. The
1.2 ... p
lillting (21 + 0)/2, etc. ill from Proposit.ion 184.
111'ho interpolat.ion ill by meanll of t.ho oxprollBions A, I, A(21 - 1)/1, etc., with t.ho
inllOrtion of froot.ional valuOB for 1. Since
H (1 - Zl/II)" d.z = p I~ (1 - y)"'y"-l dy = pB(p, Ie + I),
I~ (1 - zll")P d.z =k n (1 - y)"y"-1 dy = kB(k, p + I),
tbo lIymmetry of the table exprossos the symmetry of the B·funct.ion. Both integrals are
equal toO
kp r(le)r(p) r(1e + 1)r(p + 1)
k + p r(k + p) = l'(k + p. + 1)
Tho valuOB for k and p aro positive integers and multiplOB of 1. If y = Z2, we find
n (1 - :Il llll )" d.z = 2p n(1 - Z2)"Z211-1 dz,

which is a mUltiple of the integral n

z'"y" dz, Z2 + y2 = 1. We can say t.hat. Wallis com-
Plltod this integral for integral valuOB of m and k. The symbol 00 for "infinite" is duo to
Wallis. Boo 0.180 T. P. Nunn, "The arit.hmet.ic of infinit.ies," lIIatl'fl~ical GauUc fj (1909-
lUll), 346-366, 377-386, with a paraphraso octhe book.

75
252 I IV ANALYSIS BEFORE NEW'fON AND LEIDNIZ

;I : • " •

PRO P.
- I'

' C~XXXll r. "

: 1"
'1
",
L

, !

•
i,I
, ~. !
, I

'II
I

,i I '
.. \ ... I

Fig. "

76
 DAltltOW. ~'UNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE CALCULUS 14 I 253

t,hat 0 is
less than 3 x 3 x 5 x 5··· 13 x 13 V J-l.-
2 x 4 x 4 x 6·.· 12 x 14 13

and
L_ 3 x 3 x 5 x 5···13 x 13 . r.:I:
greater tnu.n 2 x 4 x 4 x 6 ... 12 x 14 v 1"14.

and 110 forth to as closo an approximation as we like. 12

77
 PRO P. CLXXXIX.,
Theorema.

H Im Jefjuitur, quod _Si ex TabelIz prop. 184. lads "aCUl;; UIlUS

quilibet numeio noto fuppleatrir, erunt & reliqui omnes cogniti.
Verbi gratia; fi mllnerus ha.c nota 0 de(i&r.atus fuppt?n:ltur C?gnirus, re1i,1;1i
crones eDam cognofcemur; qUI llempe t~m hzbent ad- ilium raDonem qtrz .!lIe
fuhnls indiC:lnlr.

Toms proce[us demonfiratur ex prop. p~ced; _

Notandum autem & m.e numerum quemvis interiDediumiggr~atum eire ex
ouobus ahero filrfilm alter~ ad cexmm, (non proximis, 'fed poH ilOum inter-
illiffilm,) pofi tis.
Cuju~ue feriei cha..-aa~rem (q~:I:enus per p~op. Is,..& -t8i.inn~terci:,) libuit
eUlm adJungereJ quo melius perfplclat lecter qlloufql1e rem" petduXlmus;
SC,Oo L [tJ)1.
Atgue hactenus quidem rem perduxilfe "idcarnur fariS fdiciter. Verum hie
~ndem hzret a~1.!a. Nc:q?~ cnim "ideo quo pacto !,offim vel <iu~ntiute~ 0 r~pe­
rIre~ vel chara.tte!em leoel A. (:E~ propter?, nec chara..'1eres ferleru?l_ 1inplClU~
}>:Cnltus a{fequI, -hcet corum ad In\'lcem rationes -cognofcanrur; nec L'llparlllm fe- -
ri.erum lo~os impares, quam vis ~ borumeti~m co~nofcan~ur q~as hlofni: ad in.
vlcem r~tJones.) ...~lD.quam enlnl'~ 'n.wne~l !acerales fin.c l1lt~gr1, p~t.a I, '-, 3, 47
&c: notl.fintUrlerum ilhtum tel"mUlI prll'll!; p!lta.i,hi,~; &c.. lIon tahlen
facile ill a~prehe~dere qu.o :paab hl?'llm n\lm~r9~m ad fuos ~efp.eal\·e pumeros
laterales fatIO po!Il: una ahqua zqu:ltlone exphcan: uhde & reiiqms later:bl.ls (10-
~?ru~. imparium) h~, i., &c; ~ccommod:u-i p'offit f~z cluufqne ~rjei 'pri:n!lS
termInUs. _Qganqu2I?' eO!m hllJ.c fpe~ -11on eXIg?a .T!.(~ 'tft .2ffillfilfeJ _lobncus
tllmen qu~ Era:. mambus habcmus Pr<?t~s t.1~ f.~e !i1.:1ih {l1perjus1'!o~ iat~ ehp'-
fus~m:m fefe1l1t. Quem autem 8: hie comprunc:ntl Vulrumoficildcm,non em
far ". mgranirn appofoiffe. Nempe ---'- -

78
 PRO P. CXCI.
Problema.
P Ropofitum fit inquirere, quantus fit terminus
189') in numeris abfolutis quam proxime.
0 (tabella: Prop:

(lyo ucilius fCli fucced:a; progrdlionis (ibid:m repercz) termini

~o.I.o.Lto.--.
- - 2lC4
3x" +x6
-0.--.
3XfX7
2.X4x6
~Xf
•
&c.
dicanrur,c./Z./Lh.')t.,. t. d. &c.
Eftautem 1.2.::"./3. Et2. 3:: 4 .;. Et3.4::/i·')<. Et4.,.::h.(. Ets·.6::
".S'. Et6.7::'.tI.
fA _2 b _ 2:.._0 ,_ SO _ , J _ &
Hoceit,--u--l, ,,-J)-;:--i'--i,--i, c.
" a ,. 11 " "
Ideoque ( cum rationes continue multiplicantes perperuo decr~rcant,) erit

~d~~:m{
4 major {!.x-=-=J.
duarum II fA II
: x =
b
=: =;~
b Ideoque
~minoi" q~, 1;="'1 ~~
major quam, 1)=1IJ.

S { lIl1110r quam, I 1 2. = I 1 1 l.
'St pr0l'tcreaf3=lIx-=c,
t: major quam, Ivl=IYII.
Nnn:!.

Item-
" ~d~~t:~{ : ~ = ~ ::: ~ ~~. minor quam, .,It =V
x t I , •

1 major lillam, vi = y 11.

0
. b major {.!. x!.. =!.. =}.
duarum b,. b 4

,. {minOr quam! x vIi.

Et propterea h x -b =')< =t o, . .1
major quam I x y 1 i .

Hoc eft, 0 minor quam 3 x 3 x V[1. major quam 3 x 3 x.." 11.

~x4 2x4

" ~minot quam 3 x f x y I

= "X •.:. =4__
! •
Et (part" ratlone) em
"
: x6
OJ
2X"
,.
t: 3x5 nuior qlJ:tm 3~ x V I ' •
. " :l. x4 '

Et (continu3.:a ejufmodi operacione juxta Tabe!lz leges) inyeoietur

VI
~
minor cuam 3" 3 x pc f ~l.::! x~ ,9X ~~3 x 13 7. '.
o • 2x+xtx6x6x8xSXIOXIOXl::'XI:txq. 11
. 3lC3lCj'Xj'X'ilC7X5/x ,9XIIlCIIlCI37. 1 3 ,
. •-
ma"'r q~lam .
2lC4lC4x6x6~lC8XIOXI07.1ZlCI2lClt
- I( V I~M .

Bt fie deinceps quoufq\!e libct.

79
 Idm; A!iur.
pon hane aursnl nofl:ram, ipfius qt1anci;:2tis [J defianacionern; libet e,um aliam
fitbjungere, quam ~ Nobiliffimo Vlro, atque acutill'imo fimLtl Gec:netra, Dom.
Gulie!. Viceeom. & Barone Brctmck:r, aeeepi.
Cum i!li progreffionum aliquot mearum propofueriIiJ, & qua lege proeeoerent
indieaveriru, id interim rogans, lit qua forma qUlntit:ltem i1lam commode de-
fign:mdam pUtl\'erit, indicaret; Nobilillimus Vir ille, re apud ie p:rpenfa, me-
thodo item Infinitorum fibi peeuliari quancitatem ad
hane form:lm commodiffime ddignandam jud!cavit. [J = I! ~ ,.
Nerupe Ii unitari adjungatur fraaio, qua: denominate- - :: 'llj &c.
rem h:lbeal continue fraS:um; ea lege, ut· particula-
num fraClionum NlImeratores fint I, 9, :z.S, &c. numeri ql1:1dratici imparillm
I, 3, $, &c. Denominator ,'ero ubiql1e :2. cum adjunC1::t fraehone, & fico In infini-
tum.

80
CHRISTIAN I HUGENII!'
CON S T. F.
DE

CIRCULI
MAGNITUDINE
INVENTA.
Ace E D U NT E'J US D EM

Problematum quorundam illufirium

ConftruQiones.

81
 ;S.f. CHRISTIANI HUGENI I
PRO B L F. M.A. IV. PRO P 0 S. X X.
ClIigare; &- ex do/is infl"iptis rationem
lrcI"n/e,*cntitC ntl diarnetr.am
;'1 doto
in"1C..
cirtll/~
im:el1ire /otlgiltlllinem oytlJ:lm fJllibuj ill;)lu"'endtln~
1m'.
TAli. II.. Elto circulus centro 0, cujus diameter C B, Be fit arCYi
f,S· I. B 1{ fextan~ circumferentia:, cui Cubtenfa· dUfl1tur A B.
•

it(;mque linus AM. Pofita igitur D B fcmidiamc:tro pu-

t,um 100000 t totidem quoque erit 1ubrenfa. B A. A M vr.-
[(., p;utium 86603 non una minus: hoc eft, ii una pars li.
ve tlnitas auferatur ab 8660; fiee minor debito. quippe fe-
miilis lateris trianguli :equilatcri circulo- infcripri.
Hine excdfus A B fllpra A M fit IB97 vera minor.
Cujus triens ++6~ f additlls ipfi A B 100000, fiuor partes
f oH6S ~ mi nores Arcn ABEt hie primus eft minor termi-
nus, quo pofiea alium vero propiorem invenkmus. Prius
:JlItcm major quoql'ie terminus fecundum Theoremll pr~ce.
dens i.nqUlrendus ell:.
Tres nlmirum funt numeri qUibtli quartum proportlona-
lem inve.,ire 0pol'tet. Primus en: parrJum dupl:r. A 8 & tri-
pIx A M qui erit 4o'l9807, vero minor, (nam hoc quoque
oblervandum ue minor fie, idemquc in ca:teris prclIt dieeeur)
(eclIodus q:Jadruplx A B & fimpl~ A M qui +86bo~ vero
maj. lit tercius [ricns exceifus A B fup:-a AM, ++66 vero
major. Itaqne qll:lftllS proporrion.llis eric 4-717 vero m;:aj.
qlJo addito ad A B 100000 fie IO.f717, major numero pat;.
• I""m" tium, quas conriner arcu~ A B, peripheri:t: fexr;:ans. >Go Jam
igicur lO\'CnllllUS longitudinem arcus A B (ccundum mino.
rem majoremque tcrminum, q.1I0~1II1! hie qllidem !onge pro-
pior ,'era eft. clIm vero proxlmus ht 10+71C).
Sed ex utroqu-= ifiorum alills min()r terminus h3bebi.
rllr priore accurarior r.,
I\ramur prxccpro {ccluenti, quod
a
dIligcntiori c'lltrorUnl gravitatis in(pccl"ione dcpender.
Ill-

82
 DE CIRCULI MAGNIT. INVENTA. 38~
Invtntor"", ttrminortlm·J'.!formti"fefqrtittrtill junglllt"r a,i.
pl4 jifblfTlj.e. cr /inui 1"'1'10 J & qu".", rllfiolum b"btl tx hit
(Ompo/illl ilia .lnp!.i11l [e{qr,Ut,·/illl1l .leu 'j u1nuf'ltlt /ill/Ill, fi-
.,Jllt , JilbuRf~'!"t, ""ndtm babta~ ft,illm{te fi'pra flllNm rxttf-
filS ad "liam 'Itumdam; Jl~c lid fim"" IIddltiJ reflam eOI'.fllttttt
'IIre" rtlinort o!1.
Minor terminus crat 10+..6;:. !\fJ.jor 10-f.71i. diftcrentia
horam eft .. 61~. Eilquc rurfus tribus numeris invcni,,:ndus
quartus proporti0!1a1.is. 1:'rimus ~ft parti~m du~la: A B &
tripla: A M & [clquttertu: ternllnorum d:tfcrc:ntr:r , +601 ~8
vero major.' SeclInJ:Js ~o urriuf'lue Canmi A B, AM, 61':003
"cro mmor. Tertius ~nique exccfrus A. B fupra A M, 13397
,'cro min. <l!libus qu;u[Us prop~rtlOnahscll: 18109 vero min.
Hie: igitur aJditlls numcro p3rttum A M .8660:; vero min.
hUllt 1{)+711 ~ m~J1or.cs arc:1 A ~: Q~arc fexcup~um C:l"':Ill,
6iS 169 minus eriC ("Ircnmfcrenrl.l COt;l. At qlloOlam 104-117
mJjon:s inventx funt an:ll A B, carum fcxcuptu,n 6:~.~6:
c.:ir(·utnfer~ntli majus eric. Icaque cirCllmfC!.R:nt;~ ad diamc-
trum fJtiominorcitquam 61836:, majorautem qU.lm6:8169
ad 10000/:). Sive minor quam 3,.p81, major autcm quam
314-131 ad 100000. Ondc conrb.t minorem uriqueeffequarn
tript.lm fdquift"pcimam ~ & majorcm quam 3~~. Q:.I~ etiam
Lon~omonca,:,i error ~r hx-c. rcfutatur , qui fcripfir peri-
phcrlam maJorc:m dre parubus 31.p85 qualium rad.
100000.
Efto nunc arclIs A B ~ circumfl!renti%, &: eric AM, (e-
minis lateris quadrati cirenlo infcripti, partium 7C'i 10:'8,
non uni min'ls. qU:llinm radius D 11 10:>00000. A B \'cro
latus ott3nguli partium 76; ~66S non un:i mljus. Qlibus d3-
tis ad fi:nilitudincnl prxccdentimn invcnictur primus minQr
terminus longitudinis arcus A B 78.f.7868. Deinde major
terminus 78~+o66. Et CK utroque rurfus terminus minoraC'-
curatior 78,5 3885. Und~ con flat pcriphe~la~ ad diamcttum
racioncm mmorcm hahen quam 'I+i6~. m:lJorcmaurcmquarn
31+li ad 10000.
a
Et quum te.rr:..inus ma.jor 78Ho66 vera: arcus A~B lon-
gitu-

83
~86 CHR1{STIANI H UGENII
girudine minus diftet quam partibus 8,.) (Eft enim !reUI
A B, per Col qU;1! fupra oftendimus, mnjor quam 7SB(81)
partes Ilutcm 8; efficiant min.us qu~m d~os fcrupulas fc'cun_
dos, hoc eO:, quam tn~I" clrcumferennx, nam cora eamn-
dcm plurcs habet quam 60000000: Hine m~nifeftum ea,
li
trianguli rcaangl.1li angulos quxmmus ex datis b_teribus, et)
modo quo majorem mum terminum paulo ante, nunqcam
duobus fczrupulis fccl1ndis aberraturos; ctiamfi requ:1lia inter
fe fuerint latera circa angulllm reaum, vc1uti rue <:rant in
triaogulo DAM.
Si veroca fit rolrio latera- D Mad M A, ut angulus A D ~I
non c)tcedat ; retH; non "UniU5 tertii fcrupuli :ermr erit. Po-
lito enim arcu A B i~ cir;:umferentia:, erit A Mfemiffis lil-
teris ofrangu!i xquilauri cirnllQ infcripti partium 38268 3.f.J 3,
non uni minus. A B vero btus fexd'!canguli 390 1806#
non uni :1~nplius, qll.llium r:ldius n B JOOOOOOOOO. Unde
primus minor terminus longimdinis arcus A B invcnirurpar_
tium 3926797 I.f.. Terminus aucem major 39.269914-8. Et ex
his minor rllrflls 39z699010. Confhc autemexfuprademon_
ftratis arcum A B ~ .pcripherire, majm'em effe quam
3916990B I , quas tenninus major Cuper;!t partibus 67. Ha:
am~m minus efficiunr uno fcrupula tertio. hoc eft, rn:n~! to.
tills circumferenr;re t quonimn -ea. major eft utique' q-lIlm
60ooooooC,,:,\.
Porro ex noviflimis term in is invcntis orictur r.1tio circum-
f~renri:\! ad diametrum mino!" qu:!m ; 14 1'593;, major autcm
quam 31.f.(;9% ad 1000000.
• <1!:tOd ·fi ~. _circlImferenti:c £:onatur :1r~s ~ A B, .feu p~r.
tlUm 6 q~lahum tota 360: Em ,-\ M femlfhs laret'lS trigin_
tanguli infcripti partium 10+; l8.f.6326766, non llna minus
quaJinm radius JOOOocooooo6oco. Er A B 13rus {exagintan~
guli infcripti 10+6719J2;.8iS8 non un:i:lmplius. In\'enietur_
que ex his arcus A B fecundum primum minorem terminllm
104-7197188919;- Secundum majorem r047197H I!~8"..
Et ex his minc)f alter terminus 10+7 197H I I 302. Ur.dc
dlicirur periphcrix .ld diamcrruITJ, ratio minor quam
31+1"5"916538,

84
 DE CIRCULI MAGNIT. INVENTA. 387
3I+l~916B8, m:lJor auccm quam 31iP5926B3 ad
.\ 0000000000.
~os tcrminos fa ex a~di(is. infc.riprorum & circu~nrcripro-.
rum p01ygullorum lar~r1bus 1O.qUlrcnJum cffet fere a~ late-
rum quadnngcfJra nutlJa.dcYemcndum. Nam ex fe:,:lgtntan.
glilo mil-ript[) circumknptoque ho~ rancum probaruf, mi·
norem ellc rationcm pcripherix ad diamctnlm quam 3145 ad
lOCO majorcal .1l1tem qU.lm 3 '+0. Adco lit ertpillm & am-
pilus'ver.irum notarum numcrum nofi'ro racioemio prodll-
dum app:m:at. Idem ,'cro in ulrerioriblls polygon is it quis
j!xpcriatur fen:tp~r eve~ire .cern~r: . non rgnota nobis ratiune,
{cd G.ux tongion exphcltlonc ludtgcrcc..
Farro s,l1tcm quomodo, datis quibufcunque aliis in rcriptis,
~rCl1l1m quibus fubrcnduntur longitudo per hxc im'cniri que~
:at faeis puto manifcfium. Si cnim quadrati infcripri Iarcre
maiort:s funt, longimdo nrclls ad 1l:micircumfcrcnriam reli-
quI. inquirenda en, cujus tum quoqu-.: {ubtcn(t datm. Sei-
endum aurern & dimidiorum arcuum {ubtenfas invcniricum
tOtiliS arcus fubtenfa dara eft. Atque hac ratione fi biktboni~
bus uti placcbit, potcrimv5 ~d omnem {ubtcn(1.ffi, ~.rcus i.
p!itlS lor.g~t;Jdinem 9.uamlibet verx propinqu<1m non difficul-
rer cognokcre. Unte hoc ad finuum tabulas examinandas.
Imo ad con:pone~das quoque: q~ia c~gnir;l arcus alicujus
fubtcnfa, etiam eJus qUI paull.> major mmor\'c fit Caris accu-
£Jt~ definiri potdl:.

Tom. 1J Ccc ell JlI-

85
r·---- -- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - 1"..." "".

i
I
I
I

86
168 FROM SHAW

39. (RS.CE.6) J. GREGORY TO COLLINS

ST ANDREWS,
15 February 1671.
SIR,
Since my last to you I have received three of yours, one dated
December 15, another December 24, the third January 21.1 There
is no fear that any of your letters miscarrie; our post here is
abundantly sure; albeit he be slow, for his ordinar is to go to
Edinburgh only once in the fortnight neither durst hazard a letter
with any extraordinar occasion. Not onlie this but also several

87
 TO COLLINS 169
other studies maturing hath made me slow this time by post in
my answers: but now I shall strive to answer orderlie to al1. 2
I do not quest.ion that all equations may be formed by tables,
but I doubt exceedingly if aU equations can be solved by the
lIelp only of the tables of logarithms and sines without serieses.
Yea I judge it absolutely impossible, and have as much ground
for it as convinceth myself. As for the 1, 2, 3, 4 of your discourse
I do not question any of them; but as for the 5, I will hardly take
Dulaurens his word nor yet Frel1icle for it, as to your discourse
concerning ranks of numbers your 1st , 2nd and 4th I wish ye had
explicat more fully: I doubt not of the 3, but I think it hard
if not impossible, to find by a certain method .L series of logarithms
or sines, whose first, second and third differences etc. arc the same,
or proportional with the respective giyen differences of the homo-
genea of an aequation whose roots are in arithmetical progression.
I thank you now kindly for Mr Newton his problem * of interest:
I would humbly desire the like favour (if it 'were not too much
trouble to you) in sending me Slusius his exercitation. -r for I am
exceedingly pleased in what I have seen of his. I cannot express
how much I think myself engaged to you for your account of
new books; if it were not for you, I would be, as it were, dead
to all the world. As to yours, dated 24 Dec., I can hardly beleev,
till I see it., that there is any general, compendious & geometrical
method for adding an harmonical progression; for if it be, it is
. . . . 100 100 100 100
also applIcable to thIS followmg progressIOn 31' 41' 51' 61'

17°1°, but it is evident that the sum of these hath no less denominator
than the product of all the part.icular denominators, mult.iplied
among' themselves, which is got by the ordinary and tedious
methods or if you will go to symbols with an harmonical pro-
gression, you' will find the same difficulties: it were no ha,rd
matter to give several particular rules, as for example: let a be
2a 2
the first .-term, b the second, t.he first three are =b + 2a _ b' t.he
6a 3 - 2ba 2 - ba 2
first four are = b + 6a 2 _ 7ba + 2b 2 yet I question these be more
compendious than the ordinar. If there be any such universal
* No. 34, p. 142.
t Sent in May, 1671: No. 42, p. 182.

88
170 EXPANSIONS
method I suppose it must be taken from the first, second &
third differences, etc; which I believe will little compendize the
work: at present I have not leisure to examine it, but afterward
I may. I admire much the pocket tube of l\Ir Newton,3 being only
6 inches long to magnify 150 times: if it magnifie the diameter
of the object so it is incredible; if the superficies it may sufficiently
discover the Satellites of Jupiter, & consequently be extra-
ordinarily good: if the soliditie, it must be but ordinar, & not
sufficient for that effort: but that, which I think strange, is that
it doth not so at a short distance: for certainlie al tubes in a
shorter distance are drawn to a grcater length, and consequentlie
magnifieth more; and in a short distance the due figure is an
Cartesian spheroid, which approacheth the m6re the segment of
a sphere, than an hyperbolic conoid, which is the just figure for
a considerable distance. I suppose the tube must be overcharged
by the eyeglass, & so sufficiently discover the Satellites of Jupiter
because of its great magnification (which here only is required)
but it must fail in near objects (which require a distinct vision)
because of the confused sight occasioned by the overcharging.
As for l\Ir Newton's universal method,4- I imagine I have some
knowledge of it, both as to gcometrick & mechanick curves,
however I thank you for the series ye sent me, and send you these
following in requital. ,Sit radius =r, arcus =a, tangens =t,
t3 tS t7 t9
secans =8, erit a = t - 3r2 + 51'4 - 71'6 + 9 r 8
et 3 2a. 5 17a7 3233a 9
eritque t =a + 3r2 + 15r4 + 315r6 + 181440r8 '
a2 5a 4 61a 6 277a 8
et 8 =r+ 21. +241"3 + 720r5 + 8064r7:
Sit nunc tangens artificialis = t, & secans artificialis = 8, &
(£2 a-l a6 17a s 3233a10
integer quadl'ans =q, erit 8=2;+12("3+45r 5 +2520r 7 +1814400r 9 ;
e3 e5 61e 7 277e 9
Sit 2a - q =e, erit t = e + 6r 2 + 24f4 + 5040r 6 + 72576r 8 ; si nunc secans
artificialis 45° = 8, sit que 8 + l secans artificialis ad libitum, erit
l2 4P 714 1415 452Z 6
ejus arcus = i-q + l - r + 3r2 - 3r3 + 3r4 - 45r; ;
t3 tS 61t 7 277 t9
er·itque
. 2a-q=t--
61'2 + -4- -5040r
24r - -6+725761'8
---.

89
 ON BARROW 171
Ye shall IlCre tak notice that the radius art.ificialis =0, and that
when ye find q >2a., or the artificial secant of 45° to be greater
than the given secant, to alter the signs a.nd go on in the work
according to the ordinary precepts of Algebra.. Sit ellipsis 5 cujus
alter semia-xis = r, alter = c, ex quolibet cm'vae ellipHca.e puncto
demittatur in senliaxem r rect.a perpendicularis =a: erit curva
elliptica perpendiculari a adjacens

Si determinetur elJipseos species, series haec simpliciol' cvadet.

Ut si c = 2r, foret CUlTa predicta
a3 3a G 113a7 3419((,9
a + 96r2 + 20481,4 + 4587 52 r 6 + 7549747 2r 8 :
Reliquis vero manentibus, si cm'va praedicta esset hyperbola.,
praedieta quoque series ei inserviret., si omnium terminorum partes
a.ffirmentur; et negentur, totus terminus tertius, totus quintus,
septimus, et in locis imparibus. I thank you werie heartilie
for your good advice, as to the publicat.ion of my notions, and
for your civil profer; I would be very sorry to put you to so
much trouble. I have no inclination to publish anything, save
only to reprint my quadratura of the circle, and to add some
little trifle to it. As to my method of finding the roots of all
equations; one series gives only one root, but for every root there
may be infinite number of series: there is some industrie required
to enter the series, and to know which root it relateth to; but
it is like I mjl.y entertain you at more length with this matter
hereafter. Ye need not be so closehanded of anything I send
you: ye may communicate them to whom ye wilJ, for I am little
concerned if they be published under others' name or not. I pray
you tha.nk Dr Barrow in my name for the pains he hath been at
for my satisfaction 8: I do werie much admire the fertility of his
wit. If ye please, ye may communicate this following unto him.
DE2
In primo praeclarissimi D. Barrow problemate HMDO =-2-'
etiam posito rectam THO eandem esse cum curva KXL in 2do
problemate: nescio an ex hoc ca.pite ulla possit dari 2dl problematis

90
172 ON BARROW
solutio. Vereor plenam tertii problematis solutionem a secundo
non dependere: si enim EZF fUeI'it recta rectae AD parallela;
ex secundo problem ate (quod in hoc casu idem est cum 1mo ) integre
soluto, datur tantummodo, sicut ego percipio, una tertii problematis
solutio, nempe VADB rectangulum, cujus latus VA = AE vel DF:
si vero infinitae non dentur, sicut dubito in omnibus hisce, datur
saltem altera, nimirum VADB semicirculus, cujus radius est
aequalis ipsi AE vel DF. Subtilissima sunt et acerrima ingenii
specimina, quae subjungit vir doctissimus, existimo theoremata
illa non solum maximas quantitates sed etiam minim as quando que
determinare 7; ex. gr. (in 1mo theoremate) si cycloformis potestatis
m centro D, diametro DA (si ita loqui liceat) descripta, per punctum
L, toto. intra curvam BLA cadu,t; erit DGm+GLm absolute
mmlmum. Si vero dicta cycloformis alibi occurrat curvae BLA,
dantur plum minima. Si cycloformis toto. extra curvam BLA
cadat; erit DGm + GLm absolute maximum, si alibi, occurmt,
dantur plum maxima. Idem etiam dicimus in 2<10 theoremate,
Si supponatur BLA extencli in rectam, et super eadem in punctis
suis, respectivis ordinatas LG perpenc1iculariter erigi; item centro
B, diametro BLA; per punctum G cycloformem describi. Quae
hic censemus, tertio et quarto theoremati applicamus, ponendo
hyperboliformem potestatibus debitam loco cycloformis, in hoc
solo est cliscrimen, quod (cum hyperboliformis sit figura inter-
minabilis) in figura terminata BDA non dctur absolute minimum.
Si fuerit TG semper ad GL sicut dcterminata R ad aliam ex puncto
G ipsi AD perpendiculariter erectam) et ex hisce aliis descripta
figura vel illi analoga ponatur loco cycloformis, eadem adhuc
quinto applicat. Denique si super AD ex punctis G erigantur
perpendiculares, quarum quadrata aequentur spatii semper
respectivi ADGL duplo, et figura ex his conflata ponatur vice
cycloformis, dicta quoque sexto applicantur. No more at present
but rests
Your humble servant
J. GREGOB1E.

91
 The Discovery of the Series Formula for 7T by
Leibniz, Gregory and Nilakantha
RANJAN ROY
Beloit College
Beloit. WI 53511

1, Introduction

The formula for 7T mentioned in the title of this urticle is

7T ]] 1
-=1--+-;--;;;+'" (1)
.J 3:) I

One simple and well-known modem proof goes as follows:

arctun x = ffJ
.f
--2
1
1+ t
cit
x3 x·5 " X2.II+1 11+1£;( ,211+2
= X -3- + ::; _ ... +(-1) - - + ( - 1 ) --elt.
u 211 + 1 fJ 1 + (I.

The last intcgral tends to Zl'ro if Ixl ~ 1, for

I - - , dt ~ (t
( xt211+2
Jo 1 + t' Jo
II+ dt =
x 211 2
211 + 3
I -:"---0
11 211 + 3 as II _ ce,

Thus, arctan x has an infinite series representation for Ixl ~ 1:

(2)

The series for 1T'/ 4 is obtained by setting x = 1 in (2). The series (2) was obtained
independently by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 0646-1716), James Gregory
0638-1675) and an Indian mathematician of the fourteenth century or probably
the fifteenth century whose identity is not definitely known. Usuully ascrihed to
Nilakantha, the Indian proof of (2) uppeurs to date fmm the mid-fifteenth ccntury und
was a consequence of an effort to rectify the cin·ll·. The deluils of thc circumstuncl'S
and ideus leuding to the discovery of the series hy Lcihniz ,md Gregory m'l' known. It
is interesting to go into tlll'se details fi,r sl'vl'ral reusons, Thl' infinite series hegun to
playa role in mathematics only in the second hulf of the seventeenth (·(mtury. Prior to
that, particular cuses of the infinite geometric series were thl' only ones to be used.
The arctan series wus obtained by Lcibniz und Gregory curly in their study of infinite
series and, in fuet, before the methods and algorithms of ('alculus were fuIly
developed. The history of the aretan series is, thl'rcfi)re, important h~causc it rev('als
early idcas on series and thcir relationship with quadrature or thc proccss of finding
thc area under a curve. In the case of Lcibniz, it is possihle to sec how he used and
291

92
292 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE

transfonned older ideas on <juadratme to dl'\clop his methods. Leilllli,:s work. in fact.
was primarily conccmed with quadratmc; the 7i / --I series resulted (in J 67.1) when hc
applied his method to thc circle. Crcgory, by comparison, was interested in finding an
infinite series representation of anv gin'n function and diseovered the relationship
between this and the sueel'ssiH' derivatives of the gin'n function. Gregory's discov-
ery, made in H>71, is none other than the Taylor series; note that Taylor was not bom
until 1685. The ideas of calculus, such as integration by parts. change of variables. and
higher derivatives. were not completely understood in the carly 1670s. Some particu-
lar eases were known. usually garbed in geometric language. For example. the
fumlamental theorem of caleulus was stated as a geometric theorem in a work of
Gregory's written in 1668. Similar examples can also be seen in a book by Isaae
Ban-ow. Newton's mentor. published in 1670. Of course. very soon after this transi-
tional period. Leilllliz began to create the techniques, algorithms ami notations of
calculus as they arc now known. He had been preceded by Newton. at least as far as
the teehni<jues go, bllt Newton did not publish anything until considerably later. It is.
therefore. possihle to see how the work Oil arctan was at once dependent on earlier
concepts and a transitional step toward later ideas.
Finally. although the proor~ of (2) by Leibniz, Gregory and Nilakantha arc very
different in approach and motivation. they all bear a relation to the modern proof
given ahovc.

2. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)

Lcilmiz's mathematical background' at the time he found the 1T/4 formula can be
quickly deserihed. He had earned a doctor's degree in law in February 1667, but had
studied mathematics on his own. In H;72, he was a mere amateur in mathematics.
That year, he visited Paris and met Ghristiaan Huygens (1629-1695), the foremost
physicist and mathematician in continental Europe. Leibniz told the story of this
meeting in a 1679 letter to the mathematician Tsehirnhaus, "at that time ... I did not
know the eon-ect definition of the center of gravity. For, when by chance I spoke of it
to Huygens, I let him kllow that I thought that a straight line drawn through the
center of gravity always cut a figure illto two equal parts, ... Huygens laughed when
he heard this, and told me that nothing was further from the truth. So I, excited by
this stimulus, hegan to apply myself to the study of the more intricate geometry,
althollgh as a matter of filct I had not at that time really studied the Elements
[Euclid] ... II lIygCIIS, who thollght me a better geometer than I was, gave me to rcad
the letters of Pascal, puhlished under the name of Dettonville; and from these I
gathered the method of indivisihles ami centers of gravity. that is to say the
well-known methods of Cavalieri ami GlIldinus."2

I Fur fllrtlu-r inl(lrmalioH i.hollt Ldlmiz"s malht'lIlarieal d(·v('lopnl('ut. the reader may consult: J. E.
IInflilillUi. l.l'i!miz ill 1'1Iri... 1()72-/fi/(; (C;Jmhrid~(·: Tlu.' C;,ulIhridg:(' University Pn·ss. 1974) and its f(!vicw
hy A. Weil. C"II,·("/,.rl/'al""''' Vol. :l (N,'w York: Sl'rillJ.:"r-V"r1aJ.:. 1!J7!J). All EIIJ.:lish trallslation of Lcilmiz's
OWII a,'mlllit. lIi"/,,ria ,., ""i~,, nt/..u/i rli{!i· ... ·u/iali". mil I", lillllld ill J. M. Child. "[he Earl" Mal/lCmatical
A/'lIIwwril'I.~ f~r l,.d/mi:. (Chil'a~o; Op('n COllrt. IH20). All ('asily availahl(' synopsis of Lc..·ihniz·s work in
<:ak-lIll1s is ~i\"(,11 ill C. II. Edwards. Jr .. TIll' lIi"/,,,.;",t/ IJI",w/"l'lIIf'11l ,~( the Calculus (New York:
Sl'rill~.. r"V.. r1a~. I!J7!J).
2'1'/1(' l~tlrl!l h-fllliwlIJalit'lli Alllllwwrip'.... p. 215.
Bonavent1lra Cantli('ri (15HH- Hi47) puhJi:.;ll('d his C;(,OIlidria lm!i,)isilJililm .., ill H1.15. This hook was Vt'ry
influential in the d('vt·lopnH'llt of t·alelllus. Cavalieri's work imlil'alt-d that

93
VOL. 63. NO. S. DECEMBER 19'10 293
The study of Pascal played an important rule in Lcibniz's development as a
mathematician. It was frolll Pascal that he learned the ideas of the "characteristic
triangle" and "translIlutation." III order to understand the concept of transmutation,
suppose A ami B are two areas (or \'olumes) which have been divided up into
indh'bihlcs usually taken to be infinitesimal rcctangles (or prisms). If there is a
one-to-one cOiTespondencc betwecn the indh'isihles of A and B and if these
indi\'isihlcs ha\'c ellual area~ (or \,olumes), then B is said to be obtained from A by
transmutation and it follows that A and B havc equal areas (or volumes). Pascal had
also considered infinitesimal trian~les and shown their use in finding, among other
things, thl' area of the surface of a sphere. Lcihniz was struck by the idea of an
infinitesimal triangle and its possihilities. He was able to derive an interesting
tnmslIlutation formula. which he then applied to the quadrature of a circle and
thereby disco\'ered the series for ... To obtain the transmutation formula, consi~er
two neighboring points P( x, 11), and Q( x + dx, y + ely) on a cllrve !I = f(x). First
Lcibniz shows that an:'l (::"OPQ) = 0/2) area (rectangle (ABCD». See FIGIJlm 1.
Here PT is tangent to y = f(x) at P anc1 as is perpendicular to PT. Let /I denote
the length of as and;; that of .t\C = nD = ordinalc of T.

=s g(x)

o G

FIGURE 1

f ",. dx--
CI
X
(111+1

n
+1'

whlm n is a pusitive integ"r.

Blais" Pascal 0623-1662) milde impurtanl and limdilnwnhll cunlrihulimlS In Pnljl'Clive gl"Omelry.
prohabilily Iheory and the developmenl uf ('aIeul"s. The work lu whk'h Leihni>: n·re ... \Ya.~ puhlishl'u in
If>58 and conlains Ihe 6rsl slal"menl ilnd proof of

This proof is presenled in D. ]. Slmil,s A S,1IIT<'t! &Hlk in MtlllJt!lIIt1tics 1200-18(HJ (Camh"iuge; Harvard
Universily Press, 1969). p. 2311.
Paul Guldin (1577- J643), a Swiss mathematician of <1l1lsiderahle notl'. <""trihuted to Ihl' dl·""lopnll'lIl
of calculus~ and his methods wert" ~(!n(~r..,lIy morc rigorous lhan thuse of Cil\"..,licri.

94
294 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE

Since Il.OST is similar to the characteristic t:J.PQR,

dx ds
p ::

where ds is the length of PQ. Thus,

1 1
area (OPQ) = "2 pds = "2::.dx . (3)

Now, observe that for each point P on y = f(x) there is a eOlTesponding point A.
Thus, as P moves from L to .U, the points A [om1 a curve, say Z = g(x). If sector
OLM denotes the closed region formed by y = f(x) and the straight lines OL and
OM, then (3) implies that

area (sector OLM) ="21 fI, g(x) dx. (4)

(I

This is the transmutation formula of Leilmi..:. From (4), it follows that the area under
y = f(x) is

f I, ydx
(I
=
h (/
"2 f ( b) - "2 f ( a) + area (sector OLM)

="21 ( [xy L(, + fi>

{/::. clx ). (5)

This is none other than a p,lrticular casc of the fonnula for integration by parts. For it
is easily seen from FICVIlE 1 that
dy
::,=y-xdx' (6)

Substituting this value of ::. in (,5), it follows that

f(I{, !J dx = [xy ](1

(, - jJ(b)
J«(I)
x ely,

which is what one gets on integratioll by parts.

Now consider a circle of radius 1 and ccnter (1,0). Its equation is y2 = 2x - x 2 •
In thb case, (6) implies that

::. = ~
v2x - .1'2 - x(l-x) =~2_xx
....,:.=====: y·,
=_x (7)
hX_Xl

so that
2_2
x=---
. 1 +::.2'
(8)

In FI(;\IIII': 2. let A(}B = 20. Thcll the area of the sedor AOB = 0 and

() = area (6 AOB) + area (region hdween arc AB and line AB). (9)

By the translllutatioll 1()I'lllula (4), the second area is }, It:::. elt when, ::. is given by (7).
Now, frolll FHallU-; 3 helow it is seen that

95
VOl. 63. NO. S. DECEMBER 1990

::

(1.0)

o
FIGURE 2 r

FIGURE 3

1f z dt ="2l( xz -
"2 x

II
j Z)
x du .
0
(10)

Using (8) and (10), it is now possible to rewrite (9) as

n
"
= .!.y
2
+ .!.X-
2 N
- j =-
0
t2
- dt
1 + t2

= .!.[
2
"(2 - x) + x-) - j---
- t 2

0 1 + t2
dt (since y =z(2 - x))

1-
N • N

t2
=z- 0-1+t2dt.

At this point, Leibniz was able to use a technique employed by Nicolaus Mercator
(1620-1687). The latter had considered the problem of the quadrature of the
hyperbola y(1 + x) = 1. Since it was already known that

f t'x"dx= -n +-l'
II
a'l+l

he solved the problem by expanding 1/(1 + x) as an infinite series and integrating

term by term. He simultaneously had the expansion for IOb.(1 + x). Mercator pub-
lished this result in 1668, though he probably had obtained it a few years earlier. A
year later, John Wallis (1616-1703) determined the values of x for which the series is
valid. Thus, Lcibniz found that

(11)

In FIGURE 2, ABC = 0 and z = x/y = tan O. Therefore, (11) is thc series for arctan z.
Of course, Leibniz did not invent the notation for the integral and differential used
above until 1675, and his description of the procedures is geometrical but the ideas
are the same.
The discovery of the infinite series for Tr was Leibniz's first great achievement. He
communicated his result to Huygens, who congratulated him, saying that this
remarkable property of the circle will be celebrated among mathematicians forever.
Even Isaac Newton (1642-1727) praised Leibniz's discovery. In a letter of October
24, 1676, to Henry Oldenburg, secretary of the Royal Society of London, he writes,

96
296 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE

.. Leibniz's method for obtaining convcrgent series is certainly very elegant, and it
would have sufficiently revealed the genius of its author, even if he had written
nothing else,"3 Of course, for Leibniz this was only a first step to greater things as he
himself says in his" Historia et origo calculi diflerentialis."

3, James Gregory (1638-1675)

Leibniz had been anticipated in the discovery of the series for arctan by the Scottish
mathematician, James Gregory, though the lattcr did not note the particular case for
'17"/4,4 Since Gregory did not publish most of his work on infinite serics and also
because he died early and workcd in isolation during the last seven years of his life,
his work did not have the influence it deserved. Gregory's early scientific interest was
in optics about which hc wrote a mastcrly book at thc agc of lwenty-four. His book,
thc Optica Promota, contains the carlicst description of a reflecting telescope. It was
in the hope, which ultimately remaincd unfulfillcd, of constructing such an instru-
ment that he travelled to London in 1663 and made thc acquaintance of John Collins
(1624-1683), an accountant and amateur mathematician. This friendship with Collins
was to provc very important for Gregory when the lattcr was working alone at St.
Andrews University in Scotland, Collins kept him abreast of the work of the English
mathematicians such as Isaac Newton, John Pell (1611-1685) and othl'rs with whom
Collins was in contact. 5
Gregory spent the years 1664-1668 in Italy and came under the influence of the
Italian school of geometry founded by Cavalieri. It was from Stefano degli Angeli
(1623-1697), a student of Cavalieri, that Gregory learned about thc work of Pierre dc
Fermat (1601-1665), Cavalieri, Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647) and others. While
in Italy, hc wrote two books: Vera Circuli et lIyperbowe Quadrattlra in 1667, and
Geometriae Pars Universalis in 1668. The first book contains some highly original
ideas. Grcgory attemptcd to show that thc area of a general sector of an ellipse, circle
or hyperbola (.'ould not be expressed in terms of the areas of the inscribed and
circumscribed triangle and quadrilateral using arithmetical operations and root extrac-
tion, The attempt failed but Gregory introduced a number of important ideas such as
convergence and algebraic and transcendental functions. The second book contains
the first published statement and proof of the fundamental theorem of calculus in
geometrical form. It is known that Newton had discovered this result not later than
1666, although he did not make it public until later.
Gregory returned to London in the summer of 1668; Collins then informed him of
the latest discoveries of mathematicians working in England, including Mercator's
n!cently published proof of
x2 x3
log( 1 + x) = x - '2 + '3 - ...

3 See H. W. Tumhull (cd'>. 11H' CtJrres,lO.ui.mce ,1 istltlc N,'wlull (Camhrid~,,: Th" Ullivcrsily P...ss,
1960), Vol. 2, p. 130.
·Peter B"ekmann h'L' p"rsuasiwly "r~",'(1 thaI (:n'~ory lIlusl huY<' known Ih" ..'ri,'s for ,"/4 a, well.
SL'C Ik.-ckmann·s A llialClr!1 '" Pi (lIould,·r. Colorado: Thc Col"m Pr"ss, 1977), p. 133.
sThe n ..ader mi~ht find it of interest to mnsult: H. W. Tumhull (",I.), J"IIIes GregCl'Y Terc:enl"""'Y
Memorilll VCllu.ntl (London: C. Ocll. 1939). 11,is volume L'tmtains Gn'llory's scicntilk' mrn'spond,ml't' wilh
John Collins and a discussion of Ih,· fonn",s Iir., and work.

97
VOL. (d. t"O. 5. DECEMBER 1990 297
\leditation on these disw\'eries led Gregory to publish his next book, Exercitationes
Geometricae, in the winter of 1668. This is a se(juel to the Fars Unir;ersalis and is
mainl~' about the logarithmie funetion and its applieations. It contains, for example,
the first e\'aluations of the indefinite integrals of sec x and tan x.'; The rcsults arc
statcd in geometrie fOlll1.
In the autumn of l668, Gregory was appointcd to the chair in St. Andrews and hc
took up his duties in the \\'inter of 1668/1669. He began regular corrcspondcnce with
Collins soon after this, eommunieating to him his latest mathematieal discoveries and
requesting Collins to keep him infolll1ed of the latest aetivities of thc English
mathematieians. Thus, in a letter of \Iareh 24, 1670, Collins writes, .. Mr. Newtone of
Cambridge sent the following series for finding the Area of a Zone ot a Circlc to Mr.
Dary, to compare with the said Da~.'s approaches, putting R the radius and B the
parallel distance of a Chord from the Diameter the Area of thc space or Zonc betwccn
them is =

'8
2RB - - -
3R

This is all Collins writes about thc series but it is, in fact, the value of the integral
2/(~(R2_X2)1/2dx after expanding by the binomial theorcm and term by term
integration. ~ewton had diseovered the binomial cxpansion for fractional exponents
in the winter of 1664/166.5, but it was first made public in thc aforemcntioned lettcr
of 1676 to Oldenburg.
There is evidence that Grego~' had rediscovered the binomial theorem by 1668. H
However, it should be noted that the expansion for (l - X)I/2 does not necessarily

"A proof of the formula

was of considerable significance and interest to mathematicians in the 1660's due to its connection with a
problem in navigation. Gerhard ~Iercator (1512-159-1) puhlished his engraved "Creat World Map" in
1569. The construction of the map employed the famous Mercator projection. Edward Wright, a Cam-
bridge professor of mathematics, noted that the ordinate on the \Iercator map corresponding to a latitude
of 8" on the glohe is given by cIt sec </> d</>. where c is suitahly chosen according to the size of the map. In
1599. Wright puhlished this result in his Cert<lifle Errors ill Nar,igatioll Corrected. which also contained a
table of latitudes computed hy the continued addition of the secants of 1',2',3'. ele. This approximation to
It sec </> d</> was sufficiently exact for the mariner's use. In the early 1640's, Henry Bond observed that tbe
valut's in Wright's table could be obtained by taking the logarithm of tan('IT/4 + 8/2). This observation
was published in 1645 in Richard Norwood's E/litome of Nacigalioll. A theoretical proof of this observation
was very desirable and Nicolaus ~crcator had offered a sum of nmne)' for its demonstration in 1666. John
Collins. who had himself written a IXlOk on navigation. drew Gregory's attention to this problem and, as we
noted, Gregory supplied a proof. For more details. one may consult the follOWing two articles hy F. Cajori:
"On an Integration ante-dating the Integral Calculus:' Bibliotloec(/ Mathematica Vol. 14 (1913/14). pp.
312-19. and "Algebra In Napier's Day and Alleged Prior Invention of Logarithms," in C. G. Knott (cd.),
NalJier Memorial Volume (London: Longmans. Green & Co .. 1915). pp. 93-106. \1ore recently, J. Lohne
has established that Thomas Barriot (15(j0-Hj2I) had evaluated the integral I,~ sec </> d</1 in 1594 hy a
stereographic projcction of a spherical loxodrome from the south pole into a logarithmic spiral. This work
was unpublished and remained unknown until Lohne brought it to light. See J. A. Lohne. "Thomas Harriot
als Mathematiker:' Centaurus, Vol. 11, 1965-66, pp. 19-45. Thus it happened that, although f sec /I d8 is a
relatively difficult trigonometric integral. it was the first one to he discovered.
7James Gregory, p. 89.
"See The Corres/lornlellce of Is{/(/c Newtoll. Vol. 1. p. 52. note 1.

98
298 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE

imply a knowledge of the binomial theorem. Newton himself had proved the
expansion by applying the well-known method for finding square roots of numbers to
the algebraic expression 1 - x. Yloreover, it appears that the expansion of (1 - x )1/2
was discovered by Henry Briggs (1556-1630) in the 1620's. while he was constmct-
ing the log tables.9 But there is no indication that Gregory or Newton knew of this. In
any case, for reasons unknown, Gregory was unable to make anything of the
series-as evidenced by his reply of April 20, "I cannot understand the series you
sent me of the circle, if this be the original, I take it to be no series." 10 However, by
September 5, 1670. he had discovered the general interpolation formula, now called
the Gregory-Newton interpolation formula, and had made from it a number of
remarkable deductions. He now knew how "to find the sinus having the arc and to
find the number having the logarithm." The latter result is precisely the binomial
expansion for arbitrary exponents. For, if we take x as the logarithm of y to the base
1 + d, then y = (1 + cl)-' and Gregory gives the solution as

( 1+£l) X =1+x£I + x(x-l)12

1'2 ( +
x(x-l)(x-2)d3
1'2'3 +
II

It is possible that Newton's series in Collins' letter had set Gregory off on the course
of these discoveries. but he did not even at this point see that he could deduce
Newton's result. Soon after, he did observe this and wrote on December 19, 1670, "I
admire much my own dullness, that in such a considerable time I had not taken
notice of this."12 All this time, he was very eager to learn about Newton's results on
series and particularly the methods he had used. Finally on December 24, 1670,
Collins sent him Newton's series for sin x, cos x, sin -IX and x cot x, adding that
Newton had a universal method which could be applied to any function, Gregory then
made a concentrated effort to discover a general method for himself. He succeeded,
In a famous letter of February 15, 1671 to Collins he writes, "As for Mr. Newton's
universal method, I imagine I have some knowledge of it, both as to geometrick and
mechanick curves, however I thank YOll for the series ye sent me and send you these
following in requital."l:J Gregory then gives the series for arctan x, tan x, see x,
logsecx,loghm(i+i), aresee(v'2e x ), and 2arctantanhx/2. However, what he
had found was not Newton's method but rather the Taylor expansion more than forty
years befiJre Brook Taylor (1685-1731). Newton's method consisted of reversion of
series, expansion hy the hinomial theorem, long division hy series and tenn by tenn
integration"~ Thinking that he had rediscovered Newton's method, Gregory did not

"s(~, D. T. Whi"'sid". "III'nry IIriAA" '11... lIinomiul 1111'0"'111 Antici.""lcd," The M"t/IllIll,,/ic,,1 GtL:e"c,
Vol. 15. (1962). Jl. fl. Whih·sid,· shows how II,,· "'Jl""sio,, of (I + x)'/2 arose Ollt of llrigg's work on
logurilhms.
IfIJIIIII(·.t Grt'f.!tJry. p. H2.

IIln II...ir rt·vi.'W uf Ih.· <:rt'gury M"lIlurial Vuhlll';·. M, D..J1Il alld E, 1I1'1lillgcr cXJllain huw Ihc
hinumial,'xJl,,"siul "UIll"S m,l "r Ih,' in"''l,ulaliun lilnlll'J.•. s,..• T/II.' AII...ri<"1II MIIt/"'IIlI.llic,,1 MOllliJy. Vol.
50, (1943). 1" 14!J,
12J""",,. Gn'!:IIry. 1'. 1·111.

I"'"itl .. Jl. 17(),

1"11 shm,ld I,,· 1lI,'nlilll...tI Ilml N"wlnll hillls..lr ,liscnVl'rt..1 th., Taylnr "'rics u""l1ld 1691. Sl"e I). T,
Whil"sid,' «·d.). 'rI ... "''''/'''"IIIIi,'''/ '.""1('
r",lI'r,. <if N,'wIIII' , Vol. VII (Camhrillg...: nu, Cambridgc
UniVl'rsily I'rt'ss. 1!J7r;). I" I!J. III rill'l, Tuylnr wus anliciJl" ....1 hy ul I,'usl iiVI' nmllu'nmliciulls. Howl'v"r. th..

99
VOL. 63, NO.5, DECEMBER 1990 299
publish his results. It is only from notes that he made on the back of a letter from
Gedeon Sha\\', an Edinburgh stationer, dated January 29, 1671, that it is possible to
conclude that Gregory had the idea of the Taylor serics. These notes contain the
successive derinltin:s of tan x, scc x, and the other functions whose expansions he
scnt to Collins. The following extract from the notes gives the successive derivatives
ely d 2 y
of tan 6; here 111 is successivcl~' y, d6' d6 2 ' etc., and q = r tan 6. Gregory writes l5 ;
1st 2nd .3rd 4th
2q1
111 = q m =2q +--
2
r
,5th 6th
.JO(/l 24(/; J.'36q2 240((' 120q(;
m = 16q + -r2- + -r~- m = 16r + - - - + - - - + - -5-
r r1 r
7th

8th
q2 c~ q6 qH
III = 272r + .32.3.3- + 11.361 ~ + 1.3440-:;- + .50407"
r r' r" r

It is clear from the form in which the successive derivatives are written that each one
is fonned by multiplying the derivative with respect to q of the preceding tenn by
q2
r+ - Now writing a = r6, Gregory gives the series in the letter to Collins as
r
follows;

a3 2a 5 17a' .3233a 9
rtan6=a+--+--+--+ + ...
3r 2 15r~ 315r 6 181440~H

The reasons for supposing that these notes were written not much beforc he wrote to
Collins and were used to construct the series are (0 the date of Gedeon Shaw's letter
and (ij) Gregory's error in computing the coefficient of q: r
in the 7th 111, which should
be 1232 instead of 987 and which, in tum, leads to the error in the 8th 111, where the
2
coefficient of ~ should be 3968 instead of 3233. This error is then repeated in the
. r
series showing the origin of the series. Moreover, in the early parts of the notes,
Gregory is unsure about how he should write the successive derivatives. For example,
he attempts to write the derivative of see 6 as a function of see 6 but then abandons
the idea. He comes back to it later and sees that it is easier to work with 1112 instead
of 111 since the 1112'S can be expresscd as polynomials in tan 6. This is, of course,
sufficient to give him the series for sec 6. The series for log sec 6 and log tan( 7T/4 + 6)
he then obtains by tenn by tenn integration of the series for tan 6 and sec 6

Taylor series is not unjustly named after Brook Taylor who published it in 1715. He saw the importance of
the result and derived several intcrcstin~ consequences. For a discussion of these matters sec: L.
Feigenbaum, .. Brook Taylor and the Method of Increments," Archive for His/ory of f;rtlc/ Sciellces, Vol. 34,
(1985), pp. 1-140.
"James Gre{!,ory. p . .152.

100
300 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE

respectively. Naturally, the 3233 error is repeated. He must have obtained the series
for arc tan x from the 2nd 111 which can be written as
da r~ q2 q4
-
dq-- -1'2-+- - j - -1'2+ -
q2 - 1'4
-

The arctan series follows after tenn by term integration. Clearly, Gregory had made
great progress in the study of infinite series and the calculus and, had he lived longer
and published his work, he might havc been classed with Newton and Leibniz as a
co-discoverer of the calculus. Unfortunately, he was struck by a sudden illness,
accompanied with blindness, as he was showing some students the satellites of
Jupiter. He did not recover and died soon after in October, 1675, at the age of
thirty-seven.

4. Kerala Gargya Nilakantha (c.1450-c.1550)

Another independent discovery of the series for arctan x and other trigonometric
functions was made by mathematicians in South India during the fifteenth century.
The series arc given in Sanskrit verse in a book by Nilakantha call cd Tal1tra~al1graha
and a commentary on this work called Tantrasangraha-wkhya of unknown author-
ship. The theorems are stated without proof but a proof of the arctan, cosine and sine
series can be found in a later work called Yuktibhasa. This was written in Malayalam,
the language spoken in Kerala, the southwest coast of India, by Jyesthadeva
(c.1500-c.161O) and is also a commentary on the Tantrasangraha. These works were
first brought to the notice of the westem world by an Englishman named C. M.
Whish in 1835. Unfortunately, his paper on the subject had almost no impact and
went unnoticed for all1lost a century when C. Rajagopal '6 and his associates began
publishing their findings from a study of these manuscripts. The contributions of
medieval Indian mathematicians arc now beginning to be recognized and discussed
by authorities in the field of the history of mathematics. 17
It appears Irom the astronomical data contained in the Tantrasangraha that it was
composed aroulld the year 1500. The Yuktibhasa was written about a century later. It
is not completely clear who the discoverer of these series was. In the Aryabhatiya-
bhllsya. a work on astrollomy. Nilakantha attributes the series for sine to Madhava.
This mathematician lived between the years 1340-142.5. It is nol known whether

WHaja~upars wurk lIlay I,.. fillllld in II .., fulluwing papers: (with M. S. Ran~achari) "On an Unlapxx->d
SUllrl" or !',.",di(·val K"mles(' MatlU'IIIalics." Archive for /listor!1 of Exact Sciences, Vol. 18, (1917), pp.
8!)-I02; "On Medi('val K"rala Mall",malics." Archive for 1Ii.,ton) of EXClcl Sciences, Vol. 35, (J9f16), pp.
91-99. Th(~sc P"'l)(,1"S ~iVt' till' Silnskril vcrS(AS of the Tlmlrilsangrllllllvakhya which tlcscrib(· the series for
llU' ard,,". shU' and l'usilw. All EI1~lish translatiun and l:ommcntary is also provided. A commentary on the
prour of arcl:.m s('ri('s ~ivC'1I in the.' Y"kli/,/wstl is availahle in the two papc.~rs: uA Neglected Chapter of
lIind" Mallwnmlics." Scril"tI A/tll!h""UltiCtl, Vol. 15. (\!)49), pp. 201-209: "On Ihe lIindu Proof or
Gn'~ory's S"ri('s." //,;" .. Vol. 17. (HIS\), pp. 6.5-74. A comm"lIlar), on II.., Y"klilJ/l(Istl', proof (If Ihe sine
nnd cusine sC'rit's is ('untaiut'll ill C. HajuJ,topal and A. VPllkatanumm, "The silU' amll.'()sinc power series in
Hit"l" matl\('lIIatics," 1"'1/'11(/1 or II", /loyal A,itllic Sm'i("Y of /ll'/ll!tll, Scil'/lec. Vol. 15. (1949), pp. 1-1:3.
lISt'" J. E. lIofinallll. "(1)('" ('illC alt indisdU' B('r('dl1l11l1~ von 11' und ihre all~(,l1Idne Bedeutung,"
MallwlIllIli.,cI"'-PI,ysik,,/i.'l'11I' S(,lIlI'sl,'r/Jtoricl",·, 1I11.:l. II. :l/4. \Ial1lh",.~ (\!)53). S('t' also 0, T. Whileside,
.. Path-fns or MallU'mati(,'al TIU)1l~llt ill III(' lah:r S('V('lIh'elltll Cc..·lIhtry." An'hiDe for History of l~XllC;t
Sd('u('('.'1. Vol. l. (IH6()-IH6Z). pp. 17H-;)XS. Ful' a diSL'llSsiUII uf nu~dit'\'al Indian math('maticians and the
Tm.tra.wm:.:ralm in llarlil'ular. OIU' l1Ii~ht l'IlIlSIIIt: A. P. Jushkt·vich. G(',n:hichh' tlcr Mathelllatik ill Mitteilliter
nr
«;('rlllall lransl .. liull 1.t'ipl.iJ.!. H.Ki . 1. til(' Hlissian uri~inal. Moscow. 19(il).

101
VOl. rd, 1"0, 5, DEGMBER 1 'J'JfJ 301
\Iadhaya f(Jllnd the other series as well or whether they are somewhat later
diseoH'ries,
Little is known ahout these mathematicians. \Iadhava lived ncar Coehin in the very
southern part of India (Kerala) and some of his astronomical work still survives.
:'I:i1akantha was a \'ersatile genius who wrote not only on astronomy and mathematics
hut also on philosophy and grammar. His erudite expositions on the latter subjects
were well known and studied until recently. He attracted several gifted students,
induding Tuneath Ramanujan E.mthassan, an early and important figure in Kerala
literature. About jyesthade\'a, nothing is known except that he was a Brahmin of the
house of Parakroda.
In the Tallirasangralw-rakhya, the scrics for arctan, sinc and cosine arc given in
verse which, when collYcrted to mathematical symbols may he written as

'/ I r,/ I ,.,(1 I ,.,/

r arctan '--
x
= -
1
. -'- -
x
-
3
. -'-.
X,I
+ -=-
.:J
• -'-_ -
x·' , where 1!..
x .;: 1 ,
~

FIGURE 4

There arc also some special features in the Tal1trasangraha's treatment of the
series for 7T/ 4 which were not considered by Leibniz and Gregory. Nilakantha states
some rational approximations for the error incurred on taking only the first 11 terms of
the series. The expression for the approximation is then used to transform the series
for 7T / 4 into one which converges more rapidly. The errors are given as follows:

i = 1,2,3, (12)

where

1 n/2 ( n/2)2 + 1
11(n) = 2' 12(n) = - 2 - and 13(n) = (2 ) .
n n + 1 n +5 n/2

The transfonned series are as follows:

7T 3 1 1 1
-
4
=4 - + - - -53-- -
33 - 3 5
+7 - --
3 - 7
(13)

102
302 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE

and
7T 4 _..j + -=-__4=--_
4 3" + 4.3 5" + 4 . 5
Leibniz's proof of the fonnula for 7T / 4 was found by the quadrature of a circle. The
proof in Jyesthadeva's book is by a direct rectification of an arc of a circle. In the
diagram given below, the arc AC is a quarter circle of radius onc with centcr 0 and
OABC is a square. Thc side AB is divided into n equal parts of length 0 so that
no = 1, P,._I Pr = o. EF and Pr - I D arc perpendicular to OP,. Now, the triangles
OEF and OP,_ I D are similar, which givcs

. P,_I D
that IS, EF=~.
,-I

0...:-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--, A = Po

P,

c L-.~==---- _______..J B - Pn

FIGURE 5

The similarity of the As P,_ I P, D and OAP, gives

P,-I P, _ P,_I D P D _ Pr-IPr

OPr - OA or , - I - OP, .

Thus,

EF= P,-I P, P,-I P, 0

OP,_ IOP,:= OPr2 = 1 + AP,2

Sincc arc EG := EF ==
o 1
u arc of circle is
1 + ,.20;' 0

(14)

Of course, a clear idea of limits did not exist at that time so that the relation was
understood in an intuitive sense (Jnly. To evaluate the limit, Jyesthadeva uses two
Icmmas. Olll' is the ),!;comdric series

103
VOL. 63, NO.5, DECEMBER 1990 303
Jyesthade\'a says that the expansion is obtained on iterating the following procedure:

l!x =l-X( l!x)=l-X(l-X{l!X))'

The other result is that
11 / ) + I
+ 11" - --
p+l
for large 11. (15)

A sketch of a proof is gi\"(~n by Jyesthade"a, He notes first that

( 16)

This is easy to verify. Relation (6) is also contained in the work of the tenth century
Arab mathematician Alhazen, who gi\'es a geometrical proof in the Greek tradition IH,
He uses it to cvaluate 5~/) and 5~,~) which occur in a problem about the volume of a
certain solid of re\·olution. Yuktibllllsa shows that for p = 2,.3
5(1')
5(11'-1)+5 1(1'-1)+ '" +5(,,-1) _ _"- (17)
It-l p'

and then suggests that by induction the result will be true for all values of p. Once
this is granted, it follows that if
n P
5(1'-1)--
11 P ,

then by (16) and (17),

5 CI') IJ+I
11_
__ _
or
" P + l'

and (15) is inductively proved,

We now note that (14) can be rcwritten, aftcr cxpanding 1/(1 + r 28 2 ) into a
geometric series, as

i = lim [0 t 1 - 8:) t r2 + 8.5 t r~ - ••. ]

fI_:)O r=1 r=1 r=1

where we have used relation (15) and the fact that 8 = 1/11. Now consider the
approximation (12) and its application to the tnmsformation of series. Suppose that
1 1 1 1 _
a: = 1 - - + - - - + ... + - +!( II + 1)
" 3 5 7 -II '

where fen + 1) is a rational function of 11 which will make a:" a bettcr approximation
of 7T/4 than the nth partial sum S". Changing II to T1 - 2 wc get

I"See The Historical Deve/ol)mcllt of the Glliculm {mentioned in lixltnotc 0, p. 84. Alh"",cn is the
latini",ed form of the name Ibn A1-Haytham {c. 965-1039>.

104
304 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE

U _. = 1- -1 + -=1 - .. , -+ - 1- ± f( II - 1).
" 2 3.:J II - 2

Subtracting thc second relation from the first.

±1I,,=U,,-U,,_2= ±~+f(II+1)+f(II-1). (18)

Thcn
U II =U"_.2±U,,

=U"_~+II"_2±1I,,
= ... =U 1 -U 3 +lI S - u ; + ' " ±1I"

= 1- f(2) - u 3 + lis -II; + ... 1/".

It is clear that
.
I1111 7T
(T" = -4
11_20

and therefore
7T
-4 = 1 -f(2) - 1/ 3 + U 1; - 11-, + .... (19)

Thus, we have a new series for 7T/ 4 which depends on how the function f( n) is
chosen. Naturally, the aim is to choose f(n) in such a way that (19) is more rapidly
convergent than (1). This is the idea behind the series (13). Now equation (1S)
implies that
1
f(lI+ 1) +f(n -1) = - -Un' (20)
n
For (9) to be more rapidly convergent than 0), u" should be oO/n), that is,
negligible compared to l/n. It is reasonable to assume f(n + 1) = f(n - 1) = f(n).
These observations together with (20) imply that f(n) = 1/2n is a possible rational
approximation in cquation (2). With this f(n), the value of Un is given by (20) to be
1 1 1 1
u"=11- 2(n+1) - 2(n-1) = - n3 -n'

Substituting this in (9) gives us (13), which is

7T 1 1 1 1
4" = 1- '4 + 3:1 _ 3 - 53 - 5 + 73 - 7 - ...

Thc other scries

~_ 4 _ 4 + 4 _ ...
4 - 1:; + 4 . 1 3:; + 4 . 3 55 + 4 . 5

.. . 11/2 .
IS ohtal11cd hy takl11g f( II ) III (J 9).
= -.-,-
11- + 1
It should he Illl'ntiOlll'd that Nl'wton was aware of the correction fl(n) = 1/2n.
For in the Iclter to Oldl'nhm'g, rl'fl'nTd to l'arlicr, Ill' says, .. By the series of Lcibniz
also if half the term in the last plaec hc added and somc othcr like dcvices bc
employed, till' l,(llllput'ltioll can hl' carried to many figures." However, hc says
nothing ahout tnmsiimning thc scries hy means of this corrcction.

105
VOL. (d. NO.5. DECEMBER 1 'J'JO 305
I t appears that :\ ilakantha was aware of the impossibility of finding a finite series of
rational numbers to represent Tr. In the Aryuhlwtiyu-bhusyu he writes, .. If the
diameter, measured using some unit of measure, were commensurable with that unit,
then the cin:umfercncc would not likewisc allow itself to be measured by means of
the same unit; so likewise in the case where the circumferencc is measurablc by somc
unit, then the diameter cannot be measured using the same unit." HI
The ruktibhusu contains a proof of the arctan series also and it is obtaincd in
exactly the same way except that one rectifies only a part of the 1/8 circlc.
It can be shown that if Tr/4 = Sn + fen), whcre Sn is the nth partial sum, thcn
f( n) has the continued fraction rcprcsentation

(21)

Yioreover, thc first threc convergcnts arc

()
f.211 '.1/2
=--- and
n2 + 1

which arc the values quoted in (13). Clearly, Nilakantha was using somc procedurc
which gave the successive convcrgcnts of the continued fraction (21) but the text
contains no suggestion that (20) was actually known to him. This continued fraction
implies that
2 12 22 32
--=2+---",
4-Tr 2+ 2+ 2+

which may be compared with thc continued fraction of the seventeenth century
English mathematician, William Brouneker 0620-1684), who gave the result

Thc third approximation

is very effective in obtaining good numcrical valucs fi,r Tr without much calculation.
For example
1 1
1 - -3 + ... - -19 +/3 (20)
gives tbe value of Tr correct up to eight decimal plaees. 2o Nilakantha himself gives
104348/33215 which is correct up to nine places. It is interesting that the Arab
mathematician Jamshid-al-Kasi, who also lived in the fifteenth century, had obtained
the same approximation by a different method.

I!IScc Ge.clliclile cler Mcll}wrnatik. p. )(j9.

;zc"n,CS" olm'IVations L1llll:eming the mntinued fr..ction expansioll of f{n) alld it. relatioll to the Indian
work allli that of Bnmnckcr, and mlll'Cming the dl.'Cimal places ill f {20}, arc due to D. T. Whiteside. See
"On M..-dicv;ol Kernla Mathematics" of fixltnote 13.

106
306 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE

5. Independence of these discoveries.

The question naturally arises of the possibility of mutual influence between or among
the discoverers of power series, in particular the series for the trigonometric func-
tions. Because of the lively trade relations between the Arabs and the west coast of
India over the centuries, it is generally accepted that mathematical ideas were also
exchanged. However, there is no evidence in any existing mathematical works of the
Arabs that they were aware of the concept of a power series. Therefore, we may grant
the Indians priority in the discovery of the series for sine, cosine and arctangent.
Moreover, historians of mathematics are in agreement that the European mathemati-
cians were unaware of the Indian discovery of infinite series. 21 Thus, we may
conclude that Newton, Gregory and Leibniz made their discoveries independently of
the Indian work. In fact, it appears that yet another independent discovery of an
infinite series giving the value of 7T was made by the Japanese mathematician Takebe
Kenko (1664-1739) in 1722. His series is

This series was not obtained from the arctan series and its discussion is therefore not
included. However, the independent discovery of the infinite series by different
persons living in different environments and cultures gives us insight into the
character of mathematics as a universal discipline.
Acknowledgement. lowe thanks to Phil Straffin for encouraging me to write this paper and to the
referees for their suggestions.

21See "Patterns of Mathematical Thought in the later Seventeenth Century" of footnote 17. See also A.
Wei!, "History of Mathematics: Why and How" in Collected Papers, Vol. 3 (New York: Springer-Verlag,
1979), p. 435.
USee D. E. Smith and Y. Mikami, A History of Japanese Mathematic, (Chicago: Open Court, 1914).
This series was also obtained by the French missionary Pierre Jartoux (1670-1720) in 1720. He worked in
China and was in correspondence with Leibniz, but the present opinion is that Takebe's discovery was
independent. Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) rediscovered the same series in 1737. A simple evaluation of it
can be given using Clausen's formula for the square of a hypergeometric series.

107
 Vv'ILLIAM JONES
THE FIRST USE OF 7r FOR TilE CIRCLE RATIO

(Selections Made by David Eugene Smith from the Original Work.)

William Jones (1675-1749) was largely a self-made mathematician. He

had considerable genius and wrote on naviglltion and general mathematics.
He edited some of Newton's tracts. The two passages given below arc taken
from the Synopsis PalmarioTUm Matbeseos: or, a New Introduction to tbe
Matbematics, London, 1706. The work W/lS intended .. for the Vse of some
Friends, who had neither Leisure, Convcniency, nor, perhaps, Patience, to
search into so many different Authors, and turn over so mllny tedious volumes,
as is unavoidably required to make but a tolerable Progress· in the Mathema-
tics." It was a very ingenious compendium of mathematics as then known.
The symbolll" first appellrs on page 243, and again on p. 263. The transcend-
ence of 11" was proved by Lindemann in 1882. For the transcendence of e,
which proved earlier (1873), see page 99.
Taking a as an arc of 30·, aud t as a tan;J;ent in a figure given, he states
(p. 243):

6a, or 6 X t - ~t2 + ~t6J &c. = ~ Periphery ("/1") •••

Let
a = 20, {3 = ~a, 'Y = ~{3, 0 = ~'Y' &e.
Then
1 1 1 1 1
a - J{3 + sY - 70 + 9 f, &e. = 2"""11",
or
1 3a 1a 1 3a 1 a 1 3a 1 a
a - j 9- +5 9- "7 92 + 9 92 - II 9 3 + 13 ~r3' &e.
Theref. the (Radius is to Y2 Periphery, or) Diameter is to the
Periphery, as 1,000, &e to 3.141592653 . 5897932384 . 6264-338327 .
9502884197 • 1693993751 .0582097494.4592307816. 4062862089 .
9862803482 .5342117067. 9+ True to nboye a 100 Places; as
Computed by the accurate and Ready Pen of the Truly Ingenious
Mr. Jobn Macbin.
On p. 263 he states:
There are various other ways of finding the Lengtbs, or Areas
of particular Curve Lines, or Planes, which may very much facili-
346

108
 WILLIAM JONES 347
tate the Practice; as for Instance, in the Circle, the Diameter is to
Circumference as 1 to
16 4 1 16 4 1 16 4
"3 - 239 - 3 53- - 2393 + 5 Sf; - 239~ -. &c. =
3.14159, &c. = '11" •••

Whence in the Circle, anyone of these <;hree, a, c, d, being given,

the other two are found, as, d =c+ 'II" =a + l1l"/H, c = d X 'II"

.... a X 41I-1H, a = i-1Td 2 = c2 + 411-.

109
128 Of the Method ifF LUX IONS and 1 N F J N J T ESE R J E S. 12 9
Scarce any difficulty cnn occur to anyone, who
Area bdOB=~X'-~x-I-;~J - H-{X' &c. -;>"x is to undercake fuch 11 computation ill Numbers,

+'x-I-I":-\ +
after the value of the Area is obtained in li)ecie~.
J'.9~
_7_.,
HI~
&c. i. e. = iX'-;X Yet for the more compkat illullration of the fore-
going doClrine, I {hall add an Example or Two.
-f.X , &c. -~x·-I-;x-h'.x, &c. -~~- :;;. Let the Hyperbola AD be propofed. whofe e-
.oj,1
quation is "x+......=z.
itl> vertex being at A, and
_ - , &e. cilch of its Axes equal to unity; from what goes
4S<1 . :1 • 7
Hm this Hyperbollck term for the moll: part
~

before, its Area .I\DB=~x·'+~·x'''--'·~''''··'+7-''x''

may be very c~mm()di(~~Oy avoit!ec!, by ahering .J.!_ .L.

rhe beginning o~ lhe Ab(nf.,! that IS, b~ IIH;rt'afil~g --,-~ ... x ., &e, that is, x" into ~."+~X·_.\Xl
or diminiOling It by fome given 9uanmy. As 111 + ;'.X·-1~·4XS, &e. which reries may be infinite-
1t~-(t·X •
ly produced by mulliply-
rhe former Example, where tlx-rxx=z wa~ till: e- ing the lall: termcontinual- J)
quation to the Curve;. ~f.I w.ouhl ~l'lke h to be the. Iy by the fucceeding tcrms
beginning of the Ablcll~, luppuhng Ab to be of
any detel"l~l.il.la[(! kngth, viz. ·ir.,.lor the. remain.lier of this progreffion , ~-,3.
2·S
*
of the i\blubbB, 1 (hall nuw wrm: x; lu Ihal, If I
diminifu the AbfcilS by.:a, by writing x·i-;a in-
.=-I.:.~X . ::-3.Z x
4·7
5·9 x
69'
-=8.11 •
• 01
fie,ldur x, It wl.1 become !"'-l-:"." .. l-.\' .. :::;
illi_Il:lX
lind ~x, &c. that is, the
10:1 1
• • • 1. '1 II 20f~X:r..
by dlvlfiun :::=. (/- .,' .\'-\- _.. _.. , 0L'. wl,encealll<:s
!i •r
firet term~x: multiplied by ~-x, makes the fe-
J 27" z·s
cond term .~x·~; which multiplied by
:z.OOA" 1
z=.~{/x-":;..·+ -11;-;;' &e. -.:bdOB.
'0
·5 x,makes -I

• u 1-u'·.\" • .
Alfo the equation a"'--F::::::z Il1I~ht have been the third term :-81 x{ ; which multiplied by 6 3' 7,
z .9
refolved into the Two infinite fcries, z=a~
x
- ~:~ _I_ makes rhe fourth .erm + /.x~-. And fo on ad
it/filli/um.
+.,
..\oj

tI~ xx xl
-, &e, _II_I.X- - &e. where there is Now le~ f\B be. alfumed of any length, fuppofe
x'" r a "
'~" and writing thiS number for x, and its roor.:-
found no tCl~l (Iivitict\ by lhe firet power of x. J. ]
But fuch kind of (cries, whne the powcr~ of x for x', the firet term -~x" or t )( {. being re-
afcend infinitely in the numerators of ont', and in duced to a decimal fra[iion, becomes 0.o1l3 3 33333,
the denomin~tors of lhc other, arc nOi: lu proper ..
& c. t IliS 1.3
to derive the value of z from by Arithmetic;.t Com- Into - - - makes 0 . 00025 lhe fecond
z·5'+
putation, when the fpedes arc tu be changed into ·· -1·5
term; t Ius Into - - makes 0.0002790178,
Numbers. 4·7'4
{ie. the third t~rm. And fo on for evt:r. But
Scarce S tl.e

100 The Mathematical Works of I.saac Newton • Volume I

110
130 Of/he Method ifF LUX 10 N S and I NFl N r T ESt R I E s. 13 r
the terms thus reduced by degrer.s, I difpofc into part of the Diameter. Anti hence we mAy ob-
Two Tables; the affirmative terms in One, and the ferve, that though the Areas of the Circle and
Negative in Another, and add them up as you Hyperbola ar~ not exprelTed in ~ G~ometrica:1 COhO·
fcc here. deration, yet each of them 15 d.fcovered by the
fame Arithmeticnl computation.
4r ° .08~333]333333333 -0.0002790I ,Rp'4 3 9 The portion of the Circle AdB being fOllnd, from
62500000"'00000 34"7906605 I thence the whole Area may be derived. For the ra-
2712673611' 1 'IIH4 6 so z7
5I3p6?3?6 26211SH4 dius dC being dra W'l, multiply Bd or -!v'3 intO BC
LH6'!!C)!7 9612')6 or :. and one half of the produtt ,J...v'3, or
49545 111 3R67' o. 05'P 26S8n 365275 will be the value of the
'9°')4 8 IM1 Trian"'e e,m I which added to the Area AdB,
7')('.1 75 will g;~e the &Cl:or A Cd, o. r 308996938995747~
3P 4
161----------------- the Sextuple of which o. 7HS39 H1633974482
, 0. oooz8257'918957S is the whole Art".
____---::--____--:__ 1 -I- n .oR96,09R85646618 And hence (by the way) the length of the <;ir-
o.0896109R8S6.661111----.....;.------
cumference will be 3.1415926535897928, which
0.0893 28.pG6zS70H
is found by dividing the Area by a fourth part of
Then from the fum of the affirm Itive, I take the the diameter.
fum of the nrgative terms, anti there remain~ To this we: (hall add the calculation of the Area
o.o8932R4166lf7oH for the quantity of the comprthcndrd between the Hyperbola dFD and its
Hyperbolick Area AdB which WllS to he found. Afymptote CA, let C
be: the center oftheHy-
Let the Circle AdF [S.... tbe fame fig.] be perbol:l, and putting
propofcd, which is exprdfed by tI,,; "lJll'ltion CA-a AF::.::b and
,1;=;;::::;, whofe diameter i5 tlnity; :lI1d from AB;'Ab:=:-x; it ~ill be
what goes brfore its Area AdB will be -~x{-;x} .a"._ 7"":"
u+... BD, and ..!!...
a-x
_:.:.;:_;"x i:, &c. in which fi:ries, fince the terms C·blt; whence the Area
do not diller fr()rn the tcrm5 of the Icries which
above exprelfcd the Hypcrbolick Area, excC'pt in AFDlL- ilx- -:;;;
IJJ'X
+ ".~.
3 a'
the figns _.1- al1l\ -.; nothinl~ elfe rC'ntaim to be "x'-- &c.
- -.. And the
clone, tlun to conncet the 1.lOle numef;\ I term,
with tli('ir fign~; that i~, by fubtratlinr, the con-
4
8S '
. ,
Area AFI/v=[,x+ -211
"Xl "x, Andthe
+ J,,,,'-'.+-,&,.
ncaetl lums of both the frm:rnC'lltionccl Tabk~, 311 4111

o. ~)::9~~H!/'o!io3G I Y3, (mill the firfi term doubled fum bdDB= 2[,X+ ~::~ + ~~. ~. +2£~1 &(. Now
o. J ()()(j()(,(,(j(,f.ihG (j('(i G, (<;'c. .111(1 the remainder 3a' 5.. 4 744 ,

o.o76773w6d'30.J.73 will uc [I.e prJrtion Adn let us ruppore: CA=AF=I, and Ab or AB=.;.,.,
ofl/II: Cirru/.1f Arca, luppl)rin;~ I\B to be a fOlJrt\l Cb being =0 • 9, and CB= I • 1 • then fubfiitllt-
r:tn S '} ing

Thc Mathcmatical Works or lSllac Newton • Volume I 101

111
 CHAPTER X

On the Use of the Discovered Factors to Sum Infinite Series.

165. If 1 + Az + Bz2 + CZ 3 + DZ4 + ...

= (1 + aZ)(1 + ~z)(1 + -yz)(1 + Sz) ••• , then these factors, whether they
be finite or infinite in number, must produce the expression

1 + Az + Bz2 + CZ 3 + Dz4 + ... , when they are actually multiplied. It

follows then that the coefficient A is equal to the sum

The coefficient B is equal to the sum of the pro-

ducts taken two at a time. Hence

B = a~ + a-y + as + ~-y + ~S + -yS + Also the coefficient C is equal

to the sum of products taken three at a time, namely

C = a~-y + a~S + ~-yS + a-yS + We also have D as the sum of pro-

ducts taken four at a time, and E is the sum of products taken five at a time,

etc. All of this is clear from ordinary algebra.

166. Since the sum a + ~ + -y + 8 + ... is given along with the sum of
products taken two at a time, we can find the sum of the squares

a2 + ~2 + -y2 + 8 2 + ... , since this is equal to the square of the sum dimin-
ished by two times the sum of the products taken two at a time. In a similar

way the sums of the cubes, biquadratics, and higher powers can be found. If we

let P = a + ~ + -y + 8 + E + ...

112
138

Q = a2 + + "'{2 + 3 2 + E2 +
1)2

R = a 3 + 1)3 + "'{3 + 33 + E3 +
S = a 4 + 1)4 + "'{4 + 34 + E4 +
T = a 6 + 1)6 + "'{6 + 36 + E5 +
V = a O + 1)0 + ",{O + 30 + EO +
Then P, Q, R, S, T, V, etc. can be found in the following way from

A,B,C,D, etc. P = A, Q = AP - 2B, R AQ BP + 3C,

S = AR - BQ + CP - 4D, T = AS - BR + CQ - DP + 5E,
V = AT - BS + CR - DQ + EP - 6F, etc. The truth of these formulas is
intuitively clear, but a rigorous proof will be given in the differential calculus.

167. Since we found above, in section 156, that

it follows that

X4
1 + + ---- + + ...

1T2 'jf4 1T 8
1 + --z + Z2 + Z3 + ...
1'2'3 1'2'3'4'5 1'2'3'4'5'6'7
= (1 + z)(1 + z/4)(1 + z/9)(1 + z/16}(1 + z/25) ...
'IT 2 'lT4
We use the rules stated above where A = 6' B = 120' C

'lT8
D = - - - , etc., and we also have
362880

P + ... ,

113
 I3lJ

1
Q 1 + + 2-+ + + _1_ +
42 92 16 2 25 2 36 2

R 1 + 2....+ 2....+
1
+
1
+ + ... ,
43 93 163 25 3 36 3

S 1 + 2....+ 2....+
1
+
1
+
1
+ ... ,
44 9 4 16 4 25 4 36 4

T =1+ 2....+ 1 + _1_ + _1_ + _1_ +

46 96 16 5 25 6 36 6
11'2 11'4 11'11
From the values of A, B, C, D, etc. we see that P 6,Q 9O,R = 945 '
11'8 11'10
S = T= - - etc.
9450 ' 93555 '

168. It is clear that any infinite series of the form

1 + _1_ + 1 + _1_ + ... ,provided n is an even integer, can be expressed

2n 3n 4n

in terms of 11', since it always has a sum equal to a fractional part of a power of

11'. In order that the values of these sums can be seen even more clearly, we set

down in a convenient form some more sums of these series.

1 20 1 2
1 + + + 2....+ 2....+ ---11'
22 32 42 52 1'2'3 1
1 1 22
1 + 2-+ + 2-+ .!.11'4
24 3 4 44 54 1'2'3'4'5 3

1 24 1 II
1 + + 2....+ 2....+ 2....+ - - - -11'
211 311 411 511 1'2"'7 3
1 211
1+2-+2....+ + 2....+ .!11'8
28 38 48 58 1'2'3"'9 5

1 1
1 + 10+ 10+
1
+ + ... 28 5 10
-11'
2 3 410 5 10 1'2'3"'11 3

2 10 691 12
1 + + + + + --11'
212 3 12 412 5 12 1'2'3"'13 105

114
140

1 1 1 212"
1 + + + + + --- ~'TT14
214 3 14 414 5 14 1-2-3---15 1

1 1 1 1 214 3617 16
1 + 10+ 10+ 10+ 10+ 1-2-3---17
--'TT
2 3 4 5 15

1 1 1 1 2 16 43867 18
1 + + + + -- - ---'TT
2 18 3 18 4 18 5 18 1-2-3---19 21

1 1 1 1 2 18 1222277 2O
1 + + + + + 'TT
2 20 320 4 20 520 1-2-3---21 55

1 1 1 1 2 20 854513 22
1 + 2'2 + +2'2 +2'2 + - -- 1-2-3---23
---'TT
2 3 22 4 5 3

1 1 222 1181820455 1T24

1 + 224 + 24"+ 424 + + ---
3 524 1-2-3---25 273

1 1 1 1 224 76977927 'TT28_

1 + + +20 + 20 +
2 28 3 26 4 5 1-2-3---27 1
We could continue with more of these, but we have gone far enough to see a

sequence w h -IC h a t Ii rs t seems qUi-te -Irregu Iar, 1,-,

1 -,
1 -,
3 -,
5 -
691 35,
-, -
33531051

but it is of extraordinary usefulness in several places_

169_ We now treat in the same manner the equation found in section 157_

There we saw that

e' + e-' = 1 + £ + x
+ --=-- + - --
8

2 1-2 1-2-3-4

= (1 + z)(1 + z/9)(1 + z/25)(1 + z/49) - - - _ We now use the formulas,

'TT2 'TT 6
where A =- - B
1-2-4 '
---'''---=-3'
1-2-3---6-4
etc_, and

115
 141

1
P=I+ - +1 - +1- + -1 + '"
9 25 49 81

Q 1+ 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +
92 25 2 49 2 81 2
R=I+ 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +
93 25 3 49 3 81 3
8=1+...!..+_1_+_1_+ 1 +
94 25 4 49 4 81 4
1 1T2 2 1T4 16 1T 8
It follows that p
'1 Q 23'
1'2'3 25' R = 1'2'3'4'5 2!'
8
272 1T8 T = 7936 1T 10 V = 353792 1T12
1'2'3"'7 2" 1'2-3"'9 20' 1'2'3"'11 2 13 '

IV = 22368256 1TH.
1'2'3"'13 2 16

170. The same sums of powers of odd numbers can be found from t.he

preceding sums in which all numbers occur. If we let

M 1 + +_1_+1+1 + and multiply both sides by _1_, we

2R 3R 4R 5R 2R

obtain l!.. = _1_ + _1_ + .J... + _1_ + '" . This series contains only even
2R 2R 4R R 6 8R

numbers, which, when subtracted from the previous series, leaves the series with

only odd numbers. Hence,

M- -
M 2R -
1M = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ... If 2 times
2R 2R 3R 5R 7R 9R
M
Lhe series -2R is subtracted from M an alternating series is produced:

_1_ + 1
+
1 1
+ .... In
2R 3R 4R 5R 6R
this way we can sum the series

116
142

1 1 1
+ ..!....±_1_ +
1
1 ± ± + ±
2" 3" 4" 5" 6" 7"
1 +
1
+ _1_ + _1_ + _1_ + _1_ + ...
3" 5"11" 7" 9"
If n is an even number and the sum is A 'IT", then A will be a rational number.

171. Furthermore, the expressions found in section 164 supply in the same

way sums of series which are worthy of note. Since

cos ~ + tan .L sin ~

2 2 2

if we let v .!.'IT and 9 = ~'IT, then

n 71

(1 + n Z m)(1 + 3n ~ In) (1 - 3n : m J (1 + 5n

(1 5n: m J ... cos ~

2n
+ tan .!.!!2!.. sin ~
2n 2n

Using the expression in section 165, we have A ....'!!.... tan.!.!!2!.. B

2n 2n '

- 'lT3 m'IT
C= tan-- D = E= etc.
2·4·6n 3 2n '

1
Further, since a = ~= , 'Y = 3n ,
m n + m
" In

1 1
I) = - ,E =
m" = , etc.
3n + 711 5n 5n + m
172. When we follow the procedure given in section 166, we obtain the fol-

lowing.

117
 143

1 1
p= +
n-m n + m 3n - m 3n + m
1
+ Sn - m
1
+ ...
Sn + m

Q= 1 + 1 + 1
(n - m)2 (n + m)2 (3n - m)2
+ 1 + 1 +
(3n + m)2 (Sn - m)2

R = 1 + 1
(n - m)3 (n + m)3 (3n - m)3
1 + 1
(3n + m)3 (Sn - m)3

s= 1 + 1 + 1
(n - m)4 (n + m)4 (3n - m)4
+ 1 + 1 +
(3n + m)4 (Sn - m)4

T= 1 _ 1 + 1
(n - m)5 (n + m)5 (3n - m)5
1 + 1 _
(3n + m)5 (Sn - m)5
V= 1 + 1 + 1
(n - m)D (n + m)8 (3n - m)D
+ 1 + 1 +
(3n + m)D (Sn - m)D
\Vhen we let tan .!!!..:!!.
2n
= k, we obtain, as we have shown,

P=A=~=.!..~
2n 2 n
Q = (k 2 + 1)1T 2 (2k 2 + 2)1T 2
4n 2 2'4n 2
R = (k 3 +k )1T 3 (6k 3 + 6k )1T 3
8n 3 2'4'6n 3
S = (3k 4 +
4k 2 + 1)1T4 _ (24k 4 + 32k 2 + 8)1T 4
48n 4 - 2'4'6'8n 4
T = (3k 5 + Sk 3 + 2k )1T 5 (120k 5 + 200k 3 + 80k )1T 6
96n 5 2'4'6'8'10n 5

118
144

173. Likewise from the last form in section 164, we obtain

cos .!
2
+ cot .Jl. sin .! = (1 + .! J (1 -
2 2 g
I}
21T - g
J (1 + 21T +
I} g J
(1- 41T - g
I} )(1+ 41T
I}
+ g
) •••

If we let I} = -=-1T, g .!!!o1T, and tan ..!!!.2!.. == k, so that cot .Jl.

2 .!. and
n n 2n k

1 + 1TX
2nk

== (1 + ~)(1 2n
x
m
)(1+ 2n
x
+ m
J
(1- x
4n - m
)(1+ 4n : In) ....
When we compare this with the general formula given in section 165, we find

1 - 1 1
etc. From the factors we obtain a ==
m 2n - m' 'Y == 2n + m'

- 1 1
8 == 4n _ m' E == 4n + m' etc.

174. Again we follow the procedure given in section 166 in order to obtain

the sums of the following series.

p 1 _....;10.-.._ + 1 1 1
m 2n m 2n + m 4n m
+ 4n + m

Q= _1_ + 1
+
1
m2 (2n - m)2 (2n + m)2
+
1
+
1
+ ...
(4n - m)2 (411 + m)2

119
 145

1 +
R= 1
m3 (2n - m)3 (2n + m)3
1 + 1
(4n - m)3 (4n + m)3

s= _1_ + 1
+
1
+
1
m4 (2n - m)4 (2n + m)4 (4n - m)4
+ 1 + ...
(4n + m)4
1 + 1 1
T= 1
m' (2n - m)' (2n + m)' (4n m)'
1
+
(4n + m)'
We obtain the following sums:

'TT 1'TT
P=A --
2nk
= 2nk
(2 + 2k2)'TT2
2·4n 2k 2
= (6 + 6k 2 ) 1T3
2·4·6n 3k 3
s = (k 4 + 4k 2 + 3)'TT4 _ (24 + 32k 2 + 3k4)'TT4
4Sn 4 k 4 - 2-4-6·Sn 4 k 4

T = (2k 4 + 5k 2 + 3)'TT' _ (120 + 200k 2 + SOk 4)1T'

96n'k' - 2·4·6·S·lOn'k'
V =(2ktl + 17k4 + 30k 2 + 15)1T tI
960ntlktl
_ (720 + 1440k 2 + S16k 4 + 96ktl)'TT1I
- 2·4·6·S·10·12n ll k ll
175. These general series deserve to be particularized by giving special

'TT
values to m and n. If m =1 and n = 2, then k = tan 4" = 1, and both of

I.he series become the same:

120
146

nO 1 1 1
--=1+ + +-+-+
960 3° 5° 7° 9°
The first of these series was seen before in section 140. The other series, which

have equal exponents were discussed in section 169. The remaining series, in

which the exponents are odd, we see here for the first time. It is clear that each

of these series

1 1 1
1 - 32" + 1 + 52" + 1 - 72" + 1
+ 92" + 1
has a sum which is

some function of n.

176. Now we let m 1, n = 3, then k tan : = "* and the series in

section 172 become

n2 1
- = ~+~+~+_1_ + + +
27 22 42 82 10 2 142 16 2
n3
"i62Va = 23
~+ 1
+
1 1
+ ...
43 83 103 14 3 163
etc., or

n 1 - l +l l+ 1 l+
3V'3= 2 4 5 7 8

4n 2
1 + ~+ ~+
1
+ ~+ + ...
27 22 42 52 72 82

121
 147

4n 3 = 1 _ ...L + ...L _ ...L + ...L _ ...L + .. ,

8iV3 23 43 53 73 83

In these series there is no term which is divisible by t. We can find the series

which contain these terms, at least those series with even exponents, as follows.

Since

6
it follows that

1
This last series contains only those terms which are divisible by 3' and if it is

subtracted from the previous series, there remains a series which contains all

terms not divisible by t. Then

8n 4n __ 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ... ,as we h
aveI d y seen.
a rea
54 27 22 42 52 72

1
177. With the same hypothesis, that is, m 1, n 3 and k '\1'3' from
section 174 we obtain

n 1-1.+1. 1 1 1
+ +
M 5 7 11 13 17 19

n2
1 + + ...L+ +
1
+
1
+ + ...
9 52 72 112 13 2 172 19 2
n3 1 +...L + _I_ I + _1_
l8V3 -- 1
53 73 11 3 13 3 17 3 19 3
In these series, the denominators are all odd numbers, and the terms divisible by

t are missing. The sum of the even powers of these missing terms can be found

from what we already know. Since

122
14M

1T2
1 +
1 1
+ 52 + 2 + 2 + ... , it follows that
8 32 7 9
1T2 1 1 + _1_ + 1T2

8'9
=
32
+
92
+
15 2 212 = 72
If this series, which contains

all the terms with odd denominators divisible by three, is subtracted from the"

series above it, there remains the series of squares of odd numbers not divisible

by three, so that

1T2 1 1 1 1
=1+-+ + + + ....
9 52 72 112 13 2

178. If the series found in sections 172 and 174 are either added or sub-

traded, we obtain other series which are worthy of note. We have

~+2-= 1 1 1
+ n ----- + ----- + ...
2n 2nk m m n + m 211 m 2n + m
(k 2 + 1)1T
2nk
. m1T
sm - -
tan .!!!.E.. = ___:;.2n~ 1
If we let k
2n m1T
then 1 + k2 = so that
cos - -
2n

• m1T
2 sin .!!!..:!!..cos .!!!.E.. = sm - - . When we substitute these values,
2n 2n n

we obtain

1T 1 1
m1T
= m
+ n m n + m 2n m
+ 2n
+ III
n sin--
n

1 1
+ 3n In a similar way, by subtraction, we obtain
m 3n + m

1T k1T (1 - k 2 )1T 1 1 1
2nk 2n
= 2nk m n III
+
n + m 2n m

1 1 1
+ + . If we let
2n + m 3n m 3n + m

123
 149

. m1T
SUI - -
2k 2m1T
tan _ _...:.nO--, then
-- tan ~
2n n m1T
cos - -
n
m1T
1T cos - -
n 1 _..;;;..1_+ 1 1
. m1T m n m n + m 2n m
n SUI - -
n

1 1 + ....
+ Series with squares and higher powers
2n + m 3n m

which arise in this way are more easily derived through differentiation, which we

will do later.

179. Since we have already considered the results when m

or 3, we now let m

1T
cos -
1
= 1 and 11 = 4. In this case sin mn1T = sin
= 1 and
: = '*
n = 2,

and

V2' It follows that

4

1T 1 1 1 + 1 + 1 1 1
1 + + ... and
2V2 3 5 7 9 11 13 15

1T
1 -
1
+
1 1 + 1 1 + 1 _1_ + If m 1 and
4 3 5 7 9 11 13 15

n = 8, then
m1T
n
2!.. sin 1TS
S'
= 1 -
(-2 ~) t cos 2!..S
2V2'

1T
cos -
and _ _S_ 1 + V2. From these we have
• 1T
Sin -
S

___1T_ _:- =1+ .!. 1 1 + 1 + 1

1 7 9 15 17 23
4(2 - V2)"i
1T 1 + 1 1 + ...
15 17 23

124
150

Now we 1et m =3 an d n = 8, then ~

n = 8'
31T . 8
sm 31T = 1 +
(-2 1 ) -i-'
M

31T 1
cos - = It follows that
8 \12 + 1

1T 1.+ 1 1 _1_ + _1_ + 1

1 3 13 19 21
5 11
4 (2 + '\1'2) 2
1T 1 1.+ ....!..+ _1_ +
3 5 11 13 19 21
8('\1'2+1)

180. Through combinations of the above series we obtain

1T (2 + \12)2 1 1 1 1 ....!.. + _1_

1 + 1.+ 1.+
4 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17
+ _1_ + ...
19
1

1T (2 - \12)2 1 1 1 1 1
1 - - - - + - - - + ....!..+ ....!..+ 1
4 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17
_-L+ ...
19

1T ((4 + 2V2) -i- + '\1'2 - 1)

1
=1 + 1.+ 1 1.+ 1
8 3 5 7 9 11
_-L __l_+_l_+_1_+
13 15 17 19

1T ((4 + 2V2) -i- - '\1'2 + 1)

1 1 1
= 1 - 1. + 1.+
8 3 5 7 9 11
1 ....!..+ 1 _1_ +
+
13 15 17 19

125
 151

'IT (V2 + 1 + (4 2V2)+) 1 1 1 1 1

= 1 + + +
8 3 5 7 9 11
1 1 1
+ + +
13 15 17 19

'IT (V2 + 1 (4 2V2)"iJ =1 - .!.. 1

+
1
+
1
8 3 5 7 9 11
1 1 11
+ + 13
19
15 17
In the same way we could let n = 16 and m = 1,3,5, or 7 which would show

the sums of series in which the terms are 1 1 - .!.. .!.. ... and in which the
'3' 5' 7' 9'

various changes of positive and negative signs are dill'erent from those already

seen.

181. If in the series discussed in section 178, the terms are combined two by

two, we obtain the following:

'IT
1 + 2m
• m'IT m
n SID - -
n
2m + ....
16n 2 - m2
From this it follows that

1 'IT

2mn sin .E!.2!..

n
The other series gives us

'IT 2m 2m 2m
m
It tan .E!.2!..
n
From this we have

126
152

1
+ '" 1T

2mn tan ~
n
When these two series are added, we obtain

1T tan ~
+
1
+ + ... 2n
n2 - m2 9n 2 - m2 25n 2 - m2 4mn
If we let n =1 and let m be any even number 2k except zero, since

tan k1T = 0, we always have

1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +. .. = O. However, if in
1 4k 2 9 - 4k 2 25 - 4k 2 49 - 4k2

this series n = 2 and m is any odd number 2k + 1,

1
since -......::...-- = 0, we have
tan ~
n

1 + 1 + 1 + ... 1
4 (2k + 1)2 16 - (2k + 1)2 36 - (2k + 1)2 2(2k + 1)2'
182. If we multiply the series by n 2 and let!!!' p,
n

then they take the form

1
_ p2
1
4
1
_ p2 + ---1
9 - p2
1
16 - p2
+
1T
2p sin P1T
1
2 p 2'
1
_ p2
1
+ 4 _ p2 + 9 - p2 + +
1 1 ... 1 1T

1 16 - p2 p2 2p sin p1T
If we let p2 = «, then we obtain the series
1 1
+ 9-
1 1
+ ... 1TYa
-1 ,
1 - 4 4 - 4 4 16 - 0 24 sin 1TYa 20

--- + ...
1 1 1 1 1 1TYa
+ + + =
1 - 4 4 - 4 9 - 4 16 - 4 20. 20 tan 1T \I"; .
Provided 0 is not negative nor the square of an integer, then the sum of these

series can be represented in terms of the circle.

127
 153

183. By means oC the reduction of complex exponentials to sines and cosines

of circular arcs, which has been treated, we can assign negative values to a in the

series just discussed. Since e zi = cos x + i sin x and e- zi = cos x - i sin x,

e- II + ell
when we substitute yi for x, we obtain cos yi - 1 and
2
e- II -
sin yi
2i
ell
Now if a =- 6 and y -rr'Yb , then

cos -rrV=-b
It follows that

tan -rrV=-b = Then we have

(e-"Vb + e,,"'b)-rr'Yb
From these remarks it follows that
e -,,9b _ e "V'b

+
1
-- 1
- + ...
1 + 6 4 + 6 9 + 6 16 + 6

1 -rr'Yb ,
26 (vb
e" - e - "'V6) 6

+ 1 + + __1 _ + ...
1 + 6 4 + 6 9 + 6 16 + 6

(e"V6 + e-""'b)'IT'Yb 1
2b' These same series can be derived from sec-
26 (e ",,,'b - e-",V6 )

tion 162, using the same method which was used in this chapter. However, I

have preferred to treat it in this way, since it is a nice illustration of the reduc-

lion of sines and cosines of complex arcs to real exponentials.

128
 2b5

SUIt
, ,
QGELQ.UES PROPRIETES REl\'1ARQUAllLES DES
Q...u AN TIT f. S T RAN seE N DEN T ESC 1 R C U L !I. 1 It E S

ET LOG A It 1 T H M I Q..U E S.

PAR M. LAM B E R T. It)

§.

D
I.

emoorrer que Ie diametre da c.erc1e n'efl: point afa circonference

comme un nombrc cnder s un nombre enrier, e'eO: hi une cho-
re, door les geometres ne [eroor gueres [:Jrpris. On connoic les
nombres de Ludolph, les rapports trouves par A,.chilJJ~de) par Metills
ere. de mcme qu'un grand nombre de !itites infinies, qui routes Ie
rapportenr a In quadrature du ccrcJe. Er fi la [omme de ces [uires ell:
une quanrire rarionelle, on cloir affcz natur..::l!cmenr conclure, qu'elle
G!ra ou un nombre eoder, ou unt! fradion rn!5Iimplc. Car, s'H }' fal-
loir une fraction forr comporee, queUe rai[on y auroic- ii, pourquoi
piur()r relic que relle :lUrrc quclconque'? C'dl: ainu, par cxcrnple, que
13 (omme de la [uire

---3 +
I"t

I.
-=- + -=- + - +
,.,

3· 5 5· 7
z.
,.,

7· 9
&~
en egale a l'unite) qui de toutes les quanrires rarionelles en la plus
Gmple. l\Iais, cn omenant alternativemem les l , 4) 6, 8 &c. tcrmes,
la [omme des autrcs

.) 1.u en 1767. 1. .3
M'm. c!( I'Acad. Tom. XVI[. Ll

129
 1. 3
2

5· 7
+2 + -.3_ +
9· I I
2
J 3. I 5
+ &c.

donne l'aire du cerc1e, Jorsque Ie diametre ell: ==

I. II femble done-
gut:) fi ccere fomme eroit rarionelle) elle devroir cgalement pouvoir
errc exprimee par unc fratlion forr fimple) relic que [eroir t ou t &c.
En eifct, Ie didmcrre eC3nr· =
J, Ie rayon =j) Ie quarre du rayon
= t, on voir bi-en que ces expre1lions crant aufi fimples, elles n'y
mccrenr point d'obftacle. Er comme il s'agit de tout Ie cerde) qui
fair une e[pece d'uni[e) & non de quclque Sctleur, qui de [a nature
dematH!eroir des fraa-ions forr grandes, on voir bien, qu'cncore a cet
egarcl on n'a point [ujcc de s 'acrcndrc :l une fr~Cljon fort compofce.
Mais comme, apres la fratlion f;i- rrouvee par Archimede, qui nc don-
ne qu'un a peu pres, on paffe a celie de lVetius, ~ -j {, qui n'eO: pas non
plus exalte, & donr les nombres [om confidcrab!emenr plus grands, oa
cloir erre fort porre a condure, que la [omme de cetre [uire) bien loin
d'crre egale a une fraltion fimple, en une quamire irrationelle.

§. ::!. ~c1que vague que [oir ce rai(onnemenr, il y'a nean-

moins des cas ou on lie dcmande pas d'avamage. Mais ces cas ne
{om pas cclui de la guadrature du ccrde. La plUpart de ceux qui s'ar-
[ach~nr a 1:1 l"hcrcher, Ie font avec une ardeur, qui les enrraine quel-
gUt! [ois ju(gu'j revoqucr en dome les verires lcs plus fondamemales
& les mieux erablies de 101 geom£rrie, Pourroit - on croire, qu'ils (e
trouveroienr [adsfairs par ce que je viens de dire? II y (aur roure au-
cre chofe. Ec s'agir. il de demomrer, qu'en effet IF.: diametre n'efl:·
pas a la c:irconfcrence comme un nombre enrier a un nombre ender,
ceree demonnr:frion doirerre fi rigide, qu'elie ne le cede a aucune
demonl1rarion geomerrique. Er avec cour cela je reviens a dire, que
Jes geomerres n'en ferone point furpris. IIs doivenr crre accourumes
a
depuis longrems ne s'artendre a
autre chofe. Mais void ce qui
merirera p us d'arrenrion, & ce qui fera une bO'nne parde de ce Me-
moire. 11 s'agir de faire voir, que fOllfes Its lois Ip/tm ITrc de cercl!
'l1lekong:1e eft ('ommmforab/e au rayon, la t011gente de eet arc lui eft in-
COTIl-

130
commenfilrable; & <1l::1e rt:ciproquement, tout,- tt111gmte COl1mlel1ji"'able
Il'ejf point celie d',w arc COlII1lU1Iji"-,7b!e. Voila de quoi cere un peu
plus furpris, Get enonce paroifrol[ devoir admcttre une infinite d'cx-
ceprions, & il n'en admec auc.unc. II felit encore voir jufqu';} quel
poinr Ics ql1antires circulaires rran(cendenres Cont rranfcendentes, &
reculecs au delci de toute eommenfurabilire. Comme la demonllration
que je vais donner exige toute la rigucur geometrique, & qu'en ou-
lre cUe fera un ri{fu de quelques aurres rheoremes, qui demandent d'e-
rre demonm!s avec tout aurant de rigueur, ceS raifons m'exeu(eronr;
qu:md je ne Jl1e harerai pas cl' en venir a la. fin, ou lorsque chemin fa i-
a
fane je m'arn!ccrai ce qui fe pn!{entera de remarquable.
§. 3. Soit done propofe 1111 fire de ccrete tjur/a)f/tjTIt, mait
(ommmf""llble au "f7yon: & il·s'agit de rrouver, ji cct (1}'(.1 de cercle fora
m mlllJl! temt cotntnt'11ji{rllble d ft· tt111gente all 1/on l QI'on Ce fibrure
pour cet effer une fralHon relie, que fon numerareur fojn~gal a l'ar~
de ccrde propote) & qUI! ion d'enominareur foir egal a la rang,:: nrc de CC[
arc. II eft clair que, de quelque manierc que eer arc & {;l rangenrc (oiem ex-
primes, cette fradion doi[ erre ~g;lle ;l unc autre fra[tion, dom Ie nume-
r:Hcur & Ie denominatcur ft.:ronr des nombres. entiers, toutes les fois
que l'are de eercle propol\! rc rrouvera crre eommcnwrable a [a [an-:
genre. 11 eft clair aufIi que cerre feconde fratlion doir pouvoir etrc
deduire de 1:1 premiere, par la meme me!hode, dont on fe ferr en
arlrhmeriquc pour reduire une fraDion a (on moindre denomina[eur.
Cerre me{hode eram connue depuis Eucfirle, qui cn fait la 2 me prop.
de [on 7 me Livre, jc ne m'arrcccrai pas a la dcmomrcr de nouveau.
Mais i\ eonvient de remarquer que, r3t1dis que Euclide nc l'applique
qu'a des nombres emiers & rarioncls) il faudru que je m'en ferve d'une
autre fa~on) 10rsqu'il.s'agi[ d'en faire l'applicarion a c'es quamires, dont
on ignore encore fi elles Ceront ratione lies ou non? Voici done Ie pro-
cede qui conviendra au cas dom iI eft ici guemon.

q~e ::::
§~ 4.
v.
Soh Ie rayon = r, uo arc c1~ cercle propof€ quekonJ
Et on aura les deux· [uires infinies fort connues
Ll~ ~

131
 '268

fm V = V --
I
_0-
2·3
V' + ----
I

2·3·4·5
V S --
I

2.3.4.5. 6 .7
V1 +&C.
CO f V = I - -
I
2
V
~
+ ----
J
2. 3. 4
..
V" -
I
2·3· 4· 5. 6
216' +& C.

Comme dans ce qui fuivra je donnerai deux {uires pour rhyperbole qui
ne differeronr de ces deux qu'cn ce que rous les fignes fonr pofirifs, je
diff~rer3i jusqaes. hi de demonrrer la loi de- progrelIion de ces fuires, &
encore ne la demontrerai - je que pour ne ricn omerrre de tour ce que
demandc la rigueur geomerrique. 11 fu[fir done d'cn s\'oir aveni les
LeHeurs d'avance.
§. 5. Or comrne il eft
tong V = eofv
--,
fin v

nous aurons, en fubCHruam'ces deux {aires, fa fralHon

J
V -- - - 2 1 3
2·3
+ 2·3.4.5 I
VS - &c.
tang 21== ------.--~---------------------­
I
I -- i- 212 -I-
2. 3· 4
Je 1a poferai pour plus de bricv'ece
A
tang v - B-'
de (orte qu'il (oit
A = fin tf,
B == coC v.
Voici mainrenan[ Ie procede que prefcrit Ene/irk.
§.6. On divife B par A; foir Ie quorient =~, Ie refidu R/.
= ==
=
On divife A par R'; foit Ie quorienr
On divife R' par R'I; foir Ie quorient
0::, le rffidu RII.
Q'I,o Jereli.du Rlil.
On diviCe R" par Rill; foir Ie quotient Q!!', Ie, refidu RIP. &c. =
= ==
=
de

132
Ele force qu'en continuanr ces divifions) On trouve. $c<!tffive01ent
. r)l
1cs quonens "'-' nil ralll
'<.....' "'- - . - • - - •
Q", ll"+' ",,+1
'<..... ,,,", • - - -
& C.
les refidu5 RI, RII, RIll .. - - - - - - R", R"+l; R"+2 .... • ~ &c.
& i\ eft clair fans que ren
avertifIe, que Jes expoCans 11, n I, 11 2 &c.
no,: fervenr qu'a indiquer Ie quanrieme quotienr- ou r~fidu eft celui ou
+ +
ils fc trouvent marques. Ce qui e[anr poCe J voici ce qu'il s'agit de
demontrer.
§. 7. En premier lieu, 11011 flulmlmt 'lilt /0 divifiolZ peut etre
rOl1tillfltf firm fill, nJais que Ie! 'Juotiens jitiV"01It tme loi .trCi fimple en
re tju'i! fora
~ =+1
=- 9
QII
'Q'"
QIP
= + S
= - 7. : v) &c.
& en gtlJiro/

ou: Ie figne + d1 pour I'txpojimt n 1Jair, lefig1/t - pOllr /'expofiwt

n impair &-' tpJe..t/,. la forte on a1/~4 pour la tangente exprimle p.ar
I'arc /" fraOion continue.tres fil!.;le
tang v = .J

---
J:'V - I
3: V -'I

5:v - I
-7-:-v-----::-; ..
-----
9: v;,...-,&c.

§. g. En fecond lieu, 'JUt Its rlfitlm; R', R", Rill &c~ flront
txp,t'im# par Its flitt!S foivanttS', dont ItI/oix de pl'ogrtffion font Iga/~.
mmt fort jimplu:

Ll 3 R':::

133
 ·-e •

R/'== + 4_.6_._8 v5 _
_2_. 4. 6 .8.10 vT+ __ 6_.S_._I.O_._I_2_flP_&C.
20···.·9 2-" .~. -II :I - • - . . . 13
&c.
& forte fjue la Jigms des prtTllierr terma chnngmt {uivll1Jt l'orJ"~'~"II­
tfrfJ.tire - - -t- -t-, &' 'il/'m gflJei'lli ilftl'll

::::. R" =- 2" (1.2 •• --n) "+1

r.2,··.(211+r)
v + 2"+1(I.2_-;
1;2·"
..• (1/+1))
,\.2n+3)
••
II
n+J
-&c.

_ R,,+t=_ :2 n+l,.,1.2···t,.l1 +)) v"+

I 2 +2
"+l( I. 2--, ( 11t 2. )) fI"+4_&c.
- 1.2,'.".(211+,-) IAZ"--'lZTl+5)
_ n+2_ 2, "+t(r. 2, .• -(11 +2)) 1I"+J_2"+ J{ 1.2."(11+ 3) "+r &
_R _+ 1.2· •• -- ( )
2n+5 (-)v
1.2 ••••• 211+7
+ c.
§. 9. Or pour donner i hl demonfirarion de ces rheoremes
route la brievete pomble ~ confiderons que chaque refidu Rt1+:r (0
rrouve en divifanr pal' Ie refidu R,,+r 1 qui Ie precede immediaremenr,
l'antepenuhieme R" , Cerre confider~tion fair, que la demonfirarion,
donr it s'agir peurette partagee en deux parties. Dans la premiere it
faut faire '\toirJque;'p.dplIx rlJidllf R ", R"t " fjuiflfoccedmtiilmuditl-
tement, out la forme 'Jue jt leur.oi dOnllef) Ie.. rtjidu Rn+~ 'lui foit im-
mtdiatemmt, Illlra la flJeme fo"f1Z~, Ce qui eram tlne fois demonrre~
il ne refie plus que rie fnire voir, dans la feconde partie de h1 demon-
firarion, 'lue /11 Jornt( des deux premierr rifiduf tfl c~/I~ 'plitt doivmt
nvolr.

134
 271
I1voir. Car, de cette maniere, il eft ~vident que J. fitrme de tous Ies
{uivans s'etablit eomme d'eIJe - m~me.
~, 10. Commen.ons done par divifer Ie premier terme du r6·
{idu R IJ pAr Ie premier [erme du refidu R'J+t) atin d'llVolr Ie quo..
rient
"+1 !1f1(r.2·3---- n) n+l 2"+I(I.2..g •• -(n+I))"eM
Q= II: - II
1.2.3"-·(~W+I) 1.2.3-··" -(211+9)
:z. (11 +I)
= =
U
I: (2n+2).(:211+ 3) ('lIlt 3): o.

Et il eft clair que, Ie refidu R"+ I erlnt multipJi~ par ce quotient

Qn+:z = (::.n + 3) : v,
& Ie produit eranr (ounrait du refidu R fI , il doir reller Ie rtHidu R"+ I
§. I I. Mais afin de n'avoir pas beloin de faire cette opertl..
lion pour chaquc [erme feparement & de nous borner par Ia a une
fimple induCl:ion, prenons Ie terme general de ehaeune des [uires
qUi. exprlment
. 1es re'fidus R" , R"+I, R,H-:z, e
d Lorte
r. qu'en prenant 1e
mticme [erme des refidus R ") R,,+r, nous prenions Ie (m- I )tieme'[er-
me du refidu R"+2. Ce qui erant obferve, ces termes feron,
+
2,,+m-I(11I_ (m I) . (m + 2) - - - .. (n +m_r).II"+21tJ-4
-
~r"~ ...........--------,~~------~~·~------·--~~-~""""~--~----
--1. I. 2. 3. 4 - - - - .. • (:z.n 2m -I) +
'1+1_ 2rJ+m~ (m _ (m + I) (m + 2) • • • • • m) V n + 2M
(11 +
-+r - -
1.::'.9.4 - - - • - (2n+2t1l+I)
-

"+2 2n+m. ((m-I )-m-(m +r) - - - • - (n +til) _ v"+Zm-I

+r
-
--
- I. ~. 3. 4 - • - - - (2 n + til + 1)
t

Or, puifqu'il doit etre

,.

135
-
",,+m-I.(nz ___ (l1t11l-1)) "+2m-I (
- l J . -I
2.(1I+m).(211+ 3) +
- 1. Z - • - - (2mt~111-2) (=w+ZTll). (:W+2m+ I)
_ - Z"+I"-I.(m---(l1t l1l- I)) v "+2m-J
. (2m-~).(=!.11+ 211l) ___
- I. 2 - - - - (2 1J 211l- Z ) + ( 2 II t 2111) • (211 + IJJ J) +
2 11 + 71J. «m _ I). III (111 +I) • - - - - (11 + TIl) v"t 11l1 - '

-- I. 2. 3 (].I1 + + I)
III )
& partant
_
__-+ r ,,+,•
O n vOIr,· que 1es re'fid·
1 us R", R"+I ayant 1a x-orme
~ que Je. 1eur 31•
donnce, Ie rcfidu Rn + 2 aura 13 me.me forme. II,ne s'agira done plus,
q'.le de s'atfurer de Ja forme des deux premiers refidus R', afin d'e- R",
[;1blir <:e que cerre premiere partie de notre demonfirarion avoit admis
co'mme vrai en forme d'hypothefe. Et e'eR ce qui {era la fc:conde
panie de la demonll:ration.
§. Souvenons-nous pour cet eiFet, que Ie premier refidu
J 2.
R' eLk celui qui rdte en divifam Ie
coC V = I - -
2
I
v2 +z·3· I

4
vi -
I
- - - v'" • - . - &c.
!·-·llJ
par 1e
fin v=.u--v 3
I

2·3
+2·3·+5 z;5I
---v
I
I • -(lIltr)
m+r
·· ... &c
.
Or

136
=
Or Ie quotient qul m(hlte de J& divwon du premier cerme" 'eranD
1 : v) on VOIr qu'il (~a

R' = co! v -
I
- . fin'
v
rJ.

Mulripliant done Ie terme general du divifeur,

-+-. I ~ v1'11+1
- 1. 2. - - - - (~rt.-~) ,
par I V, & foufiralanr Ie produir
-+- 1 _ __
.....
- I. 2 - - - - (m + I)
• r .. '

du rerme g4neral du dividende

I
• v~,
J.2. - - - - - Ill-

on aura Ie rerme g~t1~ral du premier r~Hidu R'

, ==
J
~
I - -
tJJ· • '.

- -
.------.
t ,;t
m+. I.)
- (

Or em +1) crane eoujours un nombre impair; WI kI'S un nomore pair,

&: Ie premier. xeLidu [era

R'=- -2.
2.
3
v2 + 2.
4
3· 4· 5
fl. -
Z - -
6
-
-
- 7
v~ + &c.
tel que nous Havons fuppo1~.

§. 13. Le {econd re!idu R" refulre de Ia divifion de

fin t· = v- -2....3 + 2..
tJ3.
2.
I
3· 4· 5
tJ ~ _ &e.- _• +-
I. 2 - - -
I. -_ir-:yl
(m- 1 ) .
par Ie premier refidu qu~ nous venons de rrouvex
R=--v
I 2 2 +--v-
4 4 6 u7 +___ +_ mtl'" _
2·3 2·3·4·5 ,,----..., I--,-em+,)
/1[11/1. de /'.rl,,,d. Tom. XVll. l'vlm Or

137
=-
Or Ie qUOfiest qui refulfe de la divifion du premier terme J etant
3 . v, on voir qu'il fen
R" fin v - = R/. !.
~fulrip1ianc done le [erme. general du divifeur
m v".
r+- -1-.-..-.-. _ • (m + I)'
par - 3 : u) & fouCtraiam Ie prodriit
3 tn l v,,-
-
-+-
I · . - - • (rn
...--
I y~ +
du terme general du dividende
I
.:::!: . II'" . ',.
I . - . .. . (lIZ - I)

Ie teml~ genel'~ do feeond rludu fera

v .. ~, 3 f11"V III'.
,-I' - -l-
- - 1 - ...... (111-1) ..... I - .... (m +I)
..,...---

- -t-

Subfiiruanr done pour m les nombrcs pairs, noes aerons te fecond

reIidu
R" == - 2. 4 v 3 4· 6 +
vS -
6. 8
v 7 -I- &c.
Z·3 .4· 5 2 • • • 7 2 - • • 9

encore tel que nous }'avons fuppole. Ainfi la forme des deux pre-
miers reticlus eranr demomree, il s~nfuir, en vertu de ]a premiere
·panie de norre demonfrration, que la forme de rous les reudus fui-
vans fell egalemenr.
§. 14.
1Vlainrenanr it n'efl: plus nec:elraire ~e demonrrer repa-
rcmcm Ia loi de la progrelIion des qUQ[iens Q/, Q", Q'II &c. Car
la loi des rcfidus eranr demontree) il ell Rar la meme demonrre qu'un
quodenc quelconque Cera (§. 10)

138
 -+- QfJ+S ==
(2 n +
3) ~ "U,
'.
ce qUl, en Vertu de Ia rheorie des fraaions continues, donne
[
rangv=---
1
---
:_~tI-I

3: v-{
---
S:
---
t1-[

7:
---V-I

9 ;&1-1
1 1.: fJ - r &c.
d'ou l'on voir en m~me tems, que toutu let foil qut l' nrc ".feNl 19~1
J Wit partie ali'luote du rayon, tous ces tJ"oti~u j'erolJt Ja Ilompru en.
tio's croijJrllu daTU tint progriffio11 nrithmeti'ilU~
Et voi1a ce quit [aut o-bfcrver, pgrce que dans Ie tbeoreme
d' Euclid! cice cy· deifus (§. 3.) mus les quoticns (on[ fuPp01cS etrc
des nombres enders.. Ainu julqUe6 li la methode que prefcrit Eu-
cIzJ(, (era applicable a tous ces cas, ()u i'arc v eft une panie aliqUote
du rayon. Mais, encore dans ces cas, il s'y j<linr une autre circonfranre
qu'il conviem de faire remarquer~
§. r 5. Le probleme que propore Euclid!, cg efi: dt trOf4ver Ie plllt
grtwd CO 17I1lJ!1l1 divifeur de detlx nomvru mtio'S, 'lui l1rfiJllt PIlS premiers
mtre etlx.
dus R/, R") Rill &c. - - - Rli. devieot ={),
Ce probleme en: re(oluble routes les fois qu~un des rcHi-
fans que ,Ie rcudu prece-
dcnr R"'l [oit egai a I'unite? cc qui illiv~nr, 1a l~£ Prop. ou meme livre
n'arrive que lorsque les dem:: nombres. propofes loot premiers entre
eux, bien eotendu que touS les quotieos Q', QII, Q'" &c. font fup ..
res ccre des nombres emiel'S. Or nOU5 venons de voir, que cetce cler-
niere [uppofition a lieu dans Ie cas dom il s'agit ici) (QU[t!j les fcis
que ~
v
ea un nombre enrier. Mais, quant aux reudus R') R") Rill &c.
il n'y en a aucun qui devienne =
o. Tout at,; contraire, en ,on fide,.
~1m z rant

139
rant la loi de progreffion des refidus que nous venom de trouver, on
voir, que non [t;!ulcmenc i1s deeroiffenr fans interruption) rnais qu"ils
decroiffenr me me pIus forremenr qu'aucune progrelIion geomerrique.
Quoique done eel a continue a l'infini, nous pourrons neanmoins y
appli'Juer 1a propofirion d'Et/elide. Car, en vena de cerre propofirion,
Ie? plus grl7nd COlllnllllJ divifiul' de A, B, ifi .-:. ,t!ieme tell/S It' plus gl"ill1d
COfllfJJflJJ divifi'ur de tOilS les rl./idlls R, R', R I &c. Or ces rcfidus
decroitTanr en [orre qu'enfin ils deviennenr plus perirs qu 'aucune quan-
tire a!Ii~nable) it s'enCuir que Ie plus grnnd C01l11Jlr/lt divifeul' de A) B,
(ji plus petit 'lu'I1I1Cune. 'lfln1Jtite I7J1igl1l7b1e; ce qui veur dire qu'il n'yen
a poinr, & que parconfequent A, B, cram des quamires incommenCu-
rabIes, 1(1
A
rangv=1f
fern une' '1 1It111tiU irrntio,uJle tOt/tts les fois 'lue I 'nrc V firn '"U pA,'ttt' nli-
guote du 1',IYOl1.
§. 16'. Voila done: a quoi fe borne l'ufage qu'on peur faire
de 10 propofuion d.'Euclide. 11 s'agir rnaintenanr de l'ecendre II rous
les cas ou l'arc tJ eft commen[urabJe au rayon. Pour cer efft;r, &
pour demonrrer encore quelques au[res [heoremes, je vilis reprendre
la {rallion conrinue
tang v == 1 : V-I
1

---
3 : V-I
- --
5: V - I
---
7: v - I &c.
& en faiCanr I : tJ = w, je Ja transformerai en
tang v = W
I
_ I
---
3 UI-I
-W- -1
5 -
---
7W-l &c. §.17·

140
 LAMllEltT. lltRATIONALITY OF 7t 17 369

17 LAMBERT. IRRATIONALITY OF 1T

By 1750 the number 1T had been expressed by infinite series, infinite products, and infinite
continued fractions, its value had been computed by infinite series to 127 places of decimals
(sec Sdeetion V.W), and it had been given its present symbol. All these efforts, however,
had not contributed to the solution of the ancient problem of the quadrature of the circle;
the question whether a circle whose area is equal to that of a given square can be constructed
with the sole usc of straightedge and compass remained unanswered. It was Euler's dis-
eovery of the relation between trigonometric and exponential functions that eventually led
to an answer. Thc first Btcp was made byJ. H. Lambcrt, when, in 1766-1767, he used Euler's
work t.o prove the irrationality not only of 1T, but ILlso of e.
Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728-1777) was a Swiss from Miilhausen (then in Switzer-
lam1). Called to Berlin by Frederick the Great, he became a member of the Berlin Academy
and thus a colleague of Euler and Lagrange. His name is also connected with the intro-
duction of hyperbolic functions (1770), with perspective (1759,1774), and with the so-called
Lambert projection in cartography (1772).
Lambert published his proof of the irrationality of 1T in hiB "Vorliiufige Kenntnisse fUr
die, so die Quadratur und Rectification des Cireuls suehen," BeytriiAJe zum Gebrauche der
J,[athemaft:k un{l deren Anwendung 2 (Berlin, 1770), 140-169, written in 1766, and in more
detail in the "Mcmoire sur quelques proprictes remarquables des quantiMs transcendentes
circulaires et logarithmiques," llistoire de l'Acadbnie, Berlin, 1761 (1768), 265-322, pre-
sented in 1767. They hltve been reprinted in the Opera rnathematica, cd. A. Speiser (2 vols.;
Fiissli, Zurich, 1946, 1948), I, 194-212, II, lI2-15\}. The following text is 11 translation from
pp. 132-138 of vol. II. Lambert writes tang where we write tan. Sec also F. Rudio, Arch-i-
mede.y, IJuygens, Lambert, Legendre. Vier Abhandlungen iiber die ]{reismessung (Teubner,
Leipzig, 1892).

37. Now I say that this tangent [tan 'P/w] will never be commensurable to the
radius, whatever the integers w, cp may be. l

1 In the previous aoctions Lambert expands tan v, v an o.rbitmry arc of 0. circle of mdiu8 1,
into a continued fro.ction, and gots for v = l/w

tan v = ---:-1
w - 1
3w + vw _ 1 otc.
Investigating the partial fro.ctions and their residues, he finds infinito serios like

tanv-'!'
- w + W(3 W 31 - 1)
+ (310 2 -
I
1)(15w" - 6w)
+ ...
and shows (in §34) that those sories convorgo moro rapidly than any decreasing geomotric
Bories. Then, if w = ..,:cp, "', cp boing relatively prime integors, ho finds for the partial
fractions of tan v (§36):
15..,'cp - cp3
15..,3 - 6cp'''''
and (§37):
cp cp cp3 cps
tan-
.., = -.., + ..,(3..,2 _ 9") + .
(3..,· - 9")(15..,3 - 6.., Ll\"+
't'
eto •

Thon follows the text which we reproduce.

141
370 I v NEWTON, LEIBNIZ, AND THEIR SCHOOL

38. To prove this theorem, let us write

cp M
tan- =-,
w P

such that M and P are quantities expressed in an arbitrary way, even, if you
like, by decimal sequences, which always can happen, even when M, Pare
integers, because we have only to multiply ea.ch of them by an irmtional
quantity. We can also, if we like, write

M = sin !f., P = cos !f.,

w w

as above. And it is clea.r that, even if tan cp/w were mtional, this would not
necessarily hold for sin cp/w and cos cp/w.
39. Since the fraction M/P exactly expresses the tangent of cp/w, it must give
all the quotients w, 3w, 5w, etc., which in the present cal:le are

w 3w 5w 7w
+-,
cp
--,
cp
+-,
cp
- - , etc.
cp

40. Hence, if the tangent of cp/w is rational, then clearly M will be to P as an

integer /.I. is to an integer 'IT, such that, if /.I., 'IT are relatively prime, we shall have

M:/.I. = P:'IT = D,

and D will be the greatest common divisor of M, P. And since reciprocally

M:D = /.I., P:D =?T,

we see that, since M, P are supposed to be irrational quantitics, their grcatest
common divisor will be equally an irrational quantity, which is the tllDaller, the
largcr the quotients /.I., 'IT arc.
41. Here are therefore the two 8UPP08itwns of which we must 8/toW Ute incom-
patibility. Let us first divide P by M, and the quotient must be w :cp. But since
w:cp is 0. fraction, let us divide cpP by M, and the quotient w will be the cp-tuple
of w : cpo It is clear that we could divido it by cp if we wildlCd to do 1:10. This is not
necessary, since it will be sufficient that w be an integer. Having thus obtained
w by dividing cpP by M, let the residue be If. This rel:lidue will equally be tho
cp.tuplo of what it would have been, and that we have to keep ill mind. Now,
since P: D = 'IT. an integer, we still havo cpP: D = tp'lT. an integer. l"illally,
R' : D will also be an integer. Indeed. since

cpP = wM + R',
we shall have

142
LAMBERT. IRRATIONALITY OF 1t 17 I 371

But cpP:D = cptr, wJf:D = wf'; henco

R'
cptr = WI' + D'
whieh gives
H'
D = cptr - wp. = integer,

which we shall call r', so that H' ID = r'. The residue of the firHt division will
therefore stiJl have the divisor D, t,he greatest common divisor of Jf, P.
42. Now let us pass to the second division. The residue B' being the cp-tuple
of what it would have been if we had divided P instead of cpP, we must take this
into account by the second division, where we divide cpM, instead of M, by B'
in order to obtain the second quotient, which = 3w:cp. However, in order to
avoid the fractional quotient here also, let us divide rp~M by R', in order to have
the quotient 3w, an integer. Let the residue be B", and we shall have

cp~M = 3wB' + B";

hence, dividing by D,

But
~M
cpD = fP2 m = integer,

-n = 3wr' = In
3wB' . teger;

hence
B"
rp2m = 3wr' + 75'

which gives B"/D = rp2 m - 3wr' = an integer number, whieh we shall write
= r", 80 that

R"
75= r".

Hence the greatest common divisor of Jf, P, B' is still ofthe second residue B".
43. Let the next residues be B"', Blv, ..• , B'Ii, B'Ii+1, R'Ii+2, ••• which corre-
spond to the rp-tuple quotients 5w, 7w, .•• , (211. - l)w, (211. + l)w, (211. + 3)w,
... , and we have to prove in general that if two arbitrary residues B", B'Ii+l, in

143
 372 v NEWTON, LEIDNIZ, AND THEm SCIIOOL

immediate succession, still have D as divisor, the next residue Rn+2 will have
it too, so that, if we write

R":D = r",

where r" and r,,+1 are integers, we shall also have

an integer. This is the demonstration.

We omit this proof in §44, since the reasoning follows that of §42.

45. Now we have seen that r', rlt are integers (§§41,42), hence also r"',
,.tv, .•. , rn, ..• to infinity will be integers. Hence anyone of tho residues R',
RIt, R"', ... , Rn, ... to infinity will have D as common divisor. Let UI:I now find
the value of these residues expressed in M, P.
46. Every divil:lion provides us .with an equation for this purpose, since we
have
R' = cpP - wM,
RIt = rM - 3wR',
Rot = cp2 R' - 5wR", ete.

But let us observe that in the existing case the quotients w, 3w, 5w, etc. arc
alternately positive and negative and that the signs of tho residues succeed each
other in tho order - - + +. These equations can therefore be changed into

R' = wM - cpP,
RIt = 3wR' _ cp2M,
Rot = 5wR" _ cp2 R',

or in general

From this we sec that every residue is related to the two preceding in tho same
way as the numerators and denominators of the fractions that approximate tho
value of tan cp/w (§36).

144
LAMBERT. IU.RATIONALITY OF 1t 17 I 373

47. Let us make the substitutions indicated by these equations in order to

exprcss all thesc residues by M, P. Wc shall have

R' = wM - rpP,
R W = (3w 2 - r(2).M - 3wrpP,

ROt = (16w 3 _ 6wr(2).JI - (15w 2 rp _ r(3)P, etc.

And since these eoefIicients of M, P arc the denominators and numerators of the
fractions we found above for tan rp/w (§36), we sec also that we shall have

M 3wrp R W

P - 3w 2 _ rp2 = (3w 2 _ r(2)P'

M 15w 2rp - rp3 R"'

P - 1.5w3 - 6Wrp2 = (IOw 3 - 6Wr(2)P'
etc.

48. But we have

hence (§§37, 34)

hence

Thus all the residues ea.n be found by means of the sequence of differences (§37)

145
 374 v NEWTON, LEIBNIZ, AND THEIR SCHOOL

by omitting I, 2, 3, 4, etc. of the first terms and multiplying the sum of the
following terms by the first factor of the denominator of the first term that is
retained and by P.
49. Now, this sequcnce of differences is more convergcnt than a decreasing
geometrio progression (§ §34, 35). Hence the residucs R', RH, R"', ctc. decrease
in such a way that they become smallcr than any assignable quantity. And as
everyone of these residues, having D as common divisor, is a multiple of D, it
follows that this common divisor D is smaller than any assignable quantity,
which makcs D = O. COIll:!Oquently M : P is a quantity incommensurable with
unity, hence irrational.
50. Hence every time that a circ'ular arc = q;/w is commensurable with tlte radius
= 1, hence rational, the tangent of this arc will be a quant'ity incommens'urable with
the radius, hence irrati01w.l. And conversely, every rational tangent is tlte tCHlgent
of an irrational arc.
51. Now, since the tangent of 45° is rational, and equal to thc radius, the arc
of 45°, and hence also the arc of 90°, 180°, 360°, is'incommensurable with the
radius. Hence tlte circumference of the circle does not stand to the diameter as an
integer to an integer. Thus we have here this theorem in the form of a corollary
to another theorem that is infInitely more universal.
52. Indeed, it is precisely this absolute universality that may well surprise us.

Lambert thon goes on to draw conl:lequences from hil:l theorcm concerning arc!! with
rational values of the tangent. 'fhen he draws an analogy between hyperbolic and trigono-
metric functions and proves from the continued fraction for c" + 1 that e amI all its powers
with integral cxponents are irrational, and that all rational numbers have irrational natural
logarithms. He ends with the sweeping conjecture that "no circular or logarithmic trans-
cendental quantity into which no other transcendental quantity enters can be expressed
by any irrational radical quantity," whero by "radical quantity" he lUeanl:l Ol1e that is
expressible by such numbers al:l V2, va, v
~, 2 + V3, and so forth. Lambcrt docs not
prove this; if he had, he would have solved tho problem of the quadrature of the circle. The
proof of Lambert's conjecture had to wait for the work of C. Hermite (1873), and J!'. Linde-
mann (1882). See, for instance, H. Weber and J. Wellstein, Encyklopiidie der Elementar-
Mathenw.tik (3rd ed.; Teubner, Leipzig, 1909), I, 478-492; G. Hel:lsenbcrg, 7'ranszendenz
von e und 7J' (Teubner, Leipzig, Berlin, 1!H2); U. G. Mitchell and M. Strain, "1'he number e,"
Osiria 1 (1936), 476-496.

146
 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ~IATHE~rATICS,

COMPnISING CIIIEFLY

TilE

RECTIFICATION OF THE CIRCLE

TO 607 PLAOES OF DEOHIIALS.

BY

WILLIA~I SHANKS,
IIOUGltTOlHE·srruNG, DURltUr.

LONDON:
G. BELL, ISO, FLEET. STREET ; MACMILLAN & Co., CAMBRIDGE;
ANDREWS, DURHAM.

1853.
I'RI:STED l'on TnE AUTIIOR.

147
 'fO

WILLIAM RUTHERFORD, ESQUIRE, L.L.D., F.R.A.S.:

ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY, WOOLWICH.

My DEAR SIlt,

I know of 110 pertion to whom I can, with so great pleasure, so

much propriety, and such deep gratitude, inscribe this small volume as
to you, from whom I receiyed my earliest lessons in numbers; nnd I
earnestly wish it had been something more worthy of notice that the
Pupil was presenting to the Master, than the present "CONTRIBUTIONS
TO :M:ATIIEMUICS" can pretend to be. Still, I yenture to indulge and
to express the thought, that whatever proves the firlll detcl"lninatioll
of any of Great Drit.'Lin's Mathematicians not to allow themselves to
be outstripped by their Continental neighbours, even in calculation,
redounds, in its. measure, to their own credit, and also affords pleasure
and satisfaction to all who feel interested in excellence of thi~ kind.
You, Sir, have laboured long, ardently, and most successfully in
the Study of lfatbematics, and have evinced, in nearly every branch
of that beautiful but abstruse science, such clearness and de1)tll of
thought as are rarely met with. This boweyer is not all. 'V 0 seldom
indeed find profundity united with great facility of comimtatioll i-but
you happily combino both in a very eminent degree.
I regret my inability adequately to convey to yon the heart-felt
sentiments of esteem, gratitude, and respect with which
I am, 1\1y dear Sir,
Your t;inccro and obliged Friend,

1'IIE AU1'HOn.
Ilougliloll-le-SJ.lrill!l,
Fcb. 28, 1853.

148
 pnE~'ACE.

TOWARDS the close of the year 1850, the Author first formed
the design of rectifying the Circle to upwards of 300 places
of decimals. He was fully aware, at that time, that the ac-
complishment of his purpose would add little or nothing to his
fame as a Mathematician, though it might as a Computer; nor
would it be productive of anything in the shape of pecuniary
recompense at all agequate to the labour of such lengthy
computations. He was anxious to fill up scan.ty intervals of
leisure with the achievement of something original, and which,
at the same time, should not subject him either to great
tension of thought, or to consult books. He is aware ·that
works on nearly every branch of Mathematics aro being
published almost weekly, both in Europe and America; and
that it has therefore become no easy task to ascertain what
really is original matter, even in the pure science itself.
Beautiful speculations, especially in both Plane and Curved

149
 vi

Geometry, have, even of late years, been pushed to a very

great extent in our own country, without much regard being
paid, as to the probability of their ultimate and direct utility.
The Doctrine of Impossible or Imaginary Quantities, which
certainly long perplexed Mathematicians, has also lately re-
ceived a proper share of attention from men of genius. The
Integration of Quantities seems to merit farther labour and
research; and no doubt this important and abstruse branch
will, by and by, obtain due consideration, and we shall have
important ::;implifications of, and additions to, our already
large st.ock of knowledge.

Holding sentiments somewhat similar to the above, and

having, as before stated, occasionally had spare moments from
the duties of an arduous profession, t.he Writer entertains the
hope, that Mathematicians will look wit.h indulgence on his
present H Contributions" to their favourite science, and also
induce their Friends and Patrons of Mathematical Studies,
to accord him their generous support, by purchasing copies
of the work.

Dr. Rutherford, of the Royal Military Academy, Woohvich,

150
 Y11

a distinguished Mathematician, has kindly co-operated with

the Author in separately calculating and then collating the
value of '1t' to 441 places of decimals, so that accuracy is en-
sured at least to that extent; and it is confidently hoped no
error has crept into the remaining 86 places.

It is proper to state, that the talented writer just mentioned

lately sent a It Paper on determining the value of '1t'," to the
Royal Society of London, an Abstract of which has just been
published in the Proceedings of t11at Learned Body, wherein are
gh"en the ,alues of tan -1 !, of tan -I 2!9' and of '1t', to 441
places of decimals: also, the extension of the same, by the
present 'friter, to 527 places.

In the following pages, the ratio of the circumference of a

circle to its diameter, is determined to the great extent of 527
places of decimals.

The values, of the base of Napier's Logarithms, of the

Napierian logarithms of 2,3, 5, and 10, and of the Modulus
of the Common System, are given to 137 places of decimals,
except that of M, which extends only to 136.

151
 viii

A few of the higher powers of 2, as far as 2721, having been

obtained in the calculation of tan -1 ! , conclude the volume.

It only remains to add, that Machin's formula, viz., T

" - -
4 tan -I! - tan -1 2!9' ,vas employed in finding "If :-and that
the values of tan -1 !, and of tan -1 ~9 are found and given

separately; as also the value of each term of the series em-

ployed in determining these two arcs.

Houghton-le-Spring,
Feb. 28, 1853.

Since the above date, and while the following sheets were in
the Press, the Author has extended the values. of tan -I! and
of tan -1 2~9 to 609, and the value of'1l' to 607 decimals; which
extensions are given in the proper place. Should Mathe-
maticians evince a wish to possess the extended values of each
term of the series used in finding tMse arcs, a few supple-
mentary sheets might soon be furnished.

April 30, 1853.

152
 LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.

No. or Copica.
W. Whewell, D.D., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge - - 1
M. A. C., HougMon-le-Spring - 1
W. Rutherford, Esq., L.L.D., F.R.A.S., Royal Military AC3demy, Wool'\\ich - 2
Rev. Temple Chevnllier, D.D., Professor of Matllematies, Unh'ersity, Durham - 1
HOIl. & Rev. John Grey, M.A., Rector of Houghton-Ie-Spring - 1
Augustus De Morgan, Esq., Professor of Mathematics, University College,
London - 1
Rev. P. Kelland, M. A., F. R. S. E., Professor of Mathematics, University,
Edinburgh - - 1
G. D. Airy, Esq., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal, Royal Observatory, Greenwich -.2
John Stephenson, Esq., Colt Crag, Noriliumberland - 2
Nailianiel Ellison, Esq., Morton House, Durham _ • 1
S. Fen'\\ick, Esq., ~'.R.A.S., lIInilicmatiC31 Master, Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich _ 1
Rev. Charles "'nitley, M.A., Hon. Canon, & Yice·Master of University College,
Durham - 1
Robert Uawson, Esq., IIighland House, Portsoa, Portsmoutll - 1
R. Tatllam, D.D., Master of St. John's College, Cambridge - 1
Sir J. F. W. IIel'Sehel, Dart., lIIaster of the Mint, &c., &c., London • - 1

153
 No. of Copiel.
John Nnrrien, Esq., F.R.S., Professor of Mntllematics, Royal Military College,
Sandhurst - 1
Rev. J. R. Young, 1I1.:A., Rector of Whitnash, Warwickshire - 2
James Laurie, Esq., Billiter-Street, London - 1
W. Goouricke, Esq., lIougMon-le-Spring - 2
Joseph Whitehead, Esq., Wash Brook Cottage, near Oldham, Lancashire _ 1
II. W. Cookson, D.D., Master of St. Peter's Conege, Cambridge - 1
Rev. Bartholomcw Price, :IIf.A., Fellow and Tutor of Pembroke CoUege, Oxford 1
'V. Finley, Esq., Durham - 1
Rev. Rohert Walker, M.A., F.R.S., Reader in Experimental Philosophy, Oxford 1
George BeU, Esq., HcxllRm - - 1
Wilkinson Matllews, Esq., Q.C., 64, Brook-Street, Hanover Square, London - 1
W. S. B. Woolhouse, Esq., F.R.A.S., Alwyne Lodge, Islington, London 2
William Winship, Jun., Esq., Morpeth - _ 1
'l'homas Dixon Walker, Esq., Darlington - 1
M~. George Andrews, Durham - 1

154
 'fABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Introductory Remarks and Historical Notices.......... ............. xiii-xvi

Explanatory Remarks and Formulm.................................... 1
+ terms of tan -I_}, to 530 decimal pla.ees ........................ 2-31
-
-I 1
terms of tan 6"' to 530 ,. 31-61
+ -\ 1
terms 0 f tan 239' to 530 61-73
- 1 ' to 530
terms of tan -1 239 " ........ " ............. . 73-85
Value of tan ·1 ! ' to 609 places of decimals .....................}
Value of tan -I 2!9 ' to 609...... .. ................................... .
Value of .., to 607 places ........................................... .
Expla.natory Remarks and Formulm.... ............................... 88
Value of I, the base of Napier's Logarithms, to 137 places ... }
89
Values of Nap. logs. of 2, 3, 5, and 10, to 137 places ........ .
Value of lIf, tho Modulus of the Common System of LOgarithmS,}
89
to 136 places of Decimals .................................. ..
Powers of 2, as far as 2' 11, commencing with 2 13 , a.nd prOCeed-}
00-95
ing2:L', 2 1 ' , 2 411 , 2 61 , &c................................... .

155
 INTUODUCTORY REMARKS AND HISTORICAL
NOTICES.

THE PROBLEM, "to find the ratio of the circumference of.a

circle to its diameter," has engaged the attention of Mathe-
maticians from very remote times. The Greek Geometers
and Arithmeticians, chiefly from their clumsy scale of notation,
could not be expected to make any considerable progress in
ascertaining the ratio in question: and indeed we may remark,
by the way, that even in the Geometry of Curve lines at large,
they did not and could not proceed to any very great extent.
Until the time of Newton and Leibnitz, the limits of Mathe-
matics were but contracted; and though since, and by, their
very extraordinary labours, great additions indeed have been
made to the previous stock of Mathematical knowledge, yet
we must admit that not very much has lately been done, or
perhaps remains to be done, towards extending the boundaries
of that department of human knowledge and research. It
would not be of any service to recapitulate in this place what
is already duly recorded as matter of history respecting the
various Mathematicians, and the different processes employed
by them, who have applied themselves to the solution of this

156
 xiv

striking and curious Problem. Nor can ,ve well afford space
even to glance at t.he ignorant, presumptuous, and abortive
attempts made at different periods II to square the circle I" In
later times, Mathematicians-and they alone are competent to
deal with such enquiries-have pointed out satisfactorily how
to find the value of '.f' ultimately by means of infinite series of
v!,triou! degrees of convergency, as will be seen in what fol-
lows: but no one, so far as we kno,v, has hitherto been able-
and we are of opinion that it can never be accomplished-to
ascertain the limit, strictly speaking, of the ratio under con-
sideration. In other words, the circumference and diameter of
a circle are incommensurable. =If: We proceed, then, to take up
the history of the Problem since the year 1831. Previous to
1831, the value of 'If, as the late Professor Thomson of the
University of Glasgow writes, in his work on the Differential
and Integral Calculus, had been calculated "to the extraordi-
nary extent of 140 figures!" We may here be permitted to
indulge a sm.ile at the learned writer's words, now that the
ratio has been found to 607 places of decimals!
In the year 1841, Dr. Rutherford, Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, a distinguished Mathematician, presented a paper to
the Royal Society of London, which was published in their
transactions, in which he gave the value of 'If to 208 decimals .
., For full and interesting particulars, the reader Is here referred to the History' of this curlous
Problem, written by the profol1lld Mathematician Professor De Morgan, and which is gil'en in the
Penny Cyclopredia.

157
 xv

The formula he employed is ~ = 4 tan _1 !- tan ..1 ~ + tan ..1 9~'

Subsequently it was found that the last 56 figures were in-
correct, an error having crept into the value of one of the
terms of the series employed. But of this talented writer
we shall have to speak afterwards.
The Mathematician who seems next to have engaged in the
solution of this Problem is M. Dase, about the year 1846,
then a young man of great promise; who used the formula
f = tan _1++ tan -1++ tan -1+. He found the value of '7r

correctly, as was afterwards shown by Dr. Clausen, to 200 places

of decimals, and communicated his result to Professor Schum-
acher of Altona.
Somewhere about 1847, the eminent Mathematician Dr.
Clausen, of Dorpat, above-mentioned, turned his attention
to this subject, and employing l\lachin's formula, : = 4
tan _1+ - tan _12!g, and also the formulaf= 2 tan -!.j- + tan _1-},
he calculated the value of 7: from each of these formulre, and
found it correctly to 250 decimals. The values of the four
.arcs and of '7r are given in No. 589 of the "Astronomiche
Nachrichten," published in 1847.
In the earlier portions of the year 1851, the Author of this
Volume, not then aware of M. Dase's, or of Dr. Clausen's
labours, employed Machin's formula, given above, and calcu-
lated the value of '7r to 315 decimals. Dr. Rutherford, in the
same year, verified the Author's results, using also Machin's

158
 XVI

formula; and moreover pushed his calculations to 350 places

of decimals. During the latter part of 1851, and the early
months of 1852, Dr. Rutherford and the present writer ex-
tended the value of '7:, the former to 441 places, and the latter
to 527 decimals. In the months of March and April, 1853,
the Author' still further extended the ratio in question; and
the value of '71", given in this Volume, is, it is presumed, more
extensive than has hitherto been determined, consisting of no
less than G07 decimals. The values of tan _I i-, and of tan -12 : 9

are given to G09 places. These values, then, have been care-
fully collated, as far as 441 decimals, with Dr. Rutherford's
results, and may be pronounced free from errors, inasmuch as
each party worked independently of the other. The Author,
therefore, is alone responsible for the accuracy of the additional
1G6 and 1GS respective places of decimals.
Whether any other Mathematician will appear, possessing
sufficient leisure, patience, and facility of computation, to
calculate the.yalue of '71" to a still greater extent, remains to be
seen: all that the Author can say is, he takes leave of the
subject for the present, and deems the farther extension of this
ratio a work of considerable difficulty, notwithstanding the
assertions of some writers, who have evidently had little or no
experience in such matters.

159
 EXPLANATORY REMARKS AND I"ORMULlR.

FROM lIfachin's well known formula, '\"iz. ~ = 41.1.n -I ~ tan -I 2i9' the
value of =-, given afterwards, has been determined.
It may also as well be stated here, tlJat from Newton's series we lmyc,
-1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
tan 5" = 5" - 3.53 + 5.5' - 7.5' + 0.50 - 11.511 +, &e. ;

The yalue of each term of the above series employed ill finding the two arcs is
given separately, so tllat its accuracy may readily be tested; and 110 difficulty
·can ppssibly arise to Mathematicians, for whose perusal chiefly the following
pages are intended, in comprehending all that follows.

160
10 + TEnMS OF TAN -11.-.
;)

1
5'
808888 888888 888080 880888 888888 888888 888888 888888
846153 840153 846153 846153 846153 846153 846153 846153
588235 2!·)4117 u47058 823529 411764 705882 352941 176470
80!}523 1.l0!l5~3 809fi23 809523 809523 809523 809fi23 809523
1
2IT"7 065517 241379 310344 827586 206896 551724 137931 034482
424242 424242 424242 424242 424242 424242 424242 424242
054054 Ofi4054 054054 054054 054054 054054 054054 054054
780487 804878 048780 487804 878048 780487 804878 048780
777777 777777 777777 777777 777777 777777 777777 777777
1
4!J.!iA fI
530012 244897 959183 673469 387755 102040 816326 530612
4!J0506 037735 849056 603773 584!l05 660377 358490 566037
77H)29 82451il 403508 77H129 8245til 403508 771929 824561
71ln385 245001 (j39344 262295 081967 2]3114 754098 3606!i5
7(j9230 7(jH230 7u9230 769230 769230 760230 769230 769230
042028 985!iOj 246376 811!i94 202898 550724 637681 159420
1
602739 720027 397260 273972 602739 726027 397260 273972
73.5 73 623376 623376 623376 623376 623376 623376 623376 623376
876543 20!l876 543209 876543 209876 543209 876543 209876
470588 235294 117647 058823 !i20411 764705 882352 941176
808988 764044 943820 224719 101123 595505 617977 528009
860215 053763 440860 215053 763440 860215 053763 440860
1
587628 06!i979 381443 298969 072164 948453 608247 422680
U7.5 117 801980 198019 801980 198019 801980 198019 801980 198019
701904 ,6H104 70UlO·1 761904 701904 701904 761904 761904
24770(i 4220lfl 348023 853211 009174 31H)26 (i05504 !i871!iS
5]3274 3:3(i283 1851.140 707n64 60l7G9 911!i04 424778 761061
76(}683 7(J0(J83 ,<lOOU3 760683 7G0683 7u0683 760683 760683
1
121.!i !!II 165239 256198 347107 438016 528925 619834 710743 8016!i2
620155 038759 609922 480620 155038 759689 922480 620155
406015 037593 !l849(j2 4O(j015 037593 9S49Ci2 406015 037593
401459 854014 598540 145985 4014!i9 8!i4014 598540 145985
88(J524 822095 035460 992907 801418 439716 312056 737588
1
8620C~ 965517 241379 310344 827!i86 206896 551724 137931
B.'38926 1744!16 0442115 302013 422810 791946 308724 8.'32214
!l34640 522875 816993 464052 287581 699346 40!i228 758169
04-1!i85 987261 14(i4UG 815286 624203 821656 0!i0955 414012
993788 819875 77Ci397 515527 950310 559006 21]180 124223
939893 9393!J3 939393 !l393!}3 93H393 930393 939393 939393
I

161
 sun

LA FONCTIO'N EXPONENTIELLE.

tit.' des SCiCIICI!S, L. LXXVrJ,' 'X;:;,

i·' -7!}'
C(}mplt:.~ rentllls I'Ac(((/,llIIie
It ~ I H-~~,1, ~r~G-? j:;, 2.8:;-'1!):;.

L .I;:l.unt donne lin nomht,c qllclconqllc dc quanLiLI!S Illlmcl'iqllcs

<X" <X:!, " " <XII, on sail. (!u'on pellt en appl'ocher simulLancment
pa,' dcs fracLions de mcme dcnorn inal.clI I', de tellc SOt'te qll'on ait

ctl
At
= - +
e,
---=-=,
" A\,'A
A') eo}
a., = --=. -1- - - -- ,
- A AVA
................ ,
a - _All_ e" L.. __ ,

1/ - , \ , A ,'/A

~" ~~, "" 1)1/ 'w IHltJ":tnl d4:paSS()I' II'H! limitl! '1tJi depend seulc-
mellt de II, C'esl, comJne on "oil, une extension lIn mouc t1'ajl-
1"'o\imaliuJI l'I':slIltallt dela lltcf",il! des fJ'al!l.ions conlinncs, qlli
cOl','espolllh'ail au C!as II! pltls simple de n 0,', on penl 5e pro-="
pose" nile generalisaLion semlilable lIe la lheorie des f,'acLions con-
tinlles algcu,'iques, cn cherchanL les cxpressions appt'ochces de
/I. foncLions cp, (x), <P2('X), "" <P1l(X) par des fracLions rationnclles

<II'I(:C), 'IJ'i!«X), ""

•• (:l.'.) (. x)
'll'/«x»,
(. :r:
dc manicrc (Inc les dcveloPllemenLs en
sl:,.il! SlIivanL les puissances croissanLes dc la variable cO'lncident
.i IIsqn':' nnc puissancc dclcrmincc Xli, Voiei d'abord, a eeL egaI'd,
un prcmicr resulLat qlli s'offl'e immcdiatemcnt, Supposons que les

162
 sun 1..\ FONCTIO:-; EXI'ONfmTIEI,I.I'. 1.51

fonctions Cf' (.-x), ~~(,x), ... , Cfn(;c) soicl1t toutcs dcvcioppabld en'
scrics de la forllle (J. + f~.c + y .L·~ -t- ... el. raisons
'\'(.7') = A;rI1l-I- B:r l1l ·-'+ .. . -1-\\:1'-1-- L.

On .I>oul"I'a, en gcnb'al, disposcr' des coefficicnls A, B, ... , L de

manierc il anuuler dalls les It lll'oduits Cfi(:;c)'II(.x) les l.l:l'/IlCS cn

IAj t:tanl 1111 nombre cnl.icI' arbitraire. Notrs poscl'Ons ainsi IIll
llombre d't:qual.iollS J.oJllogi!ncs de pn!rllicr'dcgl'(: (:g-al IIl'ceiscllleul
il IIJ.j, ct."I'on allnl
~

£" E~,eLant des consLanlcs, (lli(.X) nil polynome clllicr' de

•••
dCt;l'I! M-IAj. Or, cell.I: relalion clounant

Oil YOil (1'II"! Ics dCyeiuppcrllcllls en s(!I'ic de I.. fl'action I'aliollllclle

cL de la fonction sCl'onL, CII cfrcL, les JIIl:III1~S jllsfjn'aux LCl'lllOS
Cll ,x~r, el, COlllIllC Ie llombrc lolal dcs cquatiolls posces cst
p., + p.~ + ... -+ P.Il, il snffil d'asslIjcUit, it Itt sClIlc conditioll

les enl.icrs IAj I'cstes jllsqu'iei absolllll1cnL at'hitt'aires. C'est cctl.c

considemlion si simplc qui a sCI'vi de poinl de deparL il l'cllldc de
Itt {'onclion cxponcnLicllc q lIC je Y;\l5 cx posc!', JIIe proposa II t d' en
fairc I'applical.ioll aux: quanliles
92('r.) = c b •r , ... , 9,,(:r) = C"·I· •
U, Soil., pOll!, aiH'cg'er, .M - I I / . = I',; .ie compose avcc; les COll-
sLalltcs a, 6, .. " Ii. Ic JlolJnomc
F (z) = .ziJ·(:. - ((. )p.• (.z - b )(1., ••• (:. - It )(1.",

dc dct;re tJ. + tA, -\- •.• + IAII = lH, eL j'ellyisHoC tcs It inl.cgTales
delinies

f" (I
c-;;;·1: F(.z) dz,
""
[ "c-::,l: F(.z) dz, ... ,

163
 OIWVRES DE GIIAIIl.ES IJIUIAIITIl.

qu'il cst facile d'obLenir SOliS forme explicite. Faisant, en eIret,

• F (z) (?' (z) FI)!) (z )
;J(z) = -:.c- -I- -:C.-.• - -1- ••• -1- ~'.H'
.LO,

HOUS aurons
J e··;:·" F( z) C/Z =- e-·;:;" 5(.::),

et, par consequent,

I
• 0
tt
e-;X F(z) d.:: = 1(0) - e- a ;.: :tea),

[ "e-·;:'" F(z)dz = 1«)-e- bX 1(b),

• 0

01' l'e"-pression de j(z) donne immcdiatement, SOliS forme de

.
po Iynomes or·donnes slllvanl I '
es pUIssances .
erOlssanles (I
eI;;'I. es
<Iiverses qunnLiLcs j(o), 1(a), ;/("), ... , et si l'on observe qu'on a
F(o)=o, F'(o) = 0, ... , F(p.-II(O) = 0,
puis sl1ecessivemenl,
F(a) = 0, F'(a) = 0, .. 0, F(!L,-I)(a) = 0,

F(b) = 0, F'(b) = 0, , FIP..-I) (b) = 0,

................................................ ,
'"

lIOllS en conell/I'ons les reslIltals slIivnHLs

..,
.f (a) =
'1'. (.x)
;I:~I-H '
... , i(l) _ 'I',,(x)
/. - x~,+· '
0'" Ie polynomc cnlicl' (II(x) cst tll/ degre M - po m, eL les =
auLrcs (I). (:v), el):! (:v), "., ell" (,1:), des dcg/'(!s M - (1-" M- r:!' ... ,
M - (1-/1' Cela pose, nOl/s (~c"il'ons
ea.", 'I' (x) - <I', (x) = x~I+1 eax I a/ x
e_: F (z) dz,

ebx <I' (a:) - 'I'!(.t') = x)I+1 e hx J o

b
e-: X F(z) {/.::,

........................................... ,

164
 or, les inLeg-rales dcfinics se devcloppanl ell serics de Ja forme
(1+ ~x+rx:!+ ... , on voiL quc les condilions )ll'ecedcmmcn!.
posees commc definiLions du nouvcau modc d'approximaLion dcs
[onclions sc lrouvcnL cnlicI"clllcnl rcmplies. NOlls avolls ainsl
OOI.CIlU, dans lontc sa gCJlcralilc, Ie sySlclllc des fracl.ions raLion-
<1'1 ( :r.) <1'2 ( :r.) 'I',. (,r.) _I 1" •
nc1Ics -)--)
,
"(a; , - () ( a;
) )' .. ,' -)-(-'
() a;)
uC memc (clloJl1lllalcur, rcpl'c-
.

scnlant Ics fonclions cRX , eb,'C, .'" c'·,r, aux tcrmcs pres dc
l'ordrc X·I + I ,

lJ I. Soi!., COIIIUle application, /I. = I, d. SlI(lPOSOIIS de pills

po = I.lol = Ill, cc (JIll donncm

M='J.m, F(.;)=,;;I11(.;;_,}III;

lcs ucriyccs dc F(z) pour , ; j = 0 sc lircnl s\Il"-lc-cbamp un dc\'c-

10ppcmcnL par ]a formulc dll hinolllc
m m(m-I)
1~(~) = .:;2111 _ _ .;;2111-1+ ;2111-2_ ••• + (-I)"'Z'Il,
I I .~

cL l'on obLiclll
F(211l-kl(O) = m(m -I),. :(m - k + I) (_ 1)40,
',".1.,3 •• ,'.>.1It -- k I ':'...L,.k

d'ou, par suil.C,

~(a;) m
3
1.2 . . . . lIt
= 2m(2m - J) ... (m + I) - (?In - 1)(:HIl - 2} ... (m + I) -.-: .7;
I
. m(m.-I)
+ (Ull - ~)('1I1l- 3 )... ( In + I) I,? ,r.2 - ... + (-I)IIIa;III.

POUl" a,'oir, cn sccond liclI, Ics valclIl's des dCI"ivccs quand on

supposc ,; = I , nons poscrons ,;j = 1 + It, afin dc dcvcloppcl'sui-
vanl lcs puissanccs dc It]c polynomc F(I + It) = 1t"'(1t + 1)/11., Or
]es cocfficicnts preccdcmmcnL ootenus se rcpI'odllisant., sauf Ie
signc, on voil qll'on am'a

Ccs rcsllltals conduiscnL li inlTod uirc, au ]icu de (I) (x) cl <.1'1 (.x),
lcs polynomcs
'1'( ,r.) '1'1 (:r)
II (a;) = J ,".1..3, • • m' 11 1 (,1,') = 1.:1..3, .. lit'

165
 OIWVIIES "I> CIIAIII.m'l IIEIUIlTE,

donL les cocflicienls sonl des nombl'cs enLiers; on alll'a all151

e:r II ( ,r ) - II. ( ,1') = .. .

:/,,211/-.-'
t.~:r.
f 1
e- Z:(' z'" (..: -- 1)'" (/~
I.~.J .. . 111 'u

el.l'oll met ell evidcncc (tllC Ie prcmier mcmlH'c pcnL dcvenil', pour
IIII(~ valelll' slIflisammenl. i;,'ande de IJI, pIllS peLit qlle lonl.e 'Jllan-
, • X 2,U+l
lill': donnee, NOlls savons eflecllvclllcnt quc Ic faeLCll,. ---"""',--
1 , 'J., J, , ,lit

a :l.1!I'O pOIIl'limile, cl. il cn esl (I(~ m«~me dc l'integl'ale, In ([llanlilc

.:;;111(1-.:;;)111 eLanL LoujollI's illfericnre ;1 son maximum (;)'" qui
dccrOlL indcfin.imcnt quand III aug'mcnte. n rcsulte de ];1 qu'en
slIpposanL ,7: un nombre entier, l'cxponenLielle e:J.' ne peut avoil'
11111: val e Ill' commens\lI'ahle; cal' si l'on fait e:l'=~,
l/.
on panienl,
a II ,'(':s a voi,' elt aSSt! Ie (MilO III i na Le 1I1', it l' ega Ii le

/) II (,1') - (I II. (:1') = (- 1)111

a:,.!II/-f-1
"
1 •• ~ ••J • • • III .~
rt e,~'(I-·,Tl..:;'" (1- ::;)111 r/::;,

d01l1. Ic sc«:ond llIellll)!'c I'clIl dc\'cni,' llIoi"dl'C <Jill! toulc gl'anueuI'

dOIllH:«~, el sans jalllais s'«':vanouil', landis 'file Ie lH'cmiel' est. un
JloIIIIH'e cnli(,I'. Lalllbcri., ;', qlli ron doit ceLLc lll'oposilion, ainsi
'I"!! la SI~ulc t1cIIIOl1sll'aLioll, j"s'!"';', cc jOlll' O!Jt.CIlIlC, de l'ilTation-
nalilt: till rappol'l de la ci,'confl!reneC an diameLl'c ct de son Cal'!'e,
a ti,'«: «:«~s illlp(II'lallts ,'(~sllltais de la f,'action cont,inllf:

e:r·' - t.~-:': :r
I~·t· -t- t! .A·
1 + - - -,1'~
-
3+-::-
• ........;...-
:1+ .. ,

it laqllelle nOlls parvicndl'olls plus t,lI'd, Laissant cnli(:l'cmcnt dc

CUle Ie rapport de la cil'eonfc,'cncc all diamctrc, je "ais maintcnant
tcntcr d'allel' plus loin a Pcg'anl dll noml)l'c e, en clahlissnnt l'im-
possibilitc d'lInc relation de la ft.lI'mc

166
 155

a, It, "" " etanL dcs nom bres cnLicl's, ainsi (P'C les coefficicnts N,
N" "" N'l"
IV, Jc considcre, it cp.l elI·cl., pal'mi les dive,.s s,rsLi:nH:s de [I'<IC-
, . 1I '1' I ( .r. ) '1'2 ( .7: ) '1' " ( .r. ) I' •
lions raLlonnc es -1-(-'
.. ;1:)
-1-(-:' , .. , -1--' , CC III (III Oil ohlipnt
.. :C) "(X)
IOl'sqll'on slippose !J. = 11.1 =, ',' .- :J. II , ec qlli dOllllc

III. = np., M = (n -I- 1)/.1 cL F (z) = ill- (::; ).

cn faisanl
l< z) = z (z .... II) ( :; - bl ... (z - h.).

Soi l aIm's, (:omlllt: lOll I. ;'1 I'lIelll'(:,

'.' (;1;')
II (.r.) = 1.:t,:I., ,p.' II, (.17) = '1'1
, • ~,J. ,
.,(.r) .11. ' .' "

. '1',,( .r.)
11,,(:/',')= 3 ;
I.~, ,. ,1.1

Ccs nouveaux polYllomcs aut'ont encurc, POIII' (CUI'S cocfflc:icnls,

des nomlu'cs Cnl.iCl'S, <:1. condllil'onl ;1I1~. relations sllivanles :

cn;~ 11 (X) - II, (.r.) = E/,
(A)
cb,~ II (.Z') - 11 2 (,/',') = E2,
••• a ••••••••••••••••• ,

c " '" II (.r.) - IT" (:r) = Ell,

en eCl'iVanl, pour abl'(~t;c,'.

Xll+IC
.,
ax
I. 'J., J . . . 1.1 •
f."'
II
(:-z'~l'( .. )d;;,=
I" 0
cx(tt-z) •
(11.(::;):17(/1-1-111 /•. 11
.,
I ,'J... , . . ,/1.
r/:.,

.r1.'+'cb,t:
.,
[".
c-;x I' ( ... ) d:. =
f" c..:rb -;),./1/.( :.).r.(II" 111/•. '.1
., li:.,
1.2. • .:. .•• p.• _n • '."J.• ,l ••• p.

Cc)a pose, .i'ubscrvc CIl pl'cmicl.'licu (pie EI, z::, ,., dm·iclllwnl,
pour unc valeur suffisammcnl ijTandc de ;1-, plus petils que loul!:
quanlile UOlllll:C; CC:U' , Ic polynomc j(z) nc depassanl jamais IInc
cCl'Lainc limitc ), dans l'illl.cI'vallc pal'couru pal' I.. val'iabl(:, Ic 1';11:-
lCllr .fll-(Z):r.ll/+I)IJ.+I
'3
. 1 '1' I' cxponcnllc.c
' ((In inti lip IC
. II SOliS I e 'SIt;llC
I,Z, " ,11. .
. ,0.;1: 11 + 1 )!I.,r
d'illlet;I'Ulion, cst conslammcnl inf(:ricUl' ;'1 Ja qllantllc .• '
I.? .. '" .11.
qui a zero POllt' ]imitc,

167
I iG OIWVIIES IlE CIIAIII.ES IIElIlIITE •

.Ie suppose mainlenanl x =

I dans Ies equations (A), el, desi-

gnanl alors par Pi In valcur cO'TcspondanLe dc ni(X) qui SCl'a un

llomorc enlicl' dnns l'hypothi·se admise tt l\':gnrd de a, 0, ... , It,
elles de"iendl'onl
c" P -- 1'1 = E It

e" I' - I' 2 = !2,

.............. ,
cit P- I'll = EI/,

et la relalion Sllppos(~e

donncl':1 facilelllcnl cclJc-ci,

dont Ie premier memhrc cst cssenliellcment enliel', Ie second,

d'nprcs ce qui a ele elaoli rc1ali"ement l't EI, E!!, . , . pouvanl,
lorsque (1. augmentc, devcnir plus petit que loute grandeur donnee.
On anra done ncccssairement, it partir d'une certnine valeur de p-
c\. POIll' IOlllcs Ies valclll's plus gl'alHlcs,

NP -t- NI PI +" ,+ N"I'II = O.

Supposons~ cn conseqllcnce, que, !J. de"cnant. s\lccessivcment
1J. + I, IJ. -f- 2, "" po -1- Il, Pi se dwngc cn p~, P;, .•. , Pt)j on
nlll'a de 1I1(~IIlC

Nf" -1- NII'~, -j- ••• -1- N"P~, = 0,

Np' -I-NIP'; -1- ••• -I-NIII';, =0,
............................... ,
N 1'11/) -t- N1P\,1/ + ... + Nil p~:., = o.

CCS rclations cnlralncnl In condition snivante :

P PI PIt
P' pI 1" /I
I
p' P"I p"/I. =0.
1'11/) P(II) pOll
I
"
En pronvant donc qne ce determinant est diO'erent de zero, on

168
dcmontrcra I'impossibilitc dc Ia relatioll admisc

J'obscncl'ai dans cc but qll'OIl pcut slibstiluCl'alix lCl'lncs d'unc

lllClllC lignc hOl'izolltalc dcs combinaisons Iilleaircs scmbiabics
pour loulcs ccs ligucs, ct que j'indiclllcmi cn considel'allt, pal'
exempIe, Iu prcmihc, Elle cOllsislc a l'cmplacel' l'cspecli\'CIllCIII P,
PI! P2, •.. , 1'''_1, 1'" par P-e-np l , c- aP I-e- bP 2' ... ,
e-GPII_1- e-I,P", e-/I(>,,; il csl alOl's aise UC vuil' cluc, si I'on lI1ul-
liplie LuuLcs ces (l'Hlllliles parI. 2.:)., 'Il., ellcs ucvicnllcnt pl'eci-
scmenl Ics inlegralcs

l\1ainlcnanL lcs aull'CS ligllcs se ueulliscnt dc cclie-HI pal' Ic chan-

gcmenL dc (J. en (J. + I, (J. + 2, .'" II. + Il, cL Ie dClct'luillanl
lrullsformc sur leqllel 1l0US allons raisonner cst Ic 5uivanl :

1" c-zjll.(;) d;;, I f /.

c-i&.f'r(;;) £iz, .... "' 1'" c-zjll.(z) £iz
0

[,." "
A= 1" .
o c-Zfll.+l(z)d;;, c-zjll.-O-I (:;) d::;, ... , [ ' " ;;-:/11.+1 (z) d;;
" , /,
............................. , .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . . ••• J ................................

1" , f 1'"
~

II
o C-Z/IL'''''(:;)c!::;, C- Z/JL-f-Il(:;) d::;, ... , c- zjll.-f-Il(;;)d;;
/.
"
V, Nous devons SUppOSCl', conune on I'a YU prcccdcmlllcnl,
que II. est. un grand nombrc i c'esL ce qui conduit a dclcrlllillcl', au
moyen de Ia belle melhode donnee pal' Laplace (Dc I'inl(igralion.
par ctppro:cimation des differentieLles qui relliermelll de,'i lac-
teurs eleves ct de grandes puissances dans Ia Tlu:orie ctIWIJ'lique
des Probabilites, p. 88), l'expression asymptoliquc des inte-
grales

[
It

e-MjJL(;;) d::;, f /.
c-;;/II.(;;)d;;, .... , [
• I.
'" c-;;/JL(;;) d;;,
"0
"

169
alill tl'en eondun~ POUl' U lInc yalell!' appl'oehee, dOlll Ie rapport it
la valeul' exneLc soil 1'unile POllI' 1'- inlini, AdmcLlant, ;'l eel ClrCL,
IIlIcles 1H1I1lhl'CS cllllel's ll, 'I), "" It soienl lollS positifs ct I'ang'es
pal' onll'(! I:roissant de g-I'alldeul', dc sOl'le qllC, dans cltaquc illll~­
t;'l'ale, I .. fUllelion c'-:;' /1'.(::;), II'li s'auuule aux lilllilCS, HC preSelll.e,
dalls l'inLcl'vnlle, fjU'UIl sellJ maximullI, .ic eousidcrcrai cn pl'C-
"lil~1' lieu I'equation
{'( z) I
' - - = -,
J(Z) p.

dont dl:pendenL lous ccs maxima, 01' 011 sail q"c scs racincs sont
,'ccllcs cL comprises, ]a prcmiere ::;, cliLl'C zcro el (l, Ia sccolHle ::;:!
entre a eL b, el ainsi de suilC, In pills gl'alHle ::;11+' etant superieure
;', It, Ellvisagc('s comme fonctions cIe :J., il esL aisc de voir qll'elles
el'Oissent lorsquc p, augmenle, el fJu'ell dcsigllanl par p, fj, "" s
les I'aeincs de l'cfjllalion derivce f' (::;) = 0, rang'ecs PUI' ol,dre
crolssanl
, .1
uC I,!T:ln d cur, on aura, S1' l' on neg
')''b"'C -:;
I
•
., p.-
_
~I = P -I-
' ./( p)
p: J" ( p ) , ... , =11 =:t -I- -
o
I f( s)
-'-,-,
IJ. J"(S)

el, ell derllier licu,

fl-I- b +" ,-\- It.
;;;,,_,_, = (It -\- I) p, -\- ,
IL -\- ,

IInc approximalion plus grande ll'clalll pas alors llcecssairc, Cela

pose, si I'on ":Cl'il POIII' lIll inslant
o(z) = fez) ,
• vf'~(z)-.l(.;;;)f"('~)

1es v.. leurs cite I'cllees serOll L

... ,.

mais ccs fluantilcs sc simplificnt, cOlllmc on va Ic voir,

Consiucranlla premiere POllt' fixer les iuecs, j'observe que nous
avons
Z, = p +.!. .( p) ,
IJ. j (p)

170
 8UI\ I.A l'ONCTIO:-l l~XI'ONJ';N·I·JJ·:I.I.I·:. 1)9

ou p salisfail a Ja cOlldilion/'{p)= 0; on cn conclul/{.r:I)=/(p),

Cll llcgligcalll sculcmcnt 1~2" P~ll' consequenl, si l'on pose
I

1(:.,) =J(P)( 1+ ,:3 +:: -1-. •• ),"

puis d'ullc manicl'c analogue

011 aura d'"hol'lI

/I£(zl) =/1£(/1>(1-1- ; -;-. .. ,),

Cll'Oll Cll lirc aisellu:ul

I l£(zl) ~(Zl)
•
=J!1(p) o(p)
, (1+ - '("
~
+ -~I +... . )
Ainsi, cn ncgligeanl sculcmenL des quanlilcs infinimcnl peLiLes
pa r 1'a pporl au lcnllc conserve, 1I0US pOllvons ccrirc

1"o
e-uJP-(:;) dz = V--' ? 'It

~
c-/'jP-(p) rp(p),

ell'on aum de mClUe

......................... .................................... ,

?\lais Ia dcrnicl'c inlc6ra1c

.[eo
,. e-;: j'1"( J:.) d;;; csL d'ullc {ol'me una-
lyliq ue dillcrcnlc, en raison de Ia vuleur Zn+1 = (II. -I- I) IJ. qui
deviclll illfinie avec fJ-. Pour y panenir, je dcveloppcrai, suivanl
lcs puissances descendanlcs de In variahle. l'expressioll
JogL c-:;JP-(.:::) 9("')],

en ncg l 'IgeanL Jcs lel'mcs en ':'

I 1
-:"-;,......
•.• , cc qUI, PCl'JIJCllI" CCl'U"C
'

..;;".+1 -
log/(:.) = (1& + J) logz,. Jogrp.::: = log = 10" - - " - ,
';(1&+1):.2,,+,.. "';1&+1

171
l(iO OIWVIIES liE I:II,\III."S 111m MI'I'E.

cl, par suilC,

IOg're-':/I£(z) 9(:)'1 = (np, -\- fl' -I- I) ItI~:;; -:;; --.~ log(n -I- I),
A pres a VOil' SII hSlillll: In v:llcu I' de '::;"+1, nne l't:d nclion faeile
nons uonncra, cn faisan~, POut' alll'egcr,
0(1-") = (11IJ. -I- tJ. -I- r) log(n -I- I)[J. - (It -I- I):J. - ~log(1t -I- I),

celtc cxpl'ession scmLlaLlc :'t celIe des integl'alcs culel'icnnes de

pl'cmiel'e espccc

IVlaintcnallt on va voir commcnt Ics resultals ainsi oulcnus con-

duiscnt ais~mcnl ;1 la valeur du detcrminant a,
VI. J'eH'ecluerai d'abord une premihe simplification cn suppri-
manl, dans les lCl'mCs dc Ia lignc hOl'izontalc dc I'ang i, Ie fac-
leUl' \ / ?or. ,. puis IInc scconue, en uivisanllous lcs lcrmcs U'IIIlC
[l.-I-t
mClllc colonnc vCl,ticalc pal' Ic prcmier tl'cnl1'c CllX, Lc nou vca II
dclcl'minal'il ainsi ObtCllu, si l'on fait, pour abl'cger,
P=/(p), Q =/(q), .. 'O ., S =/(s),

SCI'U c"idcllllllent
1

P Q s eO(p.+II--0CI£I

P' Q1 St cO(fLHI-OC(Ll

p" Oil
... S" efIC IL+II,--OCfL'

01', 011 voil '(lIC I). IlC fig'm'c plus qllc uans unc co[onne, uont les
lCl'mcs croissent d'nnc lcllc manicre <J lie Ic dcrnicI' eO(fL+II )-O(fL> cst
infinilllcnt plus gl'all(l que Lous les anll'CS, NOlls l\Vons, en cn'et,

172
 ,
ct, par consequenl, Sl. l' on nCb'
'1'Ibc -,
1 1
-2' ... ,
p. p.

O(p. -I- i) - II'(p,) = i(n -I- I) log(n -I- I)(..t,

d'm'!

En nc conscrnlllt donc dans Ic clclcl'lllinanL quc Ie LCl'mc cn :J. de

l' ordrc Ie plus clcve, il sc reduil simplcmcnt a cclle cxprcssion

I'
1.(It-l-I):..tJI/\I/+1l 1'1

1'1/"'1 :;" .. ·1

II rcsuiLe (Iu'on lle pcut, CIl i:j'cllcral, admcLLrc que Ie

Cll
dclerminanl proposc a s'allllulc, car Ics quanliLcs P =/(p),
Q =/(q), ... , foncLions cnlicrcs scmblablcs dcs l':H:incs p, q, ...
dc I'cclualioll dcri\'cc /'(x) =
0, scrollt, COJllJllC ecs racincs, diHc-
renlcs cnlre cUes. C'csL ce (IU'il faHail clablil' pOIlt' dCJIlOnll'ct'
l'impossibililc dc loulc relalion cle la fOl-mc

cl aITJ\'CI' ;(11151 ;', PI'ouvcr quc La Iwmbra e IW peul elre racine

d'une cquf.llio/l algebriqutJ de degre qlleLcollqlltJ (t coc.//iciclIlS
cnliers.
Mais IInc aull'c voic condllil'a ;', IIIlC sceondc demonstralion plus
rigoureuse; 011 peut, en cIlCL, eOllllllC on va Ie voir, clcndl'C aux
[I'acLions ralionnclIcs

--,
<1'2 ( ,7:)
<1'(X)
... , <I·,,(.r. )
<I'(x)

Ic modc de COI'malion des l'clillil.cs donnc pat' la liacoric des frac-

llons continucs, cl pal' Iii mcLll'C plus complctclllcnl Cll cvidcncc
Ic caractcrc arithmclicluc d\lllc irralionnclle llOll algcbricille. Dans
ccl ol'drc d'idccs. 1\1. Liouvillc a (Mjii oblcnu un liteorcmc l'Cmat'-
(pHllllc qui cst l'objCl de son travail illliluic : Sllr des cla,~,~es lrt?,~
elelUlues de qllaltlild.~ dOlLl let va.lellr n'esl lLi algebrifjlle, IIi
11.-111. II

173
1(;:>. /H':I'\'UES liE CIL\III.W'; IIElIlIITE.

1I/{:/llI:l'I:ducl£ble Ii tI(,S il'ralio/l/lclles alg(:bl'i(lll(,s (I), cL jc I':.p-

1'l'lIc,'ai allssi '!I,e f'illllsll'r~ g'r~ClIIl;~I"C a dCllIoull'c Ie p,'cmicl'la PI'O-
position (I"i est Ie sujel tie ecs I'cchcl'ches POUl' les cas de l'cqua-
lion <III seeoml deg"l: eL dc l'cquation hictll'l'ce [Note Sill' l'ir/'a-
tionnalillf till nombre e (Journal de AfrtlluJmaliqllcs, t. V,
p, I!):~)]. SOliS Ie point de vue ttUC{IIe1 .ic IIW suis I,IacI!, voici la
pl'(~/I1icJ'c IH'oposiLion ;, cL"blil' :

VJI. Soient F(~), ]0',(.::;), ...• 10'1/+,('::;) les polynomcs cler/uils

de l 'expression

iOl'sqll'on alll'ibue (tux CXpOSOlltS iJ., t1." ••• , :1.'" n + :.I. systemes
dUltJrents de valeur.'i enli(~res et POsilil'es. 1i.'1t representant, ell
• • <}.k(.r.) •.
general, par 11'~'(:I:) les fractlOlts cOIIl'ergelltes vcrs les exponell-
tielles, qui correspondent (il'ull que/conque d'entre eu,x F A{ ::;),
on pOUl'ra toujours determiner Ie ... quantil(Js A, B, C, ... , L
paries equations sllll'Ctnles :
All' (:c) -I- BII" (.:1') -I- C 11. 1 (:r) -1- ••• -1- 1. 11. 11 +' (x) = 0,
A'I',(:r.) -I- 11'1'1 (:1:) -I- CII'i(.r.) -1- ••• -1- LII.'{+I (:r.) = (),
................................................. ,

Mais, all Jiclt tic concllll'c dc tclles relalions des polynomes

(!OllllllS, Illll,'e ohjet cst dc lcs ohtrmi,' di,'ectemelli.
(I)~'(,'l') SUJlI"'Sl~S
et (I. priori,· jc vHis r:lal,li,' IHlll1' cela qu'il cx.istc,
ClllI'C Ics inlc-
~Tales inrlMinics

IInc equation dc In formc

ef\".!(:-;;;t'F( z) c/.:; -I- 'll!.JC ;;,t· 1"1 (.;) £I.:; -1- •••

-I- J.:..!e-;;:rF,H-1 (.:;) £I; = c-;;.r9(z),

(I) ComptcoY rClldus, I. XXIII, p. 88,1 l'l !J""

174
 ~Ul\ 1.,\ !'t}:-iCTIOX E:\I·O;'liE:\TII':I.I.E.

les coefficienls .,}\", lli" ..• , -~elanl independunls de z, el e(~) un

polynollle enlier divisiLlle parl(:;). Si rOil fail, Cll eifel,

rf(_' Fd.;) FI..(z) F~,(z)

.r ". ..,) = ---;:- -I- ~ -I- ---;;a -1- •.••

Oil alll'a

.J\..!c-:·"F(z) liz -I- '1Il, •.

= - c -.::.rt ,J\"j (z) --I-lll,jl (..;)
r c-z·t"F. (Z) dz

-1- •.• -I-

+ ... -1-
-C ;('11 (z )J.
{.,r c zxFI/ I _' (z) dz

'Ill. 8 J' "

el. il est elail' .J\.
~1'U: Ics l'apIllll'ls ---, - , " ' , ~ pOlll'l'onl ctl'C dclcl'''-
ell, ,Il.
mines, cl d'IIIlC sClllc lIIanii:l'c, pal' 101 I:ondilillll SIIPI"'SCC (I'll: Ie
POlJllOIIIC

contien!1c COIllIllC faCI.ClII·

f(:;) = z(z - (I)(Z -b) ... (z - Ii).

NOlls cOnc1UI'UllS de I;'. CIl pl'cnalll Ics int(!oTalcs cnll'c Ics I'illlitc
z = U et ::; = (l, pal' cxcmplc,

.J\. i
ll 0'

c-z.•.·l'(.<i)d.;-I-lll,j c-z·"F1(z)d:.+ ...

o 0

-I-J-:.1" c--z,t'FII+1(z)c!z =0.

u'

Muilltcllant, Ics I'clations

I
• t)
a
e
-
~.r.
".
I' (.:;) dz = . e"·
e"""I'( :r.') -
}I
-1'1 (:r)
t' ;{.o, +-1
'

dOnllCl"Ollt, cn cgulanl SCpUl"Cmcllt ;'. 7.t:1'O Ie tCl'lllC al1;(!bl'iqll(~ cl Ic

coefflcienl dc I'cxponcllliclle crt.", si 1'011 fait, pOUI' ab I'l':i:j'c I',

A = :c··
-,-,-+, ,-
•.1\., I'
, =
'1Il,
3:~,,-1-I·'
... , L=
1"
"
3:Mn+t"j·1
,

175
 IIIWVIIES IlR CIIAIII.t:S IIlmAl1'l'1~.

les (:galilcs sui"anlCs :

A '1' (x) + B .}.I (a:) -1- ••• -1- IA.Il+1 (x) = 0,
A'I' I tx) -I- n'I': (x) -+ ... -1- £.'1.':+1 (x) = o.
Or, on :Iura de m(~JIIc, en rrenanl ponr limiles slIpcrieures des
iJlll:grales :;; = b, c, .. " It,

.................................... 0_.'

el il cst aisc dc "oil' (Juc les coefficicnls A, H, ... , L pourronl (\It'C

SlIPpOS(!S des polyl1oJTIes ellli('l'S cn x', L'inl(~brall!

1
I
e-:;..: ~II/(.~ -I)'" d~,
II

(jUt figure dans la relation prcccdcmlllcnl considcl'cc (p. 15;'),

x!IIt+le X [I
e'" II (,7:) - III (,7:) = , e-Z;A.'z'" (z - I)'" ([:;,
I , '1.,3, • ,ilL. 0

nOlls sen-ira d'ahoru d'cxcmple.

VIII. Dans ce cas facile, CII'I Pon a simplemcnl

I(Z}=z(:;-I),

je parlirai, ell sllpposalll

e (.:;) = ;c I"'-t-I (;:;) -I- (lit -I- 1)/111 (':;)f'(;;),
de l'idcnlill! sui\'<lnlc ;
d [ e'" ::.;,.' ~ ( - ) I
. ci.:; v =e-':;('I~'(:;)-:t:~(.:;)]

= e-::' x [ - x t / I11 + 1(z) -I- (m + 1)/'" (z)/'(:;)

+ m(m + I)/III-I/"(Z)],
elj'ohsel'verai que
/'2(;;) = j;:;2_ 4; -I- 1= 4/(.:;) +1, /W(z) =?'J

ee (lui pennet de }'ceril'c ainsi :

til e-::.;c e ( ~)1
cia: v = e-::.;t'[_ ;C2/1II+1(:;)
+ (2m -I- !)(am -I- 'J.)/m(z) + m{m -I- 1)/111-1(:;)].

176
 NUlls allt'OIlS JOlle, en inlegTanl.,

c- :;.rs(z) = - x'J c-;·r./,,,+J (z) dz + (2m -I- J)( 2 III -I- 'J.).,[ c··z,,,!,,, (z) £I:;
-I- III (m -I- I) J c·- Z3'jm--J (;;) d;;,

cL cnsuitc, si nOlls pt'CIlOIl; pout' lilllitcs :; = II cl ~ = I,

J
X2i c- z.r/'"+J (z) dz
o
= (2m -I- I)(un + 2)1 0
J
C-Z"'jlll( z) dz
I
-1- III (III -I- I) [ C -z·"f'" -I ( z) d;;.
'·0

Soit. muinlcnanl
X2",+1 c'" [I •
&",= c-z.r:Zm(Z_I)'" liz,
1 .2 •• • 111 • U

cl ecU.c I'elalion ucvicnunl

C'cst Lc rcsuLtal all{lucL nous voulions parvcllil'; Cll Y slipposanL

Sllcccssi"cmcnt In = I, 2, 3, ... , les equalions {!u'on cn lirc

uonncnt aiscment la fraction conlinuc

E\ x'
-=------::
x'
6.+ - - - - - ; ;
.r. 2
III -I- - - : - - -
14+· . , .
cl il suf!il u'cmploycl' lcs vaLcul's

&0 = X eX 1 I
e-1OX dz = eX - I,

I
&1=X3eX£ c-:.t'.z(z -1)d;;=c·l:('J.-X)-'l-X,

177
 OEt;\'JlES ()I~ 1:1 1.\ II I.I(S IIEII~IITE,

S1 I!'" -I- 1
- =:1. - ---;1',
So C'.(' - - I

:1'
]lOLli' I'Cll'OU\'CI', salll' Ie c1wllgcllIenl de :I: en :;" Ie rcslIllaL de
1.;1111 1)(' I'l ( 1 )
C"'-I :1'
,..< -\- 1 :I.':!
~~-I- -----
~t·"!
(;-l------
:1:"1.
III -I- - - - -
I.) +,

En ahoJ'llant mainlcnanl Ie cas b(~lIcral el me lu'oposanl d'oh-

lenir, ;'11't:gard des integ-,'ales dcfinies

[
• 0
" I!-=flll (.:;) liz, ["
., 0
(!"=flll (.:;) t/:;, ... ,
~
("
0
e·-:.flll (z) dz,

UH algoritllllle qlli pCl'mclle de Ie!> calelllcl' dc pl'ochc en proche,

POlll' t.Ollll!S Ics valclIrs dll Ilom\n'c enlicl' Ill, j'inll'oduirai, afin de
l'cndJ'c les calclIls pIlls s}lllcll'iqIlCS, ]cs modificalions suivanlcs
~lans )cs nOLations prcd·demment. admises. ,le f'cI'ai

f(:;) = (:; -z,,)(.z - Z I ) " ' ( Z -:;,,),

.Ill liell de
J(z)= z(z-a)(z-IJ).,,(z-h),

{Ie JIl:lllii'l'c ;'1 eonsidl:l'cl·le pol),lIomc Ie plus g-cllcl'al de degTc II-\- I;

d,\sig-Il:lIlLI!nSlIill! pal' Z I'IIIH! '(I":leollll'le des (l"anlill:s .:'1, ,,~, , •• ,
~1l' .ie I-aisollllcrai stir l'illl(~gral(!

f
•. _
·'1.
I: =flll( z) d:;,
"'0

<pli .loHuel·:! cvidcllllllClll toutcs ccllcs (lue nOlls avons cn vuc, en

faisant..::;o =
o. Cela ctanl, voici Ja remarqllc qui m'a oliverI. Ja voie
cl conduit ;'1 ]a mcLhodc <Illc jc vais exposcr.

(t) J\Icllloirc SUI' quelclllcs 1'1'1I1H'icil'S J'cmarqu:.blcs des qU;lnlilcs lramcclldalllcs

c:irclllai res et logarithm iqucs (Jlh:/lloil'cs de i'A cademie des Sciellce,~ de 11el'lill,
;l.nnce I,;GI, 11. ~(5). Voir allssi la NOle IV des j;(imen'ls de Geolllell'ie, de Le-
gendre, p. 288.

178
 SUII I.A FO~CTIO::\ I£XI'O;-;J;;-;TJEI.J.E.

IX. Ell inLeg-rant lcs dcux mcmbrc:> dc la relation idcntiqllc

dl c- z /", (z)]
dz = C ;:lmjlll-.I(.:;)!,(.z) _jlll(":;)],

-.r
.on obticnt

e--zjlll(z) =.m.r c-zj"'-I(..:;)!,( z) li..:; C-Z/,"(z) liz,

Cl, par COllsc(lucnt,

,f
"I. l
c- :.:/m(z) (/::; = 1/1. [ (:-:'/111-1 (z).f' (.::) dz,
.... • oJ

011 e 11(:ore

-+1Il f 1. c···~ fill ( ..:;) .

. dZ-j- . . . -i-1It
j' "I. (!-z (Ill
.
( z)
lI.::,
.... .; - ;; I ... .Z - Z,t
~ q

d'aprcs la formll]c
/ ' (z) 1 1 1
.1'(::)
-
= ---\-- - - ; - ... - \.:;-;;/1.
':;-ZI ~-..;()
---.

Or GC sont ccs nouvellcs iIlLl~bl'alcs

}
_
~.
'"I. tJ-z(",( ... )
.
-
-.# -.NO
c/;;;
- , f
''::It
"l.e- z (III(Z)
- . .-
.. - ~I
li::,
, 'O'O .. ,

({IIi dOllllcnt licll a lIll systclIlc dc rclations rc:clIJ'l'CIILcs de 101 forllle

f
• _
~o
z c-~f'''+I(Z)
.
,Z: -"=:;0
d..:;= (o() 1...
....
1. t!-....
•
.u -
-f'III ( .;;; )
.'::0
(/::;

J ..
1. c-;:(m+I(..:;)
.
.;;-z,
. d .. = (10)/"1. t!-~:'f"'~:;) tiz
!.1·
,_ >U -..vo
~.
~"

"I. c--Z(111 (:.) a -:.:(m(z)

-I- (I I) ( _. _ li:; -!- •.. -\- (1/1.) _. _ dz,
'-;'n ..-.4-.-", '0'::-0 """--It
................................................................................................................................ ,

J "I. c-~f'''+I(:;)
. dz= (no) j ."I. t!-:./"'('::)
_. _ d::;

r1.
_ .::;-.z" ~ ..... 0

r
'';:0 -
"0

"l.(:-· .. (III(:;) . c -:.:(IIt(Z)

-I- (//.1) _. _ d:. -\- ... + (n/l,) _. _ d:;,
'~'::tI N- ·I
... .~.::o ""'-.lU/t

179
,/iX tllwvnr.s liP. C:IIAI\I,I~S IIIWAIITI·:.

0'" Ics cocfficienLs (ik), aillsi ((lte IcUl' uctcl'minant, s'obticllllcnt

<I'uIlC manii!I'C facile, COlllllle nOlls VCI'I'ons.
C'cst done cn Opcl'anL SUI' Ics clemcnts all nonll)J'c dc 1/ + I,
dans lesf[lIcls a ell! d,!composec l'inl'!t;Tulc J.. c-:'/
Z
IIl (:.)d:;, quc
nous parvcnons ~, sa dclcI'min:ttion, all licll de CIlCl'CltCl', commc

r'
IInc analogic naLllI'cllc allJ'ait pal'll l'indiqllcl', IInc expl'csslOn
z
lineail'c de e- Z/",+11+1 (:;) d:;, all moycn de
., =.
J ·0
1-
'e-Zjlll+l(z)d:;, ... ,

:Mais SOil, d'llnc manii:rc pIllS genel'al'c, POUl' dcs valcurs cn-
tiCl'CS lJuclconqucs des cxposants,

cn inLegl'ant lcs dcuX'. mcmhres de l'iucnLill!

fir e-z,.:F( z rI = c-: [. We:;) _

(
F(z )],

=.r
on a lIl'lI
e-: F(z) e-: F"(:) d:;-~r e-: F(z) c/:,
d'Oll

j _ z e-:l[·'(;;)c{:;=1z
_ e-:ll~'(:;)d;;,
"0 "p

Maintcnant la fOl'Jllllle

P'II
11" (z)
-.--
l~(z)
---+
= Z-Zu -P·I
.=-..:.
-P'I/
- + ... +Z-.:;"
--

donne Ia decomposition sllivanle,

l =. '
z
e-Z F(z) dz = l.to
J z'
:::0
e-: F (z) dz
.z -Zo

180
qui couduil'a parcillcmcnl auealeul llcs divcrs (crlllcs dc 101 sllil(~

fM. 'I.
c-: F(z) dz, .f c-:
~.
'I.
F(::.)J(z)dz, ... , f ~.
'I.
c-:F(::.)Jk(.:;)dz;

clrcelircmcnl, Ics elemcnts de decolllposiliou dc rlln quelcolHIlIc

d'clltrc eux s'exprimelll. ell fonction lilleairc dcs (l'lalllileS sem-
blahles qui sc mppol'lcnt all lel'mc l't'eeedclll, ainsi lIu'on va It:
InOnlrCI'.

X ..J'ctablil'ai POllt' ecla (111'011 PClIt 1.0lljCIIII's th:le"JIIi,,(!,' dellx

polyuomes, cnli(!,'s de dcgTc II, (-)(~) d <-1,(:;), leis (I','on ait, en
desigllanl pal' ~ rllne dcs l';H:iues ':;0' .:;') • • • , ZII, lil l'e1ation slli-
vaute :

•!
C-~F(Z) (z) {!c-::lf(Z)t:)I(.::)d -1'( , ( )
z _ ~ l .:; =. f( z ) .z - C --~ " z ) tI z .

Ell c(rCl, si, aprcs a\'oir dill'crcntie Ics dcux lIlcmbrcs, lIOUS 1lI111-

tiplions par Ie [aetcul' t~:~, it "ienl

f(z) [ F'( ':;)']. ,

~_~J(.:;)=el(Z)+ 1-- F(.:;) J(.:;)fJ(z)-/(.:;)0(::.).

Or, I( z) (!Lanl divisible par z Ie prcmier mcmbrc de eelle -~,

cgalitc cst un polynolllc entier de degrc 2 n + I j Ie second csl du
memc dcgl't:, d'apl'(!S la supposilioll admisc ;1 l'cgard de H(z)
ct 0,(z), el, puisque chacun dc ccs pO).Yllomcs )'CUrCI'mC aiusi
It + I coeCHcien.ts indcLel'mines, 011 a bien Ic nombt,c ncccssaiI'c
egal a 21t -I- 2 dc consLantcs adJitrait,cs POlll' eO'cetuc)' l'jdelltill-
calion. Ce poillt ctabli, j'ObSCI'V(! qu'cn sllpposanl ~ = Zi la frac-
tion rationnclle F'(z).f(.:;) 'I IlOlll' "alcul' ,'1.;.('(::;;); on a, [lal' eon-
F(z) •
scqucnt, ces contli lion 5
8. (':;0) = [.1.0 J' (zo ) l:1(zo ),
e. ( z I) = 1.1., '/' ( z, ) 1:1 ( z, ),
....................... ,
e.(z,,) = [1-,,/'(z,,) 0(<:,,),

qui pel'mCllcnt, pill' la [ol'l1wle d'illlcrpolation, de calculcl' imme-

diatcmcnL 6. (~), lOI'S(Il\() 0(z) scra COllnll. Nom; a\'ons de ceLLI!

181
17 0 OIWVIIES liE CIUIIJ.ES ""lImTE.

manit:!"!', ell clrel, I'cxp"cssion SlIi, anle:,

dOllL 110llS fCl"Ol1sbicntul IIsage. 1'0111' oblcnil' rnaintl'nanl 0(.:;), jc

t'Cpl'(~llllsla I'elalion proposec, ell divis<lnl lcs d(~ux IIlcmbl'cs
pal'f(::;), ce qui donnc

f(.;;) = fl~(;;) +
;; -- ~ j( z )
[1-_ 1":(;;)J8(Z)-81(;;)
I' ( ;; ) ,

•
el.l(: I'CIIl<lI'(j"C q"e, Ja /."aellOn
• HI {z)
/(';;) 11
, I'"
a.ranL pas ( c pa,'lIe c1ll1Cl'e,
(,11 est amcne~ i, ecLLc consequcnce, que Ie polynolllc eltcl'chc do'it
(\ll'c Icl q"e la parlie Clllie'.I'e de l'expl'cssioll

• • ·1
.,OIl e'ga e all (llIollCnl :--':'
• l( :;) (,.,
~ csl
' · 1 " ;lJselllenl
e(! qlll COIl( tilt
• a
J
a
...., - - "='

delel'JlIillaliOll de H(:.). Soil. d'aIJOnl, ;', eel clrel,

.l(;;) = ,;;",,-1 -l- PI ;;11 -I- p~ ;;"-1 + ... -I- flll+l,

c(: q II i dOllllem

f'(;; ~ = ,;;" -;-

+PI
~ I :;11--'-1- ~2 ,.
-I-PI'> + PI ~II-I

+ {J~ + p~~11-2

-I-IJI/,
011 (lllItt!!.
f'( -)
~
~- .. = ~"-I- ~I ~II·-I-I- ~!!:;II-·:!-I- ••• -1- ~II'

en cCriYUUl, pOllr abrcgcr,

Soit cneorc

F' (-)
el dcyclopponsla f'onetioll F(:;~) slIivanllcs puissanccs dcsccndanlcs

182
I 'J •1 " . . .. '. 1" ( ..::) .,
lea vana )le, a/Ill J oiJlCIlIl' la partl~ ellllcrc tlu prodllJI.,;.Cu ) (-J (z).
Jl yicndra ain:;i, en posanl ·\·i= P'u':'!, + [1" z~ -1- P'2':;~ + ... + p.n Z:;,
F'(z) So sl s!
-.-- = - + --. -1-' -1- ••• ,
I' (;; ) ; ; ,.:;2 ..:;"

el., par couse'! uenl,

Les eqllatiolls (:n Ct.,,, Ct." 'l.~, ••. , alIXqlle:i1es nUlls Sf/llll11eS aJllelle
pal' I'idenlilical.ion, sonl. dell\(:
I =:=:Lp,
~I=O('--~o(so+/I.),
~2 = :L2- 0(1 (so+ It - ,) - O(O'~I,
~:I = GtJ - :L,(so+ It - 'J.) - :L,S,- :L"S2,

Elics donllelll

'Xu = I,
:1:, = ~,-l- .~o+ It,
:Lj = ~2+ (so+ It -I)~I + (so-1- 1/,) (.~o+ n -1) + S"
.. " .... " " " " " " " " " • 'II .... " .. " " .. " ...................... " " .......... """ ...... 1

et lllonlrenl que Ct.", Ct." Ct.2, ." sonl des POI}llOllleS ell ~ <lyanl
pour coefficients dcs fonetions cnlicres el ~ eocfficients cnlicrs
de So, SI, S:l, '" et par suil.e des racines Zo, z" ... , ':'/1' On vuit
dc pIllS que Ct.i cst un polJllomc de degrc i dallSlc<Jllcl Ie coeffi-
ciellt de ~i cst l:5al i1 l'unilc; aillsi, ell posalll pour plus de c1arlc

'7.;=0,.(0,

el ccri,'anl dcsormais 0(z, ~) all Ijell de 0(z), afill de mellre ~ en

cyidence, nOlls aur0115

Dc I.'! n':slIltc, pour Ie pol}llolllc 0, (z), In fOl'llllllc

(-l.(;;) p.otl("::o,n p..8(z.,O IJ,"(~(;;,,,~)
-- = + -1- ••• + ,
J\z,) ';:;-Zo ..::-.;;, .:;-z"

183
I -'J
I" OEU\'IIES liE CIL\III.ES I I/,IIMI'I'F..

el I, 011 ell llrc

" I III.
III etI'lal.cllleni. I ' Ilal (I'le nOlls nous sommes
c I'(:SII
pl'Opose d'oblcllir·. H sunil, ell cl1'(:t, de IlI'entire Ics inlegTales enlrc
les limiles -=-0 el Z dans la J'elation

f e-;F(Z)f(.~)1
~ ~. ~ ( Z =.
rc-::F(S)(:)I(Z).I
/( ~ ) (S - "1'( ) . ( )
c-- . ::; 17 z ,

................................ ,
-+ (l." 17(.;;,,, 0 J z eo:: F(z)
_ _ dz .
".
.. .,,--.,111

C'CSl surlout clans Ie cas oil I'on suppose

[.1.0= [.1.1=."= [.1.,,= m,

flllC nous rerons usag'e de cellc equation; si l'on fait alol's

1/1. 8 (z;, Zf.-) = ( if.'),

et qll'on IH'enne ~ slIceessivclIlcnl egall't 'zit, ,z" , •• , -=-'1) on en eOll-

elut, com me on VOil, les relalions prccedemmenl (!noneces, qui
rcsullcnl de ccIle-ei,

f Z e-; (t"-'-I (;;)

.
'j' Z ('._= .fill (.;;) d::;
dz=(to)

f.
• =0 Z - Zi ':1. .z - ..:.,

-+(iJ) J. ~
z
_
·
;v t/.s+ ... +(ill)
'c-=jlll(-)
_-OJ. 1
z'c-=flll(-)
, _. _ ... liz,
---Il

pour i=o, 1,2, ,." II. Je restel'ai cncore cependanl dans Ie cas
genel'a} pour ctahlit'la pl'opositioll suivante

X. Soielll A el 0 les determillallts

8(':0' ::;0) 8(zIJ Zo ) 9( zit, zo)
0(zol ZI) 9(zJ, ZI ) 0(Z",ZI)

9(zlt, ::;,,)

184
cl

':;0 ":;1 ::"

... ~
~o
-'!
~I
-~
~/I

-/I. -II- _II

~o -'I ..... /1.

Je dis fJu'on (t
.l = 13 2 ,

ElrcCLivemClll., I'cxprcssion de H(,:" ~) SOilS Ja forme

mOlllre «(lie ~ est Ie pl"odllil. des d.:llx d.':lel"llIill:lllls

Zo ":;1 ~",
-1
_·u -2
N\
-2
.... "
-", _If. _II
~o N\
""''''
cl.

0 1 (.;;" fll (..:;.) 0 1 (;;,,)

°
)

2 (;;0\) O2 (..:;.) O2 (..:;,,)

0,,(':;0) 0" ( .:; 1 ) 0" ( .:;" )

l\1ais Oi(~) clanl lin polYllome en ~ tlu dcgn: t. sculclIlcl1l., de

sorlc ([ll'on pClIl fail'c

ccl.lc seculHlc quanlil«:, d'apl'cs les lIH!ori:mes cunuus, sc rcduiL

simplemellL o't la prcmicrc, el 1'011 a bien, COlllllle nOllS \'oldioIlS
l'.:labJil',

eela pose, soicnt

=I.'J.: .. f
l.
-JIII(..:;)d;;,
Em llt • • C
"0

E:II =
I f·"I. (J-:;
.(111(":;) d;;;
1 .'J. • •• lit - 1 •. • ..:; - ':;j
"0

185
 OIW\'IIES II": 1:11.\1\1."5 IIEllmTE.

j ' I. c-=flll(::)d::=m
.:."
['1.('-=/111(:;)
., ~o -
_.
-
_
...·u
d::

'1.{:_=/111(::;) _ I ' rZ{'-=/III(:;)-

-t- III [ _ _ d ~ -.- ... -t- III _ _ d~
":'11 ...,-..... ""'::., ''''--11

E / ,, = :.:~, -1- :.)" -1- ......+- :.~~ ;

cL cclle-ei,

j 1' e -= j' III-t- I()

._ ,..
Z
d:; = III (:.'l(::",~)
r1. -j' III ( ' ~ )
(~--.....
_ _ dz

r
:;0 .-.1 - ~ ...., '::1) .-.J - -'0

'f. 1'-::. (111(.::)

-I- III 0(z" 0 _. _ t/::; +., .
... .::0 - ---I

+111(-)(Z,,,~)
, !''I. (.-::'/III(Z) dz, __
'., .. N --It
-'II

ell slIpposanl. slIecessi\'emC!lIl ~ = :. .. , :;" "" :'/1, nOlls donncrll 101

substil.Ul.ion SlIiv:lIILC, qlle je desiO'ncl'Ui par S"I! ,'t savoil'
:;:7,'+1 = (0) (.::;u. ::;u )E~, -I- 8( ::;"::;0 )€,~, -1- ••• +- H(z", ,::;u )£::"
z1" I.' =-- (-) (::; II, ::;, ) £ ::, -I- A ( :; h :;, ):;. ,~, -1- •••. !- H ( :;". :;, ) £ ::"
........................................................................................... ,

·Si l'on compose maintcnant de (H'or-l.e 5" S;t, ... , Sill_II on

ell dc:t1l1im les c:xpl'cssiollS de :::::" ';,'." "., z;:, Cll ::;':, s::, "" s:';, 'lite
.iC! "I!P"C:SC!lIl,C!I'"i aillsi :
!)!,= AuE~'+ A,E: -1-, .. + .\"s;',
E}II~ no !':"'!- n.sl-I·" ... -i- nll~/:,
.......................................... ,
£;~,=Lu£~+LI£:+, •• -;-LI/£':'

clle dclcl'minanl dc ccllc nouvcllc substiLution, ctant egal au pl'O-

(luiL dcs tleLcl'lninallls tles suhSlitutions composanlcs, sel'a o2(m-I),
II nOllS rcsLc cncol'c "I rcmplaecl' z~, e::, .. " e:': par leurs valeurs
POUI' avoir lcs cxpl'essions (Ics quullLiles e::1 l SOLIS la formc appl'o-

pl'ice ,', notl'C objct. Ccs yalclIl's s'obtienncnt facilcmcnL, commc

on va VOIr,

186
 I;:;
XII . .l'applillllc il ecl. elrel. la fOl"llllllc ;';'enerale

.fc-=- F(,;:;)(lz =-c ~·j(z),

en SlIPPOS<lut

c'est-;'t-dirc
F(z)=.z"+~ 1:;"-1_1_~2 :;11-2+ ....
+fli +/'I~
-1- 1'2

II esl. aise de Yoil' odors qllc 3(z) dcyienl. expression cntii:n:

1I1lf:

ell z el.~, eul.ii:relllelit sCllIhlahle ;1 (~}(z, ~), de SOI·I." (11Ie, si Oil LI

lh~signepal' 11 1 (':':, ~), Oil a
'1'(z,O=:;I/+?I(~):;1I l·l-'f2(O:;IIL\ .... 1-9,,(0,

9i(~) l:L.allt lIll polynollle cn ~ de Jet';T,! i, dans IC(l'lel It: coerticienl

dc ~i csll'uuile. Ainsi l'OIl obticlll, cn pal'l.ielllicl',
91(~) = ~ +/'1+ 11,

1'2 (0 = I) ~ + /'2 -\- (n - I )/" -I- n( II- - I),

~Ll- (PI -\-- /I -
.. _ ................................................. ,

et I'analogie de fOl'lllc avcc (-)(z, ~) monl.re ([ue Ie determinanl.

'I' (.;;0, ':;0 ) 'I' ( :; J, ";:;0 ) -I· (..;:;'" ':;0 )

'1'( ':;0. :; J ) fJ)( :'1, ':;1 ) 11'( .:;,,, . ;:; I )

••••• 0 ••• ... .... . - .. - ..
'I' ( .:;" . .::." ) '1'(.::." '::'11) 11'("::'1) ':;/1)

cst cncore coal 0'1 (;~. Cela POSl!, IlOllS l.irOlls del .. relalion
'I. co;;; ((_)
•[ _ .:;~~. d:. = c-;;;,,'I'(zo,O-c-'I.'I'(Z,O,
-'.
en sllpposant ~ = :::i, 101 ndelll' cltercltce

Or, VOICI les expressions des ({,Ialllites ~~II (Illi ell l'(;slIiI.cnl.
Soienl.
J\.. = Ao ,\.( z, ':;0) + A 1'1'( Z, ':;1) + ... -!- Aft '1'( Z, .:;,,),
'lIb = Do '1'( z, zo) -I- 13 '1'( Z'':;I ) -\- _. ,-,- B" 'I'(Z, .::.,,),
1
••••••••••• 0 •••••• " •••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 ••• ,

187
 OE1;\'I\ES 1m CII,\I\I.ES IIEIDI/TEo

el. COI\\'CllOns dc I'CPI'("scntcl' par ·\"o,"!'Il, , •. , '(0 les valcu)"s ohlc-

III1CS POIII' Z= ~II; Oil 0111)"01

E~~,= c'-::'oa.~'O- e--Za.1t.,

EJ~' :c.:: e'-='dl~,o - e-' Z H!"
......................... ,

Dans ccs fO)"111 II Ics, Z dt!sig'llc 1'l/UC (Illcleollquc dcs qllanlitcs.:;.,

~~, ••• , :'11; mainlcnanL, si nOlls vOlllons mCLLt'C cn cvidcncc lc
l'csllllaL (~UI'I'eSpol\dalll. it Z = :::"'" nOlls convicndl'ons, en oUlrc, de
I'Cl' rCs('n I CI', d' line pnrL, p~lI' .,"'k,
lil".., .•• , .(k, cl dc l' a ull'C pal' ''lX,
"'].' ... , "j~' les vnlclll's que prcnncnl, dans cc cas, Ics cocfficicnls .,,1\.,,,

'II!" ••• , , ( cl lcs (lllalllilt~S ~;:" <::11' ••• , ~;:" On oblicnt ainsi Ics
l'qllal ions
·(,2· = ~'\eu - e ::." . . .'\·'k,
c·-':'u

",l, = c·''::.'\I!,o - c-.::ql!'k,

......................... ....... , -

YOIlL lIOIIS contlui)"c ;', la seeondc dt!HlOIISll'aLioll quc j'ai

(1111

nnnonccc dc I'jmp()ssihilil(~ d'IIIlC relaLion (Ic In fO\,lllc

les exposanls :'0, ,:'1, ""::'/1 elanL Slip poses CIlLicl'S, :I illS I (lllC Ics
coefficicnls No, N., ... , Nil.

X III . .J(~ dis ell pl'emi('" licll (I'": e:'/l pell\. dev(~l\il' plus peliL quc
\.onle (I'taJltil!! dOllllCC, POlll' llne val cur slIf(isllJl1Il1Cnl grandc dc m.
EfJ'celi\'elllcnl, I'CxpOl1l'nliellc e-::' eLanL LoujOlll'S positivc, 011 a,
cOlllmc Oil sait,

.r ~o
l
e':; F(z)dz = F(OJ e-zdz = F(O(e-=.-e- Z ),
~o
Z

F(:,) clanL unc foncLion qllclcoJ1ClllC cL ; llnc quantile comprisc

entrc les limilcs ::'0 ct Z dc ),integl·ule. Or, cn supposant

( /II ( _ )
1·,("·)
w -
_ '- -,~
-,
.z -";:1

188
on aura ccLlc cxprcssion
. ("'-I (~)
e.' - ' .
1ft - 1.2 ••• lit - 1

qui mct en evidcncc lit Pl'olll'ieLe cnoneee. eel .. POS(;, jc I.il'e des
equalions

.................... ,

,Ja relation suivunlc,

e=I'I)'1 N,-I- c="I)~ N:a+, •• -1- (!:,.,'l:~, Nil,

= c-.:.(c=.N, -I- e=.N 2 -1- •• ,-I- e::,.N,,).,)\..o
- (ei\",N,-I- ",\.~N:I-I- ••. -I- "''\"" Nil)'

Si 1'0n illtroduit la condition

c::.Nn-l- c::, N,-I- ••. -1- e: .. ~" = I),

cUc dcvicnt
e':"I)? N,+ e:;.'l~ N2 -1- ••• -I- e=,.'fj?,N n
= - ("''\"., No-l- Jl.. N, -1- ••• + .1\""N,,).

Or, cn supposant que ;;.11 ;;., ••• , z" soicnL cnticl's, il Cll cst de
lUCille des quantites 0(Zi, Zk), <I) (Zi, Zk), cl, par consequcnt,
dc "''\.0, .1\"., ... , "''\.". NOlls a\'ons donc lin nomo,'c cnticr

.,,:, .'" 'Il':, 10l'squc In aug--

(lui ~lccl'olt illdcfinimcllt avcc 'Il~,
mcntc; il cn rC5ullc quc, it parli,' u'unc eCI'Lainc valeuI' uc III, ct
POUl'toules Ics valcurs pili=' gTandes, on aura
Jl. o No + '11'\,,1 N I -1-. , • -\- .;'\." N" = II,

Cl., comme on obLicnl parcillclllcllt Jcs conditions

.............................. _,

la rclation

H. - III. 12

189
 (lW"III!S 1m I:IIAIILI';S IIgIUIITI~,

a 1'0111" eOIlSC(I'H!llce (I'I(! Ie d(~tcl'lJIinlllll

.J\oo ",I\.. • "''\.,,.

~=I I
'11!,o 'II!,. 'II!,,,

I J',n {.

doil ncccssail'cmcnl cll'c nul. Mitis, tJ'llJll'CS lcs exprcssions des

'1l1llntilcs .l\"k, '11!.k, " . , J":~" A cst ]c lll'oduil dc ccs deux llull'CS dc-
lel'JIIinanls
Ao AI All
nu BI B"

Lo I.. I."

I
et
'\·(zo,zo) .\.( ZI, zu) ,\,(':;'" :a)
.\.( :0, '::1 ) '1'(':;., .::. ) .\. (.:;'" .:;. )

I:I:(~~: ~:,; .........

'I·(z., :,.)
. .......
'\'(":;/1, z,,)

dont Ie p,'cmier a POtU' "alcul' o:l(m.-.), ct Ie sccond (;:1, On a donc

~ = 0:1"" ct il est ainsi dClI10nll'c" d'ullc maniCl'C enlicI'cmcnL
l'igOIll'CUSC, fluC In l'e1alion slIJlpos(;e csl impossihle, cl qnc, pal'
suite, ]e nomlll'e e n'est point com[l,'is dans les il'l'~ll.ionncllcs algc-
)'l'i q Ues.

XIV. II lie SCl'a pas inlltill! dl! c!"IIIH!I' (I'wlqllcs excmplcs 1111
moue d'apIlI'oximation dcs I)ll:lIlliLCS aU(1'1C1 nOlls a"olls ctc cun-
duits, (:1. .ie eonsidC"(!I'ai d'abOl'd Ie eas Ie pIns siJllple, 0.'1 l'on
Jl(! considcl'c que hi scule cxpollcnLielie c"', En faisant aim's

I(~) =z(z-x), nOllS aUl'OllS

EIIl = I
I .~ •• • /n
1 0
;.1.'

e-:.;;m(z-x)lIId:;

ct
~'

E~,= • I [e-=:;III-'(z-x-)"'d;;,
I • 2 ••• III - I • U

190
 17\1

Or on oblicnL immediatclllcnt
(::)(..::;,0 =..::; + ~ -\- 'J,1n + I - :r,
d'Oll
(::)(0,0) = 'J../Il + 1-,1.', (:) (a.', () ) = :1.111. + I,
(::) (0, x) = 'J.. In -\- I, \:1 ( a.', ,x) = '), III, + I -\- ,r,

ct, pal' conSCfJucnt., ccs rclations

C;~L+I = ('J.m + I - X)E~, -\- (2m + I)El,,,
c; J,,+ I = ( 'J.. In + J ) E ~IL -\- (-J, /II. + 1 + ,7.' ) s;",

,J'O!JSCI'vcI'ai mailltcllallt qu'il viell!., C:1l rCll'allChallt IIlClllbrc .\

mClllIH'C,

dc sorlc (lllC, ayant

on cn conell! L

,Joibnons ;'t ccLlc clluaLioll la suivanle :

no liS cn dcduirons lcs "a(cUl's

_1 _ E. .,' .... I + :To E", ,.(1 _ C./II·t I --- .'1.' E.",
"'IIL+I - '). , c;..,11+1 _0

'J,

cl, si 1'0n y changc In en In , - I, IInc simple sllbstilut.iulI, pal'

cxcm pIc, dans In rclati on

donnera Ie rcsulta!. prcccdcmlllenL oiJLell U (p. J n:-, ),

EIII+I = (:1 III + 2 )Em --1- ,1.'2 ~1Il-1'

Soicnt., cn second J iClI,

n='J., .z~ == 0, ":;1=1,

d'Oll
f(.z)=':;('::-I)(~-'J.)=~~-:.i.:;~ i-'I.':;;

on trOllvcrn

191
180 O/~uvlms liE CIIAIII.ES 111(1\&11'1''',

ct., par consequent,

8(u,O)=9m!+3I1t+ I, 9(11, I)=!)IIZ!+ Gill, 9(O,2)=!)m'+ !)m+ I,
9(I,n) = !)Ill!+(jtn+ I, 9(1, I) =91112+ 9tn+ I, 9(1,2) =911l!+12m+3,
8(2:0) =9m!+9tn +3, 8('}., I) =f)III!+I:>.m+4, e('A, .... ) =gm!+lljm+;,

Ell parliculier, ponl' III = I. nOllS aUl'OIlS

Eg = 13E~ +
InEI +!H si,
E~= I:ie~+ IUEl -I- 'A5Er,
ei = IU~~ +2'1el + 31 E1;

d'ail/cllI's il vicnL facilclIlClll

cc qui donnc
E~ = I - e-Z(Z!- Z+ I),
E} = _e-ZZ!,
El = 1 - e-Z(Z'+ Z + I);
on cn ('onclut
E~ = 3,,- e-7.(50Z!+ 8Z + :JIa),
E~ = 40 - e-7.(5gZ2+ I07. + ,'10),
e~ = 50- e-7.(747.'+ 12.7. + 50).

Dc h', rcsulte que

l!l, si 1'on fait sncccssiVCIllCJll Z, = I, Z, = 2, l'cxprcssion dc E,

foul'nil Ics vulclirs UpPl'OClaccs
:i 14
e =-,
2.
e'= -.... =;,

eL l'exprcssion de E2 lcs suivunlcs :

916
e!= -'-,
124

011 \'en'cur ne porte qne SUl' lcs dix-millicmcs. En sllpposant CIl-

192
 suitc In = 2, cc qui dOllnCl'a (I)
<.g = 4:;<.~ -I- 4!)E~ -I- 57 Ei,
E~ = 48Eg + 5:iEJ -I- G~Ei,
c:~= j;;<'~-I-()3s~-I-;3Gi,
nOlls oblicndl'OllS
E~ = (}:1.7? - c-1. ( !):1.:i!) '/..2.;- 151 S '/.. -I- (272),
El = 7032 - c-1.(103S1 '/..2+ 'iOZZ -I- 7031.),
<'5 = 8040 - c- Z (1l8G!) '/..2 -I- J !J'IG Z -I- 8oqo),

(:L, pal'suitc,

J'CITCUl' pOl'lanL sllr lcs dix-miIliolliclllcs.

(I) Dalls Ic LexLc ,I'lIel'miLe, 1)11 lI'ollvc ;111 del'nicl' Lel'mc 1111 sr.cunll lIICllliJl'e
dc la Ll'uisicmc Iignc Ie ,:ocflicicnl 7:-" "I. BOIII'bCl, cn I'cfaisanl les calcllls, a
ll'ou\'c Ie codlicicnl 7:3; cellc I'CGlilicalillll ;1 amcnc des modifiGalil)lls asse:f. iIllJlIII'-
lanlcs dans Ics valcul's de C cl dc C" yonL l'appl'oximaLion moniC, dc ce fail, allx
dix-millionicmcs, Eo p,

193
 Ueber die Zabl 4.*)
Vou
F. LnroBIIAlm in Fre1burg i. Bl·.

Bei der' Vergeblicbkeitder 80 aU8serordentlich zahlreicheu Ver-

BUche"), die Quadratur des Kreises mit Cirkel und Lineal auszufilhren,
hilt man allgemein die LOsung der bezeichnewn Aufgabe fUr un-
mijglich; es fehlte aber bisher ein Beweis dieser Unwoglichkeitj nur
die Irrationalitit Ton " nnd TOD ,,2
ist festgestellt. Jede mit Cirkel
Dnd Lineal ausf'l1hrbare Construction lilBst sich mittelst algebrnischer
Einkleiduog zurilckfnhren anf die Lijsung von lincaren um} quadrs-
tiscben Gleichnngen, 0.180 anch anf die Losung einer Reihe von quadra-
tischen Gleichungen, deren erste rationale Zahlen Z11 Coefficienten hat,
wibrend die Coefficienten jeder folgenden nur 801.:ho irratiouale Zllhlen
entbalten. die durch Auflo8ung der vorhergehenden Gleichungen ein-
geff1hrt sind. Die Schlussgleichung wird also durch wiederholtes
Quadriren ilbergefubrt werden konnen in eine Gleichung gemden
Grades, deren Coefficienten rationale Zahlen sind. Man wird sonach
die Unmoglichkeit der Quadratur des Kreises darthun, wenll lUan
nachweist, dass die Zah.l 11: ubcrhaupt niche TVur&el tiner algcb1'aischen
Gleichung irgend welchen Grades mit raNOti.ulen Coe{ftcicnten sei). /oem, •.
Den dafilr Dothigeu Heweis zu erbringell, ist im Folgelld'3!l ver;;ucht
worden.
Die wl:sentliche Grundlage der Untersuchung tilden !lie Bela-
tionen zwischen gewissen bestimmten Integralell, welche Herr Her-
mit e angewandt hat ."'*), urn den transcendenteH Charakter der 1-ahl c
festzustellen. In § 1 sind deshalb die betreffend<3n l<'oflUel.n ZllSUJ~lllle:l,­
gesteUtj § 2 und § 3 geben die A.nwendung di(lf)cr Formeln ZUU"l Btl-
weise des erwithlltcn Satzes i § 4 enthiilt weiteI'(' Vcl'al1g~meill('fl1ngl'lI .
• ) Vergl. eine M;ttheilung des Hrn. \V cie rstra.H8 an die n!'rliuer Abvll:mi~.
yom 22. JUDi 1882 .
..*) Man sehe die Artikcl Cllclomctrir. ti!Iwd1"utlw !Jr·!} R~di/jcalio1'l iii l\ j Ii;' cl',
math"ma.tiBchcn W{;,terbuche.
".*J Sur 1& 1'onction cxponentiell£' I 1'Ilria lSH- (:1l1ch COD11'lt:s rpndll~,
t. LXXVII, 1873),

194
214 F. tnmnAP.

§ 1.
Die Hermite'schen Formeln.
Es sei
f(.) - (3 - '0) (. - .,) ..• (, - '.)i
lJIit Z moge irgend eine der von einandcr verschicdenen GrosseD
" J '2' .. ". bezeichnet werden; dann bestehen zwischen den be-
stimmten Integralen

I
E -=
'"~

foJgende Relationen:

E.!t.l - + 9(.!) ' 0) E~ + ... + 9(•• , It) s,:,

9('0' '0) E~
(1) E~l -:- 8('01',) E! + ge." '.) E~ + ... + ee•• , '1) ,~,
. . .. . . . . . .. . . . .
... ... . ... ... ...

E;"1 - e(.o. ''') I~ + 8(.11 ,.),~ + ... + e(,.".).~,

Die Function 9 (s, t) ist eine ganze Function ,,'an Grades ihrer
beiden Argumente; in ihr sind die Coefficienten der Potenzen von
• und t ganze symmetrische Functionen der n 1 Grossen II und +
enthalten ausserdem nur ganze Zahlen, sodass sie selbst ga.nse Zahlen
sind, maUl dies mit den Coefjicientm der Potetuen von • in f(.) der
FaU ist; sie sind ganze Functionen n'e. Grades von ttl; auf ihr Bildunge.
gesetz kommt es 1m }I'olgenden nicbt weiter an, es mUBS nur noch be-
merkt werden. dass ihre Determinante folgender Relation genilgt:
9('0' '0) 9(.1111 '0)" ·e(•• "o)
9(10 /',) 9(1" ',) ... e(•• , e,) ~
. . . . . . • . . • . . • ~ • . ==- u-,

'Wenn
1 1

~o=
'0
'0 2
"
.,2 '.
...2
i
I
!! ,. ," . ..
I) 1
e"
•
Durch uic ;mgcgebt'llcn Glcichungen siud ui", luiegrale 6:,+1 zu-
l'lickgefilhrt auf die Intc-grale 6,:'.
Durch wiederhoHe Anwendung der-.
'idlll'u l1udd 1lI:1.li alsn Fo]"ml'ln von der Gestalt:

195
 Ueber die Zahl 3'" 215

(1 a)

und man bat

Ao AI'"" A.
Bo B, ... B.
(2)
Lo L. '" L" I

Um endlieh die Integrale E,I auszuwerthen, werden neue ganze

Functionen «P (e, t) eingeflihrt. wclche den Func.tionell 9(e, t) analog
gebildet sind, insbesondere hinsichtlich ihrer Coefficienten ebenfalls
die bei den 9 hervorgehobene Eigenachaft zeigen und wiederum der
Bedingung
<1»(101 10) «P (I., .0) . . . «P (e•• ' 0)
«P(zo. 'I) «P(,., .21,) " •• tP{I., e,)

<1>(10' I ..) <1»(1" I ..) ••• «P(I", 8,,)

genngen. Aus ihnen setzen sich die durch falgende Gleichungen
definirten Grossell A, B, . " • A zusammen:
A=- Ao«P(Z, eo) + AI«P{Z, '1) + ".. + A.«P(Z, '.),
(3)
B ... Bo<l»(Z, '0) + BI «P(Z, II) + ... + B,,«P(Z, ••),
A ..... LutP(Z, so) + L.«P(Z, e,) +. ". + L.tP(Z, I .. ).

Bezeichnet man endlich mit Au. Bo' •• " Ao die Werthe dieser Con-
stan ten mr den Fall, dass Z durch eo Cl"Sctzt wird, so hat man ffir
die bestimmten Integrale E~ schliesslich folgende f/'ormeln:
e! .... r;'vAt. - r;zA,
II~ = c--·.So -- r;zB,

11,,7""" e-·.Ao - c- z A"

lJierin bedeutet Z irgend einc dcr Grossen 8 1, 1:1 , •• "e,,; setzen
wir insbesondere Z = 'Ir:, so lllogen die dalm cntstehenden Werthe
von A, B. " • " A mit ~, Bol. " " "A" bezeiehuet werden, llud es werde

gesetztj daull ist aueh

196
216 F, Lll{l>~JUJIIf.

11k1 = C-'oBII - C-.k Bk I

(4)

11; .... e-"A" - e-·kA".

Die Deterll1i1l8uto der Coeffieieuten A I B, .•. ist hier gegeben
durch
i Ao AI • , • All I

(0) I Bo B. · .. B.
I' . ,
I 11.0 A. · , • A,.

§ 2.
Ueber die symmetrisohen Functionen der Grassen eO,.
Wir hemerken I dass die in § 1. zusammengestellten Relauonen
tluabhiingig clavon bestehen, ob die Grossen 6, 607 6 u ' • ',6ft, ree1l odor
complex sind, denn sie berulten einfach auf ideni.iscbeu Umformungen;
o.ue1l kann der bei Herechnung der Integrale. gewablte Integrations- "1:
weg tlin beliebigel' seiu i es muss nur der unendlich ferne Punkt der
z-Ebollo ausgel!chlu:;,sen bleiben,
Wir nehmen an, dass die symmetrisclJ.en Funetionen der IS. reelle
odor complexe ganze Zahlen seien i 8uch anter No, N 1 , •• " N .. ver-
stellen wir reelle ocler complexe ganze Zahlen. Zunil.cbst werde ein
System von Gleiehnngon abgeleitet, zu denen oine Relation der Form

(6) NlIl· + NIB" + ... + N .. eO. c= 0

VeranlassUDg giebt.
Wir multipliciren die in (4) ellthaltenen Gleichungen
"1~ -- e-'? Ao - e-" All

(7) "1: = e-'oA" - e-" Al'

1}~ = c- Ie Au - e--" AN ,
bcz. mit Nt c" , . , " N n c' n , danll ergiebt sich dnrch Addition
"oN I
C 7]1 - 1 - - c; 'i~ J. 2
.c, ., N + ' "
-j- (;
In I> ... ~
¥]II J.~"

=~ eO'. to (e"~·
.. - 1
..l- c.. N2 ...L
I I ..
, , • _L
~
c' IO N ) AII
II

+ A~ S,: + .. , + An N,,).
] il Folg.~ \'on (I tl) 1iI llel Ilie G leichullg hestehcn

197
 Ueber die Zahl n, 217

e"fj:N, +'" + 1.l·"1J!N,,- - (A.Nu + A,N, +". + A"N A) ,

Analoge Gleicliungen werden sich ergeben, wenn man A durch 8 / , "A

eraetzt; man wird also zu folgendem Systeme von n 1 Gleichuligen +
gefflhrt:
A.,No + A,N, +, "+ A"N. == ~J
(8) BoNo + B,N + . , . + B"N.. = P,
I

''0
-« -= e"'1:N, + e",,: NI + ' , . + e'''1J: N.. ,
- p -= e"1Jl1N, + ,.."1: NI + ' .. + ""t/!N".
- A .... e"'1: Nl + e""1; NI + ... + c'" "1: N" '
Dies sind die ~'ormeln I aus welchen Herr Her m j t e das 'frans-
8cendent&ein der Zabl e direct ableitet, inel.em er annimmt, dass die
I, selbst gauze Zahlen sind, Filr WlSel'll Zweck sollen die Gleiehungen
dadurch vereinfacht werden, dasl:l ~,=- N2 ...... , , ..... Nil gencmweD
wird; es soll remer im Folgenclen immcr ;;0 = 0 gcsctet werden. Man
hat dann an Stelle von (8):

NoAo + Nl (A, + ... + A,,) -= - N! (e""1~ + ... + e'''''1:>,

No Bo + N, (B1 + ..
,+ BJ = - Nt (e" "1! + ... + C'"Yj!) I
(9) .....................

Bier stchen links gauze Functionen der Grossen e" ~21 ' • " s ..
mit ganzzahligen Ooefficienteu. Vertaul:lcht man ill ihnen " mit '1:.
80 vert&uscht sich nach (7) Buch A, mit Ak • Die linke Seite del' el'sten
Gleiehung ist also eine symmetrische Function oer Wnrzeln Zi, /9lglich
selbBt rim.: gaMe Zahl.
Durch VertallSchung von e 1 mit s~ geM 8 i in f. fiber und um-
gekehrt, sobald i von 1 und 2 verscbiedeu istj dagegen vertau:mht
aich gleichzeitig BI mit r 2 und 8 2 mit f,: es vel·tauschen sich also
die linken Seitell del' zweiten unrl dritten G leichullg uuter tlinandcl',
Analoges gilt hei beliebigen Vel'tal1scimngcll der Zi j also: lJie lif'·k::n
Seiten der n It'lstcn Olcicbngm des Systems (9) sind Wb1'zeln cinar
algcbraisc}lcn Glciclumg t'm, dCI" Form
(10) V" + JI: V n--1 + .. , -; .: 0
f1&t't gat!Z;{l1tlig",~ Coefficicnttm HI.

198
218 F, WIID1UUIIlI,

Wir lassen jetzt die Zahl m unendlicb gross werden. Bezeichnet

M' das Maximum des absoluten Betrages von fee) far die Werthe von
" welehe sich auf dem beim Integrate E~ gewiililten Integrationswege
befindeu, und ist l' die Lange dieses Weges, Mo' das Maximum des ab-
soluten Betrages von e-' (e - ei)-l lings dieses Weges, so hat man
abs Ei ::;;:
M.'
M'm • •
l'
m - 1, 2 . II ' •. (m - 1)

Versteht man also unter M, MOl Z die grossten derjenigen Za.hlen

M', Mo', Z', welche bei den versehiedenen Integral en ~~ vorkommen,
wenn man die obere Grenze Z nach einander dureh ell e 2 , ' • " eft
ersetzt und dem Index i aIle mogliehen Werthe beilegt, und setzt man
noch Mol = E, so besteht fl1r aUe Integrale '1~ die Ungleiehung:

abs.,.,1 < --.--~~!!..-

"A: =
..--
1. 2 • 3 .•• (m - 1) ,.

wo E und M bestimmte endliche von m unabhiiugige Zahlen bedeuten.

Es kaun also die reehte Seite der ersten unter den Gleiehungen
(9) und somit die ganze Zahl NoAo +
N, (AI A2 + + ...
A..) beliebig
klein gemaeht werden, dadureh dass man m hinreichend gross wiiblt.,
Das ist aber nur moglich, wenn es eine endliehe gauze Zahl m' giebt
der Art, dass die Gleichung
NoAo+ N, (AI A2+ + .. , +A,,) = 0
genau erf'illlt ist filr alle ganzzahligen Werthe von m, welehe nicbt
kleiner alB m' sind.
Eben so ergiebt sieh, dass die reehten Seiten der ubrigen Glei-
chungen (9) gleich Null werden filr m = CX?, dass also auch die linken
Seiten, d. i. die Wurzeln von (10), belie big klein werden fUr hin-
l'eiehend grosse Werthe von m. Dasselbe gilt folglieh von den Coef-
ficienten HI dieser Gleichungj da letztetP. aber ganze Zahlen sind, so
mussen sie scbon fOr hinreiebeud grosse endliche Werthe ,on m genau
gleich Null scin; bieraus folgt, dass auch die Wurzeln von (10) fiir
dieselben Werlbe von "' sammtlich verschwinden. Wir sind also zu
folgendem Resultate gekommen: Soll cine Gleich'Uug von der Form
(11) No + Nt ~ e'i == 0
bestehen I SO muss es cme bestimmte positive ganze ZahZ m' gebctl der
Art, class fur alle gm~-$(J.hligen We~t"c von m, clie nicM Heiner als tn'
Sl~nd, das folgqnde System von Glcichungc" besteM:

AnNo + (AI + ... + A")N == 0, I

(12)
. . .+.(BI. +. ...
B~No
. .+ .Bn)N
. I, = . 0,.
l\oNo + (1\, + ... + I\,.)N = O. I

199
 Ueber die Zahl n. 219

Hieraus warde weiter folgen, dass die Determinante der Grossen

A, 8, ..• , A verschwinde, da ihre aus zwei parallellen Reihen 7.U
biJdenden zweireihigen Unterdeterminanten siimmtlich Null sein miissten.
Die Determinante ist aber naeh (5) gleieh «JIm, kann also, da die.; von
einander verschieden Torausgesetzt wurden, niema)s Null sein. Damit
at gezeigt, dass die Annahme einer Relation von der Form (11) zu
einem Widerspruche fobrt, und wir baben den Satz gewonnen:
Sind .\, ... , '" die von Null und von einander versclliecienen
Wur.eln einer algebraischen Gleichung von der Form
(13) r +
8 1 ,.-1 + ... +
s" = 0,
too die s, reelle odet- complexe ganle Zahlen bezeiclmen, und ist die Discrimi-
fklnte dieser Gleiclaung flon Null verschieden, so kann eine Relat'io'JI von
tier Form (11) niche besteken, falls die N; reeUe oder complexe ganzc,
von Null verschiedene Zahlen bedeuten.
Ebensowllnig ist eine Relation Ton der Form
(14) No + N, (er •• + er .. + ... + {'. ) = 0
moglieh, wenn r eine ganze Zahl bedeutet. Denn die Grossen r.\,
r6, • •• " r6.. sind ebenfalls von einander und von Null verschiedene
Wurzeln einer Gleiehung von der Form (13), sobald dies mit Ip 112,.' ·e"
der Fall ist; es lassen sieh also auf (14) dieselben Sch)iisse wie auf
(11) anwenden, und es folgt:
Unler den gemachten Yoraussetzungen kann keine der symmetrisclten
Functi<men
(l5)
gkich einer rationalen Zahl scin.
Uotersuehen wir weiter, ob zwischen diesen symmetrillchen l!'uuc-
tionen eine lineare Gleiehung mit ganzzahligen Ooefficienten Nil also
eine Gleichung von der Gestalt

(16) 0 -= No + NI2 c';+N ~ e"i + ... + N.27 cUi

2

bestehen kann. wo 8 irgend eine ganze positive Zahl bedeutet. Die

ns Grossen e" 2.;, ..• se" mogen zur Abkilrzung mit el , 1121 ••• I".
bezeichnet werden, so dass .;+" .... 21;, I;+b .... 3e" etc. Dieselben
sind Wurzeln einer Gleichung t~S\'D Grades mit ganzzahligen Coeffi-
ciellten von der Form (13). Aus (16) wUrde slch also, wie allS (6),
ein System von ns +
1 Gleichungen von der Gestalt (8) ergeben. Urn
dieselben einfach schreiben zu konuen, fahren wir statt der (n ])2 +
Grossen At, 8" ... Ai jetzt (ns +
1)2 Grossen A ein, die mit zwei
Indices verseheo sein mogen, und zwar so I dass der erste Ind~x die-
jenige Unterscheidung bewirkt, welche frUher durch Wahl der ver-

200
220

schiedenen Bilchataben A, BI • • • 1\ angedeatet war, dan allO die

folgenden &11 (4) analogen Gloichungeu bestehen (indem '. - 0):
'I! - A" - fr'J: A'A' fUr i, 1c gleich 0, 1,2, ..., ta8.

St&tt (8) haben wir elann:

NoAa. + Nl~ Av,. + N. ~Ao,f+ta + ... +N, ~Ao'I+""'_ -«0,

NOAJO -I- Nl~ At,. + N ~Al"+- +... +N, 2'Al,'+-a-_-«lt
J
(17). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NoA... o+ NI~ A..... + N. ~A_,.I+- +... +N, ~A",I+-a__-a""
wo die rechten Saiten gegeben sind dutch
-« __ N.
"
~ 91(J)
1 ~ "'I
e'; + N. ~91"'I+- e'l+- +... +N, -'*"__ e"+I1-- .
1"'-
1J:) MIll)

Aile hier vorkommenden Summen Bind flber i VOJl i - 1 bis i - •

zu nehmen.
Auf deJJ linken Seiten des Syatems (11) lteheo wieder ganze Func:-
tioneD der 'i
mit ganzzahligen Coefficientt>n. Vertauacbt man mit 'I
6, (wo i, k ~ fa), IQ vertauscbt aicb gleiehzeitig "+"" mit 'HI'III folgHeh

auch """', mit Ao.II and Ao,I+'" mit Ao. ....,.,.

ferner, wenu der erate Index von Null versehiedeu ist:
A.t,l+nI mit AI, I+nI ffir l ~ 1, i
At.1r+,.. mit A.t,'+nI uod At,'+m mit At,'+rtI.
Die linke Stite der eraten unter den Gleichungen (17) iat IOnach..
wieder eine gauze Zahl; die liDken Seiten der fibrigen Gleichungen
sind Wurzeln einer algebraiac.hen Gleichung VOIQ Grade tts und yon
der Form (10). Auf alle vorkommellden ganzell Zahlen lassen aieb
fnr til - ::lO die bei (9) und (10) gemacbten SchlflBae flbertragen.
Ea folgt also, dus fUr hinreicbend grosse end'licAe Werthe der ganzen
Zahl m die linken Seiten der Gleichungen (17)genau gleich Null sew
ml1ssen. Daraus wOrde weiter folgen, dass fflr dieselbcn Werthe voo
tn aUe (. + l)-reihigen Determinantcn genau verschwinden, welcbe,
aua den (8 + 1) (tiS +
1) Coefficientell der N, in (17) in bckannter
Weise ZQ bilden sind. Dann mi1sste auch die (tl8+ l)-reihige Deter-
ruinante der Au selbst gleich Null sein; dieae aber ist nach (5) gleicb
del" 2n.'rD Poteuz von ~, wenn man in der Determinante ~ (vergl. § 1)
Zo ..... 0 Macht und den Index tI durch us ersetzt.
Es 1St ~ gleich dem Producte aller Diflurell~en (pEl - qSSI), +
wt:lche entatehen, wenn DIan den Indices i, k nIle Werthe 1, 2,. " " tI,
den Zahlell P, rl aUe Werthc 0, 1, 2, .. " s beilegt {auagellommen

201
 Ullber dio Zahl #. 221

p-g-O). Es lamn also' our NaIl seiD, wenn zwischen zwei Wurzeln
'" It eine Relation der Form p'{ - g::" == 0 bestebt. Nimmt man eine
BOlche aD, BO wllrd811 die Gleichang (13) und die U1eichung

,.+ : 6,..-' +(;r~"-:I + ... + (tr 8.-0

eiDe gE'meinsame Wurzel,. nJa&&en, somit beide reducibelsein. Legen
.ir also dar GleicbuDg (IS) die Bedingullg dar Irreducibilitiit auf, so
kama , sieher Dicht Teraehwinden, wiihrend wir eben saben, dass in
FoJge Ton (16) ond (1'l) , - 0 sein mll8ste. It'olglich:
Bind ." '2' ... '. die Ww,eln einer irreducibeln Gleichung "on
tIer Form (JS) _ ganualaligen Coc({icienteJt s" so ian" .wel,en den
"".melrisc1Im FtfttditmeJI (15) keine lineare Gleichung ,nit ,.ationalen,
t71m NfIll ""sMied~ lMfficienten be8tehen.

§ 3.
Allwendung auf UntersuohUDg der Za.hl n.
Die gewonnenen Sitae lassen sich flbertragen auf die symmetrischen
FunctioneD
~e'>+ ....... , ••.
(18)
~ d"', ~ 6'"11.+.." ~ 6'"(',+.00+11>, •••
wo wieder,. eine beliebig~ ganze Zahl bezeichnet. Setzen wir zunichllt
Toraus, dass die Zablen, welche hier als EXpoDenten von e auftreten,
siimmtlich Ton Null and TOD eiDander versehieden seien. Die An·
nahma einer linearen Beziehung mit rationalen Ooefficienten N, zwischen
den Grossen (18) wOrde dun zu einem Gleichungssysterue fUhren,
lVclohcs zu (17) ganz analog ist, und dosson Unmoglichkeit in ganr;
dorselben Weise dargethau werden kann.
1st die gemachte Voraussetzung nicht erfU11t, so nehmen wir zu-
niichst an, dass in einer der Functionen (18), sagell wir Xc z , mehrere
der Exponenten Z einander gleich seieu, uDd betracbten eine Relation
von der Gestalt
(W)
Jetzt werden sich die slmmtlichen Grossen Z in mehrere Gruppen
ZII Z/, Zt, .. 'j Z21 Z,:, Z~", . '. '; ...
zerlegen, der Art, c1a.ss die Grossen jeder Gruppc Wurzelll einer irrc-
ducibeln Gleichung mit raf.:ollnlen Coefficicnten sind lUlU aieh bei
Vel·tauschungen der " nur untor einaudel' vedauschen. Es wllr

202
222 F. Lnmlwu •.

aber bei Behandlnng der in § 2. supponirten Gleichungen (11), (14),

(16) allein. roassgebe.nd, dass in jeder einzelnen Summe nur solche
Exponenten von e vorkamen, die sich unter einander vertanschen bei
den Vcrtanschungen der If' Wir werden daher jetzt unmittelbar Bnf
die Unrooglichkeit eiller Relation von dor Gestalt
O-=J(o+Ns ~ezl+ N22~+ ...
schliossell dUrfen; und in dieser ist die Relation (19) al8 besonderer
Fall entbalten.
Sollte fernor eine der Grasson Z gleich Null soin, so wUrde dies
einer Aenderung des numerischeu Werthes der Zahl No iquivalent
sein, du Reaultat also nicbt beeinfiussen; es sei denn, dus aile auf
der rechten Seito von (19) vorkomUlonden .Exponenteu glcich~itig
versch winden. Wenn die If W urzeln ciner irreducibeln Gleichung
sind, wird dies nor eilltreten kOllneu fllr die Expouonton der .I!'une-
tiouen
(20)
falls in (13) der Coefficient 8, von ,.-1 gleich Null ist. Dieser FaU
giebt itll Folgcnden itnfJIer eine AtA8ftakfM und 8011 nicht jedesmal
wieder hervorgehoben werden.
Betrachtet man weiter eine lineare Relation, in del' fJleMere der
}I'nnctionen (18) vorkommeu, 80 wird man .e8 beim Auftreton gleicher
Exponenteu wieder so einrichten, dus jecle Zahl N, multiplicirt er-
scheint in eine Summe, in deren Gliedern die Exponenten Ton III
Wurzeln einer einzigen irreducibelu Qleiehung sind, und die bei Ge-
legenheit TOU (19) gemachten Bemerkungeu wiederholen. Als Special-
fall erhilt man daun wieder die zu Anfang dieses Paragraphen be-
sprochene Relation I wo jede Zahl Ni in aine der symmetri8ehen Func-
tionen (18) wultiplieirt ist. - Schliesslich gelangen wir so zu folgenden
Sitzen:
:& kann keine der BytntJaetrisc1,en Functionen (18) gleicll einer
rationalcn ZalU scin, ausgenomtJlen eitle Futaction (20) falls in (13) 8 1
fJersMwitadet. Und allgemeiner: ZwisMm den Ftmctionen (18) kant,
keinc litaearc Relation fJlit ralionalcn Coefficienkn bestehen, ausgenommcn
den Fal', w& s, in (13) gleich NtlU ilt, in welc1lt~,,, Falle cine solche
Function det· Grossen (20) gZcic1, ciner rationalen ZahZ iBt.
Nun ist die erate Reihe der Urossen (18) identisch mit der Reihe
der Coefficienten M, derjcnigen o.lgebraiscben Gleichung n len Grades
(21) +
y" -- MI y ..- l M~ y ..-2 - - ••• + M.. - 0,
welche von den Zahlen c" befriedigt wird. Wir wissen also, das8
diese Coefficienten M, llicbt gleich rationalen Zablen sind, ausgeuommen
M. fUr .8, = 0, und dass zwischen ihoen bine )ineare Relation mit

203
 Ueber die Zahl n. 223
rationalen Coefficienten Statt hat. Eine solche aber wUrde nothwendig
erfUllt sem mflssen, wenn ewe der Wurzeln von (21), d. i. der
Grossen c", gleich einer rationalen Zahl ware. Also:
Ist Z W tlreel Binet' irredNcibeln algebraischen Gleichung von dct"
Form (J 3), so katan eZ nicht gleich Biner rationa1.en Zald sein.
Es ist aber die Bedingung e-Y=i -= - 1 erfullt, also kann 'It: 1=-1
nicht Wurzel einer irreducibeln Gleichung der Form (13) sein. Auf
letztere Form kann jede Gleichung mit ration:llCll Coefficienten leicht
gebracht werden, in~em man pil statt e als Unbekannte auffasst, uuter
peine passend gew8hlte gauze Zahl verstanden. Es folgt so der in der
Einleitung hervorgehobene Satz:
Die L u dolph' scM Zahl 'It: kama nicht Wurzel einer algcbraiscken
Gleichung mit rationalen (reellen oder complexcn) Ooefficienten sein.

§ 4.
Verallgemeinerung der gewonnenen Resultate.
1m Vorstehenden sind aIle Schlilsse nur so weit durchgefilhrt,
als es nothig oder nUtzlich schieu, um zu dem zulctzt ausgesprochenen
Satze zu gelaogen. Dieselben sind aber sofort einer weiteren VeT-
allgemeinerung fii.hig, welche dann eine bemerkeoswerthe Anwendung
auf die Untersuchung der natilrIichen Logarithmen gestattet.
Es seien ZII Z2' Z3' . "" irgend welche ganze Functionen der
Grossen ./ mit ganzzahligen Coefficiellten. Die von einander ver-
schiedenen Werthe, welche ZI; durch Vertauscbungen der e, annimmt,
mogen mit Z{, ZI;", ZI;"', . . . bezeichnet werden. Dieselben sind
dann Wurzeln einer irreducibeln Gleichung mit ganzzahligcn Coeffi-
cjenten~ in welcher der Coefficient der hochsten PotellZ der Unbe-
kannten gleich Ein8 ist. Nach den zu Anfllng von § 3. gemachten
Erorterungen lassen sich auf die Grossen
(22) 2 eZ ~ ez', .••
l ,

wieder die analogen ScblUsse anwenden, welln

2 cZr.: == eZ", + eZI:' -+ eZJ:" + ...
gesetzt wird. Es kann daller keine Relation t:on der Gestalt bestehen:
(23) +
0 ..... No Nt 1:
eZ· N2 + 2: + ....
ez'

Auf die Form der rechten Seite kann jede ganze li'unction der
Grosscn (22) so fort gebracht werden j also folgt nls Corollar dassI

keinc ganze Ftmction deer G"ossen (22), il1,~1Icsol/(le,.c del' Grosscn Mi

in (21), welche rationale Coefficientcn liat~ t:ersch/~'i/lllt1i kann.

204
224 F. LIIIDKIf.l:lrX.

Una kommt es roehr auf andere Folgerungen an • .Es ergiebt sich

namlicb, daQ die als unm(iglich nacllgcwiescnen Relationcn aucJ. nQc1~
tltlmoglich sind, wenn man tinter den N; bcliebige algcbraischc Irrational-
zahlcn versteld. In der That, Ilcbreiben wir (23) in der Form
No - Y ... O,
und bezeichnen wir mit No', No", . ", V', V".·· die Grossen, welcbe
aus No bez. Y entstehen, falls man die NI mit allen Grossen vcr-
tauscht, die mit den Ni zusammeu Wurzeln algebraischer Gleichungen
mit ratioualen Coefficienten sind, so warde auch die Gleichung
(No - Y) (No' - V') (No" - V"~) .•• -- 0
erflillt sein mussen I wo links eine ganze Function der Zahlen (22) mit
rationaZcn Coeffieienten steht, also gerade wieder ein Au·sdruek wie
(23), von dem wir wissen, dass er nieht versehwinden kann. Ins-
besondere ergiebt sieh: Es kann keinc ganu Function der M; mit
algebraisch irrationfllen Coefficicnten verscnwinden, aosge,ommen (im
"t
Falle X == 0) eine solche Function von M. anein.
Eine derartige Relation aber warde nach (21) erroUt sein, wenn
Cfi eine algebraisch irrationale Zabl ware. Beht man noch, wie am
Schlusse von § 3., die der Gleichuug (13) zunii.chst auferlcgte Be-
schrinkung auf, so foIgt also:
Ist e cine rationale Zahl (~O) oder algelwaisch irrational, so ist
et cine transscendente Zanl.
Und durch Umkehrung:
Dcr natilrlicllc Logarithmus ciner rationale» Zalu (die Einheit
ausgenommen) oder einer algebraiscJ~ irrationalcn Zalll ist stets cine
transscendenle Zahl.
Auch hier haben wir die Ueberlegungen specieller gefasst als
notbig ware, da wir zunichst die ausgesprochencn speciellen Siitze
im Auge batten. Man kann indessen Alles (mit Riicksicht auf die
Erorterungen zu Anfang von § 3.) in folgendem allgemeinen Theorcme
zusammenfassen:
Ist cine Rei7~ algebraischcr, von einandcr vcrscMedener Gleiekuugcn
r.
'Von der Form (13) ft = 0, f2 = 0, ... , = 0 mit beliebi!JC11 gam-
.fo.Mi.qe.n Ooeffi.cienten gegeben, sind dieselben siimmtlich irredueibel, tlnd
bezeicJmct man mit Zi, Z/, Z/" ... die Wurzeln del' Gleicliung fi = 0,
mit Nk bcliebigc ,-ationale oder algebm·iselt irratioualc Zalden (die nicht
sammtlich gleic" NuU sindi, so kant' citle Gleidmng dC'r Form

(24) NQ + Nt2eZ1 + N2 ~1 + ... + N. 2: e '= 0

OZ. Z

uicht bcstehe-n.; C;I sei denu, d(lSS eim del' ,lTCl/1.Zen Functionen (t ein(ach

205
 Uebt'r die Zahl "'. 225
mit I identisch ist, etwa '1 ....
I, in leek-hem Fa.lle die Gleiclnmg (24)
moglich wira fUr N2 .... NI - ....... N, 0:= 0, Nt = - No'
Dieser Satz wiederum rubrt zu folgendem Resultate:
VerBteht man umer den., beliebige rationale ockr algebraiscT, irm-
tiot&ale, tJDn einander verscAiedene ZahZen, und "mer den Nt ebensolche
Zahlen) die nicht siimmtlich gleich NuU sind, so kann keinc Gleichung
der Form bestMen:
o -=Noe"" + NIl' + N.,e" + ... + Nre'r.
Bildet man nimlich das Product aller Ausdrncke, welche aus der
rechten Seite dadureh entatehen, dass mlln die N, auf aIle Weisen
unter einander vertauscbt, die " aber mit denjenigen GrOssen ver-
tauscht, die mit ihnen zusammen Wurzeln irreducibler Gleichungen
sind, so ist dieaes Product eben ein Ausdruck, wie er auf der rechten
8eite von (23) bez. (24) erscueint j es kann also keiner seiner Jlactoren
verscbwinden. An der paarweisen Verscbiedenheit der e" die beim
Beweise vorausgesetzt wird, mU88 festgebalten werden; denn ware
z. B. '1 -- '2, so ware die Relation
N I 6" +
N 2 eot == 0
erflillt, 80bald NI ... - N2 •
Eine genauere Darlegung der hier nur Bngedeuteten Beweise be-
halte ich mir fur eine spiltere Veroft'entlichung vor.
Freiburg i. Br., April und Juni 1882.

_~nmerkung. Litteratumacbweise fiber die Zabl " findet man auch in

Baltzer's Elementen der Mathematik (Arithmetik, § 31., Planimetrie, § 13.).
Den li.lteren Beweisen filr die Irrl\ti(,nami1.t VOll "I hat Herr Herm He einen
neuen hlnzngeCilgt: Borchardt's .Toumnl, Bel. 76, p. H2, 1878.

206
 1067

Zu LINDEMANN'S Abhandlung: "fiber die

LUDOLPH'sche Zahl".
VOIl K, WEIEIlSTRASS,

.1:4nr (lie I~rg'llllli~s" <lcr in ,it'I' g'·III11I11I.1'1I AhlllUlfllulIg' milgt't.l,cillP.n

UlIt(>rsllchulIKm, ,II''' 111"11, J.INIII·:MANN. IInnu·III.lid, liiI' .1"11 ,Iu.rill Cllt~
hrut.l'nl'n, hi" <In.hill v,"rg<'hl'lls l'r"ta'(,ht"l1 B"wl'i", ,Ins" ,Ii,·
1.J,hl 7r k!'illl'
alw,lorniRcItfl 7",.hl 1lIIII somit <Iii' lJlJ","~'.t.ur ,II'" i{rriHl's nul' "OlL~t.ruc­
I.iVClII W!'gf' 11IInusfiihrlllu' ist., IUlt. sich ill ,Icn w,·it...stl,n \{rciNcn ein so
lebluLft.cs IlIlcrI'Jlse kllllflgcgllllClI, .h'Ns iI'lt glauh", "11 w"r<l" cine mllg-
Iiehst clclIlcntnr gl'Ianl .... ne. lJur Iluf ".I\1I1·knllllw Sii.t:~1' Sillh "1.(j~"lJ,h, He-
griin<lung ,I"r J.IN".:MANN',.dll'" TI"'OJ~'llI'·. wir. iI'.h "i" im NJ1I:hs\'"hclll\"1l
zu gill,,,,; vel'b"U".Iu,. 7.1l.hlrl·id,clI j\\nt.IICUlH.t,ik""1I willkoJIIIl ....1I N('in,'

I Diese Abhnndln"". dc~n InhAl~ clnl'ch die ljhel.,,,~h ..in, .. ur 1Il1vulbtJimliJ{ An ..

gegrhen wird. is•. VOII mil' am 22 ••Inni 1882 Ilrr Aknd.~mi(· vnrgclt':lo{l. wunlclI lInd
hald dal'R"C elwRS weitcr '''''llemhrl .".10 in dr.n .ltI.t.hp.lllatis.hen Annalen. ("d, XX)
crschienen.
I lch l.."nm'ke ...sdlilcklieh, daM die Vel"utl"en.lit·lmng diCIIP.s illl 8mnmp-r 1882
nnt.actandeucn nml fi,r.incm we.-rentliehen IlIh"lto8 nRcla 11111 26. -Ocluhm' clr~l~lben .1ah~
in ,Ier ltkademie vnrgetrAgf'.nen Anl'satu.ts illl Einversl.nnclnisRe mit Ih·n. LINDE.AN" er-
Colgt, 1Iml dass icb damil nu" be.wecke. ,lie yon dpmsell",n gegebcnen "der ange-
deulelen Bewcise seiner Situ ohne wencn~lidle Modification ,Ie,' J~.iten.len Grund-
gedanken ZI1 vereinrachen nn(1 :r.11 vCI"\'ul1sUhlflignn. Du r.1"t.f~re f.'.,,,icl!c ieh hRIII_'Nirhlinh
daclnrch, dAM ieh niellt., wie Hr. )"INUEMANlf t'.K tlml., I"~i del" 1.t".5C'· din vuIlHtiimU .....,
Kennt"i.. den J"b.lts dr.. ben1hmlen 1IF.RII,'r,,'.ch.n ,\I'hnmllnng ·Snr la '"nell,;..
expon~ntiel1e· (COIn pt. rend. 1873) VtlrAIIKSct:r.r., Rmulen, ails clel"Mel1w.n rmr dip. Me-
thode .ur Jlcrleitnng d.s In §, I 1II.ler Nr, VI .nfgentell"'n UUlf'""'t .... cot.nehme,
Der AurMtz i5t. nllrigenl im .l\lannRCript rnebrercn berrenncletcn Mal.hemal-j.kern
mitgetheilt u"d dann linter Denll'.7.ung der lleUlCl·knngcn. die nair einigc vun ihnen
haben Z1IkOnllnCn IURen, 1I1J1p;earln~it.et wm·dcn. Nnl1lent.lit~1a llat mir IIr. 11. A. ~CHW.ARX
v.~nwJli.'!(I~lIn rf~l'lf~tiunc~lIr. Anft""lInwm \·UI·"''1'!HChhlh.,~n, Allr dir) h·t. g'~nl dn~r:gaIlJ.l;r.n hin.
14crMJnd(,ren nank KChnlde id. (crnr.r III,•• Ih':I ...:KINh fnr Qiue allr den 1J(~webc «Ins ill.
AnrRngt" elel! §. 3 allrgcst.ellt.eu 1-linrSSAIX(~ sich hujchcnde MULhcilnng, (lurch welche
("II Qlir lIIuglit:h gcW'fJnlcn iHt t dicsen HeweiR w".lenllich zu vr.reinr:lchcD.

In-

207
lORR f.l(":slImnllsilzllng yom a. Ot"l"pmht'I". - :\'iUh"'illIlI~ \'(lm 2:.!. Ort.ullr.I'.

§, I,

lIiilf",,;lt.7o" nu" 11.·1' Th"oJ'il~ d"I' [':XI"llI"lItinlfuIIIILioll,

1. K~ 1"""'111.· I.:. AI iiiI' .i.,.I"1I g.III701.,hligl·II, .. i,·ht III'Kallvl~1I
W 1'1'1 h Villi A llil' 111IJ~'h Iii" OII'il'hulIg
I:=.AI =~,:="
A! "~lC!
,"·fillil'l.· 1:"" .. 70., 1'1II11"1ill" ;,1"11 lil~,.II'" .Ir·,. .\rglllll'·lIllC ., li'I'III'" ""i
I
!/(.:) ,.: ~ h,;:'
>. •

f·i .... t... lit·ltigc' ~nlll.t· 1·'IIIIC·l.itlll \,uu =. 111111 (·s We'''' 1" J.:' 1 st ot.1.l:
I
0(:) ''''',. ~ .. h> I;, AI :

(·11
1111.1 I'" i"t t; (;1 I·illl· ).."11.1170.· FIIIII'lillll ,\1'1' V"riilll"'rlidll'lI ;: von Ilem-
1'1..11"'11 li,'n.I., ,,·it· .lil' Jo'lIIl1'\.iO" !II.:),
n.,hl'i iSI "-II 1"'lIIcrk"II, .lnlll< .1111'1,11 .Ii., \'lIrsl.'h(,II.1e Ulp.ldlllllA'
.lil' 1"11111'0"11 (; (::) l'illllt'lIlig 1\"fillil'l. wil"1.
II, l<:~ III'irm
/(.._) -_f'L'_
.+.
- ,. " .0+'-"
1
1.(:) =
.1"='.0

l: r..,::"
,

1':-.0

IIWl'i gnll"-" ~'\II1I'1iIlIl(,U vou ;:, h"zir'hll.,h \"0111 (II + .)tell ulld VOIII IIt.e.1I
I ;r"dl': •Ii.· (·...,flId.·ut.·u .11'1' XWI,lt.'1I NOUI''' wiIlkftrliclJ AnZUllI'lulll'.ml,'
Ilrf....~.·11 111111 llil' (:'wllil'i,·ut.·u ,\,,1' "l'Kt,," 11111' 111'r Rt_Iuilnkullg uut.·....
wftrft'll ''''ill, .IIIM fI.. uit,hl, gMell NIIU ""I" und IJitl Function /(::) mit
illI~'" •• ....11'11 AhMt.lIl1g f(:) keill(,11 gI'JIlrimleluu\lichl'.n TIleilt'.r hesitzen
.ll\l'f. Mnll hl~Nlilllnll', 11111.·1' ". "illc "('lid,ig allzunelimt'.n,ll' positivI'
/tUII"-" 1.11111 vl· .... ldll·lUl, nuf .lit· ill (1.) IlJIK"K"IK'ne Weise cine Reihe von
;,:'nll1.(,11 [o'IIIII'I,i'"lI'n
(6) 11.1:), 11,1.:1, ' .. 1I.lz) ,
w.·ldIP .1(,11 (il"il'hungen
\ "I::)r-'d: ,= ,1(--11.(0:)"-')
(7)
If(o:) 1I._,(:)r-·t!; = ,l( -ll.(.-:) ..-') (p= ..........,

gf'niigt'n; urum hat man, WeJlll

208
 \Vf:U·:RSTRASS: Zu LINI)E)(AN"N'~ Alilumdl.: f:h~"lli~ LUIlIIJ.PH':\C'_ht> Zlthl. 106!J
(8) (,..::':: 1,'.1, .•. m)

KI'sl't.:t. wi)"ll, f'iir fJ. = O. I, . . • 111 - I,

rI ( - .~!-(:) r'(:l'~-') = ".(:) . I(~l>'d: __ II"+~(:) }i..:l"-'" 'd:,

(/II -fJ.)l· (/II -,~)l (1/1 .. fJ.-I)l
IIntl (Iur fJ. = Ut)

AilS ,liesI'll (lit +

I) (Hddl1lllg",'11 1'1'g-il')'t siell, W"1I11 1111111 sie ,Iurell
Atl.litiull mit l·ilUl.IlIl,·I· v"J'l'illigt:

1'(Z1/(",) -, I'
II/.! N ~ IN -
- {..::; \._ 1I. (:) rt~·
1 (11/
' ........ fJ.) l' ' I
,-' i
\ •

Hi,' \:ol'lli";l'lIl.l'lI ,iP,' Flllld i"""11 I: . i,l silld. wi,' '''I' ,I,·,'
1'01'1111'1 (I)
II"',· .. l'Ill'lIt. 1{:t1l1.1'. Z:oI,(I'II:
1l1lIl'iI .... ,Ii,·
('n"f'liC'i"llt.1'1l d,',. ,II"'d, ,Ii,·
(HC'i,'hllllg- u),h'filli"(1'1l Fllllctioll (; (.:) "Iso gnllw lim'at'" F1lI1I'!ioll"1l
d"I' (;riiss"11 Ii... Ii, .... h, lIlit g'nllzzRhligl'll COl'flid"lIt'·II. [)"lIlgl'mii.~s
Idm'lI ,Ii" 1'01'1\1,,111 (7). ,llIss .i,',11' d,'" Fllll.·ti'I1lI'1I 11,,(:)' II, (.:), ... Jlm (:)
CiIH' gUUiW Futlet.jou df'r U ro~~('n

lIlit, g-1I111.7.II.hlig-"1I ( .... fflcit'Il(,·1I is!.

III. Ilil' i1ll VOJ'St.Pl"'lIdl'll ,II'I'illi,·I.,' Fllllf'lillll 11.(:) ist.
lIil'mals ,11IJ'eh ,lie FllndiQII I(::) ,.h"il)'III'. IIUSg-"IIOIIIIllI'II ill
1lf'1II FilIII'. wo di,' Gl'iiSSCII ('0' (., • • • • " . siiUlmt.lidl ,Iell \Vt'l'th
Nllllll:1.hl'I1 UIlII somit. .it'dl' tlC'1' Flllld,iolll'lI lr.,(:). Jf,(':) .... 11.(:)
sidl fin je<iI'.11 ,Vl'l'th von:: lIur Null I'I'.tluI·il't..

-, .7:............
l. m-. !
Es wI'rlle gcsctzt
H.(z)
( 12) lI.. (N) =~ j(::) ,
(11/ .- fJ.) 1

so is!. rnadl Cnl'kltllug (I III

11.(::) _ (~j/~(z) ,~, 11(z).r;~).
d:: IIIl
Welln !lither die COl'fficil'ul.('11 ,11'1' FUlldiou 11(':) IIii'll! siilllllltlkh
den \Vpl't.h Null 11:1.111'11, so i_I II•• (.:l ch1l' K'u,z,' FIllII't.ioll VOIl ::. ,lie
nid,t iiiI' jetlen .Vcrt.], tlic~('r (Oriis,,' \'(,I's(·hwitlllel. III It I tI"I"')I (0"1\,1
(mLell 1.) nkht griisser ist. als 111(1/ + I) + 1/ = (Ill + 1)(1/ +.) ... I. B,··
zckhnl't. man also mit. p + I ,lif' klt,illstp l'ositi\'1' g~IIZI' Znhl. nit· w,·ld",
,+.
ll~(z) IIit-Itt tlureh II;:) 11l1'ill'nl' i~t. lUul ~ .. I,7.t.

Ii~(:;) = JI:(:)J{::) ,

209
 1070 llr_"aUlOlhci'7.lIng \'om 3. Dec'"lber. - MilrJlcilllng VOIR 22. October.

1;0 i~t 11:(::) "illl' gllll1.C Fundilllt "011 '::, dip. nii~ht fllr jl'AlP.1I Wp.rth
,Urst'r (i.,"'l;l<c \'''I.,."hwilll!c·I., 111111 p;;;: 111. 1I1all hnt dlLlm
t/ 1I 0 (::») hI:) •
( Il:(.) - -'·l·~- /(.:) - pIl. (z)j(z) = "-j I(z)
--,+.,
,_ m.
UIIII t'l; ist .Inh,·r p1/: (:lj(::) ,itm,h/(::) I.hcillmr. DiCll aLer ist, tIa die
"'UJIt't.imll'll /(:l ••r(.:) kl'in"ll A'''lIIt,iIlSdlllftlil'llP.1l 11,,·ilr.1' bt'.sit.1.t'n un,1
.Ii" FIIIlI't.il.lll 11:\:) uit-ht Ilu ...·h/(.:) thl'i1hl" ist" 1I11r .It·r I,'nlllllr p == 0:
e·" ist "I"" II.:) kdn Thdlrl' ,'.m II. I::) 111111 ""mit, I1t,r Gleiehultg (I :I)
1.1IIillg(·,. IlIwh hill Thrill'r II"r FUIJ(·t.ioll H.(::j.
IV. U,·z"iclm.'I. 1111111 (IInt.r.r '!c'r Allllllll1111', dlts" ,. > I "ei) mit
.:',:" irg"11I1 z\\"'i ,!t·t;j,·ltig'·u \V .. rthp. VOlt z, lUI' wt'lcht' /I::) -= 0
winl, su '·I·gic'l,t...ich allll ,Ier Ghoiclumg (II):

1/.(.:"),-." - ll.. (:'),,-·' = -J'~~l

III!
ji.::),,-·dz.
J\UI< d,·1t (i\eichuII!(1"1I (7 111111
"
el'lll"llt, 11111<8 llill FUlIl,t.ioll
I -- 4)
11.(::), I... i lIul"'st.inllllt.-1I \V,'I·th,'1I dt'r <7riiSllen "0' c, , ' , . e., VOtU
(11m + lI)t{'1l (irn.lr. ist uJUl dlillS ill ,Il'rllelben. dill Coctllcienten VOIl

• I • • "0
t.hdllulr ..hill. Dal'Rus li)lgL, ,1:_ ,lie J:c'ullcl.ion 0:,.-1 1H.(::) slell aul
dir. "'1.11'11\

"rillgt'll lli",~t, ill ,lea' "\1'1., t\1tSS G (:: , ,It) , g(;: , m) beida ganze Funa-
\.iollen dt·r (;rOlISlm .:, "., tl" • , • ".+,.
Co, c, , •• ,c. mit ganz:r.abUgen
ljo"l1icit'lIt~'1I werdeu uwl 0(:: , 1/1) ill Hezillliwig auf;: von nicht hGherem
Ills Itelll II tell lh,ule ist.. Dill Gl.,iehulIg (I 3) kDlm also in die folgende
vl'rwulllldt ",(!Idell:

(15) g(::" ,,,,\t,-'" - g(.1' , m),.-,' = - f

iI
"'A(::) «-'/(z»- c·d;:.
'11.
I

Die COf'l1iciellt(,1I ,lei' 1<'ullctiollen II.. (z) , G(t; , m) • g(t; , ,n) sind,
wit, Iii I' .Ii,' .. r~k IIll1f llirer .. It,,"
ILlJK"gel.enllll BUdulIgswelBe, tllr die
1"'i,I"'1 Illlllc'I't'1I ah"r aUN ,h'r vOJ'Htdll"lIden Definition dersclben liervor-
gelat, , KIUIZt, lillt'.arc Jo'lIl1ticlllelJ ,lr.r willkilrliell anzunchmen-
!tUlIIUW'IIt'
tlr.1I U"iss"11 r.., /.', , ' , ,r..
,'\Vr.1I11 mall ,lnber, Ullter • irgend eblll
tIel' 7..n.h\,," 0, I",," vt","t.r.heml, mit gp(;:, 111) we J:c'unctioll be-
zc·it.. luu,t, ill w,'I"I", V (: ,1/1) dlulun'Jt 11I')cl'geltt, tlu..'!li man e,. = I

210
 WE'ER..rRA .. ' ZII I.' .. D•• AN .. •• Ahhalidl., ill..,,· ,lie LIII>OLPH·""l.e Zohl. 1071
lind die iihligen UP-I' lhos.opn ,..". (', •... ". lIammtlieh glpicll NIIIl au-
nimmt.. so hat man
(I G) g(z. fIl)
.
= ,.:;/,.O,.(z, 1/1).
und es gehen aus '\I'r GleichuIIg (I 5) .lic lolgell<1ell (11 + I) Hleidmngell

r
hervor:
';'{(r'/(Z)r
l17) y,.(::". ,/t),..-'" - y,.(z', 1/1)1'-" = - ___0_, --- -,..--r1z. ('·=o" ... n)
~ 'If.
Die j<'ullctioUI'II y,.(::. III) sill<l gallze Fullt·tiollPII .11'1' GrUSSCII
:: • (lu • (/.+, mit. ganzzabligell Cot'l1iciellt<'n. B,'.zeicJlllct man
/I, ••••
fcnwr mit (;,.(z. 1/1) ,lit' FUllct.iou, ill wp-IcJlI! a(::, m) durcl. die
Auuallllle

.
A(z) = z"
ilbergeht, so ist
.
= ~ ",.(;,.(z, ttl),
~a:c"-II H.(z) = I(z)
G(::, tit)
(/8) ,'=0 • •
c,.a,.(:: , m) +
~ ~ i',.g,.(::, til),
v=o I'~O

unu 1'.8 Pl'giebt slcIl aus dl'r let·zt-l'1I H}C'ichung, dn 11.(::) (nacb m.)

.
nur dallu durcJ. I(z) theilhar ist., wl'nn (iiI' HriiSH"1l "" ..iimmt.li"h vel'-
scbwlmlen, IlllSll 11('1' AUHdnll'k

X ""0,.(:: ,111)
I'~"'O

nul' .Ianll Iill' je.l'!ll ,"Vert.h "Oil :: glc>il'h NIIII ist., wenn je.le .11'1'
Urnsst'll n•• e t , • • • e. tl(,JI W l'1·th Null Imt --- mit llJull'ren ,"Vurtm.,
dass unter lien ill .Iell UIl'ichullg'''1 (17) VOl'k0111111"lltl"lI (1/ I) +
gRuzen Functlonl'1l VOII ::
g.(z, rn) , 9, (z, Iii) •••. D.(:: , fIl)
ffir keinell Werth von In ('ine linE'RI'l' A1Jhllngigkeit st.II.f,t-
f1n.let.
Aus diesel' Eigensc]uu\ del' ~'unetiollen g,.(':: , /II) ergieht skh fernel':
<Heht. mll.ll .It-r Groue:: irgen.l (/I + I) hestimll1t·e ,"VI'rt.he
=0' ZI' .•. z .. ,
linter denllll kl'ino zwei gleiche IIi,,]. finlll'lI, AO hat.•lie 011-
termillll.l1 te
10.(J" 1/1) I (A, • = 0 , I, ••• 1/)
Rt.et.H CilllHI VOII N 1111 nH'R.· 11 i.'IIelleHI Wel't.h.
\VAre 11ll1n1lcll .lil>lIl' nl't~'nninR.nte gMd. Null. "I) Wfil~11'1I siel.
('1 + I) GrOSft1'1l rod' ", , ••. r.. III) l>l'stlmmPJ' IRs~p.u. .lnsH .lie' (II I) +
Glelc}lUngen
.
":0 r,.!I,,(Zt , 11') = 0

211
1072 Uesallllllt.ilzlIlIg voa. 3. Decmnber. - Miltheilung yom 22. October.

h'''ItliJlli!'n. ohlll' ,llLss sllnllutlid,!' IIrns1II'n "0'''" ... ''. Ii..u Wert,h
Null hilth-n, [JIIIIU will·,It' ILh,,.. ,leI' AllsclnlCk

,.~o ",.O,.(z , ,,),

,IeI' t'inc galll.... FUllctlon tI""
V.. rlllul,'rlichen z von nieht hGI,ere1l1 ILlli
d ..m 1II.('n Grn,l" ist., luI' .i!'d,'n W.. rt.h von z venmhwin,lpu, WILlI
uadl ,1"111 VurluOi'g"h" ... I"1I uidlt slnl.t./iudeu klLOu.
V, DIL
';"(u:-'/(z)t
.. -- .... _---,.
_I

",!
"inc (trnll"""II,Io'ut,,) gnn7-" "·lIIwt.ioll v,m .; ist" 110 hILt 11118 Intc>grainllf
,I"" U",,·ht.'11 ,1"1' (Hd"hullg (1'7) I"'i gt'gt'l"'lIt'u Wertlu!II vou Itt, Y, z',::"
cilll'u "Oil ,kill 11It.·gl'Lt.iOIlSWt'h'" IIII1Ll.hilllgih"'II, !'i1ltltmtig l,,~tinlUlteu
\\"'I,tl1, ,It'll 1111111, IIl1t.('r T "i1", ILUt' tlHlIlutc'rvlLll (0 ...• ) Ims"hrllukte
"t'pll ,. V"I"",I"I'lid,,, ""I'st"''''IltI, ill .\,,1' ~'()J"u

J "(~"-.;')(:=:.: (~"_-=-=.l:t<'~~~'£S::~-I::.~~"
III!
-z') T»~r"-""-I'lT,1r
o
<1nl"llt"'I"11 kllllll. l'A; }Ilsst sich nhpr, lln.r.h Annahme einer beliebig
kl"illl'u I'nsith·t,u (;l'ii"1II'~' "im' gnU7-!' Y..ahl M so bt"'t~mmen, dass Rlr
jctlpn W.'rlh ,'on "', t\c,I' grl"ll<lIl'r HIli Jl ist, Imd tlir jedeu ,ler be-
tmd,td,'n \\' prthe VOIl T

IIU,} s1l1l1it ",,,,It, uHch l,im'1I1 h!'klLllntell Satze, der absolute Betrag
ties Inregrllis

kMur.r al .. ~ illt. AilS tlpr H1r.icllung (17) ..rgiebt aiell ILlso, wenn
h"i.lo Sl.iu,u tlerselbclI mit
1II1l11

lllultJplidrt
(. !J) l.im.lv,.(o1', 111)11
.'.-=:00
1
" - U,,(z", ,")e"1 = o. (_==0, ', .•.•)

VI. iii.. jetzt. sint! cUe Coe11lcientell ,ler "'l1I1ctlon fez) keiner
.mdCl'Cli BClIcltrinkung als ller 01Je1l (untel' 11.) angegebenen unter-
WOl'f,'1l wonl"II. SP.tJlt Illnll ILl ...., nunmchr 110cll lest, dasH tlieselbel1
"ilmmtlich 11'1'10\','1)('1'" ganll:c Z.'\hll'1l Kcill 1I0lleu, so werden, IULCh t!em

212
 WEIns-russ, Zu L,ND.MUN·S Abhandl., Ober die I.Ul>OLPH·sche Zahl. 1073
;,hen (IV.) Bemerkten. fill' jmll'u Wert.h 111'1' 7.nhl til ouch llic GOl'fficll'utl'U
,11.1' FIUlctionell O.(z, 1/t) sii.mllltlieh gllmm Zuhleu. M.all kouu fiwncl', Wl'IIU
.e., ZIt ... Z. llie \Vurzeln del' Uil'icllUug/(z) = 0 simI, dell G\l'idlllllgl'1I (19)
gemRss I'll so gl'OSli aUllehmell, dm<s jcdl' lim' DitTenmzcu
=, =0
g•. (:. , I'It)" . - g. (:,., !/t)e
(1.=0
••
......•nJ,
=0.1 ....

illrem ahsolut~n Bet..,.ge llndl kleincr ist., nls cine hdil'hig kll!iu Rugl'-
nommellC l'o!litive Hri\s!l('~. Zuglddl hltt dllnn llil' J)cwrmillnntr
Ig. (:.. m) I (A. v = O. I ••• tl)
einen von Null versdlil'<l~nl'n Werth. indclIl unt~r .ll'n Gr&seu
:., :., ... :. kcine zwei glciche sid. findl"'.
Damit ist eill Snu hcwil'sC'll, I\er im Foigencll'.n 11I1Ilptsllehlich
zllr B('gl'lilllillng .ler LINIIEMANN',,,,h('u TheoJ'('.me .licnl~u wil'.l 111111 Hicll
110 allMl'rc..hen Uisst:
.EM sei If:) I!h ... gnnz(' }<'IIJ1(.I.iou (II + I) HI·u.II'" IH'I' V"rI\IICII'I~
licheu z mit gcgchellell gl\ll zZlLh I igcu c()I'mtoit'llt(,U, .U(' NO ht!Ht!lu,O'1'1I
Hind, lIas... .lie GI('idlUllg
If:) ,= 0
(II + I) von ('iuau.lel' verschi"dclw WIIl'zelu lUI.I.• wcldae mit.
:0' z. , ... z.
hezeiehnp,t. W!'.rdllll miigl'n. AI"duIIII UIs... t Nic-.ll, IIndl AUlln.Jnne ('ill!'r
1.eliebig kl!"inen pOSitiVl'll Gl'lIAAe~, nllf mnlligfllitige WI·is.- ('iu Syst.l'm
von (II + I) g&llZCIl Fllnctiollell
g. (z) ,g. (:) , ... g. (:)
.les ,Arguments z von IIiI'M. hohl'l'Cm nIH dcm Itto.'n Hl'lule, .1erell
Coeffieiellten sllmmtlich gallze 7..a.blell sind, II(J llt'st.iuunf'u, 11as.~
erstens jede der DitTe.rcnzllll
.
0.. (:.)·8-· -g,.(z.)t;·
- ().=o", ... ft)
"=O.I .... ft
ihrem absolutell Betrage nacll kleincr als ~ ist. 111111 zweiteus ,lll'
Determin&nte
D., (z.) I (A, v = O. I, . . . ft)
einen VOII Null vel'Mcbiedenen WerUI hll.t••

§. 2.

Bewels, daslI ,lip, LUDOLPH'scIae ZlI.hl 11' eine tl·auscllIlIleut."

Zahl ist.
Da e'" = - I L~t IIlId .lie }<'unctioll ,.. nul' filr soieIae Weli.l.e
illl"l'.B Argument.~, wPoll'lle (ungrade) Vidfache VOll 1I'i sillli. dell WCl't.Ia
- I· &llnimmt, so kllllll dew zu hcweisclllleu SaUl' d('r folgeudp,
8uhstituirt werdeu:

213
I OJ -t (l~""IIII11I.ilxIIIIK \'UIII 3. \)I'f'rllloor••- 1Iliul",illlllK VIIIII 22.0clohcr•

• 11i<· (;I"is.~l' ",+ I hnl.•

:£ "ilw III,ltrhrnil"'h" 7AM isl,
W"1I11
,,1 ..1•• ";11"11 "ulI Null V.·l.... ·lli".I.·II.. 1I
\V,·rl.II .•
K. IN""'III1' ,", irg"I1.1 "hll' /,,,,g.·IN·II .. III,ltclll'aiH"III' ZullI. 1>iel<l'l1..-
",·i \\'1117..·1 "ilu'r lJll'iell1lllg I'WII (h·II.JI·~:
af + ", af-' + ... + "r = 0,
.1"1"'11 (~().. llir·i"III'·1I MiiIlIlIlI.lil,1I rnt.iullale 7..nlllclI "hul .- wol",i 1LI1!{e'
11"111111<'11 \\,"I~I"II .11lI·"•• IIISH r> I H"i. WI'jJ mi' r = I ,..1', = ,,-', 111111
'"'lIIiI ,·i ...• IH'Nil';'·,' Ur/i"",' iHI.. Ilin ".,1...1('11 ..1111.. UI .. i"'lIl11,1t IIILt ,1&1111
1I1I"""r:r, lIu.·1I (I' -. II 11111"'\'1' \Y1I17."III: "'1'1'111'11 ,Ii,'''''
mit.r., •• ,orr 1».-
1.6;.·111 ...1. NIl i"l. ,'N, ,llImit ,I.. r 1111111"',<1,,111(' I!llll~ IH·Nlelll'. lIutllW"lIllig
111,,1 l,illl·,·;"I"·11I1. ,I"s... ,lill Uri"ISSI'

,·hll·1I ""11 :"illll V'·.rII"'I;'·,11'1I1'1I \Y,·rl.h IInll...

lioll(l·11I1 ..1·l1Iml....'·1I 7.1·igl'lI:
I':" ",·i'·11 E,. E•• ' , . Er ,'.1\1
riIULIII"'I' 1III1I1,hllllgigr Vl'liiJlIll'l·\ichl'.
'''' 11111. III1UI
l 1(,,'+1)= ::: "
r
""t' ""- ',""1
"'"
"+ •.• +" ',.~
, (I. t ', ,. "',=--0,1)
. . • ',0',:' .. "
tiel,' I' • we'lIl1 1111111 :lr :.'" I' ,,,'I3.t uncI eli.. I' FlIlIl'I.iOlU'1I

" E, + '. E. + . , , + 'r Er. (·1,·, .... ·,:.=.0.1)

ill h'I(I'II,1 ,·hll·r 01'111111111; 1(1'1101111111'11, lIIil. <.0, <,. ' , ,<...., hl'Yo..idmet,
11("
~ ~
+I)=:l;,,·.
,.-, {

, "_.... ..=0
Sill,l ul ..o

~,~", .. ~-,
tillclnreh 1111 11,,1 IIl1e'lI • ellLl<H 1111111
~I ::.: Z., CI = :£'1 , ••• E,. = z,

\lie' AlUmhl el,'r Villi e'illllll,lllf vel·lIchil.Ilf!II .. n Werthe, wl'lcbe

ill .1.·,· Ro,!I ... :", .:,.," =,._,
vClrlllLlI.lell lIillll, Hel 11+ I, 111111 ell Dlilgen
eli.· AuOltll'rll'k" <... <, •. , . <.._.
HO Kt!m'tll1ct. Heill, ,lnAA uuter ,1"'11
(II + I) (:I~-_'II =., =, , ' .
,=. kehlll 7.\\'e'l gl..lclhe "Icla Ihltlr.II, IIIltl:. = 0
illL; wIII"'i 7.11 hClllIOl·kml. tlnAA 11 + I > I isl.. w..l1 ill ,leI' nt.ihe
.:•• :.' ., . :._, nlle,h elit· UI~jK""1I .r, •• ,.:l:r "IILilllltl,u Hbul. I>WIII

214
 \VEIERSTRASS: ZUI.1NOltltANN'l" Ah1Iandl.: OLe)' die LUlJOLl'u'sche Zahl. 1075
kann man, untel' Z "ine uubt'still1l1lte Griiss(' v(,l'st,I'\U'1H1, cine .~all1.('
Function It::) vom ('I'II(\e n +
I ht'l'~tdlcn, wdd", IIUI' ga.\lz1.ahlige
Coeffit'-ienten hat. und liil" Z = ::., :, , ....,::.
vm,,.ehwitulet.. K~ kann
nil.mlich das Product

<largestellt w('r<icn nls g:lIIlW Fllndion ,ler Hriisst'll ::,~"~,, ... ~,

mit ga.nzz:Lhligell (;oem"i('III~'II, w...ld.t'. sid. lIid.!. ;;II,h'I'I., W"IIII ,Ii"
O.'ossell ~, , ~, , ' . ,~, ill hl'lil'hig"I' 'W"ise ["'I'IIIIIIh-1. wC'I',I"II, HIlc1 sidl
sunlit, wenu luan fur E., Es' ... E, «lie Wurzel" eilwr (H.·idnJlIg rtA.~U
Ol'lI<les mit llLl.t.!'." m.t.iolla)('.\1 Zah)('ndlidmltell ('ills('I1.I.. ill cill!' gallz"
'FUlldi()1I Jltell Ur:a."l's V()II :: mit. "1,,," solclU'1I C()"flki,,"I"1I vm'wl(Juldl ..
11
1'-1
Es IiL~sl. sidl nlso (= -- ::.) "Is K"IIW FII(U·.t.iOIl VOIl :: mil. Inlll''''
,.'-.11
mtiollalen ZahlcoeJlidl'lt{," tlnrsldlell; tliviilirt mlLlI ,!i('SC FlIll!'tiOIl
clallli durdt den grl>sst.!'11 Tl",i\er, dell si., mit ihr('r ('rstell AhlE.'itung
geme.ill hat, so ist del' Qu()til'nt ('i1I(' g>IJlz(' FUIlet.i()1I (Il+ 1 )t..11 HI'II""S
von Z, aus del' mall, in(lc1I1 mall sic mit <'ill"r 1"..'s('wl1'l1 gallzl'1I z."hl
mult.iplicirt, eine ~'unction
I(z) = a.::"+' + 0,::" + ... + (1.+.
erhilt, welche lauter glLnzzahlig" Coeffid"Jlten hat. lind fijI' '::='::.,::", .. :.
versehwindet.
NnclJ(]"1Il diese FUllct.i()n 1(::) ]u~l'gcskllt worden, knnn mall 1I11S
ih.-, nach Anllu]nnl' eillCl' 1)c\ieLig kldu('n posit.iv!'!l (:I'OSS" ~, "i.1I
System von n +
I ganzen FUllctloJlell

g.(.::). 9,('::) '." .g.(:)

von (leI' im Schillssslll:T. (VI.) des YOl'igcII 'Pn.rngrnplll'n n.lIgegl'lI"IIl'lI
8esehaft'enheit nbleiten. so dnss. wenn mall

v,.(o)/' - 17.(.::,) = f, •• ~ ( 'l.=0.1 .... ")

... =0,1 , ... n

setzt. jede (leI' Gl'Ossell f, •• ihl'em ahsolut<'11 8,,(.I"ge illicit kl"in,,1'

als list.
Die Gr5ssen 9.(z,) sind simmtlie.h nlgchrnische Zahlen; mult.iplit'il't
mnn jede de.rselhell mit. fl:.
so verwalldclll sip. sich nU" ill g:LU1.e
algebraische Znhlen.'

I Nneh (l~r VHn llt'll. J(RONECRI-:R eingefilhrt.('.n TCl'lIlin(lJ0A"i~. hri~<IIt, f~illf~ Ort)S!<IC J;

eille algebraischr. Znhl, wenn sie einer 1I.1Kehrai~t~hcm nicicilltlll; \'011 tlf~r 1'01'11.

I" + A •.<"-' + ... + A. = 0 •.

ill tier dir. Coeffidenl.p.u A. t • • • .A. Riimmt.Jich ratiutlA.I(~ Znhlt'.n t.intl, gcniigt.. Simi
ill:41,e8t1l1del't~ llic!'n~ ("oellideui.tm mlllllulJich gnIl7.•! Zahlen, :ru wird .£ cine gauze

215
I fliH (;~"""""I~ih"'ng ." ... :i, nf"",,,,I ..,,,, - Mil.l.heilnnjC "0'" ~2, (Iew\",,',

Niuuut 'lin II 111111 & Sf) klr'ill 1111, dlU'.~ I(/I - I' a:.l'1 < I i~t., 100
'·I'gi"hl. "il'lt "liS ,h'I' vllr"""''''1If11'1I Oh'il'IIII",1(
I'-f... 1'-1
":0.(11)...:::;_.u r" = : :; '~YI'(:') + f"
•. U
, (1':=0, I I •• nJ

IV" ,i,',I,' ,\t'r HI;'.....·" f, .!"1I1 'L),,,,,lut.·,, B,·t.l'llg" lIadl kl.. illl'r al/l I i.. t,
K~ isl. "I,,'r
1'-'
._0
~ a:UI'(~')
ml' j,..1,·" \VI'I'I1, \'1111. ,·h,,· "Y 111111 "t.ril... h ,. K11I1Z" "·ullct.ion tl"r
t:I,i/l/lf'1I E•• E., ' , ,E, mit. gILIIZZlLhlig"lI C'lf'ffi"jc'III('II: 111110 ist ,lie ganze
"1/C,·I,nLi","'" 1."hl
.-.
•~ ",,:!!,,(:,,)

>:u){I"il,h "ill" r"Iillll"I,' ;.'.."hl. ,I, It, sil' isl. ";11" K"IIZ" 1.ultl illl K"wi,IIII'
li"""11 Sillll", 1"'I'II,'r m..s .. sil,lt z"ig"lI, ,h,..~ ,Ii" 1/.+ , 1.:,1110'11
1'-'
.~u":9r'(:.) (1':-...::0 ••••• • n)

lI;"hl. silllllllU;,'h '\"11 W,'rt.h NIIII hlLllf'lI, 1\1'111 h"l. 1Iil.ullit'h

1'-1 •

• ~:I.:OI'(:') = .~. N.Y.(:.) '

\\'0 ,\:. N. ' , , , N. Hlll11l11tli,'h l'oHiUv" /,'11117.1' Znllll'lI ..hill; ".II mfilllltf'
,U/lII. \V,'1I11 ,Ii" ill H..·,l,· sl<,h"IIIII'1I 7...."hl..11 n.ll" .\m, \V..nlt Null llRllt"1I
..IIIIt.·II, ,Ii" D"t.·rl1lillllllt..
10.,(;,) I (),.,. = 0, I . , •• n)
g1<'i"h Null ".. ill. WILK lIid.t, ,l"r FILIl ist..
K~ gid.!. ILls" 11I;1II1,'/lt(,l1/l "incn l ....stimmtr.n \Vt!rth von ., tnr

w""'I,,'" 1'-'
.::00:9.(Z.)
,·i".~ vun Null VI'f''''hi,,,11'1It! ganzt! rationAle Zahl, und lIomit
,,-1 ,-1"
:::; ":0.,(,:.)
... ·.·0
+ f, = .=0
= O:o.(o)ll
,1.:0,(0) :t; ,f.
J.:==I
(". + I)
1Ii<~ht gild"}. Null ist,

nIM'·"nehw.lut Znhl ge...u ...... IIl1cl ....8 iMt in dleK61U .~alle anch jetle gnU! ratiunale .'UIlP..
liu .. "UU r mit l"ulf'I' Kn.II~l.aIIIiKt~U (!uenicientr.1I ~i ..r. gIUl7AI algebrni"rJle ~hl.
llif~'''Hllch Mi ...1~ .In
n:.f(=1 ..,- (..... ,.+. + •• (.....,. + ... + ... ,,: -. (....., + ,,-+.,,:
illlil. "":0' "... :. , ... Go:. NiulIll,lir.h Knn7.f! nlgtd.rabw'hr= ~ahle... IIlId .tUlCC'lIlw. gill. ala..
ftlU~h • • Ia .I,or U.":1Il1 ,Ier Ituudiuu , ..(.:) nid.t J9';J8ti(~I' AI,. " bitt "un j ...tlf!r ,Ier GnNlMt"II
u:Y'~c:.).

216
 W.lIS••T.... : ZII L'Nl1I'•• NN'. Ahhandl,: Uber die L"nOLPB'..,he 7.. h1, 1077
Dl\l'&us folgt lIumittelbRr, dlUlll ,las Pro,luct
iI(. . , +
a.~.
I)

IInll somi\. lI.uch jl!llcr ,-iuzclu'l FRctor c\cslIclh"u cim'u VIlli Nlill ,'1'1'-
sclliellencn Werth bat; w, z, h, w,
Damit ist, ,ll.'m ouen Br.mcrkten gemilss, ,1Il.rgp.tJlI}'u. ,lass ,lill
Zahl 1ri uud ,label' Audl1r sel1J1lt dlle tUllsccud,.u tl' Zall1 ist,
Ais "iu rJ01'ulln.r 7011 ,lics~m Satz" crgir.J,t. sich, ,111.118 ,lic -QUI!-
dratur ,lell Krrisr.s c "iuc uI11681.lIr,. Aufgal.c i"t, W"UIl VI"'-
IlLl1gt wir,l, dll.s .. Rip dllrch "iul' gl'olllct.risl'lil' Gnu!lti"",t.inll,
hl'i ,II'I'uur 1I.1g"hraiRI'IIl' ClIl'V"\1 1111,1 l<'lnl'h,'u 70111' Auw"n,lllu/C
kOIllIll('II, h,'w"rkHI.,-lligt. w,'rd .., (V"I'g!. ,1m. Sd,lll...~r:;a.tz ,It,,. §, :1)

AlIg,,,,willl'I'I', lull' ,Ii .. l~Xp"\I"III.inlrUlII:I.i,,1I Ni,:h

lJezhd"'11l1c SiltZI',
1. ZlIlliieht. illt. III!r fol~.\I,11' 1I1llr..... n.tz "-II 1"'W"'i""'II, J<;S sl'im.
gpgl!llt'u k + I Rl>ill~1I vou jl' r Grii"KI'U:
(I) A; ,A; , .. . A~
(3) A: ,A; , ... A:
(k) A\", A',"', ' , , A~>'
(k+l) :1:. ,zs ' ... :&r,
wolKli angellommell wenle, dass ill jcdr.r 11,,1' k ,'r8\:.1-u R"i1 ... u w('uiglll('u,.
einc Griisse vorkomultl, ,li,' I'illeu vou Null vI'rsclii,ml'ueu W,'rth
bat, und in der lI'tztell Reib,' kehll' zwci gMt'bc (h6ss'-1I sil'l. lillll,'u,
Man bilde das Produet
~ A'.B..... ~ A"Ao
At • f!" • • • ~
~ _ A">I"-'
I t:
.=1 t=I 1=.
und uringe ,lasst>.luc, welches mit P 1I1'z(\icluII't w,.ru"., lI.uf tlil! l!'onn'
P= 1; A~A~,
••••... r
.. AI·)If'+"~+"'"''

I Ea W nothwendig. d... bel di_r Urnrormung von P d ... Argument dor Ex-
IJOneutialgrilue, dUJ'Ch welche d.. ProdJl~ aus den .·acl<.ren
,f•• i"" .....
dargeat.ellt. winl. gleieh ~ + .. + ... + ZI ~nolnlnen wp.rde, 111,,1 nielat r.twa. WM
an .ieb gellall~' wire, gleieb diea!!'" 8mnme plus einem Vielfachen von 3";' Ohne die.e
••..._ung wilrden die I... Fulgenden einzul'llhrenden Orllsaen c" nich, sehurig 10....
ltimmt. Min.

217
 ] OiR C;f'!Ii:tlllllllsit,zlIng \'0111 ;·t J)~cf'rnhr,I·. - - Mit.tileiltlng vom 22. October.

Ails e1l'r (:es"'lImtl",j(. ,iP .. \Vert,he, wdche ilie nus k Gliederll he-
sl..]"'lIll" SlIlII"'"
.1";+ .x, + ... + x,
"'Illilllllll.. \\"1'1111 nUlII fiir o. &, ... f :tile mllglic.hcn System .. von k <leI'
H."illI' I.'.! .... r c~lIllI{JnlllwlH·IlZ:l.hlpll :·wtzt., IH'lu~ nUll) (1ic~ vnn cin-
nll,l,',· v""s"hi",I"'If'II, ,1"1'('11 AlIzllhl It+, sl'ill lIIiigc, III'raus; he-
zl'idulI'l; 111111' e1it'S('.lI"!1I mit, :0':" ... :., so ergieht sieIL

\\"0 iii,' .i"e1,'" ht'slillllllll'll 'V"rl,I, ,',lIt A

r,. =-= ~' A:A~ .
01 ....... 1
.. A~kl

isl .. 111111'" ,II'" Ikdillg'IIIlg'. ,I"",,.

,li,' S"I11I111ttioll sid, iill .... ,IiPj"nigml
\V "1'\ 1,,)'sl"11I1' 0, ~ , ' .. f, fijI' w(lkhe .1". +.x, + ... + x, =:, isl" er-
sl'·I'.rk,'. I';s isi. ""11 ZII hl'wcisl'lI, <lIlSS illiteI' ,11'11 so <Iefini .. ten
IOI'i\''''1\ r., lIli"df'sl."lls .. i,ll, :;id, fill,let, ,lie llicht gldell
NIlII is!..
Dif' lJ"i'ISSI'Il ;/'" ••• ,r., kiilllll'lI snwohl {'olllph,xe nls rcello \Vcrth".
1111.1",,,. MUll hclmd,lf, "ill" (lollll'l('xc (ll',.sf' t t'i (wu t, t' "(lellc +
Ur;;s'l'lI 1,,'z,.j,·III'l'll) Ills posit.iv, WCIIII t> 0 0<1" .. :tUdl t= 0, 1'> 0,
,IAg'<'g'1'1I "Is IIf'g'"liv, \\'('1111 1<0 o<lcr ",nch 1=0,1'<0 is!.; drum
e1"rl' lII:lIl, cl" ,ilL. 1'l'IIellI<"I l' Sl'illf'lI W!OI1.h nkht iilldf'rt., wenll in
ctp)H gl'g"f'Ju'IH'1I (~l'iiss(>lIsy!'it(,lI)(~ il'g(~lltl zwni ColoUlu!ll uut.f~r (~inn.ndel"
\'f'I'1:lIls"ht W(,I'c!c'n. \'(lI'mlssf~bwH! ('S s~ien ctiC' Ol'OSSPli ,xl t XI' ••• :£, so
gl'o,.,lm·l, ,I",s ,lil' Dill'c"f'nzen
XI - X2 t x, - x, t ••• Xr _ 1 - X,

siillllllt.lid, posit.ive U,.iissen simI.

lIies "rol'llllsg(!Spt;t.t.. nrhml' mlln llUS .ie<iel· <ler ohige.1l Rllihen
(J).(2) . . . . (kj ,\i" ",'sf<' (;,.iisse, wcldm lIieht dpn Werth Null hat,
IlI'rlllls; ,lipsr s"; A:
ill (Irl' Cl'stell Reihe, in dcr zweiten, ... • A~·'Aa
in ,Ipl' kt<·u, s() ist
A:A;a . .. A~.t)eZa+.Tji+"·+.1:.
"illf'S .1 ..,,. UIi,"\<ol', nus .lpnI'll P ZllslllIllllfmgl'setzt, wird. Irgend ein
allll('I'!'~ Ulie,l, <lessen Cocllicient. nicht uell WC11.h Null hat, sei
A~A;' ... A~'·)e.JI·+r~+",+zr ,
so jst.
o> .. ,(1=:,:.6, ... f>",
ullcl c's gi..J,I. nul",. ,1r.1I 7~lhlclI 0, ~, ... r n!illdpsl"lls "illl', wclche
ATI\"f'l' ist" "Is (\i" ent.51'l·cchell<1" <1,'r Zahlcn ", .6, ... ". Folglich ist

218
 WP:IERI!ITIU,5S: Zl1 LnmZIIANN" Ahhand1.: Uher llie Luuul.PII'lu·hr. Znhl. 1079
(.T. +x.+, .. + x,) - (x.+x~+ .. , +.1'.) = (,1:.--x.) + (x.-.T,;) + ' .. +(.1',-.1'.)
r.inr. positiv(' Grossc llIlIl somit (x. +
x. + ' , , + x,) lIicht glt·ich
(x. + + ' ,,+
XI! x,), E.~ lilldrt siclt also IIl1wr '\1'11 Clli(',lr'rll
A:A;' .. , A~t)nr.+r.,+ .. ,+rr
kr.ill"II, ill welcht'1l1 ,Ills Argunll'ut ,h'r l·:xpolIl'ut.in\griiNN" ,h'IINdltclI
Wr.l'tll hiittc, wic in ,1em Gliede
A:A; ... 41~.t)p.r.. +rJ+, .. +r.;
dr.l' Co('flid(mt rips 1I't.zl.".'1'1I ist ,tlsn ('iIII'. ,\p.r (;1'1;I<II"u c..,
IIUt"l' d('u('u sich hi"I'UII.,,\a 11111"1' KUI'U UllIsUiu,\rll !'iIlC fiuri"t.,
wr.\clu. uicht gldch Null iNt,'
II, NUllmelu's('iell, wi" ill ~, 2, x".r" , , ,X, ,Ii,! WIII')W\II ,'ill"I'
Gleichung rtcn Gradcs
:r{ + r.,:r{-' + ' , , + (', = 0,

,lel't'll (joellidcllteu IIRmmt.Jich RI'RI'\"'II11 ratiollll\(: ~Rhl"11 Nill", 1111<1

,1""(,11 DiscriminAllte p,illell VOII Null v('rschit!,11'1I1'1I \V ...'t.). Im.(., 1"'1'1\1'"
s('iP,1l N, • N, , ' , , N. loI'eKcbl'ul' !{R 111." Zahh'lI, IIl1tA'.' ,h'II"1I W,'niIol'Nt<,..II
pille uicht. gleich Null ist. Dillin lll",t lIieh I ,,'wd,,"11, ,111.1<11 ,H ..
Summe
~ l'l (.rt
f'-I t

lliemn.ls (11'u W crth Null h,lt,

MILII b('zciclllle di(, llriissPlI, wdche AUS ,h'r v()J'~td"'lIrl('1I lSUlIIlIIP
dadurch llervorgehell, dus mall ill 111'1'!l1'll1(,u (U,· Urllsseu X,.' , , :r,
auf jede m6gliche Weise permutirt, mit
X',X", ... X,t),
wo k = r! ist. 1111 hat., WI'IlIl II irg"llIl eill" ,lrr lahll'lI I. 2, ' , , k
bedeutct. ..\...., clie Form
,
X'" = ,=1
X N'" , i'l.
wo die Reihe l1er ZRlJlell Nl", N~", ' "N~" AUS ,lei' !tI'ih.. N" N" ' , ,11',
durch cine bestimmte P"1'mutatioll ,11'1' lili.. t!pr ,1<.>1' letztcren 11I'1'vo1'-
geht. Setzt mM l1ann
p=
•
IIX"',
0='
1 DUll Inan in (ler ltei~e del' Gro~f! (''01 C, • ' .. C.. eine, die ni~llt glei(~h Nnl.
18t, .,Ilne Weit.el"f'.ft AUr (lie angp.gehcnc'Vci"6 crmitt.P.ln konne, wenn mill .. die UI'tU!Men
". ..... .r.,. 80 Iluf cinMdcr rolK~n IlL"'..... clb."l din Oifrel'cn7.en .r.1-zt.~-Z3t., . .r.._I-.r..
sl!nmt.licll positive,Wcrt.he (in ,lem festgesetzten :Slnne) erllftltcll t iat eine Belllerkung,
dle Ich Hm, DEDEitn'D verd..,ke,

219
 1080 G"".III1I1I.ilzlIlIll vom 3. fl ....."'h•.r. - MiUheilllng yom 22. October.

(I) 1'=... Io~•••. f 11';11';' ... N""~'·+"'+···+", (C'I,lt, .•. f= I." ... r)
worllUII Ridl, W'~1I11 JIIall .lil' VOII I'illltnuer vl'rNchicrlenen Wel-the
.lI'r 01'0"""11
:1:, + "". + ... + z, , (4,., ... r=1 p o , r)

wi" in (I.). miL .:... :, , ••. ::. h~1..'iclllll't.•

1'=
.
~ C,,(lJ·
~. IJ

'·I"){i,·IoI, ,,'U jC'l1.\ ,Ii" (:riiNS"1I (; siilllllll.\i('h g8.1I1." 1..ahlcm shul. von
.1.'1 ... 11 .• 1"111 ill (\.) B,'wil'K"IUlII gl'U1lu.s, wl'lIigstem. I,ille lIicllt gll'icll
NIIII iNt·,
l\Iiu.'I" <1"1' g"g.'lollllC'lI t:lcielmllg, <1"1'1'11 \V\II'zr.ln 0$,.
:1:•• • , , o$•
.. illci, knnll mI\.ll 111111 dill' cadellun/( (ft + I )tt'll Ora<\cs mit lauter gall1.-
:tn.h.\ig"11 C'II'Ili"il'nl"1I hl'r><t.'lJen •• \m'f'll \Vm"l('lll.lil' HrOIIS~1l Z, " , • z. =••
"hul. Bil,Ie'I. mUll lliimlil·h. IIl1tA'l' ::. E, , E., . , , E. VOIl cillmuler una1>-
hlingigl' V l'riin'\l'rIidll' \,el'swh .. nu. ItUB e1l'n Ilurch clie }'ormcl
(•• b.... I=I .... r)

1"pl,'I>II'nt.irt{,1I (:I'i}SSf'1I "in Pl'ucluC't.• so ist olassl'lhe einp. ganzc Function

vnn ::, E, , ' .. E. mil. Iltut{,I' gA.J1:t1.ahligcn Gop.fficicnten, uml zugleicll
I'inr. "YlIlllll't.I'iKI'\'" l'·IIIII't.inn \'011 E,. E•• ' , , E" verwandelt siro also,
WI'IIII JII:UI E,
= "", , E. = :1'" ' , ,E, =
=
0$, s .. tzt, ill ('ille ganze Function
veon:: mit. hmtj'I'l'1t.i"nll.lI'1I1..1lhlc(J('llidp.ntell. welchp.lilr Z zoo z, •. , .z.,
111111 :tW,lI' lIur iiiI' ,lil'sl' W"rtJ ... "on Z, ,'rrBCllwilll\ct. Diviclirt mlUl
,1:11111 .lil·S,· FIIIIl,I.iClII .hm·1I e1"11 gniHst{'1I Thp.i1m·, IlCII Hie mit illl'el'
':1'1,1"11 A hlc-it.ulIg gl'lIl1'llI JlIlt,· SCI 1st· Ih-r Quotiellt lIinp. gallzc Functioll
(It + 1'1<'11 Orn.\,'s, /IllS r1(lr mall, illuem man sie mit ciner passeuden
1(1111:&1'11 Zlthl llluitiplicil't, ('.ine glUlze }'u.nction

fez) = uo="+' + a,=" + . , . + a,,+.

'~rhiUt., wl'\"hl~ \Ruter gnllzzahligll Oleffir.icnten hat und filr z=zo,&',. , .. z.
vIlrschwill.\ct.
Au" .lil-s.'r Jo'Ullct.iOIl /(=) kA1I1I mM mm, nach Annahmc einer
h"li ..hig klr.hwlI l,osit.ivlm GrOs~c ~, cin System von (n I) ganzen +
}'UIICtiOIll'1I
v.(:) , v,(:) , ' .. fI.(:)
von 11 .. 1' illl RI·.hlIlSRRatz... (VI,) rl.'8 §. I Rngrgehr,ncn Bcscha.tl'enlleit
..M,·ium, so IhlN~, Wr.1l1l

fl.=O,I ....")
\.=0.1 •... 11

220
 ''''EIF-RlTRA •• : Z" I.INURMU"·. Ahhandl.: O".I·.lie I.UU..Lrll·..·he l'.aM. 1081
ge.st~l~t wirtl, .jCf.lf' llel' G1'6S8('n I •• ,. ihrem absoluten Betl'llgt' uneh
klein"r nIH I i~t.. Dann t'rgieT,I. sil'h aus .\em ol'ig(~n AUlIIll'uek" .lel'
(;rllil5e l'

(5) n:v,.(:.)Il-:·p =
.
.~. C.n:u,.(=.)
.
+ n:e-:·.t.~o I,.••• C,.. ('·=O.I ... R)

Hi"r ist; lIun jl·.I" dl'!' (;.rlill.'''11 ":V•. l.-:,.l cin" gllm:,' 1I.lg.·IlI'aiRehr.
.
7.11 hI ; (·s liV<st sich a1)('1' zdg'·n. <lass .ir.,I" d,-r (n + I) SUlllllum
).~o Ca,n:!/,.(.:,J
('illll WIIIZ" I'"tionalc ZII.hl. d. h. nlso ciuc gllllZC lIthl illl gcwohn-
lit-llt'n Silllle iat.
Vel'Steht IIInll wi"d(-r Ulltel' .:, E,. E••... E, von einandel' uMb-
hlingige VCI·lin,lerlichr., "" iNto dn" PI·odllel.
~ N~~E•• i .iy;' ,.ijt •
11\:'.:1 11';:.1

lind &omit auell (lie SWlIIlII'

::; l\":lf;' ... ~r:tJ,..s..+E .. + ... +Ef (a,it, ... r ·' •..•. r)
........ 1

eine "Yllllllet.rilll·lle Funct.ioll \'011 E" E•• ... E,. Entwickl\lt man
dleselbe in eine Potellzl'cihe von ,,' E. , ... E" so ist die Sunune del'
Glieder In tel' Dimension diesel' Rf,ihe, nllmlich

2..1 :!; N.N:' ... 1\',0)(,. + ,. + ... + EI)·, (•• &.... 1=1 .... ,)
m.·.·· .. r
und daher auch, wcnn 9 (z) eine beliebige gallze Function \'011 z 1st,
+EI) (•. ~ .... I=I .... ')
l: N.N.' ... llj'·'!/(E.+E.+···
., ••••• 1

cine symmetrillebe gallze' rationale Function Iler GI'ilSI;C'11 E" E., :..E,. Die
letztere erbAlt also, wenn man (fill' • = a • I •••• It) !I (0:) = V,.(z) nnnimmt
und ,. =~ E. =~ .. .... _
E,=~, setzt, eint'll ratiollnlt'n ,"Vt'rth, der sieh
,lurch 1Ilultiplication mit a:
III eine ganze 7..alll ,'erwandclt. Ell 1st
abel' nacll dem Obigen, filr jcden bestimmten ,"Vel·til von A
(6) c.. = •.•::.IN.N." . .. N/·',
wenn die Summation liber clil'jenigclI Z;thleIlRy~t.('llle. lUI' welche
~. +~. + ... +.1:1 = z. ist, erstreckt wlrd, und claht'r

also auel1 i
"":':.
C.n:!I.(zJ eine ganze rationale Zahl.
Es IAsst sieh abcr ILUeh zcigen, dass diese ZIIbl wenigstcns iur
einen ,"VI'I-tb von. einen von Null verschiedenen Wertll bat. Da
SltzulIgoberieht. 1885. U2

221
1082 c;".SAlIIlIllsit,;o,UIlK \'(lIn :1. Of',('clllher. - l\tiUltt~illing VOIII 22. October.

niirn1ich ,Ii" Gl'l\sscn C;. (linch I.) nicht siimmtlich gleich Null sind, so
miisst". wpnn aile (n + ,) Zahlen
',~o C,n:!l.(z,) (V=O,I, ... n)

,1I'n ",(",th Null hlitf.!'lI, ,Ii" D('t.l'I"lIIinan!e

1!/,.(:,.>1 (i... v c.- 0, , • ' , , It)
g"1 .. i,'h NlIll "'in, w;'s nid,t. ,I",' Full isl.
Ninllll!. lIIall also ,Ii" UI'C",,, lJ so klpill 1111, tlass ,jedc d,'r GrusSl'1l

(1'=0, ., ... n)

tlem nhsoh'l<'lI Betrnge narh Jd .. i'lI'r als , is!., so ti",lC'!. sich 'Illu>r d"l1
(:I'i\ss,'n Ullf" d,'" H,'chlt'll ,1,,1' (;lrit'llIlJIgl'lI (!l) w"lIigsl.t'lIs "ill", ,III'.
lIid,t. g-It'i"h NlIll ist; WIlI'allS sielo 1I11111ittcllmr ergi ..ht, tlnss dns Pro-
'\11('(.1'. 1I1lt! sOllliL all"h die Iil'ilss(l

~ Pll/t,
r=1 f

w('\cloe "in FueI.or ,li~ses Productl's ist, einen VOIl Null ver·
",,,hi,'d<'"t'll \\"'l'th hat.; was 1.11 hew"isen war,
S"lhst""I',.tiilltllid. gilt. dirs('1' Sa!;z nuch. wenll ullter N, , N" ' , ,N.
I'U tiulla I" Zahl"l1 ""I'shmtl"n wt'nl(,II,
Nillllllt 'W'1l f"iir ;t',. ,1',. ' , ,X, h'gclIIl r von einnlluer verschiedene
g"anz,' Z:lItl"1l 1111, so "I'gieht siell als pin besonderer Fall ues vor·
st,'IIt'lId"n TIII'ol"'IJlS '\"r VOII Ih:ltilllu: bcwicsene Sntz, uass uie Zabl ..
kcillt' ;t\g"J.l'ais"\t" Z;o\,1 is\;,
Eilw nalll'lit'g"IHlc V "I,;.llgt'ml'illerung des Theorems ergiebt sieb
tolgellC](~J'JIHlnss("11 :
~iJ\ll ;r" ,I:, , ' , ,or, irgclltl " gegcLcne, von einander verschledene
n.!g,'lmtist'he ZlIlolt'II, so Iiisst sid. stcts cine algebraische Gleichung-
illl AIIg-"n ... inl'1I YOII hOhl'l"'lll nis t\Clll rU>1l GraUe - mit lauter
1';.tiollnl"11 Z"loleo..JlidCllt"1I unt! nicht ycrschwinucnuer Determinante
hcr~I...tI('II, 111.1.,,,, ,It-I'(,II \Vllrzclll die grgeuellclI Grussell $ •• $ " " , $, sich
/illtl"II, 1st. ,I"., (;rn,\ tli<,s('1' GieichulIg glcich r, so sind $":1:,, . , , 11:,
sold", I' (;"iiss"Il, iiiI' wdeh" ,\:os hcwicscllc 'l1lcorcm unmittelbar gUt,
lI"t; ,Ii,' (;\,·iellllllg 111",1' nuss"r x., ,t:" ' , ,x, noch I andere Wurzeln:

IIl1d W"I',\to1l illiteI' J\'" iV" ' , , 1\"'+/ mtiolln\c Znhkll verstallllen, so ist
r~'lY ,:'"t
i-I t

nur ill ,\em Full" glcich Null, wo N".N"". N.+I sammtlich den

222
 Wa;.ERSTRA ... : ZII L.NDEIIANN·. Abhancll.: llher die l.uIJoLra'lIChe abl. 1083
WertJ, Null hallen. Nimmt man also luI' jeden Werth von p, de.r
grli.'!Ser als ,. iat, N, = 0 nn, AO ergiebt sich:
Wm',len \Inter ;1;".1:., ••• .1:, irgt'nd ,. VOII einallder ver-
IItd,hHlenl' algehraillcbe Zahlen. unter N .. N.. ... N, abel'
heli"hig'l l'ationale Zllblcn \'erst.anclen. so kann ,lie H leicbung
,
::; l\~tP..r.f =0
I '
11111' cl;c,lul'"h hefl'i,,,ligl w\'I'ch'n. dnN" man ,;"tlcr CII'I' Zahlcn
11', ,\"" 'Werth Null gicht.
III. J etzt seien
.\",.-'
X"
.\,
.1""
.....••• 3:,

zW"j SYRt(olIIr. \'011 .ic· r I(l'gl'''I'nrn nlgell1'lullcllI'l1 i',n.hlt'n. wnhd nnge-

nllllllllcn wI'l'de, ,Inss IiiI' Grus~I'n X,. X.' .. ,X, nieht lliLllllnlJiI:h
gll'iell Null Ilril·n. utili IIntl'r ,ll'n .1:,,;1;••••• .1:, keine zwei gleiche
sicJ.. flllllcn.
Die GrOsscn X, • •'l••. , ,X, lasscn sil'll durcll rille GrOsse E.
weillhe l,inc del' WUl"l.eln eillcr htlst.inunten irl'eductibell'n nlg"llrRisdlllll
Gieicllllng mit lautl·l' l'I1tionRlclI Zahlcoeflil'iI'lItcll ist. in del' 1<'ol'm
X,=(:,($ • .\",=6,($ •... X,=G,($
RIISlhilcken. wo G,(E). (;,($ •... G,($ ganzl'l!'ullt.ionel1 von~. dl'.l'P.n
eo.-flicicntenailnllntliell rationale Zahlen sind. l)OOeutcn. BezeicJlIlct ma.ll
mit E' irgend eine &I1del'll WUlozel (leI' genannten Gleiehung. so sind
die GI-OSscn
6,(E1. G,(f).··· G,{f)
nicllt alle gleieh Null, wei! der bekannten Eigenschn.ft einer irreduc-
tibelen Gleiehung gemllas G,<E1 nicht gleieh Null sein kann, wenn
nicllt (filr dense1ben Werth von pI auch G,($ = 0 isto Nun seien
E, E' ,0 0 0 e
t -" slLlUmtllche Wurzelll del' in Rcde stebellden Glolchung,
so br\nge m&l1 das Product

p= 1: G.($/·o :i: G.(~I/·

alDl •• 1
0 •• 1: Gl -,,(,,0-")8'"
I_I
t

&0£ die in (l I he.cIlriobene Weise, indem man tllr die ,lort mit
A;. A; .... A:"' (p= •• a .... n)

bezeichlloten Ullbestimmten GrOssen beziel1licJl

G,($. G,(E1, ... G,("O-'~
substituirt, auf (lie Form

223
1084 Gcs,ullmfsit.zllng: vom ::I. J)eC:f'Jlllher. - MiUheilnng vom 22. October.

wo <lie GI'ciss(,1I "0' =" ... :. !llso von einall<lcr v('rschi('.tlene algcbraische
Zllhl!'u 8il1l1 , <lie Co, C, , ... C. nher zuuiicllst als sYUllllctrische gnnze
FIlII('.t.ioll('1I VOII ~,f, ... ~lt.O"'1 llIit laut.er )'a(.jonnlen Zahlcocfficient.en
und so<lalln siilllllltlich als rat.iollale Zahll'll Ilal'gestcllt werdcn konllcn.
nil. IIUII Co, C, , ... C. lIi('ht siimmt.li"h glcich Null sind, so lInt nnch
<lcm Sc.hlusssat"c von (II.) die Or05s"

~
. Cl..,l).
). ....·0

unter !I('u in Brtrcff del' (lrosscn X" X, , ... X" ,1;, , x,, .. . :r, ge-
mac.htl'n VO),lIl1SS('tzullgcn cincn VOIl Null verschicdcnen \Vcrth. Das-
selllc gilt "Iso auch von tlCUl Prouuet.e P ulld somit auch von dem
Ausurucke
,
~ X,e"'. = ,=1
.
~ G.($e'" ,
,=1
clt'r ein Fnctlll' des Pl'oductes ist.
Dalllit jst h('wicscII:
,'Vl'l'llcll unter ,1'" x" ... :r, it'genu r von einander vel'-
schiedl'1I1', ullter X"X ..... X. abel' bcliebige ulgebruiscbe Zahlen
verst-andcn, so kann dic Gleiehung

::!; X.ez , 0
. =
r=1
nul' in dl'm FaIle, wo X" X" ... X. siimmtlich den Werth Null
habpll, hest,ehen .•
Tn .lil's,·m VOII LINDE~IANN ohne ausgeftihrten Beweis Rufgestellten
allgcm"ill"11 Satzc linticlI dic von HERMITE begonncnen Untersuchungen
libcr dip Expoll('ntinlfimction ihrcn Abschluss.
IV. Sch\i('ss\i('h ml:igcn noch einige, aus dem vorstehendenTheorem
ullmittplhm' ~ich ('I'gebcnde speciclle Sltze angefiihrt werden.
Nimmt man r = 2 , X, = - I , :II, = 0 an und setzt :II fUr :II"
X. ltil' X,. ~o "I'gieht sich, class clie GleicIlllng e' = X nicht bestelten
kann', ,,"CIIIl ,1;, .Y bciclc nIgcbraische Zahlcn sil1l1 und zugleich :II eincn
VOIl Null \,(,l'~dli('c1(,II"n Wcrt,h hat. DlIl'aus folgt:
.DiC' EXl,ollclltinIgl'ilssc tf ist stct.~ einc transcendente Zahl,
\\'I'nn x ('illl' vnll Null v(,l'schicdcllc algcbraischc Zahl ist.•
• J),·r nntiit']iclt" Lngnl'it.hmlls C·jll~l· nlgebrllischcn Zahl X ist
il11l11l'l'- rillC' t,l'lInsC'cllIlcuw ZltIII, W('1l1l X llicht clen Werth I hat.-
Dil'sc lIddell, \'011 J.INm:~'ANN bcsondcrs ItcrvorgellObcnen Sitze
scheincll mil' 7.U dm. sehollst<,n Sittzcn cler Arithmctik zu gehliren.
Nimmt JUIIIl fCl'llcr·
r = 3 , XI = it "'\:"2 =- i t .x:a =- %. , ,x, = 0

224
 WEIF.RSTR . .. , ZII I.,N"".. A".. •• Abh."dl.: 0"". die LUDOLPH·.c1,e Zohl. 1085

an und setzt xi2 11

"'u'r X,, A,. 111l'
'"" X3' so ergieb t sic1I, dass die Gleichung

2sin=-=X
2

uicht hestchen kann, wr·nn X , X beitlc algehraische Zaltlcn sinu und

:r; p.inrn von N\!U vcrschip.llenen \Vertll 113t.. Darnus folgt:
l<:in Kl·p.isboRen, uessen Sehne, Ilurch dcn Halbmesser
.les Kreises gCllIcssen, cine nlgehro.iseh lLulHlrilckllarc Ling"
llat, klLnll nic1lt c\urt'll cine gromctrisdlc Const.ruction, bei
.ler nul' algcbraisclir. CUl'vl'n unll Flllr.hcll zur Anwcndung
kommell, rectificirt wCl"llen; eb.m so wenig ist del' 7.U eillem
solehen Bogen gehlirige Krcissector durch cine derartige
Construction q uadri rblLl'.
1IILt niimlirh in ('inrm Kl·risp., .lessen HalblUI'ssl'r nls I",lngcn-
cinl1l'it ILngenommen wirll, cin Bogen die Ui.ngc ,1:, sl'ine Schne also
.lie I.ange 2 Rin -:. und .ler zugehllrig" 1\:reissector den Tnhnlt
2
+.r,
RO wilrde, wenn II urdl cinc Const-Mlction del' nngcgchcncn Art uer
Bogen l'('et.ificirbar oder ucr Sp.ctor qlllull'irbnr wiir'!, dlLl'nllS cine algp.-
hraischc Gleichung zwisdlrn :r; unu :: sin.~ l<kh el'gelll'n. EillC soll'he
2

Gleichung existirt abel' nicht, wt'nn 2 sin : ' wie angcnommen, cine
algebraische Zaltl ist.

225
 Ueber die Transcendenz der Zahlen e und Te. *)

Von

DAVID Hn.BJlB~ in Konigsberg i. Pr.

Man nehme an, die Zahl e genOge der Gleiehung n lea GradE's
a +
at e a2 r+ + ... +
a.e'" r = 0,

r
deren Ooeffieienten a, a" .•• , a. ganze rationale Zahlen sind. Wird
die linke Seite dieser Gleiehung mit dem Integral

-= / -.. [(6-1) (.-2) ... (, - n)]M-l r·d.

multiplicirt, wo ~ eine gauze positive Zahl bedeutet, so entsteht der
Ausdruek
a/-+ al i-+ a 262/ ' " + . ,. + aaef-
und dieser Ausdruek zerlegt sieh in die Summe der beiden folgenden

a/-+ (Jl1-+ a2e1-+'"

Ausdrileke:
PI""" + a.eD/ ..,

P,.... (Jl{ + a261" + ... + a.e"/ . ,

Die Formel
!"~r'd'= ()I
zeigt, dass das Integraf eine ganze rationale dureh (J! theilbare

Zahl ist und ebenso leicbt folgt, wenn man bezOglich die Substitutionen
• -,' + 1, • - , ' + 2, ... , ==.' + n anwendet, dass
II

gauze rationale dnrcb (~+ 1) J theilbare Zahlen sind. Daher ist anch
.) Abdruck aUI Nr. 2 der GGttiDger Nachrichteo v. J. 189B.

226
 Ueber die Tranacendonz dar Zahlen e und ., 21'1
PI eine dureh ~ I theilbare ganze Zabl und zwar gilt, wie man sieht,
nach dem Modul II +
1 die Congrllenz
(1) :: == ± 0(_ I)t+l. (~+ 1)
Andererseita ist, wenn mit K bezflglich k die absolut gri>sBten
Welthe bezeichnet werden, welche die Fllnetionen
,(,-1) (,-2) , , ,(,-n)
bezflglieh
(,-1) (,-2) ..• (, - ..)e- I
in dem Int.ervalle , ... 0 biB , - n annebmen:

1/'/ < kKf, 1/'/ < 2kXf," .//-/ < nkKf

und hieralls folgt, wenn zur AbkO.rzung
" ... {la,e! +
21a2 e2 1 + ... + nla..eDI}k
geaetd wird, die Ungleiehung
(2) IP,I < 'lCXf.
Nun bestimme man eine gaDze positive Zahl ~ I welche erstetas
dureh die ganzeZabl a, nl theilbar ist und fflr welche MDeitens
"!: < 1 wird. Es ist daun :; infolge der Congruenz (1) eine niehl
dureh ~ + 1 theilbare und daber nothwendig von 0 versehledene ganze
Zabl und da ilberdies ~ infolge der 0 ngleichung (2) absolut genommen
kleiner als 1 wird, so iii; die GIeiehung

unm~glieh.
Man nehme an, ea sei " eine algebraisebe Zahl und zwar genflge
die Zahl crt . . . " einer GIeiehung n lea Grades mit ganzzabligen Coef-
ficienten. Bezeiebnen wir daDn mit crt I ' . ., cr_ die flbrigen W urzeln
dieser Gieichung, so muss, da 1 +
11-- den Werth 0 hat, aueh der
Ausdruck
(1 + ,l') (1 + eGo) , , . (1 + e--) _ 1 + til + ~ + ... + tiN
den Werth 0 baben und hierin sind, wie man leieht siebt, die N Ex-
ponenten flu ... , flN die Wurzeln einer Gleiehung Nt•• Grades mit
ganzzahligen Coefficienten. Sind flberdiea etwa die 14 Exponenten
fl., •.. , fl. von 0 versehleden, wihrend die ilbrigen verschwinden, so
sind diese 14 Exponenten flu ... , fl. die Wurzeln einer Gleieboog
Min Grades Ton der Gestalt

f(,) - blJl + b"M-l + -, . + bJl - 0,

deren Coefficienten ebenfalls gaDze rationale Zahlen sind und in welcher

227
 218 DAVID HILBBaT.

insbesondere der letzte Coefficient bM von Null verschieden ist. Der

obige Ausdruck erhalt dann die Gestalt
a + I' + I' + ... + 1 M,

wo a eine ganze positive Zahl ist.

Man multip)icire diesen Ausdruck mit dem Integral

f'" f«> z~(g(Z)]V+l e-'de,

=
u u
wo (I wiederum eine ganze positive Zahl bedeutet und wo zur Ab-
ktlrzung gee) = bJff (e) gesetzt ist; dann ergiebt sich

a j«>+ If + I!~+ ... + rlJIfa>

a>

und dieser Ausdruck zerlegt sich in die Summe der beiden folgenden
Ausdriicke:
PJ = afa> + rI!+ 1["+ ... + IH[",
f{J· f{J, r{lJf
tlJ + tI· + ... + rlJlJ
I r
P2 == '
o U 0

wo a!lgemein dss Integral f"'in der complexen s-Ebene vom Punkte

It == {Ji liings ciner Zlil'

'i
Axe der reellen Zahlen parallel en Geraden bis

zu s == + 00 hin und das Integral !{I~om Punkte e == 0 18ngst der

geraden Verbindungslinie bis zum Punkte s = P, hin zu erstrecken ist.
Dss Integraif'" ist wieder gleich einer ganzen rationalen durch
o
(II theilbaren Zahl uad zwar' gilt, wie man sieht, nach dem Modu)
+
(l 1 die Congruenz
-;!'"=
beJl+Jf b),-+l.
fl·

Mittelst der Substitution I == " + P, unci wegen g(Pi) =- 0 ergiebt sich

ferner

11"'=j"'(II'+{J;)'/[g(S' +{J;»)V+1e-"dl = «(>+1)! G(Pi),

(Ii 0

wo G (P,) eine ganze ganzzahlige Function von {Ji bedeutet, deren Grad
in Pi unterhalb der Zahl (1M +
M bleibt und deren Coefficienten
:sammtlich durch be.lf+x theilbar sind. Da Po ... , px die Wurzeln

228
 Ueber die Transcendenz der Za.hlen e und w:. 219
der ga.nzzahligen Gleichung r(e) == 0 sind und mithin durch Multipli-
cation mit dem ersten Coefficienten b zu gamen algebmischen Zahlen
werden, so ist
G (fJl) + G(fJ,) + ... + G(fJJI)
nothwendig eine gan,s rationale Zahl. Hiera.ua foIgt, dass der Aus-
druck PI gleich einer ganzen rationalen durch p! theilbaren Zahl wird
und zwar gilt nach dem Modul ~ + 1 die Congruenz
(3)
Andererseits ist, wenn mit X bezuglich k die grossten absoluten
Betriige bezeichnet werden, welche die Functionen eg (s) beziiglich
9 (&)8-· auf den geradlinigen Integtationaatrecken zwischen s = 0 bis
• -= {J, annehmen:
1["1 < IfJdkKe (i= 1, 2, ... , M)

und hieraua foIgt, wenn zur Abkiirzung

,,- {I"I~'I + IfJ2 e1-1 + ... + IfJJl~J(i} k
gesetzt wird, die Ungleichung
(4) I P2 1 < "Xe.
Nun bestimme man eine ganze positive Zahl (!, welche erstens
durch abbJ( theilbar ist und far welche sweitens " K!(I< 1 wird. Es
Q
ist dann ~ in Folge der Congl"uenz (3) cine nicht durch Q + 1 theil-
bare und daher nothwendig von 0 verschiedene ganze Zahl und da
iiberdies :~ in l!'olge der Ungleichung (4) absolut genommen kleiner
ala 1 wird, so ist die Gleichung

unmoglich.
Es ist leicht zu erkennen, wie auf dem eingeschlagenen Wege
ebenso einfach auch der allgemeinate Lindemann'sche Satz iiber die
Exponentialfunction sich beweisen maat.
Konigsberg i. Pr., den 0. Januar 1893.

229
 QUERIES AND INFORMATION.

Co.dllated liT J. JI. OOLAW, JloDtenT' Va. All aODbillllUoH \0 WI departmlnt aho1l1d II, unt \0 him.

QUADRATURE OF THE OIROLE.

BT BDWARD I. GOODWIN, Solitlldl, Indiana.
Publl.he~ by tbe reque8tor tbe author.

A circular area is equal to the squar" on Ii line equal to the quadrant

of the circumference; and the area of a square is equal to the area of ·the
circle whose circumference is equal to the perimeter of the square.
(Copyrighted by the author. 1889. All rlght.~ re~crved.)
To quadrate the circle is to find Lhe side of a square whose perimeter
equals that of the given cir~le; rectification of the circle requires to find a right
line equal to the circumference of tllC given circle. The !'qllllre 011 a line \J(lual
to the arc of 90° fulfills both of tho said requirements.
It is impossible to quadrate the circle hy taking the diameter as the
linear unit, because the square root of the product of the diameter by the quad-
rant of the circumference produces the side of a square which equals II when
the quadrant equals 8.
It is not mathematically consistent that it should take the side of a
square whose perimeter equals that of a greater circle to measure the space con.
tained within the limits of a less circle.
W tlre this true, it would require a piece of tire iron 18 feet to bind a
wagon whool 16 foot in circumference.
This new measure of the circle has happily brought to ii/;tht the ratio
of the chord and arc of 90°, which is as 7:8; and also the ratio of the diagonal
and one side of Ii square, which is as 10:7. These two ratios show the numeri-
cal relation of diameter to circumference to be as t: 4.
Authorities will please note that while the finite ratio U: 4) represents
the area of the circle to be more than the orthodox ratio, yet the ratio (3.1416)
represents the area of a circle whose circumference 'equals <1 two % greater
than the finite ratio (t:4), Il.B will be seen by comparing the termd of their reo
spective proportions, stated as follows: 1 :3.20:: 1.25:4, 1:3.1416:: 1.2732:4.
It will be observed that the product· of the oxtremes is oqual to tbe
product of the means in the first statement, while they fail to agree in the soc·
ond proportion. Furthermore, the square OD a line equal to the arc of 90°
dhows very clearly that the ratio of the circle is the same in principle as tbat of
the square. For example, if wo mUltiply the perimeter of a square (the sum of
its sides) by t of one side the product equals the sum of two sides by ! of one
side, which equals the square on one side.
Again, the number required to ex pross the units of length in t of II
right liile, is the square root of tbe number representing the squares of tho
linear unit bounded by it in the form of a square whose l"atio is as 1: 4.
These pr?perties of the ratio of the square apply to the circle without
an exception, as is further sustained by the following formula to express the
numerical measure of both circle and squ,o.re.
Let 0 repr6$Cnt the circumference of a circlo whose quadrant is unity,
Q ! the quadrant, and OQI ,;m apply to the numerical measure of a circle and
a square.
Weare now able to get the true and finite dimensions of a circle by
the exact ratio t :4, and have simply to divide the circumference by 4 and square
the quoti"nt to'compute the area.

230
HOUSE BILL NO. 246, INDIANA STArrF: LEGISLATURE,
1897
Wn.r. K I'~I)JNGTON, Dl'Pauw Univenlily
This paller hall gTown out of n numhm' oC l'eqlwllllI for infol'lnalion
over a number of years, by student.c; and othet's, concerning some sup-
posed action taken by the Indiana State Ll'gislalul'e with regard to fixing
the value of lli, that is, the result of dividing the length of the cit'cum-
ference of a circle by the length of its diamctcl', at a certain value that
was different from the true value, Of course lhe interest in and wonder
at such an action lies in the presumption of a group of supposedly fairly
well educated men to attempt to legilliale upon something not in the realm
of legislation.
The only reference to this action known lo me until recently waR an
article by Professol' C. A, Waldo in lhe Proceedings of the Academy for
1916. Professor Waldo was a member of lhe mathemaliclI department
at Purdue at the time the action was taken, but he was professor of
mathematics at Washington UniverRity at St. Louis when he wrote the
article. His article is merely a running account based on memory, and
unfortunately there are several elTOI'S. The date "f the action is given
as 1899, and the description of the pl'ogreKs of the bill is inaccurate and
somewhat misleading, as might be expected in a memot'Y account written
twenty years late I', lll'obably without any special checl{ being made as to
the facts. The error in the date caused me to spend many futile hours
searching through the House and Senate Journals for 1899 'for some
record of the action.
However, during the }last summer thel'e appeared in the Contrib-
utors' Club of the July, 1935, number of The Atlantic Monthly an article
by Professor 'I'homas F. Holgate, of Northwestern University, entitled
"Rules for Making Pi Digestible", in which a statement of House Bill
No. 246 was given, together with the correct date 1897. Armed with this
information I have attempted to ascertain the facts as to the inception
of the bill, its author, the history of the bill in the Legislature, and the
atmosphere surrounding it during the successive ilteps of its progress
through the legislative mill. The facts which I present here have been
secured from the bill itself, on file in the Indiana State Library, the
Journals of the House and Senate for 1897, and the files of the three
Indianapolis papers for January and February, 1897. My purpose in
presenting this paper is to have on record in an accessible place the facts
concerning this most interesting piece of attem"ted legislation. The
drawing of morals I leave to others.
The author of the bill was Edwin J, Goodwin, M. D.: of Solitude,
Posey County. The bill was introduced in the House by Mr. Taylor I.
Record, ReprcRcntativc f\"(Jln PO~l~Y Count.y. on .Janllary 1R, lR!l7. In
the Indiana Historical Library may be secn the handwritten copy to-
gether with a typewritten copy of the bill, and a handwritten record of
actions taken by the Legislature, Some one has written on the page
containing the record of the actions the following: "Dr. E. J. Goodman,
No. 72 Ohio Streetr-Author". However, this is in errol', for the author
was Dr. E. J. Goodwin. Following is a copy of the bill:
(206)

231
 MATHEMATICS 207

HOUSE mI.I. NO. 246

A bill ror an act introdndllg: a new mathematical truth and olTered as a contribu-
tion to education to be tlsed only by the Slate or Indiana rree or cost by paying any
royalties whatever Cln the same. provided it is accel.ted and a"opted by the official action
or the legislature or IH!l7.
Section 1. lie it enaded hy the Gener.. 1 AHHemhly of the State or Indiana: It has
been found that a circular area iN tu the K'luare on a line e'lual tu the (luadrant of the
circumference, as the area of an equilateral rectangle is to the square on one side. The
diameter employed as the linear unit according to the present rule in computing the
circle's area is entirely wrunJ.!, It~ it rCI)rCKCnls the circle's area one and nne-fifth times
the area of a square whose perimeter is equal to the circumference of the circle. This
is because one-fifth of the diameter fails to be represented four times in the circle's
circumference. For example: ir we multiply t.he perimeter of n Sflunre hy one... (uurth or
any line one-fifth greaLcr than olle side, we can in like manner make the S(IUare's area
to appear (Jne fifth greater thnll the fad, nN iM done by takin ... the diameter for the
linear unit instead of thl! (lundrant of the circle's circumference.
Section 2. It is im,'o"sihlr to coml.ute the area of a circle on the diameter as th"
linear unit withuut trcsKpRl'lning U1,un the nrut outside ur the circle to the extent or
including one-fifth mnrc nrett than iR cUl1t.nincd within the circle·" circnmr~rence, hecnuRe
the S(llInrc on the dinmclcr .,rudu"~(,K the Ride or 1\ Ne.narc whidl c'lunlR nine when the
arc of ninety degrl!cs c(luals eight. By tuking the «lUul"",t. of the circle'" circumference
for the linear unit, we fulfill the re(Juirements of both (Iuadrature and rectification of
the circle's circumCerence. I'urthermnre, it has revealed the rlltio of the chord and arc
of ninety degrees, which is as seven tu eight, and also the ratio of the dillg:onal and one
side oC a squnre which is as ten to seven, disclosing the fourth iml)()r1ant fnct, that the
ratio of the diameter and circumference is as five-fourths to four; and because or these
facts and the futher fact that the rule in "resent use Cails 10 work both ways mathemati-
cally, it sllould be dillcarded RR wholly wnnting and misleading: in i1s Ilractical applications.
Section 3. In Curther proof of the value or the author's proposed contribution to
education, and oITered RR a gift to the State of Indiana, is the fact of his solutions of
the trisection of the angle, duplication of the cube and quadrature of the circle having
been alrendy accel,ted as contributions to science by the Am .. rican Mathematical Monthly,
the leading eXI",nent of mathemnt"',,1 thought in 1his country. And be it remembered
that these noted problems h .. d been long since ... iven up by scientific bodies as unsolvable
mysteries nnd above man's ability to coml'reh('",1.

Following the introduction of the bill it was referred to the House

Committee on Canals. Just why it should be referred to this committee,
frequently called the Committee on Swamp Lands, is difficult to under-
stand. The following items appeared in the newspapers on January 19,
1897, under the heading of New House Bills:

H.B. 246. By Mr. Ricard: llill telling how to "square a circle". Swamp Lands.'
Mr. Recard, H.B. 246-Bill telling how to "square a circle". Swamp Lands."

On January 19, 1897, Representative M. B. Butler. of Steuben

County, chairman of the Committee on Canals, submitted the following
report:

Your Committee on Canal., to which was referred House Hill No. 246, entitled a
bill for an nct entitled an nct for the introduction of a mathematical truth, etc., has had
the same under consideration nnd hegs leave to report the same back to the Houlle with
the recommendation that said bill be referred to the Committee on Education."

The bill was accordingly referred to the Committee on Education.

'The Indianal'oli" Journal, J"nuary l!), 1807, P. 3, col. 4.
~''I'he Indianapolis Sentinel •• Janunry 10. 18!l7. ". 2. col. :I.
"House Journal, 1897. p. 21:1.

232
208 PROCEEDINGS m' INDIANA ACAm~MY OF SCIENCE

On .January 20, 18H7, the following appeal'ed in The Indianapolis

Sentinel:
'1'0 SQUAIU: TIm eIRe!.I·:
Glahn~ Made Thnl fhili Olel Prohleln HUN Been H"lvf!'d.
'I'hc bin telling how tu ~'llInr~ n dn·lc. lulrmhwecl in tl1(~ llu\l~e hy Mr. Ilecnrd. if'
not. int.ended to be n holt x, M,·, Hc(~nr(l 1(II()WH nulhill~ or the hill with the cx(:eption that
he- introdu<"cd it hy re.llIc~l of Dr. l~dwin Goudwin of I'm",t.'Y CuulIly. who 15 the Ruthor
of tht'!' dcmuw-tlrlltinll. The Intler nnd Slnlc SUI)('rintpl1dclil uf Publi,' Instruction GeetillJ!
believe thnt it is 1he IOIH!-:{tUIJ,!ht solution nf the l,rohlem. anel they nre seeking to have
it "dollted by the h.'J.d:dnlul"e. [Jr. Goodwin. t.he R"thor. i~ n mnt.hl'maticinn of note. He
has it cOl>yri'-!htcd nntl hi:-; prol)()~ition j~ thnt if the JCl!il'1lnllll'C will indor~e the ~()ll1ti()n
he will allnw the .tat" to use the ,lenlUnRtraUnn in it. textbooks free of charj(e. The
author is lohhying for the hill.'

The records concerning the bill in the COlllmittee on Education, as

given in the House Journal, are somewhat confused. In the Calendar of
House Bills Introduced and Action Thereon, the record reads

Referred hack February 2 and

Recommitted to the san1e committee
lteported back }?cbruary 4."

In the House Journal propel', howevel', one finds under the date of
February ,2, 18H7, that Representative S. 1<:. Nicholson, of Howard
County, chairman of the Committee on Education, reported to the House.
Your Comnlittee un 1.~t1u('nlion, tn whieh Wl1~ r(~(crr(~d IlmlMe Bill Nu. 246, entitled
A hitt fur nn nct entiUeci Ull net illtrntitl(·inJ.,{ n new mHUu'nmtil',nl truth. hm~ had same
under cf)n~idcration, Rnd beJ.!R leave to report the ~ullnc huck to the Huuse with the rec-
ommendation that said hill do pas •. "

The report was concurred in, and on February 5, 1897, it was

brought up for the second reading, following which it was considered
engrossed. Then "Mr. Nicholson moved that the constitutional rule re-
quiring bills to be read on thl'ee days be suspended, that the bill may
be read a third time now".' The constitutional rule was suspended by a
vote of 72 to 0 and the bill was then read a third time. It was passed
by a vote of 67 to 0, and the Clerk of the House was directed to inform
the Senate of the pall:mgc of the bill.
After the bill had passed the House the Indianapolis papers reported
on it as follows:
NI~W MATlmMATICAI, TRUTH
Mr. Record's hill Uintroducing R new mnlhcmatif'nl truth". waR ,'nsKed under II.
R"p,penAion or the conRtitutionnl rule."

DR GOODWIN'S TIIEAOIU~M
Resolution Adopted by the House of Representatives.
Following Is the text or the resolution adopted by the House relative to the
mathematical theorem o£ E. J. Goodwin, M.D .. Solitude. Pos('y County. Whereas. it has
been foun,1 (The remninder or Section I nnd .. II of Section 2 i. printed)."

"'rhe lndinn;lllUlho\ Sentinel, .lnnunry 20. 1~!'7. p. n, col. 4.

r'House Journnl. 11107. Apl.endix, .,. lR3.
"House Journal. 11197, p. 4R9.
'House Journal. 1897. p. 51'1'.
'The Indinna,,,,lis New~ ...."hrunry 6. 1897. 11. 2. enl. a.
t'The lnciinn"lJC>1iK NewR. "'chrunry 6; 1~97, I'. II, (,~()1. ·1.

233
 MATHEMATICS 209

NO OPPOSITION TO IT
The bill Introdut'cd by Mr. Record telling how to "square the circle" was unan-
Imously passed by the house yesterday afternoon. It Indo ....es a mathematical demonstra-
tion 01 which Dr. Edwin Goodwin oC Posey County is author.'·

MATHEMATICAl. Dn.L PASS ..;D

Record's bill containing the discovery oC Dr. Goodwin, oC Posey County, for computing
the area oC a circle, wna handed down \I,.on second reading. Mr. Nicholson explained that
Dr. Goodwin had a t'ol.yright on his discovery and had offered this bill in order that
it might be free to the schools of Indiana. The bill was taken up and passed under
suspension oC rules. This is the strangest bill that has ever passed an Indiana Assembly.
It reads as follows (,rhe whole bill as given at the beginning oC this "aper is then
printed)."

The contents of the bill thus became known in this and other stateR
and, of course, became the target for ridicule, However, let us follow the
progress of the bill.
Engrossed House Bill No. 246 was referred to the Senate on Feb-
ruary 10, 1897, and was read for the first time on February 11 and re-
ferred to the Committee on Temperance. One wonders whether this was
done intentionally, for certainly the bill could have been referred to no
committee more appropriately namcd. On February 12 Scnator Harry
S. New, of Marion County, Chairman of thc Committee on Teml)eran('c
made the fol1owing l'e})Ort to thc Senate:
Your Committee on Temperance, to which was referred House llill No. 246. intro-
dueed by Mr. Ret'nrd. has hnd Ihe "nmc> "nder c">RRiderntiun, nnd bega Ic>nve to report
the same back tu lhe Sellate wilh thc recumn,endation that ..aid bill du ,.nss.'"

On the afternoon of February 12 "Senator Bozeman called up House

Bill No. 246. The bill was read a second time by title. Senator Hogate
moved to amend the bill by striking out the enacting clause. The motion
was lost. Senator Hubbell moved to postpone the further consideration
of this bill indefinitely. Which motion prevailed.'''·
This cold recital of Senate action gives no clue as to how these
actions were taken but the reports in the papers do, as follows:

HUIIAe Hill 2~6, ,.ruvidinlt rur lhe ..Ilk ill I ,ulu"UUII .. r the demunMlrnUun rur sc,uarlnK
lhe circle. was killed."
THE MATHEMATICAL BILL
Fun Makillg in the Sennte Yesterdny Afternoon-· • •
RepreRentntive Re"urd's malhematicnl bill legalizing a rurmnl.. ror KCl\lIulng the
circle was brought U,) and made run or. "he Senalurs mnde bad ,)IIns about it. ridicul"d
it and laughed over it. The (un lasted hair an hour. Senator Hubbell "aid that it wa"
not meet. lor the Senate. which was costing the State $250 a day. to waate Ita time In
such frivolity. He said that In reading the leading newspapers oC Chicago and the East.
he found that the Indiana State Legislature had laid itself open to ridicule by the
action already tateen 011 the bill. He thought consideratiun of such a proposition waR
not dignified or worthy or the Senate. He muved lhe Indefinite I>ostponement of the
bill. and the motion carried.'.

'"The Indianapolis Sentinel. }4'ebrllary 6. 1897. P. 2. col. 4.

"The Indianapulls .Journal. Io'ebruary 6. 1897. P. 8. cols. 2. 3.
"Senate Journal. 11197. P. 649.
I·Senate Journal. 1897, p. 677.
"The IndianapOlis Sentinel, Febrllarl' 13, 1897, p. 2, eol. 4.
"'The IndianapOlis News. February 13. 1897. J). 11. col. 3.

234
210 PROCEEDINGS OF INDIANA ACAm~MY OF' SCIENC~;

WOItK (W 'rnl'~ SJi:NA'rl'~

A lot oC C'IIl wns hnd with Mr. Record'" mathemntical bill. It came Crom the
Hml8e a Cew dnYR ago nml went to the committ.ee on temperance. It wnR called UI' by
Senator \lozp.mnn. It wnM indefinilely 1,08tl'oned. ns not being n subject f .. r legislntion.
Senntur 1I11bbell "hllrllct<'riz,'d I he hill 11K "U"r r.. lly. 'I'h,' l'I.. nnt.. might. 11K well try
to I('ltislnle wnler to run Ull hill UN tn l'~t.nhIlKh Innth~ll1n.li(·nl truth by Inw.. 1~l\dinlrC
papen all over the ~n"nt.ry, he said, were ridicllling t.he Indinna l.egislnture. It was
outrageOUs thnt the Slnle of Indinna shtl"ld lillY $250 n d"y tn hllve lime wllsted on such
Crivolous matters.

STltUCK A l'OI'UI,AIt CJlOHU

Senator Dr\l1nnlUtul elid not wunl the rule NouM1J(!tul('c1 until he hnd MutllC inrnrruulion
as to the ,.url,ose of the bill.
Ult mny he I onl densely in-nnrnnt un LhiH _lucHlinn of MnlhenHlli('M:' he said ..
"Consent I Consent t sRid Sennlur 1~lIiMCJn. There WitH lund 11l1lJ.!htcr nL thiA Rully.
U

Although the bill waR nul Ilded on rnvtlrllhly nn .,,'" who HI",ke ngnin"t it intimnted
that there wn~ ftnyLhin~ wrong with the t.hc()ric~ il ndvnn(~(~H. All or thr. McnnturK who
IIpoke on the bill ndlllitted t.\ml they w"re IIn",rlLn!. "r t h" meritK nr th,' .,r","."\.I.i,,n. It
WB8 8iml'\y req-arded as "ot being a subject rnr l"giKluti" ... 'Ol

Naturally the question arises as to what happened to bring about the

defeat of this bill after it had passed the House, apparently had the back-
ing of the State Superintendent of Education, was actively being lobbied
for, and had passed the first reading in the Senate without comment. To
answer th~s question one must read Professor Waldo's account.
As the session of the I,ep:i"lature wns drawing toward il3 close it chllllt'ed to be the
duty ol the writer to villit the Slate Capitol and IUak" sure llmt the AClLdemy approl.ria-
tion was cared Cor. Whell admitted to the fioor or the House, imagine his surprize when
he discovered that he was in the midsl of 0. debute UI.on 1\ piece of mathematical legisla-
lion. An ex-tencher fronl the clllt'tern luLrt or lhe Nlnlc wun HnyinJ!: "'rhe (~UKC iK Jler...
Cectly ",iml.le. JC we I' ..N" this bill whi"h CRt,d.lI .. h"H 1\ .. ew lind <" .. red vulue ror 7r,
the author often to our stale without cost the UMe or his discovery and its rree }>ublicn-
tion in our schonl text bonkll, while everyon" "I.e IllU"t I'uy him R royulty." 'rhe rol\
was lhen cnlled and the bill I.assed ilK third IIlId til"" reuding i .. lhe I"wer houMe. A
member then showed the wriler a copy or the bill JUHt III.HKed and allked him if he
would like an introduction to the learned doelor. its nuthor. He declined the courtesy
with thanks remarking that he WRS aC'luainted with 88 mRny crnzy people us he cared to
know.
That evening the senalor. were }>r<JI.erly " .... ched and MhurL\y therenrt"r "" it came
to its final reading in the u}>}>er house they threw out with much merriment the el".ch
making discovery oC Ihe Wise Man from the Pucket."

,OThe IndianapoliR Journal, Februury 13. 1897, I'. n. cnlH. '•• 6.

"Proceedings or the Ind'ana Academy or Science 1916 :440-446. 1917.

235
Old Intelligencer

The Legal Values of Pi ever material was at hand. In 1894, Goodwin's article
"Quadrature of the Circle" appeared in the Queries
by David Singmaster and Information section of the seventh issue of the first
volume of the MOlltllll!, with the note "Published at
I have long been interested in the notorious attempt the request of the author". The first paragraph is fol-
to legislate a legal value of 'IT. I have read several ar- lowed by "(copyrighted by the author, 1889. All rights
ticles [2,5,6,7,8,10) on the history of this attempt and reserved.)" As we will see, the proposed Bill is almost,
it has been mentioned in the popular press recently but not quite, identical to this article.
[1,9). From these it is clear that only Greenblatt [5) and Dr. Goodwin persuaded his local representative,
Hallerberg [7) have tried to understand the obscure Taylor I. Record, to introduce a Bill, written by
content of the proposed bill. Greenblatt found four Goodwin. House Bill No. 246 was introduced in the
different values of 'IT given in it! Hallerberg has tried Indiana House of Representatives on 18 January 1897.
to understand how some of the values came about. The Bill was referred to the Committee on Canals, gen-
I have found six different values given in the Bill erally known as the Committee on Swamp Lands,
and three other values in an earlier article by the same 'midst general cheerfulness ... where, in the
author [3) and in contemporary interviews with him swamps, the bill would find a deserved grave' [6, p.
[5, pp. 388-389). 385, where it is quoted from Ocr Tiiglichc Telegraph, A
In this note, I will briefly sketch the history of the German language paper in Indianapolis). Surprisingly
proposal, drawing heavily on the definitive article of (or perhaps not), the committee returned the Bill for
Hallerberg [6) and then I will quote the versions of the reference to the Committee on Education. On 2 Feb-
proposals and then derive the values of 'IT described. ruary, the Committee on Education reported the Bill
back "with the recommendation that said bill do
pass". The House duly passed it then and again at a
second reading on 5 February, when the rules were
Historical Sketch suspended to permit the third reading as well. The Bill
was then forwarded to the Senate, where it was re-
Edward Johnston Goodwin (1828?-1902) was a doctor ferred to the Committee on Temperance on 11 Feb-
in Solitude, Indiana. Hallerberg [7, p. 139) has recently ruary.
discovered three versions of a monograph by The first newspaper report, on 20th January, com-
Goodwin. The 1982 version, entitled "Universal In- mented that: "The bill ... is not intended to be a hoax.
equality is the Law of All Creation", includes the fol- Dr. Goodwin ... and State Superintendent of Public
lowing comments: Instruction Geeting, believe that it is the long-sought
solution ... Dr. Goodwin, the author, is a mathe-
During the first week in March, 1888, the author was matician of note. He has it copyrighted and his prop-
supernaturally taught the exact measure of the circle ...
no authority in the science of numbers can tell how the osition is that if the legislative will indorse the solution
ratio was discovered .... he will allow the state to use [it) free of charge" [2, p.
208, quoted from The Illdiallllpolis SClltillcl). •
(I think the evidence will lead us to agree with the By 6 February, the newspapers began to realise what
latter assertion!) was happening. The IlIdillllUl'olis JOl/rn1l1 commented:
He copyrighted his results in the U.S., England, "This is the strangest bill that has ever passed an In-
Germany, Belgium, France, Austria and Spain. He at- diana assembly" and printed the entire Bill, [2, p. 209].
tempted to present his solution at the educational ex- The Bill became a source of much merriment in the
hibit of the 1893 Columbian Exposition in Chicago. press, as far away as Chicago and, later, New York.
When the organisers learned what he planned to Professor C. A. Waldo, a mathematician at Purdue
present, his permit was revoked and he was told to University, came to the state capitol on Academy busi-
present his solution to the mathematical journals. ness at this time. He came to the House session on 5
The American Mathematical MOlltllly, then in its first February and was surprised to discover a debate on
year, was privately published and often inserted what- mathematical legislation. He recalls:

THE MATHEMATICAL INlEU.rGENCER VOl. 7, NO.2 t'; 11I~5 Sprin,;cr-\'l',J.,,; New YI)rk 69

236
 An ex-teacher fron\ the eastern part of the state was 4a. as 7:8, and also the ratio of the diagonal and one side
.It

saying; "The case is perfectly simple. If we pass this bill 5. of a square, which is as 10:7 .• These two ratios show
which establishes a new and correct value for 11, the au- the numerical relation of diameter to circumference to
thor offers to our state without cost the use of his dis- be ~:4.
covery and its free publication in our school text books, 6. • Authorities will please note that while the finite
while everyone else must pay him a royalty." ... A ratio i:4) represents the area of the circle to be more
member then showed the writer a copy of the bill just than the orthodox ratio, yet the ratio (3.1416) represents
passed and asked him if he would like an introduction to the area of a circle whose circumference equals 4 two
the learned doctor, its author. He declined the courtesy % greater than the finite ratio ~:4), as will be seen by
with thanks remarking that he was acquainted with as comparing the terms of their respective proportions,
many crazy people as he cared to know. stated as follows: 1:3.20::1.25:4, 1:3.1416::1.2732:4.
That evening the senators were properly coached and It will be observed that the product of the extremes
shortly thereafter ... they threw out with much merri- is equal to the product of the means in the first state-
ment the epoch making discovery ... [lOJ. ment, while they fail to agree in the second proportion.
Furthermore, the square on a line equal to the arc of
The Committee on Temperance reported the Bill back 90' shows very clearly that the ratio of the circle is the
to the Senate on 12 February "with the recommenda- 7. same in principle as that of the square .... For example,
if we multiply the perimeter of a square (the sum of its
tion that said bill do pass". In the afternoon, it was sides) by 1 of one side the product equals the sum of
brought before the Senate and "the Senators made bad two sides by I of one side, which equals the square on
puns about it," [2, p. 209, from the Illdiallapolis News]. one side.
'~Senator Hubbell characterized the bill as utter folly. Again, the number required to express the units of
The Senate might as well try to legislate water to run length in 1 of a right line, is the square root of the
number representing the squares of the linear unit
up hill . . . . Although the bill was not acted on favor- bounded by it in the form of a square whose ratio is
ably no one who spoke against it intimated that there as 1:4.
was anything wrong with the theories it advances. All These properties of the ratio of the squ<lre apply to
of the Senators who spoke on the bill admitted that the circle without an exception, as is further sustained
they were ignorant of the merits of the proposition. It by the following formula to express the numerical mea-
sure of both eirele and square.
was simply regarded as not bl.'ing a subject for legis- 8. • Let C represent the circumference of a circle whose
lation" [2, p. 210, from the II/dill/lllpolis IOl/ma/]. The quadrant is IIlIily, Q I the quadrant, and CQ' will apply
Bill was postponed indefinitely and so never became to the numerical JncaSLIre of a circle and a square.
law. 9. • We are now able to get the true and finite dimen-
sions of a circle by the exact ratio l:4, and have simply
The American Mathematical Monthly Article to divide the circumference by 4 and square the quo-
tient to compute the arca.
Below, I reproduce the text of Goodwin's article [3] in
the Americall Mathelllatical MOllthly, July 1894. I have Analysis of the Article. Let us consider a circle of
inserted the marginal numbers for reference to the radius R, diameter 0, circumference C, area A, and a
starred assertions. square of side 5. (Numerical values are rounded.)
1. This says A = (Cf4j2.
1. .It A circular area is equal to the square on a line equal That is, "ITR2 = ("ITRI2j2, whence "IT = 4.
1.' to the q4adrant of the drcumference; ... and the area of 1.' This says 52 = A if C = 45.
a square is equal to the area of the circle whose circum- Thus S2 = "ITR2 when 2"ITR = 45 i.e., 5 = "ITRl2. This
ference is ellual to the perimeter of the square.
(Copyrighted by the author, 1889. All rights re- is just a rephrasing of (1), so "IT = 4.
served.) 2. This says (0 . Cf4)I/2 = 9 when Cf4 = 8. That is
To quadrate the circle is to find the side of a square 2R . "ITR/2 = 81 when "ITIV2 = 8. This yield "IT = 256181
whose perimeter equals that of the g,iven circle; recti- = 3.160494. Hallerberg [7, p. 138] says that the phrase
fication of the circle re'luires to finu a ril-\ht line equill 'the diameter as the liner unit' refers to the presence
to the circumference of the given circle. The square on
a line equal to the arc of 90' fulfills both of the said of 0 in the formula A = D· Cf4.
requirements. 3. Hallerberg [7, p. 138] advances an explanation for
2. • It is impossible to quadrate the circle by taking the this curious assertion, based on Goodwin's assump-
diameter as the lin"ar unit, because the square root of tion that equal perimeters give equal areas. If C = 16,
the product of the diameter by th" quadrant of th" cir- then A is correctly = 20.371833. A square of the same
cumferenc" produces the side of a square which equals
9 when the quadrant equals 8. area would have 5 = 4.513517. Then taking 5 = Cf4
It is not mathematically consistent that it should take gives C = 18.054067!
the side of a square whose perimeter equals that of a 4. This says Y2R : C/4 = 7 : 8, whence .!!......::.
greater circle to measure the space contained within the 16 Y 217 = 3.232488
limits of a less circle. 4a. However, this asserts that Y2 = 1017
3. .It Were this true, it would require a piece of Hre iron

1H f,,'\..'l to bind a wagon Wh!!l'l 16 fed in circllmfcrL~ncc. 1.428571. Using this in (4), we have "IT = 11',0/49
-I. ... This ne\\' measure of the eirel ..., has happily brought 3.265306.
to light the ratio of the chord and arc of ':)0°, which is 5. Goodwin asserts that (4a) yields 0 : C = ,:4,

237
whence '11" = 16/5 = 3.2, though I could see how this SECTION 3. In further proof of the "alue of the author's
followed. However Hallerberg [7, p. 136) has clarified prupu:,cd contribution to educatiun, clnu uffereu ,1:' c1
this by observing that Goodwin has used (4) in the gift to the State of Indiana, is the fact of his solutions
of the trisection of the angle, duplication of the cube
form 0/Y2 : Cf4 = 7: 8, which does yield the asserted and quadrature of the circle having been already ac-
result. cepted as contributions to science by the American Math-
6. If C = 4, then R = 21'11" and A = 4/'11". When '11" ';' ematical MOIl tilly, the leading exponent of mathematical
1615, then A = 5/4 = 1.25, but when '11" = 3.1416, then thought in this country.
A = 1.2732, which is 2% larger. This doesn't yield any And be it remembered that these noted problems had
new value of '11". been long since given up by scientific bodies as unsolv-
able mysteries and above man's ability to comprehend.
7. This says 45·514 = 25·512 = 52!
8. This says that C = 4 (hence Q = l) implies A Analysis of the Bill. 10. This says A : (Cl4)2 = 1,
cQ2 (= 1). Since C = 4 gives R = 21'11" and A = 4/'11", which a rephrasing of (1), giving '11" = 4.
this. yields '11" = 4 again. 11. Here he says the 'present rule' is A = \ (Cl4)2,
9. This is a repetition of (1), giving '11" = 4 again. whence '11" = 10/3 = 3.333333. I think we can agree
that this is 'entirely wrong'.
House Bill No. 246 12. I think this may mean that 4 . \0 = C, whence
'11" = 16/5 = 3.2, as in (5).
Below is the text of the bill. I have added marginal 13. I think this says 0 2 = CJ2 when C/4 = 8. This
numbers as before. Numbers .. 10 refer to analyses yields '11" = 3219 = 3.555558. However the ratio 9 to 8
given already. sounds like (2) above is intended, but I do not see the
relation.
A bill for an act introducing a new mathematical truth and
offered as a contribution to education to be used only by
the state of Indiana free of cost by paying any royalties
whatever on the same, provided it is accepted and Some Further Values
adopted by the official action of the legislature of 1897.
10. SECTION 1. • Be it enacted by the General Assembly Hallerberg's article (6) quotes a number of inter-
of the state of Indiana, That it has been found that a views with Goodwin. An article in the Indianapolis
circular area is to the square on a line equal to the quad- JOllmal [6, p. 382) states '11" = 3.2. A later article in the
rant of the circumference as the area an equilateral rec- same paper [6, pp. 388-389) quotes Goodwin:
11. tangle is to the square on one side.• The diameter em-
ployed as a linear unit according to the present rule in 14. • Tell anyone who questions my demonstration to de-
computing the circle's area is entirely wrong, as it rep- scribe a circle whose radius is 5/8 (the diameter thus
resents the circle's area one and one fifth times the area being II). The circumference is 3.2 according tu my
of a square whose perimeter is equal to the circumfer- ratio. Then circumscribe the circle with an c'"luilalcral
12. ence of the circle .• This is because one firth of the di- rcclilngll· and cmnpulc the areil u( the rectangle first,
ameter fails to be represented four times in the circle's which you can do if you knuw anything about ge-
circumference. For example, if we multiply the perim- ometry. Then allow one square inch of area for the
eter of a square by one fourth of any line one-fifth circle and see if the difference between the area of the
greater than one side, we can in like manner make the circle and the area of the circumscribed rectangle
square's area to appear one-fifth greater than the fact, proves that the area of the circle is more than one-fifth
as is done by taking the diameter for the linear unit 11a. • greater than the area of a square with an equal pe-
instead of the quadrant of the circle's circumference. rimeter.
SECTION 2. It is impossible to compute the area of a
circle on the diameter as the linear unit without tres- 14. This seems to say C = 3.2 when 0 = 5/4, so
passing upon the area outside of the circle to the extent = 64/25 = 2.56
'11"
of including one-fifth more area than is contained 11a. This is essentially the same as (11). Here he
13. within the circle's circumference, • because the square
on the diameter produces the side of a square which seems to be saying this is incorrect and that A > \ (Cf
equals nine when the arc of ninety degrees equals eight. 4)2 so '11" < 10/3.
By taking the quadrant of the circle's circumference for Another newspaper reported the rules:
the linear unit, we fulfiJI the requirements of both quad-
rature and rectification of the circle's circumference. C = 3.2D (which is (5»; A = (Cf4), (which is (1»; and the
4. • Furthermore, it has revealed the ratio of the chord and volume V of a sphere is V = (Cf4)3, which yields a new
4a. arc of ninety degrees, which is as seven to eight, • and value of 11 = \13213 = 3.265986. Hafferberg [7, p. 138)
also the ratio of the diagonal and one side of a square points out that the formula for V is a superb piece of rea-
5. which is as ten to seven, • disclosing the fourth impor- soning by analogy.
tant fact, that the ratio of the diameter and circumfer-
ence is as five-fourths to four; and because of these facts
and the further fact that the rule in present use fails to Goodwin's Trisection and Duplication
work both ways mathematically, it should be discard •..:!
as wholly wanting and misleading in its practical ap- Like all circle squarers, Goodwin also trisected the
plications. angle and duplicated the cube. This also appeared in

-n It ),1,\ Illn,IAlICI\1. IX I U.I.IGl:SCER VUL 7. :\1(1. 2. 1~5 71

238
the American Matllematiml MOlltllly [4), as follows.
Added jll proof.
(A) The trisection of an angle: A few days after sending back the revised version, I
came across the following passage in Alexander
The trisection of a right line taken as the chord of any arc
of a circle trisects the angle of the arc; MacFarlane's Lectures on Tell British Matllematicialls of
(B) Duplication of the Cube: the Niueteeutli Century (Wiley, New York and Chapman
Doubling the dimensions of a cube octuples its contents, & Hall, London, 1916), on page 31 where he talks
and doubling its contents increases its dimensions twenty- about De Morgan's "Budget of Paradoxes".
five plus one per cent.
I remember that just before the American Association
By request of the author, met at Indianapolis in 1890. the local newspapers heralded
Edw. J. Goodwin. a great discovery which was to be laid before the assem-
Solitude. Indiana. bled savants-a young man living somewhere in the
country had squared the circle. While the meeting was in
This makes 2'1, = 1.26 instead of 1.259921. progress I observed a young man going about with a roll
of paper in his hand. He spoke to me and complained that
the paper containing his discovery had not been received.
Conclusions I asked him wh~lher his object in presenting the paper
was not to gct it read. printed and published so that ev-
Originally, my only conclusion was that ignorance is eryone might inform himself of the result; to all of which
consistently inconsistent. The inconsistency in Good- he assented readily. But. said I. many men have worked
at this 'lues lion. and their resuhs have been tested fully,
win's writing is so great that I wonder if there is really and they are printed for the benefit of anyone who can
any point (other than amusement) in trying to analyse read; have you informed yourself of their results? To this
it. As already noted, Hallerberg [6, p. 394; 7, p. 138) there was no assent, but the sickly smile of the false par-
points out that the beginning of Goodwins article adoxer.
shows that he believed that a square and a circle of the Although Goodwin would have been about 62 in 1890,
same perimeter had the same area and that conse- the coincidence of date and location lead me to believe
quently he would interchange reference to the two that this 'young inan' must have been Goodwin.
shapes. This means that a reference to A may mean S2 MacFarlane's lecture was given in 1901 (they were col-
and a reference to C may mean 4S. Indeed some of the lected and printed after his death), so perhaps his
analyses have 1T occurring several times and these may memory had played him false on the age of the para-
denote different thing~! As seen in (5). it is even pos- doxer. But his lectures do not show many errors, so
sible to obtain different results from the same asser- perhaps we have another Indiana circle squarer con-
tions. I am sure that some of the other analyses may temporary with Goodwin-A coincidence, a coinci-
have alternative values for 1T. Hallerberg says that dence, a most unlikely coincidence!
Goodwin's erroneous belief has led many to believe
that (1) yields 1T = 4, but that this is not what Goodwin
References
intended. However he docs not manage to make (1)
any clearer to me and I have not managed either. I. Anon. (1983) Reciting to the point of boredom. Tile
There are several further sections of the article and the Gllardian (3 Nov.). 1
Bill which still defy any analysis. 2. W. E. Edington (1935) House Bill No. 246. Indiana State
Goodwin appears to give 9 different values of 1T, Legislature. 1897. Proc. I",iiml<' Acad. Sci .• 45. 206-210
3. E. J. Goodwin (1894) Quadrature of the circle. Allier.
namely: 4, 3.555556, 3.333333, 3.265986, 3.265306, Matll. MOlltl,., 1. 246-247
3.232488,3.2,3.160494,2.56. These average to 3.28907, 4. E. J. Goodwin (1895) (A) The trisection of an angle; (B)
though I haven't accounted for the relative frequency Duplication of the cube. Allier. Matll. Month •• 2. 337
of these values in his assertions. Most circle squarers 5. M. H. Greenblatt (1965) The "legal" value of .... and
get just one value. Goodwin is unique in getting so some related mathematical anomalies. American Scientist
(Dec.). 427A-434A
many. 6. A. E. Hallerberg (1975) House Bill No. 246 revisited.
Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci .• 84. 374-399
Afterword 7. A. E. Hal\erberg (1977) Indiana's squared circle. Math.
Mag •• 50. 136-140
8. T. F. Holgate (1935) Rules for making pi digestible. The
Since I wrote the above article. Arnold Arnold has Atlalltic MOlllllly Guly), 118-119
been featured in the media. This suggests a rather 9. R. Millington (1982) Letter: The House divided and got
more serious conclusion. It is distressingly easy for a a zero answer. Tile Guaniiall (8 Nov.)
crank to convince people that he has a solution. Irra- 10. C. A. Waldo (1916) What might have been. Proc. Indiana
Acad. Sci .• 26. 445-446
tional forces are always- present, ready to tear down
the ivory towers. If we believe in reason. then our Pot'y"~·'l1/ic "f tI", 5(>1111, BlIllk
tuwn sllf\'i\'al and a decent regard for posterity require LOlldoll. SEl OAA
us to fi~ht against unreason. Ellglmld

72 rut: ~I.Ylllr:\I:\TI(":\1 l:\:n·lllc .. :'\:cn~ \'01. 7. :-";0. 2 "11'15

239
 5
SQUARING THE CIRCLE
(Journal of the Indian Matltematical Societ!!, v, 1913, 132)
Let PQR be a circle with centre 0, of which a diameter is P R. Biseet
PO at H and let 1.' be the point of trisection of OR nearer R. Draw TQ
perpendicular to P R and place the chord RS = TQ.
Join PS,and draw OM and TN parallel to RS. Place a chord PK = PM,
and draw the tangent P L = MN. Join RL. RK and KL. Cut off RO = RH.
Draw OD parallel to KL, meeting RL at D.
'rhen the square on RD will be equal to the circle PQR approximately.
For RS' = :fa d2,
where d is the diameter of the circle.
'l'herefore
But PL and PK are equal to J.1IN and PM respectively.
Therefore Pl(' = N"d', ,UlU PL" = -j,hd2.
Hence R](2 = PR' - P](!J = tHd',
and RL' = P B" + P L' = llid·.

RK _ RG _ :1 /113
But
RL -lW- 2\1 355'
and lW=td.
d /355
Therefore RD = 2 \I I 1:3 = r ..j7T", very nearly.
N Qte.-If the urea of the circle be 140,000 square miles, then RD is
greater than the true length by about an inch.

240
 6
MODULAR EQUATIONS AND APPROXIMATIONS TO 1/"

«(Juarterl!/.Tournal of Jfathematic.., lCT.V, 1914, 3GO-.'372)

1. If we suppose that
(1 + e-.. "'n)(1 + r''''''')(1 + e- o.. ",,) ... = 21 e-"""/2< Gn ......... (1)

:md (1 - e-.. "'n)(1 - r",,"n)(1 - e- o.. ",,) ... = 21 e-"""/" gn, ......... (2)
then Gn and [In can always be expressed a::; roots of algcbraical equations
when n is any rational number. FOI' we know that
(1 + q) (1 + if) (1 + q") ... = 2lq.JT (kk') -ti ............... (3)
and (1 - q)(1- q3)(1_ qO) ... = 21(/~ k-ti k't................ (4)
Now the relation between the moduli k and t, which makes
](' L'
n K= L'
where n = rls, rand s being positive integers, is expressed by the modular
equation of the rsth degree. If we suppose that k= l', k' = l, so that K = L',
J(' = L, then
q = e-"L'/L = e-""",
and the corresponding value of k may be found by the solution of 1m alge-
braical equation.
From (1), (2), (3), and (4) it may easily be deduced that
gfn = 2~ gn Gn, .. ............................... (5)
Gn = G1/n, I/gn = g4/n, ........................... (6)
(gn Gn)8(Gn8_ g,,8) = i ............................ (7)
I shall consider only integral values of n. It follows from (7) that we
need consider only one of Gn or !I.. for any given value of 1t; and from (5)
that we may suppose n not divisible by 4. It is most convenient to con-
sider gn when n is even, and G" when n is odd.
2. Suppose then that n is odd. l'he values of Gn and [l2n are got from
the same modular equation. For example, let us take the modular equation
of the 5th degree, viz.
(~y + (~y = 2 (u.v' - u~.), ........................(8)
where 21q'\-u = (1 + q)(1 + q')(1 + q") .. .
and 21q*1I = (1 + 2")(1 + ql") (1 + g..) .. ..

241
24 Mod'Ula1' Equat'ions and Approximations to 11'

By changing q to - q the above equation may also be written as

(~r - (;)' = 2( u'v' + u~.) . ........................ (9)

where 21 qh u =(I-q)(1-q3)(I- q") .. .
and 2!q*v = (1- q6)(1 - q16)(1_ qoo) .. ..
If we put q = e-"/"· in (8). so that u = Gl and v = G., and hence u = v, we see
that
v4-v-' = 1.

Hence , _ 1 + -v'5 G _ (1 + -v'5)!

v - 2 • .- 2 •
Similarly. by putting q = e-w.jl. so that u = 9.T and v = 910' and hence
u = I/v, we see that

Hence
Similarly it can be shewn that
+ -v'3)A • 9,.=(-v'2+-v'3).I-
G9 = ( 1~

G=j(5 +;17) + j(-v'178- 3).

17

g•• = j C+;1 ~) + j (-v' 178- 1) .

and so on.
3. In order to obtain approximations for 11' we take logarithms of (1)
and (2). 'l'hus

11' = ~~ log (21 G">}

~ ~ ~! log (21g.) • ........................ (10)

approximately. the error being nearly ~~ e-""'" in both cases. 'rhese equations
lIlay also be written as
- 2!
e"",,/.. - ..G. e"""/2' -- 21 9,,· ................... .. (11)
In those cases in which G,,12 and 9,," are simple quadratic surds we may use
the forms
(G...'2 + G,,-12)T-J. (9,,12 + 9,,-1')-(",
instead of G" and 91l' for we have
9,,12 = -kel""" - ~·e-i""".
approximately, and so
9 ...12 + 9 ..- u = !ei """ + ¥e-... "....

242
 lJIodular Eq·uations and Approximations to 7T 25
approximately, so that
2
7r = -In log 18 (gnl ' + 9n-It)}, ..................... (12)

the error being about ~: e-,,"n, which is of the same order as the error in
th~ formulin (10). The formula (12) often leads to simpler results. Thus
the second of formulae (10) gives
e" "18/'14 = 21918
or ei""ls = 10 -12 + 8 -Ia.
But if we use the formula (12), or
e"""'24 = 2~ (gnU + gn-I')~\
we get a simpler form, ·viz.
el1l'J18 = 2 -17.
4. The values of g2,. and Gn are obtained from the same equation. The
approximation by means of gm is preferable to that by Gn for the following
reasons.
(a.) It is more accurate. Thus the error when we usc Gsa contains
a factor e-""6II, whereas that when we use gm contains a factor e-""I"'.
(b) For many values of n, g.n is simpler in form than Gn ; thus

91"" = J{(2 + -15) (3 +2-113)} ,

while
G•• = {C +2"'5) (3+2-113)}~ J{J(9 +/65) + JC +/65)}.
(c) For many values of n, gm involves quadratic surds only, even when
Gn is a root of an equation of higher order. Thus G2. , G21J , G'I are roots of
cubic equations, G.7 , G79 are those of quintic equations, and G7I is that of a
septic equation, while g•• , g.", g•• , gN, g142. and gl." are all expressible by
quadratic surds.

5. Since G,. and gn can be expressed as roots of algebraical equations

with rational coefficients, the same is true of G n" or ,Un". So let us suppose
that
1 = ag".... - bg..- + ... ,
or g.... = a-bgn - 24 + ... .
But we know that
64e-"""g,,14= 1- 24e-"""+276e-2""" - ••• ,
64gn" = eft''''' - 24 + 276e-""" - ... ,
64a - 64bg..- 2• + ... = e""" - 24 + 276e-r"" - ... ,
64a - 4096be-""" + ... = e""" - 24 + 276e-""" - ... ,
that is eft''''' =(64a+ 24) - (4096b + 276) e-""" + .... .. ....... (13)

243
 26 Mod'ular Equations and Approximations to 7T

Similarly, if 1 = aG,,-·· - bGn + ... ,

-,j8

then e,,"n = (64a - 24) - (4096b + 276) e-,,"n +.... ......... (14)
From (13) and (14) we can fiud whether e""n is very nearly an integer
for given values of n, and ascert<~in also the number of 9's or O's in the
decimal part. But if Gn and gn be simple quauratic surds we may work
independently as follows. We have, for example,
g.., = v'(1 + v'2).
Hence 64g2"" = e"""" - 24 + 276e-""''' - ••. ,
64g".-·· =
so that
64 (g:/2'" + g ...-"') = e"""" - 24 + 4372(r""'" + ... = 64 [(1 + v'2Y' + (1 - v'2)12J.
Hence e""''' = 2508951·9982 ....
Again G'7 = (G + v'37)l,
64G37"' = e""37 + 24 + 276e-""37 + ... ,
64G.7-·4 = 4096e-" ",.7 - ... ,
so that
64 (G37'· + G81 -·4) = e""'37 + 24 + 4372e-" "'' 7 - ... = 64 [(6 + v'37)6 + (6 - v'37)"}.
Hence e"""7 = 199148647·999978 ....
Similarly, from g..
=j(5 +2
v'29)'
we obtain
64 (g.." + g..- ..) = e""'OB - 24 + 4372e-""" + ...

= 64 {(5 +:29)'" + C-/2Df}.

Hence e""'O' = 24591257751·9D999982 ....

6. I have calculated the values of Gn and gn for a large number of values

of n. Many of these results are equivalent to results given by Weber; for
example,
• _ 3 + v'13 1 + v'5
GI3 - 2 ' G,. =--2-'
931,0' = (2 + v'5) (3 + \1'10), G81' = 6 + v'37,
_ 7! + v'(4 + v'7) • 5 + v'29
G•• - 2 gOB =--2-- ,

244
 1Ifodular Equations and Approxim.ations to 7T 27

G!11 = jC 3 +8v97)+ jC +;97) ,

gUIAl' = (2 + v5) (3 + v10),
G...• = ~ (3 + v11) (v5 + v7) (v7 + v11) (3 + v5),
and so on. I have also many resnlts not given by Weber.. I give a com-
plete table of new results. In Weber's notation, G,,=2-!/lv(-n)} a.nd
g,,=2-~h Iv(-'~)}'

'fABLE r.
gn + ~ = ~ Iv(l + v 2) + v(9+ 5 v 2)},

j{C +2V5) e+/13)} {jC +8v65) + j(9 +/65)}.

go.
Gill' =

goo' = v(v2 + v3)(7 v2 + 3 vB)l {j C+ ;!l3) + j (V3~-1)}.

Gm,' = (:1 v3 + v 2:3)1 e

{J (~ + : Va) + j (2 + ! Va)} •
+ ;2a) 1

G,.,' = I! (v7 + v11) (8 + 3v7)}! {j (6 +;11) + j (2 + ill)}.

G • _ (2 v!l + 2)1 + 1
81 - (2 v!l- 2)1 - 1 •
{100 = 1(2+v5)(v5+v6)1~ {j (3 +/G) + j (v6; I)}.
gN +]- = Hv(7 + v 2) + v(7 + 5 v2)}.
g"4
gO/! + ~ = !lv2 + "'(14 + 4 v14)}.
g9"
{jC 3 + ;"'57) + j C5 +;V57)}.

I
glll = v(",2+v3)(3 v2 + v19)!

Gm = i (3 +;13)1 (2 v3 + vl3)llat + V (4 + va)}.

G1• 1 + ~'I = (!2!)! {(a + 3 ~3Y + (3 -:3 ~!3Y}
-+-
0121
= . ...!...-
3 v2
[(11 - 3 v11)~ 1(3 v11 + 3 v3 - 4)i .
+ (3 v11 - 3 v3 - 4)~1- 2]

gl28 =j (v3 ~ v7) (",6 + v7)~ {j (3 +/2) + j ("'2,; 1)f,

245
28 Mod'ular Equations and Approximations to 1T

g18". = J (3 ';3 ; ';23) (78 ';2 + 23 ';23)!

{J (5 +: ';6) +J C+: ';6)},

x

G I41 2 = (4";3+ ";47)t C+..;~47)1 {J C +49';3) + J C

8 4+49";3)},
0 14• 2 = J{(2 +";5)~5 + ';29)} {JC 7 +;145) + J (9 + ~145)},
--.!...
0 147
= 2-h [!2';3
+ ~ {J(~) - (28)l}] ,
4

0 ... ={J(5+/17)+J(1~-3)r
{J(37 + :";17) + J(3~ ";17)t
x +:
g.Il = J{(2";2 + ";7) (';7 +2 ";ll)}

x {J C:3 + : ";22) + J (9+ ~ ";22)} ,

1
[fir" + g- ... = t {";(9 + ";2) + ";(17 + 13 ";2»),

GI69 + ~60 = C:/ {(I + 3~3)! + (1- 3~3)ir

--.!... =! [(";13 _ 2) + (13 - 3 ";13)'
Glfl'~ 3 2
{(a ";3_ 11 ~";13/ _ (3";3 + II -2';13)A}]
x

g... = ";(1 + v2) (4';2 + ';33)1 {J (9 + 8';33) + j C+ t33)} ,

Goo. =C+/~)(3V5;V41/ {J(+8';4~)+J(";418-1)},
Om = (5 v3 + ";71)t (59 + 1';7~ /
2

x {Jel+~2";3) + JC 9 :2";3)},
+

0'.7 2 = +:
{J (9 V7) + J (1]_!,/ ";7)}
x {J C2 +45 ";7) + j CO +45 ";7)},
G... = C+/5) (2 + v3)1 {";(4 + ";15) + 15i},

246
 Modular Equations and Approximations to '1r 29

9238 = {JC +! J2) + j(5 +: J2)}

x {jC + :J~) + j(5+!J2)}.
G .2= j{(2 + J5) C+;53)} {J(~?+~J265) + J(8l+~J265)}.
r.
2fI

G_ = [j{~! + J17 + gi(5 +J17)} + j{l + J17 +~~i(5+J17)}

G•••' = {(8 + :3 J7) CJ43: 57 J7)} i

3

x {J (46 +: J43) + j (42 +: J43)},

g310 = C+2J5) .J(1 + J2){JC +~JIO) + JC+ ~ JI0)} ,

G!f'l.' = ( 3 +2J13)i t, where

t"+ t· C-2J13Y+ C+2J13)' + 1

t

=J5 {to - t· C+;13) + t C-/13) - I}

G033
G...
= ~ (6 + J37)i (7 J3 + 2 J37)1 (J(7 + 2 J3) + J(3 + 2 J3)},
= 2"~ t, where
2t:l- t' (4 + J33) + J(l1 + 2 J33»)
11 + v(l1 + 2 v33)}-1 = 0
- t
I
,

G = (v3 ±V7) (2 +J3)1 {2 + J7 + J(7 + 4 J7)} rJ(3 + v 7) + (6 v7)l}

2
1v (3 + v7) - (6 v 7)1 '
t 445t J {C 3+/89) + j e+;H9)},
.... 2 2

G••• = J(2 + J5) (2il +

Gw.' = j{(2 + J3) C+/5) (3 J3;J31)} (5 J5 +2 J31)1

x {Je\v'31) +J(6+;al)}
x {Je 1 + ;v'31) + JC +; v'a1)} ,
3

GM/l' = (2 + v'5) J {e +2v'5) (10 + vIOl)}

{(5 J5 ~ J101) + J C05 +/505)},

x

9... = J (5 +;29)(5 J29+11.J6)1 {J(9 +! J6) + j(5 +; J6)} ,

247
30 .illodulal' Eql/,ations and Approximations to 1f

G••a' = {j (96 + ~l J79) + J COO +~l J79)}

x {JC 41 + ~6 J79) + j C43 + ~6 J79)}.

g630 = (J14 + J15)1 J {(I + J2) (3 +2 J5) (J3; J7)}

x {j(JI5 \J7 + 2) + J(JI5 +4J7 - 2)}

x {J(J15 +/7 + 4) + J(JI5 +/7 - 4)}.

G = (3 +2 J5) (16 + J255)t J {(4 + J15) (9 +2...'85)}

760"

x {j (6 +4J51 ) + j CO +4 J51)}

x {JC 8 +: J51) + j(22 + ;J51)}.

Gm " = j{(2 + ...'3)(6 + Ja7) ( v/3 -~ ov'7)} (2406 J7 + 107 J:J7)/r

x {j (6 +! J7) +j (~~;~~?)}

x {j C!3 +26 J7) + j C} \() J7)}.

G'226 = C r!
+2J5) (6 + J35)1 + J~4 + J7)} i
x [j {43 + 15 J7 + (8 ; 3 J7) J(10 J7)}

+ j {35 + 15 J7 + (8; 3 ...'7) J(lO J7)} ] .

G'3f>32 = j {(3 +J11) (5 +3 ";3) (11 +/123)}

x (6817 + !21 ";451 Y'

x {jC 7+ ;J33) + jC 5+;J33)}

x {j (561 + ~9 J33) +j (569 +:9 Ja3)} •

G,,,•." = (2 + J5) j J7) C+ ;47)} C.3 J5 +29 J329t

{(3 +
x {j C19 + ~ J32B) + j C 27 +; J329)}
x {j C43 -I- ~IJ329) + j (51 + !IJ329)}.

248
 lIfodular Equations and Approximations to 11' 31
7. Hence we deduce the following a.pproximate formulre.

TABLE II.
el'''''8 = 2 ';7, e""22/11=2+ ';2, ei""10 = 20';3 + 16 ';6,
e1""N = 12 (4 + ';17), et""" = 144 (147 + 104 ';2),

e1""4' = 8:t + 32 ';6, e""M/ll = 5 :;~9 ,

e1""'10 = 60 ';35 + 96 ';14, e1""'18 = 300';3 + 208 ';6,
e""16/14 = 1 + .;(~; 2 ';5), e1""102 = 800';3 + 196 ';51,

e1""110 = 12 (323 + 40 ';65), e""loo/12 = (2';2 + ';10) (3 + ';10).

_ ~ I {(2 + ';5) (3 + ';13)}
11' - ';130 og ';2 '

11'
=~ I
';142 og
{j(10 + 411 ';2) + j(10 +47';2)} '
11' = .o/~~O log {(2';2 + ';10)(3 + ';10)}.
11' = .;~io log [1 (3 + ';5) (2 + .0/2) {{5 + 2 ';10) + ';{61 + 20 ';10)}],

11' = ~~:22 log [ e +.;;29y (5 ';29 + 11 ';6)

x fj (9 +;';6) +j(5 +! ';6)}'].
The last five formulre a.re correct to 15, 16, 18, 22, and :n places of decimals
respectively.

8. Thus we have seen how to approximate to 11' by means of logarithms

of surds. I shall now shew how to obtain IlolJproximations in terms of surds
only. If
K' £'
n1(=L'
ndle dt
we have kk" KB = tt" £, .
But, by means of the modular equation connecting Ie and l, we can
exprcss dkldl as an algebraic function of le, a function moreover in which all
coefficients which occur are algebraic numbers. Again,
q = e- trIC/ K , q" = e-"L'(L,
qh (1 - q') (1 - q4)(1 - f/) ...
ql~" (1 _ q"')(1 _ q4")(1 _ tf") ... = Il'
(kkl)! J(K)
L ....... (15)

249
32 Modular Equations and Approximations to 1T

Differentiating this equation loga.rithmically, and using the formula

dq 7r'q
dk = 2kk" K"
we Bee that
q2n )}
n { 1 - 24 ( 1 _ q'" + 1 2q'"
_ g'" + ...
2q· KL
- 24 ( - 1• + -1- , + ... J = - . A (k), ... (16)
-
I)'
{1
)l
-'r -q 7r

where .A (k) denotes an algebraic function of the special class described

above. I shall use the letter A generally to denote a function of this type.
Now, if we put k = l' and k' = ~ in (16), we have

n{I-24(e"""'~_1 + e"''':-1 + ... )}

-{I- 24 C''''''~-I + e'''''': -I + ...)} = (!)" A (Ie)....(17)
The algebraic function .A (k) of course assumes a purely numerical form
when we substitute the value of k deduced from the modular equation. But
by substituting k = l' and k' = l in (15) we have
n 1 e-,,"n/12 (1 - e-''''''') (1 - e-''''''') (1 - e-·.. "n) ...
= e-,,/(12"") (1 - e-'''''''') (1 - e-'''''''') (1 - e-·"''''') ....
Differentiating the above equ:ttioll lugarithmically we have

n {I - 24 Cl""!-1 + e'' ' : -1 + ...)}

+ {I- 24 C''''''~-1 + e'''''':-1 + ... )} 6~n .......... (18)=

Now, adding (17) and (18), we have

3 - 24 (
1 - ----:-t
7r vrt
I
- + 6'"'''' - 1 +... =
--';-;'-;;--1
e
2 ) (K)'
-
7r
.A (k) . ...... (19)

But it is known that

q 3q3 5q3 (2I{)'
1 - 24 ( 1 + q + 1 + q" + 1 + q' + ... = -;r (1 -
)
2k·).

so that (K'
1 - 24 ( e"""1+ 1 + 6'"''''3 + 1 + ... ) = ;:).A (k). .. ....... (20)

Hence, dividing (19) by (20), we have

3 (I 2
1- 7r .,jn - 24 e'"'''' -I + e'''''''-1 + ... )
1 3 = R, ......... (21)
1 - 24 (6""" + 1 + ea""n + 1 + ... )

250
 Modular Equation.<J arul Approximations to 'IT' 33
where R can always be expressed in radicals if n is any rational number.
Hlmce we have
3
.". = (1 - Jl) "..;n' ........................... (22)
nearly, the error being about 87re-""n (71" r./n - 3).
9. We may get a at.ilI closer approximation from the followmg results.
It is known that
1 + 240 ri'" rq" =
~=1 1 - '1" 'IT'
(1-k"k'2), (21{)"
a.ml a.lso that
1 _ 504 '"i'" 1- q'l1r
rq" =
~=1
(2[()6
(1 - 2k') (1 + ik"k").
.".
Hence, from (19), we see that
{1 - ~ 3 ,.= '" r } { ,.='" r }
~ 6'-"'"''
.".'Vn - 24 ~=I -
1 1 + 240 ~=I
~ e"""n - 1
~='" 1"" }
= R' { 1 - 504 ,.:\ eO.... "" _ 1 , ...... (23)
where R' can always be expressed in radicals for any rational value of n.
Hence
'IT' = (1 _ ~l') von.' .............................. (24)
neal"ly, the enor being about 24.".(10.". r./n-31)e-·.......
It will he seen that the error in (24) i!:! much less than that in (22), if n
is at all large.
10. In order to find Rand R' the series in (16) must be calculated
in fillite terms. I shan give the final results for a few vn.lues of n.

TABLE III.

f (']) = n (1 - "'q"Rn)(1 -
24 ~ 1 2m -
.. q.m)
24 ~ - 1.m'
1 -q" 1 -q
/(2) = 4J(fo (k' + I),
.".

f(3) = 4/~L (1 +kl + k'i'),

7T

f(4) = 4~f (r./k' + ..ji)·,

f(5) = 4~; (3 + kl + kT)jC + k;+ k'l') ,
f(7) = 12:~L (1 + H + k'l'),

251
34 Modular Equations and ApP'l'oxi-mations to 1T

/(11) = SK; {2 (1 +kl +k'l') + -'/(ld) + -./(k'l') - -./(kk'U'»).

7r

/(15) = 4I\L [{I

7T
+ (H)l + (k'l'iJ~ - {I + kl + k'l'lJ,
/(17) = 4I\L -./{44 (1
7r
+ !.-Ill" + Ie"t'") + 16S (kl + J..:' I' - kk'U')
- 102 (1 - kl - k'l') (4J..:k' U')! - 192 (4k/;:'Il')i I.

/(19) = 24]{L {(I + kl

7r"
+ k'l') + -./(kl) + -./(Ic'l') - -./(I.~k' U')J.

f (23) = 4K: [11 (1

7r
+ lel + kT) - 16 (4kk'[l'). [I + -./(kl) + ';(k'l')}
- 20 (4kk'U')1],
/(31) = 12!L [3 (1 + kl + k't') + 4 (-./(H)+ -./(1.''1') + -./(lck'U')J
- 4 (kk'U')! {I + (kl)4 + (1/ l').I]].
/(35) = 4KL
7r'
[2 [-./(kl) + -./(k'l') - -./(k'k'U'»)
+ (4kk' tt') - , (I - -./(kl) - .. /(/c'l')J"].
'l'hus the lIum of the lIerieli (19) can be fClUnd in finite terms. when
n = 2.3.4.5..... frol11 the equations in 'I'able Ill. 'Ve can usc the same
table to find the sum of (19) when 11 = 9. 25.49 •... ; but then we have also
to usc the eqUlLtion
3 (I 2 3
:;r =1- 24 e'" _ 1 + ~ + e"" - I + ... ) .
which is got by putting /, = k' = IN2 and n = 1 in (18).
Similarly we can find the sum of (19) when n = 21. 33. 57. 93 ..... by
combining the valuell of /(3) and /(7). /(3) and /(ll). and so on. obtained
from 'ruble III.
11. The errors in (22) and (24) being nbout
87r8-""" (7r -./n - 3). 247r (101T -./n - 31) e-·.. "....
we Cl\nnot expect a high degree of approximation tOr small values of 11.
Thus. if wo put n = 7. 9. 16. and 25 ill (24). we get
19 .
16 -./7 = :J'l41S0 ... .
~ (I + ~3) = 3.14162 ... .
99 ( 7 _ 73';2) -_ tl'>'141-9274
80 0 ....

(l3 (17 + 15 -./5)

25 7 + 15 -./,5 .= a·14159265380 ....

252
 lIfodular Equations and Approximations to 1r 35
while '11" = 3·14159265358 ....
But if we put n = 25 in (22), we get only
~ + j (~) = 3·14164 ....
12. Another curious approximation to '11" is
( 92 + 19')i
22 = 3·14159265262 ....
This value was obtained empirically, and it has no connection with the
preceding theory.
The actual value of '11", which I have used for purposes of calculation, is
~~; (1 - ~~~:) ... 3·1415926535897943 ...•
which is greater than '11" by about to-II. This is obtained by simply Laking
the reciprocal of 1 - (1131r/355).
In this connection it may be interesting to note the following simple
geometrical constructions for '11". The first merely gives the ordinary va.luo
355/113. The second gives the value (9a + 19'/22)1 mentioned above.
(1) Let AB (Fig. 1) be a diameter of a circle whose centre is O.
Bisect AO at M and trisect OB at T.
Draw TP perpendicular to AB and meeting the circumference at P.
Draw a chord BQ equal to PT and join AQ.
Draw OS and TR parallel to BQ and meeting AQ at Sand R respectively.

Fig. 1.

Draw a chord AD equal to AS and a tangent AC = RS.

Join RC, RD, and CD; cut off RE=BM, and draw EX, parallel to CD.
meeting BC at X.
Then the square on BX is very nearly equal to the area of the circle, the
error being less than a tenth of an inch when the diameter is 40 miles long.

253
36 Modulat' Equations wnd Approximations to 7T

(2) Let AB (li'ig. 2) be a diamctm' of a circle whose centre is O.

Bisect the arc A OB at 0 and trisect A 0 at 1'.
Join BO and cut off from it OM and MN eqlml
to AT.
Join AM and AN and cut off from the latter
AP equal to AM.
Through P draw PQ parallel to MN and meet- A~-;!;---::>"I;:---~B
ing AM at Q.
Join OQ and through T draw 'l'R, pamllel to
OQ, and meeting AQ at R.
Draw AS perpendicular to AO and equal to F'il:.2.
AI( and join OS.
Then the mean proportional between OS and OB will be very nearly
equal to a sixth of the circumference, the error being less than a twelfth of an
inch when the diameter is 8000 miles long.
13. I shall conclude this paper hy giving a few series for 1/7T.

c::r
It is known that, when k!; 1/";2,

= 1 + GY (2kk')' + G:iY (2kk')' + .... ......... (25)

Hence we have
q1 (1 - q')' (1 - q")" (1 - qO)" ...

= (~ IckY {I + GY (2kk')' + (t 1)" (2kk')" + .. .}. ......(26)

Differentiating both sides in (26) logarithmically with respect to k, we can
ea.sily shew that
( q'
1-24 -1-'+--'+-1
2q' 3q8
,.. + ...
)

-q 1-q -It

= (1 - 2k') {I + 4 GY (2kk')' + G: !)" (2kk')< + .. J ...

7 (27)
But it follows from (19) that, when q = e-""n, n being a rational numbeJ', the
left-hand side of (27) can be expressed in the form
A e~{)" +~,
where A and B are algebraic numhers expressible by surus. Combining
(25) and (27) in such a way as to eliminate the term (2Kj7T-)2, we are left
with a series for 1/7T. r:L'hus, for example,
4
:; = 1
7 (1)3 13 (1. 3)" 19 (1. 3.5)"
+ 4 2 + 4" 2. 4 + 4" 2 . 4 . 6 + ... ,
(q = e-""~, 2/ck' = i), ............... (28)
16
7T'
47 (1)3 89
= 5 + 64 2 + 64" 2. 4
(1. 3)3 + 131 (l. 3.5)3
64" 2. 4 . 6 + ... ,
(q = e-""7, 2kk' = -1), ............... (29)

254
 Modular Equations and Approximations to 'IT 37

~ = (5';5 -1) + 47 ';:4+ 29 (~)' (';52- 1 r

+ 89 ';:4; 59 G: :r (V52- 1 f + ... ,
[ q- --,,"II
e , 2kk' = 8 1(';5
-2 -1)J'.
- , ........ .(30)

here 5';5 -1, 47';5 + 29, 89';5 + 59, ... are in arithmetical progression.

14. The ordinary modular equations express the relations which hold
between Ie and l when nK'/K =L'/L, or q" = Q, where
q= e-"K'IK, Q= e-"L'/L,

K =1 + GY + G: :)"
k2 /.:f + ....
There are corresponding theories in which q is replaced by one or other
of the functions
ql = e- wK,' .J2/K, , q. = e- 2"K,'/(K,.J3), q. = e- 2wK.'/K.,
where
1.3 1.3.5.7/.:f 1.3.5.7.9.11/c"
](, = 1 + 41" k• + 4' . 8' + 4 2 • 8' . 12' + ... ,
1. 2 1.. 1. 2 . 4 . 5 /.:f 1. 2 . 4 . 5 . 7 . 8 /c"
K. = 1 + 3t- 110- + 3'. 6' + 31.6'.92 + ... ,
1. 5 k 1. 5 . 7 . 11 /.:f 1. 5 . 7 . 11 . 13 . 17 /c"
](3 = 1 + 62 2+ 62.122 + ()'. 122.182 + ....

From these theories we can deduce further series for I/7r, such as
27 1 1 2 (2)
4"11' = 2 + 17 "2 :3:3 27

+32~::!::~:~(~r+ ... , ...... (31)

4 37!! ~ (~)
15 ';3
~= + 23:3 125
'10 1 . 3 1 . 4 2 . 5 ( 4 )' (32)
+ 2.43. 6 3-:6 125 + ... , ......
5';5 115( 4 )
2"11' ';3 = 1 + 12 "2 6 6 125
1. 3 l. 7 5. 11 ( 4 )' (33)
+232.46.126.12125 + ... , ...

~5 ';85 = 8
18"11' ';3 +
141 ~! ~
2 6 6 85
(.!)'
1. 3 1. 7 5. 11
+ 274 2 . 4 6 . 12 6 . 12 85
(4)8 + ... , ...(34)

255
38 Jfodulm' Equations ami Appl'o,"Cirnations to 7r
4 3 23 1 1. 3 43 1 . a 1. 3 . 5 . 7 ('
;="2-2'240+-21 2.44".8' - ....................15)
4 3 31 1 1.3 59 1. 3 1 .3.5.7 3 ')
'IT .v3 = 4- 3. 43 2 42 + 3'. 4' 2 . 4 '.I.' • ~. .. ....... ( 6
4 23 283 1 1. 3 543 1. 3 1. 3 . 5 . 7
:;;: = 18 - IS" 24" + IS6 2.4 4".8" - ............. (37)
4 41 G85 1 1. 3 1:329 1. 3 1. 3 . 5 . 7 ("8)
'1T" .v5 = 72 - 5.72' 2 4> + 5~. 72' 2.'4 4".82 - ~
... , . . . . . . .

~ = 1123 _ 22583 ! 1. 3 440431.31.3.5.7 _ ('19)

'1T" 882 882' 2 4" + ~82' 2. + 4' . 8' . ,.... , •
2 .v3 9 1 1. 3 17 1. 3 1. 3 . 5 . 7 (40)
--;-=1+9241+'922.441.82 + .................... ..

1 1 11 1 1. 3 21 1. :Jl. 3.5.7 (41)

27r .v2 = '9 + 9" 2 ""¥ + 90 2 . 4 4' . 82 + .... .. ........... ..
1 3 43 1 1.3 83 1.3 1.3.5.7 ( ....
3'IT .v3 = 49 + 49' 2 4' + 4'!). 2-:-4 4'. S. + ... , ............ 'to"-)
2 19 29911.3 5791.31.3.5.7
'1T" .vll = 99 + 99' 2 -;v + 996 2.4 4".8' + ................ (43)
1 1103 27'4931 1. 3 53883 1. 3 1. 3.5.7 (44)
2'IT .v2 = 99'- + 9'962 41 + 99'0 2.4 4".8' + .......
In nIl these series the first factors in each term form an arithmetical
progression; e.g. 2.17. 32. 47, .... in (31). and 4. 37. 70. 103, .... in (32).
'l'he first two series belong to the theory of q•• the next two to that of g••
and the rest to that of q"
1'he last series (44) is extremely rapidly convergent. Thus, taking only
the first tel'm, we see that
1103 r:
99" = '112 ... 39153678 ... .

2'1T"1.v 2 = ·1125:3953951. .. .

15. In concluding this pnper I have to remark that the series

q" 2q< 3ql )
1-24 ( I--'+-I-'+-I-
-q -q -qd +'" .
which has been discussed in §§ 8-13. is very closely connected with the
perimeter of an ellipse whose eccentricity is k. }<'UI'. if a and b be the sClIli-
major and the semi-minor axes. it is known that
I It.3 P.3".5 }
p=27ra {I- fo kt- 2".4.k<-2'.4<.O.kB- ... , ......... (45)

256
 J.lfodnlar Equation.'J and Approximations to 1T 39
where p is the perimeter and k the eccentricity. It can easily be seen
from (45) that
p = 4ak't {K + k :~}. .. ...................... (46)
Bllt, taking the equation
qn (1 - q") (1 - tf) (I - qB) ... = (2kk')1 .j(l(/w),
and differentiating both sides logarithmically with respect to k, and com-
bining the result with (46) in such a way as to eliminate dK/dk. we can
Rhcw that
p= :~ [K'(1 + k'2) + (i1T)2 {1- 24 (I ~'q' + 1~~ + ... )}]. (47)

But we have shewn already that the right-hand side of (47) can be expressed
jn terms of ]( if q = e-""". where n is any rational number. It can also
be shewn that ]( can be expressed in terms of r-funetions if q be of the
forms e-"". tr"""· and tr""o/', where n is rlltional. Thus, for example, we
have
. 1T
k =sm 4'

p= a j( 1T) {r (t) r W}
4; r u) + r m '
...... (48)
. 1T
k =sm 12'

p=(a+b) j(1T) {I rm I'm}

2" 2 I'G1+ rm '
nnd so on.
16. The following approximations for p were obtained empirically:
p = 1T [3 (a+ b) - .j{(a + 3b)(3a + b)] + e], ............... (49)
where E is about akl '/1048576 ;

l J = 1T {(ct + b) + 10 (a + b):(~(:tb~ 14ab + b2) + E} , ......... (50)

where E is about 3ak2B/68719476736.

257
 THE MARQUIS AND THE LAND-AGENT 5
THE MARQUIS AND THE LAND-AGENT; A TALE
OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
Pre8idential Addre88 to the Mathematical A88ociation, 1933.
By G. N. WATSON, So.D., F.R.S.
THERE is a well-known story about the late Archbishop Temple, that
he once had to listen to a sermon by a youthful and inexperienced
clergyman, and to dine with him afterwards; the young man, by
way of making conversation during the meal, ventured to remark,
"I think, my lord, that I chose a good text for my sermon".
Instantly there came the grim reply, "There was nothing wrong
with the text". It may be that the consequence of my having
selected a seductive title which does not possess a ·very close con-
nection with the actual subject of my address will be that, when
we adjourn presently, I may get the impression that my audience
has consisted entirely of archbishops.
It seems to me that, whenever a Pure Mathematician is called
upon to deliver a lecture of a more or less general nature outside the
walls of his usual lecture room, the necessity of choosing a topic of
general interest at once confronts him with a difficult problem; my
choice of a title has been dictated by my desire to ensure that my
address should not be entirely devoid of interest. An Applied
Mathematician, of course, labours under no similar difficulty; it
is always open to him to be irrelevant and to choose as his theme (if
I may borrow a phrase of one of my predecessors) "what has
been humorously ca.lled the reaJ world, the world of physics and
sensation, of sight and hearing, heat and cold, earthquakes and
eclipses; a.nd earthquakes and eclipses are plainly not constituents of
the world of mathematics". It is, however, extremely difficult to
give an interesting oral exposition of any modem developments in
Pure Mathematics, and I personally have not the courage to attempt
to do so; I can imagine few ways of rapidly emptying this room
which would be more effective than an attempt on my part to
expound the work on Singular Moduli which has occupied all my
spare time during the last couple of years. I consider, too, that
subjects of a pedagogical character are equally barred to me; I
agree with Professor Hardy when he said on a similar occasion some
years ago that he considered such questions to be of secondary
importance.
Like many of the problems which confront the Pure Mathe-
matician, the particular problem which I am c01lsidering always
has one method of solution available; it is not in my opinion a
particularly good solution, but I think that it is a perfectly valid
procedure; and I have chosen the path of least resistance in
adopting it, and therefore I have selected a topic of an historical
nature; I propose to give you an account of some of the compa.ra-
tively elementary work on arcs of ellipses and other curves which
seems to me to have led up to the idea, familiar to you all, which
came simultaneously to Abel and Jacobi 105 years ago, of inverting

258
6 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZETTE
an elliptic integral, and so laying the foundations of the theory of
elliptic functions and doubly periodic functions generally. It may
be a little rash for me to use the word historical; a distinguished
historian has described the scope of his subject by saying, " Mod~m
history began when Abraham came out of Ur of the Chaldees".
I do not propose to go so far back as Abraham; but I would begin
by referring you to 1 Kings vii. 23, where we are told that Solomon
" made a molten sea, ten cubits from the one brim to the other;
it was round all about, and his height waS five cubits; and a line
of thirty cubits did compass it round about". It has been sug-
gested, I think rather too ingeniously, that this passage docs not
bear the obvious interpretation that a comparatively primitive
people regarded 1r as being equal to 3, but that the word round was
used in a vague sense and that the vessel in question was elliptical,
its major axis being ten cubits and its minor axis being about
9·53 cubits.
The earliest indubitable reference to the length of an elliptic arc
that I have been able to discover occurs in Kepler's Astronomia nova
(Prag, 1609); his discovery, announced in the same work, that
the orbit of the planet Mars is an ellipse naturally drew attention
to the length of the perimeter of an ellipse. In modern notation,
Kepler's theorem is that the perimeter of an ellipse with semi-axes
a and b exceeds 21rJ(ab); his proof consists of an application of
the theorem that, of figures which enclose the same area, the circle
has the least perimeter; and the perimeter of the circle which has
the same area as the ellipse is 21rJ(ab). This theorem is followed
by the naif remark that the perimeter of the ellipse is nearly equal
to the arithmetic mean of the circumferences of the major and minor
auxiliary circles, for the somewhat slender reason that both the
perimeter and the arithmetic mean exceed the geometric mean of
the circumferences. Things which are greater than the same thing
are nearly equal to each other I
Passing over half a century, I come to 1.659, in which year Pascal
published his essay 011 Dimensions dell lignes courbes de toutes les
Roulettes, and Wallis published two Tracts; Pascal's work and the
second tract of Wallis both contain the theorem that the span of the
curtate cycloid traced by a point distant b from the centre of a
rolling circle of radius a is equal to the semi-perimeter of an ellipse
whose semi-axes are 2(b+a) and 2(b-a). The proof given by
Wallis is apparently due to Wren, and I am convinced that Wren
discovered both the theorem and his proof of it before July 1658,
while I am doubtful whether Pascal knew of the theorem until
about the time that he completed his work on Roulettes in October
1658. I rega.rd Wren's proof a.s elegant and direct, but Pascal's
reasoning seems to me to be obscure, like other writings of his
that I have read. The second tract of Wallis is also remarkable for
containing an expression for the differential element of arc of an
ellipse in terms of the abscissa, and the construction of a. curve
about which he says "the figure so constructed is no more capable
of quadrature than an ellipse of rectification" .

259
 THE MARQUIS AND THE LAND-AGENT 7
By applying the binomial theorem to the differential element of
arc and integrating the series so obtained term by term, Newton
obtained an expression for the length of a quadrant of an ellipse
as the sum of two infinite series in 1676; the second series is con-
vergent only when the eccentricity does not exceed i.
The series for the length of a quadrant in powers of the eccentri-
city. namely

aJ~J(I- (lsinI 8)d8

1 [1 1 2 1. 1. 3 4. 1. 1. 3 . 3 . 5 8 ]
= ~7ra - 2 . 2 E - 2 . 2 . 4 .4 E - 2 . 2 . 4 .4 . 6 . 6 E - . . . •

seems to have been discovered by Maclaurin in 1742, and it is

probably the best known formula of its kind.
The source of the main topio of my address is not, however, to
be found in the discoveries which I have just described. It consists
of an observation made by Jacob Bernoulli in 1691, namely that,
in the expression for the arc of the parabolic spiral
(a-r)2=2ab8
as an integral 8= J,J{+ 1 r2C: 2;2r )2} dr,
the integrand is an et~en function of !a - r, so that Jill = J11I+C, that
Is-c Is
is to say, the arc of the curve joining the points for which r has
the values !a - c and la is equal to the arc of the curve joining the
points for which r has the values ia a.nd ia + c, although theBe arcs are
not congruent.
This observation, which nowadays would be regarded as almost a
truism, inspired an Italian mathematician Giulio Carlo di Fagnano,
to carry out the researches on arcs of equal lengths which resulted in
his being loaded with honours in his liletime and which constitute
his claim to mathematical immortality.
Before I proceed to describe some of Fagnano's discoveries, I
extract a few biographical details from Gambioli's account of his
life contained in the third of the sumptuous volumes of Fagnano's
Opere 'llULte'IIULtiche which were published in 1911-12.
Fagnano's family derived from the ancient lords of the Castle of
Fagnano between Bologna and Imola; to this family belonged
Honorius II, elected pope in 1124. Later the family flourished in
Bologna under the surname of Toschi; about 1341 they settled in
Senigallia, a little town on the shores of the Adriatic, about half-way
between Pesaro and Ancona, now a sea-bathing resort of 12,000
inhabitants.
Giulio Carlo, son of Francesco Fagnano and his wife Camilla
Bartoli, was born at Senigallia on 26th September 1682, and died
there on 18th May 1766. From the age of ten he enjoyed poetry
and composed sonnets; later he published a philosophical poem
on the resurrection of the dead. At the age of fourteen he entered

260
8 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZETTE
the Clementine College at Rome, where he studied for three years ;
he quickly attained distinction in the College, and completed his
philosophy course in two years and the theological course in one
year. He abandoned the study of the Aristotelian philosophy for
the works of Gassendi and Descartes; he got into communication
with Malebranche and gave him a new explana.tion of the mystery
of transubstantiation, receiving an alternative explanation from
him in return. He proceeded to the philosophy of Leibniz and
Newton, and derived much profit from studying the famous work
of Malebranche, La recherche de la verite. While a student he held
mathematics in contempt, in spite of advice to study the subject;
but later he decided to abandon philosophy and to devote himself
entirely to mathematics. According to Gambioli, he was entirely
self-taught, so far as mathematics were concerned, and Gambioli
emphasizes the mathematical ability which he must have possessed
in being able to study the subject so effectively aft.er attaining years
of maturity, in n small town like Senigallia, without a library and
remote from any centre of learning.
In 1743 he was consulted with regard to the safety of St. Peter's,
which was threatened with collapse; and, as a reward for his
services, Benedict XIV commissioned the publication of his collected
works, though the two volumes composing them did not actually
appear until 1750. He had been created a Count by Louis XV in
l721, and in 1745 the Pope created him a Marquis; when the
Roman nobility was reconstituted in the following year, he was
included in the 101 noble families. He was also created Marquis
of Sant' Onorio by Charles III, King of the two Sicilies. He was
nominated to the Berlin Academy in 1750, and he sent the Academy
a copy of his Produzioni matematiche which reached Euler's
hands on 23rd December 1751, a day described by Jacobi as "Der
Geburtstag der elliptischen Funktionen ".
He married Francesca Conciatti of Sassoferrato, by whom he had
six sons and six daughters; she died in 1726, and but four of his
children survived him; one of the sons was a mathematician, but
he was less able than his father; the family is now extinct.
Gambioli gives a lively account of his personality; he describes
him as cheerful and lively in conversation; and relates, as an
instance of his equanimity, a story of how, one evening, he was
driven to shooting two robbers a.nd, meeting some friends shortly
afterwards, he conversed with them as though nothing had happened.
He died on 18th May 1766, and is buried in the church of Santa
Maria Maddalena at Senigallia; the municipality of Senigallia
possesses his portrait, representing him with a diagram of a lemnis-
ca.te in his hand; below is an elaborate inscription describing him
as " Julius Carolus de Tuschis de Fagnano, S. Honorii Marchio, in
Ordine Constantin. S. Georgii Marchiae Prior, Patricius Romanus et
Senogalliensis ". He is described in a similar manner on the title-
page of his Produzioni matematiche and below his titles is a diagram
of a lemniscate with the words "Multifariam divisa atque dimensa.
Deo veritatis gloria".

261
 THE MARQUIS AND THE LAND-AGENT 9
I come now to a brief description of Fagnano's work; his investi-
gations on the geometrical theory of proportion, which occupy a
large part of the first volume of his Produzioni matematiche, are, of
course, irrelevant, and I do not hesitate to say that I naturally
consider them rather dull reading. I pass over, also, his work on
the rectification of parabolas of higher order which was a preliminary
to his more famous discoveries published from 1714 onwards, and
connected, as might be anticipated from some hints which I have
given, with the rectification of the lemniscate.
Taking the equation of the lemniscate in the usual form
r 2 =2alcos28,
and writing cos 20=t, r=aJ(2t),
wo obtain the parametric representation
x=aJ(t+t 2 ), 1/=aJ(t-t2 ),
whence the expression for the arc in the form of an integral
a J dt
s= J2 J{t(l - tl)}
is immediately derivable.
Fagnano's first discovery was that, if two parameters t and z are
connected by the relation
(t+ J )(z+ 1)=2,
dt dz
then

and hence J .I du Jl
J{t(l- tll)} - J{z(l- Z2)}'
du
oJ{u(l- u 2 )} = ,J{u(l- u 2 »)'
In modern terminology, he had discovered a homographic
transformation under which the integrand is invariant, its singu-
larities being permuted among themselves.
I remark that the points with parameters 0 and 1 are the centre 0
and the end of the transverse axis A; so that, using an obvious
notation, we see that the arcs Cz and tA are equal. If now we take
t=z, it follows from the homographic relation that each is equal
to J2 - 1, so that the point with parameter ./2 - I bisect8 the arc
forming the positive quadrant of tke lemnisco.te.
To describe Fagnano's second discovery, it is convenient to take
a slightly different parametric representation
x=azJ(1 +Z2), y=azJ(I-z 2 ),
by writing Z2 for t in the former representation.
The formula for the arc is now
rol
du
Arc Cz=aJ2JoJ(I_ut)'
and the first theorem becomes:
If (10= 11 - z: then
+z
JS0'
=Jl.

262
 10 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZETTE
Now consider the transformation
l-w z
{=I+w 2 '

80 that ( 1- W2)2 _I - zZ
I+wz -l+zz·
It is not very difficult to verify that this may be written in the
equivalent forms
wJ2 ~ __ 2 dw
z= J(I+w4)' J(l-z4)-J J(1+w4)"
The form of this relation is the key to Fagnano's subsequent
work; the method by which he was led to discover the relation is
not clear, and I think that it must be regarded as one of those happy
chances which, as Legendre once remarked in another connection,
occur only to those who know how to produce them.
Unlike the first transformation, the second does not give an
invariant integral; but, if we take
vJ2
W= J(I-v 4 )'
dw dv
we get
J(I+w') J2 J(1 _ V4)'
dz dv
and hence
2 J(I-v 4 )"
This is a rudimentary form of what is now known as complex multi-
< plication; the relation between z and w is of the same form as the
relation between W'1 and V7], where 'I is a fourth root of - 1. Whether
Fagnano discovered the transformation in this way or not, I do not
know; it is by no means impossible that this w~ his method,
because he had made an intensive study of the technique of the
algebra of complex numbers, and, in fact, he was the discoverer of
the well known formula
. l-i
1r=2~log-1- ..
+,
The last difierential equation may be written in the equivalent
forms
Axc Oz = 2 Axc Ov, V= J[{1 + J(I- z3)}{1 + J(1 + Z2)}]"
Take now a new parameter 'U, defined by the equation
I-v 3
'U 2 - - -
-1+v3 '
and then, by the first result,
Axe Ov = Axe 'UA, Axc Oz = 2 Axc 'UA,
where the equation connecting 'U and z can be worked out without
much difficulty. If, in this equation, we take 'U=z, the positive

263
 THE MARQUIS AND THE LAND-AGENT 11
quadrant is trisected at v and '1£; and then the equation for z
reduces to
z8+6z 4 -3=0,
whence Z= ~(2../3 - 3),

80 that the point with parameter S(2J3 - 3) i8 one oj the points oj

tri8ection oj the arc Jorming the p08itive q1.UUlrant oj the lemni8cate.
The problem of the quinquesection of the quadrant was attacked
by Fagnano in a similar malUler. It is necessary to take four
parameters, t, z, v, '1£, representing points on the lemniscate such that
Arc Ct=2 Arc Cz, Arc Cz=2 Arc Cv, Arc Cv=Arc 'UA,
so that consecutive parameters are COlUlected either by the first
or by the second of Fagnano's relations, whence an algebraic equa-
tion equivalent to the formula
Arc Ct=4 Arc 'UA,
connecting t and '1£, is obtainable.
H. in this equation, we take t=u, we get
Arc Ct={ Arc CA,
and the equation for t (which was not worked out by Fagnano)
reduces to
t24 + 50t20 - 125t18 + 300t12 - 105es - 62t 4 + 5 = O.
When we discard from this equation factors which may be proved
to be irrelevant, we find that
t8 - (12J5 -26)t4 + 9 -4J5=0,
and hence the problem oj the q'Uinq'Ue8ection oj the q1.UUlrantal arc oj the
lemni8cate i8 red'U.Ced ultimately to the 80l'Ution of q1.UUlratic equations.
As I said, Fagnano did not work out this result to the bitter end;
but he clearly realized that the work was possible, for he went so far
as to state the general theorem that, if m is any integer, it is possible
to find, algebraicaUy, a point with parameter z such that the arc Cz
is anyone of the following three fractions of the length of the
qUadrant of the lemniscate :
1 1 1
2m ' 3.2 m ' 5.2 m '
and then comes the remark which I think must have been uttered
with a pride that was fully justifiable: "E questa e una nuova, e
singolare proprieta della min. curva " .
I now temporarily leave the work of Fagnano and turn to that
of John Landen. There is a short biography of Landen in the
D.N.B. He was born near Peterborough on 23rd January, 1719,
and brought up to the business of a surveyor. He acted as land-
agent to William Wentworth, Earl Fitzwilliam, from 1762 to 1788.
He published a small volume not very happily entitled Mathe-
matical Luc'Ubrations in 1755, about which I shall have something

264
12 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZETTE
to say in a moment. His most important work from my present
point of view is contained in some later papers published in Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc. He had been elected a Fellow of that Society in
1766. In addition to his work on elliptic arcs he investigated
certain dynamical problems, about which the D.N.B. merely states
that his results differed from those of Euler and d'Alembert. He
is not the only writer on dynamical problems whose results are
different from those of recognised authorities; a similar instance is
to be found in the Quarterly J. oj Math., 48, published as recently
as 1920. Landen was not to be convinced of the incorrectness of
his views and defended them in a volume of memoirs which he
prepared for press while suffering from a painful disease; a copy
of the volume was placed in his hands the day before his death,
which occurred on 15th January 1790.
The Mathe17UJ,tical Lucubrations contain one passage which is
relevant here. Landen gives the following definitions: "e denotes
one fourth of the periphery of an Ellipsis whose scmiaxes are J2
and 1. J denotes one fourth of the periphery of a Circle whose
radius is 1 'J. He then makes a number of extremely odd-looking

II
statements of which I quote two as typical:

II x-~dx
o J(1 -x2) e+J(e
2_
21),
x!dx _e-.J(e 2 -2f)
o(l-x2) t - J2 .

The clue to these theorems is found by taking Maclaurin's formula

(already quoted) in the form

e= I~'" ..1(2 - sin2 0) dO,

and making the substitutions
sin 0=..12 . sin<f>, cos 2 2<f>=y,
whence it follows that

e= ~U:Y-!(I- y)-idy+ I:y-i(l- y )-id y ]-

Landen had previously obtained a modification of the well-known
product given by Wallis for 7r in the form

I:y-i(l- y)-idyx J:y-l(l- y)-!dy=47r

by a very ingenious piece of analysis (I remark that the truth of
Landen's result is evident when the integrals are expressed in terms
of gamma functions), and it is an immediate consequence of the last
two equations that

J(e 2 - 21) =~ [I: y-i (1- y)-i dy - J: y-! (1 - y)-! dy]-

The whole set of Landen's formulae may now be obtained by quite
elementary transformations.

265
 THE MARQUIS AND THE LAND-AGENT 13
I take next a very beautiful theorem, first discovered in an
algebraical form by Fagnano, given a geometrical interpretation by
Euler, and then modified and developed by Landen. The investiga-
tion which 1 give is due to Legendre; it seems to me much more
elegant than the earlier work on the theorem. (I remark in
parenthesis that it has been my experience-I do not know to what
extent my impressions are shared with others-that the technique of
eighteenth century mathematicians in dealing with problems of pure
calculus was considerably superior to their technique in analytical
geometry, and that frequently the algebraical work which they
found necessary in solving problems of analytical geometry can
only be described as clumsy when compared with their other work.)
M

c A
To return to the theorem, a point P with eccentric angle }'II" - cp is
taken on an ellipse, M is the foot of the central perpendicular on the
tangent at P, p and w are the polar coordinates of M, Q is the point
with eccentric angle }'II" - w, and finally t and a are defined as the
length MP and the arc BP.
The coordinates of P being (x, y), the truth of the equations
dx. dy
da = sm w, da = - cos w,
. . dp
p=xcosw+ysmw, t=xsmw-ycos w= - dw
is then fairly evident. Hence
d(a-t) (dx)II+(dy)2 dt . dx dy dt
--a;;-= dadw - dw=sm w dw -cosw dw - dw = -po
It then follows that
[a- JIl " Jl"
t OJ = - OJ pdw,

a- t= J:"'Pdw= J:"'J(aIlCosllw+b2Sin2w) dw;

and, by Maclaurin's formula, the integral on the right is equal to
QA. Hence Arc BP-Arc QA=MP.
The coordinates of Q being called (x', y'), we have
a 2 cosw ,.
x= J(allcosllw+bllsin2w)' x =asm w ,
and hence

266
14 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZETTE
a result which may be expressed much more elegantly in the form
a
tan 4> tan 111=1)'
Landen's most important discovery was a consequence of taking
the corresponding formula for a hyperbola; the arc being now
measured from the end of the major axis and III being negative, we
have
t-8= J: J(a2cos2111-blsinlCal)dll/

JT (al - TI) )
/(
= 0'\ a2+bl-TI dT,
where T=J(a 2 -p2).
To deal with the last integral, Landen assumed an ellipse of
arbitrary semi-axes, a and [3, and took the point of it for which the
projection of the radius vector on the tangent is T. 1£ 0- is the arc
from the end of the minor axis to the point, and", the inclination of
the perpendicular on the tangent, then
d(o--T)
d", = - J(a 2 cos"'" + [31 sin"",).
Now T is expressible as a function of",; and, by taking T as indepen-
dent variable in place of "', Landen found, with the help of some
heavy algebra, that
dcr a"+[32-
2 dT = 1 + a2 _ f:J2
T2[ 2 (a2+,82) T' ]-*
1- (al _ (31)Z TI+ (a2 _ (32)2 •
He then chose a and [3 in terms of a and b, so that the expression in
[ ] factorized into
(1-::)(1- a2~bl)
the connection of which with the original integrand is evident. It
turns out that this choice makes
a, ,8= ±a+ JJa"+b l ).
It then follows that
dO" (al - TI) + (al + bZ- TZ)
2 dT =1 + 2J{(aZ _ TZ)(a2+b2_ TIn
d(t-8) 1 /(a"+b Z- TZ)
=1+ 2dT +2~ a2_TlI '
and hence, on integration,
8 = t + 2,. - 4u + 0' l'
where 0-1 is aD arc of an ellipse with semi-axes J(a Z +b 2) and b.
Pairs of ellifses whose semi-axes are related in the manner of the
two ellipses 0 this problem are said to be connected by Landen's
transformation. In the hands of i~Legendre, the transformation
became a most powerful method for computing elliptic integrals ;

267
 THE MARQUIS AND THE LAND-AGENT 15
and the transforma.tion made possible the theory of more general
transformations, leading up to the theories of modular equations,
complex multiplication, and singular moduli.
A few words are permissible about Legendre's applications. In
hiI! notation
r'" dcp r'"
F(cp, k) = Jo J(I- k 2 sin 2 cp) = Jo~(rp, k)'
dcp .
F(}1I', k)=K, F(rr, k)=2K; k'=J(I-k2 );
and the change of va.riable which effects Landen's transformation is
• .1. (I + k') sin cp cos cp
sm "f'1 = ~(cp, k) •
We then have
1 I+kl
F(cp, k)=I+k,F(cpl' k,.)=-2- F (CP1' k,.),
l-k' , 2Jk'
where ~=I+k" k,. =l+k"
and 80 K = (1 + ~}Kl'
Legendre then got the idea of repeating the transformation so as
to have a sequence or scale, kl' ~, ka, .. , , such that
l-k I k II
k"'+l= 1 +k:'= (I +k",')II'
80 that k"'+1 < k", II and, by induction, k", < k 2"'. Further
ao 11' ao
K=Kao II (1+k"')=2- II (l+k",),
",=1 m=1
and the convergence of the sequence k", to zero is most extra-
ordinarily rapid. Even if k is as large as 0·99990, then
K..=0·OO367 06, klj=O·OOOOO 34.
For some purposes it is better to follow Gauss and work with the
semi-axes of ellipses rather than with the eccentricity in the manner
of Legendre. If *
. (a+b) sin cpcoscp
sm CPl = J(all cos2 cp + b2 sin2 cp)'
dCPl dcp
then J{(a+b)2 cos 2 4>1 +4:a6 sin2 1>1)} = J(a ll cos 2 cp+ 62 sin2 4»'

J
i lf dcp Ji lr dcp
o J(a12cos 2 4>1 ~ b1 2 sin 2 q,1) = 0 J(a 2 cos 2 cp + 62 sin2 cp) ,
where ~=l(a+b), bJ=J(ab).
Repetitions of the operation give a double sequence (a"" b",), whose
members converge with similar rapidity to a common limit, called,
• Gauss actually made a different tra.nsformation, but one which led to the same
reeuit.

268
 16 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZETTE
for obvious reasons, the arithmetic-geometric mean of a and 6;
if it is denoted by JR(a, 6), then

Jo
ir dcp
J(a 2 cos 2 cp + 62 sin2 cf» =
!'II"
JR (a, 6) .
It is not irrelevant to quote here the investigation given in 1796 by
Ivory (better known for his work on gravitating ellipsoids) on the
perimeter of an ellipse, since it is connected with Maclaurin's formula
by Landen's transformation.
If x denotes (a- 6),(a+6), the perimeter is equal to
4 J;". / (a 2 cos 2 cp + b2 sin2 c/»d</>

=2(a+6) J:",J{I +2:~ ~ cos 2cf>+ (:~~)2} dc'.

=2(a+6) J:r ../{{1 +xe2i</»(1 +xe- 2#)}dp

=2(a+6)rl"'(I+!xe2i</>_1.1x2e4#_~x3e6i</>_ ..• )
Jo 2.4 2.4.6
x(1 +!xe-2i</>- ~:! x 2e- 4i</> - ~:!: !x3e- 6i</> - ••• ) de/>
I
='II"\a+ [1
6) + (1)2 42 (1. 1)2
3)2 8
! x + 2.4 x + 2.4.6 x + ... ,
] (1. 1.
and this is Ivory's series.
To return to Gauss, it would be absurd for me to stop short with
the description of the arithmetic-gepmetric mean without mention-
ing a much more noteworthy discovery of his, and one which is not
so generally known. Although Gauss published little during his
lifetime, he kept a fairly full diary for a number of years, and under
the date 8th January 1797 is to be found the concept of " invert-
ing " the integral which occurs in Fagnano's work on the lemniscate,
thirty years before the inversions due to Abel and Jacobi.
As samples of the definitions a.nd the simpler formulae discovered

Jl Jl
by Gauss I quote :
dx dx
cf>= cJ(I-x4)' !li1= 0.J(I-x4) 1·31102878 ... ,
x = coslemn cp = cl cp,
sin1emn cp=slcp=cl(!li1- p),
sl2cf>= 1- c12 cp •
l+c12 4>
The connection between the Gaussian functions and the Jacobian
functions is expressed by the formulae
slc~= )2 Sd (CP../2, -:fi), clcp=cn(cp../2, )2)-
It is well known that the reluctance of Gauss to publish his dis-
coveries was due to the rejection of his Disquisitione8 arithmeticae
by the French Academy, the rejection being accompanied by a

269
 THE MARQUIS AND THE LAND-AGENT 17
sneer which, as Rouse Ball has said, would have been unjustifiable
even if the work had been as worthless as the referees believed. It
is the irony of fate that, but for this sneer, the Trailt deB jonction8
eUiptiqueB, the work of a Frenchman, might have assumed a different
and vastly more valuable form, and Legendre might have been
spared the pain of realizing that many years of his life had been
practically Wl1.sted, had the method of inversion come to be published
when Legendre's age was fifty instead of seventy-six.
I have now completed my tale of the work of the eighteenth
century; but, just as I began by quoting an empirical formula of a
hundred years earlier, I shall end by quoting some empirical for-
mulae of a hundred years later; the first of these formulae for the
perimeter of an ellipse is due to Peano (1887), namely
7r[a+b+ ·HJa- Jb)2];
it contrasts rather curiously with the type of work for which he is
best known. It is not to be expected that I should so restrain
myself as to refrain from mentioning the Indian mathematician
Ramanujan, and the last two formulae are due to him (1914) :
7r[3 (a+ b) - J{(a + 3b) (3a+ b))],

7r [a+b+ lO(a+b) :j(~2bl214ab+b2J.

I have proved that in these formulae the errors (which are zero
in the limiting case of the circle) are in defect and that they increase
when the eccentricity is increased, though they are extremely small
even in the extreme case of the parabola. Ramanujan has mentioned
that, for small values of the eccentricity (, the errors are about
7raE12/1O 48576, 37raE20/6 87194 76736.
My final task, and a very pleasant one, is to express most cordially
my gratitude to Professor Neville for having made the extremely
happy suggestion of an exhibition of books on elliptic functions 80
as to give some indication of the growth of the subject during the
last century. Many of the books come from his own library; and
my appreciation of his idea and of the energy with which he has
carried out the task of making the exhibition complete will be
shared by all who see the collection. G. N. W.
[The exhibition consisted of 97 volumes, not counting a. few duplica.tes, and
included all but a very few of the existing books on elliptic functions. For
this measure of completeness members of the Association are indebted to Dr.
J. R. Airey, Dr. L. J. Comrie, and Mr. F. Robbins, and to the Libraries of
the University of Birmingham; University College, London; University
College, Bangor; and St. John's and Trinity Colleges, Cambridge, as well as
to their own President and Librarian and the Editor of the Gazette. The
Librarian wishes to record his appreciation of the courtesy and helpfulness
with which his requests were met, not only by those who actually lent books,
but also by others in commercial as well as in academic circles who found
they had nothing to add by the time they were approached.
Before the collection is dispersed, the most careful bibliographical record
will be compiled, and it is hoped that this will become of permanent value to
librarians and scholars.]
B

270
1939] QUESTIONS, DISCUSSIONS, AND NOTES 499

THE BEST (1) FORMULA FOR COMPUTING 71" TO A THOUSAND PLACES

J. P. BALLANTINE, University of Washington
In the December 1938 issue of this MONTHLY, D. H. Lehmer gave a very
comprehensive list of formulas for computing 71". He rightly chose formulas (23)
and (32) as the best self checking pair, with (18) a good substitute for (23).
I shall give some suggestions on the use of formula (32) which will strengthen
Lehmer's conclusion.
If [18], which means arc tan 1/18, and [57] are evaluated by the Gregory
series, their measures 0.7966 and 0.5695, are correctly stated by Lehmer. How-
ever, Euler also developed a formula for [x], namely
1
arc cot x = x(- + - 2 2 + -2·4- + 2·4·6
+ ... )
S 3S J. 5S3 J. 5· 7S 4 '

where S=x 2 +1. Lehmer's remarks about the best way of computing the terms
of the Gregory series apply equally well to the Euler series, because
2nu,,(x)
u,,+I(x) = (2n + l)S '
and it is apparent that for machine computation one series is about as good as
the other. The Euler series has the slight advantage that all the terms are posi-
tive.
Now, to return to formula (32), we have seen that nothing can be lost by
evaluating [18] and [57] by the Euler series instead of the Gregory series. In
fact there is a great saving, due to a lucky; accident, for we have
1 2 2·4 )
18 = 18 ( -
[] 325 +- -
3.325 2 + 3.5.3253
+ ... '

[57] = 57(_1_+ 2 + 2·4 + ... )

3250 3.3250 2 3·5·3250' .-
Thus the successive terms of the series for [57] can be obtained from those of
[18] by shifting the decimal point. In fact, they do not even have to be copied,
because they can be added on the bias.

271
500 QUESTIONS, DISCUSSIONS, AND NOTES [October,

Thus, the measure of formula (32) is reduced from 1.7866 to 1.2171 by the
practical elimination of [57]. This leaves formulas (32) and (23) about tied for
first place, and certainly making the best self checking pair, with Machin's
formula (18) tlose behind. Moreover, all the other low measure formulas men-
tioned in Lehmer's paper are found on closer examination to have higher meas-
ure.
Before once and for all eliminating formula (18), one important feature
should be mentioned. Suppose if is desired to compute both 7r' and 111 = logloe
=.43429· .. to 1000 decimal pl~es. Then formula (18) is better than (23),
because
3 [1 1 1 ]
log 2' == 2 5 +
3.5 3 5.5' + + . .. ,
and the terms of the series are the same as of [5]. Furthermore, log 120/119 will
be useful to find log 17.
For the readers convenience, I restate formulas (18), (23), and (32) dis-
cussed here, with revised measures:
(18) [1] = 4[5J - [239] (1.3511).
(23) [1] == 8[10] - [239] - 4[515] (1.2892).
(32) [1] = 12[18] + 8[57] - 5[239] (1.2171).
In summary, the best formulas now known for computing 7r' to a large num-
ber of places are:
[18] (1 2 2·4 )
18 == 325 + 3.325 + 3.5.325 + . .. ,
2 3

157J
57'"
(13250 + 3·3250'
2 2·4
+ 3.5.3250 3
)
+ . .. ,

For checking, we may use

1 1 1
110J == 10 - 3.10' + 5.10' ... ,

1 1 1
l515J = 515 - 3.515 1 + 5.515' ... ,

11' == 321101- 41239j - 1615151.

272
1939] QUESTIONS, DISCUSSIONS, AND NOTES 501

Editorial Note. The following observation is due to Dr. J. B. Rosser. The

labor of computing the reciprocals of the first thousand integers can be very
much expedited by the use of either the table given in vol. ii, pp. 412--434, of
Gauss's Werke or the much more comprehensive table given in A Table of the
Circles arising from the Division of a Unit or any other Whole Number by all the
Integers from 1 to 1024, by Henry Goodwyn, London, 1823. (A description of
this table is given by Glaisher, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society, 18?8, 3, p. 185.) For this reason, the measure of [10] should probably
be taken as much less than 0.5; possibly 0.2 or O.1.-R. J. W.

273
 i~LGORITHH FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ARCTA~O~"T RELATIO!iS. 1;3

AN ALGORITmI FOR THE CONSTRUcrION OF ARCT.ANGENT

RELATIONS

R. H. BIRCH"'.

An important source of solutions for the quadratme of the circle has

been tho uoe of Gregory's series
arctan:r;-l = :r;-l_ ?,Z""3+!X-5_ •..
in certain identitioll, for inRtanco in thoso oXpl'OSfling ~ .. R8 II. KUIIl of n.rc-
tangents, of which tho following, due to Euler, is typical:
t<>'=" arctan k-arctan ":b+arctan 1I1g.
Gausst spent a lot of effort on this topic and among his unfinished work
wore large tablcs const.Jucted to aid him in his search for such identities.
He docs not apllCar to have developed any systematic UlethlKl for their
discovery except to exprcas arctangents of largo numbers in terms of thoec
of smaller one8 and to eliminate tho latter. One of tho simplest of his
identitics is:
tor = 12 arctany\+ 8 arctan l,.-;; arctan :%ill.
'l'he question of the economy and efficiency of these relation", in lIll'
computation of.. has boon discU88Cd by D. H. Lehmer and others:t:. Lehmer
has given a list of some 33 such relations with numerical .. measures" of
their efficicncy. It is clear that identities exprel!l!ing i". as a sum of
multiples of arctangents of powers of 10-1 "ill be ,·ery convenient. 'l'he
objoot of this note is to show how such relations can be obtained at. will.
Tho idea of using complex !lumbers goes back to Gauss and has 31so been
exploited by Stt/trmer§.
We uoo tho fact that from tho identity
a+bi = (c+di) X {(a +bi)(c-di)} X (c'+fl1i1
there follows tho relation
Brg (a+6i) = arg (c+di)+arg {(a + bi)(c-dilJ ;

• Roeei"ed 1I111Iay, IN6; ..,.u 20 .TUD". 11146.

t Ga...... Werke II (1863). TtJ/d .ur Cgclol«Ani•• ~;6-I9ii. 5::3-ii;!;i.
: D. H. Lohm..r. A"...riec&,. Malh • •Yonlioly. 45 (19311). 657-66-1; G. W. W"'Deb, Jnr••
Am<rican MalA. Monlllly. 45 (1938). IOS-I09; .T. P. B..u..nline. Amtri<vn MGlII. MOItlIoly.
4G (1937). 4\w-GOI.
§ C. St.nnor. An:hi~.lur .YalI•• ug .\"t>luI'I:iJ.""I:ab. HI No.3 (1896). 1-!lG.

274
174 AUlOlUTHM J'OR THE CONSTnUCTION OF ARCTANGlmT RELATIONS.

and by repeated ueo of this relation, beginning with II = b = 1, with c

always a 8uitable powor of 10 and d = ±1, we obtain results ofthe fonn
desired. Tho details of the first eleven steps are 8B fonows :
arg (1+,) = arg (10+')+a1'8 (1l+9i)
= 2arg (10+i)+a.rg (1l9+71n)
= 3arg (10+i)+e.rg (1269+67H)
= hrl (10+i)+arg (I330I+M4li)
= Gerg (10+i)+arg (I,390CH+40I049j)
= 6arg (IO+i)+arg (14,315G9+2,71439i)
= 7 arg (IO+i)+arg (145,87029+ 12,8283H)
= 8ars (IO+i)+"rg (147I,53I21-17,58711n)
= 8ars (IO+i)+arg (IOO-i>+arg (1,407170,70819-287,18771n)
= 8a1'8 (IO+i)+arg (100-i)+arg (lOOO-i)
+arg (1471,70995,37779-1,40017,08I8H)
= 8arg (10+i)+arg (100-i)+2arg (lOOO-i)
+ arg (14,71711,35394,87181 +71,G3913,1S6779t).
'.rhus wo have
tn- = 8 arctan -h-arctan yAu-2 arctan yJIil:r+a.rctan If,
where fr = 0·00004,86094,88189 ....
We can now use GregOry'8 aeries, remombering that the absolute value
of the remainder at any 8tage is IOBB than that of the firat term omitted;
and we obtain estimates for r.
Replacing the arctan f by If, we find,
with an error not greater than 0'4 X 10-13, that
i" = 0'78639,81633,97487, ....

Tho correct value i.e

tn- = 0'78639,81033,97448, ....

33 Woodland Way,
Morden, Surrey.

275
 A SIMPLE PROOF THAT r IS IRRATIONAL
IVAN NIVEN

Let 1r-a/b, the quotient of positive integers. We define the poly-

nomials
~"(a - bx)"
f(x) = ,
n!
F(x) = j(~) - j<2)(S) + j<t)(x) - ... + (- l)"j<I..)(x),
the positive integer n being specified later. Since nlf(x) has integral
coefficients and terms in x of degree not less than n, f(x) and its
derivatives fW(x) have integral values for x=O; also for x=r=a/b,'
since f(x) =f(a/b-x). By elementary calculus we have
d
- {rex) sin x - F(s) cos xl
dx
= F"(s) sin s + FCx) sin x == f(s) sin x·
and

(1) 1: ft}(x) sin xdx -[F'(x) sin x - F(s) cos x]: = F(r) + F(O).
Now FCr) +F(O) is an integer, sincefW(r) andfW(O) are integers. But
for O<x<r,
.,."a"
o < j(x) sin x < --,
n!
so that the integral in (1) is posilifJe, but arbitrarily small for n suffi-
ciently large. Thus (1) is false, and .so is our assumption that 11' is
rational.
PuRDtTB UNIVERSITY

Received by the editors November 26, 1946, and, in revised form, December 20,
1946.

S09

276
 AN ENIAC DETERMINATION OF 7r AND e

An ENIAC Determination of 11" and e to more

than 2000 Decimal Places
Early in June, 1949, Professor JOHN VON NEUMANN expressed an interest
in the possibility that the ENIAC might sometime be employed to deter-
mine the value of 7r and e to many decimal places with a view toward obtain-
ing a statistical measure of the randomness of distribution of the digits,
suggesting the employment of one of the formulas:
r/4 = 4 arctan 1/5 - arctan 1/239
7r/4 = 8 arctan 1/10 - 4 arctan 1/515 - arctan 1/239
7r/4 = 3 arctan 1/4 + arctan 1/20 + arctan 1/1985

arctan x =
.. (-1)"(2n + 1)-I 2"+I .
in conjunction with the GREGORY series

:E X
....0

Further interest in the project on 7r was expressed in July by Dr. NICHOLAS

METROPOLIS who offered suggestions about programming the calculation.
Since the possibility of official time was too remote for consideration,
permission was obtained to execute these projects during two summer holi-
day week ends when the EN lAC would otherwise stand idle, and the planning
and programming of the projects was undertaken on an extra-curricular
basis by the author.
The computation of e was completed over the July 4th week end as a

277
 12 AN ENIAC DETERMINATION OF 11" AND e

practice job to gain experience and technique for the more difficult and
longer project on 7r. The reciprocal factorial series was employed:
.,
e =L (n!)-I.

The first of the above-mentioned formulas was employed for the compu-
tation of 7r; its advantage over the others wiII be explained later. The compu-
tation of 7r was completed over the Labor-Day week end through the com-
bined efforts of four members of the ENIAC staff: CLYDE V. HAUFF (who
checked the programming for 7r), Miss HOME S. McALLISTER (who checked
the programming for e), W. BARKLEY FRITZ and the author, taking turns
on eight-hour shifts to keep the ENIAC operating continuously throughout
the week end.
While the programming for e is valid for a little over 2500 decimal places
and, with minor alterations, can be extended to much greater range, and
while the programming for 7r is valid for around 7000 decimal places, the
arbitrarily selected limit of 2000+ was a convenient stopping point for e
and about all that could be anticipated for a week end's operation for 11".
While the details of the programming for each project were completely
different, the general pattern of procedure was roughly the same, and both
projects will be discussed together. In both projects the ENIAC'S divider
was employed to determine a chosen number i of digits of each successive
term of the series being computed, the remainder after each division being
stored in the EN lAC'S memory and the digits of each term being added to
(or subtracted from) the cumulative total. After performing this operation
for as many successive terms as practicable, the remainders for these terms
were printed on an I.B.M. card (the standard input-output vehicle for the
ENlAC), and the process was repeated, continuing through some term
beyond which the digits of and remainders for all further terms would be
zeros. At this point was print(d the cumulative total of the digits of the
individual terms, which yielded (after adjustment for carry-over) the actual
digits of the series being determined.
The cards bearing the remainders then were fed into the ENIAC reader,
and the entire process was repeated for the next i digits, the ENlAC reading
each remainder in turn and placing it before the digits of the appropriate
term. Each deck of cards bearing remainders was then employed to deter-
mine the "ne."(t" i digits and the "next" deck of "remainder" cards con-
tinuing through the first stopping point beyond the 2000th decimal place.
The cards bearing the cumulative totals of sets of i digits of the terms were
then adjusted for carry-over into each preceding set of i digits. In the case
of e this yielded the final result; in the case of 7r all the above described
operations were performed once for each inverse tangent series, so that each
set of "cumulative total" cards, adjusted for carry-over, yielded the digits
of one of the series, the final result being determined by the combination
of these series in appropriate manner.
The number of places i chosen for each interval of computation, the
maximum magnitude of each remainder, the amount of memory space
available, and the details of divider operation (the number of places to
which division can be performed to yield a positive remainder, and the
necessary conditions of relative and absolute positioning of numerator and

278
 AN ENIAC DETERMINATION OF 7r AND e 13

denominator) all were interrelated, and where opportunity for selection

existed, that selection was made which provided maximum efficiency of
computation. In the case of 7r there was imposed the additional requirement
that identical programming apply for all series employed, and for this
reason the formula:
7r/4 = 4 arctan 1/5 - arctan 1/239
was superior to the other two.
In order to insure absolute digital accuracy, the programming was ar-
ranged so that one half applied to computation and the other half to check-
ing. Before any deck of "remainder" cards was employed to determine the
next i digits, the cards were reversed and employed in the checking sequence
to confirm each division by a multiplication and each addition by a sub-
traction and vice versa, reproducing the previous deck of "remainder" cards
and insuring that the cumulative total reduced to zero. (In the case of e this
was a simple inversion of the computation; in the case of 'K the factor
(2n + 1)-1 in each term made it a more complicated affair.) After the cor-
rectness of each deck was established through this checking, the "remainder"
cards were rereversed, and the computation proceeded for the next i digits.
Since the determination of each i digits was not begun until the deter-
mination of the previous i digits had been confirmed by checking, the ENIAC
stood idle during the reversals and rereversals and comparisons of the decks
in the computation of e; in the case of 7r, however, the ENIAC was never
idle, for operation on each series was alternated with operation on the other,
card-handling on either being accomplished while the other was being
operated upon by the EN lAC. In the case of e, insurance against any undis-
covered accidental misalignment of cards was provided by rerunning the
entire computation without checking, i.e., without card reversals, confirming
the original results; in the case of 7r, the same assurance was provided by a
programmed check upon the identification numbers of each successive card
in both computation and checking.
In the case of e, there was printed (in addition to each "remainder" card)
a card containing the current i digits of (n!)-I for n = 20K; K = 1,2,3 ... ;
in the case of 'K only remainder and final total cards were printed.
The ENIAC determinations of both 'K and e confirm the 808-place
determination of e published in MTAC, v. 2,1946, p. 69, and the 808-place
determination of 7r published in MTAC, v. 2, 1947, p. 245, as corrected in
MTAC, v. 3,1948, p. 18-19.
Only the following minor observation is offered at this time concerning
the randomness of the distribution of the digits. Publication on this subject
will, however, be forthcoming soon. A preliminary investigation has indi-
cated that the digits of e deviate significantly from randomness (in the sense
of staying closer to their expectation values than a random sequence of this
length normally would) while for 7r no significant deviations have so far
been detected.
The programming was checked and the first few hundred decimal places
of each constant were determined on a Sunday before each holiday week end
mentioned above, the principal effort being made on the longer week end.
The actual required machine running time for both computation and check-
ing in the case of e was around 11 hours, though card-handling time approxi-

279
14 AN ENIAC DETERMINATION OF 11" AND e

mately doubled this, and the recomputation without checking added about
6 hours more; actual required machine running time (including card-handling
time) for 'lI" was around 70 hours.
The following values of 11" and e have been rounded off to 2035D and
2010D respectively.
r =- 3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 41971 69399 37510
58209 74944 59230 78164 06286 20899 86280 34825 34211 70679
82148 08651 32823 06647 09384 46095 50582 23172 53594 08128
48111 74502 84102 70193 85211 05559 64462 29489 54930 38196
44288 10975 66593 34461 28475 64823 37867 83165 27120 19091
!5648 56692 34603 48610 45432 66482 13393 60726 02491 41273
72458 70066 06315 58817 48815 20920 96282 92540 91715 36436
78925 90360 01133 05305 48820 46652 13841 46951 94151 16094
33057 27036 57595 91953 09218 61173 81932 61179 31051 18548
07446 23799 62749 56735 18857 52724 89122 79381 83011 94912
98336 73362 44065 66430 86021 39494 63952 24737 19070 21798
60943 70277 05392 17176 29317 67523 84674 81846 76694 05132
00056 81271 45263 56082 77857 71342 75778 96091 73637 17872
14684 40901 22495 34301 46549 58537 10507 92279 68925 89235
42019 95611 21290 21960 86403 44181 59813 62977 47713 09960
51870 72113 49999 99837 29780 49951 05973 17328 16096 31859
50244 59455 34690 83026 42522 30825 33446 85035 26193 11881
71010 00313 78387 52886 58753 32083 81420 61717 76691 47303
59825 34904 28755 46873 11595 62863 88235 37875 93751 95778
18577 80532 17122 68066 13001 92787 66111 95909 21642 01989
38095 25720 10654 85863 27886 59361 53381 82796 82303 01952
03530 18529 68995 77362 25994 13891 24972 17752 83479 13151
55748 57242 45415 06959 50829 53311 68617 27855 88907 50983
81754 63746 49393 19255 06040 09277 01671 13900 98488 24012
85836 16035 63707 66010 47101 81942 95559 61989 46767 83744
94482 55379 77472 68471 04047 53464 62080 46684 25906 94912
93313 67702 89891 52104 75216 20569 66024 05803 81501 93511
25338 24300 35587 64024 74964 73263 91419 92726 04269 92279
67823 54781 63600 93417 21641 21992 45863 15030 28618 29745
55706 74983 85054 94588 58692 69956 90927 21079 75093 02955
32116 53449 87202 75596 02364 80665 49911 98818 34797 75356
63698 07426 54252 78625 51818 41757 46728 90977 77279 38000
81647 06001 61452 49192 17321 72147 72350 14141 19735 68548
16136 11573 52552 13347 57418 49468 43852 33239 07394 14333
45477 62416 86251 89835 69485 56209 92192 22184 27255 02542
56887 67179 04946 01653 46680 49886 27232 79178 60857 84383
82796 79766 81454 10095 38837 86360 95068 00642 25125 20511
73929 84896 08412 84886 26945 60424 19652 85022 21066 11863
06744 27862 20391 94945 04712 37137 86960 95636 43719 17287
46776 46575 73962 41389 08658 32645 99581 33904 78027 59009
94657 64078 95126 94683 98352 59570 98258
e ... 2.71828 18284 59045 23536 02874 71352 66249 77572 47093 69995
95749 66967 62772 40766 30353 54759 45713 82178 52516 64274
27466 39193 20030 59921 81741 35966 29043 57290 03342 95260
59563 07381 32328 62794 34907 63233 82988 07531 95251 01901
15738 34187 93070 21540 89149 93488 41675 09244 76146 06680
82264 80016 84774 11853 74234 54424 37107 53907 77449 92069
55170 27618 38606 26133 13845 83000 75204 49338 26560 29760

280
 RECENT MATHEMATICAL TABLES 15

67371 13200 70932 87091 27443 74704 72306 96977 20931 01416
92836 81902 55151 08657 46377 21112 52389 78442 50569 53696
77078 54499 69967 94686 44549 05987 93163 68892 30098 79312
77361 78215 42499 92295 76351 48220 82698 95193 66803 31825
28869 39849 64651 05820 93923 98294 88793 32036 25094 43117
30123 81970 68416 14039 70198 37679 32068 32823 76464 80429
53118 02328 78250 98194 55815 30175 67173 61332 06981 12509
96181 88159 30416 90351 59888 85193 45807 27386 67385 89422
87922 84998 92086 80582 57492 79610 48419 84443 63463 24496
84875 60233 62482 70419 78623 20900 21609 90235 30436 99418
49146 31409 34317 38143 64054 62531 52096 18369 08887 07016
76839 64243 78140 59271 45635 49061 30310 72085 10383 75051
01157 47704 17189 86106 87396 96552 12671 54688 95703 50354
02123 40784 98193 34321 06817 01210 05627 88023 51930 33224
74501 58539 04730 41995 77770 93503 66041 69973 29725 08868
76966 40355 57071 62268 44716 25607 98826 51787 13419 51246
65201 03059 21236 67719 43252 78675 39855 89448 96970 96409
75459 18569 56380 23637 01621 12047 74272 28364 89613 42251
64450 78182 44235 29486 36372 14174 02388 93441 24796 35743
70263 75529 44483 37998 01612 54922 78509 25778 25620 92622
64832 62779 33386 56648 16277 25164 01910 59004 91644 99828
93150 56604 72580 27786 31864 15519 56532 44258 69829 46959
30801 91529 87211 72556 34754 63964 47910 14590 40905 86298
49679 12874 06870 50489 58586 71747 98546 67757 57320 56812
88459 20541 33405 39220 00113 78630 09455 60688 16674 00169
84205 58040 33637 95376 45203 04024 32256 61352 78369 51177
88386 38744 39662 53224 98506 54995 88623 42818 99707 73327
61717 83928 03494 65014 34558 89707 19425 86398 77275 47109
62953 74152 11151 36835 06275 26023 26484 72870 39207 64310
05958 41166 12054 52970 30236 47254 92966 69381 15137 32275
36450 98889 03136 02057 24817 65851 18063 03644 28123 14965
50704 75102 54465 01172 72115 55194 86685 08003 68532 28183
15219 60037 35625 27944 95158 28418 82947 87610 85263 98139
55990 06738
Values of the auxiliary numbers arccot 5 and arccot 239 to 2035D are in the
possession of the author and also have been deposited in the library of Brown
University and the UMT FILE 1 of MTA C.
GEORGE W. REITWIESNER
BalIistic Research Laboratories
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland
1 See MTAC, v. 4, p. 29.

281
 THE CHRONOLOGY OF PI
Herman C. Schepler

3000 B. C. The Pyramids (Egypt). 3} (3.142857 .•••• ). The sides and

heights of the pyramids of Oteops and of Sneferu at Gizeh are in the
ratio 11:7, which makes the ratio of half the perimeter to the height
3}. In 1853, H. C. Agnew, Esq., London, published a letter from
Alexandria on evidence of ~his ratio found in the pyramids being
connected or related to the problem of the quadrature of the circle.
There is considerable disagreement in the dates given for the
construction of the pyramids, particularly that of the Great Pyramid' .
Dates for pyramids as taken from various sources range from 1800 B. C.
to 4750 B. C. [7], 32S; [11],43; Encyclopedia Britannicaj Americana
Rncyclopediaj Chronol;gy of World Events.
2000 B. C. Rhind Papyrus (Egypt). (~6)2 (3.1604 •.••• ). Also called
the Ahmes Papyrus after Ahmes, its writer. The rule given for con-
structing a square having the same area as a given circle is: Cut
~ off the circle's diaaeter and construct a square on the reaainder.
The fltind Papyrus is the oldest mathematical document in existence
and was founded on an older work believed by Birch to date back as
far as 3400 B. C. A. Henry Rhind, an Egyptologist, brought the .8ou-
script to England in the middle of the 19th century. It was deciphered
by Eisenlohr in IS77 and is part of the Rhind collection of the British
Museum.
Dates from various sources for the origin of the fltind Papyrus
range from c. 1500 B. C. to c. 2000 B. C. [5], 9; [ll], 261; liS],
14; [20], 3, 188; [241, 392.
950 B. C. Bible (Hebrews). 3. I Kings vii 23: "And he made a .alten
sea, ten cubits from the one brim to the other; it was round all
about ••••• and a line of thirty cubits did compass it round about".
See also, II Chron. iv 2. The first book of Kin~s which deals with
Samuel quite some time before Solomon, was probably writteD abOGt
932-S00 B. C. 2
The Babylonians, Hindus, and Chinese used the value 3. It is
probable that the Hebrews adopted this value from the Searite$ (!W>11ca-
ian predecessors). No definite statement for the value of TT has yet
been found on the Babylonian cylinders (1600 to 2300 B. C. }.
The value 3 is still more plainly given in the Talmud. where we
read that "that which measures three lengths in circumfereD~. is

'The Pyra.id of Cheopa, called Khufu.

2Fro • persoaal co •• uaicatioas with Brother. Re,iaald •• d Ed.~ •••
Uaiversity of Notre Da.e.

282
166 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE (Jan.-Feb.
one length across. The Talmud was not put into final form until
about 200 A. D., but it was patterned after the Old Testament, and
hence the value 3 was retained. 2 [5], 88; [ll], 58, 261; [15], 50.
[18], 13; [22], 105; [24]. 391. ·
460 B. C. Hippocrates of Chios (Greece) attempted to square the
circle. He actually squared the lune and was the first to square a
curvilinear figure in attempting to square the circle. That he really
conmitted the fallacy of applying his lune-quadratures to the quadrature
of the circle is not generally accepted. Euclid's Eleaents was probably
founded on the first elementary textbook on geometry, written by
Hippocrates. [5], 22; [8], 310; [19], 41, 44; l20] , 258; [241, 393.
440 B. C. Anaxagoras (499-428 B. C.) (Athens, Greece), a contemporary
of Hippocrates, "drew the quadrature of the circle" while in prison.
No solution was offered, however. This is the first mention found of
the quadrature problem as such. Anaxagoras was the last and most
famous philospher of the Ionian School. He was accused of heresy
because of his hypothesis that the moon shone only by reflected light
and that it was made of some earthly substance, while the sun, on
the contrary was a red hot stone that emitted its own light; born
in Asia Minor near Smyrna, he spent the greater part of his life in
Athens. [5], 17; [8], 299; [20], 256, 258; [22], 105.
430 B. C. Antiphon (born 480 B. C.) of Rhaumus (Attica, Greece)
thought he had squared the circle. By inscribing polygons of ever
increasing numbers of sides, he pioneered the invention of the modern
calculus by approximately exhausting the difference between the polygon
and the circle, thus approximating the area of the circle. Bryson of
Heraclea, a contemporary of Antiphon, advanced the problem of the
quadrature considerably by circumscribing polygons at the same time
that he inscribed them. He erred, however, in assuming that the area
of a circle was the arithmetical mean between circumscribed and in-
scribed polygons. [5], 23; [19], 41; [20], 259; [241 393.
425 B. C. Hippias (born 460 B. C.) of Elis, (Greece), mathematician,
astronomer, natural scientist, and a contemporary of Socrates; invented
the quadratrix which he used to trisect the angle. Dinostratus used
this curve in 350 B. C. to square the circle. See 350 B. C., Dino-
stratus, [5], 20, 42, 50; [aJ, 310; [20], 259; [24], 392.
414 B. C. Aristophanes (c.448-c.385 B. C.) (Athens, Greece), the
comic poet, in his play, The Birds, refers to a ge~ter who announces
his intention to make a square circle. Since that time the term
"circle-squarers" has been applied to those who attempt the imposs-
ible. The Greeks had a special word ~e~p~ywvLSeLv, which meant "to
busy oneself with the quadrature." (5], 17; (18], 12; [20], 257;
[22], 99.
390 B. C. (?) Plato (429-348 B. C.) (Athens, Greece} , called solutions

283
1950) THE CHRONOLOGY OF PI 167
of the famous geometrical problems mechanical and not geometrical when
they required the use of instruments other than ruler and compasses.
He solved the duplication mechanically: founded the Academy and con-
tributed to the philosophy of mathematics. [5], 27: (S], 316.
370 B. C. Eudoxus (c.40S B. C.-c.355 B. C.) of Cnidus, (Greece)
carried Antiphon's method of exhaustion further by considering both
the inscribed and circumscribed polygons. He was a pupil of Archytas
and Plato. In his astronomical observations he discovered that the
solar year is longer than 365 days by six hours. Vitruvius credits
him with inventing the sun-dial. See 430 B. C., Antiphon. (S], 306;
[20]. 259.
350 B. C. Dinostratus (Greece) used the quadratrix invented by
nippias to square the circle. See 425 B. C., Hippias. Menaechmus
(c. 350 B. C.), brother of Dinostratus and a friend of Plato, invented
~he conic sections with which he solved the duplication. [5], 20,
27, 2S2: [S], 305; [24J, 392.
300 B. C. Euclid (Greece) offerel no solution to the quadrature.
He was the most successful textbook writer the world has ever known.
Over 1000 editions of his geometry have appeared in print since 1482
and manuscripts of this work had dominated the teaching of the subject
for ISoo years preceding that time. He was a pupil of Plato and studied
in Athens; was a Greek mathematician and founder of the Alexandrian
School. See c. 470 B. C., Hippocrates. [1], 340: (IS], 21: [20], 26S.
240 B. C. Archimedes (27S-212 B. C.) (Greece) gave between 3~~
(3.14OS ..••• ) and 3i (3.1428 ••••• ). His Measure.ent of the Circle
contains but three propositions. (1) He proves that the area of a
circle· nr 2 ; (2) shows that nr 2:(2r)2::l1:l4, verT nearly: (3) shows
that the true value of " lies between 3~~ and 37 , For the latter,
inscribed and circumscribed polygons of 96 sides each were used. He
also gave the quadrature of the parabola: was an engineer, architect,
physicist, and one of the world's greatest mathematicians. 3 [8], 299;
[11], 261; [18], 14; [19], 100; [20], 11, 188.
213 B. C. Chang T'sang (Olina). 3. Given in the Chiu-chang Saan-shu
(Arithaetic in Nine sections), commonly called the Chiu-chang, the
most celebrated Chinese text on arithmetic. Neither its authorship
nor the time of its composition is known definitely. By an edict of the
despotic emperor Shih Hoang-ti of the Ch'in Dynasty "all books were
burned and all scholars were buried in the year 213 B. C." After the
death of this emperor, learning revived again. Chang T'sang, a scholar,

3The achievements of Archimedes were indeed remarkable since neither

our present numerals nor the Arabic numerals, nor any syatem eguivaleat
to our decimal system was known in his time. Try multiplying XCVII aad
MDLVIII in the Ro.an numeral aystem without using Arabic or common
aumerals. Thia will indicate the difficulties under which Archimedes
labored.

284
168 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE (Jan. -Feb.

found some old writings upon wh1ch he based the famous treatise, the
Chiu-chang. [5],71.
100 B. C. Heron (Hero) of Alexandria, sometimes used the value
3f (3.1428 •.... ) for purposes of practical measurement, and sometimes
even the rougher approximation 3. He contributed to mensuration and was
called the father of surveying. This date is also given as c. 50 A. D.
Heath, however, believes that Hero may have lived considerably later.
perhaps even in the fourth century A. D. [1], 340; [8], 309; [20],
232; [22], 108.
20 B. C. Vitruvius (Marcus Vitruvius Pollio> (Rome, Italy) 31
(3.125). Roman archi\ect and engineer; first described the direc~
measurement of distances by the revolution of a wheel. [8], 321; [20].
188, 238.
25 A. D. Liu Hsiao (China). 3.16. He was of the Imperial House of
the Han Dynasty and one of the most prominent •• circle squarers" of
his day. His son, Liu Hsing, devised a new calendar. [Ill, 261.
97 A. D. Frontius (Sextus Julius Frontinus) (c. 40-103 A. D.>
f
(Rome, Italy) used 3 (3.1428 ..... > for water pipes and areaa. He
said: "The square digit is greater than the circle digit by fLth of
itself; the circle digit is less than the square digit by ~". A
Roman author, soldier, surveyor, and engineer; was successivelY city
preator of Rome, governor of Britain, and superintendent of the
aqueducts at Rome. [8], 306; [15], 50.
125 A. D. Ch'ang Hong (78-139 A. D.) (China). 110 (3.162 ••••• ).
This was one of the earliest uses of this approximation. HOng waa
chief astrologer and minister under the emperor An·ti'; ConAtructed
an armillary sphere and wrote on astronomy and geometry. [23], 553;
[24], 394.
150 A. D. Prolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus) (87-165 A. D.) (Alexandria)
311~ (3.141666 .•••• ). This value is found in his astronomical treatise,
the Synta%is (Alaagest in Arabian 4 ) in 13 books. The result was ex-
pressed in sexagesimal system as 3°8'30., i.e., 3 + JL + ~, which
60 60
reduces to 311 io' This is the most notable result after Archimedes.
Ptolemy was a geographer, mathematician, and one of the greatest of
Greek astronomers. [1], 340; [5], 46; [8], 317; [18], 15; [20], 188:
[241, 394.
250 A. D. Wang Fan (Wang Hm) (229-267 A. D.) (Olina) 14~2 (3.155 .•• ).
Chinese astronomer. [11], 261; [23], 553; [241, 394.
263. Liu Hui (Olina). !ll (3.1400). Calculated the perimeters of
so
4 A1a.,e.t ia the uaua1 DomeDclature for the S,ntGsi., derived from aa
Arabic term aigDifyiag "the greateat"

285
 1950) THE CHRONOLOGY OF PI 169

regular inscribed polygons up to 192 sides in the same way as Antiphon

(430 B. C.); made a commentary on Chang T'sang's Chiu-chang (See
213 B. C., Chang T'sang); contemporary writer of Wang Fan and best-
known Chinese mathematician of the 3rd century. [5],71; [24], 394.
450. Wo (China) 3.1432+. Geometer. [23], 553.
480. Tsu Ch'ung-chih (430-501 A. D.) (China). Between 3.1415926
and 3.1415927. Expert in mechanics and interested in machinery; gave
~2 (3.1428 .•.•. ) as an "inaccurate" value and ~~~ (3.1415929 ••... )
as the "accurate" value. The latter is often attributed to Adriaen
Anthonisz. See 1585, Adriaen Anthonisz, and 1573, Valentin Otto. [11],
261; [20], 73; [23], 553; [24], 394.
500. Arya-Bhata (Aryabhata) (c. 475-c. 550) {India} gave 3~
(3 .1416) and 62832 ( )
~ 3.1416. The latter was calculated from the perl-
12~O

meter of an inscribed polygon of 384 sides s . Arya-Bhata was a Hindu

mathematician who wrote chiefly on algebra, including quadratic equa-
tions, permutations, indete~inate equations, and magic squares.[l],341;
[5] ,85,87; [6] ,10; [8] ,299; [ll] ,261; [20],16; [23] ,553; [24] ,394.
505. Varihamihira Pancha Siddhintiki (India) 110 (3.162 ..... ).
Hindu astronomer; the most celebrated of astronomical writers in early
India; taught the sphericity of the earth and was followed in this
respect by most other Hindu astronomers of the middle ages. [5],96.
510. Anicius Boethius (c. 480-524 A. D.) (Rome) said the circle
had been squared in the period since Aristotle's time but noted that
the proof was too long for him to give. A philosopber, statesman, and
founder of medieval scholasticism; wrote on arithmetic and translated
ibid revised many Greek writings on mathematics, mechanics, and phySlcs.
His eonsolations of Philosophy were composed while in prison. He was
executed at Pavia in 524. [8],301; [20],261.
530. Baudhayana (India> ~ IS
(3.062 ••••• >. He lived before 530 A. D.
His value and other of his works were published in England in 1875.
[1], 341.
628. Brahmagupta (Born 598 A. D.) (India). ~2 (3.1428 ••••• ). He
gave 3 as the "practical value", and 110 (3.162 ••••• ) as tbe "exact
value", perhaps because of the common approximate formula la t + r ·
fI + --.l.- which leads to IiO = 3 + !, or the CCllllJlOll Archimedean value.
2a + r 7
The nlue Iii) _s extensively used in medieval times. Brahmagupta, the
moat prominent Hindu mathematician of the 7th century, was the first
Indian writer to apply algebra extensively to astronomy. [5J; 85; [8],
302; [20], 188; [241 394.
This article will be concluded in the March-April issue.
STbia •• y be due to • l.ter writer by the a ••••••••

286
170 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE

REFERENCES

(1) Ball, W. W. R. Mathematical Recreations and Problems. (11th ed.) Rey. by

H. S. M. Coxeter, New York, Macmillan, 1942.
(2) Ball, w. W. R. A short account of the History of Mathematics. London,
Macmillan & Co., limited 1919.
(3) Bell, Eric Temple. Deyelopment of Mathematics. McGraw Hill, 1945.
(4) Cajori, Florian. History of Mathematical Notations. Vol. II. Open Court
Publ. Co., 1929.
(5) Cajori, Florian. History of Mathematics. New York, Macmillan, 1938.
(6) Condon, Edwsrd. Curiosities of Mathematics. Girard, Ksnsas, Haldeman_
Julius, 1925.
(7) De Morgan, Augustus. A Budget of Paradoxes. Chicago, Open Court Pub.
Co., 1940.
(.8) Fink, Karl. Brief History of Mathematics. (Trans.) Chicago, Open Court
Pub. Co., 1940.
(9) Gould, Syhester C. What is the yalue of Pi. Manchester, N. H., "Notes
and Queries", 1888.
(10) Hobson, E. W. Squaring the Circle. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1913.
(11) Hogben, Lancelot. Mathematics for the Million. Norton, 1943.
(12) Kasner, Edward. Mathematics and the Imagination. Simon and SChuster, 1940.
(13) Klein, Felix. Famous Problems in Elementary Geometry. Ginn and Co., 1897.
(14) Larrett, Denham. The Story of Mathematics. New York, Greenberg, 1926.
(15) Licks, H. E. Recreations in Mathematics. New York, Van Nostrand, 1931.
(16) Merrill, Helen A. Mathematical Excursions. Boston, Bruce Humphries,
Inc., 1934.
(17) Myers, Willism A. Quadrature of the Circle. (Translation of Montuc1a).
2nd Ed. Cincin., 1874.
(18) Phin, John. Seven Follies of Science. Van Nostrand, 1911.
(19) Rupert, William W. Famous Geometrical Theorems and Problema. Boston,
D. C. Heath, 1901.
(20) Sanford, Vera. Short History of Mathematics. Houghton Millin, 1930.
(21) Schubert, Hermann. Mathematical Essays and Recreations. (Trans. by T. J.
McCormack.) Chicago, Open Court Pub. Co., 1910.
(22) Schubert, Hermann. Squaring of the circle. Smithsonian Institution
Annual Report, 1890.
(23) Smith, Dayid Eugene. History of Mathematics. Boston, New York, Ginn & Co.
1923.
(24) Smith, Dayid Eugene. History and Transcendence of Pi. MonogralD8 on Modem
Mathematics. W. J. A. Young, Longmans Green, 1911.
(25) Steinhaus, H. Matheaatical Snapshots. Warsaw, New York, G. E. Stechert. 1938.
(26) SulliYan, John William Nayin. History of Mathematics in Europe. Oxford
UniYersity, 1925.

287
 THE CHRONOLOGY OF PI
Herman C. Schepler
(Continued from the January-February issue)

825. Muhammed Ibn Musa al-Khowarizmi (Alchwarizmi, Alkarism) (813-833)

(Arabia) gave (used ?) 22/7 (3.1428 •.. ), .rro
(3.162277'" ). and
62832/20000 (3.1416). The first he described as an approximate value,
the second as used by geometricians, and the third as used by astron-
omers. He was an astronomer and the gr(!atest mathematician at the court
of al-hlmndm; wrote Liber AlgorismC6} (the book of al-Khowarizmi) the
title of which ga've the name to algebra. His name means Mohammed, the
son of Musa (or Moses), from Khwarizm (Khiva), a locality south of the
Black Sea. It was an Arab custom to give a man the name of his city.
[1], 342; [5], 94, 102; [8], 298; [20], 28, 144; [22], 111: [26], 17.
850. Mah'iv'ira (India). Used,flO. (3.162277 ... ). His rule for the
sPtere is interesting, the approximate value being given as i (t d ) 3

and the accurate value as ~ :0 . (id)

~, which means tha t 1T RUst be taken
as 3.0375. He is perhaps the most noteworthy Hindu contributor to
mathematics, possibly excepting Bh'iskara, who lived three centuries
later.
First balf of 11th century. Frankos Von Luttich (Germany). No value
available. He is claimed to have "contributed the only important work
in tbe Christian era on squaring the circle." His works are published
in six books, but only preserved in fragments. [22], Ill.
1150. Bhaskara (Bhaskara Acharya) (1114 - c. 1185) (India) gave
3927/1250 (3.14160) as an "accurate" value, 22/7 (3.1428 .. · ) as an
"inaccurate" value, and.fi'O (3.162277 ... ) for ordinary work. The value
3927/1250 was possibly copied from Arya~hata, but is said to have been
calculated afresh by Archimedes' method from the perimeter of a regular
polygon of 384 sides. He also gave 754/240 (3.141666 .. · ), the origin
of which is uncertain. Bhaskara wrote chiefly on astronomy and mathe-
.tics. He and Srindhara are the only outstanding writers in the history
of Hindu mathematics from 1000 to 1500 A.D. [1], 341: [5], 85, 87;
(8], 301; [20], 18.
1220. Leonardo Pisano (Leonardo of Pisa) (c. 1170 - c. 1250) (Italy),
called Fibonacci, i.e., son of Bonaccio. 1440/(458 1/3) (3.1418 ... ).
His PrGCticG geOlietriGe refers to Euclid, Archimedes, Heron, and Ptalelll)'.

C61The 14th century ... ch.racterized by the production of ... lgorb......orb

devoted to the expoaition of the uaea of Hindu-Ar.bic numer.la. The n... i • •
corl'1lption of al-KhCllr.rialli. but the boob h.d no other connection with hia work.
216

288
 THE CHRONOLOGY OF PI 217

Without making use of Archimedes, he determined 1440/(458 1/5)

(3.1427 ... ) and 1440/(458 4/9) (3.1410··· ) from the regular polygm of
96 sides, of which he took the mean 1440/(458 1/3) (3.1418· .. ). He was
considered by some as the greatest mathematical genius of the Middle
Ages. He traveled extensively and brought back to Italy a knowledge of
the Hindu numerals and the general learning of the Arabs, which he set
forth in many of his writings. [IJ, 342: [5J, 120: [8J, 218; [20], 24,
188: [24], 395.
1260. Johannes Campanus (Rome) 22/1 (3.1428571 •.. ). Sometime chaplaiD
to Urban IV who reigned as pope from 1261 to 1264; published an edition
of Euclid's Eleunt.. [7], 31: [20], 25: [26], 25.
1430. Al Kashi (Arab) of Samerkand (Persia). 16 places: 3.1415926535898732.
Wrote a short treatise in Persian'on arithmetic and geometry: was
assistant to Ulugh Beg, the Royal Astronomer of Persia. [5], 108:
[11], 261.
1460. Georg von Peurbach (PUrbach) (1423-1461) (Austria). 62832/20000
(3.141600). Published in 1541. Studied under Nicholas de CUsa and
other great teachers. Interested in astronomy and trigonomy and wrote
an arithmetic. [1], 342: [5], 131: [8], 316: [20], 27.
1464. Nicolaus de Cusa (Nicolaus Cusanus) (1401-1464) (Germany).
(3/4) x (J3 + .J6) = (3.1423 .,. ). Letters from Pegiomontanus in 1464 and
1465, and published in 1533, rigidly demonstrated that de CUsa's
quadrature was incorrect. This date was taken from these letters and
may well have been earlier. (See 1464, Regiomontanus). de CUsa was a
theologian, physicist, astronomer and geometer. The son of a fisherman,
he rose rapidly in the Church, was made a cardinal, and became governor
of Rome in 1448. His name was derived from his birthplace, the small
town of CUes. [I], 342: [5], 143: [7], 47: [8], 315; [22], 111: [26], 28.
1464. Regiomontanus (Johann Pttiller) (1436-1476) (Germany). 3.14343.
From his letters to de Cusa, published in 1533, proving de Cusa's
results wrong. (See 1464, Nicolaus de Cusa). He was a pupil and
associate of Peurbach; was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer,
translator of Greek mathematics, and author of the first textbook of
trigonometry. Pope Sixtus IV sUlllllODed him to &me to aid in the reform
of the calendar. He died there in 1476. Johannes Muller was commonly
called Regiomontanus for his birthplace at Konigsberg, that is, king's
mountain, or in Latin, regius mons. [1], 342; [8], 317: [20], 27, 296;
Encyclopedia Brittanica.
1503. Tetragonisnus. (Italy?). 22/1 (3.1428571· .. ). Circuli quadrotura
per Ca..parwa, Archiude. Syr(lcusarwa •••• This book and the one mentioned
in the next item, are probably the earliest in print on the subject of
the quadrature. The quadrature of Campanus takes the ratio of Archimedes,
(3.1428571 .. ·) to he sbsolutely correct. (See c. 1260, Campanus). [7], 31.

289
218 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE (March-April

1503. Charles Bouelles (Paris, France) (3.1423···) announced anew the

construction of de Cusa. (See c. 1464, Nicolaus de Cusa). The publica-
tion is: In hoc opere contenta Epitoae ••• Liber de quadratura
Circuli .... Paris, 1503, folio. Was professor of theology at Noyon.
Wrote on geometry and the theory of numbers, and was the first to give
scientific consideration to the cycloid. [7), 31, 44: [18], 16:
[22], 112.
1525. Stifel (1486-1567) (Germany). 3 1/8. Underweysung, etc. "The
quadrature of the circle is obtained when the diagonal of the square
conatins 10 parts of which the diameter of the circle contains 8."
(Stated to be only approximate). Stifel's work had wide circulation in
Germany. He was a minister who predicted the end of the world to OCcur
October 3, 1533. Many of his followers who believed him spent and
disposed of all their worldly goods and were ruined. He was imprisoned.
[2], 220; [8], 221.
1544. Oronce Fine (Orontius Finaeus) (1494-1555) (Paris, France). His
quadrature was disproved by Portugese Petrus Nonius (Pedro Nunes)
(1502-1578) and also by Jean Buteo (1492-1572). He became professor of
mathematics at College de France in 1532. [5], 142: [7], 50: [22], 112.
1573. Valentin Otto (Valentine Otho) (Germany). 355/113 (3.14159292035).
He was an engineer. (See 480 A.D., Tsu Ch'ung chih, and 1585, Adriaen
Anthonisz). [5], 73, 132: [23], 553.
1579. Francois Vieta (1540-1603) (Paris, France). Between 3.1415926535
and 3.1415926537. The first to give an infinite series:

~ = 11 J! ! fi H ! J! ! 11 ...
+ + +
Following the Greek method, he considered polygons of 6· 216 sides, i.e.
393,216 sides, and found ~ correct to nine places. He disproved the
quadrature of Joseph Scaliger. Vieta was the greatest French mathema-
tician of the 16th century. In 1580 he became master of requests at
Paris, and later a member of the king's privy cOlDlcil. He wrote chiefly
on algebra but was interested in the calendar and mathematics in
~eneral. [1], 342: [5], 143; [8], 321: (11], 261: (18], 16: (20], 38:
l24], 395.
1580. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) (Copenhagen, Denmark). 88/ 4185
(3.1408··, ). Danish astronomer, his observatory being near Prague.
Taught Johann Kepler. Brahe lost his nose in a duel with Passberg and
adopted a golden one which he attached to his face with a cement that
he always carried with him. [5], 159; [20], 188.
1585. Simon van der Eycke (Netherlands?) 3.1416055. In 1584 he gave
1521/484 equals 3.14256···. In 1585, van Ceulen gave "<3.14205<1521/484,

290
1950) THE CHRONOLOGY OF PI 219

found by calculating a regular polygon of 192 sides. In his reply, van

der Eycke determined" = 3.1416055, whereupon van Ceulen in 15S6
computed" between 3.142732 and 3.14103, and finally computed it
correctly to 35 places. (See 1596, van Ceulen, and 1610, van Ceulen).
[8], 222; [22], 112.
1585. Adriaen Anthonisz (Peter Metius) (1527-1607) (France) 355/113
(3.14159292··· ). Rediscovered this Chinese value, also known to the
Japanese, when he was obliged to seek a still more accurate value than
3 1/7 to disprove the quadrature of van der Eycke. (See 1585, Simm van
der Eycke). He proved that" lay between 377/120 and 333/106 from which
he concluded that the true fractional value would be obtained by taking
the mean of the numerators and the mean of the denominators of these
fractions, which gave 355/113. The "rediscovery" was perhaps a lucky
guess. The value was published in 1625 by his son Adriaen (1571·1635),
who, from the fact that his family was originally from Metz, took the
name of Metius. Adriaen Anthonisz also disproved the quadrature of
Quercu. (See 480 A.D., Tsu Ch'ung-chih, and 1573, Ve1entin Otto).
[1], 342; [5], 73, 80, 143; [S], 314; [IS], 16; [22], 112; [24], 395.
1593. Adriaen van Rooman (Adrianus Romanus) (1561-1615) (Antwerp,
Netherlands). He carried the computation to 17 places (15 correct), by
computing the circumference of a regular circumscribed polygon of 230
sides, i.e., 1,073,741,824 sides. He, Vieta and Clavius each disproved
the quadrature of Joseph Scaliger. Remanus was successively professor
of medicine and mathematics in Louvain, professor of mathematics at
W"urzburg, and royal mathematician (astrologer) in Poland; was the first
to prove the usual foruula for sin (A + B). [1], 342; [2], 230; [5], 143;
[22], 113; [24], 395.
1596. Ludolph Van Ceulen (1540.1610) (Germany). To 20 places. This
result was calculated from finding the perimeters of the inscribed and
circumscribed regular polygons of 60 • 233 sides, i. e., 515,396,075,520
sides, obtained by the repeated use of a theorem of his discovery
equivalent to the formula: 1 -cosA = 2 sin 2 iA. (Se~ 1610, Ludolph
Van Ceulen). [1], 342.
1610. Ludolph Van Ceulen (1540.1610) (Germany). To 35 places. " has
since been called the Ludolphian Number in Germany. Van Ceu1en devoted
a considerable part of his life to the subject. His work was considered
so extraordinary that the numbers were cut on his tombstone (now lost)
in St. Peter's churchyard, at Leyden.
His post-humous arithmetic, published in Leyden, 1615, contains the
result to 32 places, calculated from the perimeter of a polygon of 26 2
sides, i.e., 4,611,68~,018,427,387,904 sides. He also compiled a table
of the perimeters of various regular polygons. His investigations led
Snellius, Huygens, and others to further studies. (See 1585, Simm van
der Eycke, and 1596, Ludolph Van Ceulen). [1], 342; [5], 143; [6], 10;
[8], 222, 321; [18], 16; [20], 188; [24], 395.

291
220 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE

1621. Snell (Willebrod Snellius) (1580.1626) (Leyden, Germany). To 34

places, published in his Cycloae tricus~ Leyden, 1621. He showed how
narrower limits may be obtained for rr without increasing the number
of sides of the polygons by constructing two other lines from their
sides which gave closer limits for the corresponding arcs. His method
was so superior to that of Van Ceulen that the 34 places were obtained
from a polygon of 230 sides, i.e., 1,073,741,824 sides, from which Van
Ceulen had obtained only 14 or perhaps 16 places. Similarly, the value
for rr obtained correct to two places by Archimedes from a polygon of 96
sides was obtained by Snell from a hexagon, while he determined the
value correct to seven places from a polygon of 96 sides. Snell was a
physicist, astronomer, and contributor to trigonometry. He discovered
the law of refraction in optics in 1619. [1], 344; [2], 256; [5], 143;
[7], 75; [8], 319.
1630. Grienberger. (Rome). To 39 places. Was among the last to make
a c~lculation by the method of Archimedes. (See 1654, Christian
Huygens). [1], 345; [6], 11.
1647. Gregory St. Vincent (1584-1667) (Belgium) a Jesuit, proposed four
methods of squaring the circle in his book, Opus geO/lletriclUll quadraturae
circuli et sectionu. coni, Antwerp, 1647, but they were not actually
carried out. The fallacy in the quadrature was pointed out by Huygena
and the work was attacked by many others. He published another book
on the subject in 1668. Montucla remarks that "no one ever squared the
circle with so much ability or (except for his principal object) with
so much success". His Theoreaa ta Ma the.a t ica, published in 1624,
contains a clear account of the method of exhaustions, which is applied
to several quadratures, notably that of the hyperbola. He discovered
the property of the area of the hyperbola which led to Napier's
logarithms being called hyperbolic. [2], 309; [5], 181; [8], 318.
1647. William Oughtred (1574·1660) (England), designated the ratio of
circumference of a circle to its diameter by rriS. rr and S were not
separately defined, but undoubtedly rr stood for periphery and 8 for
diameter. Oughtred's notation was adopted by Isaac Barrow (publication
date, 1860) and by David Gregory (1697) except that he writes rrlp, P
being the radius. Oughtred wrote on arithmetic and trigonometry. [4], 8.
1650. John Wallis (1616·1703). (England). Unlimited series. By an
extremely difficult and complicated method he arrived at the interesting
expressioo for rr:
3'3·5·5·7·7·9 ( 71
4
rr 2 ·4· 4 . 6 . 6 . 8 . 8

(71 It is often given in another form:

TT 2·2·4·4·6·6·8·8
'2= 1·3·3·5·5·7·7·9···

292
1950) THE CHRONOLOGY OF PI 221

He showed this value to Lord Brouncker (1620-1684), first president of

the Royal Society, who brought it into the form of a continued fraction:
4
11 =
1 _1_
+ 2 + 9
~2-+--=.:::,2~5_~
2 + ...:.49=--_
2 + •••
Wallis was Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford and published many
mathematical works. In his Arith.etica infinitorua, the square a stands
for 4/3.14149 •... In 1685 he represented by 11 the "periJitery" described
by the center of gravity in a revolution. [1], 345; [4], 8; [5]. 186;
(6], 11; [8], 321; [11], 261; (12], 76; (20], 188; [26], 74.
1654~ Christi;m Huygens 0629-1695>. (Hague, Netherlands>. 9 places.
Used only the inscribed polygon of 60 side&: Last noteworthy attempt
I!'Bde by Greek methods. He proved Snell's theorems and made the greatest
refinements in the use of the geometrical method of Archimedes. (See
1621, Snell). With his labors the ancient methods may be said to close.
Famous physicist and as trQnomer , and made numerous contributions to
mathematics, particularly to the study of curves. [5], 143; [8], 310;
[23], 424; [24], 395.
1666. Thomas Hobbes. (Malmsbury and London, England.) 3 1/5 (3.2)
Refuted by Huygens and Wallis. In 1678 he published ... Proportion of a
Straight Line to Half the Arc of a Quadrant in London, in which
ill (3.16227 .. , ) was given. Celebrated English philosopher. [7], 109;
(9], 15; [21], 136; [22], 114.
1666. Sato Seiko (Japan). 3.14. Given in his Kongenki. First Japanese
work in which the ancient Chinese method of solving numerical higher
equations appears. [5), 79.
1668. James Gregory (1638-1675) (Scotland). Unlimited series:
%'
arc tan % = % - -%3 + -%5 - - + •••• When % = 1. the sf'ries becomes
357
1 = 1- ~ + t -t + •••. This series was discovered independently by
Leibnitz in 1673. See 1673, Leibnitz.(81
Gregory proved the geometrical quadrature of the circle impossible
in 1668. In 1661 he invented, but did not practically ~nstruct the
telescope bearing his name. He originated the photometric method of
estimating the stars. After living in Italy for some years he returned

(SIThe aeriea ia .1.0 given .a:

!!. • 1 - 2 (-1- + ..-l- + __1_ + __1_ ... )
4. 3 II 5 7 II 9 11 x 13 15 II 17

293
222 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE (March-April

to Scotland in 1668 where he became professor of mathematics at St.

Andrews; and at Edinburgh in 1674. (5]. 143; (6]. 11; (7]. 118;
[8], 308; [11). 261; [24], 396.
1673. Gottfried Wilhelm/von Leibniz (Leibnitz) (1646-1716) (Leipzig.
Germany) Series' !Z = 1 _1 + 1_1 + 1_..1.. +.1. ... This series had
. 4 3 S 7 9 11 13 •
previously been discovered by Gregory. (See 1668. Gregory). Leibniz
was the only first-class pure mathematician produced by Germany during
the 17th century. He shares credit with Newton in developing the
differential and integral calculus. [S]. 206; [8], 312; [20]. 188.
1680. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) (England) significantly gave no value
for". Began his work on the calculus in 1665 and was considered the
most promising mathematician in England in 1668. In 1669 he succeeded
Barrow as Lucasian professor of nathematics at Cambridge. Contributed
extensively to all branches of nathematics then known, particularly to
the theories of series, equations. and curves. [S], 202; [8], 315.
1685. Father Kochansky (Poland) 3.1415333 .•• by geometrical COIl-
struction. An Appro"iJlate Geoaetrical Conatruct£on for Pi, Leipsiger
Berichte, 1685. This construction passed into many geometrical t~xt­
books. Kochansky was librarian of the Polish King Joim III. In Figure I,
let AB be the diameter of the circle. Construct perpendiculars. to this
diameter at extremities A and B. Construct the 30 0 angle DaB; D is the
intersection of OD with the perpendicular at B. Mark off AC equal to
three times the radius of the circle. Line CD is the approximate semi-
circumference. The error is -.0000593. [6], 14; [18], 22; [21], 237;
[25], 40.

",. I

1690. Takebe (Takebe Hikojiro Kenko) (1664-1739) (Japan). Unlimited

series. Correct to 41 figures. [II], 261; [23], 553.
1699. Abraham Sharp (1651-1742) (England) calculated" to 72 decimal

II
places (71 correct) under instructions from E. ~lley. The value was
obtained by taking" = in Gregory's series, giving

!Z = U(1 __1_ +_1_ _ -1...- +-1...-_ ... J

6 J3 3•3 32 • S 33 • 7 34 • 9

294
1950) THE CHRONOLOGY OF PI 223

which is more usable than the form of the series giving ~ when % = 1.
(See 1668, James Gregory). [1], 346; [5], 206; (12), 77; [18], 16;
[24], 397.
18th century. Oliver de Serres. (France). 3. With a pair of scales he
determined that a circle weighed as much as the square upon the side of
the equilateral triangle inscribed in it, which gives ~ = 3. [22), 115.
1706. John Machin (1680-1752) (England). 100 places. Obtained by
substituting Gregory's infinite series for arc tan (1/5) and arc tan
(1/239) in the expression: i = 4 arc tan (1/5) - arc tan (1/239). He
was a mathematician and professor of astronomy at Gresham College,
London. [5], 206; [18], 16; [24], 397.
1706. William Jones (1675-1749) (England) designated the ratio of the
circumference of a circle to its diameter by ~. This is the first
occurrence of the sign ~ for the ratio. [4], 9.
1713. Anonymous. (China). 19 fif.res. In the Su-li Ching-yUn, compiled
by Imperial order in 1713. [24 , 394.
1719. Thomas Fantet de Lagny (Lagny) (1660-1734) (France) 127 places
(112 correct). He was a French mathematician. [1], 346; [5], 203;
[24], 397.
1720. Matsunaga (Matsunaga Ryohitsu) (Japan). Correct to 50 figures
in our notation. [11], 261; [23], 553.
1728. Malthulon (France) offered solutions to squaring the circle and
to perpetual motion. He offered 1000 crowns reward in legal form to
anyone proving him wrong. Nicoli, who proved him wrong, collected the
reward and abandoned it to the Hotel Dieu of Lyons. Later the courts
gave the money to the poor. [6], 14; [17], 18; [22), 114.
1728. Alexander Pope (1688-1744) (England) Poet. In his Dunciad is
mentioned, "The mad Mathesis, now, running round the circle, finds it
square. It A note explains that this "regards the wild and fruitless
attempts of squaring a circle." [18], 12; Americana Encyclopedia.
1753. M. de Causans, of the Guards (France) 4. He cut a circular piece
of turf, squared it, and deduced original sin and the Trinity from the
result; found that the circle was equal to the square in which it is
inscribed, making ~ = 4. He offered a reward for the detection of any
error and actually deposited 10,000 francs as earnest of 300,000, but
the courts would not allow anyone to recover. [18), 11.
1754. Montucla (1725-1799) (France). Histoire des rechurches sur La
quadrature du cercle •.•. Paris. This was the history of the subj~ct in
its time and is still a classiccnits early history. [7], 159; [23], 540.

295
224 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE (March -April

1755. The French Academy of Sciences (France) refused to eXfl!IIine Illy

more quadratures or problems of similar nature. De Morgan, called thia
"the official blow to circle-squarers." The Royal Society, London,
followed suit a few years later. (5), 246; (7), 163.
1760. Count (Comte) de Buffon (1707-1788) derived his famous Needle
Proble. in which" is determined from probability.(" A number of
equidistant parallel straight lines, distance 0 apart, are ruled uJlOll •
plane surface. A stick of length L, which is less than 0, is dropped an
the plane. The probability of it falling so as to lie across one of the
lines is 2£/"0. " may be evaluated by repeating the experi~nt •
large number of times. When L = 0, the probability has the simplified
value of 2,". Of the many experiments that have been performed by this
method, perhaps the most accurate determination of " was made by
Lazzerini, an Italian mathematician, in 1901. He made 3,408 tosses of
a needle across parallel lines, giving a value for" of 3.1415929, an
error of only .000,000,3. Other similar methods of approximating the
value of" have been employed at various times. [I), 348: [5], 243;
[6], 17; [7], 170; [12], 246: [22], 118.
1761. Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728-1777) (Germany) proved that" is
irrational, i.e., not expressible as an integer or as the quotient of
two integers. A physicist, mathematician and astronomer: founder of,
hyperbolic trigonometry. [5], 2, 246: [8], 312.
1776. Hesse (Berlin, Germany). 3 14/99 (3.14141). Wrote an arithmetic
in which this value was given. [21], 136.
1776. &ttoo. (1737-1823) (England). Suggested the use of the fOrDllla:
1/4 " = tan-I 1/2 + tan-I 1/3, or
1/4" =5 tan-I 1/7 + 2 tan-I 3/79.
This fOnDOla was also suggested by Euler in 1779, but neither Hutton nor
Euler carried the approximation as far as had been done previously by
other formulae. Hutton was one of the best known Eng1ishwriters OIl
mathematics at the close of the 18th century: was professor of mathe-
matics at the Military Academy at Woolrich (1772-1807).
1779. Leonard Euler (Leonhard Euler) (1707-1783) (Basel, Switzerland).
Series. Published in 1798. " = 20 arc tan (1/7) + 8 arc tan (3/79).
Euler used p for the circumference-to-diameter ratio in 1734, and c in
1736. He first used" in 1742. After the publication of his Introductio
in anolysin infinitorua in 1748, the use of the symbol" for the ratio
became favorable for wider adoption. Euler used" in BlOat of hi. later
(9I g•• ai d'Ari,hae,iqu. Moral by BuIIOD, eppceri., in Vol. IV 01 the SU"l,.,nf
a l'Hi..,oi.re Ifa'ardl., i. 1777.

296
1950 ) THE CHRONOLOGY OF PI 225

publications. He taught mathematics and physics in Petrograd and was one

of the greatest physicists, astronomers and mathematicians of the 18th
century. [1], 346; [4], 11; [5], 227, 232; [8], 306; [20], 189;
[24], 398.
1188. M. de Vausenville (France). Laboring under the erroneous
impression that a reward had been offered for the solution of the
quadrature, he brought action against the French Academy of Sciences to
recover a reward to which he felt himself entitled. [18], 9.
1189. Georg Vega (1756-1802) (Austria). 143 places (126 correct).
[lJ, 346.
1794. Georg Vega '1756-1802) (Austria). 140 places (136 correct)
(See 1789, Georg Vega). [1], 346.
1794. Airien Marie Legendr~ (1752-1833) (France) used 1T in his tll!1M!nts
de g~o.ttrie as a symbol for the circumference/diameter ratio. This was
the earliest elementary French schoolbook to contain 1T in regular use.
The proofs of the irrationality of 1T and 1T2 are also given in this
publication. Legendre was a celebrated mathematician who contributed to
the theory of elliptic functions, the theory of numbers, least squares,
and geometry. (4J, 13.
1797. Lorenzo Mascheroni (1750-1800) (Italy) proved that all con-
structions possible with ruler and compasses are possible with coq>asses
alone; claimed that constructions with compasses are more accurate than
those with ruler. [5], 268; [8], 313.
End of 18th Century. Anonymous. F. X. von Zach (in England) saw a
manuscript by an unknown author in the Radcliffe Library, Oxford, which
gives the value O£1T to 154 places (152 correct). [1], 346.
1825. Malacarne. (Italy). Less than 3. One of the last to attempt
the geometrical quadrature. His Solution ceoaetrique was published at
Paris, 1825. [7J, 118.
1828. Specht (Germany) 3.141591953··· by geometrical construction.
Crelle's Journal, (tOI Vol. III, page 83. "The rectangle with sides
equal to AE and half the radius r is very approximately equal in area
to the circle". In Figure 2, on the tangent to the circle at A, let
AB = 2 1/5 radius and BC = 2/5 radius. On the diameter through A take
AD = OBI and draw DE parallel to OC. Then AE/AD = AC/AO = 13/5.
Therefore, AE = r· 13
5
J1 + (11)
5
2 = r • 13 4146.
25
Thus, AE =

(10lComplete title of the publication is Fur die Reine unO Ancewandte Mathe-
eatil, (Berlin).

297
226 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE (March-April

r ·6.283183906 .•• , which is smaller than the circumference of the

circle by less than two millionths of the radius. The error is
-.000000700 .• '. [10], 34.

~ A 8 C

FI,. I
E

1833. William Baddeley (England) 3.202216 24/361. Mechanical Quadr4ture

of the Circle, London Mechanics' Magazine, August, 1833. "From a piece
of carefully rolled sheet brass was cut out a circle 1 9/10 inches ib
diameter, and a square 1 7/10 inches in diameter. On weighing them they
were found to be of exactly the same weight, which proves that, as eacla
are of _the same thickness, the surfaces must also be precisely similar.
The rule, therefore, is that the square is to the circle as 17 to 19.ft
This would make his ratio, 3.20221624/361. (9),5.
1836. LaComme (Paris, France). 3 1/8 (3.125). A French well sinker,
requesting information from a mathematics professor regarding the amount
of stone required to pave the circular bottom of a well, was told that
a correct answer was iq>ossible since the exact ratio of the diameter of
a circle to its circumference had never been determined. This true but
impractical statement set LaComme to thinking. After a haphazard study
of mathematics he announced his discovery that 3 1/8 was the exact
ratio. Although" had been accurately determined to 152 decimal place.
in the 18th century (see End of 18th Century, F. X. von Zach), LaConae
was honored for his profound discovery with several medals of the first
class, bestowed by Parisian societies. (7), 46: [18), 27.
1837. J. F. Ca1let (Paris, France). 154 places (152 correct). The
result of this calculation of" was published in J. F. Callet's Table.
in 1837. The calculation may have been made by someone else. [1], 346.
1841. William Rutherford. (England). 208 places (152 correct). He used
the forlll1la: ~ = 4 tan-I ~ -tan-I/O + tan-I 9\' [1], 346: [18], ~6.
1844. Zacharias Dase (1824-1861) (Hamburg, Germany). To 205 place.
(200 correct> using the formula: ""4 = tan -I 2"
1 + tan -I "51 + tan -1 ii'
1
Dase was a lightning calculator employed by Gauss. [1], 346: [12], 77;
[20], 188; [24], 398.
1847. Thomas Clausen (1801-1885) (Germany). 250 places (248 correct).
His calculation was made independently by the formula:

298
1950) THE CHRONOLOGY OF PI 227

[1], 346.

1849. Jakob de Gelder (Germany). 3.14159292035··· by geometrical

construction. Grunert's Archiv., Vol. VII, 1849, p. 98. Since
~~~ =3 + 7 2 ~282' it can easily be constructed. In Figure 3, let
CD = I; CE = 7/8; AF = 1/2; and let FG be parallel to CD and FH parallel
42
to EG. Then All = 72 + 82 = 0.14159292035 .... The error is + .000000266···
[5], 73; [10], 34. D

" jC6--f---Ifr----41

"1.3

1851. John Parker. 20612/6561 (3.141594269 ... ). Published in his

book Quadrature of the Circle.
1853. William Rutherford. (England). 440 places (all correct).
(See 1841, Rutherford). [1], 346.
1853. William Shanks (1812-1882). (England). 607 places, using Machin's
formula. (See 1706, John Machin). Shanks, English mathematician, was
assisted by.Dr. William Rutherford in the verification of the first
440 decimals of w. (See 1853, William Rutherford). [1], 346; [6], 12;
[9], 20; [18], 16.
1853. Richter. (Germany?). 333 places (330 correct). This was presum-
ably done in ignorance of what had been done in England. [1], 346.
1854. Richter. (Died, 1854) (Germany?). 500 places. This value was pub-
lished in 1855. [1], 346; [12], 77; [20], 188; [23], 311; [24], 398.
1855. Athenaeum (publication-, Oxford University Press). 4. A cor-
re.pondent makes the square equal to a circle by making each side
equal to • quarter of the circumference. [181, 12.
1860. James Smith (Liverpool, England). 3 1/8 (3.125). Published
several books and pamphlets arguing for the accuracy of his value, and
eYen attempted to bring it before the British Association for the
AdYancement of Science. Professors De Morgan and Whewell, and even the

299
228 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE

famous mathematician, Sir William Rowan Hamilton, tried unsuccessfully

to convince him of his error. In a letter to Smith, Professor Whewell
gave the following demonstration: "You may do this. Calculate the side
of a polygon of 24 sides inscribed in a circle. You will find that if
the radius of the circle be one, the side of the polygon is .264. Now
the arc which this side subtends is, according to your proposition,
3.125/12 = .2604, and therefore, the chord is greater than its arc,
which, you will allow, is impossible". [7], 46: [18J, 28.
1862. Lawrence Sluter Benson (U.S.A.). 3.141592···. Endeavored to
demonstrate that the area of the circle is equal to 3R z, or the arith.
metical square between the inscribed and circumscribed squares. Hi.
theorem is: "The ill = 3.4641016 + is the ratio between. the diameter
of a circle and the perimeter of its equivalent square". It was hi.
belief that the ratio between the diameter and circumference i.
not a function of the area of the circle, but that the area of the
circle is~3R2, or .75. He accepted the value of1T= 3.141592+. He
published some 20 pamphlets on the area of the circle, three volumes
on philosophic essays, and one geometry. [9J, 6.
1863. S. M. Drach (England). 3.14159265000·" Suggested an approxima.
tion for finding the circumference of a circle. Phil. Mag., Jan., 1863.
The solution is extremely accurate but awkward to construct. From three
diameters, deduct 8/1000 and 7/1,000,000 of a diameter, and add. 5 per
cent to the result. This gives a length which is smaller than the
circumference by about 1 1/60 inch in 14,000 miles. The error i.
-.00000000358 .... [9]. 10: [18], 24.
1868. Cyrus Pitt Grosvenor, Rev. (New York)' 3.142135··· by geometrical
construction. Published in a pamphlet, The Circle Squared, New York,
1868. The following rule is given for the area: Square the diameter of
the circle; multiply the square by two; extract the square root of the
product; from the root subtract the diameter of the circle; square the
remainder; multiply this square by five-fourths: subtract the product
from the square of the diameter of the circle. In algebraic terms the
rule is:
Area = D2 - ~ ( J2D2 - D) 2 = D2 - ~ D2 (J2 - 1) Z
4 4
= D2 [I - ~ (.f2 - 1)2] = D2 (0.7855339706472 ... )
1TD
="4'
The error for the value of 17 from this construction is +.000543. [9J. 14.
This article will be concluded in the May-June issue.

300
 THE CHRONOLOGY OF PI
Herman C. Schepler
(Continued from the March-April issue)

1872. Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871), born in Madras, was a severe

crit.ic of the would-be circle squarer. Educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge, and became professor at the University of London in 1828;
celebrated teacher who also contributed to algebra and the theory of
probability. Most of his references to circle squaring appear in his
Budget of ParadO%es which was edited and published by his wife in 1872,
after his death. Among De Morgan's many antics regarding the circle-
squarer, he ordained St. ViOls as the patron saint of the circle-squarer
and sugsested that Mr. James Smith {see 1860, James Smith} was seized
with the IIOrbus cyclo.etriclU. defined as the circle-sqU4ring diseue.
He tells of many of his experiences with cyclometers, such as the
Jesuit who came from South America in about 1844, bringing a quadrature
and a newspaper clipping announcing that a reward was ready for the
discovery in England. (5], 330; (7]; (8], 305.
1873. William Stanks, 0812-1882) (England). 707 places, using Machin's
formula. English mathematician. {See 1853, William Shanks}. The value
of " to 707 places is: -
3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 41.971 69399 37510 58209 74944
59230 78164 06286 20899 86280 34825 34.211 70679 82148 08651 32823 06647
09384 46095 50582 23172 53594 08128 48111 74502 84102 70193 85211 05559
64462 29489 54930 38196 44288 10975 66593 34461 28475 64623 37867 83165
27120 19091 45648 56692 34603 48610 45432 66482 13393 60726 02491 41273
72458 70066 06315 58817 48815 20920 96282 92540 91715 36436 78925 90360
01133 05305 48820 46652 13841 46951 94151 16094 33057 27036 57595 91953
09218 61173 81932 61179 31051 18548 07446 23798 34749 56735 18857 52724
89122 79381 83011 94912 98336 73362 44193 66430 86021 39501 60924 48077
23094 36285 53096 62027 55693 97986 95022 247 49 96206 07 4fJ1 03041 23668
86199 51100 89202 38377 02131 41694 11902 98858 25446 81639 79990 465fJ1
00081 70029 63123 77381 34.208 41.307 91451 18398 05709 85 &C.
(5], 206; [11], 261; (12], 77; [18], 16; (20], 188.
18~. Miele. Carrick <England). 3 1/1 (3.1428571'" ). Proposed in his
book, The Secret of the Circle. Its Area Ascertained. Narore 15: 1876.
1879. Pliny E. Chase. LLD (Haverford. Penna.) 3.14158499··· by
geometrical construction. Pamphlet. Appro%iaate Quadrature of the

10
x

FII·4

301
280 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE (May-June

Circle, Haverford, Penn., June 16, 1879. On the rectangular coordinatea

X, f, layoff from a scale of equal parts, AB = 3; AC = 9; AD = 20; and
AX = 60. Join C and D and through B draw BE parallel to CD intersecting
the f-axis at E. Take EY=AD, and join Xand f. Then XY:AD: :Circum:Diam.,
nearly. The error is -.00000766 .. •• [9], 9.
1882. Ferdinand Lindemann (1852-1939) (Germany) proved." to be trans-
cendental, i.e., cannot be represented as the root of any algebraic
equation with rational coefficients. He also proved the quadrature
impossible. [5], 446; [19], 41.
1888. Sylvester Clark Gould (1840-1909). U.S.A. Editor of Notes and
Queries, Manchester, New Hampshire. Due to popular demand for infor-
mation on the subject of the quadrature. Gould was provoked to compile
a bibliography on the subject which he titled, that is The Value of Pi.
and published in 18Q8. 100 titles are presented which give the results
of 63 writers. With the exception of two items the titles are sll
dated in the 19th century. [9].
1892. New York Tribune. (U.S.A.). 3.2 A writer announced this ratio
as the rediscovery of a long lost secret which consisted in the
knowledge of a certain "Nicomedean line". This announcement caused
considerable discussion, and even near the beginning of the Twentieth
Century 3.2 had its advocates as against the accepted ratio
3.14159···. [18], 29.
1906. A. C. Orr. (U.S.A.). Literary Digest. Vol. 32. A mnemonic
sentence is given for.". The number of letters in the words give the
digits in the number." to 30 places.
"NOIr I, even I, would celebrate
In rhymes inapt, the great
Immortal Syracusan, rivaled nevermore,
Who in his wondrous lore,
Passed on before
Left men his guidance
How to circles mensurate".
A sentence giving." to 31 ~lacea a~ars in [14], 67; a French verse to
30 places may be found in [16], 89. [6], 19; [15], 50.
1913. E. W. Hobson (England). 3.14164079···. By a geometrical con-
struction. Given in reference [10], by HobsOll. Probably developed by
another author at an earlier date.
Let r be the radius of a given circle whose diameter is ADB. Let
OD = (3/5)r; OF = (3/2h; OE = (l/2)r. With DE and AF as diameters,
describe semicircles DGE and AHF. Let the perpendicular to AS throup
o cut these semicircles in G and H respectively. GH is the side of •
square whose area is approximately equal to that of the given circle.
The error is +.0000481···. [10], 35.

302
1950) THE CHRONOLOGY OF PI 281

fll. II

1913. Srinivasa Ramanujan (Ramanujacharya) (1881-1920) (India)

3.1415926525826···. A mathematician who contributed several notweorthy
approximations for evaluating rr, both in empirical formulae and
geometrical constructions. See Approxiaate Geometrical Constructions
for Pi, Quarterly Journal of Math., XLV, 1914, pp. 350-314. See also,
Collected Papers of Srinivasa Ra.anujacharya, edited by G. H. Hardy,
P. V. Seshu Aiyer and B. M. Wilson, published by University Press,
Cambridge, England, 1921. A curious approximation to rr obtained
empiracally is:

(9 2 + (l:i 2 ] ~ = 3.14159265258-26 ....

The following construction is given for this value: Let AB, Figure 6,
be a diameter of a circle whose center is O. Bisect the arc ACB at C
and trisect AO at T. Draw BC and on it layoff CM and MN equal to AT.
Draw AM and AN and on AN from A, layoff AP equal to AM. Through P draw
PQ parallel to MN and meeting AM at Q. Draw OQ and through T draw TR
parallel to OQ, and meeting AQ at R. Draw AS perpendicular to AO and
equal toAR, and draw OS. Then the mean proportional between OS and
OB will be very nearly equal to a sixth of the circumference, the error
being less than 1/12 inch when the diameter is 8000 miles. The error
is -.0000000010072 ...•

,,~~--~,-----I·

fl, . •

303
282 MATHEMATICS MAGAZINE (May-June

1914. T. M. P. Hughes. (England) 3.14159292035 ••• by geometrical

construction. The Diaaeter of a Circle Equal in Area to any Given
Square, Nature, 93: 1914, page 110. This is a constructi9Jl for the ratio
355/113. Make a circle with diameter = 11.3. Let AX = 8 7/8. Draw a
perpendicular from X to cut the circle in Y. Join AY, and extend the
line to Z. The construction is derived from the approximation:
AX:AB = 11/4 = 355/4'113 = 710/8'113 = (8 7/8)/11.3. Any circle
with its diameter upon AB and one extremity of that diameter at A, will
cut the line AZ (or AZ produced) in a point Y', making Af' the side of
a square equal in area to the circle. Also, a line from Y' perpendicular
to AB will cut the diameter in a point X', making AX' equal to 1/4 the
circumference of the circle. Again, any square with its base upon AB
and a corner at A, will cut AZ with side X" in a point Y', making
Af' the diameter of an equal circle. The error of this quadrature
is -.000000266 • ".

1'1,.7

1914. Scientific American, Mar. 21, 1914. (U.S.A.>. The following

mnemonic sentence is given for pi: "See I have a rhyme assisting My
feeble brain its tasks sometimes resisting". The number of letters in
the words give the digits'in the number 11 to twelve places.
1928. Gottfried Lenzer. U.S.A. 3.1378 .. ·, an approximation obtained
geometrically. In March 1928, Lenzer bequethed the University of
Minnesota with 60 drawings dating from 1911 to 1927, regarding the
three classical problema. His geometrical construction for squaring
the circle gave 11 = 3.1378 .. •. Soae Constructions for the CZauiccZ
Proble .. of Geoaetry Amer. Math. Mo., 37, Aug.-Sept., 1930. p. 343.
1933. Helen A. Merrill (U.S.A.) 3.141591953··· by geometrical con-
struction. Given in reference [16], by Merrill. Probably developed by
another author at an earlier date. In Figure 8, let AB, the diameter
of a circle, be 1. Construct radius DE perpendicular to it. TanBent.
drawn at A and E intersect at F. On AB produced, layoff BC = 1/10.
and BD = 2/10. At D draw DH perpendicular to AD and meeting FE extended

304
1950) THE CHRONOLOGY OF PI 283

at H. Join A and H. From F on FA extended, layoff FG equal to Fe.

Throqgh G draw a line parallel to All, meeting FH extended in P. Solving
from the relatimships set up in the constructim, GP = 3.141591953··· .
The error is -.000000700 .... [16], 86.

", ..
1934. Carl Theadore Heisel (U.S.A.). 3 13/81 (3.1604938 .. , ). Proposed
in his book, MathellGtical and Geol/letricaZ DeJlOnstrations. This book is
13(. thick by 6~" x 10". It was printed at the author's expense and
distributed to libraries without charge.
1941. Miff Butler. U.S.A. GeollGth, General Engineering Co., Casper,
Wyoming, 1941. Claimed discovery of a new relationship between n and
e. Stated his work to be the first basic mathe.matical principle ever
developed in the U.S.A. He got his congressman to read it into the
Congressional Record on June 5, 1940.
1949. U.S. Army (U.S.A.). 2,035 places. Yielding to an irresistible
temptation, some mathematical machine operators presented the problem
of evaluating n to Eniac, the all-electronic calculator at the Army's
Ballistic Research Laboratories in Aberdeen, Maryland. The machine's
18,800 electron tubes went into action and computed n to 2,035 places
in about 70 hours. In 1873, William Shanks gave the value of n to
707 decimal places (527 correct). The computation took him more than
15 years. Scientific American, Dec., 1949, p. 30 and Feb .• 1950, p. 2.
Stanford Research Institute,
Stanford, California.

305
MA THEMA TICS

ON THE APPROXIMATION OF n
BY

K. MAHLER

(Communicated by Prof. J. F. KoxsMA. at the meeting of November 29, 1952)

The aim of this paper is to determine an explicit lower bound free of unknown
constants for the distance of n from a given rational or algebraic number.

1. In my paper "On the approximation of logarithms of algebraic

numbera", which is to appear in the Transactions of the Royal Society,
the following result was proved:
Lemma: Let x be a real or complex number different from 0 and 1; let
log x denote the principal value of the natural logarithm of x; and let m
and n be two poaitive integera auch that
(1) m + 1 ~ 2110gxl.
There mat (m + 1)2 polynomiala
A1I1:(X) (h, k = 0,1, ••• , m)
in x with rational integral coelficienta, of degreea not greater than n, and
with the following further propertiea:
(a) The determinant
D (x) = II AM (x) II
Mea not vaniah.
(b) AM (x) < < m! 2"'-(Bft/2) (n + 1)2111+1 (Y3'2)'III+lIta (1 +x + ••. +zt&).
(c) The m +1 functiona
III
B1& (x) ... Z AM (x) (log x)1: (h = 0,1, ••• , m)
1:-0
aatiafy the inequalitiea
IB1& (x)l ~ m! 2-(Bft/2) (eVn)III+1 e,2ta+1I1 Joe .. I (V'!,!~rl:l)'lII+lIta.
Denote by y a further real or complex number, and put
(logz)l:-yt
Z AM (x) gil, Z AM (x)
III III
S" (x, y) =
1:-0
T" (x, y) = 1:-1 I
og z-y
(h = 0,1, ••• , m),
80 that
(2) B" (x) - S" (x,y) = T" (x,y) (log z- y),
identically in x and y. This identity will enable us to find a measure of
irrationality for n.

306
 31

2. For this purpose, substitute in the last formulae the values

. l i p i
x = t, og X = ~ 2' Y = q2
for x, log x, and y; here p and q may be any two positive integers for
which
(3) p < 4q.

Then
Ilog xl < 2, Iyl < 2,
so that

I(logx)k-yk =
logx-y
I I(log X)k-l + (log X)k-2 y + ... + (log x) yk-2 + yk-ll < 2/0-1 k
and
2: I(logx)k_yk
k-l logx-y
I< 2: 2/0-1 k ~ 2: 2i~1 m < 2
k-1 k-1
m m.

Hence
(4) ITdx,y)1 < 2m m· max
h.k-O.1 •...•m
IAM: (x)l.
3. From now on assume that
m = 10 and n ~ 50.
This choice of m satisfies the condition (1) of the lemma. The lemma
may then be applied, and we find, first, that
ma-x IAM: (x)l ~ 1O! 2 1G-(S,,/2) (n + 1)21 2(55/217' (1 + Ix 1+ ... + Ixl") =
U-O.l .....m
= 10! 210 (n + 1)2:! 226",
whence, by (4),
(5)
Secondly,
(6) IRh (x) I~ 10! 2,-(3,,/2) ell nll/2 enn +<n/2)C?t )11.. = 1O! ell + (n/2) nl1/2C6:~~len)".
Thirdly, D(x) 9= O. Hence the index k, = ko say, can be chosen such
that Sh.(x, y) 9= O. Now (2q)m Sh.(x, y) evidently is an integer in the
Gaussian field K(i). Its absolute value is therefore not less than unity,
whence, by the choice of m,
(7) ISh. (x, y) I ~ 2,-10 rIO.
4. Assume now that n ~ 50 can be selected so as to satisfy the
inequality
(8)

By (6) and (7), this inequality implies that

IRho (x) I ~ t ISh. (x, y) I,

307
 32

and so, by (2),

llSAo(x, y) I ~ ITAo (x,y) (log x -y) I.
It follows then from (5) and (7) that
= 21 10g x -yl ::;;:1 81to(z,y) I::;;:
(9) In _1!..1
q ~ T1to(z,y) ~
~ ~10rl0{10.1012110(n+ l)lIlI211h}-I.
The two inequalities (8) and (9) are equivalent to

(10) 1111 )n::;;: 211 101

( 16nll e11+1:II/2) 11.11/2 qlO
13:11 ~ ,

and
(ll)
respectively. Here

and also, on account of 11. ~ 50,

211 101 e 11+ 1:II/2) < 101G.8306 < 100.8067~, 10.101 2 30 < 1018.5907 < 100.aall1n.
Further, on denoting by Log N the decaWc logarithm of N,
11.11/2 = 1011/2 !Loa n/nln:E;;; 1011/2 lLoILGO/GOIn < 100.18G1In

and
(11. + 1)22 = IQ22ILo11ln+l)/n)n:E;;; IQ22!Loa51/60)n < 10G.751'n.
These numerical formulae show that the inequality (10) certainly holds if
IOU181n> 100.3087n+O.lBOIIn qlO,
i.e., if

and they further give

10.101 280 (11. + l)lIlI 228n < 100.831I1n+O.7GUn+7.8288n = IOS·1I10In.

We thus have proved the following result:

"Let p and q be two positive integer8 BUCh that p < 4q, and let 11. be an
integer for which
(12) 11. ~ 50, IQ2·HUn> qlO.
Then
(13) In - : I > 1~·1I10In rio."

5. This result be further simplified. Define 11. as function of q by

the inequalities

308
This choice of n is permissible provided q is so large that
ql0 ~ 1 02.9245x 411 = 10143.8001>.

It suffices then to make the further assumption that

(14) q ~ 2.14 x IOu,

because then
ql0 > 10148.804.
Since n ~ 50 and therefore n - 1 ~ 11 n, we have now
ql0 ~ 1()2-1124IiXO.II8t& > 102.8661..,
hence, by (13),
(15) In - : I> q-l8.9101/2.8661)Xlo-l0 > q-U.09 > r".
The proof assumed, as we saw, that p < 4q and that (14) is satisfied.
If (14) holds, but p ~ 4q, then trivially

In-:1~4-n>q-4'"
and (15) remains true.

6. It is now of greater interest that the remaining condition (14) can

be replaced by a more natural one.
Theorem 1: II p and q ~ 2 are p08itive integer8, then
In - : I> q-42.
Proof: By what has already been shown, it suffices to verify that there
are no pairs of positive integers p, q for which

2~q<2.14xl014, In-:I~q-42.
If such pairs of integers exist, they necessarily have the additional
property that
n
q
<_1
2q2' I _J!..I
because otherwise
2 ~ ~ In - : I~ q-42, q40 ~ 2, q <2,

which is false. It follows then, by the theory of continued fractions, that

p/q must be one of the convergents P../q", of the continued fraction

n = 60 + I~! + N. + ... = [60 ; 61, 6", ... J

for n; here the incomplete denominators 60 ,61 ,6", ... are positive integers.
According to J. WALLIS, the development begins as follows:
n = [3; 7, 15, 1, 292, I, 1, 1, 2, I, 3, I, 14, 2, I, I, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 84,
2, I, I, 15, 3, 13, I, 4, 2, 6, 6, I, ... J.
3 lndagationes

309
A trivial computation shows that the convergent belonging to the incom-
plete denominator 13 is already greater than 2.14 x 1014 • The largest of
the preceding incomplete denominators is 292. Hence, by the theory of
continued fractions, we find that

In -:: I> q,,(q,,+~ +q,,) =

1 1 l...--.z
(,,+l+ 1 )q,,+q..- l}
= q.. {b > ~ 294 q"II > ~"
(b.. +1+ 2"
)q;;
for every convergent the denominator of which lies in the range we are
considering. There are therefore no pairs of integers 11, q of the required
kind. This completes the proof.
The theorem required that q ~ 2. If one is satisfied with an estimate
for In-(p/q) I valid when q is greater than 80me large value qo, then the
exponent 42 can be replaced by 30. No new ideas being involved, the
proof may be omitted.

7. As a second application of the lemma in § 1 we study now the

approximation of n by arbitrary algebraic numbers.
Let W be a real or complex algebraic number of degree v over the
Gaussian field K(i), and let
¥ + alz"-l + ... + a,.
fez) = 0, where fez) =
and where further the coefficients ao * 0, Bt, •.. , a. are integers in K(i),
be an irreducible equation for W over this field. Denote by
a = max (Iaol, lall, ... , 1a.1>
the height of this equation and by
Wo = W, WI' ••• , W.- 1

its roots. These roots are all different, and it is well known that
(16) IWII ~ a +1 (i = 0, 1, •.• , v-I).

8. In the case when W is a real algebraic number, the defining equation

fez) = ° may be assumed to have rational integral coefficients. For let
F(z) = 0, where F(z) = AOZN + A1ZN-l + ... + AN'
and where Ao * 0, AI' ••. , AN are rational integers, be an equation for
W irreducible over the rational field. It suffices to show that this equation
is also irreducible over K(i), hence that F(z) differs from fez) only by a
constant factor different from zero.
Let the assertion be false. Then F(z) can be written as
F(z) = {A(z) + iB(z)} {O(z) + iD(z)}
where A(z), B(z); O(z), and D(z) are polynomials with rational coefficients
such that neither A(z) + iB(z) nor O(z) + iD(z) is a constant. Since F(z)
is a real polynomial, also
F(z) = {A(z) - iB(z)} {O(z) - iD(z)}

310
 35
and therefore, on multiplying the two equations,
Jr(Z)2 == {21(z)2 -r 19(Z)2} {()(Z)2 -r 1)(Z)2}.
Since unique factorization holds for polynomials in one variable over the
rational field, this formula implies that
Jr(z) == c {21(z)2 -r 19(Z)2}
where c =1= 0 is a rational constant.
Put now z == w. Then Jr(z) and therefore 21(z)2 -r 19(Z)2 vanish, hence
also both A(z) and 19(z). This means that A(z) and 19(z) are divisible by
z - w, thus Jr(z) by (z - W)2. This is impossible because F(z) is irre-
ducible, so that it cannot have multiple linear factors.

9. Substitute now
x == i, log x ==:n; : '

for x, log x, and y in the identity

(2) Rh(z) - Sh(X, y) == T,.(x, y) (log x - y)
of § I, and assume further that
!wl < 4, ?it ;;;: 3.
One proves just as in § 2 and § 3 that

(17) IR,• (x)l ~?it! 2-(3"/2) (e Vn)m+1 e''''+!,,/21 (t~~ym+lln

and
(IS) ITh (x, y) I < 2m ?it • m! 2,,,-(3.. /2) (n -r I)2m+2 (V32)(m+I)"
On the other hand, the then given lower bound for S,..(x, y) is no longer
valid and must be replaced by a more involved expression.

10. Since the determinent D(x) does not vanish, there is again an
index h == ho such that

Sho (X,y) == She (i, W ;) # O.

This means that also the v - I numbers

S".(i, WI ; ) , Sh.(i, W2 ; ) , ... , S",(i, W.-I ; )

obtained from S".(i, wiJ2) on replacing W by its conjugates WI' Wz,' •• 'W.- 1
with respect to K(i) do not vanish. For let z be a. variable. The expres-
sion S".(i, zi/2) is a polynomial in z with coefficients in K(i) which does
not vanish at z == w. Therefore the polynomial cannot be divisible by
the irreducible polynomial I(z) of which W is a root, and so it admits
none of its other roots WI'

311
 36

It follows then that the product

u = 1l811o(i, O)i ;)
1-0
does not vanish. This product is a symmetric polynomial in 0),0)1' • • • ,0).-1
which is in each 0)1 of degree m; moreover" the coefficients of this
polynomial are elements of K(i), and their common denominator is a.
divisor of 2m•• Therefore u itself lies in the Gaussian field, and its denomi-
nator is in absolute value not greater than
2-laolm ~ 2- am.
Since u is not zero, the inequality
2- am lui ~ 1,
holds, and we find that

(19) 18 I1o(x,y)1 ~{2-ame: 18 11o(i,O)j ;)lr1

•

11. By definition,

Here, by (16),

so that

Jo 100i ; r~,,~o etl)" ~ (m +1) (a~l r ~ (m +1) am

since a ~ 1. Therefore

I8110 (i,0)1 ;) I~ (m + 1) am h.k~~~.•)A1It(i)l,

whence, by the lemma in 1.),
ISh.(i'O)i ;) I~ am (m + I)! ~-(3n/21 (n + 1)2m+2( V32)Cm+l)".
Therefore, from (19),
(20) 18I1o(x,y)1 ~ {2- am (am (m + I)! ~-C3n/2I(n + 1)llm+Il(ffi)cm+lIR).-l}-l.
12. From now on we proceed. in a. similar way as in 4.). Let again
m ~ 3 and n be chosen such that
(a)
then from the identity (2),
(b) 18I1o(x,y)1 ~ 2ITIIo(x,y) (logx-y)l,
so that a lower bound for
2110gx-1I1 = In-O)I
is obtained.

312
 37
By (17) and (20), the condition (a) is certainly satisfied if

I 2-(3n/2) (e V1i)m+l en:r+(:r/2) ( ~

1/-:) )(",+1)11 ,,::::
m. m+l -
.;:;; -! {2mv am (am (m + I)! 2",-(3,,/2) (n + I)2m+2 ( V32)lm+lln)'~I}-\
or, what is the same, if

(21) (4 ~=v~:,l) ym+l)m ~

>-: (?It + 1) !" 2(2v-l)m-(3m'/2) +1 e",+ ..:r+ (,,/2l+1 ( lin (n + 1)2(>-1) )m+l a,mv,
:?" m+ 1

Under this hypothesis, we find from (b), by (IS) and (20), that
In - wi> {2 m.' a:'" (am (m + 1)1 2m-(3n/2) (n + 1)2"'+2 (V32)(m+llnY-l}-1 X
X {2m m, m! 2 m-(3n/2) (n + I)2m+2 (v32)(m+l)"}-I.

whence, after some trivial simplification,

(22) In -w I> {m:l (m + 1)1> 2 12v +1)m-(3n>/2) (n+l)2(m+1)" ( V32)(m+l)n v amv fl.
In order to put (21) and (22) into a more convenient form, we now
apply the well-known inequality
(m + I)! ~ e V1n + 1 (m + 1)"'+1 e-(m+l),

It follows that (21) is satisfied if

( 4(m+ 1»)lm+l)/I >-: e' (m + 1)(''i2)-I(m+ 1)1",+1). e-(m+l).' 221", +1)>-2v-(m+ 1)-(3,.v/2) +2 X
25>/2:n :?"

X e1m+ 1) +n" +l:r#) (~ (n + 1)2,)m+l am.

(n+l)Z '

!(
and so even more if
4(m+ 1»)(m+l)" 4e"/2(m-l- 1)(>/2)-I(e/4)' (e/2)m+l (4/e)(m+1), " -(3.)/2"
(23) 2 S ./2 :n, ~ (n+l)lm+l)/2 ' (n+l)m+l ,(e ,2 ) x
X (m + l)<m+1)' (n + 1)2(m+l» am>,

Therefore, assuming that (23) holds, by (22)

In-w 1-1 < m+l

~ e'(m + 1)"/2 (m + 1)(m+l)' e-(m+l). 22 .(m+l)-2.+(m+1)-(3"v/2)-1 X

X (n + 1)2Im+l)' (J/32)(m+l)'" am',

whence

(24) ~ In-w 1-1 < (~y (m 1

+ 1)'/2 (~ym+l)p 2m+ 2-'/,"-I, (m + l)<m+l)V(n + 1)2(m+l)'X

~ X (V32)(m+l)"p am',

13, So far m ~ 3 and n are restricted solely by the condition (23),

In order further to simplify (23) and (24), assume from now on that
(25) 111 + 1 ~ 20·2'/,(>-11, n ~ (m + 1) log (m + 1).

313
 38
Since I log 2 > I, by the first of these conditions,
- m +I ~ 20 e-1 ~ 20 (I + (v -I» = 20v > 3.
The second condition implies then that
11. ~ 20v log (20v).
Now 20 log 20 > 59, 20 log 40 > 73, and so
11. ~ 6Ov,
both when v = I and when l' ~ 2.
As a first app1ication of (25), we determine an upper estimate for the
expression
Ao = (m + I)·/n (11. + I)2.ln.
Since 11. ~ 60v ~ 60,
61
11. + I .;;,;; 6011., (61)2. l
60 n_.;;,;; (61)1
1
60 80 ' A..::::
0""" 60
(61)1 /80 (m + I)·ln 11.,
20/..
=
B 0 say.

Next
a log Bo
~ = -
11 I 211 I -
n 2 og (m + 1) - n. ( og 11. - 1)

is negative because log 11. ~ log 60 > 1. Therefore Bo is not decreased on

replacing 11. by (m + 1) log (m + 1), and we find that
A ..:::: (61)1 /30 ex {1I10g (m+l)+211 (log(m+l) +loglog(m+l» }
0""" 60 P (m+l) log (m+l)
or
A ..:::: (61)1 /30 ex {~+...!!..... log log (m+ I) }
0""" 60 P m+1 m+1 log (m+l) •
log log (m+l) • b I
Here log (m+l) decreases WIth increasing m ecause og (m + I) ;;;a.
;;;;;., log 20 > e; hence
log log (m+ 1) ..:::: log log 20 < t
log (m+l) ....,. log 20 '
whence finally,
..:::: (61)1
A 0""" /80 (311+11) = (61)1 /30 1/5 I
60 exp 2011 60 e < ,.
We next discuss certain factors that occur on the right-hand sides
of (23) and (24).
In
A _ 4e7l/ 2 (m+l)(·/Il)-1 (e/4)·
1 - (n+I)'fII+1l/2 '
evidently
10g(m+I»e, 11.+1 >(m+I) log (m+I) > e(m+I), m+I;;;a. 2Ov, (e/4)" < 1,
whence
A < 4en/2 (m+l)(·/Il,-1.1 < 4e(7I/Z'-10 (m + 1)-9· < 1
1 {e(m+ 1)}10' •
Next let
A _ (e/2)m+l (4/e)'m+l).
I - (n+l)m+l •

314
 39
Then by the last inequalities and by (25),
{ (ej2)1 (4je)' }m+l 1
:s;:: { (ej2)' (4je)' Im +1) _ ( 2 5/ 2 )m+l
A2 < e(m+l) ""'" e.20.251p-l//2 - 20e.2S"/2 < 1.
Let further
As = (e".2-tS./2/)1/lm+1l.
Since ,,;;:, I and m + I ;;:, 20,
As:E;; (en. 2-18/2))1/20 < I.
Consider finally the expression
A, = (i)" (m + 1)'/2 (~)'m+l" 2 Im +1)-(31I'/2/-1.
Here
" ~ I, (i)" 2- 1 < I, m +I < em +1, n ~ (m + I) log (m + I),
so that
A, < e1m+1l./2 (~e)lm+ll' 2Im+1/P-(8/2/lm+1/.loglm+1/ ( 8e-1/2 )1"'+1,.
= (m+l)IS/2/1os2 •
Since now ~ log 2 > I and m +I ;;:, 20, we find that
A ,< 2 e-1/2)lm+1/.
(- 5- < 1.

14. The inequalities for the A's lead easily to a great simplification
of the result in 12.).
The right-hand side of (23) can be written as
Al A2 A~m+ll" A~m+1)" am.
and so, by what has just been proved, is less than
6)lm+1/" (5)lm+1/n
I ·1· ( 5 4 a1m
+1/. = (3)lm+l/"
2 1 +1/••
am

Similarly the right-hand side of (24) has the value

A, A~m+l/n 2 16/2/ Im+l/... arM
and is therefore smaller than
(~ • 2(5/2/0)'m+l/" a 1m+1/••

We have therefore the following result:

"Let m and n 8ati8fy the inequalitiea (25) and let further
(26) ( 4(m+l»)" :::<l: (~)" v
26./2n ,.... 2 a.
Then
(27) In-wi> {(i.216/2)vr a v }-tm+1/."

The proof assumed that 1001 < 4, but we may now dispense with this
condition. For if 1001 ~ 4, then trivially,
In. - 00 I~ 4 - n > 1fi > {(54.215/2).)" a V }-lm+ll •

315
 40
15. Th(Liirst inequality (25) is satisfied if
(28)
for then
20 X 2(5/2) (_1) < m + I ~ 20.2(5/2) 1-11 + 1.
This choice of m means that
2 4(m+l) 2 4x20 20V2
'3 x 2r../2n ~ '3 X 26/2 n = """'3';1 > e.
The condition (26) is therefore certainly fulfilled if
eft ~ a!, i.e., n ~ v log a.
Let then from now on n be defined by the formula,
(29) n = [max «(m + I) log (m + I), v log a)] + I,
so that both inequalities (25) and (26) hold, hence also the inquality
(27) for In - co I.
It is now convenient to distinguish two cases.
If, firstly,
a < (m + 1)(m+l)/.,
then
(m + I) log (m + I) > v log a,
and therefore, by (29),
n = [(m + l)log (m + I)] + I ~ (m + l)log (m + I) + I.
Further
!! 210/2). = ...!..20.2(0/2)(I'-U < m+l < m+l
2 JIB JIB 6'

whence
(~ 2(512)')" a' < (m~l)'m+l)IOg(m+l)+1 (m + l)m+1 = m~l e1m+ll.{loglm+1))".

Let, secondly,

80 that
(m + I) log (m + I) ~ v log a.
Now
n = [v log a] + I ~ v log a + I,
hence
(i 2(0/2}r1)" a· < (m~lrJOga+l a. = m:l a·Jog(m+ll.
The following result has therefore been obtained:
Theorem 2: Let co be a real or complex algebraic number. Denote by
R the rational field K if co i8 real, and the GaU88ian imaginary field K(i) if
co i8 non-real. Further denote by 'JI the degree 01 (J) over R, by

316
 41
an equation tor w with integral coefficients in R which is irreducible over
this field, and by
a = max (Iaol, Ia,. I , ... , la.1)
the height 0/ this equation. Put
m = L20. 2(5/2)(1'-1l], a = mJ.x (a, (m + l)(m+li/p).
Then
(30) In -wi> (m~l)-(m+I' a-(m+ l)p 1011 (m+ll.
Remarks: 1) We note that the theorem remains true if a is replaced
by any larger number.
2) When
a < (m + I)(m+I)/',
the estimate (30) is not as good as that by N. I. FEL'DMAN (Izvestiya
Akad. Nauk SSSR, ser. mat. 15, 1951, 53-74), viz.
In - wi > exp { - I'1V (1 + v log v + log a) log (2 + v log v + log a)},
where 1'1' just as 1'2 in the next line, is a positive absolute constant.
Fel'dman's inequality implies that
n" - [n"] > exp { - I'2n2 (log n)2}
for all sufficiently large positive integers n, while my result yields a much
less good lower estimate.
If, however,
a ~ (m + I)(m+lI/p ,
then Theorem 2 is much stronger, and it furthermore gives a lower bound
for In - wi free of unknown constants. The exponent of IJa,
(m + 1) v log (m + 1),
is not greater than
(20 • 2(5/2)(1'-11 + 1) v log (20. 2(5/2) (p-I) + 1)
and therefore, for large n, is of the order

16. As an application of Theorem 2, let us determine a lower bound

for Isin ua I when a is a fixed positive algebraic number and u is a positive
integral variable such that u ~ nJa.
Define a second positive integer v by

Then
a
n u ~ -n u
-2
a
-1 ~ v < -na u + 1.2a
~ < -n u,
and therefore
max (u, v) ~ max (u, 2; u) < (2; + 1) u.
Let, say, a have the degree v over the rational field, and let it satisfy
the irreducible equation
AoZi + Ai-1 + ... + A. = 0 (Au =1= 0)

317
 42
with rational integral coefficients of height
A = max (IAol, IAII, ... , IA,I) ~ 1.
Then the rational multiple of a,
U
GO =-Va,
is a root of the equation
Aov'z· + A 1uv·-I Z·-1 + . .. + A.u" = 0

e:
of height
a = max (IAov'l, IAI uv>-ll, ... ,IA.u·!) ~A (max (u,v))" < + 1)" Au".
Let again
m = [20.2(5/2) (1'-1)], a = max (a, (m + 1)(m+I)/p),

IrA
so that
a .;;;;; max «(2; + u·, (m + 1)~m+l)/p), = a* say,

whence, by Theorem 2,
11t - GOI > (m~l)-(m+l) a*-(m+l)plol!(m+I).

On the other hand,

Isintl~!ltl ifltl.;;;;;;,
hence
Isin ual = I sin (ua-v1t)1 ~.!.vl1t-GOI,
:II;

and we find, finally, that

a
Isinual>jfzu (m+l)-(m+l)
-e- a*-(m+I)' 101 (m+I).

In the special case when a = 1, Theorem 1 gives a stronger result, viz.

Isin u I > -;. u-u.
jf

This inequality has been proved for u ~ 1t, i.e. for u ~ 4, but it is easily
verified that it holds also for 1 ~ u .;;;;; 3.
By way of example, the power series
z..
L -.--
00

.. -I SIDua

has the radius of convergence 1, and the Dirichlet series

u-'
L-·-
00

.. -I SIDua

converges when the real part of s is greater than (m + l}v log (m + I).
I wish to thank Mr C. G. LEKKERKERKER for his careful checking of
the numerical work of this paper, and for pointing out a minor error.
Mathematics· Department,
October 20" 1952. Manchester University.

318
• HISTORICALLY SPEAKING,-

Edited by Howard Eve8, UniverBity of Maine, Orono, Maine

The evolution 0/ extended decimal

approximations to a
by J. W. Wrench, Jr., Applied Math.ematica Laboratory,
David Taylor Model BaBin, Waahington, D.C.

In his historical survey of the classic This article is concerned with the sec-
problem of "squaring the circle," Profes- ond period and its sequel, which extends
sor E. W. Hobson [1]* distinguished three to the present day.
distinct periods, characterized by funda- According to Hobson [1], the first an-
mental differences in method, immediate alytical expression discovered in this pe-
aims, and available mathematical tools. riod is the infinite product
The first period-the so-called geometri- 11" 22446688
cal period-extended from the earliest
empirical determinations of the ratio of 213355779
the circumference of a circle to its diameter which was published by John Wallis [4]
to the invention of the calculus about the in 1655.
middle of the seventeenth century. The Lord Brouncker, the first president of
main effort was directed toward the ap- the Royal Society, about 1658 found the
proximation of this ratio by the calcula- infinite continued fraction
tion of perimeters or areas of regular in-
scribed and circumscribed polygons. 1 12 3' 5'
- = - - - - ...
11"

The second period began in the middle 4 1+ 2+ 2+ 2+

of the seventeenth century and lasted for
more than a hundred years. During this which was shown subsequently by Euler
period the methods of the calculus were to the a.lternating series
to be equivalent
employed in the development of analyti- ... 1 1 1 1
cal expressions for 11" in the form of infinite 4" =1- 3 +5 - 7 +9 - ... ,
series, products, and continued fractions.
The third period, which extended from known to G. W. Leibniz in 1674.
the middle of the eighteenth century to The great majority of calculations of
nearly the end of the nineteenth century, ... to many decimal places have been
was devoted to studies of the nature of the based upon the power series
number 11". J. H. Lambert [2] proved the Zl Zl
irrationality of ... in 1761, and F. linde- arctanz=z--+--
3 5 .. , ,-1:$;z:$;1
- - ,
mann [3] first established its transcend-
ence in 1882. which was discovered in 1671 by James
Gregory [5]. He failed, however, to note
* Numbers in brackets rerer to the reCerencee listed explicitly the special case corresponding to
at the end of the article. z= 1, which is ascribed to Leibniz.

644 The Mathematics Teacher I December,1960

319
 Sir Isaac Newton [6] in 1676 discovered compute'll" correct to 20 decimal places in
the power series one hour. Baron Georg von Vega [11] in
1 x, 1·3 Xli 1794 employed Gregory's series and the
arcsinx=x+2" 3+2.4 5+ ... , preceding relation to evaluate 'lI' to 140
decimal places, of which the first 136 were
-l~x~l, correct. This precision was exceeded by
that attained by an unknown calculator
which has been used by a few computers whose manuscript, containing an approxi-
of 11'. mation correct to 152 places, was seen in
In 1755 Leonhard Euler [7] obtained the Radcliffe Library at Oxford toward
the following useful series: . the close of the eighteenth century.
x { 1+- - -
arctanx=-- 2(X2) 'lI' 1 1 1
II. -=4arctan--arcta.n-+arctan-
l+x2 3 l+x2 4 5 ro 00
2.4( Xl ) ' Euler published this relation in 1764.
+3·5 l+x' + ....}
It was used by William Rutherford [12]
It was by means of Gregory's series, in 1841 to compute ... to 208 places (152
taking x = 1/ V3, that Abraham Sharp correct).
[8], at the suggestion of the English 11' 1 1 1
astronomer Edmund Halley, computed 11' III. -=arctan-+arctan-+arctan-
4 258
to 72 decimal places in 1699, thereby
nearly doubling the greatest accuracy (39 This formula was supplied the calculat-
decimal places) attained by earlier com- ing prodigy Zacharias Dahse [13] by
puters, who had used geometrical meth- L. K. Schulz von Strassnitzky of Vienna.
ods. Sharp's calculation was extended by Within a period of two months in 1844,
Fautet de Lagny [9] in 1719 to 127 deci- Dahse thereby evaluated 11' correct to 200
mals (the 113th place has a unit error). places.
Newton set z"'l in his series, and there- 'lI' 1 1
by computed 11' to 14 places. A Japanese IV. -=arctan-+arctan-
computer, Matsunaga Ryohitsu [10], 423
used the same procedure to evaluate ... First published by Charles Hutton [14]
correct to 49 decimal places in 1739. in 1776, this relation was used by W. Leh-
About 1800 a Chinese, Chu Hung, calcu- mann [15] of Potsdam to compute ... to
lated 11' to 40 places (25 correct) by this 261 decimals in 1853. Tseng Chi-hung [161
series [10]. in 1877 used the same formula to evaluate
Most computers of 11' in modem times 'lI' to 100 decimals in a little more than a
have used Gregory's series in conjunction month.
with certain arctangent relations. Only 11' 1 1
nine of these relations have been employed V. -=2arctan-+arctan-
to any extent in such computations. We 4 3 7
shall now consider these formulas, ar- The relation was also published by Hut-
ranged according to the increasing preci- ton [14] in 1776, and independently by
sion of the approximations computed by Euler in 1779. Vega [17] used it in 1789
their use. to compute 143 decimals (126 correct).
... 1 3 In order to remove the uncertainty caused
I. -...,5arctan-+2arctan- by the discrepant approximations of
4 7 79
Rutherford and Dahse, Thomas Clausen
Euler [71 in 1755 used this relation in [18] extended the calculation to 248 cor-
.conjunotion with his series for p.rctan z to rect decimals in 1847, and Lehman [15]

320
reached 261 decimals in 1853 by this 'l'hit3 required 33 hours of computer time.
formula, confirming his independent calcu- The result was published to 10000 places
lation of '/I" to the same extent by relation [29]. A check calculation using formula
IV. Edgar Frisby [19] in Washington, VIII revealed that, because of a machine
D. C. used relation V in conjunction with error, this result was incorrect after 7480
Euler's series to compute 11" to 30 places decimal places.
in 1872. Gauss [30] investigated the derivation
11" 1 1 1 of arctangent relations and reduced it to
VI. -=3 arctan-+arctan-+arctan-- a problem in Diophantine analysis. Rela-
4 4 20 1985 tion VIII is one of several formulas he
This formula was published by S. L. developed. J. P. Ballantine [31] sub-
Loney [20] in 1893, by Carl Stormer [21] stantiated Lehmer's claim that tIllS for-
in 1896, and was rediscovered by R. W. mula is especially effective for extensive
Morris [22] in 1944. By meo.ns of this calculation, by discussing its use in con-
formula D. F. Ferguson, then of the Royal junction with Euler's series for the arc-
Naval College, Eaton, Chester, England, tangent.
performed a longhand calculation of ... to ... 1 1
VIII. -= 12 arctan -+8 arotan-
530 decimal places between May 1944 4 18 57
and May 1945. At that time he discovered
1
a discrepancy between his approximation -5 arctan-
and the final result of William Shanks-- 239
discussed under formula IX-beginning Felton carried out a second calculation
with the 528th place. The first notice of an to 10021 places, and by March I, 1958
error in Shanks's well-known approxima- had removed all discrepancies from his
tion appeared in a note [22] published by results, so that the approximations com-
Ferguson in March 1946. He continued puted from formulas VII and VIII agreed
his calculation of 11" and in July 1946 pub- to within 3 units in the 10021st decimal
lished [23] a correction to Shanks's value place. The corrected result remains un-
through the 620th decimal place. Subse- published.
quently, Ferguson used a desk calculator
to reach 710 decimals [24] by January ... 1 1
IX. -=4arctan--arctan-
1947, and finally 808 decimals [25] by 4 5 239
September 1947.
This is the most celebrated of all the re-
... 1 1 lations of this kind. John Machin, its dis-
VII. -=8arctan--arctan-
4 10 239 coverer, computed 11" correct to 100 deci-
1 mals by means of it in conjunction with
-4 arctan- Gregory's series, and the result [32] ap-
515
peared in 1706. Clausen [18] in 1847 used
S. Klingenstierna discovered this rela- this relation in addition to Hutton's
tion in 1730; it was rediscovered more formula V to compute ... correct to 248
than a century later by Bchellbach [26]. It decimal places, as has already been noted.
was used by C. C. Camp [27] in 1926 to Rutherford resumed his calculation of
evaluate .../4 to 56 places. D. H. Lehmer ... in 1852, using Machin's formula this
[28] recommended it in conjunction with time, as did his former pupil William
the next formula for the calculation of 11" Shanks. Shanks's first published approxi-
to many figures. G. E. Felton on March mation to ... contained 530 decimal places,
31, 1957 completed a calculation of ... to and was incorporated in Rutherford's
10021 places on a Pegasus computer at note [33], published in 1853, which set
the Ferranti Computer Centre in London. forth his approximation to 441 decimals.

646 The Mathematics Teacher I December, 1960

321
Later that year Shanks published his book computed 'Ir to 818 places by February
[34] containing an approximation to 607 1947, using a desk calculator. The result
places and giving all details of the calcula- was published [24] to 808 places in April
tio'u to 530 places. It is now known that 1947, and was verified to 710 places by
Shanks's value was incorrectly calculated Ferguson in a note published concurrently
beyond 527 decimal places. The accuracy [24]. The limit of 808 decimals in the
of that value was further vitiated by a published value was chosen to provide
blunder committed by Shanks in correct- precision comparable to that obtained by
ing his copy prior to publication, with the P. Pedersen [40] in his approximation
result that similar errors appear in decimal to 6.
places 460-462 and 513-515. These errors Collation of this 808-place approxima-
persist in Shanks's first paper of 1873 [35] tion with results obtained by Ferguson
containing the cxtension to 707 decimals later that year revealed ~veral erroneous
of his earlier approximation, His second figures beyond the 723rd place in the
paper of that year [36], which contained writer's approximation to arctan t. These
his final approximation to 'Ir, gives correc- errors vitiated the corresponding figures
tions of these errors; however, there ap- in the approximation to 'Ir. Corrections of
pears an inadvertent typographical error these errors and extensions of Ferguson's
in the 326th decimal place of his final results appeared in a joint paper [25] by
value. In retrospect, we now realize that Ferguson and the writer in January 1948,
Shanks's first value published in 1853 was which concluded with an 808-place ap-
the most accurate he ever published. proximation to 'Ir of guaranteed accuracy.
The accuracy of Shanks's approxima- Subsequently, Smith and the writer re-
tion to at least 500 decimals was confirmed sumed their calculations and by June 1949
by the independent calculations of Pro- had obtained an approximation to about
fessor Richter [37] of Elbing, Germany, 1120 decimal places [41]. Before final
who in 1853-1854 computed successive checking of this extension could be com-
approximations to 330, 400, and 500 pleted, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical
places. Richter's communications do not Integrator and Computer) at the Ballistic
reveal the formula that he used. Research Laboratories, Aberdeen Prov-
Machin's formula was used by H. S. ing Ground, was employed by George W.
Uhler in an unpublished computation cor- Reitwiesner and his associates in Sep-
rect to 282 places, which was completed in tember 1949 to evaluate'll" to about 2037
August 1900. places (2040 working decimals) in a total
F. J. Duarte computed 'Ir correct to 200 time (including card handling) of 70
places by this method in 1902. The result hours [42]. Machin's formula was also
was published [38] six years later. used in this computation.
As a by-product of his calculation of In November 1954, Smith and the
the natural logarithms of small primes, writer extended their calculation to 1150
Uhler in 1940 noted [39] confirmation to places, and in January 1956 reverted to
333 decimal places of Shanks's approxima- this work once more to attain their final
tion. result, which was terminated at 1160
In December 1945, Professor R. C. places, of which the first 1157 agree with
Archibald suggested that the writer un- those obtained on the ENIAC.
dertake the computation of 'Ir by Machin's A calculation of 'II" was performed in
formula in order to provide an independ- duplicate on the NORC (Naval Ordnance
ent check of the accuracy of Ferguson's Research Calculator) in November 1954
calculations. With the collaboration of and in January 1955 as a demonstration
Levi B. Smith, who evaluated arctan problem, prior to the delivery of that
1/239 to 820 decimal places, the writer computer to the U. S. Naval Proving

Historicallyap6aking,- 647

322
Grounds at Dahlgren, Virginia. Again, tured by Professor P. S. Jones [45] in
Machin's formula was selected, and the 1950 as being attributable to "intellectual
calculation was completed to 3093 deci- curiosity and the challenge of an un-
mal places in 13 minutes running time. checked and long untouched computa-
A report of this work, in which the value tion." This reason for undertaking such
of ... was presented unrounded to 3089 dec- work should be supplemented by refer-
imal places, was published by S. C. Nichol- ence to the recurrent interest in deter-
son and J. Jeenel [43} of the Watson Sci- mining a statistical measure of the ran-
entific Computing Laboratory, in New domness of distribution of the digits in
York. the decimal representation of ....
In January 1958, FranQois Genuys [44] Augustus De Morgan [46} drew atten-
programmed and carried out the evalua- tion to the deficiency in the number of
tion of ... correct to 10000 decimal places appearances of the digit 7 in Shanks's
on an IBM 704 Electronic Data Proce88- 607-place approximation to .... In 1897
ing System at the Paris Data Processing E. B. Escott [47] raised the question
Center. Machin's formula. in conjunction whether the deficiency of 7's noted in
with Gregory's series was used. Only 40 Shanks's 1ina.1 approximation could be
seconds were required to attain the 707 explained.
decimal-place precision reached by Shanks, In June 1949, the late Professor John
and one hour and forty minutes was re- von Neumann expressed an interest in
quired to reach the 10000 places of the utilizing the ENIAC to determine the
fina.1 result. value of ... and 6 to many places as the
On July 20, 1959, the program of basis for a statistical study of the distribu-
Genuys was used on an IBM 704 system tion of their decimal digits. A statistical
at the Commissariat al'Energie Atomique treatment of the first 2000 decimal digits
in Paris to compute ... to 16167 decimal of both ... and 6 was published by N. C.
places. This latest approximation is un- Metropolis, G. Reitwiesner, and J. von
published at present. Neumann [48}. Further analysis of these
The motivation of modern calculations data was performed by R. E. Greenwood
of ... to many decimal places was conjec- [49], using the coupon collector's test. A
TABLE 1
CUJll1LA.TIVII PI8TBIBl1TION oJ' TBB J'IRII'r 16000 PBClIlAL DIGI'r8 01' r

DIGIT
TaOUBAND
0 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9
1 93 116 103 102 93 97 94 95 101 106
2 182 212 207 188 195 205 200 197 202 212
3 259 309 303 265 318 315 302 287 310 332
4 362 429 408 368 405 417 398 377 405 431
5 466 532 496 459 508 525 513 488 492 512
6 567 626 594 572 613 622 619 606 582 609
7 657 733 692 «\86 702 730 708 694 680 718
8 754 833 811 781 809 834 816 786 764 812
9 855 936 911 884 910 933 014 S83 854 020
10 968 1026 1021 974 1012 1046 1021 970 948 1014
1l 1070 1099 1l1l lOBO 1133 1160 1129 1070 1031 1127
12 1162 1193 1214 1176 1233 1262 1227 1166 1144 1223
13 1266 1314 1316 1272 1343 1358 1324 1260 1246 1301
14 1365 1416 1419 1383 1440 1455 1426 1344 1339 1413
15 1456 1513 1611 1491 1553 1549 1520 1441 1458 1508
16 1556 1601 1593 1602 1670 1659 1615 1548 1546 1610

648 The Mathematics Teacher I December, 1960

323
count of each of the decimal digits ap- zig, 1920), p. 40. See also E. W. Hobson,' p.
39.
pearing in the NORC approximation ap- 8. II. SUERWIN, Mathematical 7'ables (London,
pears in the paper of Nicholson and J cencI 1705), p. 59.
[43]. A number of recent investigators 9. F. DE LAGNY, "Memoire Sur la Quadrature
du Circle, & sur la mesure de tout Arc, tout
have discussed the distribution of digits Secteur, & tout Segment donne," Histoire de
in Shanks's approximation and in the cor- I' Acad~mie Royale des Sciences, 1719 (Paris,
rected value of 11". These investigators in- 1721), pp. 135-145.
10. Y. MUtAMI, The Development of Mathematics
clude F. Bukovszky [50], W. Hope-Jones in China and Japan (Leipzig, 1913), p. 202
[51], E. H. Neville [52], and B. C. and p. 141.
Brookes [53]. 11. G. VEGA, Thesaurus Logarithmorum Com-
pletus (Leipzig, 1794; reprinted by G. E.
The writer has recently completed a Stechert & Co., New York, 1946), p. 633.
count by centuries of the 16167 decimal 12. W. RUTHERFORD, "Computation of the Ra-
digits constituting the fractional part of tio of the Diameter of a Circle to its Cir-
cumferen~e to 208 places of figures," Philo-
the latest approximation to 11". An abridg- 80phical Transactions of the Royal Society of
ment of this information is presented in London, 131 (1841), 281-283.
the accompanying table. 13. Z. DAHSE, "Der Kreis-Umfang filr den
Durchmesser 1 auf 200 Decimalstellen be-
The standard x, test for goodness of fit rechnet," Journal ftlr die reins und ange-
reveals no abnormal behavior in the dis- wandte Mathematik, 27 (1844), 198.
tribution of digits in this sample; in 14. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Soci-
ety of London, 46 (1776), 476-492.
particular, there appears to be no basis 15. W. LEHMANN, "Beitrag zur Berechnung der
for supposing that 11" is not simply normal Zahl ", welche das Verhaltniss des Kreis-
[54] in the decimal scale of notation. It Durchmessers zum Umfang ausdrilckt,"
Archiv der Mathematik und Physik, 21
has been pointed out recently by Ivan (1853), 121-174.
Niven [55] that the normality of such 16. Y. MIKAMI,lO pp. 141-142.
numbers as 11", e, and v'2 has yet to be 17. Nova Acta Academiae Bcientiarum I mperialis
Petropolitanae,9 (1790), 41.
proved. 18. A8tronomiache Nachrichten, 25 (1847), col.
Numerical studies directed toward the 207-210.
empirical investigation of the normality 19. E. FRISBY, "On the calculation of 1(,"
Me88enger of Mathematics, 2 (1873), 114-
of 11" clearly require increasingly higher 118.
decimal approximations, which can best 20. S. L. LONEY, Plane Trigonometry (Cam-
be obtained by use of ultra-high-speed bridge, 1893), p. 277.
21. C. STORMER, "Sur l'application de 1a theorie
electronic computers now under design des nombres entiers complexes a la solution
and development. en nombres rationnels X" X.,' •• , X K , C"
Ct, •.• , Cn, k de l'equation c, arctg x, +Ct
REFERENCES arctgx.+··· +c.arctgx.-kr/4," Archiv
1. E. W. HOBSON, "Squaring the Circle," a His- for Mathematik og Naturviden,kab, 19
tory of the Problem (Cambridge, 1913; re- (1896), 70.
printed by Chelsea Publishing Company, 22. D. F. FERGUSON, "Value of ...," Nature, 157
New York, 1953). (1946), 342. .Bee also D. F. Ferguson,
2. J. H. LAMBERT, "M6moiresur quelques pro- "Evaluation of ". Are Shanks' figures cor-
pri6tos r6marquables des quantit6s tran- rect?" Mathematical Gazette, 30 (1946), 89-
scendentes circulaires et logarithmiques," 90.
Histoire de l'Acaddmie de Berlin, 1761 23. R. C. ARCHIBALD, "Approximations to ","
(1768). Mathematical Tables and other Aida to Com-
3. F. LINDEMANN, "Ueber die Zahl 7r," Mathe- putation,2 (1946-1947), 143-145.
matische Annalen, 20 (1882), 213-225. 24. L. B. SMITH, J. W. WRENCH, JR., and D. F.
4. J. WALLIS, Arithmetica Infinitorum (1655). FERGUSON, "A New Approximation to ","
5. R. C. ARCHIBALD, Outline of the Ilistory of ibid., 2 (1946-1947), 245-248.
Mathematics (6th ed.; Buffalo, N. Y.: Thc 25. D. F. FERGUSON and J. W. WRENCH, JR.,
Mathematical Association of America, "A New Approximation to 1r (conclusion},"
1949), p. 40. ibid., 3 (1948-1949), 18-19. See also R. Lie-
6. Letter from Newton to Oldenburg dated nard, "Constantes mathematiques et systeme
October 24, 1676. binaire;" I ntermMiaire des Recherche8 M atM-
7. E. BEUTEL, Die Quadratur des Kreise8 (Leip- matiques, 5 (1948), 75.

Hi8torically 8peaking,- 649

324
26. K. H. SCHELLBACH, "tiber den Ausdruck 40. D. H. LEHMER, Iteview 275, Mathematical
,.. = (2/i) log i," Journal fur diereine undange- 'Pables and other Aids to Computation, 2
wandte Mathematik, 9 (1832), 404-406. (1946-1947), 68-69.
27. C. C. CAMP, "A New Calculation of 'Jr," 41. J. W. WRENCH, JR., and L. B. SMITH, "Val-
American Mathematical Monthly, 33 (1926), ues of the terms of the Gregory series for
474. arccot 5 and arccot 239 to 1150 and 1120
28. D. H. LEHMER, "On Arccotangent Relations decimal places, respectively," ibid., 4 (1950),
for 'Jr," ibid., 45 (1938), 657-664. 160-161.
29. G. E. FELTON, "Electronic Computers and 42. G. REITWIESNER, "An ENIAC Determina-
Mathematicians," Abbreviated Proceedings tion of 11' and e to more than 2000 Decimal
of the Ozford Mathematical Conference for Places," ibid., 4 (1950), 11-15.
SchooUeachers and Industrialists at Trinity 43. S. C. NICHOLSON and J. JEENEL, "Some
College,Ozford, April 8-18, 1957, p. 12-17; Comments on a NORC Computation of 11',"
footnote, p. 12-53. ibid., 9 (1955), 162-164.
30. C. F. GAUSS, Werke (Giittingen, 1863; 2nd 44. F. GENUYS, "Dix milles d~cimales de T,"
ed., 1876), Vol.. 2, p. 499-502. Chijfre8, 1 (1958), 17-22.
31. J. P. BALLANTINE, "The Best (1) Formula 45. P. S. JONES, "What's New About r1," TIlE
for Computing 'Jr to a Thousand Places," MATHEMATICS TEACHER, 43 (1950), 120-
American Mathematical Monthly, 46 (1939), 122.
499-501. 46. A. DE MORGAN, A Budget of Paradozes (1st
32. W. JONES, Synopsis palmiorum matheseos ed., 1872; 2nd ed., Chicago: The Open
(London, 1706), p. 263. Court Publishing Company, 1915), Vol. 2,
33. W. RUTHERFORD, "On the Extension of the p. 65. See also James R. Newman, The
value of the ratio of the Circumference of a World of Mathematics (New York: Simon
circle to its Diameter," Proceedings of the and Schuster, 1956), Vol. 4, pp. 2379-2380.
Royal Society of London, 6 (1850-1854), 47. E. B. ESCOTT, Question 1154, L'Inter-
273-275. See also Nouvelles Annales des mtdiaire des MatMmaticiens, 4 (1897), 221.
Mathtmatiques, 14 (1855),209-210. 48. N. C. METROPOLIS, G. REITWIESNER, and
34. W. SHANKS, Contributions to Mathematics, J. VON NEUMANN, "Statistical Treatment of
comprising chiefly the Rectification of the the Values of First 2000 Decimal Digits of
Circle to 607 Places of Decimals (London, e and ... Calculated on the ENIAC," Mathe-
1853). matical Tables and other Aid8 to Computa-
35. W. SHANKS, "On the Extension of the Nu- tion,4 (1950), 109-111.
merical Value of 1('," Proceedings of the 49. R. E. GREENWOOD, "Coupon Collector's
Royal Society of London, 21 (1873), 318. Test for Random Digits," ibid., 9 (1955),
36. W. SHANKS, "On certain Discrepancies in 1-5.
the published numerical value of 'Jr," ibid., 50. F. BUKOVSKY, "The Digits in the Decimal
22 (1873), 45-46. Form of T," The MathematicaL Gazette, 33
37. Archiv der Mathematik und Physik, 21 (1949), 291.
(1853), 119; 22 (1854), 473; 23 (1854),475- 51. W. HOPE-JONES, "Surprising," ibid., Vol.
476; 25 (1855), 471-472 (posthumous). 35, 1951.
See also Nouvelles Annales des Mathtmati- 52. E. H. NEVILLE, "The Digits in the Deci-
ques, 13 (1854), 418-423. mal Form of 1('," ibid., 35 (1951), 44-45.
38. Comptes Rendu8 de I' Acad6mie des Sciences 53. B. C. BROOKES, "On the Decimal for ...,"
de Paris, Vol. 146, 1908. See also L'Inter- ibid., 36 (1952), 47-48.
m6diaire des Math6maticiens, 27 (1920), 108- 54. G. H. HARDY and E. M. WRIGHT, An Intro-
109, and F. J. Duarte, Monografia. sobre duction to the Theory of Numbers (Oxford,
los N ll.mer08 ... y e (Caracas, 1949). 1938), pp. 123-127.
39. H. S. UHLER, "Recalculation and Extension 55. I. NIVEN, Irrational Number8, Carus Mon-
of the Modulus and of the Logarithms of 2, ograph No. 11 (Buffalo, N. Y.: The Mathe-
3,5,7, and 17," Proceedings of the National matica! Association of America, 1956), p.
Academy of Sciences, 26 (1940), 205-212. 112.

"Well over half of all high schools enrolling more than

300 pupils are grouping pupils according to their ability
and achievement records, thus making possible en-
riched and advanced learning."-From "Schools in Our
Democracy," Office of Education, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare.

650 The Mathematics Teacher I December, 1960

325
 Calculation of 7r to 100,000 Decimals
By Daniel Shanks and John W. Wrench, Jr.
1. Introduction. The following comparison of the previous calculations of 7r per-
formed on electronic computers shows the rapid increase in computational speeds
which has taken place.

Author Machine Date Precision Time

Reitwiesner [1] ENIAC 1949 2037D 70 hours

Nicholson & .Jeenel [21 NORC 1954 3089D 13 min.
Felton [3] Pegasus 19.58 lOOOOD 33 hours
Genuys [4] IBM 704 1958 lOOOOD 100 min.
Unpublished [5] IBM 704 19.59 16167D 4.3 hours

All these computation.'l, except Felton's, used 'ylachin's formula:

(1)

Other things being equal, that is, assuming the use of the same machine and the
same program, an increase in precision by a factor f requires f times as much
memory, and l times as much machine time. For example, a hypothetical com-
putation of 7r to l00,OOOD using Genuys' program would require 167 hours on an
IBM 704 system and more than 38,000 words of core memory. However, since the
latter is not available, the program would require modification, and this would ex-
tend the running time. Further, since the probability of a machine error would be
more than 100 times that during Genuys' computation, prudence would require
still other program modifications, and, therefore, still more machine time.

2. A New Program. We discuss here a computation of 7r to more than lOO,OOOD,

which required 8 hours 43 minutes on an IBM 7090 system. This increase in speed
by a factor of about 20 is largely due to the increased speed of the 7090 (it is about
7 times as fast as a 704), but substantial gains were also obtained by programming
changes.
The formula we used, namely,
(2)
is due to StOrmer [6], and has not been previously used in high-precision computa-
tion. The computation time breaks down as follows:
8 tan- 1 -rf,,: 3 hours 7 minutes
4 tan- 1 m: 2 hours 20 minutes
24 tan- 1 !-: 2 hours 34 minutes
Received September i, 1961.
i6

326
 CALCULATION OF 71" TO 100,000 DECIMALS 77

Conversion (binary-to-decimal): 42 minutes.

To obtain these favorable times, two devices were used.
a) Instead of evaluating the Taylor series
1 (-l)kAm
m=
-I
+ 1)m
00

(3) A tan ~ (2k 2(Hll

term by term, one may compute two terms at a time by using

(4)
•
14. tan-I.!
m
= f
k-O
Am[(4k
(16/;;2
+ 3)m2 - (4k + I»)
+ 16k + 3)m 4 (Hl)

This substitutes 2 (multi-precision) divisions, 1 multiplication, and 1 addition for

4 divisions, 1 subtraction, and 1 addition, and this eliminates 27% of the computa-
tion time. Further improvement in this direction, i.e., three terms at a time, is not
possible here, since the divisors in (4), m 4 and (l6k2 + 16k + 3), already tend to
fill a 7090 word, whose maximum numerical size is 2 35 - l.
b) Since the 7090 is a binary machine, the (multi-precision) division by m4 and
the multiplication by [(4k + 3)m2 - (4k + I») may be replaced by a simple shift-
ing operation for the case 1n = 8 in 24 tan-I -fr. Had this not been done the 2 hours
34 minutes listed above would be, instead, 6 hours 7 minutes with the double-term
formula, (4), or 8 hours 21 minut.es with (3).
The program using (4) requires three blocks of storage, one for the current
Am/m4/Hl), one for the current term, and one for the partial sum. Since a 7090 word
is equivalent to 10.536 decimal digits, the working storage for an N-place 71" is
3N/10.536. Therefore, a core memory of 32,768 easily suffices for a computation
to more than 1oo,OOOD.

3. The Check. Inasmuch as such a computation requires billions of (arithmetical)

operations, it is clear that a check is necessary. This was obtained with Gauss's
formula (7):
(5) 71" = 48 tan-1 iT + 32 tan- 1 iT - 20 tan- 1 m·
During the computation, using (2), the numbers
A = 8 tall-1 iT
and
B = 8 tan-1 -,f., + 4 tan- rtv 1

were written on tape. At the start of the check A and B were read into memory
and 9A. - 5B = 32 tan-1 i'T - 20 tan-1 m
was computed (in 1 second). To this
difference was added the new number 48 tan-1 -n,
which was computed by (4) in
4 hours 22 minutes. The check, therefore, takes less time than the original run
(8 hours 1 minute), and is perfectly valid, since an error in any of the four arc-
tangents will lead to a discrepancy bet,wecn the results of (2) and (5).

4. The Result. The run and thc check were both made on July 29, 1961, and
such a discrepancy did in fact occur. The two values of 11', in binary form, were com-
pared by the machine in -It second, and were found to agree to only 234,848 bits. This
is equivalent to 70,695 decimal places. Subsequently the error was isolated. It

327
78 DA:\IEL SHA:\"KS .-\.:\"D JOHX W. WRE:\"CH, JR.

was found to have occurred in the computation of 24 tan - I t. The second value of
11", computed using (5), was therefore correct throughout. When 24 tan- I twas
recomputed. the two values of 11" agreed up to the last word. This comprised 333,07;3
bits, or 100,265 decimal places. The fil'St 100,000 of these are given here.
The computation was of such a character that it was known a priori that the
term involving tan -I ~:b· contains most of the round-off and truncation error, and
consequently that we have the inequalities;
11" computed by (2) < 11" < 11" computed by (.'5).
Thus the check and the computation give upper and lower bounds respectively,
and, to the extent that they agree, 11" is determined absolutely.
Care has been taken in the output routines-in writing and printing-and, since
the reproduction here is photographic, we believe that this value is entirely free
from error.

5. A Million Decimals? Can 11" be computed to 1,000,000 decimals with the com-
puters of today? From the l'emarks in the first section we see that the program which
we have described would require times of the order of months. But since the memory
of a 7090 is too small, by a factor of ten, a modified program, which writes and reads
partial results, would take longer still. One would really want a computer 100 times
as fast, 100 times as reliable, and with a memory 10 times as large. No such machine
now exists.
There are, of course, many otherformulassimilar to (1), (2), and (5), and other
programming devices are also possible, but it seems unlikely that any such modifica-
tion can lead to more than a rather small improvement.
Are there entirely different procedures? This is, of course, possible. We cite the
following; compute 1/11" and then take its reciprocal. This sounds fantastic, but,
in fact, it can be faster than the use of equation (2). One can compute 1/11" by
Ramanujan's formula [8] ;
(6) !. = !. (1123 _ 22583!. . 1·3 44043~.
·3 . 1·3·5·, _ ... )
11" 4 882 8823 2 ·12 + 8826 2·4 4 2 .82 •

The first factors here are given by (-1/ (1123 + 21460k). A binary value of 1/11"
equivalent to l00,OOOD, can be computed on a 7090 using equation (6) in 6 hours
instead of the 8 hours required for the application of equation (2).* To reciprocate
this value of 1/11" would take about 1 hour. Thus, we can reduce the time required
by (2) by an hour. But unfortunately we lose our overlapping check, and, in any
case, this small gain is quite inadequate for the present question.
One could hope for a theoretical approach to this question of optimization-a
theory of the "depth" of numbers-but no such theory now exists. One can guess
that e is not as "deep" as 11", t but try to prove it!
Such a theory would, of course, take years to develop. In the meantime-say,
in 5 to 7 years-such a computer as we suggested above (100 times as fast, 100
times as reliable,and with 10 times the memory) will, no doubt, become a reality.
At that time a computation of 1f' to I,OOO,OOOD will not be difficult .
• We have computed 1/... by (6) to over 5000D in less than a minute.
t We have computed 8 on a 7090 to lOO,265D by the obvious program. This takes 2.5
hours instead of the 8-hour run for ... by (2).

328
 CALCULATIOK OF :n- TO 100,000 DECIMALS 79

6. Acknowledgement. 'Ve wish to thank the IBM Corporation for its generosit.y
in allowing us to use, free of charge, the 7090 in the IBM Data Processing Center,
New York, for the eomputation described above.
Applied Mathematics Laboratory
Da.vid Taylor Model Basin
Washington 7, D. C.
1. G. REITWIESNER, "An ENIAC determination of 1r and e to more than 2000 decimal
places," MTA.C, v. 4, 1950, p. 11-15.
2. S. C. NICHOLSON &J. JEENEL, "Some comments on aNORC computation of To," MTAC,
v. 9, 1955,y. 162-164.
3. G. E. FELTON, "Electronic computers and mathematicians," Abbreviated Proceedings
of the Oxford Mathematical Conference for Schoolteachers and IndU8trialisls at Trinity College,
Oxford, Apri18-18, 1957, p. 12-17, footnote p. 12-53. This published result is correct to only
7480D, as was established by Felton in a second calculation, using formula (5), completed in
1958 but apparently unpublished. For a detailed account of calculations of "If seeJ. W. WRENCH,
JR., "The evolution of extended decimal approximations to "If," The Mat.hematics Tea.cher,
v. 53, 1960, p. 644-650.
4. F. GENUVS, "Dix milJes decimales de 1r," Chijfrcs, v. 1, 1958, p. 17-22.
5. This unpublished value of ". to 16167D was computed on an IBM 704 system at the
Commissariat a I 'Energie Atomique in Paris, by means of the program of Genuys.
6. C. STORMER, "Sur I 'application de la theorie des nombres entiers complexes ii. la solu-
tion en nombres rationnels, x" x, , ... , x. , C, , c, , ... , Co , k de I 'equation c, arctg x, + c,
arctg x, + ... + co, arctg x. - kTr/4," Archiv for Mathematik og Na.turvidenskab, v. 19,1896,
p.69.
7. C. F. GAUSS, Werke, Gottingen, 1863; 2nd ed., 1876, v. 2, p. 499-502.
8. S. RAMANUJAN, "Modular equations and approximations to ".," Quart. J. Pure Appl.
Math., v. 45, 1914, p. 350-372; Collected papers of Srinivasa Ramanlljan, Cambridge, 1927, p.
23-39.
Note added in proof, December 1,1961. J. M. GERARD of IBM United.Kingdom Limited,
who was then unaware of the computation described above, computed". to 20,000 D on the
7090 in the London Data. Centre on July 31, 1961. His pro~ram used Machin's formula, (I),
and required 39 minutes running time. His result agrees With ours to that number of deci-
mals.

329
 PI • 3.+
1~15926535 89193238~6 26_3383219 50288_1911 6939937510 582097~9_~ 592307816_ 062862Q899 8628034825 3421170679
821~808651 32823066~1 0938_~6095 5058223112 5359408128 ~81111~502 8410270193 8521105559 6446229489 5493038196
_428810975 6659334461 28_156_823 3186783165 2112019091 456_856692 3460348610 4543266482 1339360726 0249141273
1245870066 0631558817 4881520920 96282925_0 9171536~36 1892590360 0113305305 _8820_6652 138~146951 941511609~ ~
3305127036 51595919530921861173 8193261119 31051185_8 01_~623799 627_956735 188575272~ 8912279381 8301194912
9833673362 4_06566430 860213949~ 639522_137 1907021198 6094370277 0539217116 2931767523 8_67~818~6 7669405132
0005681271 4526356082 7785771342 1577896091 7363717872 1_68440901 2249534301 ~654958537 1050792279 6892589235
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5024459455 34690830264252230825 33446850352619311881 7101000313 7838752886 5815332083 8142061111 7669147303
598253490~ 2875546873 1159562863 8823537875 9315195778 1857780532 1712268066 1300192787 6611195909 2164201989
3809525720 10654858632788659361 5338182796 8230301952 0353018529 6899577362 2599413891 2497217752 8347913151
557_8572~2 4541506959 5082953311 6861727855 8890750983 8175463746 4939319255 060_009271 0167113900 984882_012
8583616035 6370766010 _7101819~2 9555961989 _676183744 94_8255379 77_7268471 0404153464 620804668_ 2590694912 t:j
9331367702 8989152104 7521620569 6602~05803 8150193511 2533824300 3558764024 1496473263 9141992726 0426992279 ;..
6782354·781 6360093417 2164121992 4586315030 2861829745 5570674983 8505494588 5869269956 9092721079 7509302955 ~
3211653449 87202755960236480665 _991198818 3_79775356 6369807426 5425278625 5181841757 4672890977 7727938000
8164706001 61452_9192 1732172147 7235014144 1973568548 1613611573 5255213347 5741849468 4385233239 0739414333 ~
4547762416 8625189835 6948556209 921922218_ 2725502542 5688761179 0494601653 4668049886 2723279178 6085784383
8219679766 81454100953883786360 9506800642 2512520511 7392984896 0841284886 2694560424 1965285022 2106611863
067_427862 203919~945 0_11231131 8696095636 4311917287 _6116~6575 7396241389 0865832645 9958133904 1802759009 ~Z
9_65764018 9512694683 9835259510 9825822620 522489407T 2671941826 8482601476 9909026~01 3639443745 5305068203 gJ
4962524517 _939965143 1429809190 6592509372 21696_6151 5709858387 41P5978859 5977297549 8930161753 9284681382 ;..
6868386894 2714155991 8559252~59 539594310~ 9912524680 8459872736 _46958~865 3836736222 6260991246 0805124388 It,
~390~512~~ 1365~97621 8019171569 1~35997700 1296160894 ~169~86855 58~8~06353 ~220722258 28~8864815 8456028506 t:I
Vl
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o 1507606947 9~51096596 0940252288 797108931~ 5669136867 2287489_05 6010150330 8617928680 92081_1609 1182493858 (5
9009714909 6759852613 655_978189 3129784821 6829989~87 2265880485 756_01~270 _775551323 79641_5152 37_623436~
5_28584447 9526586182 10511~135_ 7357395231 13~2716610 2135969536 2314429524 8493718111 01_5165_03 590219934_ ~
0374200731 0578539062 198387~478 08~78_8968 33214~5113 8687519435 06_3021845 3191048481 0053106146 8067_91927
8191197939 952061_196 6342875~4~ 0643145123 7181921799 9839101591 956181~615 1426912397 ~894090118 6~94231961 ~
5679452080 951'655022 5231603881 9301420937 6213785595 6638937787 0830390697 920713~672 2182562599 6615014215 ~
0306803844 773_549202 6054146659 252014974~ 2850732518 6660021324 3~08819071 0486331134 6496514539 0579626856 ~
1005508106 6587969981 6351473638 ~052571~59 10289706_1 4011097120 6280439039 7595156771 5710042033 1869936007 ~
2305587631 763594218731251_7120 5329281918 2618612586 7321519198 41~8~88291 6~47060957 5270695722 0911567116 =
7229109816 9091528017 3506112748 5832228718 3520935396 5725121083 5191513698 8209144421 006751033~ 6711031412 -
6711136990 86585163983150197016 5151168517 1437657618 3515565088 4909989859 9823873455 2833163550 1647918535 ~
893226185~ 8963213293308985706_ 2046752590 7091548141 6549859461 6371802109 8199430992 ~~88951571 2828905923 ~
2332609729 9712084'335732654893 8239119325 97_6366730 58360~1428 1388303203 8249037589 8524374417 0291327656
18093713~4 _030101'69 2112019130 20330380191621101100 4492932151 60842~4~85 9637669838 9522868478 3123552658
2131449576 857262~334 4189303968 64262~3~10 1732269780 2807318915 4_11010~46 8232527162 0105265227 2111660396
665573092547110557853163466820 6531098965 2691862056 4769312570 5863566201 8558100729 3606598764 8611791045
3348850346 113657686753249_4166 8039626519 7871185560 8455296541 2665408530 61~3~44318 5867697514 5661406800
1002378776 5913440171 21~9470~20 5622305389 9~56131~07 1127000~07 8547332699 3908145466 4645880791 2708266830
63432858785698305235 80893306$1 57~06795~5 7163775254 20211~9557 6158140025 0126228594 1302164115 5097925923
09907965473761255176 5675135751 7829666~5~ 1791745011 2996148903 0_6399~713 29621013~0 4375189573 5961458901
9389113111 7904297828 5647503203 1986915140 2870808599 0480109~12 1412213119 '764777262 2~1425~85~ 5403321571
8530614228 8137585043 0633217518 2979866223 7172159160 7716692547 4873898665 4949450114 65~0628~33 6639379003
9769265672 1~63853067 360965712b 9180763832 7166~16274 8888007869 2560290228 47210~0317 211860820~ 1900042296
6171196377 9213375751 1495950156 6049631862 9472654736 '252308177 0367515906 7350235072 8354056704 03867~3513
62222417158915049530 984_489333 0963~08780 7693259939 7805~193~1 4473774418 4263129860 8099888687 _13260~121
 FRO" 50010 10 100000
5695162396 586_513021 6315981931 9516135381 291~161129 ~186724229 2~65~36680 0980616928 2382806899 6~00~82~35
~03101~163 1496589194 092_323189 6901069119 4223625082 2168895138 3198623001 5931164116 5122893518 6015881611
5518291352 3344604281 5126212031 3431465319 1111416031 9906655418 1639192933 44195215~1 3418994854 4~13456138
3162499341 9131814809 2111110386 3811343111 2015~56545 3220111092 1201905166 0962804909 2636019159 8828161332
3166636528 6193266863 3606213561 6303544116 2803504501 1123554110 58595~8102 1908143562 4014511180 62~6436261
9456121531 8134018330 3362542327 8394491538 2431205835 3114111199 2606381334 6116819695 9103098339 1301110981
0408591331 4641442822 11263~659~ 1041458184 7781201921 7152801317 6790110715 12134~4130 6051007334 9243693113
8350493163 12840~2512 1925651798 0694113528 0131470130 4181643788 5185290928 5452011658 3934196562 1349143~15
9562586586 5510552690 4965209858 033850122~ 2648293912 8584183163 0511175606 8881644624 8246857926 0395352113
48030480290058160158 2510414709 16439613626160449256 2142042083 2085661190 6254543312 1315359584 5068712460
2901618166 1952406163 4252251119 5429162991 9306455311 9914031340 4328152628 8896399581 947512917~ 6426351455
25401909145135111136 9410911939 32519107602082520261 8198531881 1058~29725 9167181314 9699009019 2116971731
27841684126860849003 3110242429 1651300500 5168323364 3503895110 2989392233 4511220138 1280696501 1784408745
1960121228 5993116231 301111~448 4640903890 6449544400 6198690154 8516026327 5052983491 8140786680 8818338510 ~
2283345085 0486082503 9302133219 1155184306 3545500166 8282949304 1377655279 3975115461 3953984683 3936383041 ~
46119966538581538420 5685338621 86725233402830811123 2821892125 0771262946 3229563989 8989358211 6745621010 ~
~
21835646220134961151 8819091303 8119800491 3401239610 3685406643 1939509790 1906996395 5245300545 0580685501 ~
9567302292 1913933918 5680344903 9820595510 0226353536 1920419947 4553859381 0234395544 9597183779 0237421611
2711172364 3435439418 2218185286 2408514006 6604433258 8856986105 4315410696 5141458550 3323233421 0130154594 ~
~
05165531906866213337 9958511562 5184322988 2137231989 8751141595 1811196358 3300594081 3068121602 8764962861 0
Z
4\60417464 9159950549 1314256269 0104903778 1986835938 1465741268 0492564879 8556145372 3478613303 9046883834
36346553794986419210 5638729317 4872332083 7601123029 9113679386 2708943879 9362016295 1541337142 4892830722 0
~
0126901475 4668476535 1616~71319 4675200490 7571555218 1965362132 3926406160 1363581559 0742202020 3187277605
2172190055 6148425551 8192530343 5139844253 2234157623 3610642506 3904975008 6562710953 5919465897 5141310348 ~
w
w 2216930624 7435363256 9160781547 8181152843 6679570611 0861533150 4452127473 9245449454 2368288606 1340841486 ~
3716100961 2011512491 4043027253 8607648236 3414334623 5189757664 5216413767 9690314950 1910857598 4423919862 0
91642193994907236234 6468441173 9403265918 4044318051 3338945251 4239950829 6591228508 5558215725 0310112570 ~
12668302402929525220 1187267675 6220415420 5161841634 8475&516Q9 9811614101 0029960783 8690929160 3026840026 0
9104140792 8862150784 2451610908 1000699282 1206604183 7180653556 7252532567 5326612910 4246716182 5829165157 0
9598410356 2226293486 0034158122 9805349696 5022629174 8788202134 2092222453 3965626476 6914905562 8425039127 0
0
0
51710284027998066365 8254889264 8802545661 0172967026 6407655904 2909945681 5065265305 3718294121 0336931378 0
51186090407086671149 6556343434 7693385781 1113864556 7367812301 4587681126 6034891390 9562009939 3610310291 ~
61615286138431909904 2311413363 9460451593 1493140529 7634757481 1935670911 0137751121 0060315590 2485309066 8
92031671922033229094 3346768514 22144713793937517034 4366199104 0331511173 5471916550 4644902636 5512816228 ~
8244625759 1633303910 7225363742 1621408835 0865139171 1509682887 4782656995 9957449066 1158344137 5223970968 ~
34080053559849175417 3818839994 4697466162 6551658276 5648358845 3142775687 9002909517 0283529116 3445621296 ~
w
40435231116006651012 4120065915 5651216118 5838292041 9748~2360 8001193045 7616932349 2292196501 9875187212
1261507981 2554709589 0455635792 1221033346 6974992356 3025494760 2490114195 2123626153 0911401907 3660251522
7429958180 1247162591 6685451333 1239480494 7079119153 2673430282 4418604142 6363954600 0448002610 4962482017
92696476697583183271 3142511029 6923488962 7668440323 2609275249 6035799646 9256504936 8183609003 2380929345
95889706953653494060 3402166544 3755890045 6328822505 4525564056 4482465151 8154711962 1644396582 5337543885
6909411303 1509526179 3780029741 2016651479 3942590296 9695946995 5657612186 5619673378 6236256125 2163208628
69222103274889218654 3648022961 8070576561 5144632046 9219068212 0138837781 4233562823 6089632080 6822246801
2248261177 1858963814 0918390367 3672220888 3215137556 0031279839 4004152970 0267830766 7094447456 0134556417
25437090697939612257 1429894671 5435784687 8861444581 2314593571 9849225284 7160504922 1242470141 2147605734
5510500801 9086996033 0276347870 6108175450 1193011412 2339066639 3833952942 5786905076 4310063835 1983438934
15961318543475464955 6978103829 3097164651 4384010070 1360411231 3599843452 2516105010 2705623526 6012764848 00
30640761183013052193 2054274628 6540360367 4532865105 7065874682 2569815793 6789766914 2205150596 8344086973
50201410206123585020 0724522563 2651341055 9240190274 2162464391 4035998953 5394590944 0104691209 1409387001
2645600162 3142880210 9276451931 0657922955 2498872756 4610126483 6999892256 9596861592 0560010165 5256375678
-
 FROM 100010 TO 150000
5667227966 1988578279 ~8~885583~ 3975187445 4551296563 4434803966 4205579829 3680435220 2770984294 2325330225
7634180703 9476994159 7915945300 697521~829 3366555661 5678736~00 5366656~16 54732170~3 9035213295 4352916941
4599041608 7532018683 7937023488 8689479151 0716378529 023~5292~4 0773659495 6305100742 10871~2613 ~974595615 ~
1384987137 5704710178 7957310422 9690666702 14498637~6 4595280824 3694457897 7233004876 ~165241339 0759204340 ~

1963403911 4732023380 7150952220 1068256342 7411646024 3354400515 2126693249 3419673917 0415956837 5355516673
02739007497291363549 6453328886 9844061196 4961627734 4951827369 5588220757 3551766515 8985519098 6665393549
4810688732 0685990154 0792342402 3009259007 0173196036 2254756478 9406475483 k664176041 1463233905 6513433068
4~95391901 0903023460 4614709616 9688688501 4083410405 4607429586 9913829668 2~68185110 3188790652 8703665083
2431974404 77185567893482308943 1068287027 2280973624 8093996270 6074726455 3992539944 2808113736 9433887294
0630792615 9599546262 4629701062 5948455690 3471191299 6409089418 0595343932 5123623550 8134949004 3642785211
3831591256 8989295196 ~212875739 4691427253 4366941532 3610045373 0488198551 7065941217 3524625895 4873016760
0298865925 7866285612 4966552353 3829428785 4253404830 8330701653 7228563559 1525347844 5981831341 1290019992
0598135220 511733658564078264849427644113 7639386692 480311836~ 4536985891 7544264739 9882284621 6449008777
6977631279 5722672655 5625962825 4276531830 0134070922 3343657791 6012809317 9401718598 5999338492 3549564005 0
~
7099558561 134980252499066984233017350358 0440811685 5265311709 9570899427 3287092584 8789443646 0050410892
2669178352 5870785951 2983441729 5351953188 5534573742 6085902908 1765155780 3905946408 7350612322 6112009373 ~
~
1080485485 26357228251682034160 5048466277 5045003126 2008007998 0492548534 6941469175 1649327095 0493463938 ~
2432227188 5159140541 0214828911 1177192316 1225788134 7718819682 5462981268 6858170501 4027255026 3329044976 ~
2118944236 21674119186269439650 6715151795 8615648239 9391760426 0176338704 5499017614 36~1204692 1823707648 ~
8783419689 6861181558 1587360629 3860381017 1215855272 6683008238 3404656475 8804051380 8016336388 7421637140 ~
~
~
6435495561 868964112282140753302655100424 1048967835 2858829024 3670904887 1181909094 9453314421 8281661810 ~
3100735477 05498159680172009414 6961343609 2861484941 7850111807 7930681085 4690009445 8995279424 3981392135
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7391253835591503100333032511174915696911 4502714943 3151558854 0392216409 7229101129 0355218157 6282328318 0
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w 0276017339 ~7~8669603 ~86949765~ 1752429]06 0407270050 590395031~ 8522921392 5755948450 7886797792 5253931765 0
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1929367910 0391844099 2865756059 9359891000 2969864460 97471~718~ 7010153128 37626311~6 7742091455 7404181590
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4738222208 7292~6~497 6845605795 6251676557 _088410321 7313~56277 3585605235 8236389532 0385340248 4227337163 ~
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03933126376855696876 7029295371 1625280055 4310078640 8128939225 7145124811 3517862166 ~902425161 990211~710 ~
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59787110667873840000 6167721546 3844129237 11935218284998243509 2089180168 5572198156 4218581911 9749098573 ~
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9960273531 027687194~ 9444917939 7851446315 9731443535 1850491413 9415573293 8204854212 3508173912 5497496193 Z
0871439661 5132942045 9193801062 3142177419 9184060180 3479498876 9105155790 5554806953 8785400664 5337598186 ~
28464199052204528033 0626369562 6490910827 6271159038 5699505124 6529996062 8554438383 3032763859 9800792922 ~
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335264007132747326219603117734 3394367338 5759124508 1493357369 1166454128 1788171454 0230547506 6713651825 ~
8284898099 5121391939 9563324133 6556177098 0030819102 7204099714 8687418134 6670060940 5102146269 0280449159 ~
~
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6465453301 0775469541 3088714165 3125448130 6119240762 1188690056 0277818242 3502269618 9344352547 6335735364 w
8561936325 4417756613 9817039306 3287216690 5722259745 2091929172 6219984440 9646158269 4563802395 0283712166 ~
6446561765 2355651641 2711282691 86886155727162014749 3405227694 6595712198 3149433816 2211400693 6307430444 Z
w 1732847861 0177774383 7971031231 7952554341 0122344551 2555589998 6461838767 6490391246 1161959018 1000350989 0
~ 2864120419 5163551106 7632042676 12979826529425882951 1412758412 6273279079 8807559751 8515768412 6474220947
0 ~
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7069227202 27074863~1 9005438302 6506812141 4213505715 4175057508 6399076739 4633514620 9082888934 9383764393 ~
9925690060 4067311422 0933121959 3620298297 2351163259 3867722414 7791162951 2780752395 0562515816 0313335938 Z
2311500518 6268905306 5836812998 8108663263 2719806112 7154885879 8093487912 9137074982 3057592909 1862939195
0141211975 8606727009 2547718025 7503377307 9939713453 9532646195 2699965963 8565491759 0458333585 7991020121 ~
~
1320458390 3200853878 8816336376 8518208372 7885131175 2277696097 8796214237 2162545214 5912818317 9821604411 ~
1311671406 9148271709 8101545778 1939202311 5636719508 0502467972 5792497605 7726259133 2855972637 1211201905 ~
7207714091 4864501409 4926718035 8151575715 1405039761 0963846755 5692989703 8354731410 0223802583 4687673501 Z
n
2977541327 9532060971 1545064842 1218593649 0997917766 8747744818 8287063231 5515865032 8981642282 8823274686 ~
6106592732 1979071623 8464215348 9852476216 7890502609 980452664, 3929542357 2873439776 8049517409 1449538391 .
~
5755654854 5905897649 5198513801 0079580107 8315994577 5299196700 5476022525 5203445398 8712538780 1719607181
6407812484 78472579124078245443 61682345239570689514 2722691504 3187363326 3011103053 4233358216 0933319121 ~
8806608268 341428910~ 1517324721 6053355849 9932245487 3077882290 5252324234 8615315209 7693846104 2582849714
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017_635277 0320593817 9125396915 6210636376 2588293157 13738_075~ '06_6896~7 8310070_58 0613_46731 27159119~6
08~3593582 5987782835 2665311510 650~162329 53290~7772 17_0835593 4972375855 21380~8305 0900096466 7608830'5_
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4424164047 7503153605 4906591430 0181583724 3012313751 1562284015 8386442708 9071828481 6757527123 8467824595 ~
3433444962 2010096071 0513706084 618011875_ 3120725491 3349942476 1711563332 1408934609 1565615506 0031738421 Y,
8701570226 1031019166 0388706466 14388977363181809407 1152752817 4689576401 5810470169 6524755774 0891644568 ~
6711111585 0058326994 3401617202 1567617240 6812836656 5264122982 4394651331 9735919970 9403275938 5026695574 ~
7023181320 3243716420 5861410336 0652453693 9160050644 9530601612 6782264894 2437397166 7176612310 4897503188 ffi
5732165554 9883421218 0284691252 9086101485 5278152176 2562375045 6315169497 7343368460 1560772703 5509629049 ~
3924810884 0628106794 3622418104 14700836884261102255 8302403599 8416459511 2248527263 3632645114 0173952480 ~
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8619463584 0783153556 8856223171 1552094722 3065437092 6061913510 0056554938 1224575483 7285457117 9739361575 ~
6167641692 8958052572 9752233855 8611388322 1711073622 6581621884 2443178857 48879810902665379342 6664216990 ~
9140565364 3224930133 4867988154 8866286650 5234699723 557~138424 8305904236 7714327879 2316422~03 87776~3301 Z
w 9260019228 ~778313837 6325361210 2533693581 2624086866 6997382759 7736568222 7907215832 4788886423 6934639616 0
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1419128306 8657732353 2639653677 3903116613 6131596555 3584999398 6005651559 2193675997 7717933019 7446881483 0
7110320650 369319289~ 5214026509 1546518430 9936553493 3371834252 9843367991 5939417466 2239003895 2167381333 ~
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0617747629 5749438687 1691845376 72194935065908757119 1772087547 7107189937 9608947145 1265~75750 1871194870
1387361858 9020061737 3321015693 3022163206 2843206567 1192096950 5857611739 6163232621 7708945426 2146098584 ~
1023781321 5817727602 2227381334 9541048100 3013215107 7999489919 7796388353 0134443457 5329759142 6376840544
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0710441141 4324197679 6828547885 5247794764 8180295973 6049439700 4795960402 9274629920 3572099761 9501403483 M
1538094771 4601056333 4469988208 2212058128 1510729182 9112119178 7642488035 4672316916 5418522567 2923442918 Y,
7128163232 5969654135 4858951713 3208339911 2887759172 2611527337 9010341362 0856145779 9239877832 5083550730 n
1998184590 2595835598 9260553299 6731704917 2245493532 9683300002 2301815172 2651578752 ~058832249 0858212800 ~
8974790932 6100162578 7104286560 0699617621 2176845478 9964407050 6624171021 3321486796 2374302291 5535820078 ~

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23196165226842200371 1230464300 6734420641 4771802135 3070124098 8603533991 5266792387 1101706221 8658835737
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4234406506 6785194841 7766119470 4120419588 2204329538 0326310537 4948831221 8039127961 8446100139 7267538921
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9616294134 1800129513 0683638609 2941000831 3667337215 3008352696 2357371753 3073865333 8204842190 308186_491 ~
8409372394 4033405244 9095545580 1640646076 1581010301 7674884150 1766190869 2946098769 2016912021 8168829104 ~
08707095609514704169 2114702741 3390052253 3408348128 7035303102 3919699978 5974139085 9360543359 9697075604 ~
460134242_ 5368249609 8772581311 0247321985 6207212657 2499003468 2938868723 0489556225 3204463602 6398542252 ~
58416464324271611419 8178024825 95563544907219226583 8636626637 5083594431 4877635156 1457107455 2801615967 m
7048442714 1944351832 7569840755 2677926411 2617652506 1596523545 7187956673 1709133193 5876162825 5920783080
1852068901 5150471334 0386100310 0559148178 5211038475 4542933389 1884441205 1194396997 0194112695 1195265649
1959418991 5418393234 6474242907 0271887522 3534393673 6336632003 0723274703 7407123982 56202_6626 5197409019
9762452056 1985576257 6000870817 3083288344 3818310700 5451449354 5885422678 5785519153 1229231955 5494333410
17_42016960009069641 5612732297 1702212179 5186837635 9082255128 8164700219 9234886404 3959153018 116400471113
2118636062 2527011541 1222838021 7853891109 84902013_2 7410141215 5976996543 8877197485 3764311582 2983853312
3071751132 9619045590 0793806427 6695819014 8426279912 2179294798 7348901868 4716765038 2732855205 9082984529
8062592503 5212845192 5927986593 5061329619 4619625237 3972565584 1578531445 6755899803 2405492186 9628884903
3256085145 5344391660 2262577755 1291620077 2796852629 3879375304 5418108072 9285891989 7153811973 4349618723
2927614747 8501926114 5041327487 324297058340847111233374627461 7274626582 4153242710 5932250625 5302314738 CO
7592517247 8732288149 1455915605 0363345754 2423377916 0374952502 4930223514 8196138116 2563911415 6103268449 en
5807250827 3431765944 0540982697 6526934457 9863479709 7431244982 7193311386 3873159636 3612186234 9726140955
6079920628 3169994200 7205481152 535339394607685001990988655386 1433495781 6500899616 4907967814 2901148387
64568217_9 1407562376 7618453175 1440314754 11206760160726460556 8592577993 2207033733 3398916369 5043466906
 FROM 800010 TO 850000
9482843662 9980037414 5276277165 4762382554 6170883189 8108688068 4785370553 6480469350 9588180253 6052974079
3538616511 1950193132 8208314626 8960071075 1755206144 3378411454 9950136432 4463281933 4638905093 6545714506
9008644834 4018042836 3390513578 1512739133 3453728426 3372174065 1751710798 3051755512 1036795976 9018899584 0
~
9413019599 9573017901 2401939086 8135658553 9661941371 7944876320 7986880037 1607303220 5474235722 6689680188
2123424391 8859841689 7221165219 4032493221 3141936692 3400484897 6059031958 0946960411 5427961318 2553781223
9416461478 3292691654 5162290281 7011004378 4603815654 4151139433 9600489153 1881751665 0500951691 4024156447
1129365661 4253949368 8842305114 0012992055 6854289853 8919426699 5617102108 9146513736 8922061044 1548166215
6804219838 4161308111 8759021920 9175900695 2734566820 2651331311 1518000181 4341209626 0165862982 1076663523
3617140018 3778342370 ~152644063 0540718078 4335806107 2961105550 0204151316 9637304684 9213356837 2654003075
09829089364612047891 1147530310 4989395283 3457824082 8173864413 2211000296 8311940203 3234564208 2647327623
383029463937899837583655455991 93408662350909679611 3400486102 7123176526 6631107187 2511186035 4037554487
4186935191 3365662171 2359229396 77646325156202348757 0113795112 0962311234 3131021203 1004965152 1119760131
7641940820 3431348512 8526029133 34915i2508 3119802850 1178551101 2537314913 9215709105 1309650598 8599993156 ~
08636554774035518981 6673353588 0048214665 0997414337 6118277172 3351910741 2175728415 9258087259 1315074606 ~
025634903711263313914461371038 0213183474 4730111303 2610296917 3350471016 3210661622 7830021269 2833655840 ~
1179141944 1808748253 3607144032 9625228577 5009808599 6090409363 1263562132 8162071453 4061042241 1208301000 M
8587264252 1122624801 4264751942 6184325853 3867538140 5474349101 2110049154 2811594660 1113612259 0440158991 ~
6002298278 0119603519 4080046513 5347526981 7160952783 9984368086 9089891918 3969353211 9980139135 4425527119 ~
1022539701 08106321430485113782 9149851138 1969143043 4975001899 8068164441 2123273328 3071928243 6240673319 ~
~
6554692611 8511931521 7511344646 8905504248 1133614349 8460484905 1258345683 2664415284 8911397237 6040328212 ~
~
6602535166 9391408204 9947320486 0216217591 9111123475 1097502403 0789357599 3771509502 1751693555 8270725339 ~

1189233407 0223832077 5858021371 7477837811 8391015234 1320984894 2345961369 2340491998 2193041444 6316210721 ~
4796111456 9151196812 3929191314 09829258055619552074 3424329598 2898980529 2333664154 1925636738 0689494201 ~
w 4712413405 2501220406 1794355252 5552250087 4879008656 831454283~ 1677505422 9~80327478 3044056~38 5815919526 ~
~ 6675828292 9705226127 6287110401 3480178722 4801789684 0524079243 6058274246 7443076721 6452703134 5135416764 ~
~
9668901274 7868010102 9513386269 8649748212 1186290403 3769156857 62~0699296 3724930972 0162870720 0189835423 0
~
6903641492 7023696193 8547372480 3298550451 1208919287 9829874467 8641291594 1753167560 2533435310 6267452545 ~
0711418148 3239880607 2971402347 2552071349 0798398982 3552687239 5090936566 7878992383 7125789762 4875599044
3228895388 3713173489 4112275707 14109597900479193010 4674075041 1435381782 4646307959 8955563899 1884773781
3413470702 4674736211 2048986226 9918885174 5625173251 9341352038 1158633501 2391305444 1910073628 4475675141 ~
~
6105041097 3505852762 0444891909 7890198431 5485280533 9857778443 1393388399 4310444465 6692445506 8594631408 ~
1751220331 3906815965 9251054685 8013133838 1521764182 1043342918 8826119630 4431113887 9625874609 0226130900 ~
~
8499754303 9577124323 0616906262 9194039214 3974027089 4777663702 4881554993 2245882597 9020631257 4369109463 ~
9325280624 1642476868 4954553249 3801763937 1615636847 8598231159 0238542126 5840615367 2286071317 0267474013 ~
1145261063 7653633903 1592194346 9817605358 3803106128 8785205154 6933639241 0884676320 0956706971 8367490578 -
~
1630851581 3816196688 2222041570 43759061433804012585 3862083565 1769984267 7452319562 4182663698 2701602314
1493836349 6629351576 8540613973 4274647089 9685618170 1605511046 8097155485 9118611189 6680259735 4170542398 ~
5135560018 7203350790 6094642127 11439931960465274240 5086222535 9173481519 1354385112 5325854049 3946010865
7931980586 2014336601 8825219117 8090258113 7087091646 0452727977 1535099103 4073642502 0386386716 2205228796
9445838765 2947951048 6607173902 2932745542 6185669776 8659399234 1683412227 4663015062 1553205026 5534146099
5249356050 8549217565 4913483095 8906536175 6938176374 7364418337 8974229700 7035452066 6317092960 7591989621
13242309025239744386 1014263098687733913882518684316501027964 911497737582888913450341148865 9486702154
9210108432 8080783428 0894172980 0898329753 6940644969 9031253998 6391958160 1468995220 8806622854 0841486427
4786281975 5466292788 1462160717 1381880180 8405720847 1586890683 6919393381 8642784545 3195671927 2397972364
6516675920 11057995663962598535 512163558768140213409829016296 8734298507 9247184605 6814828331 3812591619
6247615690 2875901072 7331032991 4062386460 8333378638 2579263023 9159000355 7609032477 2813388873 3917809696
6601469615 0317542267 5112599331 5529674213 3363002229 6490648093 4582008181 0618021002 2766458040 0278213336
7585730190 11371754672763059044 3531313190 3609248909 7246427928 4555499134 9000518029 5107082919 0525567818
899138996251386623193800536113 4622429461 0248954072 4048571232 5662888893 1722116432 9478161905 5486805494
3441034090 6007160880 2822795968 6950133643 8142682521 7047287086 3010137301 1552368614 1690837561 5147631239
 FROM 850010 TO 900000
7631857570 38109 __ 339 056_S6~_68 52_1830281 '810799837 6918512127 2019350_~0 _180_60_72 1626939 __ 5 7883770901
0597_69321 972055811_ 0787759897 7207200968 93822_9303 2368305158 6265728111 _637996983 1375179376 2321511125
23_973_305 2_06221052 ~_23_35373 2905655163 _066695061 6589287821 870775679_ 1760807129 7378133518 7111931650
033155523822_8773065 3___ 179453 _153952024 2 ___ 9703_1 012087~072 1881093882 681675120_ 2299'0'9'8 179 __ 9_727
3289_77011 157_139 __ 1 228_555218 28,2_9222_ 0658752689 1722727806 0711675_0_ 6973008031 0396181877 9669_88255
561~67'38_ 3925701158 295~666135 8678671897 6612913112 6720001297 1553613027 5035561618 11165~_228 7 __ 211~729
88161~8027 052_380681 1653513215 5186025058 _108~01320 8837932816 0081690813 00_92_91_7 3682511035 3822196190
3901_999523_95381105 9973511_3_ 78292339_991879366086923013155 9636853237 3806703591 1'_2_32685 61512109~0
_2595~639 3016780171 2866923928 3231057658 85111_0202 1119695706 _ 'y981_031 5056330_51 _156 __ 1_62 3163163809
90 __ 028162 56917576'8 91_256971_ 163598_393 17_3321023 7812336938 0_30128926 2637538266 779503_169 33_3236015
002_81151_ 1808150388 ~1509_939_ 5_8962097_ 0_85 __ 2635
63716_9959 _992098088 ,29_790363 6662975260 032_385635
29_58 __ 7.28 9 __ 5~11662 09297_95_9 6616877_1~ 120882130_ 7702281611 6_560 __ 007
2363515811 _97.2973921 8966737382
6_720_7226 _22212_201 656015028_ 9713063327 9581_30251 601369_825 56701_7809 3579088965 713_926158 1613_69018
0696508955 6310121218 ~918058_79 2272069187 1696316330 0 __ 8580201 0286065785 859126997_ 6376617_1_ 6393~15956 0
953955_203 31_6280265 1895116793 807_573315 7598_60861 7370268786 76029_3677 7805002 __ 6 73391332~3 166988035~ ~
0732323882818_750105 16_1331189 537036~88_ 22690270_7 80527_2_90 603_920829 5_75505_00 3_5716018_ 07257_5369 0
381_553117 535_210726 557835615_ 9987_,_7_8 0_27323_57 8800618731 _93~15660' 6352979779 _550753593 0_79568720 q
9316724536 5~72083816 858556060_ 3801977030 76_2'6083~ 898761013_ 570939'877 0029_61757 920619525_ 9255757109 ~
038525111_ 8852526567 10_53_9813,198033906 _15298763_ 3695_20256 08027761,_ 2191_31892 139390883_ 5_31317696 ~
851018~OlO 38 ___ 723_8 9488695209 819\353190 650655535_ 61733581~0 _55_~83788 _752526253 9_96658699 92058~1765 0
~
27801253_1 033896_698 186~2_3003 ~1_6791380 6190280596 0785_88801 0789705516 9,62152287 7309010,_6 7_62~97979
9926271209 5168_77956 8_825833_1 _02266\772 108_3362_3 75937_1610 53673_0,19 5_73896_19 7895~25335 0363018614 o
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w 6561759358 5120166929 4311113886 3582159667 6188303261 0_16465171 _846979385 4226216871 61_0012237 8213779174
ti 1312689772 6611299202 5922017_08 7700769562 8347393220 1088159356 2862819285 6357189338 _958850603 8531581797 ~
'o"
60679_7984 0878360975 9601_9733_ 2057270_60 3521190605 6476032855 6927627349 5182203236 14_11258_1 82_262~171
2012035776 38889597_3 1823282787 1314608053 53351 __ 9_2 9762179678 903_568169 8895535185 0~_7832561 6380709~76 .....
9516990862 _710001974 8809205009 5219436323 7871976_87 0339223811 5_03634754 886268_595 6159755193 765_101150 8
1_06700122 6927_7_393 8885899_38 597302_5~1 4801061235 90803627_5 8528849356 325158538~ 3832~24932 5266608158
8908318700 7091002313 7710657698 5056'33928 85_3316583 ~259675065 3715005333 51_4899082 9388773735 2051~59333
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5644317153 7967818058 195852_6_8 \008_03290 9981943781 7181113023 1100398973 3050_95387 3561162610 23999~3325 l'J
9780126893 43260558~7 1027876_90 1070923_4388\63_0117 3555686590 3585~_~919 3101810_16 2620850_29 9258697~35 n
8170981338 940,593_47 1937_93877 62_2324098 5283216226 66049~2385 129709_532 _558625210 3600829286 6_972_17~9 ?2
191_198896 6129558076 77097959,7 9530601311 9159011773 9~310~2090 \9079_2~_4 8868513086 8_4_937059 0902600612 ;.-
06~9_25144 1103535476 578592_270 8130_10618 5462198818 3009063_58 8187038755 8562749115 8737542106 4667951346 &;
_875867715 4383801852 1348281915 8124625993 3516019893 5595167968 9328522058 2_799\2103 _512715877 1633452229
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3516271332 8105181816 0210485218 06755266_8 6139089009 0719513805 862673512_ 3122156916 3790227732 8705~108~2
0318415256 832887180_ 6981952513 0132663'02 18519059~I 1338920358 5403956770 3561132935 4482585628 2816106106
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2896452199 8719884934 1~17729132 7972660276 58_0166789 0136_90508 7_11421268
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0556430295 4282181961 0009202515
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7613220194 1701372664 9660732520 107119_793 1265282163 302_138051 6\90117456 596_8537_8 35_66919_5 2358031530
 fROM 900010 TO 950000
1969160480 9946068149 0403781982 9732360930 0871357607 9862142542 2096419004 3679054790 4993007837 2421581954
5354183711 2936865843 0553842717 6280352791 2882112930 8351575656 5999447417 8843838156 5148434229 8587042455
9243469329 5232821803 5083337262 8379183021 6591836181 5542171574 4846577842 0134329982 5945668845 5826617197 0
00
9012180849 4803324487 8725818377 4805522268 1510113717 4536841787 0280274452 4429054745 1823467491 9564188551
2444213377 8352)42386 5979925988 2032870851 0933838682 9906571994 6149062902 5742768603 8850511032 6385445404
1918495886 6538545040 5713236296 8106914681 4847869659 1668618427 5679846004 1868762298 0555629630 4595322792
3051616721 5919686758 4952363529 8935788507 7460815373 2145464298 4792310511 6763577494 9462295256 9497660359
4739624309 9534331040 4994209677 8838270027 1447849406 9037073249 1064441516 9605325656 0586778757 4174721108
2743577431 5194060757 9835636291 4332639781 2218946287 4477981198 0722564671 4664054850 1310096567 8631488009
0303749338 8753641831 6513498254 6694673316 1181233648 5439764932 5026179549 3572043054 0218297487 12511074011
0116114058 9991109306 2492312813 1163405492 6257135672 1818628932 7861388337 1802853505 6503591952 7414008695
1092616754 1476792668 0321092374 6708721360 6278332922 3864136195 9412133927 8036118276 3241060047 4097111104
8140003623 3427145144 8333464167 54663546997314947566 4342365949 3496845884 5515241507 5637660508 6632827424 0
7941360628 7604129064 4913828519 4564026431 5322585862 4043141838 6695906332 4506300039 2213192647 6259626915 ~
1090445769 5301444054 6180378575 0303668621 2462278639 1527466678 7012100339 2984873375 0144756003 2210062235 ~
8029343774 9550320370 1273846816 3061026570 3008722754 6296679688 0890587127 6763610662 2572235222 9739206443 M
0935243272 2810085997 3095132528 6306011054 9791564479 1845004618 0467624089 2892568091 2930592960 6423570210 ~

6152464620 5023248966 5939873249 3396737695 2023991760 8984745718 4353193664 6529125848 0644801965 2016283879 w
5189499336 7592414856 2613699594 5307287254 5324632915 2911012876 3770605510 6095313775 2775186792 3292134955 ~
~
2451330898 6796916512 9073841302 1675732386 3757582008 0363575728 0027544903 2795307990 0799442541 1087256931 ~

8801466793 5595834676 4328688769 6661009739 5749967836 5933978463 4695994895 0610490383 6474095046 9522606385 ~
8046758073 0699122904 7408987916 6872117147 5276447116 0440195271 8169508289 7335371485 3092893704 6384420893 ~
2997711258 5684084660 83399340456890267875 1600877546 1267988015 4658565220 6121095349 0796707365 5397025761 ~
~ 9943137663 9960606061 1064069593 3082817187 6426043573 4253617569 4378484849 5250108266 4883951597 0049059838 0
~
00 0812105221 1110919433 2395113605 1446459834 2107990580 8209371646 4523127704 0231600721 3854372346 1267260997 ~
8703856570 9199850759 5634613248 4601884098 5019428768 7902268734 5565005191 2154654406 3829253851 2763176639 0
~
2205093834 5204300773 0170299403 6261543400 1322763910 9129883278 6392041230 044555)684 0548898090 8077917463 ~
6092439334 9126411642 4009388074 6356607262 3366958427 6458369826 8734815881 9610585718 3576746200 9650526065
9292635482 9149904576 8307210893 2458570737 0166071739 8194485028 8426039636 6074603118 4786225831 0565808708 ~
7030556759 5861341700 7454029656 8763477417 6431051751 0367328692 4555858208 2372038601 7817394051 7513043799
~
4868822320 0443780431 0317092103 4261674998 0000730160 9481458637 4488778522 2730763304 9538394434 5382770608 ~
7607635420 9844500830 6247630253 5727810327 8346176697 0544287155 3153400164 9707665719 5985041748 1990872014 ~
~
9087568603 7783591994 7193433527 72947285537925787684 8323011018 5936580071 7291186967 6176550537 7503029303 n
3830706448 9128114120 2550615089 6411007623 8245744886 5518258105 8140345320 1247547232 6908754750 7078577659 ~
7325428444 5935304499 2070014538 7489482265 5644222369 6365544194 2254413382 1222547749 7535494624 8276805333
~
3698328415 6138692363 4433585538 6847111143 0498248398 9918031654 5863828935 3799130535 2228334301 3795337295
4016257623 2280811384 9949187614 4141322933 7671065634 9252881452 8239506209 0223578766 8465011666 0097382753 ~
6604054469 4165342223 9052108314 5858470355 2935221992 8272760574 8212660652 9138553034 5549744551 4703449394
8686342945 9658431024 1907859236 8022456076 3936784166 2705185551 7870290407 3557304620 6396924533 0779578224
5949710420 1880430001 8388142900 81730394505073427870 1312446686 0092778581 8110409115 1172937487 3627887874
9074652855 6543474888 6831064110 0510230208 7510776891 8781525622 7352515503 7953244485 7787277617 0019648537
0355516765 5209119339 3437628662 8461984402 6295252183 6785223674 7510880978 1507098978 4130862458 8152266096
3551401874 4958369269 1779904712 0726494905 7372642860 0521140358 1231076006 6995185361 2486274675 6375896225
2991164960 6687650826 1734178484 7893372950 5673900787 8617925351 4406210453 6625064046 3728815698 2323175005
9626108092 1955211150 8593029556 5496753886 2612972339 9146283584 7604862762 7027309739 2020014322 4870758233
7354915246 0856082103 2888297418 3906478869 9232736913 6004883743 6615223517 0584377055 4521081551 3361262142
9118156153 0175888257 3594892507 1088792621 2864139244 3309383797 3338678061 3179523731 5266773820 8580247014
3352700924 3803266951 7421195076 7088432634 6442749127 5589077468 6358216216 6042741315 1702124585 8605623363
1493164646 9139465624 9747174195 8354218607 7487110573 381,5843368 9939645913 7406033821 5935224359 4751626239
1886853078 2282176398 3237306180 2042~65604 7752794310 4796189724 2995330297 9249748168 4052693791 0449470045
 FROM 95001D TO 100000D
9086~99187 27273~5~13. 5081019838 8186~67360 9392571930 5119686~56 01855782~5 0218231065 889~379865 22~3205067
7379966196 955~72~_05 85922~1795 3006820_51 7953100_3_ 72~5176289 3566110508 4902131011 3662575169 7335527462
3029_303120359626095 3423574397 2496592110 1065781182
6108745318 87_803187_ 3082357369 9195156340 9571621009
9244~92974 9105489851 5196586647 4014822510 6335361949
7371425102 2934188258 5117371994 4991150915 8314613010
550506~191 1215319293 5487537119 1630262030 3285886585
2848019350 9225875715 597_252765 8401112134 2323648084
02714335636154204637 5182552524 9443296570 4386138786
5901965138 8028684018 9408161281 6714137033 6617326501
2057865391 5780103088 1142615190 7500149251 6112927675
1930967284 5391116021 3606303090 5422439663 2067432358
2191889332 3244057791 9927848463 3339777737 6559018705
7480682867 8347965624 1461028995 0848139969 2910150432
15302991287229132193 4442988646 4127253481 6060377970
1298299173 0292963086 9580199631 2413304939 350493325_
1235507105 ~~61182591 14111645~5 3~71032988 10~7844067 7801380771 31~65~0009 9386306_81 2666143308 5820681139

5838319169 545558259~ 2689576984 1428893743 ~6708~1079 4631893253 9106963955 7801060212 4597489829 3564613560
788983_724 1997947856 43620~2094 613_123876 1319886535 2358312996 8622689_86 08~08_5665 5606876954 50121_~866
3140505473 5351746873 0098063227 804689122~ 6821~60806 721627708_ 02~0226615 5~85024008 9528916511 17617~3902
033758~871 8429112896 2324705919 1874691042 0058483261 4067733315 1021195653 9946971625 172_831223 0633919328
1079838001 _8_8572651 6123~3~933 27335666_~ 7335855643 0235280883 92_3~82787 6088616~9_ 3289399166 3992104883
078477770~ 8045128491 4563033532 6501002958 8906265915 4985094079 7276756112· 9795010098 2294762289 618915914~ ~
1520032283 878713~8S1 30979D8101 9129267227 1037788980 5396415636 2364169154 9857684083 9846886168 4375407065
1210390625 0612810766 3199047908 8796747780 6973847317 0475253442 1563903872 0123880632 3688031017 9_93089549
0077633152 30635_8314 2568166533 6160664198 0030188287 12376704818 983302_683 6371488309 2592833759 0221894258
8060087286 0388591688 491306939~ 8020511221 7663591382 5152~27867 0094406942 3551202015 6831717885 1824670025
~oz
6511085092 496237_712 681369~28~ 3500629388 1~~2998790 5301056217 375~591826 7997321773 5029368928 0652100253
96268807~9 8092643~58 0116551158 8670044350 3976505323 4782873273 6884086354 0002740676 7838219635 2222653929
o
"l
09398073673913640828 9812201771 6747168118 1958561337215831190546829360832369161134 5028175783 020293~8~5
t.J,l 9829250008 9568263027 1263295866 2921~76531 ~223335179 3093387951 3570953463 7718368409 2~~4_22096 3193312956
>I
~ 2030557551 73~0067973 7~061~1621 07923633~2 38056~6850 0920371671 526~255637 1853889571 416~197123 81~2261059
6667396997 173168169~ 15~3509528 3193556~ 17 7056686222 1521799115 1355639701 1433128936 575538~~6~ 8326201206
;S
~2~3380169 5586269856 1022~60646 0693307938 4785881~36 7~07000599 7691036490 1927332882 6135329363 112~036506 .....
98652160638987250267 238087_033 96711439183 025829689~ 2568967~18 6433613~97 9~75245526 2914265228 42~192~308 8
3388103580 0531810239 995~217211 368655027534136221169314069466 9513186928 1025747959 856051_500 5021715913
31775160995786555198 1886193211 2821107094 42287240~4 2~81153~06 0558959583 5581523201 218~605820 5635926993
§
03~7885113 2068626627 588771~~60 35996656108430725696 5005630644 89187599~6 65967728~7 1715395736 1210818084
15~72731~2 6617~89331 3~11~63266 2354222072 6001460127 0120693~63 952056~4~5 5~32916629 8666078308 9068118790
0908152950 6362678207 561~388815 78135113~6 9536630387 8~120923~6 9428687308 3932043233 3872775496 8052103028 ~
2154~32~72 33888~5215 3431272501 2858974769 146080831~ ~0~1258681 815400~918 7772287869 80185345~5 3700652665
5649170915 ~295227567 09222217~7 ~112062120 6566229898 0603289167 20687~36511 9482461086 9736722554 7404812889
2~2~1185~3 2360575341 1672850757 5520571311 5669795458 ~8873987~2 2281358879 8584078313 50605~8290 5514827852 ~
9~89112190 5383195624 228119~8~1 59~0785939 80~790109~ 1940706717 64~3903273 0712135887 3850499936 3883820550
1683~02177 4960702768 ~~88028191 2220636888 6368110~35 6952930065 2195528261 5269912716 37277388~1 8993287130
563~6~6882 2739828816 31986~5109 8363089177 86~8708667 6185485680 0~76725526 7541~7~285 1028145807 4031529921
9181~55775 68~3681110 185311~981 67016~266~ 7884090262 68282~~~82 5802753209 45~991510~ 5185177165 ~631180490

~567985713 2575281119 1365627815 8111288816 5622858760 3087597~96 38~9~35275 6766121689 5926148503

0785362045
2745077529 5063101248 034180~584 0594329260 7985443562 0093108091 8215239203 7179067812 1992280496
0697382387
4331262673 03067959~3 96095~9511 8957721791 5597300588 6936~68455 76676092~5 0906088202 2122357192
5453671519
'183~872581 ~23919~108 904~411595 9932160044 506556206~ 6116~65566 5~87S942~7 3692523369 5599303035
5095817626
1762318~95 61906\9483 9673002037 76387~3693 ~399982943 02091~7073 6189479326 9276244518 6560239559
0537051289
78163~5542 332011~975 99~8962184 2~327~8378 8032701~18 6769526211 80975006~0 5149755889 6502930048
6760520801
0~91537885 ~13909~2~5 3169171998 76289~1277 22112946~5 6829~86028 1~93181560 2496778879 ~981377721 6229359437 ~
~
61100~~480 6019767242 92762~9510 78~1534~6~ 2915084276 45200020~2 769~706980 4177583220 9097020291 6573472515
8290463091 03590318~2 9175726517 208772~~7~ 0952267166 306005~697 163879~317 1196873~84 6887381866 5675127929
8575016363 41131~6275 3049901913 56~6823804 3299706951 7015078933 7728658035 7121909137 67~2080565 5493624646
 On the Computation of Euler's Constant
By Dura W. Sweeney
1. Introduction. The computation of Euler's constant, 'Y, to 3566 decimal
places by a procedure not previously used is described. As a part of this computa-
tion, the natural logarithm of 2 has been evaluated to 3683 decimal places. A
different procedure was used in computations of 'Y performed by J. C. Adams in
1878 [1] and J. W. Wrench, Jr. in 1952 [2], and recently by D. E. Knuth [3]. This
latter procedure is critically compared with that used in the present calculation.
The new approximations to 'Y and In 2 are reproduced 'in extenso at the end of
this paper.

2. Evaluation of 'Y. A new procedure based upon the expansion of the exponen-
tial integral, -E.( -x), was used to evaluate 'Y rather than the classical approach
used by Adams, Wrench, and Knuth. This new procedure was chosen so as to avoid
the more complex programming required in t.he computation of high orders of
Bernoulli numbers.
The exponential integral is given as

-E.C-x) 1.e-' dt
= .. -t- = -'Y - Inx +x
x2
- 2.2!
(1)
-'Y - In x + sex).
Its asymptotic e."<pansion is

(2) -E.(-x) = l.."''''dt

e__
t
- (1- _121
~~
x x
+....:- .... -) = R(x).
~

Equating these and moving 'Y to the left, we have

(3) 'Y ~ Sex) - In x - R(x).
Since the asymptotic form behaves as e-~/x for large x, the difference between Sex)
and In x will approximate 'Y to the accuracy of the number of leading zeros in the
value of R(x).
(4) For x = 8192, R(x) = 0.22190 ... 10-:1561 •
The value of x was chosen as a power of 2 to simplify the calculation of In x.
Also, since a binary computer was to be used, many of the multiplications in the
terms of S (x) could be reduced to shifting operations.

3. Method of Computation. The computation of In 2 is very rapid and straight-

forward on a binary computer using one of the forms of the expansion
1 1 1
(5) In 2 = 2 + 2.22 + 3.23 +
Received June 29,1962.
170

350
 ON THE COMPUTATION OF EULER'S CONSTANT 171

The computation of Sex) is also straightforward, but requires substantially

more computer time since for x = 8192 almost 30,000 terms are required for con-
vergence, and up to three times the number of digits in the final answer are required
during intermediate computations to avoid truncation errors and to compensate
for the loss of significant figures arising from subtractions.
The computer program was written to do the computation two different ways to
establish the accuracy of the analysis, the programming, and the system operation.
Two different binary-to-decimal conversion routines were also used, one with each
of the computations.
The first part of the computer run used the following procedure. The individual
terms of the expansion,

(6) 131n 2 = 13 L'~'23 + 2.~1'2b + 3'~~27 ..... J,

were evaluated and summed to form In 8192. Sex) was evaluated by summing the
odd and even terms of the expansion separately to avoid subtractions, thus:

sex) = (x + 3·3!
x + ..... )
3

(7)

The individual terms of these sums were computed from an intermediate value,
C2" , as follows:
X 2,,+1 x2
(10) C2" = -(- = 2n)!
1) D2n- 2 , where
2n(2n -

D C2n and D 2n C2n

(11 ) 2n+l = (2n + 1)2 = 2-'
n.'!:
The second part of the computer run used the following procedure. Ln 8192 was
evaluated from the following recursion starting at n = 12,300:

(12) In 8192 = 13B 1 ,

Sex) was evaluated by the following recursion starting at n = 30,000:

nx
(13) sex) = xAl' =
-4." 1 - (
n + 1)"- A ..+1.
The complete computation was performed on the engineering model of the IBM
7094 in 58 minutes. The first part of the computer run took approximately 20
minutes. The second part took approximately 35 minutes. The remaining time was
required for non-overlapped printing and punching of results. The same computa-
tion was performed again on an IBM 7090 in 114 minutes as part of the tests of the
speed and compatibility of the two systems.
The computed values of In 2 agreed to 3683 decimal places, and the tabulation
is believed accurate to that number of decimals. The value of In 2 confirms the value
calculated by H. S. Uhler [4] to 330 decimal places.

351
172 DURA W. SWEE:'o1EY

The computed values of"Y agreed to the same number of decimal places as In 2, but
the accuracy is limited by the value of x to 3561 decimal places. The value of
R(8192) given in (4) was subtracted to give the additional five decimal places
shown in parentheses in the tabulation. TIlls value of"Y is believed accurate to 31566
decimal places and confirms the value calculated by D. E. Knuth to 1270 decimal
places.

4. Comparison of Methods. The operating times reported by Knuth presented

an opportunity to compare the two methods to determine which might be more
useful in extending the value of"Y to greater accuracy. An estimate of the time re-
quired shows that if the expansion of the exponential integral had been used it
would have been substantially faster than the classical method for the evaluation
of"Y to 12i1 decimal places on the Burroughs 220.
(14) For ;x; = ;;000, R(x) < 10-130°, and

In 3000 = !8 In 10000 + !2 In (1 - ..!..)

10
(15)
=
7
SIn 10000 - 21 (21
1.2.102 + 3.4.1Q4 + ..... .
43 )

Knuth reported a time for the evaluation of In 10000 of approximately 18 minutes.

The additional logarithm would take approximately 4 minutes more.
S(;x;) would require approximately 10,800 terms for convergence and could
probably be most efficiently computed as follows:

(16) Sex) =(X+3~~!+""-)-(2~~!+ .t:!+ .... ·)= LD2n-l- LD2n ,

where
(2n - 2)x (2n - l)x
(1i) D~n-l = (2n _ 1)2 D21&-2 and D2n = (2n)2 D2,.-1.
The evaluation of each D" would require a multiplication loop, a division loop,
and a summation loop which would be used to evaluate each storage word of ac-
curacy for each of the terms required for the convergence of Sex). These loop oper-
ations would require less than 10 milliseconds for each word of storage. Since there
are 10,800 terms, all that is required is an estimate of the accuracy or number of
storage words for each tenn.
The upper curve in Figure 1 shows the value of r = loglo (30oo"/n·n!). For
n = 3000, r reaches its maximum value of almost 1300. At this value of n, the value
of D .. must be known to 2600 decimal places (260 words of storage). To avoid
truncation errors, at least 2600 decimal places must be carried for each n < 3000.
As n becomes larger, the required accuracy decreases, reaching 1300 decimal places
at n:: 8200, and going to zero at n ::::::: 10,800. This is shown as the difference at a
particular n between the upper and lower curves in Figure 1. If the accuracy is
carried to 2600 decimal places throughout, as shown by the area between the t~vo
curyes plus the area outlined by the dotted line, the computation of Sex) would
h3o\'e taken 7.8 hours, i.e.,
( 260 X 10,800 X .010)
3600 .

352
 ON THE COi\1PUTATIOX OF EULER'S CONSTANT li3

1500

-.........
- - --- - --- ---- -,

'"
",
L I

I
1000 I

~ I
I
~ I

\
500 J
I

o
V I
J
I
2000 4000 6000 8000
\~OOOO I
I
I

\
-500 I

I
I
I
-1000
I

~:,
:.,,-

I
-1500 /

-2000

-2500
V
3000n )
FIG. 1. l' = Jog lo ( --
n·n!

Since the area bounded by the two curves is less than 75% of the total area con-
sidered above, an achievable and still faster time for the evaluation of Sex) would be
approximately .j.8 hours. This is to be compared to the approximately 9 hours re-
ported by Knuth for the evaluation of the sum of the first 10,000 reciprocals and
the first 230 Bernoulli numbers. 'When the times for the evaluation of the logarithms
are added, the comparison shows that the evaluation of 'Y by this new method would
have required about two-thirds of the time reported by Knuth.

353
174 DUR\ W. SWEE:-iEY

A similar comparison was attempted for the evaluation of 'Y to 3.566 decimal
places on an IBM 7094 using the classical method. This would have required the
evaluation of the sum of the first 6;),;')36 reciprocals and the first 610 Bel'1loulli
numbers. This approach was abandoned since a "good" lower bound of the time
required could not be established with reasonable effort because of the complexity
in e~tablishing the accuracy (number of words of storage) needed for each of the
Bernoulli numbers used in the recursion for evaluating the next higher Bernoulli
number. It also appeared that the storage capacity of the system would have been
exceeded, requiring additional time and programming complexity. ~o auxiliary
storage is required for the evaluation of 'Y using the expansion of the exponential
integral on either computer.
It should be noted that there exists a still faster method which remains to be
tried. This method will require additional programming efIort, but substantially
less computer time will be required. For a given x evaluate In ;1:, Sex) and e-1: to
twice the number of decimal places which would be expected from the value of
R(.I:). Then evaluate the semi-col1\'ergent portion of R(x) and multiply by the
value of e-". When this value of R(x) is subtracted from Sex) - In.);, the accuracy
of'Y will be extended to that expected from the value of R(2x). This method will be
faster since Sex) will require far fewer terms for convergence to a certain accuracy
than S(2x); e.g., S (8192) will require approximately :36,000 terms for convergence
to about 7200 decimal places, while S( 1(384) will require almost 60,000 terms to
achieve the same accuracy.
IB:VI Data Processing Division
Poughkeepsie, New York
1. J. C. ADAMS, "On the value of Euler's constant," Proc. Roy. Soc. London, v. 27, 1878,
p.88-94.
2. J. W. WRENCH, .JR., "A new calculation of Euler's constant," MT.!C, v. 6, 1952. p. 255.
3. D. E. KNUTH, "Euler's constant to 12il places," Math. Comp., v. 16, 1962, p. 275-281.
4. H. S. UHLER, "Recalcui:J.tion and extension of the modulus and of the logarithms of
2,3,5,7, and 17," Proc. Nat. A.cad. Sci., v. 26, 1940, p. 205-212.

354
 OK THE COMPUTATIOK OF EULER'S CONSTAKT 175

"y .;'57721 56649 01532 86060 65120 90082 40243 10421 59335 93H92
35988 05767 23488 48677 26777 66467 09369 47063 29174 67495
14631 44724 98070 82480 96050 40144 86542 83622 41739 97644
92353 62535 00333 74293 73377 37673 94279 25952 58247 OH491
60087 35203 94816 56708 53233 15177 66115 28621 19950 15079
84793 74508 57057 40029 92135 47861 46694 02960 43254 21519
05877 55352 67331 39925 40129 67420 51375 41395 49111 68510
28079 84234 87758 72050 38431 09399 73613 72553 06088 93312
67600 17247 95378 36759 27135 15772 26102 73492 91394 07984
30103 41777 17780 88154 95706 61075 01016 19166 33401 52278
93586 79654 H7252 03621 28792 26555 95366 96281 76388 79272
68013 24310 10476 50~96 37039 47394 95763 89065 72967 92960
10090 15125 19595 09222 43501 40934 98712 28247 94974 71H56
46976 31850 66761 29063 81105 18241 97444 86783 G3808 61749
45516 98927 92301 87739 10729 45781 55431 G0050 02182 84409
60537 72434 20328 54783 67015 17739 43987 00302 37033 95183
28690 00155 81939 88042 70741 15422 27819 71652 30110 73565
83396 73487 17650 49194 18123 00040 65469 31429 99297 77n56
93031 00503 08630 34185 69803 23108 36916 40025 89297 08909
85486 82577 73642 88253 954H2 58736 295H6 13329 85747 39302
37343 88470 70370 28441 29201 66417 85024 87333 79080 56275
49984 34590 76164 31671 03146 71072 23700 21810 74504 44186
64759 13480 36690 25;~)32 45862 54422 25345 18138 79124 34573
50136 12977 82278 28814 89459 09863 84600 62931 69471 88714
95875 25492 36649 35204 73243 64109 72682 76160 87759 50880
95126 20840 45444 77992 29915 72482 92516 25127 84276 59657
08321 46102 98214 61795 19579 59095 92270 42089 89627 97125
53632 17948 87376 42106 60607 06598 25619 90102 88075 61251
99137 51167 82176 43619 05705 84407 83573 50158 00560 77457
93421 31449 88500 78641 51716 15194 56570 61704 32450 75008
16870 52307 89093 70461 43066 84817 91649 68425 49150 49672
43121 83783 8753,:; 64894 95086 84541 02340 60162 25085 15583
86723 49441 87880 44094 07701 06883 79511 13078 72023 42639
52269 20971 60885 69083 82511 37871 28368 20491 1789~ 59447
84861 99118 52939 10293 09905 92552 66917 27446 89204 43869
71114 71745 71574 57320 ::39352 09122 31608 50868 27,'i,,)8 89010
94516 81181 01687 49754 70969 36667 12102 06304 82716 58950
49327 31486 08749 40207 00674 2.'5909 18248 75962 13738 42311
44265 31350 29230 31751 72257 22162 83248 83811 24589 57438
62398 70375 76628 55130 33143 92999 54018 53134 14158 62127
88648 07611 00301 52119 65780 06811 77737 63501 68183 89733
89663 98689 57932 99145 63886 44310 37060 80781 74489 9579~
83245 79418 96202 60498 41043 92250 78604 60362 52772 60229
19682 99586 09883 39013 78717 14226 91788 38195 29844 56079
16051 97279 73604 75910 25109 95779 13351 57917 72251 50254
92932 46325 02874 76779 48421 58405 07599 29040 18557 64599
01862 69267 76437 26605 71176 81336 55908 81554 81074 70000
62336 37252 88949 55463 69714 33012 00791 30855 52639 59549
78230 23144 03914 97404 94746 82594 73208 46185 24605 87766
94882 87953 01040 63491 72292 18580 08706 77069 04279 26743

355
176 DURA W. S'VEENEY

AI (continued)
28444 69685 14971 82567 80958 41654 49185 14575 33196 40633
11993 73821 57345 08749 88325 56088 88735 28019 01915 50896
88554 68259 24544 45277 28173 05730 10806 06177 01136 37731
82462 92466 00812 77162 10186 77446 84959 51428 17901 45111
94893 42288 34482 53075 31187 01860 97612 24623 17674 97755
64124 61983 85640 14841 23587 17724 95542 24820 16151 76579
94080 62968 34242 89057 25947 39269 63863 38387 43805 47131
96764 29268 37249 07608 7.'5073 78528 37023 04686 50:349 0£)120
:34227 21743 66897 92848 62972 90889 26789 77703 26246 23912
26188 87653 00577 86274 36060 94443 60392 80977 08133 83693
42355 08;)83 94112 67092 18734 41451 21878 03276 1;"iO;')O 94780
;'j546() 30058 68455 63152 45460 53151 13252 81889 10792 :31491
31103 23443 02450 93:34;) 00030 76558 1)4874 22297 liioo :3:3178
45391 .50;'j(j(j ~)-l015 99884 92916 09114 00294 86902 08848 ;j:J816
97009 55156 63470 55445 22176 40358 62939 82865 81312 38701
32535 88006 25686 62692 69977 67737 73068 32269 00916 08510
45150 02261 07180 25546 59284 93894 92775 95897 54076 15599
33782 64824 19795 06418 68143 78817 18508 85408 03679 96314
23954 00919 64388 75007 89000 00627 99794 28098 86372 99259
19777 65040 40992 20379 40427 61681 78371 56686 53066 93983
09165 24322 70595 53041 76673 66401 16792 95901 29305 37449
71830 80042 7(58486)

356
 ON THE COMPUTATIO~ OF EULER'S CONSTANT 177

In 2 = .69314 71805 59945 30941 72321 21458 17656 80755 00134 36025
52541 20680 00949 33936 21969 69471 56058 63326 99641 86875
42001 48102 05706 85733 68552 02357 58130 55703 26707 51635
07596 19307 27570 82837 14351 90307 03862 38916 73471 12335
01153 64497 95523 91204 75172 68157 49320 65155 52473 41395
25882 95045 30070 95326 36664 26541 04239 15781 49520 43740
43038 55008 01944 17064 16715 18644 71283 99681 71784 54695
70262 71631 06454 61502 57207 40248 16377 73389 63855 06952
60668 34113 72738 73722 92895 64935 47025 76265 20988 59693
20196 50585 54764 70330 67936 54432 54763 27449 51250 40606
94381 47104 68994 65062 20167 72042 45245 29612 68794 65461
93165 17468 13926 72504 10380 25462 59656 86914 41928 71608
29380 31727 14367 78265 48775 66485 08567 40776 48451 46443
99404 61422 60319 30967 35402 57444 60703 08096 08504 74866
38523 13818 16767 51438 66747 6G478 90881 43714 19854 942~1

51997 35488 03751 65861 27535 29166 10007 10535 58249 87941
47295 09293 11389 71559 98205 65439 28717 00072 18085 76102
52368 89213 24497 13893 20378 43935 30887 74825 97017 15591
07088 23683 62758 98425 89185 35302 43634 21436 70611 89236
78919 23723 14672 32172 05340 16492 56872 74778 23445 35347
64811 49418 64238 67767 74406 06956 26573 79600 86707 62571
99184 73402 26514 62837 90488 30620 33061 1446300737 19489
00274 36439 65002 58093 65194 43041 19115 06080 94879 30678
65158 87090 06052 03468 42973 61938 41289 65255 65396 86022
19412 29242 07574 32175 74890 97705 75268 71158 17051 13700
91589 42665 47859 59648 90653 05846 02586 68382 94002 28330
05382 07400 56770 53046 78700 18416 24044 18833 23279 83863
49001 56312 18895 60650 55315 12721 99398 33203 07514 08426
09147 90012 65168 24344 38935 72472 78820 54862 71552 74187
72430 02489 79454 01961 87233 98086 08316 64811 49093 06675
19339 31289 04316 41370 68139 77764 98176 97486 89038 8i789
99129 65036 19270 71088 92641 05230 92478 39173 73501 22984
24204 99568 93599 22066 02204 65494 15106 13918 78857 44245
57751 02068 37030 86661 94808 96412 18680 77902 08181 58858
00016 88115 97305 61866 76199 18739 52007 66719 21459 22367
20602 53959 54365 41655 31129 51759 89940 05600 03665 13567
56905 12459 26825 74394 64831 68332 62490 18038 24240 82423
14523 06140 96380 57007 02551 38770 26817 85163 06902 55137
03234 05380 21450 19015 37402 95099 42262 99577 96474 27138
15736 38017 29873 94070 42421 79972 26696 29799 39312 70693
57472 40493 38653 08797 58721 69964 51294 46491 88377 11567
01678 59880 49818 38896 78413 49383 14014 07316 64727 65327
63591 92335 11233 38933 87095 13209 05927 21854 71328 97547
07978 91384 44546 66761 92702 88553 34234 29899 32180 37691
54973 34026 75467 58873 23677 83429 16191 81043 01160 91695
26554 78597 32891 76354 55567 42863 87746 39871 01912 43175
42558 88301 20677 92102 80341 20687 97591 43081 28330 72303
00883 49470 57924 96591 00586 00123 41561 75741 32724 65943
06843 54652 11135 02154 43415 39955 38185 65227 50221 42456
64400 06276 18330 32064 72725 72197 51529 08278 56842 13207

357
178 DURA W. SWEE:-<EY

In 2 (continued)
95988 63896 72771 19552 21881 90466 03957 00977 47065 12619
50527 89322 96088 93140 56254 33442 55239 20620 30343 94177
73579 45592 12590 19925 59114 84402 42390 12554 25900 31295
37051 92206 15064 34583 78787 30020 35414 42178 57580 13236
45166 07099 14383 14500 49858 96688 57722 21486 52882 16941
81270 48860 75897 22032 16663 12837 83291 56763 07498 72985
74638 92826 93735 09840 77804 93950 04933 99876 26475 50703
16221 61390 34845 29942 49172 48373 40613 66226 38349 36811
16841 67056 92521 47513 83930 63845 53718 62687 79732 88955
58871 63442 97562 44755 39236 63694 88877 82389 01749 81027
35655 24050 51854 77306 10440 52423 22125 50024 83308 27788
88890 59629 11972 99545 74415 62451 24859 26831 12607 46797
28163 80902 50005 65590 91461 28332 54358 11140 48482 06064
08242 24792 40385 57647 62350 31100 32425 97091 42501 11461
55848 30670 01258 31821 91534 72074 74111 94009 83557 32728
26144 27382 13970 70477 95625 96705 79023 03384 80617 13455
55368 55375 81065 74973 44479 22511 19654 61618 27896 01006
85129 65395 47965 86637 83522 47362 45460 93585 03605 06784
14391 14452 31457 78033 59179 21127 95570 50555 54514 38788
81881 53519 48593 44672 46429 49864 05062 65184 24475 39566
37833 73482 20753 32944 81306 49336 03546 10101 77464 93267
87716 71986 12073 96832 01235 96077 29024 68304 59403 13056
37763 13240 10804 20285 43590 26945 09403 07400 14933 95076
73160 28502 86973 03187 18239 98433 525

358
ACTA ARITIHlETICA
X (19G4)

Approximations to the lognriihms

of certain rational numbers
by

A. BAKER (Cambridge)

1. Introduction. In a recent paper [lJ methods were introduced

for investigating the accuracy with which certain algebraic numbers
may be approximated by rational numbers. It is the main purpose of
the present paper to deduce, using similar techniques, results concern-
ing the accuracy with which the natural logarithms of certain rational
numbers may be approximated by rational numbers, or, more generally,
by algebraic numbers of bounded degree.
Results of this type were first proved by Morduchai-Boltowskoj in
1923 (see [6]) but the most precise results so far established are due to
Mahler [4] and Fcldman [2]. SUPPOHC that a iH an algehraic number ot.her
than 0 or 1. Then the work of Mahler leadH to ineqnalities of the form

valid for all algebraic numbers 1; of degree 11, and sufficiently large height
II, where " is an explicit function of 11" of order c''', where c is a constant
> 1. For small values of 11, and rational a these represent the best
inequalities known, but for large 11, very much stronger results were
recently given by Feldman, indeed with " of order (11, logn)2.
In the present paper we shall begin by proving
THEOREM 1. Let a, band 11, be positive integers and let a = b/a. 8up-
pose that ,,> 11, and
(1)

where h = b-a > 0 and

(2)
Then
(3)

359
31G A. Baker

(4)
and 0 is given by
(5) 0= a-·\laga where l = 50,,(,,+1).
It follows that for certain rational numbers a the inequality (3)
holds with " only slightly greater than n, and this is almost the best
possible; for it is well known that (3) could not hold for a.ll integers
a:o , a:l , ••• , a:,., not all zero, with any constant 0, if " were less than n.
From Theorem 1 we obtain as an immediate deduction the following
COROLLAltY. Suppose that the hypotheses of Theorem 1 ',old and let
t5 = n(,,-n). Then
(i) Iloga- EI > H-,.-1-6 for all algebraio numbers E of degree at most
n and sufficiently large height H.
(ii) There a1'C infinitely many algebraio numbers E of degree at most
n and height H for whioh Ilog a - EI < H-"'-1+ 6 •
The proof of Theorem 1 depends on combining a theorem of Mahler,
given in [4], concerning certain polynomials in loga:, with a lemma of
an arithmetical nature due essentially to Siegel (see [8]). The corollary
is deduced by direct application of two formulae of Wirsing [9].
The condition (1) may be relaxed if we suppose that n = 1, h = 1.
We prove
THEOREM 2. For all integers a > 0, p and q > 0 we have

(6) Ilog (1+ ~) -~ I> c(a)q-H(a)

where
,,(1) = 12'5, ,,(2) = 7,
log{4 V2a 2 /(a+1)}
,,(a) = 2 for a ~ 3,
log {Y2a 3 /(a + 1)2}
and
(7) 0(1) = 10-loS, c(a) = (V2a)-lo4. for a ~ 2.
Here ,,(a) is docreasing and tends to 2 as a tends to infinity. For
a ~ 15 we see that ,,(a) < 3 and thus we obtain, for example, the follow-
,
mg measure 0 f"rrratlOnaIity f or I og 16
15 ;

Il o 15
g---
16 q
pis
>q-
for all rationals p/q with q sufficiently large.

360
 .t.1·pp1'ozimationll to the logarithms 31'j

FinaJly, by way of application, we give a positive lower bound for

the fractional part of the sum of the series
(8)
where () is any positive rational number. Clearly we need consider only
the case in which the sum C of (8) is greater than 1. Then the result is
as follows.
THEOREM 3. Let 0> 0 be a rational number with denominator q > 0
and 8upp08e that
C = (e'l-I)-I> 1.
Then the fractional part of C i8 greater than c(l)q-12's where c(l) is given
by (7).
I am indebted to Prof. Davenport for valuable suggestions in con-
nection with the present work.
2. Lemmas. The following lemma is due essentially to Siegel.
LEl\1MA 1. Let n be a p08itive integer and let gil (i, j = 0, 1, ••• , n)
be (n+ 1)2 integer8 with absolute values at most Q such that the matrix (gij)
is non-singular. Suppose that Eu ••• , En are real or complex numbers and let
(9)
for i = 0, 1, ... , n. Suppose that the ([Ji have absolute values at most w.
If XO! Xu ... , Xn are integers, not alZ zero with absolute value8 at most X and
(10)
then
(ll)
Proof. Since (qi/) is non-singular, there are n of the linear forms
e en which together with the linear form (10) make up a line-
(9) in 1, u ... ,
arly independent set. Without loss of generality we can take them to be
the mst n forms. We have
([JI gu ... gin ~l1o gu ... gin
... .... -
.......
([In gnl gnn gno gnl gnn
'l' Xl Xn Xo Xl Xn
and the determinant on the right is a non-zero integer. Expanding the
determinant on the left, and estimating each term, we obtain
n!Qnl'l'l+n(n!Qn-1X([J) ~ 1,
which gives (11).

361
:ns A. Baker

LEl\'ll\'IA 2. Let a be a real numbet· such that 1 < a ~ 2 and let m, n

be positive integers. Then there eX'ist (n+l)2 polynom,ials Ai/(x) (i,j =
= 0,1, ... , n) in x of degree at most m with the following properties.
(i) The determinant of ord(lr (n+l) with Aij(a) in the i-th row andj-th
column (i ,j = 0, 1, ... , n) is not zero.
(ii) Each polynom'ial Aij(x) has integer coefficients with absolute values
at most
3
r
n! 2"-'c (m+- 1)2,.+1 (4 V2)<,.+I)'''.

(iii) The (n+ 1) functions

110

(12) Ri(x) = ,l; A;j(x)(logx)i (i = 0,1, ... , n)

}=o
satisfy the 'ineq'ualities
3
(13) IRi(a)1 ~ n! 2 -2111• (e Vm)"+1 a 2,"+1 {Vs(1~+ 1)-llogu}(n+l)m.

Proof. This is a special case of Theorem 1 of Mahler [4] (see p. 378).

We ha.ve intercha.nged 'm a.nd 1't a.mI rel:ltl'icted the number u so that
1 < u ~ 2. Then
n+l > 2110g al
and thus a condition required by Mahler's Theorem is satisfied.
On the basis of Lemma 2 we introduce the following notation. Corres-
ponding to each pair of positive integers m, n and each pair of integers
a, b such that a> 0 and '1 < a ~ 2, where a = bfa, we define numbers
qii = qij(m, n, a, b) by the equations

(14)
where the Ai/(x) are the polynomials given by Lemma 2 corresponding
to m, n, a. Since the A;j(x) are of degree at most m it follows that the
gil are integers. Also from (i) of Lemma 2 it is clear that the matrix (gii)
is non-singular. We now put
(15) ~i = (loga)i for i = 1, 2, ... , n
and define the numbers tPi = tPi(m" n, a, b) (i = 0,1, ... , n) by (9).
Then clearly, for each i,
(16)
where the Ri(x) are the functions given by (12) of Lemma 2. Finally
we note that if the tPi have absolute values at most tP, xo, Xl' ••• , Xn are
integers, not all zero, with absolute values at most X, and tp is given by
(10) then all tho hypotheses of Lemma 1 are satisfied and hence (11) hold8~

362
 Appro:lJimations to the logarithms 319

3. Proof of Theorem 1 and COI·oUary. We note first that, from (1)

and (2), a > k, so that a is a rational between 1 and 2 exclusive.
Let Illo, Ill}, ••• , Ill" be integers, not all zero, and let X be given by
(4). Suppose that Ei is given by (15) and that tp is defined by (10). We
proceed to prove that (3) holds, that is
(17)
We put
(18)
and suppose first that
(19)
From (2) it is clear that e > 1/,+1 and it follows from (1) and (18) that
a > w. Thus there is a positive intege.r m such that
(20)
The supposition (19) then implies that
(21) m > 50xloga.
Our next object is to calculate upper bounds for the numbers
gij = qij(m, 1/"
a, b) and tP, = tPiCm, 1/" a, b) defined as above. Several
preliminary inequalities will be required. First we note that

.2: af' < .2: 21' < 2m+l.

m m
(22)
r-O r_O

Secondly it is clear that e> 2 and from (1) we obtain a> 32h. Hence

(23)

Thirdly, since tr > 1+1ll for each Ill> 0, it follows that

(24) loga < kla.
Next we prove that
(25)
From (1) and (2) we obtain
log a> 1/,(n+l)log(4 Y2) > 3n
and it follows from (21) that m > (12n)z. It is then easily verified that
log(m+ 1) < rm
and hence
_I."""
(26) (2n+l)log(m+l) < 3nym < im
1
< 8m
3
log2.

363
320 A. Ba.ker

Also we obtain
(27) nlogn+(7~+I)log2 < 2n2 < ~mlog2,
and then (25) is deduced by adding (26) and (27). Finally we shall require
the inequality
(28)
which is clear from (25).
Now from (li) of Lemma 2, (14) and (22) we see that the integers
gij have absolute values at most
an, (n!) 2n-3m/2 (m '" ar
+ 1 )2n+1 (4 V2)(n+ 2;
I).",
r_O
~ an'nn2n-m/2+I(m+l)2n+l(4 II2)(n+l)'" ,

and, from (25), it follows that this is less than Q where

(29) Q = a''''(4 Y2)(n+I)"'.
b'rom (13), (16), (23) and (24) we deduce that the ifJi have absolute values
at most
a'''',,,,n2- 3,n/2 (oY m)"+12m/2 {VB (n+ 1)-lh/a}(n+l)m
= a-mn2-n'nnen+lm(n+I)/2{Y8h(n+ 1)-I}(n+l)m,

and, from (28), this is less than ifJ where

(30) ifJ = a- m "{VBh(n+l)-I}(n+l)m.

We now use Lemma 1. From (11) we obta.in

(31) IPI ~ (nQ)-n{l_nn+ 1ifJXQn-l}.

Since from (18), (29), (30) and the right-hand inequality of (20),
n,·+lifJXQn-l ~ (a/w)mifJQ n- 1 = 2-(n+l)m,
it follows from (31) that
(32) I PI > i(nQ)-n.
Wo next prove that
(33) (a/w)(m-l)N > Qn.
From (1), (2) and (18) we deduce that
a,,-n > {h(4 V2),,}(n+l)("+l)
> 2{h(4V2),,(n+1)-1}(n+l)"(4V2),,(n+l) = 2w"(4V2),,(n+I),
and hence
(34)
 :lP.p,·oximatiQIt8 to the logm-ithmll 321

Further, from (21) we obtain

It follows from (:"l1) :md (35) that

:md this is equivalent 1,0 (:{3). ,]~hell from (20) and (33) we oot,ain
(n,,+lX)" > Q"
so that, from (32),
(36) 1'P! > OX-x,
where
(37)
It is clear from (1), (2) and (37) that
o> (2n)-("+1)(x'I.I) > l,-,(x'H)loga > 0,

where c is given by (5), and hence (17) certainly holds for all integers
,.v,• such Uml; (I!) iH H:.I;iHfied.
;VII, ;VI' •••
N ow suppose that mo, XI, ••• , X.,. are integers, not all zero, for which
(19) dom! not hold. Then X < u where u is the integer given by
(38) u = [(a/w)50xloga]+1.
Since at least one of the (n + 1) integers uXo , ux1 , ••• , UXn has absolute
value at least u, we may apply the result (36), just established, with this
set of integers in place of xo, xl! ... , Xn and uX in place of X. We obtain
ulPI > O(uX)-X,
that is
(39) I PI > Ou- x- I X-x.
.Finally we show that
(40) 011.-"-1 > c.
From (38),
U"+l < 2,,+1 (a/w)"lOga,

where A is given by (5), and it follows from (1), (2) and (37) that
Ou- x- l > (4n/w)-("+1)(x+l)a.-"loga.

It is clear from (18) that

w ~ (2Y2t(n+l) > 4n·
and thus (40) holds as required. Then (17) follows from (39) and (,.10)
and this completes the proof of Theorem 1.
Acta ArlthmetJca X.3 21

365
 A. Baker

As for the proof of the corollary, the results follow by an immediate

apl'lielttion o\: t;\Vo ineqnn,lities given ill ''''iJ'sing [fl]. 'With the notation
of that paper, Theorem 1 implies that
w,,(loga) .S;; x.
'l'hen from (8) of [9] (sec p. (8) it follows that
w:(logll) .0:;; W'l1(lOg(l) :::; x.
Itud from (7) of En] we obtain
w.~(log(l) ~;;; wn(log(l)/(wn(Joga) .-- 11+ 1) ~.; xl(x-n+]).

However % < -/I,.\-- () (fo)' 11, > 1) and

xl(x -- n-I-l) =-= (n~ -j- b) I(n -+ () > '/I _.- '),

where b ,= n(x---n), a\l(l, lI.v t,hn definition of w.~(log(1), this proves the
eorollal'Y·
4. Proof of Theorem 2. We distinguish t,wo cases according as a > 1
or a = 1. In the first case we repeat the arguments of Theorem 1 with
n = 1, It = 1 but base these arguments on stronger estimates. In the
case a = 1 it is necessa,ry to modify the methods of 'l'heorem 1 and we
proceed in a similar manuel' to Mahler [4]. 'l'heorem 5 of [4] contains
the result that (6) holds with x(l) = 48 and by means of suitable estima-
tes for the numbers 1H(m, 2, 1, 2) :md l/Ji(lI~, 2, 1, 2) this may be impro-
ved to x(l) = 12·5. 'l'he proofs follow direetly on the lines indicated
and we omit t,he details.
5. Proof of Tbeo('em 3. Let, G, = [C]. Prom 'rJlCol'em 2 we obtain
:ilog (1+--1) ;_ _
,_ . a. .
,--.12.5
---O!/(,(a,)I/ •

where c(a.) is given hy (7). We pl'o(\ce<l to prove t.ha,t, c(a) ill (41) ean be
I'eplaeeu by e(l)a-- l and the require(l l'el-mll; then follows hy applieatiOlI
of the lneau-va.lue theorem. It is clear from the form of ;;; that there is
only one signifim1nt value of (j" if (J, :;;: .j, lU111wly the intJeger uearest to
(O-I-i). Since also e(a) > e(l) for (J, < 32, it suffices to consider the
case q > a ~ 32. The proof now follows in a similar manuel' to that of
rrheorem 1 with n = 1, h = 1 and we again omit the detail!;.

Heferenccs
(1] A. Bakel', Ratio'nal approxi'lll,(~tio1t8 1(1 Nll'lnin alr/ohmic nltm/Jers, Pl'oc.
Lond. Math. Sou. (3)14(1964), PI>. 385-398.
[2] N. I. Pcldman. ApVl'oximaUol/. b!l (tlf/c/iraia 'it-umbers to lhe logo'u'ithm8 of
alge-brain 1/lt-mbll-rs, Izw. Almd. Nuuk. SSSB. sel'. maL. 24 (1 !lUO). Pl'o 475· -!!l2 (in
Russian).

366
 .JjljlrOXi1lbatiolll1 to tlte Zog(.£ritltmll 323

L3] K. Mahler, Z,lr .Al1proxi,nalion der BXJlonentialfu7Ikti01l. und des '£ogariU,.

,,,..us, Jour. reine. 3ngE.w. Mal.It. 166 (1032), (I) PI'. 118-13U, (II) pp. 137 -lliO.
[4] - Olt the (J.pl'rO:IJi1lbation of logaritll1lb8 of algebm'iv 'It1ultberll, PItilos. 'rraIls.
Roy. Soo. Lond., ser. A, 245 (1953), pp. 371-398.
[5]- 01' tlie approxi'lfbation of ~, Proo. Akad. Weiensoh. Amst., ser. A, 56 (1053),
}II'. 30 - 42.
[6] D. .Mord uchai- H oHowskoj, S'ur le loga'ritlt7lte d''ll//b nO'llbbre algebriqll,c,
CUlIlllies ltondus Aoltll. Slli., VItTi!!, 176 (1023), lip. 724-727.
[7] 'I'll. S(I]IIleidel', Bi1lfii.1I'ftUtg tit die trt.£ns;;c·",del/.(,c'Ib Z(1./tifJ'Ib, Berlin, Giit.t.illgOll,
Heidelberg, 1057, Kal'. 4.
[8] C. L. Siegel, abeT einige ..:1.'ltwel£duuge'/t (.lioplbanti8v7tcr AII1Jro:IJimatio·/wlI.,
Abh. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. (1929), No 1.
[9] E. Wirsing, Appro:IJillbati01/. mit algebraisolun~ Zahle1b b08ohra'nkte'n Grades.
;rour. reine. allgow. 1\{a1.] •. 20n (I9nl). 11JI. n7-77.

367
Reprinted from the PROCEEDINGS OF 'l'Hr~ NATIONAL ACAIH~!'tIY 01<' HClI<~NCI~~
Vol. .55, No.1, pp. 28-31. January, 1966.

ASYMPTOTIC DIOPHANTINE APPROXIMATIONS 1'0 E*

By WILLIAM W. ADAMS

UNIVERSI'1'Y OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

Communicated by S. Eilenberg, November 1, 1965

l. Statement of Results.-Schmidt5 proved that for almost all realllumbers ex, the
number of solutions in integers p, q of the inequalities
Iqex - pi < l/q and 1 ~ q ~ B
is asymptotic to a constant times log B. One might conjecture that the classical
numbers (e.g., algebraic numbers, e, "/1") behave like almost all numbers. Machine
computations 1 were carried out for some of these numbers, and they secmed to bear
out such a conjecture. Also, Lang 3 has proved that the estimate is valid when ex
is a real quadratic irrationality.
In this paper, we shall obtain an asymptotic estimate for e, which shows that the
conjecture for e is false. The machine computations of reference 1 are misleading
because the range in which they are carried out, even though goillg to q ~ 106, is
still too small to exhibit the proper asymptotic behavior.
The function 4Xr(x + 3/2) is strictly monotone-increasing. Let G be its inverse
function. An application of L'H6pital's rule shows that

· G()/
11m x log x = l.
;r-+m log log x
THEOREM l. Let Al(B) be the number of solutions in integers p, q of the inequalities
Iqe - pi < l/q and 1 ~ q ~ B. (1)
Then

THEOREM 2.-Let A2 (B) be the number of solutions in relatively prime integers p, q

of the inequalities (1) above. 'j'hen,
A2(B) = 3G(JJ) + 0(1).
We note that if we let Al +(B) be the number of solutions in integers p, q of the
inequalities 0 < qe - p < l/q and 1 ~ q ~ B, then a trivial modification of the proof
given below shows that Al+ = 1/2A1, and similarly for A2+'
Theorems similar to these are true for any irrational number whose continued
fraction expansion is similar to that of e. However, the notation is considerably
more involved and so these extensions will be reserved for a later paper.
2. Some Facts about Continued Fractions.-The proofs of the theorems are based
on the simple continued fraction for e. We recall some easily proved facts. See
Khinchin 2 for details.
Let ex > 0 be any irrational number, and denote by lao, ai, a" ••• ] the simple
continued fraction expansion of ex, where the an are integers, positive for n ~ 1.
Denote the nth principal convergent to ex by p,,/q,. = lao, ai, ... , an] and the nth
28

368
VOl,. 55, 1966 MATHEMATICS: W. W. iI.DAMS 29

intennediate convergents by (P .. + rplI + I)/(q,. + rqn + 1), where 1 ~ l' < an + 2.

We shall refcr to boUt typcs of cOllvergcuts siJllply ws convCI·gcnts. Wc know that
the even convergents fonn a strictly increasing sequence of rational numbers tend-
ing to ct, and the odd convergents form a strictly decreasing sequence tending to a.
Moreover, if P /Q and P'/Q' are two successive tenns in either sequence, then
PQ' - PIQ = ±1. We recall that q.. = anq" _ t + q" _ 2, and hence, that q,,/q ..- l
= [a",a" _ 1, • • • , ad. Further, we have always Iq"a - p,,1 < 1/q". Finally, let
a" = [a",a" + I, • • . J. Then we have the easily derived formula

I(q" + rq" + I)a - (p" + rp" + 1) I = --

a" + 2 -r
, (2)
q,. + a" + 2q" + 1

for integers 0 ~ r < a" + 2.

LEMMA. If la - plql < 1/q2 where p, q are positive integers, then plq is a con-
vergent of a.
Proof: We assume that a < plq, the other C3.'le being proved in a similar manner.
If piq is not u. eonvcrgcnt, theu thcrc cxist two successivc convergcll ts P IQ amI
P'/Q' such that a < P /Q < plq < Pl/Q' and P'Q - PQ' = 1. Thus,
1 P P P 1
->--a>- - ~
q2 q q Q qQ'
and
1 pI P P' P 1
Q'q
~
Q'
-q <-
Q' Q Q'Q'
These estimates are contradictory.
3, Proof of the Theorem.-We know 4 that e = [2,1,2,1,1,4,1,1,6,1,1,8,.,.J so
that for e, we have ao = 2, a3m = a3m _ 2 = 1, and a3m _ 1 = 2m for all m ~ 1. We
set as above, ell = [a", all + 1, ... J,
PROPOSITION 1. We have for all n, m ~ 1,

At(q3m + 1) = 1/3(2m)312 + 0 (m)

A2(q,,) = n + 0(1).
Proof: We first show that, with a finite number of exceptions, the only reduced
fractions plq satisfying Ie -p/ql < 1/q2 are the principal convergents. From
this the fonnula for A2 is clear since the nth solution is simply Pm q".
By the lemma we know that any solution must be a cOllvergent, so suppose that
(p" + rp" + 1)/(q" + rq" + 1) with 0 ~ r < a" + 2 is a solution. We wish to show
that r = O. If n = 3m - 2 or n = 3m - 1, then an + 2 = 1 and so r = O. Thus,
we may restrict our attention to the case where n = 3m. To say that this conver-
gent is a solution simply means by (2) that
eam+2-r 1
qam + eam + 2q3m + < 1 q3m + rq3m + I'

This condition is equivalent to fer) > 0, where

fer) = r2 + ( q3m+1
---
qam - eam +2 ) l' + (qam
- - + e3m +2 -
qam+1
eam + 2qam)
-- •
q3m+l

369
30 MATHEMATICS: W. W. ADAMS PROC. N. A. S.

Thus, we must show that J(1),f(2) , ... ,J(a~m + 2 - 1) < O. SinceJ is a quadratic
polynomial in r with leading coefficient 1, it suffices to show that J(I) < 0 and
J(aam + 2 - 1) < O. Well, J(I) = 1 +
(2 - eam + 2)q3m/q3m + I, and J(I) < 0 follows
from

eam + 2 > a3m + 2 = 2(m + 1), q3m + I/qam = [1,1,2m, ... J < 2.
Furthermore,

J(aam + 2 - 1) = (e3m + 2 - a3m + 2) (2 - aam + 2 - qam/qam + I) + 1,

and J(aam + 2 - 1) < 0 follows similarly.
We must now determine which multiples of the cOl1vergents Pn, qn are also solu-
tions of (1). Again by (2), with r = 0, this condition is equivalent to the condition

If n = 3'1n - 1 or n = 3m, then the condition implies le 2 < 4, so le = 1 is the only

possibility. If n = 3m - 2, the condition amounts to le 2 < 2m 0(1), i.e., +
1 ~ k < (2m)1I2 +
0(1). For such k, we note that lcqam _ 2 < qam + 1 (for m suffi-
ciently large). Hence, modulo Oem), we find

~'l(qam + I) = '~1 (2v) 112 = J{'o" (2X)1I2dx = 1/a(2m) 3/2 •

• =0

Proving the theorems now essentially amounts to obtaining m as a function of

q3m + 1·
PnOPOSI'l'ION 2. There exist constants CI, C2 > 0 such that

cl 4mr(m + a/ 2) ~ qam + 1 ~ C2 4"'r(m + 3/2),

Pl'OOJ: We note that the equations

q3m + 2 = 2(m + 1)q3m + + qam 1

qam + 1 = qam + qam - 1

may be solved to yield

q3m~ = 2(2m + 1) + q~m - 5,

q3711 - 2 '/3". - 2

so that
qam
-- + 1-
[2(2rn + 1), 2(2m. - 1), ... J.

Thus,
qam + 1 ;?; 2(2m + l)q3m _ 2 ;?; 22(2m + 1)(2m - l)q3m - 6 ;?; •••
and hence q3m + 1 ~ c 4mr(m +
l 3/2) is clear. Conversely,

370
VOL. 55, 1966 MATHEMATICS: W. W. AD.l111rS 31

q3m+1
q3m _ 2 ;;;; 2(2m + 1) + 2(2m1_ 1) = 2(2m + 1) (1 + 4(2m + 1)(2m
1- ) 1) ,

and proceeding inductively, we see that

q3m + I ;;;; 2m(2m + 1)(2m - 1) ... IT

p=l
(1 + 4(2" + 1)(211
1
- 1)
),

so q3m + I ;;;; ~4mr(m + 3/2), where C2 is determined by the infinite product.

To prove the theorems, we find to any given B the integer m such that
q3m - 2 ;;;; B < q3m + 1. Thus,

cA'" - Il'(m - 1 + :1/2) ;;;; JJ < cz4"'r(m + 3/2),

and
G(Blc2) <m ;;;; G(Blcl) + 1.
Since G(x) grows like (log x)/log log x, we conclude that m = G(B) + 0(1), whence
Theorem 1 follows at once from Proposit,ion 1.
* This research was partially supported by National Science Foundation gmnt GP3990.
1 Adams, W., and S. Lang, "Some computations in diophantine approximations," to appear in
J. Reine Angew. Math.
2 Khinchin, A., Continued Pract'wns (Chicago: Chicago Press, 1964).
3 Lang, S., "Asymptotic approximations to quadratic irrationalities," Amer. J. Math., 87, 481-
495 (1965).
4 Perron, 0., Die Lehre von den KeUenbrl1cMn I (Stuttgart: Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft, 1954).
6 Schmidt, W., "A metrical theorem in diophantine approximations," Can. J. Math., 11,619-
631 (1959).

371
MAHLER, K.
Math. Annalen 168,200-227 (1967)

Applications of Some Formulae by Hermite

to the Approximation of Exponentials and Logarithms
To C. L. SIEGEL on his 70th birthday

K. MAHLER

While LIOUVILLE gave the first examples of transcendental numbers, the

modern theory of proofs of transcendency started with Hermite's beautiful
paper "Sur la fonction exponentielle" (HERMITE, 1873). In this paper, for a
given system of distinct complex numbers Wo, WI' ••• , Wm and of positive
integers eo, el' ... , em with the sum q, HERMITE constructed a set of m + 1
polynomials
~o(z), ~1 (z), ... , ~m(z)
of degrees not exceeding q - eo, q - l!1' ... , q - em, respectively, such that all
the functions
e"'/ Z- ~,(Z) e"'k Z
~k(Z) (0 ~ k < I ~ m)
vanish at z = 0 at least to the order q + 1. On putting z = 1, these formulae
produce simultaneous rational approximations of the numbers 1, e, e2 , ••• , em
that are so good that they imply the linear independence of these numbers and
hence the transcendency of e.
In a later paper (HERMITE, 1893), Hermite introduced a second system of
polynomials

of degrees at most eo - 1, el - 1, ... , em - 1, respectively, for which the sum

m
L Ak(z) e"'k Z
k=O
vanishes at z = 0 at least to the order q - 1. On putting again z = 1, one obtains
now a linear form
aO+ale+ ... +amem
of small absolute value and with small integral coefficients, from which again
the transcendency of e may be deduced. Surprisingly, HERMITE himself never
took this step, and I was seemingly the first to use the polynomials A,,(z) for
this purpose (MAHLER, 1931).
In the present paper I once more wish to exhibit the usefulness of Hermite's
polynomials A,,(z) for the study of transcendental numbers. I shall prove a
number of explicit estimates, free from any unknown constants, for the simul-
taneous rational approximations of powers of e or of the natural logarithms
of sets of rational numbers.

372
 Some Formulae by Hermite 201

1. Let Wo, WI' ... , Wm' D be m + 2 integers satisfying

0=wo<w 1 <W2 < ... <wm=D,
and let

Mk=!Ii(Wk-W,)!, M= lcm M k, N= Icm (Wk-W,),

1=0 k=O.I •...• m 1*1:
'*1: k.I=O.I ..... m

where Icm denotes the least common multiple. Let z be any complex number,
(! a positive integer, and

1 if h = k,
Ou: =
{
0 if h k , '*
the Kronecker sign. Denote by Co and Coo two circles in the complex 3-plane,
both with centres at 3 = 0, and of radii less than 1, and greater than D, respective-
ly. Then put

These definitions imply (see, e.g. MAHLER, 1931) that Ahk(Z) is a poly-
nomial in z at most of degree (! ; that
m

Rh(z) = L Ahk(Z) ,Wk' (h = 0, 1, ... , m) ,

1:=0

and that the determinant

Aoo(z), ... , Aom(z)
D(z) = = cz<m+ 1)1/,
AmO(z), ... , Amm(z)
'*
where C 0 does not depend on z.
2 By the paper quoted, Rh(z) may also be written as
1 '1 . I __ I

Rh(z)=z(m+I)1/ Jdt l Jdt2 ... J dtmw(t) ez'P(t) ,

000

where the expressions wand IJ' are defined by

(1- t l )QUhO -l(t l - t 2 )11+6hl-1 ... (t m - I - tm)lluh.",-I-lt~Uh",-1
<P(t) = m

O(e+ Oh l - 1)!
1=0
and
IJ'(t)=W 0(1-t l )+WI(t 1 -t 2)+ .. · +wm- 1(tm-l- tm)+W,"tm,
respectively. Here the quantities
1- t l , tl -t2' ... , t m - I - tm, tm

373
202 K. MAHLER:

are non-negative and have the sum 1. Therefore, by the theorem on the arith-
metic and geometric means,
o~ (1 - t l)(t 1 - t 2) ... (tm- 1 - tm}tm ~ (m + 1)-(m+ I) ,
so that

Further
O~ 'l'(t)~Q

and

f f f
1 I, tm-l

dtl dt2 ... dtm = ~! .

o 0 0

It follows then from the first mean value theorem that

Izl(m+ I)Q eU1z1
IRh(z)1 ~ m! (m + 1)(m+ l)(Q- 1) Q! (Q _ l)!m .

3. From the integral, Au(z) is the polynomial

Q zi
AhI«z) = L A~~ -.,
i=O J.

where the general coefficient A~~ is given by

U=O,I, ... ,Q).

If we choose for Co the circle

1
131 = m+ 1 '
then on this circle,

1
1+
w" -
3
W,
I~ 1 -131 = 1 -
_1_ = _m_
m+ 1 m+1
for k =t= l.

The formula for A~~ may also be written as

A(j) - Om (
hI< - _ W"
_
W,
)-Q-~hl. _1_J
21l; m ~
3i-Il-6hk d3
2 )11+60' .
:;~
C
0
1=0
1 + --"--
W,,-W,
o 1*1<
It follows therefore that
1 21l ( 1
IA(j)I<M-Q·- - - - -
)-(Q+6 0k ) ( m
--
)-m Q -(1-IOkJ

hi< = I< 21l m + 1 m + 1 m+ 1 '

374
 Some Formulae by Hermite 203

and so, by 0 ~ "hk ~ 1, that

IAWll ~ Mkllm-mll(m + l)(m+ 1)11.
4. From the original integral,
d ZII+b hk - 1
,Q Wk - W, + dz
m ( )-II- bhl
Ahk(Z) = (e + c5 u - I)! .

This formula may also be written as

Allk(Z) = Ii (Wk - W,)-1I- 6hl. Ii (1 + -Wk-- W,- dzd

'=0 '=0
)-II- bhl zII+ bhk -
(e+c5"k-1)!'
1

or, what is the same,

m
A"k(Z) = [](Wk- W,)-,,-6hl . []
m{oo(-e-
L c5 ) d).} zII+
h' (Wk- W,)-" d~). ( +c5
1
6hk - 1
-1)"
'=0 '=0 ),=0 I\. ~ e Ilk .
'*k '*k
Here the binomial coefficients are integers; the differences Wk - W, are divisors
of N; and hence the operator has the form

[] {a)L
m (_ e - c5h'~ (Wk-W')-).-d;'
1
d).} =
00 d).
L g;,N-"-
d ;,
'=0 ),=0 I\. Z ),=0 Z
'*k
where
go, gl' gz, ...
are certain integers that also depend on hand k. It follows that
m lI+bhk-l ZII+6hk-"-l
Ahk(z) = [](Wk-W,)-"Hh'.
'=0
L
),=0
g).N-). ( c5 -A.-I)'
e + hk .

Here, from the definitions of M and N, the factor

m
MIIN' [] (Wk-W,)-1I-0hl
'=0
'*k
is an integer. Therefore the product
II
ahk(z) = Mil Nil + 1 (l! Ahk(Z) , = L aWlzj
j=O

say, is a polynomial in z with integral coefficients aWl.

Since
II zj
ahk (Z)-MIIN,,+l/),
- ". "Aw-
L- hk ., '
j=O J.
these integral coefficients can be written in the form

-T-
A(j)
aWl = Mil Nil + 1 (!!
J.

375
204 K. MAHLER:

and so satisfy the inequality

It is further obvious that

because
Izli
L -.-,
II
< e1zl •
j-OJ.
In analogy to alll(z) put also
r,,(z) = Mil Nil + 1 (!! R.(z) (h=O, 1, ... ,m).
Then

r,,(z) = L'" alll(z) e

OJ• z (h = 0, 1, ... , m) •
1:=0
From the identity for D(z), the new determinant
aoo(z), ... , ao",(z)
d(z) = : = cz(m+ 1)11
a...o(z), ... , amJft(z)
°
where again c =t= is independent of z.
We note that, by the estimate for R.(z),
Mil Nil + Ilzl(Jft+ 1)11 eD1.1
Ir,,(z)l~ m!(m+l)(Jft+I)(II-1)«(!-I)!Jft·
5. The inequalities just proved can be simplified by means of some simple
lower and upper bounds for M 1:, M, and N.
First, the factors of M I: are integers distinct from one another and from
zero, and of these factors k are positive and m ~ k are negative. It follows there-
fore at once that
MI:~k! (m-k)! = m!(:r ~rmm! l

Secondly, N is the least common multiple of certain positive integers not

greater than 0, and hence
N ~ lcm(l, 2, ... , D) ~ e1.04U
where the numerical inequality is taken from the paper (ROSSER anq
SCHOENFELD, 1962).
Thirdly, an upper bound for M may be obtained by the following method
due to B. H. NEUMANN.
For each suffix k and for each prime p let J-lt(P) denote the largest integer
for which

376
 Some Formulae by Hermite 205

Hence
M" = [lp"k(P).
P

Since Iw" - w,1 ~ 0, a power p' of p cannot be a divisor of some factor WIt - W,
of M" unless
p' ~ Q and therefore p~ 0 .
The largest possible value of t is then

= [logOJ
log2' t
because 2t + I > o.
One counts as usual how many of the factors
w" where 0 ~ I ~ m, I =1= k ,
WIt -

are successively divisible by pi, by p2, by pl, etc., and finally by pt; the sum of
all these numbers is equal to JJ,,(P). Now M" has just m factors w" - w" and so
none of these numbers can exceed m. Also these factors of M" lie in the interval
from w" - 0 to w" of length 0, and this interval contains the mUltiple 0 of p'
which is not a factor of M t. Therefore at most

factors of M t are divisible by p', whence

JJ,,(P) ~ ,tl min (m, [~J) .

We replace this inequality by the weaker but more convenient one,

JJ,,(p)~min(m,[ ~J) + ,tJ~J =JJ(P) say.

Let
M* = [l p"(P) •
p:;a
Then all products M lr and so also their least common multiple M are divisors of
M*, and hence it follows that
M~M*.
6. Put now
v(P)= t [~],
/=1P
so that, by a well known formula,
O!= npY(p).
'p:;a
It follows that
O!
M*·=-
A

377
206 Ko MAHLER:

where A denotes the product

A = n
p~U
pV(P)-/-I(P).

From the definitions or J.I(P) and v(P),

or
'~H~)~ {~~]-m
l Q
p~ -,
m

°f
1 Q
p>-,
m
so that

and therefore also

10gA~ L (Q logp -(m+ l)logp).

pSJ!.
-m
P
In the paper (ROSSERand SCHOENFELD, 1962), it is proved that

L -logp
p~" p
- >logx+E -210gx 1
- - ror x> 1

and
L logp< l.02x for x~ 1,
p~"

where E is a certain constant satisfying

E> -1.34.
Assume for the moment that

and therefore
Q
210g-
m
~4, 1Q ~O.25,
210g-
m
while trivially

It follows then that

Q -1.34-
10gA > Q ( logm 1 Q ) - (m + 1) l.02 Q
m
210g-
m

378
 Some Formulae by Hermite 207

or

10gA > .QftOg ~ _ (1.34 + __1 --:.Q:- + m; 1 1.02,1,

1 210g-
m
IS
and here
m+l < _ ~
1. 34 + .Q + m 1.02 = 1.34 + 0.25 + 2.04 - 3.63 < 3 .
210g-
m
Hence, finally,
.Q
10gA >.Q ( log-;; - 311) '
that is,
.Q)a _.!.!. a
A> ( - e J •
m
This inequality trivially is valid also for
.Q<e 2 m,
because then
. a
(2 - .!. !) ( .Q)a - .!.!. a
A~ 1 >e J > - e J •
m
7. Thus it has been proved that always

Here

and therefore

But .Q ~ 1, hence
eva = el +i101111 + (a-1) ~ ei1a+ 1)+ !la-I) = ea ,

and so finally
11
- a
M<maeJ .
On combining this inequality with the earlier one for N,
.lL
Mil Nil + I ~ Mil N 211 < (m a e 3 a y (e1.04a)211

and hence

379
208 K. MAHLER:

8. For the moment put

Mil Nil + 1 e! (m + 1)("'+ 1)11
a=
M:m"'l1
by what has been proved in § 4,
maxla~~1 ~ a, maxlau(z)1 ~ a e'-' , maxlrll(z)1 ~ rlzl(m+ 1)11 eD'-'.
h.t.i h.t 11

Thus upper bounds for a and r imply upper bounds for la~ZI, lau(z)l, and
Irh(Z)I. Such upper bounds are obtained as follows.
To begin with a, we apply in addition to
Md~2-"'m! and Mil Nil + 1 <mDlle6DII
the formulae
V21te ell e- II < e! < e Vi ell e- II , m! > V21tm m'" e- m •
We find then that

Here
e 2 < 7.5, 21t> 6
and hence
e2 e 7.5(} 7.5(} 3
(21tf < (1 +5f ~ 1 +5(} < 2" <4.
Further the function
2m e"'-l(m + 1)m+ 1
m 2m + t

of m assumes it maximum when m = 2, and this maximum has the value

27e 13
V32 < .
The final result is therefore

and it follows that

8. Since

380
 Some Formulae by Hermite 209

we similarly find that

em (!2 mm" (mO e60 e2m )"

m+ 1 mm (!m .
(211:)-2-. mm(m + 1)(m+ 1)(,,-1). em"
Here m ~ 1 and (! ~ 1. Further

mm(m+ l)(m+I)(,,-II=mm,,+,,-I(1 + !}m+I)("-II~mm"+"-1 e"-I ~mm"

because
( 1 + 1 )m+ 1 >e;
m
and also
m+1
(211:)-2-> 1.
It follows that

since
e"-I ~ 1 + «(! - 1) = e ~ et .
The final result is then that
r < ( mO e60 e2m )" ~ (mO e80 )" ;
mm (!m mm (!m

here we have used that

m~ Q and hence em ~ eO •
Thus it has been established that

9. As a first application, denote by w a positive integer and put

1
Z=-.
w
Let further q ~ 1, ql' q2, ... , qm be m + 1 arbitrary integers, and let

l: = 2mq max
t= 1.2 ..... m
Iem0>. - .!l!.q I
\4 Math. Ann. \68

381
210 K. MAHLER:

and

(k=0,1, ... ,m),

where we have put

Since Wo = 0, trivially
eo=O,
and hence
e= 1=0.1........
max le,:I = max le,,1 .
"=1.2 ..... ...
The powers
~ QJl COm

efl),efl), ... ,e'"

are irrational numbers, and hence
e>O.
We shall now establish a positive lower estimate for 6-
For this purpose we note that the (m + 1)2 numbers

Wllau(~), =A"" say (h,k=O, 1, ... ,m)

are integers, with the determinant

.
Aoo, ... , Aom
.
*0.

On putting

(h=O, 1, ... ,m),

we have

r Au e-;;;
... fI)~

R" = (h = 0, 1, ... , m) .
"=0
The estimates in §§ 7-8 now take the form
1
max IAllie I < 2(13qwmae6ayew
".1
and
ma e8a )11 a
max IR"I < ( "'...... e'" .
" m q W

382
 Some Formulae by Hermite 2tt

10. Since the determinant of the integers A,d: is distinct from zero, and
since the integers
qo~ 1, q" ···,qm
do not all vanish, there exists a suffix h such that

and that therefore

With this value of h, put

1 1
L AUq1' E= -2- L AlI1ek •
1ft III

Q= -
q k=O mq A=1
From the definition of eA,
1ft "'k
R II = LAue'" = LAllA: -
III (q1 + -e,,)
- =Q+E.
A:=O 1=0 q 2mq
Here
IQI~~
q
and
e
lEI ~ -2
q max
h,Ic
IAIlIeI.
Assume now that
1
max IRIII ~ -2 .
It q
It follows then that

and hence that

e max
1t,A:
IAul ~ 1.
Thus the following result is obtained.
If

( rno eBO )II!!. 1

e"'~-
mill elll w m - 2q'
then
1
e > {2eQj(13ew~e60)ll} -1.
14·

383
212 K. MAHLER:

This result can be slightly simplified. Since all three integers w, fl, (} are at
least 1,
U
2iD ~ 2eU < e2U ~ e2U 1I ,
so that

Further

Here

and so
_8_ > «(}wmU+ I e60+ 5)-11 q-I .
2mq
Thus the following result holds.
Lemma t. If Q is chosen such that
mO elOO )11 ~ ...!..,
(
m"' Q"'w"' - q
then
_max Ie":: - .!!!.I > «(}w~+ I e60 +5)-11 q- I .
1e-1.2 •..•• m q
11. When applying this lemma, one naturally will choose the integer Q
as small as possible because this improves the estimate. It is now convenient
to distinguish between the two cases (] = 1 and (J > 1.
The case Q = 1 holds exactly when
I
W ~ (mo-"'eIOOq)iii,
and then, by the lemma,

max Ie":." - .!!!.1>(wmO+'e60+S)-'q-"

lezl.l ..... m q
Next, excluding this case, let
I
W «~-rneIOOqr,

so that the smallest possible value for (} is at least 2 This value (} satisfies the
inequality

384
 Some Formulae by Hermite 213

It follows that

and that therefore

< (mU e lO ur 1
mU e6U+ 6 q"'(1I-1) •
1

The lemma implies then in this case that

max Ie":: - ~I > e(4U-6)II(mU e 10 a-,- "': 1 II -1- q "'(II~ 1) •

k= 1.:z ••••• '" q
Here we once more use that (! ~ 2, hence that
-1-_11- _1_1 _ _1 _ -1-1. 2
q "'(II-I) = q '" "'(II-I) ~ q '" • q "'II,

where, by the choice of {!,

_2.
"'II~
lOU(mQ e ).! "'.
q - m'" {!"'W'"
Evidently 0 ~ m, and so, by this inequality,
_2. e20
q "'1I~-2-2-'
{! 00

Assume, in particular, that also a ~ 2. Then

2 211+20 20
40 - 6 ~ 2, e(4U- 6)11 q - "'II ~ e > _e_ because ell> (1.
- - (1200 2 00 2

Thus, in this second case, we arrive at the estimate

Iem _.!l!.q I> -2-(mO

e "'+ I
Qlk 20 1 1
max eIOa-,-----;;ollq- -iii.
k= 1.2........ W

Our result may be expressed as follows.

Theorem 1. Let 00,00" ... ,00"" q, ql' ... , q"" and 0 be 2m + 3 integers satis-
fying the conditions
00 ~ 1, q ~ 1, 0 < WI < 002 < ... < 00", = a, a ~ 2.
If
1
co ~ (mU -", e lOU qjiii ,
then

385
214 K. MAHLER:

If, however,
I
W < (mD- m e loa qf,
and if (! denotes the smallest integer satisfying

( ma elon )' ~ ~
m'" (l'" w'" - q ,

I
then
max
1:= 1.2 ..... ".
Ie
"'k
W __
q e 20 m+ I I I
I: >-2-(mDel0~--;;;-'q- -iii.
q W

The interest of this theorem lies in the fact that w, WI' ... , Wm' q, q" ... , qm
may all be variable and are subject only to trivial restrictions. The assertion
is particularly strong when w, w" ... , Wm are fixed, while q, ql' ... , q", are
allowed to tend to infinity. For then the parameter (! likewise tends to infinity
and is given asymptotically by
)ogq
(!"" ---:::.....:--
loglogq'
Hence a positive constant c depending only on w, WI' ... , w'" exists so that
max "'k _!J!.
eW
/
I Ie
>q-l-iil-IOIIOIf
1:-1.2 ..... '" q
for large q.
If also w, w" ... , w'" are variable, the theorem is much less strong. However,
some consequences seem still worth of being mentioned.
12 Theorem 1 implies an analogous theorem on the simultaneous approxi-
mations of logarithms. Its proof is based on the following elementary lemma.
Lemma 2. If x and y > 0 are real numbers such that
Ix -logyl ~ 1 ,
then
Ix -logyl ~ e-"- 21e" - YI.
Proof. By the mean value theorem,
e' -1
- - =eIII h
were 0 <.,.<1.
0
t
Hence, on putting t = x - logy,
e" - y
0< =yell("-IOI")~ey.
x-logy
Here
logy~x+ 1, y~e"+l,
whence the assertion.

386
 Some Formulae by Hermite 215

This lemma we apply to each of the m pairs of numbers

Wit
X=-, (k = 1, 2, ... , m),
W

for which, evidently,

D
x~ - ~D, e- X - 2 !;;e- O- 2 .
W

We next note that Theorem 1 remains valid if the conditions

O<w 1 <W2< ... <wm=D
are replaced by the weaker hypothesis that the integers WI' ... , Wm are all
distinct and have the maximum D. By combining the theorem with the lemma
we obtain therefore the following result.
Theorem 2. Let w, WI' ... , Wm' q, ql' ... , qm' D be 2m + 3 positive integers
satisfying the conditions
Wit *w, for k *I ; D= max
It= 1.2 •..•• m
Wit ~ 2.
If W satisfies the inequality
1
W!;; (mO-m e lOO qf,
then

_ max
It-l.2 ..... m
Ilog~ _
q
Wit
W
I> (wmO+ 1 e 70 +7 q)-l.

If, however,
1
W < (mD- m e lOO qf ,

and if {} denotes the smallest integer satisfying

( mOel00 )Q ~~,
m'" em wm - q
then

_ max
It-l.2 ..... m
Ilog-Itqq _ _ I> --2-(m
W

W
e
It oe
1s - a

W
1oa)
_m+l"
m q
-1-.!.
m.

13. We deal in detail with one special application of Theorem 2. For this
purpose denote by
Pl=2,P2=3, .. ·,Pm
the first m primes in their natural order. We apply the theorem with
q= 1, ql = PI' ... , q",= P'"
and choose for w, WI' ... , Wm any m + 1 positive integers for which the fractions

387
216 K. MAHLER:

WI W
, .•. , -..!'!.. are approximations of 10gPl' ... , log Pm' respectively, that are
W W
already so close that

(A) max Ilogp,,- -W" I< -Iog--.

1 Pm
k= 1,2, ... ,m W 2 Pm-l

Further put again

and assume that

m~1O.

From the hypothesis (A),

Ilogp" -IOgP11 ~ log ~ for k =F I,

Pm-I
and

logp,,~log2>log~ for all k.

Pm-I
Hence
Wk+ I W" ( W,,+1 ) + (Iogpk+
-;;;- - -;;; = -;;;- -Iogpk+ 1 1
(Wk)
-Iogp,,) + logp" - -;;;

1 Pm Pm 1 Pm
> - - I o g - - +Iog-- - - I o g - - =0
2 Pm-l Pm-l 2 Pm-I
and

-w i l-lo gPm·
>log2- - - ~log2- -1 Iog-
3 >0,
W 2 Pm-I 2 2
The hypothesis (A) implies therefore that
O<WI <W2 < ... < Wm = Q.
It also implies that
w~2,
because, if W were equal to 1, it would follow that

Ilogpi - -WI I~llog2-11 > -Iog-

1 3 ~ -1l o gPm
--,
w 2 2 2 Pm-I
for all choices of the integer Wh contrary to (A).
Next we have Wm ~ m ~ 10 and therefore
Q>2.
Thus all conditions of Theorem 2 are satisfied, and this theorem may be
applied.

388
 Some Formulae by Hermite 217

From (A),

Q < w (lOg Pm + ~ 10g~) = 2 log ( P; ).

w
Pm-I Pm-I
Here, by Bertrand's law on prime numbers,

and by the paper (ROSSER and SCHOENFELD, 1962),

Pm<V2mlogm.
Therefore the quantity Q allows the upper estimate
Q < w log(2m logm).
It follows that

m m
~ < 1 exp { 1 (10 + logm) . w log(2m logm)} .
(mU-m e10nr

Here the right-hand side does not exceed 2 if

< m log(2m)
(B)
w = (10 + logm) log(2m logm) ,
and so, for such values of w, the second case (} ~ 2 of Theorem 2 cannot hold.
Therefore, by this theorem,

_ max
k-I.2 ..... m
IIOgpt - !!!!!..I
W
> (wmfH I e7U + 7 ) - I .
In this estimate,
wm + I e 7U + 7 < e 7 mwexp{(7 + logm)' w log(2m logm)}
u
7 m log(2m) . { m(7 + logm) log(2m) }
~e m (10 + logm) log(2m logm) exp 10 + logm
m2
<e 7 - I -exp{mlog(2m)},
ogm
where, by m ~ 10,
m2 m2
e7 _1__ <2,000-
2 < (2m)S .
ogm
Hence it follows from (B) that

_ max IIOgpt- !:!!:.1>(2m)-m-s.

t-l.2 ..... m W

A stronger result is obtained if w is restricted to the smaller range

m
(C) w S; - - - - - - - - -
- (7 + logm) log(2m logm)

389
218 K. MAHLER:

Now

where, by m ~ 10,

It follows thus from (C) that

_max IIOgPm- wml>m-se- m ,

t-I.2 •...• m W

The two right-hand sides

(2m)-m-S and m- s e- m
in the estimates just established are smaller than the right-hand side

-I Iog--,
Pm 1
=11. say,
2 Pm-I
of the hypothesis (A), For
Pm<V2mlogm<m 2 ,
because
I m
logm~log2+ 2'(m-2)< 2'
Therefore
I P I m2 I
A. ~ 2'log Pm': 1 > 2'log m2 _ 1 > 2"log(1 + m- 2) ,
where, by m ~ 10,
1 1 1
2'log(1 + m- 2 » 2'(m- 2 - m- 4 - m- 6 - ... » 3"m- 2 •

Hence

giving the assertion easily,

We may then omit again the hypothesis (A), and we are also allowed in
including the trivial denominator W = 1. Then, on combining the preceeding
results, we obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 3. Let m ~ 10 .. let PI = 2, P2 = 3, ... , Pm be the first m primes ..
and let w, WI' ... , Wm be m + I positive integers. Then

L=ml.2a.x.... mllogp,,- wwk l>(2m)-m-S

A
if t:::;w:::;
- -
mlog(2m)
(10 + logm) log(2m logm) ,

390
 Some Formulae by Hermite 219

and
m
if 1~W ~ ---------
(7 + logm) log(2m logm) .
These two inequalities are rather weak, but it does not seem to be easy to
obtain much better ones. For larger values of W the position is worse.
14. Next put
WI = 1, Wz = 2, ... , WIll = m, hence Q = m.
The general estimates for a~~, a",,(z), and r/t(z) can in this special case be a little
improved. For now evidently

M,,=k!(m-k)!=m!(~rl ~2-mm!, M=m!,

and by the paper (RossER and SCHOENFELD, 1962),

N ~el.04m.
The formulae in § 4 become therefore
e! m- IIII1(m + 1)("'+ 1)11,
/a~l/ ~ 2"'11 el. 04111 (I1+ 1)
/altlt(z)/ ~ e! m-"'"(m + 1)("'+ 1)11 e 1zl ,
2"'11 el. 04 "'(I1+ 1)

/r/t(z)1 ~ (m!)11- 1 e 1.04"'(11 + l)(m + 1)-("'+ 1)(1I- 1 ){(e - I)!} -m/ z /("'+ 1)11 e""z'.

These estimates can be further simplified if we assume from now on that m is

already sufficiently large, but that e may be any positive integer, small or
large. For

while
..!.
(m + 1)'" > 1
becomes arbitrarily close to 1. Since 2e l. 04 < el. 74, it follows that

and hence

(1)

15. Next, the estimate for r/t(z) may be written as

Irll(z)1 ~ Rlzl(III+ 1)/1 emlzl ,

391
220 K. MAHLER:

where R denotes the expression

R = (m !)"- 1 el. 04m (II+ l)(m + 1)- (m+ 1)(11- 1) {(a- 1)!} -m
which does not depend on z. Since

m!~evmmme-m, (a-1)!~~ aile-II, (1+ ~Jm+l~e,

we find that
II-I
R ~ e"- 1 m- 2-mm(II- I ) e- m(II- l).el. 04m (II+ l)(m + l)-(m+ 1)(11- 1). ( )m
2~ "2 a-mil emil.

Here

mm(II-I)(m + l)-(m+ 1)(11-1) = m-(II-l) (,\1 + -;;

1)- (m + I HII - I)
~ m-III-I) e-(II- I) ,

so that after a trivial simplification,

R ~ e(II-I)-m(II-I)+ 1.04mlll+ I)+mll-(II-I) m --2-( 2~

II-I ) m
"2 a-mil ~
II-I m
~em+l.04m(II+1)m--2-(2~)"2 a-mil,

On omitting the factors that are smaller than 1,

R < e1.04m(II+2) a-mill-t>,
whence

(2) Ir,,(z)1 < e1.04m(II+ 2) a-m(lI-t)lzl(m+ 1)11 ~Izl ,

If also a is sufficiently large, this inequality can be further simplified to

(3)

16, As a first application of the last estimates, let 9 be a very large positive
integer, and let y be the integer defined by
1 1
e"=y+&, where - 2 ~&< + 2'
In the identity
m
r,,(z) = L a/lk(z)eh
k=O
substitute
==g, e==y+<5,
Then

392
 Some Formulae by Hermite 221

or, say,
m

rll(g) = L bill ~I
1;0

where bill denotes the expression

In particular,
m
bllo = L allk(g) yk .
k=O

Here, by § 4, the determinant d(g) with the elements a"k(g) does not vanish.
Hence a suffix h exists for which

Let h from now on be chosen in this manner.

17. Since
Q

allk(z) = L a~~ zl,

1=0
we have

so that bill is an integer. By the estimate (1),

Further

t
j=o
gl ~ (g + I)Q, (k)I ~ 2k, k='f (k)~
I
f k;O
2k < 2m + 1.

Hence, for all suffices I,

Ib",1 < e1. 7Sm (Q+ 1) (lQ(g + I)Q 2m + 1 ym.
On the other hand, b"o is a non-vanishing integer, and hence
Ib"ol?; 1 .
Let us assume for the moment that

I~I < ~ {e1. 7Sm (I/+ 1) (ll/(g + If 2m + 1 ym}-1

3
and hence that

393
222 K. MAHLER:

We find then that

m
Irll(g)1 ~ Ibllol-I~I I Iblllll~I'- 1 >
1= 1

Here
1I (1)'-1
- -3 = 21
COl
-
3 1=1 '
and so it follows that
1
Irll(g)l> 2'
However, if both m and {!are sufficiently large, then, by (3),
Ir~(g)1 < e1.0Sm" (! -m" g(m+ 1)" e'"' .

If now m and {! are chosen so as to satisfy the inequality

1
(D) e1.0Sm" (J-m" g(m+ 0" em';f: "'2'
a contradiction arises. The assumed upper bound for ~ was therefore false,
and so (D) implies instead the lower bound
(E) I~I~ ~ {e1.7Sm("+0{!"(g+1),,2m+1 ym}-1.
Denote by a and P two positive absolute constants to be selected imme-
diately, and take for m and {! the integers
m=[alogg]+I, {!=[Pg]+l,
where, as usual, [x] is the integral part of x. Then m and {! will exceed any
given bounds as soon as 9 is sufficiently large, and so, under this hypothesis,
we were justified in applying the formula (3).
The inequality (D) is equivalent to
1+..!.. ~ ....!-
{! ~ e1.0S 9 m e" 2 m " •
Here, by our choice of m and {!,

m>alogg, {!>Pg,
and therefore
1 1 (J 1
d"<em, eli<e'i.
The remaining factor
1
2'""
is arbitrarily close to 1 as soon as 9 is sufficiently large. Thus, for such g,
1+1. !....!- 1.06+1.+1.
e 1.0S 9 III e" 2'"" < e .. II 9 .

394
 Some Formulae by Hermite 223

Assume now that

I I
1.06+-+-
(F) p~e «p.

The condition (D) is then satisfied because

+.!.+.!. 1 +.!.!!
e > pg ~ e106
. p 9 > e1.0S 9
/I
1
'" ell 2"'11 •
Also, for all sufficiently large g,
el. 7 5"'(11+ 1) < el. 76/1P, 1011 , ell < (fJg)1.005P, < el.O 1 pg 1011 ,

1 )/lloa,+ 1
(g+I)11<eI. OIP ,IOBl, y"'< ( e'+""2 <e1.01«, lou,

3 x 2"'+ 1 < e«lo" < eO.OI«,lou.

The lower bound (E) for (j takes therefore the form

l(jl> e- (1. 76«p, lolI+ 1.01 p,loJ//+ 1.01p,loll1+0.01«,lou+ 1.01«, 1019) ,
that is,
l(jl > g-(1.76«P+l.OlP+ 1.0l/l),.

We finally fix the constants a and p so that (F) is satisfied, while at the
same time the sum
0' = 1. 76ap + 2.02p + 1.02a
becomes small. After some numerical work one is led to the values
p = 7, a = 1.35,
when
106 +.!.+.!.
e. «P < e1.94S < 7, 0' < 32.4 •

We arrive thus at the following result.

Theorem 4. Let 9 be any sufficiently large positive integer, and let y be the
integer closest to e'. Then
1e'-yl>g-33,.
By means of more careful estimates, the constant 33 in this theorem can be a
little decreased. However, it does not seem to be easy to obtain any essential
improvement of the theorem. Previously, by means of a different method, I had
proved the analogous estimate with 40 instead of 33 for the constant (MAHLER,
1953).
18. We finally apply the formulae (I) and (2) to the study of the rational
approximations of 1t.
Denote by p and q any two positive integers such that
p 1 1
1t = q + (j , where - Tci ~ (j < + Tci'

395
224 K, MAHLER:

It is trivial that there exists arbitrarily large integers of this kind.

In the identity
m
r,,(z) = L au(z)e b
"=0
put now
xi
Z= 2' e=i,
so that

Here

a"" 2'
( X
.)
LfI aWl (
= j=O ')J (-!... +J)J = ,L
2'
1/
L ~ aW~
) (') ( ')1 (!...)
-2'
j-I
J/ ,
q }=0/=0 q
or, say,

alii<
(2Xi) = ~o I
/I
CUI t5'
where

Therefore

rIo ( X2'
')
= L Lm fI
CUI i" JI = LC
fI
h, J'
"=0/=0 1=0

where we have put

m

C'" = L CUI i" .

"=0
In particular,

ClIO = L
m

"=0
CU,O'
,"
= L L au1J1'-2)1 ()1
m

k=O )=0
/I
-
q
, = L aU,
P'le ( • m

k=O
'P ,.
( . ) 'le
-2
q

Here, similarly as before, the determinant d( ~~) with the elements ahlc( ~~)
does not vanish. Therefore, from now on, we may again assume that h is
chosen so as to satisfy the inequality
C"o*O.
19. The expressions
~ I au
(2 q,\1/ CUI -- t... (i)
U) 2/1-j "'//-U-I) .j ..i-I
If , Y
j=1

396
 Some Formulae by Hermite 225

and
m
(2q)C1 Ch , = L (2q)C1 Cu, jk
k= 0

are integers in the Gaussian field Q(i). In particular, (2q)" C hO is a Gaussian

integer different from zero, and hence its absolute value is not less than 1.
Therefore
IChOI ~ (2q)-Q .
Assume now that m is already very large, while no such restriction need
be imposed on (}. We are thus allowed to make use of the estimates (1) and (2).
Since
(~)~2j, (~=~)~ 1 for I~j~(},
it follows from (1) that
IChk,1 < f (~-/)2j
j=,\J-1
e1. 7Sm (C1+ 1) ( / (~)j
2
(!!...)j-I
q
Here

and therefore

and

Let now, for the moment, ~ be so small that

I~I < {em + l)e1.75m(Q+ I) (}C1 5Q(2q)"} - I ,

hence that
I~I < 1.
Then

1 ~)I ~ IChOI-I~1 JIICh'II~I'-1

rh ( >

and since
L00(1)'
1=1
-5 -- 1
- 4 '
it follows that

15 Math. Ann. 168

397
226 K. MAHLER:

On the other hand, by (2),

a contradiction arises, showing that the assumed lower bound forb cannot be
valid. The inequality (G) implies therefore that, on the contrary,
(H) Ibl ~ {(m + 1) e1. 7Sm(C/+ 1) eC/(lOq)C1} - 1 •
20. From now on let q be very large. If m is then defined by
m=[A.logq]+l
where A. > 0 is a constant to be selected immediately, also m will be arbitrarily
large, as required in the preceeding proof.
The inequality (G) is equivalent to
4) m(C/-tl
e ~ ("3 1 C/ + 2 (
e1.04 C/-t ;
) (m + IIC/ '" C/
m(lI-tl e 211 - 1 (2q)m(lI-tl •

Here the factors

C/
G)m(lI~tl and 2m(lI-t)

are arbitrarily close to 1 and so may be assumed to have a product

(3"4)__ 1_ _ _ _11__
m(lI-i) 2 m (lI-t) < e'
OOICl+2
II-i.

We may similarly demand that

Next
1
-- < --:-:----
m Alogq ,
and hence
II II
qm(lI-tl < e).(CI-tl •

Thus (G) is for large q certainly satisfied if

C/+2 1/" 1/
1.0S-=(1t)I.OI-= y-=-y- e ).(-~l
e~e C/Y
T
C/YeC/ ll , - ,

398
 Some Formulae by Hermite 227

that is, if

Here
1t 1t 1t
2 < 1.571, log 2 < 0.452 , 1.01 log 2 < 0.457 .

The condition for e is therefore satisfied if

(3.671+1.507Q+t) ~.Ic
e~e Q",
or equivalent to this, if

~ ~ (e - ~) loge - (3.671 + 1.507 e).

This inequality again is easily seen to hold if
(1=14, A=1.35.
On substituting the values
e=14, m=[1.3510gq]+1
in (H), we finally obtain for large q the following result.
Theorem S. If p and q are positive integers and q is sufficiently large, then

11t - : I> q-4S .

This result is not as strong as the estimate

11t- :1 >q-42 for q~2

which I have previously obtained by means of a different method (MAHLER,
1953a).
References
CH. HERMITE 1873, Oeuvres,l. Ill, 151-181.
CH. HERMITE 1893, Oeuvres,l.IV, 357-377.
K. MAHLER 1931,1. reine angew. Math., 166, t 18-137.
K. MAHLER 1953, Phil. Trans. Royal Soc., A, 245, 371-398.
K. MAHLER 1953a, Proc. Acad. Amsterdam, A. 56. 30-42.
ROSSER and SCHOENFELD 1962, Illinois J. of Math., 6, 64-94.
K. MAHLER
Institute of Advanced Studies
Australian National University
Canberra, A.C.T., Australia
(Received May 28. 1965)

IS'

399
 290 0 Pi by probability. The French naturalist Comte de Buffon
(1707-1788) is known to mathematicians for two contributions-a
translation into French of Newton's Method of Fluxions, and his" Essai
d'arithmetique morale," which appeared in 1777 in the fourth volume
of a supplement to his celebrated multi-volume Histoire naturelle.
It is in his "Essai" that Buffon suggested what was then the
essentially new field of geometrical probability. As an example, Buffon
devised his famous needle problem by which 1t may be determined by
probability methods. Suppose a number of parallel lines (see Figure
35), distance d apart, are ruled on a horizontal plane, and suppose a

81
Eves, H.W. In Mathematical Circles: A Selection of Mathematical Stories and Anecdotes.
(Boston: PWS Publishing Company, 1969 and 1971).

400
[290°] IN MATHEMATICAL CIRCLES

FIGURE 35

homogeneous rod of length 1 < d is dropped at random onto the plane

Buffon showed that the probability* that the rod will fall across one
of the lines in the plane is given by

p = 2l/7td.

By actually performing this experiment a given large number of times

and noting the number of successful cases, thus obtaining an empirical
value for p, we may use the above formula to compute 7t. The best
result obtained in this way was given by the Italian, Lazzerini, in 1901.
From only 3408 tosses of the rod he found 7t correct to six decimal
places! His result is so much better than those obtained by other
experimenters that it is sometimes regarded with suspicion.
There are other probability methods for computing 7t. Thus, in
1904, R. Chartres reported an application of the known fact that if
two positive integers are written down at random, the probability that
they will be relatively prime is 6/7t 2 •

* If a given event can happeQ in h ways and fail to happen infways,

and if each of the h + f ways is equally likely to occur, the mathematical
probability p of the event happening is p = hj(h + f).

401
 PI
ONE of thc most famous of all numbcrs is that univcrsally dcsignated
today by thc lowcr casc Grcck lcttcr 1t; it rcprcsents, among other
things, the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle. It has
enjoyed a long and interesting history, and over the years it has
receivcd ever better approximations.

37° 1t in Biblical times. In thc ancient Orient the value of 1t

was frequcntly taken very roughly as 3. Thus in the Old Testament, in
II Chronicles 4: 2 (and similarly in I Kings 7: 28), we read: "Also he
made a moltcn sca of ten cubits from brim to brim, round in compass
and five cubits the height thereof, and a line of thirty cubits did com-
pass it about." This tclls us that the Hebrews of the timc approximated
thc ratio of thc circumference to the diameter of a circle by 3. This is
equivalent to approximating thc circumference of a circle by the peri-
metcr of an inscribcd rcgular hcxagon. From this rough approximation
of 3, thc value of 1t has bccn dctermincd more and more accurately,
reaching, in 1967, the fantastic accuracy of a half-million decimal
places.

38° An ancient Egyptian estimation of1t. In the Rhind Papyrus,

an ancient Egyptian text dating from about 1650 B.C. and composed of
eighty-five mathematical problems, Problems 41,42,4·3, and 48 involve
finding the area of a circle. In each of these problems the area of a
circle is takcn equal to the square on (8/9)ths of the circle's diameter.

Eves, H. W. In Mathematical Circles: A Selection of Mathematical Stories and Anecdotes.

(Boston: PWS Publishing Company, 1969 and 1971).

402
 MATHEMATICAL CIRCLES REVISITED

It is not known how this formula for "squaring a circle" was arrived
at, but a little geometrical diagram (here reproduced in Figure 8(a))
accompanying Problem 48 offers a possible clue. It may be that the
diagram represents a square with its sides trisected and then the four
corners cut off. If such a figure is carefully drawn (see Figure 8(b)), it

/'
~
~
" ~
I\-

'" , ~
..V
1#
lL

(a) (b)

FIGURE 8

looks by eye as though the area of the circle inscribed in the square is
pretty well approximated by the octagon-shaped figure. If the diameter
of the circle, and hence the side of the square, be taken as 9, the octagol;l
will have an area equal to
81 - 4(9/2) = 63,
and the side of a square of the same area as the circle would be approxi-
mately .y63, which, in turn, is approximately V64 or 8. That is, the
side of the equivalent square is about (8/9)ths of the diameter of the
given circle.
If we assume the above Egyptian formula for "squaring a circle"
is correct, that is, that

we arrive at
7t = 256/81 = (4/3)4 ~ 3.1605,
which is not too bad an estimation of 7t for those remote times.

39° An interesting rational approximation oj 7t. About the year

403
 QUADRANT ONE [39°]

480, the early Chinese worker in mechanics, Tsu Ch'ung-chih, gave the
interestin'g rational approximation 355/113 = 3.1415929· .. of n,
which is correct to six decimal places and, curiously, involves only the
first three odd numbers, each twice. About 1585, Adriaen Anthoniszoon
rediscovered the ancient Chinese ratio. This was apparently a lucky
accident since all he showed was that

377/120 > 1C > 333/106.

He then averaged the numerators and the denominators to obtain the
"exact" value of n. There is evidence that Valentin Otho; a pupil of
the early table maker Rhaeticus, may have introduced this ratio for n
into the Western world at the slightly earlier date of 1573.

A~---------------------+--~--~

FIGURE 9

In 1849, de Gelder used the ratio 355/113 to obtain a close

approximate Euclidean solution of the problem of rectifying a given
circle. Let (see Figure 9) AB = 1 be a diameter of the given circle.
Draw BC = t, perpendicular to AB at B. Mark off AD = AC on AB
produced. Draw DE = t, perpendicular to AD at D, and let F be the

404
 MATHEMATICAL CIRCLES REVISITED

foot of the perpendicular from D on AE. Draw EG parallel to FB to

cut BD in G. The reader may now care to show that

GB/BA = EF/FA = (DE)2/(DA)2 = (DE)2/[(BA)2 + (BC)2],

whence GB = 42(72 + 8 2) = 16/113 = 0.1415929···, the decimal
part of 7t correct to six decimal places. The circumference of the circle
would then be given very closely by three diameters plus the segment
GB.

40 0 The Ludolphine number. Ludolph van Ceulen (1540~1610)

of Germany computed 7t to thirty-five decimal places by the classical
method of inscribed and circumscribed regular polygons, using polygons
having 262 sides. He spent a large part of his life on this task and his
achievement was considered so extraordinary that the number was
engraved on his tombstone, and to this day is sometimes referred to in
Germany as "the Ludolphine number." Recent attempts to find the
tombstone have been unsuccessful; it is probably no longer in existence.

41 0 Mnemonics for 7t. Among the curiosities connected with 7t

are various mnemonics that have been devised for the purpose of
recalling 7t to a large number of decimal places. The following, by A.
C. Orr, appeared in the Literary Digest in 1906. One has merely to
replace each word by the number of letters it contains to obtain 7t
correct to thirty decimal places.

Now I, even I, would celebrate

In rhymes inapt, the great
Immortal Syracusan, rivaled nevermore,
Who in his wondrous lore,
Passed on before,
Left men his guidance how to circles mens urate.

A few years later, in 1914, the following similar mnemonic appeared

in the Scientific American:

See, I have a rhyme assisting my feeble brain, its tasks ofttimes resisting.

405
 QUADRANT ONE

Two other popular mnemonics are:

How I want a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy lectures invol-
ving quantum mechanics.
May I have a large container of coffee?

42° A brief chronology of the calculation of 7t by infinite series.

1691. The Scottish mathematicianJ ames Gregory obtained the infinite
senes
arctan x = x - x 3 /3 + x 5 /5 - x 7 /7 + ... , (- I ~ x ~ I).
1699. Abraham Sharp found 71 correct decimal places by using
Gregory's series with x = Y(I/3).
1706. John Machin obtained 100 decimal places by using Gregory's
series in connection with the relation
7t/4 = 4 arctan(I/5) - arctan(I/239).
1719. The French mathematician De Lagny obtained 112 correct
places by using Gregory's series with x = Y(I/3).
1841. William Rutherford of England calculated 7t to 208 places, of
which 152 were later found to be correct, by using Gregory's
series in connection with the relation
7t/4 = 4 arctan(I/5) - arctan(I/70) + arctan(I/99).
1844. Zacharias Dase, the lightning calculator, found 7t correct to
200 places using Gregory's series in connection with the relation
7t/4 = arctan(I/2) + arctan(I/5) + arctan(I/8).
1853. Rutherford returned to the problem and obtained 400 correct
decimal places.
1873. William Shanks of England, using Machin's formula, computed
7t to 707 places. For a long time this remained the most fabulous
piece of calculation ever performed.
1948. In 1946, D. F. Ferguson of England discovered errors, starting
with the 528th place, in Shanks' value of 7t, and in January 1947
he gave a corrected value to 710 places. In the same month J. W.
Wrench, Jr., of America, published an 808-place value of 7t,

406
 MATHEMATICAL CIRCLES REVISITED

but Ferguson soon found an error in the 723rd place. In January

1948, Ferguson and Wrench jointly published the corrected and
checked value of 1t to 808 places. Wrench used Machin's formula,
whereas Ferguson used the formula
1t/4 = 3 arctan(1/4) + arctan(I/20) + arctan(I/1985).
1949. The electronic computer, the ENIAC, at the Army Ballistic
Research Laboratories in Aberdeen, Maryland, calculated 1t to
2037 decimal places, taking 70 hours of machine time.
1954. Nicholson and Jeenel, using NaRC, calculated 1t to 3089
places in 13 minutes.
1958. Felton, in England, using a Ferranti PEGASUS computer,
calculated 1t to 10,000 decimal places in 33 hours.
1958. Fran~ois Genuys, in Paris, computed 1t to 10,000 places, using
an IBM 704, in 100 minutes.
1959. Genuys computed 1t to 16,167 decimal places, using an IBM
704, in 4.3 hours.
1961. Wrench and Daniel Shanks, of Washington, D.C., computed
1t to 100,265 decimal places, using an IBM 7090, in 8.7 hours.
1966. On February 22, M. Jean Guilloud and his co-workcrs at the
Commissariat a l'Encrgie Atomique in Paris attained an approxi-
mation to 1t extcnding to 250,000 decimal placcs on a STRETCH
computer.
1967. Exactly one year later, the abovc workers found 1t to 500,000
places on a CDC 6600.

43° The irrationality and the transcendentality of1t. It was in 1767

that J. H. Lambert showed that 1t is irrational, that is, that it is not of
the form alb, where a and b are integers, and in 1794 A. M. Legendre
showed that 1t 2 is also irrational. In 1882, C. F. L. Lindcmann proved
that 1t is transcendental, that is, it is not a root of any polynomial
equation of the form
aoxn + a1Xn - 1 + ... + an-lX + an = 0,
where ao, a I , • .. , an-I, an are integers.

44° The normalcy of 1t. There is more to the calculation of1t to a

30

407
 QUADRANT ONE

large number of decimal places than just the challenge involved. One
reason for doing it is to secure statistical information concerning the
" normalcy" of 1t. A real number is said to be simply normal if in its
decimal expansion all digits occur with equal frequency, and it is said
to be normal jf all blocks of digits of the same length occur with equal
frequency. It is not known if7t (or even V2, for that matter) is normal
or even simply normal. The fantastic calculations of 7t, starting with
that on the ENIAC in 1949, were performed to secure statistical
information on the matter. From counts on these extensive expansions
of 7t, it would appear that the number is perhaps normal. The erroneous
707-place calculation of 7t made by William Shanks in 1873 seemed to
indicate that 7t was not even simply normal.
The matter of the normalcy or non normalcy of 7t will never, of
course, be resolved by electronic computers. We have here an example
ot'a theoretical problem which requires profound mathematical talent
and cannot be solved by computations alone. The existence of such
problems ought to furnish at least a partial antidote to the disease of
computeritis, which seems so rampant today. There is a developing
feeling, not only among the general public, but also among young
students of mathematics, that from now on any mathematical problem
will be resolved by a sufficiently sophisticated electronic machine.
These machines are merely extraordinarily fast and efficient calculators,
and are invaluable only in those problems of mathematics where
extensive computations can be utilized.
The elaborate calculations of 7t have another use in addition to
furnishing statistical evidence concerning the normalcy or non normalcy
of 7t. Every new automatic computing machine, before it can be
adopted for day-to-day usc, must be tested for proper functioning, and
coders and programmers must be trained to work with the new machine.
Checking into an already found extensive computation of 7t is frequently
chosen as an excellent way of carrying out this required testing and
training.

45° Brouwer's question. The Dutch mathematician L. E. J.

Brouwer (1882-1966), seeking, for logical ~nd philosophical purposes,
a mathematical question so difficult that its answer in the following
ten or twenty years would he very unlikely, finally hit upon: "In the

408
 MATHEMATICAL CIRCLES REVISITED

decimal expression for 1C, is there a place where a thousand consecutive

digits are all zero?" The answer to this question is still not known. It
follows that the assertion that such a place in the decimal expression of
1C does exist is an example of a proposition that, to a member of the
intuitionist school of philosophy of mathematics (Brouwer was a
leader of this school), is neither true nor false. For, according to the
tenets of that school, a proposition can be said to be true only when a
proof of it has been constructed in a finite number of steps, and it can
be said to be false only when a proof of this situation has been constructed
in a finite number of steps. Until one or the other of these proofs is
constructed, the proposition is neither true nor false, and the law of
excluded middle is inapplicable. If, however, one asserts that a thousand
consecutive digits are all zero somewhere in the first quintillion digits
of the decimal expression for 1C, we have a proposition that is true or
false, for the truth or falseness, though not known, can surely be
established in a finite number of steps. Thus, for the intuitionists, the
law of excluded middle does not hold universally; it holds for finite
situations but should not be employed when dealing with infinite
situations.
If 1C is normal, as is suspected, then a block of 1000 zeros will occur
in its decimal representation not only once, but infinitely often and
with an average frequency of 1 in 101000 • It follows that much more is
required to prove that 1C is normal than just to answer Brouwer's.
question, and this latter appears in itself to be a considerable task.

46° 1C by legislation. [The following is adapted, with permission,

from the article "What's new about 1C?" by Phillip S. Jones, that
appeared in The ,Mathematics Teacher, March, 1950, pp. 120-122.]
An often quoted but rarely documented tale about 1C is that of the
attempt to determine its value by legislation. House Bill No. 246,
Indiana State Legislature, 1897, was written by Edwin J. Goodwin,
M.D., of Solitude, Posey County. It begins as follows:
A bill for an act introducing a new mathematical truth and offered
as a contribution to education to be used only by the State of Indiana
free of cost by paying any royalities whatever on the same-
Section 1. Be it enacted by the Gencral Asscmbly of the State of

409
 QUADRANT ONE

Indiana: it has been found that a circular area is to the square on

a line equal to the quadrant of the circumference, as the area
of an equilateral rectangle is to the square on one side .... "
The bill was referred first to the House Committee on Canals and
then to the Committee on Education, which recommended its passage.
It was passed and sent to the Senate, where it was referred to the
Committee on Temperance, which recommended its passage. In the
meantime the bill had become known and ridiculed in various news-
papers. This resulted in the Senate's finally postponing indefinitely
its further consideration, in spite of the backing of the State Superin-
tendent of Public Instruction, who was anxious to assure his state
textbooks of the free use of this copyrighted discovery. The detailed
account of the bill together with contemporary newspaper comments
.makes interesting reading.

[We can incontestably establish the aberrant condition of the

author of the bilI by quoting the final section of the bill:
Section 3. In further proof of the value of the author's proposed
contribution to education, and offered as a gift to the State of
Indiana, is the fact of his solutions of the trisection of an angle,
duplication of the cube and quadrature of the circle having been
already accepted as contributions to science by the American Nlathe-
matical Monthly, the leading exponent of mathematical thought in
this country.
And be it remembered that these noted problems had been long
since given up by scientific bodies as unsolvable mysteries and above
man's ability to comprehend.]

47° Morbus cyclometricus. There is a vast literature supplied by

sufferers of morbus cyclometricus, the circle-squaring disease. The con-
tributions, often amusing and at times almost unbelievable, would
require a publication all to themselves. As a couple of samples, in
addition to the one given in the preceding item, consider the following.
In 1892, a writer announced in the New York Tribune the redisco-
very of a long lost secret that leads to 3.2 as the exact value of 7t. The
lively discussion following this announcement won many advocates
for the new value.
Again, since its publication 111 1934, a great many college and

33

410
 MATHEMATICAL CIRCLES REVISITED

public libraries throughout the United States have received, from the
obliging author, complimentary copies of a thick book devoted to the
demonstration that,. = 3 13.
81
There have been sufferers of morbus cyclometricus in rather high and
responsible positions; in this country one sufferer was a college presi-
dent, another was a member of the Lower House of the State of
Washington, and still another served in the United States Senate.

411
 The Lemniscate 1. Introduction

Constants A =
The lemniscate constants are, in standard notation,

l' _dt _ = -~- K (!)2 = (~.) (2,..)-l (1'(41))''

John Todd .0-1' V2 4
California Institute of Technology
B = l'• Vi -
tYI
/'
= (2" )-1 (r(~))'.
4
THEOREM I., The lenglh of a quadral1l of Iht! h!/1l11is-
cale of Bemoulli, r' = cos 28, is 2A.
PROOF. Trivial.
THEOREM 2. AB = t.-.
An elementary proof, based essentially on Wallis'
The lemniscate constants, and indeed some of the formula, is due to Euler [IOJ. This result was also estab-
methods used for actually computing them, have played lished by Landen in 1755. It is also evident from the
an enormous part in the development of mathematics. An r-function representations given above.
account is given here of some of the methods used-most THEOREM 3. A is a tral1scel1dental number.
of the derivations can be made by elementary methods. THEOREM 4. B is a Iranscelldelllall1umber.
This material can be used for teaching purposes, and there These theorems were proved by Theodore Schnei-
is much relevant and interesting historical material. The der in 1937 and 1941 respectively. (See Siegel [35, 36J.)
acceleration methods developed for the purpose of evaluat-
ing these constants are useful in other problems.
Key Words and Phrases: lemniscate, acceleration, 2. Computation by Integration of Power Series
elliptic functions, Euler transformation
CR Categories: 1.2, 5.0 The obvious approach to the computation of A is to
expand the integrand by the binomial theorem and to
integrate term by term.
THEOREM 5.

A == L: a. == I + f. (211 - I)!!
1 (211)" 4n+1·
The representation of A just given is of no practical
use for computation .. In fact, by the use of Wallis'
formula, or Stirling's approximation for ",, we find that
a. ~ (4"':/1')-' which implies that the remainder after /I
terms is O(II- l ).
We can obtain an alternating series for A by writing
the integrand as (I - 1')-:(1 +
l)-l and expanding the
second factor by the binomial theorem and then inte-
grating term by term using the fact that
Cop)'right © 1975, Association for Computing Machinery, Inc.
General permission to republish, but not for profit all or part
?f l~lisnl8lCriai is granh..ad provided that ACM 's cop~righl notice
1.,""(I - I')-:dt (211 -
(211)!!
I)!! "i·
. (2.1)
,s g,ven and that reference is made to th. publication, to its date THEOREM 6.
of Issue, and to th~ fUCI that reprinting privileges were granted

Lb. "" ~{I + ~ C_I)·[C2t;2:),I,)!!]}

by permission of the Association for Computing Machinery.
This is an abbreviated version of an Invited Householder A""
Lecture, given ~l the ACM Southeast Regional Meeting, Nashville,
Tennessee, Apnl19, 1974. Another version of this paper was pre-
sented to .the Bolyai Janos Matematikai Tarsulat in Keszthely, The representation just given is of little practical use
Hungary, m September 1973. Full details will be published in a in computation since I b.1 ~ (211)-'.
mono""aph with th. same title. The prepnration of this paper has In view of the slow convergence of the series in
hL'~n !'Iupported in part by the National Science Foundation. Au.
,hor's address: Department of Mathematics 253-37 California Theorems 5 and 6, the question of acceleration arises.
Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125. ' This question has been studied for a long time: among
14 Communications January 1975
of Volume 18
theACM Number I

412
 those who have contributed recently are J.R. Airey [I), of /I so that, accurately,
W.G. Bickley and J.c.P. Miller [4), K. Nickel and D. S = S(II - I) (/I +: +
p)u(/I)!ql R(/I + + I).
Shanks [33), H.C. Thacher, Jr. [391, and P. Wynn [50), If we write ,,(II +
I) = R(n I) - R(I/ + + 2), then
who has provided ALGOL algorithms in many cases. We i
discuss here only the Euler transform and the results of
R(I/ +
I) = ,,(II I) + +
U(II 2) + + ... (2.2)
Stirling and A.A. Markoff. and we want" to be small. We can express <7/11 as a ratio
of two quadratics in /I, and Stirling chooses p,q to make
Euler the /1',/1 terms in the numerator vanish,
It is well known that the Euler transformation is q = 1', P = (v - 1)/(1 +
1'), so that the first improve-
quite effective in accelerating the convergence of series ment is to give
such as L boo. It is known (Knopp [24 J) that if the se-
quence (-Irb. is completely monotone and S ~ S
~ \ II
_ I) + 11(1' + 1'(,..
I) - 1(1
+ I) - v) ( )
II II •

(b.H/b.) ~ I, Stirling then repeats this process on the series (2.2)-

then the Euler transform will be convergent like a ge- the ,,'s satisfy a recurrence relation similar to that for the
ometric series with common ratio 1/2. This makes com- u's. He then finds the next improvement in the form
putation feasible, and things can be improved by an ap-
propriate delay in starting the transform. These matters
S * S(/I - I)
are discussed by Dahlquist, et al. [7) and Todd [40). +n(,,+ 1)-1(1 -v)U(II)
The fact that the sequence lb. I is completely mono- ,,(I' + 1)
tone can be established as follows. Since (Knopp [24 j) +(1I+2)(,..+3)-2(2-v) (+1)
the term-by-term product of two completely monotone (" + 2)(,.. + 3) " /I .
sequences is completely monotone, it is enough to show
b:
that I J is completely monotone where
This process can be repeated indefinitely and the con-
vergence of the various series, e.g. (2.2), is clear.
b.: == 1·3 ... (2n - I) == (2/1 - I)::. Stirling also found B in the same way:
B = .599070117367796 II.
2·4··· (2/1) (2n)::
Putting I' = T in (2.1), we find A.A. Markoff
Stirling's device is essentially a transformation of
b.' = (I;'..) [ T"[T(I - T) rl dT, ordinary hypergeometric series F(a,{3,'Y,x) applied to the

exhibiting b:
as the 11th moment of the distribution
series ~a •. Markoff [27 J works on the alternating series
~b .. and apparently uses transformations of generalized
[T(I - T»)-l; it follows (Widder [47, p. 108]) that hypergeometric series. His virtuosity in these matters
Ib.'1 is completely monotone. was well known. Hermite wrote -in 1889 (see Ogigova
(30)), "Par quelle voie vous etes parvenu it une telle
Stirling transformation, je ne puis meme de loin I'entrevoir, et il
The difficulty in using a power series directly was me faut vous laisser votre secret."
clear to Stirling, and he devised an acceleration method We discuss here one of the two methods given by
in 1730 which led to the value Markoff. He begins with the remark that if
A = 1.31102 87771 46059 87
(which is correct to 150) by dealing with a head of nine F(a,b) = C [2a+ b+ IX - 1 + (2a; b:- IX t I ~)(a)
terms of the series of Theorem 6 and transforming the
next nine terms. We shall explain this briefly.
Stirling discusses the general Beta-function
+
\O(
(2a
a
+ b + + 3)\O(a) ... (a + 1) + ...
b
IX
a) ... ( a b IX 1)
J
B(v,l') = J.' (-1(1 - 1),-1 dl
when ... (1) = I' + ai' + {31 + 'Y, with arbitrary C, a, b,
a, (3, 'Y, then F(a, b) = F(b, a). In this he first puts
which reduces to 4A when I' = !, v = t. He expands b = Ha + I), a = Hcl - I),
the factor (1 - t)--I as a binomial series, then integrates
term by term, and separates the resulting series into a
.,.(t) = (I + 1(6 - I»t', and C = D/(2a + a-I).
head and tail This gives

[1 - C~ S~ C~ a . a ~.~ ~ S
S = [u(1) + ... +u(/I - I)J [u(/I) + J + ...
which he writes as S = S(n - I) +
C(n)u(/I) where F(a, b) = D
C(n) is a "converging factor" which indicates the ap-
propriate modification of the nth term which .gives a
correct truncation.
-C~ a . a ~ -; ! a ~ -; ~ 2)' + ... J;
1.

Stirling proposes to find an approximation to C(n) in F(b, a) = (2a + 36 - I)Eo - (2a + 36 + 3)E1
the form C(II) (/I* +
p)/q where p,q are independent + (2a + 36 + 7)E, - (2a + 36 + l1)E. + "',
15 Communications January 1975
of Volume 18
theACM Number 1

413
 where E. = D/(4a + 26 - 2), man comprobavimus, qua rc demonstrata prorsus novus
6(6 + I)' E campus in analysis certo aperietur."
El = 2(2a + 6 + I)(a + 6)' " Much of the work of Gauss in this area was never
published by him; it was edited from his papers after
and, generally,
his death, for his Collected Works, by various mathe-
_ (11+6)(211+6+1)' E". maticians including Schering, Klein, Fricke, Schlesinger.
£,,+1 - 2(20 + 211 + 6 + I)(a + 11 + 6)' See Geppert (21]. It was not until several months later,
He then puts a = 23/2, 6 = 1/2, on December 23, 1799, that Gauss established the rela-
tion between M and an elliptic integral.
{ 1.3 ·5 ·7 ... 21}'
D = 2.4+8 ... 22 THEOREM 7. /f0 ~ k ~ I, Ihel1

= 0.02828 72353 30935 80044 80600 ...

and sums the first 13 terms of the £·series to 2M(I, (~ - k')I) =
1°·" d8
(I - k' sill' 8)l
0.0147694731 6168476217682 .... Subtracting this from
the head _11
- °
dr
«I - /')(1 - k'I'»1
= K(k')
.

I - ("2I)' + ... +
(1.3.5 ... 19)'
2.4.6 ... 20 In his Notebook (19, p. 544] he wrote, "Medium

_f
-
(_1),,(1.3.5 ... (211 -
,~ 2-4-6 ... (211)
I»)' Arithmetico-Geometricum ipsum est quantitas inte-
gralis. Dem[onstratuml."
There seems to be no easy proof of this theorem. All
= 0.84939631483575794845819 ... available use the following idea. In the usual notation,
he finds
f. (_I)n (02.4
,-:,,:,:~~I. =-!l)'
t· (a;, cos' 8 ~ b;' sin' 8)1
t·
2 (3.1)

~ b;,+! sin'
; A ,,-0 ... (211)
= 0.83462684167407318628 I = (a;,+! cos' 'I' 'I' )l
correct to 21 places. and so, passing to the limit,
The only proofs of the basic relation F(a, b) = F(b, a)
known to me are one given by H.M. Srivastava-it uses 1°:· (a~ cos' d8 1:'° d'l'
a transformation of a .F,
due to F.J.W. Whipple 8 + b~ sin' 8)1 = M(ao, bo)'
(cf SIAM Rev. (1974), p. 260)-and one due ,to which is the result required. All depends on the proof of
R. A. Askey-this uses a transformation of a due' to ,F. (3.1), which can be done by the transformation
W. N.BaiJey.
sin 0 = _____ 2a. .
(a. + b.) cosec 'I' + (a. - b .. ) Sill 'I'
J. The Arithmetic-Geometric Mean Calculatipns of For arecent exposition of this material see Fuchs (51].
Gauss and the Carlson Sequences THEOREM 8. IJ XO = I, Yo = 0, and ifJor /I ~ 0,
x.+! = !(x. + Y .. ), y .. +! = (!x.(x. + y.»:, Ihell lim x"
As a teenager, Gauss experimented numerically with = lim),,, = A-'. Further, convergel1ce is geomelric wilh
the algorithm lIlulliplier t.
a. = a, bo = b, a ~ b > 0, It is easy to check using the transformation
PROOf.
a,,+! = Ha" + b,,), bn +! = (a"b,,):, 11 = 0, 1,2, .... x = (1 + T)-I that
It is convenient to write c. = (a.' - b,.')l. The sequences
: a" I, I b" I converge monotonically and quadratically to
a limit which we denote by M(a, b). It was clear that
A = 1°,
(J - x')-: dx = -1°
I

4
e
(I + T)~;T-; dT. (3.2)

Gauss was interested in finding the form of the function Consider the transformation of the integral
M(a, b). Among his computations is the following for
M(2 1, I); lex', y') = 1 e
(/ + x')-:(t + y')-l dl
II b ..
by changing the variable from / to s where
o 1.41421 )562) 73095 04880 2 1.00000 00000 00000 00000 0
I = sis + xy)/[s + (1/2)(x + y)'J. A little algebra
1.20710 67811 86547 52440 1 Ll8920 711SO 02721 06671 7
gives
L19815 69480 946)4 29555 9 1.19812 35214 03120 12260 7
L19814 02347 93877 20908) 1.19814 02346 77307 20579 8 I(x~, y~) = lex,', y,'). (3.3)
4 L19814 02347 35592 20744 1 1.1981402347 35592 20743 9 The existence of the common limit of I(xo, Yo) of the
In his Notebook [19, p. 542], on May 30, 1799, Gauss sequences Ix.. ], Iy.. / and the rate of convergence is easy
observed that 1I'/(2M(2 l , I) coincided to liD with A, to check. Repeated uscof"(3.3) gives
and wrote, "Terminum medium arithmetico-geometri-
cum inter I et v'2 esse = 1I'/w usque ad figuram undeci-
I(x.', y.') = I.e (t + 1')-: dl = 4[/(xo, Y.)]-:.
16 Communications January 1975
of Volume 18
IheACM Number 1

414
 From (3.2), taking x. = I, ),. = 0, we find PROOF. This result is equivalent w
A = [/(1, O)J-: as required. , dr':-'! dT
Theorems 7 and 8 and many related results were ob-
tained by a uniform method by B.C. Carlson [6J.
.r. i1=I')i = 2 .r. ~-T'"ijl '
and can be established byithc transformation
/ = 2 TO - T');';(I + T').
4. Arcsl Relations The trigonometric analog of this theorem is:
~ .. = 2 arcsin rl.
Since The effective ratio of the terms in the series ;s

1.• ,(I _
dl
1')1 = arcsin x, arcsin I = ~ ",
(i - I)' .;, . I 716, so a computation of A via Theorem
10 is somewhat less convenient than that via Theorem q.
However, Fagnano showed that it is possible to divide
it is natural to introduce lemniscate functions defined in the arc of the lemniscate into three or five parts, again
the first place by at the expense of solving quadratics only: these results

1. , dl
• (I _ /')1 = arcsl x, arcsl I = .1,
also lead to convenient methods of computation of A.
THEORBIII. A = 3ares/:HI +,,3 - "/(2,,,'3»)1.
This can be established using the transformation
arcd x +arcsl x = A. employed in Theorem 9. The trigonometric analog of
this theorem is: h = .3 arcsin rl. The etiective ratio of
There is no definitive account of the lemniscate func- terms in the sai~s is (.435~2)' = .035q~.
tions. A Cambridge Tract announced by G.B. Matthews
THEORE\t I:'.
never appeared; there is some account of the theory in
various books such as Markushcvich 1:'8], c.L. Siegel A = 5(Ires/ [1 .=._:i~~_5 - 13!.±J..1iO-=-I_5.3~~~L'J'
[35J. The explicit expressions in terms of the Jacobian I-+- 1(6v5 - 13) + (3~0 - 152",'5);):
functions with modulus k' = tare
PROOF. Use the fact established by Gauss:
sl x = Tl sn(2! x)/dn(i x),
eI x = cn(i x). sl 5, = s(5 - 2s'+ s')(1 - 12s' - 265'+ 5:',"+ s")
" (J - 25' + 5s')(1 + 52s' - 26s' + 12s" + s")'
It is clear that if we could obtain a relation of the

.
form where s = sl <p, and ideas of Fagnano and Watson.
The trigonometric analog 9f this theorem is:
A = L Qi arcsl Xi, (4.1) ~ .. = 5 arcsin (,,15 - 1)/4. The etiective ratio of terms
i-I in the series is sl' ~ A .;, .0047.
where the Xi satisfy, e.g. : Xi i ~ t, then we would have Using the lemniscate trigonometry it is natural to
a feasible method for evaluating A by investigate relations of the form (4.1) in the same way as
arcsl x = x + -(If.\'' + ~,x' + '" Lehmer [26J has evaluated arctan relations typified by
since this will mean we are working with series with ef- (4.2) as an efficient means of calculating 111'. See also
fective ratio T' = .0625. This is similar to the classical Stormer [38J, Todd 141, 42J. For instance, the arcsl
ways of evaluating 11', e.g. using relation A = 2 arcsl 1 + arcsl (31/49) is less efficient
than that given in Theorem 9.
i,.. = 4 arccot 5 - arccot 239. (4.2)
Gauss gave the following result:
THEOREM 9. A = arcsl-.h + 2 arcsl t. 5. Quadrature Formulas
PROOF. This result can be written as

, dt J'
2 1.• (1 - I'll = ,..
dT
(I - T')I'
Another obvious approach to the evaluation of A is
to use appropriate quadrature formulas.
We mention here briefly the Gauss-Chebyshev
which can be established by using the transformation quadrature [40J:
T = (I - 212 - 1')/(1 212 - I'). + I (' I dl
The effective ratio of terms in the series is 2-' = A = 2 L, (1 + t')1 . (1 - t')1
.0625.
A somewhat similar result was given much earlier -"-
-,- Q. -.
- 5 t
,_,
(?r/Il)
(I + cos' «21Z - 1)?r/2n»l'
(1714) by Fagnano [13J, who discussed the bisection of
the arc of the lemniscate. It is awkward to estimate the error here, but there are
THEORE~ 10. A = 2 arcsl(2' - I)'. some possibilities (see e.g. G. Freud [17]).
In view of the singularity at I = I, Romberg meth-
ods are not directly applicable. Appropriate modifica-
tions have been developed by L. Fox [IS, 16J and J.A.
Shanks [34 J.

17 Communications January 1975

of Volume 18
thcACM Number I

415
 6. Theta Series Since 11,,11. differ only by the signs of alternate terms, use
of (6.2) alld (6.3) gives a convenient check. The formula
This seems to be the most powerful method. For- (6.4) does not appear to be so convenient as the right-
mulas involving l1-functions have proved eR'ective in hand side approaches the form 0/0.
many computational problems, e.g. that of Ewald [121 THEOREM 16. A = !7I'111.(e-·)j' = ~'-II1,(e-')J'.
on crystal structure, and especially in calculations in- These Were given by Gauss [18J; they come from
volving elliptic functions and integrals. (6.3). and the fact that 11, = 11. in the lemniscate case.
The idea is that the Jacobian elliptic functions, sn, THEOREM 17. A = t.-2:111,(e-')/'.
en, dn, and the complete elliptic integrals, K, K', for a This was used by Wrench [481 in his fundamental
given modulus k' can be expressed in terms of l1-func- calculations to 164 + D. It comes from (6.2)0 and the
tions with q determined by the equation fact that 11" = 2:,y. in the lemniscate case.
q = exp (-.-K'/K). If we take (6.4), where
In the lemniscate case, k' = t = k" and so K = K' (/1 = (I + 2!)/2, b l = 2:, CI = (i - 1)/2, we get
(the period parallelogram is a square), which implies A = (.-/(i - 1))II1,(e-")J'.lfwe take (6.4), we get
that q = e-' = .04321 ....
A = (271'/(2: - I)') I11,(e-") J'. (6.6)
We shall give an outline of a direct proof of our
representa tions rather than relying on the general the- This result appeared essentially in a Cambridge ex-
ory of elliptic functions. amination in 1881 (Whittaker and Watson [46]).
Enlightened experimentation (cf. von David [8J)
suggests that we consider the series
a(x) = I 2x + + 2x' + 2x' + ... , 7. Three Additional Representations
{3(x) = I - 2x + 2x' - 2x' + ... .
The following two results are needed. THEOREM 18.
THEOREM 13. If I x I < I, ,hell
[,,(x) l' + [{3(x) l' = 2 [,,(x') 1', a(x){3(x) = [{3(x') J'.
THEOREM 14. For allY a,b such ,ha' 0 :$ b :$ a there
A = 2:71' exp (-.-/3) {t (-I)" exp( -2.-(3/1' + n»r
is all x, I x I < I, such that a(x)/{3(x) = (a/b)!.llIdeed This was given by Lehmer [25 J without proof and
x = exp( -.-M(ao, boll M(ao, co». In pal'licuiar,jor used by him for 50D calculations. It can be proved using
(I = y2, b = I, we ha~'e x = e-". the product representations of the l1-functions such as
Theorem 1J is essentially combinatorial in nature 11.(q) = II(I - q'''+l)'(1 - q''') and the fact that
and expresses some of the basic relations among the L: (_I)"x""'+"'f' = 11(1 - x"). Proof of these results
l1-functions. Fot a proof see e.g. van der Pol [311. are given e.g. in Hardy and Wright [221.
Theorem 14 depends essentially on Theorem 15. TIIWREM 19.
THEOREM 15. This M(I,x) log X -1 --t t .-, as x --t O.
• II 5..
Barna [2J has given a neat proof of this. A = 48 - 8 + 815 7'
~ •
cosec/, 11.-.
The point of these results is that they permit a pa-
rameterization of the Gaussian algorithm. Specifically, This result appeared in Muckenhoupt [291.
given a o :::: bo, Theorem 14 implies the existence of an x, THEOREM 20.
I x I < I, such that
ao = M(ao, b,,)(a(x»', bo = M(ao, bo)({3(x»', and then (I - A'.--')' = I - ,..-1 + 6 Lo cosec'" (2/1 + 1)71'.
repeated application of Theorem 1J gives
This result has been derived by Carlson (unpublished)
(/" = M«(/o, bo)(a(x'''»', b" = M(ao, bo)({3(x"'»'. (6.1)
from results of Kiyek and Schmidt [231.
It will now be more convenient to use the standard
l1-function notation in which a(q) = 11,(q), (3(q) = 11,(q),
lJa(q) = 2q:[l + q' + q' + ql2 + .. '1. 8. Historical Noles
From (6.1) we have, in the lemniscate case,
A (.-/2a,,) ;11,(exp( -2".-» I'.
G.c. di FagllQllo (1682-1766) was called for advice,
(6.2)"
in 1743, by Pope Benedi.ct XIV, when it was discovered
A (.-/2b,,) I 11 ,(exp( - 2".-)) 1'. (6.3)" that St. Peter's was threatened with collapse. After rc-
storing the foundations Fagnano was honored by being
A (71' /2c,,); 11,(cxp( - 2".-» J'. (6.4)..
created a marquis and by having his Collccted Works
In (6.2) and (6.3) the factor in braces is a correction published. In his portrait, in his birthplace Senigallia,
factor, which brings the (/n,b" to their limit .-/(2A). Fagnano has a diagram of a lemniscate in his hand; a
Since the argument in the 11 series can be made arbi- lemniscate also appears on the title page of his book [I J J
trarily small by choice of 11, we can optimize the com- Produzioni MQlematiche and beneath it the words
putation of A by balancing the work done in computing "MultifariaOl Divisa Atque Dimensa. Deo Veritatis
a",b" with that done in estimating the sums of the series. Gloria," This book reached Euler on December 23, 1751,

18 Communications January 1975

of Volume 18
the ACM Number I

416
 exactly 48 years before Gauss' proof of Theorem i. 16. - ---. Rombt'rg integration for 3 c1:a~, ..... i ~:~£.u1.1r Integr.:::j~.
J. 7 lo.Jhi'.87-9.';..
COIJlI'IIfI'r
The part played by Fagnano in the founding of the
17. Fr~ud. G. Errl..'f f.$l1malCS fiJr Gauss.·JJ;; .."'I~: \.jU3~1r;lTur('
theory of elliptic functions is now fully recogr.ized. (See formu13~. pp, 9J-112.ln Tllpics ill .\"uma ..-~ __ ;".Ih.~i.\. J.J.H
e.g. c.L. Siegel [36].) For further information sa G.~. ~l,l1er ,Ed.'. London. IYiJ. . .
Ut Gauss, C.F. W,'r4t', ~. Leip}ig, 1~76.
Watson [45].
19. - - . Werke 10·. Leipzig. IQI7.
J. Stirling (1692-1770) held a Snell Exhibition at Ox· 20. Geppert. H. ,Ed .• O~I\,ald's Kla$:\jL~r j;::" e'\alh.'11
ford. This award was restricted to students froin Glas· \\ issen~haften. '" 2~5. Leipzig. 1927.
21. _. "--, ,",'ie Gauss zur elliptischen \1t.'~iJl;-_~kti"1\ lam.
gow, but there is no record that he ever attended that Dellljc!'I' .\I"lh. 5 tl'J..lO" 158-175.
university; it has been pointed out that a kinsman was 22. Hard~. G.H .. and \Vright, E.\1. Th.·or.1 I'" \·lfmJ.,,·rs. Clar~njoll
rector of the university at the time. Press. O'ford. 19;8.
23. Ki)ek. K .. and Schmid1. H. :1"u~",er1lJng einig"'r :,pezie:1kr
Stirling was arrested in Oxford in 17 I 5 for cursing unendlicher Reihen aus dem Bereich dcr elh;,us.chell Funktionen.
the king; he was tried and found "not guilty." He lost An-h. ."'ulh. 18 (19671. ';~8-';~,:\.
his scholarships because he refused to sign an oath of 24. Knopp. K. Theory (lml Applicalillil (It /,.:-; :;11' S.·ri.'.f. ~nj ej.
Blackie. London. 19~8.
allegiance. He was offered a chair in Italy but apparently 25. Lehmer, D.H. Tht' lemnisC3h! con .. lant. \fTAC J .19~ 'oj •
rejected it on account of religious difficulties. He spent 550--551.
the last half of his life as manager of a mine in Scotland. 26. -'-. On arccotangent relations f(1( '::". A't:~',. ..\I.ul1 ..\1(",:"1\-
45 ;)9;81,657-664. . .
The English translation of his book [37], which is 27. ~1arkojr, A. Dilli.'r(·":ellrt'c/lll1mg. Tr. of Ru~~i;'111 edition ,,"'If
really about finite differences, seems very rare; a copy is 1889-91. Leipzig. 1896.
in the Bodleian Library (Rignaud d. 158). For further 28. ~1arkushevich. A.1. T/u! R"IIf"rJ,;ahl" Sill..' FUIJ("Iiol1!i. American
Elsevier. New York. 1966.
historical information see C. Tweedie (44). 29. Muckenhoup1. B. The norm of a discr~te 5.ingular Iransf..."'Irm.
A.A. Markoff (1856-1922) with his brother W.A. Swdid }.Iath, 25 119M 51,97-102. .J

Markoff (1871-1897) began work in the constructive 30. Ogigo,a. H. Le< lettres de Ch. H«mlle 3 A. \l3fkotf.
1885-1889. Rt'I·. lrltisrnin' ,!t,.{ Jch'IIC'(,J e'/ ,k Il'UTS fl/'P/i{'tlIi(lm.
theory of functions, established by P.L. Chebyshev. His 20 t 19671, 1-32, Letter dated J 1 December 1~5~.
book (27) on finite differences is one of the classics; he 31. ,an der Pol, B. Demonstration elementair!! d~ It! relath..ln
later made contributions to the theory of probability. e~~ = 9\,~ + 8·!' entre les ditferentes fonctions d.e Jacohi.
EllseigllenwlU ,\/Luh. 1 ! 19551,259-261.
introducing what are now called Markoff processes in 31. Reichardt, H. t,Ed.) C.F. G,msJ. Gedl!nl..band, Lcip..dg,
1907. A.A. ~1arkoff, who was born in 1903, and is well 1957.
known for his work in logic and in particular for his 33. Shanks, D. Nonlinear transformations of di\-ergcnt and
slo\\l)' con\"ergent series, J. :HQlh. Ph),s. 36,1955,. 1-6:!,
book on The Theory of AlgoriThms, is a son. 34. Shanh, J.A. Romberg tables; for singular integrands.
Computer J. IS 119711. ;60-361.
Acknoll'ledgmellls. I am grateful for helpful discus· 35. Siegel. C.L. TopiCS ill Complex FlIl1Clioll Theory, Vol. I.
Wiley, New York. 1969.
sions on parts of this paper with, among others. B.C. 36. - - . Tral1sCt!lfJ"l11u/ Sumbt'rs, Princeton C. Press. 19·N.
Carlson, Basil Gordon, J.W. Wrench Jr., and D.W. 37. Stirling, J . ."-Ielhodus Differellliali!i, london. 1730, English
Boyd. tran'. by F. Hol1ida~, London, 1749.
38. St"rmer, C. Sur un probleme curieux de la theorie des
nombres concernant les fonctions elliptiques. Arch. AllIlh.
References Nmunid. 847, ,. 5 (1948),83-85.
1. Airey, J.R. The "converging factor" in asymptotic series and 39. Thacher, H.C., Jr. Numerical application of the J::eneralized
the calculation of Bessel, Laguerre and other functions. Phil. Euler transformat;_n pp. 627-631 in Information I'rocessing 74,
Mag. 7, 24 (1937), 521-552. J. Rosenfeld (Ed.), North-Holland Pub. Co., Amstordam, 1974.
2. Barna, B. Ein Limessatz aus der Theorie des arithmetisch. 40. Todd, John. Optimal parameters in two programs. Bil/l. 1.\fA.
geometrischen Minel. J. Reille AlIge ... Math. 172 (1934), 86-88. 6 (1970), 31-35.
3. Bickley, \\1.0., and MilJer, J.e.p. The numerical summation 41. - - . A problem on arctangent rela1ions. Amer. Mal".
of slowly convergent series of positive terms. Phil. ,'fag. 7, 22 MOl/thly.56 (1949), 517-528.
(1936), 754-767. 42. - - . Table of arctangents of rational numbers. U.S. Nal.
4. - -..Manuscript, "The numerical summation of series," Bur. StandardS, Appl. Math. Series II, 1951, 1965, U.S.
1945. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
5. Brezinski, C. Acceleration de la convergence en analyse 43. - - . Il11roduelioll 10 ,he COllslruelh'e Thear}' of FUllctions.
num<!rique. Mimeographed lecture notes, Lille, France, 1973. Academic Press, New York, 1963.
6. Carlson, B.C. Alsorithms involving arithmetic and geometric 44. Tweedie, C. Jumes StirlillJ(. Oxford, 1911.
means. Amer. Math. MomM), 78 (1971).496-505. 45. Watson, O.N. The marquis and the land·agent--a tale of th.!
7. Dahlquist, G., Gustafson, S.A., and Sikl6si, K. Convergence eighteenth centur),. Math. Gu=ette 17 11933,.5-16.
acceleration from the point of view of linear programming. BIT 5 46. Whittaker, E.T. and \Valson, G.N. "lodern Analysis.
(1965), 1-16. Cambridge U. Press, 1927.
8. von Da\'id, L. Arithmetisch-geometrisches Mittel und 47. \Vidder, D.V. The Laploce Trons/orm. Princeton U. Press, 1941.
Modulfunktion. J. R,ine AlIg''''. Math. 159 (1928), 154-170. 48. Wrench, J.W., Jr. Manuscript (1955).
9. Euler, L. Opera Omnia, Vo1. I, 11, 1913, Ldpzig. 49. - - . MTAC 4 (1948/9), 201-203.
10. --.Imroduclio ill Analysis [Jljinilorum, r, Ch. 16, 1748. 50. \Vynn, P. Acceleration techniques in numerical analysis, with
11. - - . Illstilul/ones CaiC'uli Imegralis, 1748, pp. 228-236. particular reference to problems in one independent variable.
12. Ewald, P.P. Die Berechnung optischer und elektrostatischer PrOt. IFIP Congress, 62. Munich, North-Holland Pub. Co.,
Gilterpotenti.)e. Ann. Phys. (1921),253-287. Amsterdam, pp. 149-156.
13. Fagnano, G.C. Opere Matematiche, 3 vols., 1911-12.
14. - - . Produziolli Materna/ielle r 1750.
15. Fox, L. Comments on singularities in numerical integration
and lhe solution of differential equations, In Numerical Methods,
P. ROOza (Ed.), Coll. Math. Soc. J. Bol),ai, 3, 1968, pp. 61-91.

19 Communications January 1975

of Volume 18
lhe ACM Number I

417
MATHEMATICS OF COMPUTATION. VOLUME 30. NUMBER 135
JULY 1976, PAGES 565-570

Computation of 7r Using Arithmetic-Geometric Mean

By Eugene Salam in

Abstract. A new formula for 11' is derived. It is a direct consequence of Gauss'

arithmetic·geometric mean. the traditional method for calculating elliptic integrnls,
and of Legendre's relation for elliptic Integrals. The error analysis shows that its
rapid convergence doubles the lIumber of significant digits after each step. The
new formula is proposed for use in a numerical computation of 7r, but no actual
computational results are reported here.

1. Introduction. This paper announces the discovery of a new formula for 7T.
It is based upon the arithmetic·geometric mean, a process whose rapid convergence
doubles the number of significant digits at each step. The arithmetic·geometric mean,
together with 7r as a known quantity, is the basis of Gauss' method for the calculation
of elliptic integrals. But with the help of an elliptic integral relation of Legendre,
Gauss' method can be turned around to express 7r in terms of the arithmetic-geometric
mean. The resulting algorithm retains the property of doubling the number of digits
at each step.
The proof of the main result (Theorem la) from first principles can be conducted
on the elementary calculus level. The references ciled here for the theorems of Landen,
Gauss and Legendre have been chosen to achieve this goal, thus allowing the widest
possible reader audience comprehension.
The formula presented in this paper is Proposed as a method for the numerical
computation of 7r. It has not yet been tested on a calculation of nontrivial length,
although such a calculation is currently in progress [21.

2. TIle Arithmetic-Geometric Mean. Let a o' b o' Co br. positive numbers satisfy-
ing a~ = b~ + c~. Define an' the sequence of arithmetic melns, and b n , the sequence
of geometric means, by

Also, define a positive sequence cn:

c~ = a~ - b;'.
Two relations easily follow from these definitions.
(1) cn = ~(an-l -b n _ I )·

(2)

Received May 27, 1975; revised November 3, 1975.

AMS (MOS) subject classifications (1970). Primary 10A30, 10A40. 33A2S; Secondary 41A25.
Key words a"d plrrascs. ", arithmetic-geometric mean, elliptic integral, Landen's transforma-
tion, Legendre's relation, fast Fourier transform multiplication.
Co~,yri[l:ht It') 1976. Americ'3n Mathematical Society

565

418
566 EUGENE SALAMIN

The arithmetic-geometric mean is the common limit

agm(a o' b o) = lim a" = lim b".
Because of the rapidity of convergence of the arithmetic-geometric mean, as exhibited
by Eq. (2), the formula to be derived should be regarded as a plausible candidate for
the numerical computation of IT.
3. Elliptic Integrals. The complete elliptic integrals are the functions
K(k) =: I:/ 2 (I - kl sin1 trIA dt. E(k) = I:/
1 (l - k 2 sin 2 t)IA dt.

Also, if k 2 + k~2 = I, then K'(k) = K(k') allli E'(k) = E(k') are two more elliptic
integrals.
There is also a symmctric form of these integrals:

I(a. b) = f:/ (a cos

2 2 2/ + b 2 sin 2 /r IA dl.

J(a. b) = f:/ (a2 2 CUS 2 1 + b 2 sin 2 /)Y' dl.

It is clear that
I(a. b) = a-1K'(bla). J(a. b) =: aE(bla).

4. Landen's Transfonnation and the Computation of Elliptic Integrals. Using

the notation developed in Section 2 of this paper, these transformations arc [6,
Section 25.15],

(3) /(an• b n ) = /(a n + 1 • b ll + 1 ),

(4) J(a n• bIll == 2J(an + ,. b n + ,) - anbn/(an + ,. b,,+1)'

From Eq. (3) it follows that
(5) /(a o• b o ) = lT/2 agm(ao• b o ),
and, after a little work, Eq. (4) yields

(6) J(a o• b o} = la~ - ~

\
:.t 1.ic
I=O}
l\J(a o' bolo

For ao = I, b o = k', the integrals in Eqs. (5) and (6) arc equal to K(k) and E(k),
respectively, while for ao = I, b o = k, they cqual K'(k) and E'(k). nlis is the well-known
method of Gauss for the numerical calculation of elliptic integrals [5, pp. 78-80], [1,
Section 17.6).
5. Legendre's Relation. ntis relation is [4, Article 171], [I, Eq. 17.3.13],
(7) K(k)E'(k) + K'(k)E(k) - K(k)K'{k) =: lT/2.
Equivalently,

(8) a2 /(a, b)J(a', b') + a'2/(a'. b')J(a. b) - a2a'2/(a, b)/(a'. b') = (lT/2)aa',
where a, b, a', b' are subject to the restriction (bla)2 + (b'la')2 = 1.

419
 COMPUTATION OF " USING ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 567

6_ New Expression for 1T_ Take a o = a~ = 1, b o = k, b~ = k' _ As in Section 2,

define the sequences an' b n , cn ' a~, b~, c~. In Eq. (8) eliminate the J integrals by use
of (6), and then eliminate the I integrals by use of (5). 1.0 and behold, the resulting
equation can be solved for 1T!
THEOREM la.
4 agm(l, k)agm(J, k')
(9) 1T=
1 - ~oo 2/(c 2 + c~2)
£""1= 1 1 I

The i = 0 term in the summation has been eliminated by use of c~ + C~2 =

k'2 + k 2 = 1. It is best to compute cj from Eq. (1).
Theorem la is a one-dimensional continuum of formulae for 1T. This provides
for an elegant and simple computational check. For example, 1T could be calculated
starting with k = k' = 2-V., and then checked using k = 4/5, k' = 3/5. The symmetric
choice, k = k', causes the two agm sequences to coincide, thus halving the computa-
tional burden.
THEOREM lb.
4(agm(I, rV.»2
1T = .
I-L1=1 2/+1c12
oo

7. Error Analysis. Although Theorem la is true for all complex values of k

(except for a discrete set), the error analysis will assume real k and k'. Then 0 <
k, k' < 1. Let n square roots be taken in the process of computingagm = agm(l, k),
and n' square roots in computing agm' = agm(l, k'). Then no further square roots
are needed to calculate the approximation
4an+la~'+1
(10)

A rough estimate shows that a n + 1 differs from agm by cn + 2 ' and that the
finite sum differs from the infinite sum by 2 n + 3 cn + 2 • Thus, the numerator and
denominator in (10) have been truncated for compatible error contributions, and the
denominator error is dominant.
To obtain rigorous error bounds, introduce the auxiliary quantity 'iTnn' whose
denominator is taken from (10), but whose numerator is taken from (9). The first
e
step is to establish the existence of e nn " nn' such that

(11) o < 1T - iT nn' < enn "

0< 1Tnn' -'iTnn' < enn "
(12)
inn' < e nn ,·
These three inequalities imply that 11T - 1Tnn' 1< ennr'.
The left-hand inequalities in (11) and (l2) are obvious. From the general inequal-
ity (I/x) - (I/(x + y» <y/x 2 , valid for positive x and y, it follows that
1T 2 1 '2
-
1T - 1T nn' < 4
agm agm
'L
(
n+ 1
21C1 + L 2 Cj
• 2
00

n'+ J
. . )
•

420
 568 EUGENE SALAM IN

This establishes (II), with error bound

(13) e",,' = 2 n2.

agm agm
' (£, ,,+2
2iai ci + f.
,,'+2
i).
2i a;c

Proceeding to the next inequality, we first get

_ n (' ,
n",,' -·n",,' < agm agm ,a,,+la,,'+1 - agm agm).
Substitute a" + I = agm + s, a:,' + I = agm' + s', where
s= L
,,+2
Ci , s, = L-
,,'+2
-
"'" Cj ,

and use agm < 1, agm' < I to get

'Ir",,' - 1r ",,' < 'Ir(s + S' + ss')/agm agm'.
Also, since s < I, s' < 1, it follows that ss' < (s + s')/2. Thus, inequality (12) is
established with error ~ound 3 11 ( _ _,)

( 14) e",,' = -
2 agm agm
,L
,,+2
cj L cj
+ ,,'+2 •

Finally, a term-by-term comparison of (13) and (14), using 2i aj> I and n> 3, shows
e
that nn' < en,,"
At this point, a needed inequality is derived.

(IS)
Consider the first summation in (13), but with the upper limit 00 replaced by
finite N. Perform the following sequence of operations, each of which increases the
sum. First, replace aN by aN-I' Next, repeatedly apply (15) to the pair of highest-
indexed terms in the sum. At the end, we are left with the. single term 2n+2a"+lcn+2
< 2n + 2 c"+2' which is thus an upper bound for the initial summation. Since N was
arbitrary, the infinite summation also has this upper bound. Therefore,
2n2 n n' ,
(16) enn ,
agm agm
< , (2 c n + 2 + 2 Cn'+2)'
An upper bound for C,,+2 is needed now. It is convenient to use the abbrevia-
tions

Equation (2) gives x" as the solution to an inhomogeneous linear difference equation.

i:. Ti
xn = 2" (xo - ,=1 g,).

+g".

421
 COMPUTATION OF " USING ARITHMETIC·GEOMETRIC MEAN 569

Using gj - gi+ 1 > 0, gn < log 4, and Xo - gl = (1/2) log(c 1/40 1), we get

( 17) xn <2 n- 1 [f~1 Ti+ 110g(a/ai + 1)-log(40 1!cl)1 +log4.

J
For the purpose of an error analysis, the expression within brackets could be calculated
numerically for any case of interest. However, it can be evaluated in closed form [7,
p. 14] and is equal to - rrK'(k)/K(k) = - rragm/agm'. Then
xn < - rr(agm/agm')2 n- 1 + log 4.

Substituting this into (16) yields the final result.

r
THEOREM 2a.

Irr - rr , 1<
nn
81T 2 , 2n exp (- rr agm, 2n + 1\+ 2n' exp L rr agm' 2n '+
agm agm L agm) \ agm
I)J .
In the symmetric case, with rrn = rrnn , Theorem 2a simplifies to
THEOREM 2b.

The number of valid decimal places is then

THEOREM 2c.

-log 10 Irr - rrn I > (rr/log 1O)2n+ 1 - nlog 10 2 - 210g 1 o(4rr/agm).

8. Numerical Computation. Raphael Finkel, Leo Guibas and Charles Simonyi

are currently engaged in calculating rr using the method proposed in this paper [2].
The operations of multiprecision division and square root arc reduced to multiplication
using a Newton's method iteration. The multiplications arc then performed by the
Schonhage·Strassen fast Fourier transform algorithm [10], [8, p. 274]. The computa·
tion, to be run on the Illiac N computer, is expected to yield 33 million bits of rr in
an estimated run time of four hours. This run time is determined by disc input-output,
and the actual computation is estimated to be only a couple of minutes. Alas, they do
not plan to convert to decimal.

9. Concluding Remarks. The main result of this paper, Theorem la, directly
follows from Gauss' method for calculating elliptic integrals, Eqs. (5) and (6), which
was known in 1818 (3, pp. 352, 360] ,and from Legendre's elliptic integral relation,
Eq. (7), which was known in 1811 [9, p. 61). It is quite surprising that such an
easily derived formula for rr has apparently been overlooked for 155 years. The author
made his discovery in December of 1973.
The series summation which was used to simplify Eq. (l7) was also discovered
by Gauss [3, p. 377]. An interesting consequence of this result of Gauss is that efr
can be expressed as a rapidly convergent infinite product. If ao = I, b o = 2-~, then

e" = 32 IT (a + 1)2- + 1
;=0
j
al
i

Charles Stark Draper Laboratory

Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139

422
570 EUGENE SALAMIN

1. M. ABRAMOWITZ & I. A. STEGUN (Editors), Handbook of Mathematical Functions,

With Formulas, Craplls and Mal/lematical Tables, Nat. Bur. Standards, Appl. Math. Ser., no. 55,
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1966.
MR 34 #8607.
2. R. FINKEL, L. GUiBAS & C. SIMONYI, private communication.
3. K. F. GAUSS, Werke, Bd. 3, Gottingen, 1866, pp. 331-403.
4. A. G. GREENHILL, The Applications of Elliptic Functions, Dover, New York, 1959.
MR 22 #2724.
5. H. HANCOCK, Elliptic Integrals, Dover, New York, 1917.
6. H. JEFFREYS & B. S. JEFFREYS, Mel/wds of Matllematical Pllysics, 3td ed., Cambridge
Univ. Press, London, 1962.
7. L. V. KING, On tile Direct Numerical Caiculatiorl of Elliptic Functions and Integrals,
Cambridge Univ. Press, London, 1924.
8. D. KNUTH, The Art of Computer Programming. Vol. 2: Seminumerical Algorithms,
Addison·Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1969. MR 44 #3531.
9. A. M. LEGENDRE, Exercices de calcul integral. Vol. I, 1811.
10. A. SCHONHAGE & V. STRASSEN, "Schnelle Multiplikalion grosser Zahlen," Comput-
ing (Arch. Elektron. Rechnen), v. 7,1971, pp. 281-292. MR 45 #1431.

423
Fast Multiple-Precision Evaluation of Elementary Functions

RICHARD P. BRENT
Au.stralian National Uniuersitll, Canberra, Au.stralia

AB8TRAcr. Let fez) be one of the usual elementary functions (exp, log, artan, sin, cosh, etc.), and
let M(n) be the number of single-precision operations required to multiplj-n-bit integers. It is shown
that fez) can be evaluated, with relative error o (:Z-"), in O(M(n)log (n» operations as n - "', for
any floating-point number z (with an n-bit fraction) in a suitable finite int~~al. From the Schtinhage-
Strassen bound on M(n), it follows that an n-bit approximation to fez) may be evaluated
in O(n log'(n) log log(n» operations. Special cases include the evaluation of constants such as
r, e, and er. The algorithms depend on the theory of elliptic integrals, using the arithmetic-geometric
mean iteration and ascending Landen trans£ormations.
KEY WORDS AND PHRA8ES: multiple-precision arithmetic, analytic complexity, arithmetic-geometric
mean, computational complexity, elementary function, elliptic integral, evaluation of 11", exponential,
Landen transformation, logarithm, trigonometric function
CR CATEGORIES: 5.12,5.15,5.25

1. I ntroductwn
We consider the number of operations required to evaluate the elementary functions
exp(x), log(x),1 artan(x), sin(x), etc., with relative error 0(2-"), for x in some
interval [a, b), and large 11. Here, [a, b) is a fixed, nontrivial interval on which the relevant
elementary function is defined. The results hold for computations performed on a multi-
tape Turing machine, but to simplify the exposition we assume that a standard serial
computer with a random-access memory is used.
Let M(x) be the number of operations required to multiply two integers in the range
[0, 2'ZI). We assume the number representation is such that addition can be performed in
O(M(n» operations, and that M(n) satisfies the weak regularity condition
M(OI.n) ~ (jM(n), (1.1)

for some a and (j in (0, 1), and all sufficiently large II. Similar, but stronger, conditions
are usually assumed, either explicitly (11) or implicitly (15). Our assumptions are cer-
tainly valid if the Schonhage-Strassen method (15, 19) is used to multiply n-bit integers
(in the usual binary representation) in O(n log( 11) log log(n» operations.
The elementary function evaluations may be performed entirely in fixed point, using
integer arithmetic and some implicit scaling scheme. However, it is more convenient to
assume that floating-point computation is used. For example, a sign and magnitude
representation could be used, with a fixed length binary exponent and an It-bit binary
fraction. Our results are independent of the particular floating-point number system
used, so long as the following conditions are sati.<;fil'd.
Copyright © 1976, Association for Computing Machinery, Inc. General permission to republish,
but not for profit, all or part o£ this material is granted provided that ACM's copyright notice is
given and that reference is made to the publication, to its date o£ issue, and to the £act that reprinting
privileges were granted by permission of the Association for Computing Machinery.
Author'S addresa: Computer Centre, Australian NationalUniversity, Box 4, Canberra, AGr 2600,
Australia.
1 Log(z) denotes the natural logarithm.

Jo....... of u.. ~_l.... CompuwDII Maabiaery. Vol. 23. No. %. April 1878, pp. 242-261.

424
Fast Multiple-PreciBicm Evaluaticm of Elementary Functicms 243

1. Real numbers which are not too large or small can be approximated by floating-
point numbers, with a. relative error O( 2- n ) .
2. Floating-point addition and multiplication can be performed in O( M (n» opera-
tions, with a relative error 0(2-") in the result.
3. The precision n is variable, and a floating-point number with precision n may be
approximated, with relative error O( 2..... ) and in O(.M (n» operations, by a floating-
point number with precision m, for any positive 111 < n.
Throughout this paper, ajloating-point number means a number in some representation
satisfying conditions 1 to 3 above, not a single-precision number. We say that an opera-
tion is performed with precision n if the result is obtained with a relative error O(Tn).
It is assumed that the operands and result are approximated by floating-point numbers.
The main result of this paper, established in Sections 6 and 7, is that all the usual
elementary functions may be evaluated, with precision n, in O( M ( n) log(n» operations.
Note that O(M(n)n) operations are required if the Taylor series for log(l + x) is
summed in the obvious way. Our result improves the bound O(M(II) log2(n» given in
(4), although the algorithms described there may be faster for smalln.
Preliminary results are given in Sections 2 to 5. In Section 2 we give, for completeness,
the known result that division and extraction of square roots to precision 11 require
O( M ( n» operations. Section 3 deals briefly with methods for approximating simple
zeros of nonlinear equations to precision 11, and some results from the theory of elliptic
integrals are summa.rized in Section 4. Since our algorithms for elementar~' functions
require a knowledge of 11" to precision n, we show, in Section 5, how this may be obtained
in O( M (n) log( n» operations. An amusing consequence of the results of Section 6 is
that e" may also be evaluated, to precision n, in O( M ("II) log( n» operations.
From [4, Th. 5.1), at least O(M(n» operations are required to evaluate exp(x) or
sin(x) to precision n. It is plausible to conjecture that O( M (n) log( n)) operations are
necessary.
Most of this paper is concerned with order of magnitude resuits, and multiplicative
constants are ignored. In Section 8, though, we give upper bounds on the constants.
From these bounds it is possible to estimate how large n needs to be before our algorithms
are faster than the conventional ones.
After this paper was submitted for publication, Bill Gosper drew my attention to
Salamin's paper (18), where an algorithm very similar to our algorithm for evaluating ..
is described. A fast algorithm for evaluating log(x) was also found independently by
Salamin (see [2 or 5)).
Apparently similar algorithms for evaluating elementary functions are given by
Borchardt (3), Carlson [8, 91, and Thacher (23). However, these algorithms require
O(M(n)n) or O(M(n)n') operations, so our algorithms are asvmptotically faster.
We know how to evaluate certain other constants and functions almost as fast as
elementary functions. For example, Euler's constant -y = 0.5772 ... can be evaluated
with O(M( n) log! n) operations, using Sweeney's method [221 combined with binary
splitting (4). Similarly for r(a), where a is rational (or even algebraic): see Brent (7).
Related results are given by Gosper (13) and Schroeppel [201. It is not known whether
any of these upper bounds are asymptotically the best possible.

2. Reciprocals and Square Roots

In this section we show that reciprocals and square roots of floating-point numbers may
be evaluated, to precision n, in O(M(n» operations. To simplify the statement of the
following lemma, we assume that, M(x) = 0 for all x < 1.
LE:'I:'IA 2.1. If-y E (0,1), then L~-o M(-yjn) = O(M(n)) as n -- "".
PROOF. If ex and i3 are as in (1.1), there exists k such that·l S ex. Thus, L~-o J1 (-yJ n )
S kLi-oM(exJn) S kM(n)/(1 - (3) + 0(1), by repeated application of (Ll). Since
M (n) ..... co as 11 ..... co, the result follows.

425
244 alCBAlU) P. BRENT

In the following lemma, we assume that 1/c is in the allowable range for floating-point
numbers. Similar assumptions are implicit below.
LEMMA 2.2. If c is a nonzero floating-point number, then l/e can be evaluated, to pre-
ciaion n, in O( .1f ( n» operatiolIs.
PROOF. The Newton iteration

(2.1)
converges to lie with order 2. In fact, if x, = (1 - E,)/C, substitution in (2.1) gives
E'TI ,.. Elt. Thus, assuming IEol < !. we have IE,I < 2-2' for all i ~ 0, and x. is a suffi-
ciently good approximation to l/c if·k ~ logz n. This assumes that (2.1) is satisfied
exactly, but it is easy to show that it is sufficient to use precision n at the last iteration
(i = k - 1), precision slightly greater than n/2 for i = k - 2, etc. (Details, and more
efficient methods, are given in [4, 6].) Thus the result follows from Lemma 2.1. Since
x/y - x{1/y), it is clear that floating-point division may also be done in O(M(n»
operations.
LEMIIIA 2.3. If c ~ 0 is ajloatilIg-point tlumber, then cl can be evaluated, to precision n,
in O(M(n» operations.
PROOF. If c = 0 then el = O. If c ;06 0, the proof is similar to that of Lemma 2.2,
using the Newton iteration X;+1 = (x, + c/x;)/2.
LEMMA 2.4. For any fixed k > 0, M(t.;n) = O(M(n» aSR- "".
PROOF. Since we can add integers less than 2ft in O(M(n» operations, we can add
integers less than 2Cft in O( kM ( n» ,.. O( M ( n» operations. The multiplication of
integers less than Z''' can be split into O(k') multiplications of integers less than 2",
and O(k') additions, so it can be done in O(k'M(n» = O(M(n» operations.

3. Solution of Nonlinear Equations

In Section 6 we need to solve nonlinear equations to precision n. The following lemma is
sufficient for this application. Stronger results are given in [4, 6].
LEMMA 3.1. If the equationf(x) = c has a simple root r ;06 0, I is Lipschitz continuous
near r, and we can evaluate f(x) to precision n in O(M(n),p(n» operations, where ,pen)
is a positive, monotonic increasing function, for x near r, then r can be evaluated to precision
n in O(M(n),p(n» operations.
PROOF. Consider the discrete Newton iteration

X'+1 = x, - h.(f(x;) - e)/(J(x, + h.) - f(x.». (3.1)

If h. = 2-"", x, - r ... 0(2-,,/ and the right side of (3.1) is evaluated with precision
1 ),

n, then a standard analysis shows that X'TI - r-

0(2-"). Since a sufficiently good
starting IIopproximation Xo may be found in O( 1) operations, the result follo\\-"S in the
same way as in the proof of Lemma 2.2, using the fact that Lemma 2.1 holds ,vith M(n)
r
replaced by M(n)q,(n). The assumption ~ 0 is only necessary because we want to
obtain r with a relative (not absolute) error 0(2-").
Other methods, e.g. the secant method, may also be used if the precision is increased
appropriately at each iteration. In our applications there is no difficulty in finding a
suitable initial approximation Xo (see Section 6).

4. Results on Elliptic I ntegrols

In this section we summarize some classical results from elliptic integral theory. Most of
the results may be found in [1), so proofs are omitted. Elliptic integrals of the first and
second kind are defined by

(4.1)

426
Fast Multiple-Precision Bt'aluation of Elementary Functions 245

and

(4.2)

respectively. Forour purposes we may assume that 0: and", are in [0, 11"/2]. The complete
elliptic integrals, F(1I"/2, 0:) and E(1I"/2, 0:), arc simply written as F(a) and E(o:),
respectively.
Legendre's Relation. WI' need the identity of Legendre [Ii]:
E(0:)F(7I"/2 - 0:) + E(7I"/2 - o:)F(o:) - F(0:)F(7I"/2 - a)

and, in particular, the special case

2E( 7I"/4)F( 1r/4) - (F( 71"/4»: = _.'1
,.,' -. ( 4.4)
Small ..ll1gle ..lpproximation. From (4.1) it is clear that
F("" 0:) = '" + O(a~) ( 4.5)
as 0: -+ O.
Large Angle ApproximatwlI. From (4.1),
F("" 0:) = F("" 11"/2) + 0(11"/2 - al~. ( 4.6)
uniformly for 0 :$ '" :$ "'0 < 11"/2, as a - 11'/2. Also, we note that
F("" 11'/2) = log tan(7I'/4 + ",/2). (4.7)
Aacending Landen Trans/ormatioll. If 0 <: a, < a'+1 < IT/2, 0 < "',+1 .:"",:$ 11'/2,
(4.8)
and
sin(2\lIi'!-l - "'i) = sin 0:, sin "', , (4.9)
then
F(""+1, 0:,+" == [(1 + sin 0:,)/2jF("". a,). ( 4.10)
If s, = sin 0:, and II, = tan(",;/2), then (4.8) gives
S'+1 = 2st/( 1 + s,), ( 4.11)
and (4.9) gives
(4.12)
where
Wa'" tan ""i+1 == (II, + let)/(I - /I,tD2), (4.13)
Wt os tan("'i+1 - "",/2) = wt/(1 + (1 - 'W12)1), (4.14)
and
WJ. == sin(2""+1 - "",) = 28,11./( 1 + Ill). ( 4.15)
Arithmetic-Geometric Mean Iteration. From the ascending Landen transformation
it is possible to derive the arithmetic-geometric mean iteration of Gauss [l2j and La-
grange [161: if Go == 1, bo = cos a > 0,
a'+1 = (a, + b.)/2, (4.16)
and
(4.17}

427
246 RICHARD P. BRENT

then
lim a, = 'II'/[2F(a)J. (4.18)
1··
Also, if Co = sin a and

( 4.19)

/!.'(a)/F(a) = 1 - L
i-O
2i-1c/. (4.20)

.411 J'IIJitlite Product. Let 8, , a, , and b; bl' as above, with a = '11'/2 - ao, so 80 ...
bolao. From (4.11), (4.16), and (4.17), it follows that 8, = b;fa; for all -i ~ O. Thus,
+
(1 8,)/2 = a.~.l/a"
.. and

IT
i-o
11.1 + II.).';?] = lim a. = 'II'/[2F('II'/2 -
I ....
era») ( 4.21)

follows from (4.H;). (Another l'onnection bet-ween (4.11) and the arithmetic-geometric
ml'an iteration is f'vidf'nt if 80 = (1 - 1J02/a02 )l. Assuming (4.11) holds for i < 0, it
follows that 8_; = (1 - b.'/a/)! for all i ~ O. This may be used to deduce (4.18) from
(4.10).)

5. Evaluatioll "I 'It"

Let ao = 1, bo = ('0 = 2-:, A = lim;... a. , and T = lim;... t. , where a. , IJ; , and c. are
defined by (4.16), (4.li), and (4."19) for i ~ 1, lind t. = t - 2;-l r /. From (4.4), L;""
(4.18), and (4.20). we hav!'
(5.1)
Since a, > bu> ~ 0, and C.+I = a, - a;+1 = a;+1 - b., (4.17) gives b'+1
0 for all i
[(a'+1 + c'+1)(a'+1 - C'+1))' = a'+1 - O(c~+d, so C'+2 = O(C~+I)' Thus, the process
converges with order at least 2, and log! " +
O( 1) iterations suffiee to give an error
0(2-") in the ('stimatc of (5.1). A more detailf'd analysis shows that a~.~dl, < 11" < a;211;
for all i ~ 0, and alsl) a,2/ t, - 11" '" 811" cxp( -2;11") and 11" - a~+1I1; ......
11"22<+4 ('xp( -2;+111") lIS i -- ae. The speed of eonvergenc!' is illustrated in Table I.
From thc discussion abov<" it is cil'ar that thl' fullowing algorithm, givf'n in pscudo-
Algol, evaluatps 11" to prl'Cision II.

AlllorilAm for ..
A +- 1; B ..... 2""1; T +- t; X+- 1;
while A - 8 > :z-n do
betPD Y ..... A; A - (,4 + 8)/2; B - (BY).;
T ..... T - X (A - y)l; X - 2X
end; •
returD AliT lor, better, (.-1 + B)I/(4T)J.
TABLE 1. CONVERGENCE OF
ApPROXUIATJONB TO ...

... - a,I+1/1; a,I/'1 - ...

0 2.3'-1 8.6'-1
1 1.0'-3 4.6'-2
2 7.4'-9 8.8'-5
3 1.8'-19 3.1'-10
4 5.5'-41 3.7'-21

428
Fast MuUiple-PTeMO'n ElialUGtion 01 Elementary Functicn&8 247

Since logan + O( 1) iterations are needed, it is necessary to work v.ith precision n +

O(log log(n», even though the algorithm is numerically stable in the conventional
sense. From Lemmas 2.2-2.4, each iteration requires O(M(n» operations, so 'II" may be
evaluated to precision n in O( M ( n) loge n» operations. This is asymptotically faster
than the usual O(nt) methods [14, 21] if a fast multiplication algorithm is used. A high-
precision computation of 'II" by a similar algorithm is described in [10]. Note that, because
the arithmetic-geometric mean iteration is not self-correcting, we cannot obtain a bound
O( M ( n» in the same way as for the evaluation of reciprocals and square roots by X ew-
ton's method.

6. EIHJlUGtion 01 exp(x) and log(x)

Suppose 6 > 0 fixed, and m E [6, 1 - 6). If sin ~ = ml, we may evaluate F( aD) to pre-
cision n in O( M (tl) log(n» operations, using (4.18) and the arithmetic-geometric
mean iteration, as for the special case F( '11"/4) described in Section 5. (When using (4.18)
we need'll", which may be evaluated as described above.) Applying the ascending Landen
transformation (4.8)-(4.10) with i = 0, I, ... ,k - 1 and 1/1. = .../2 gives

F('h a~) = {~[(1 + SinO:i)/21} F(o:o). (6.1)

Since 80 = sin ~ = m l ~ 61 > 0, it follows from (4.11) that 8, -+ 1 as i -- 00. In fact,

if" = 1 - £" then tHI = 1 - "+1 = 1 - 2(1 - f,)t/(2 - f,) = f,2/8 0(£;3), so +
'; -1 with order 2. Thus, after k '" logan iterations we have ft = 0(2- so '11"/2 - ak
8
),

= 0(2-8 /1) and, from (4.6) and (4.7),

F('h , a~) = log tan( '11"/4 + 'h/2) + 0(2- 8
). (6.2)
Assuming k-> 'O,theerror is uniformly 0(2- 8
) forall m E [&, 1 - 6], since I/It ~ 1/11 < 'If/2.
Define the functions

(6.3)

and
T(m) = tan(r/4 + 1/1../2), (6.4)
where -/I.. = lim ... -/I; • Since 8, - 1 v.ith order 2, the infinite product in (6.3) is con-
vergent, and U(m) is analytic for all m E (0, 1). Taking the limit in (6.1) and (6.2)
as n (and hence k) tends to 00, we have the fundamental identity
U(m) = log T(m). (6.5)
Using (4.11)-(4.15), we can evaluate U(m) = In~ [(1 + 8;)/2IlF(~) + 0(2- 8
)

and T(m) ... (1 + Ii~)/(l - Ii.) + 0(2-11 ) , to precision n, in O(M(n) log(n» opera-
tions. The algorithms are given below in pseudo-Algol.

AlgorilAmjrtr U(m)
A-I; B - (1 - m)tj
wbile A - B > 2-'. do
bqia C _ (A + B)/2; B - (AB)t; A - C ead;
A - ../(A + B)j 8 _ mt;
wbile 1 - 8 > 2-11 do
bella A - A(1 + 8)/2; 8 ... 28t/(1 + 8) eDd;
retul'D A (1 + 8)/2.

AlgoriIIIm lUI' T(m)

V_l;8_mt j
wbilel-8>2-do

429
248 RICHARD P. BRENT

bellin W - 28V/(1 + VI);

W - W/(1 + (1 - W')I);
W - (V + W)/(1 - VW);
V- W/(l + (1 + WI)I);
S - 281/(1 + S)
ead;
retura (1 + V)/(1 - V).

Prop6Ttie8 of U(m) and T(m). From (4.21) and (6.3),

U(m) = (r/2)F(04J)/F(r/'2 - ero). (6.6)
where sin 041 ... "lnl as before. Both F( 041) and F( 7t/2 - ero) may bt' evaluated by the
arithmetic-geometric mean iteration, which leads to a ~lightly more efficient algorithm
for U(m) than the one above, because the division by (1 + S) in the final "while"
loop is avoided. From (6.5) and (6.6), we have the special ca~es U(l) r/2 and T(l)
... e w/l • Also, (6.6) gives
(6.7)
for all m E to, 1).
Although WI' shall avoid using values of m near 0 or I, it is interesting to obtain asymp-
totic expressions for U(m) and T(m) as m -+ 0 or l. From the algorithm for T(m),
T(l - e) = 4e-' - el + O(el ) as e -+ O. Thus, from (6.5), U(1 - e) = L(E) - e/4
+ O( f,z), where L(E) ... log (4/f'). Using (6.7), this gives U( f) =- 1I'2/[4L( E) ) + O( EILt) ,
and hence T(E) = exp(r2/[4L(f))) + 0(e/L 2 ). Some values of U(m) and T(m) are
given in Table II.
Evaluation of up(x). To evaluate exp(x) to precision 11, we first use identities such
as exp(2x) = (exp(x»= and exp( -x) = l/cxp(x) to reduce the argument to a
suitable domain, ~y 1 ~ x ~ 2 (see below). We then solve the nonlinear equation
U(m) = x, (6.8)
obtaining m to precision n, by a method such as the one described in Section 3. From
Lemma 3.1, with cP(n.) = log(n), this may b(, done in O(.l/(II)log(n» operations.
Finally, we evaluate T(m) to precision n, again using O(.\/(n)log(n» operations.
From (6.5) and (6.8), T(m) = exp(x), so we have computed exp(x) to precision 11.
Any preliminary tranafonnations may now be undone.
Evaluation of log(x). Since we can evaluate exp(x) to precision n in O(M( n) loge n»
operations, Lemma 3.1 shows that we can also evaluate log(x) in O(M(n) log(n»
operations, by solving the equation exp(y) = x to the desired accuracy. A more direct
method is to solve T( m) ... x (after suitable domain reduction), and then evaluate U (m).
Further details. If x E [I, 2/ then the solution m of (6.8) lies in (0.10,0.75), and it
may be verified that the secant method, applied to (6.8), converges if the starting ap-
proximations are mo = 0.2 and ml - 0.7. If desired, the discrete Newton method or
some other locally convergent method may be used after a few iterations of the secant
method have given a good approximation to m.

TABLE II. THE FUNCTIONS U(m) AND T(rn)

m U(rn) T(m) m C:(m) T(m)

0.01 0.6693 l.9529 0.60 1.7228 5.6004

0.05 0.8593 2.3615 0.70 1.9021 6.6999
0.10 0.9824 2.6710 0.80 2.1364 8.4688
0.20 1.1549 3.1738 0.90 2.5115 12.3235
0.30 1.2972 3.6591 0.95 2.8714 17.6617
0.40 1.4322 4.1878 0.99 3.6864 39.8997
0.50 1.5708 -i.8105

430
Fast "./ultiple-Precision Evaluation of Elementary Functions 249

Similarly, if x E [3, 9), the solution of T( m) = x lies in (0.16, 0.83), and the secant
method converges if ma = 0.2 and ml = 0.8.
If x = 1 + E where E is small, and for domain reduction the relation
log(x) = log().x) - log().) (6.9)
is used, for some). E (3, 9), then log().x) and log().) may be evaluated as above, but
cancellation in (6.9) will cause some loss of precision in the computed value of log(x). If
If I > 2-", it is sufficient to evaluate log().x) and log().) to precision 2n, for at most n
bits are lost through cancellation in (6.9). On the other hand, there is no difficulty if
lEI ~ 2-", for then log (1 + t) = E(I + 0(2-"». When evaluating exp(x), a similar
loss of precision never occurs, and it is sufficient to work with precision n + O(log log(n»,
as in the evaluation of 11' (see Section 5). To summarize, we have proved:
THEORE!'.16.1. If - <Xl < a < b < <Xl, then O(M(n) log(n» operations suffice to evalu.-
ate exp(x) to precision n, uniformly for all floating-point numbers x E [a, b), as 11 -+ <Xl;
and similarly for log(x) if a > O.

i. Evaluation of Trigonmnetric Functions

Suppose II > 0 fixed, and x E [ll, 1). Let 80 sin ao = 2- n12 and Vo = tan(.yo/2) =
.r/(l + (1 + x2)1), so tan .yo = x. Applying the ascending Landen transformation, as
for (6.1), gives

F(Vtk, at) = {U [(1 + 8/)/2]} F(Vto, ao). (7.1)

Also, from (4.5) and the choice of So ,

F(Vto, ao) = artan(x) + 0(2-"). (7.2)

From (4.11), 8,+1 ~ 8,1, so there is some j ~ log2n + 0(1) such that S j E [i,!]. Since
8, -+1 with order 2, there is some k ~ 2 login + O( 1) such that 1 - Sk = O( 2-·). From
(4.6) and (4.7), F(.yk, ak) = log tan('II'/4 + 1/It/2) + 0(2-"). Thus, from (7.1) and
(7.2),

artan(x) = {n [2/(1 + Si)]} log tan(r/4 + Vtk/2) + 0(2--). (7.3)

If we evaluate tan( 11,/4 + 1/Ik/2) as above, and use the algorithm of Section 6 to evaluate
the logarithm in (7.3), we have artan(x) to precision n in O(M(n) log(n» operations.
The algorithm may be written as follows.

Algorithm for orlan(%), % Ell, 1]

+
S 4 - 2-"1t; V 4 - %/(1 (1 +
%1)1); Q - 1;
while 1 - S > 2-" do
begin Q -2QI (1 + S);
W 4 - 28VI(l + VI);
W - WI(l + (1 - WI)I);
W 4- (V + W)/(1 - VW);
V 4 - WI(l + (1 + W")I);
S 4- 281/(1 +8)
end;
return Q log «1 + V)/(l - V».

After k iterations, Q ~ 2\ so at most 2 lo~n + O( I) bits of precision are lost because V

+
is small. Thus it is sufficient to work with precision n 0 (log (n) ), and Lemma 2.4 justi-
fies our claim that O(M(n) log (n» operations are sufficient to obtain artan (x) to pre-
cision n.
If x is small, we may use the sllme idea as that described above ior evalu-
atinglog(1 + t):workwithprecision 3n/2 + O(log(n» if x> 2- nI2 , and useartan(x)

431
250 RICHARD P. BRENT

= x( 1 + 0(2-"» if 0 ::; ~. ::; 2-./ 2• (Actually, it is not necessary to increase the working
precision if 10g«1 + V)/(l - V» is evaluated carefully.)
Using the identity artan(x) = 1(/2 - artan(l/x) (x > 0), we can extend the do-
main to [0, IX». Also, since artan( -x) = -artan(x), there is no difficulty with negative
x. To summarize, we have proved the following theorem.
TIIEOREll 7.1. O( M (n) loge n» operations suffice to evaluate artan( x) to precision n,
uniformly for all floating-point numbers x, as 11 -+ IX).

Suppose 8 E [0, 1(/2 - 0). From Lemma 3.1 and Theorem i.1, we can solve the equa-
tion artan(x) = (J/2 to precision n in O(.M(n) log(n» operations, and thus evaluate
x = tan(8/2).Nowsin8 = 2x/(1 + x 2 ) and cos 8 = (1-x~)/(1 +i) may easily be
evaluated. For arguments outside (0, 1(/2 - 0), domain reduction techniques like those
above may be used. Difficulties occur near certain integer multiples of 1(/2, but these
may be overcome (at least for the usual floating-point number representations) by in-
creasing the working precision. We state the following theorem for sin(x), but similar
results hold for the other trigonometric functions (and also, of course, for the elliptic
integrals and their inverse functions).
TIIEORl:lI7.2. If [a, b) !:; (-1(, 1(), then O(ilJ(n) log(II» operations suffice to evaluate
sin(x) to precision n, uniformly for allfloatillg-point numbers x E [a, b), as n -+ co.

8. Asymptotic C01lstants
So far we have been concerned with order of magnitUde results. In this section we give
upper bounds on the constants K such that w( 11) ::; (K + o( 1) ) !If (n) log2n, where w( n)
is the number of operations required t{) evaluate 1(, exp(x), etc., to precision n. The fol-
lowing two assumptions will be made.
1. For all 'Y > 0 and E > 0, the inequality .1f('Yn) ::; ('Y + E)M(n) holds for suffi-
ciently large n.
2. The number of operations required for floating-point addition, conversion between
representations of different precision (at most 11), and multiplication or division of
floating-point numbers by small integers is o( M (n» as n -+ co.
These assumptions certainly hold if a standard floating-point representation is used and
M( 11) '" n (log ( 11»" (log loge n»- for some a 2: 0, provided f3 > 0 if a = O.
The following result is proved in [4]. The algorithms used are similar to those of Sec-
tion 2, but slightly more efficient.
TliEOREll 8.1. Precision-n division of floating-point numbers may be performed in
(4 + o(1»M (11) operations as n -+ <Xl, and square roots may be evaluated in (11/2 +
o( 1) ) M (n) operations.
Using Theorem 8.1 and algorithms related to those of Sections 5-7, thc following re-
sult is proved in [5).
THEoREll 8.2. 1( may be evaluated to precision n in (15/2 + o( 1) ) M (n) lOg2n opera-
tions as n -+ co. If 1( and log 2 are prewmputed, the elementary functionf(x) can be evalu-
ated to precision n in (K + 0(1».M (n) log2n operations, where
K = }13 if f(x) = log(x) or exp(x) ,
l34 if f(x) = artan(x) , sin(x), etc.,
and x is a floating-point number in an interval on which f(x) is defined and bounded away
from 0 and co.
For purposes of comparison, note that evaluation of log(l + x) or log((1 + x)/
(1 - x» by the usual series expansion requires (c + 0(1» 111 (n) n operations, where c
is a constant of order unity (depending on the range of x and the precise method used).
Since 13 log2n < 71 for n 2: 83, the O( AI (n) loge n» method for loge x) should be faster
than thc O(M(n)n) method for n greater than a few hundred.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. This paper was written while the author was visiting the Com-

432
FQ.8t Multiple-Precision Evaluation of Elementary Functions 251

puter Science Department, Stanford University. The comment.R of R.W. Gospcr, D.E.
Knuth, and D. Shanks on various drafts wer(' vcr)' ul\{'ful.

REFERENCES
1. ABRAMOWITZ, M., AND STEGUN, l.A. Handbook of mathematical functions with formulas,
graphs, and mathematical tables. National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., 1964;
Dover,l965, Ch. 17.
26 BEELER, l\f .• GOSPER, R.\V., AND ScHROEPPEL, R. Hakmem. ~lemo No. 239, 11.I.T. Artificial
Intelligence Lab., M.l.T., Cambridge, Mass., 1972, pp. 70-71.
3. BORCHARDT, C.W. Guammelte lVer.te. Berlin, 1888, pp. -155-462.
-l. BRENT, R.P. The complexity of multiple-precision arithmetic. Proc. Seminar on Complexity of
Computational Problem Solving (held at Australian National U., Dec. 1974), Queensland U.
Press, Brisbane, Australia 1975, pp. 126-165.
;j. BRENT, R.P. MUltiple-precision zero-finding methods and the complexity of elementary func-
tion evaluation. Proc. Symp. on Analytic Computational Complexity, J.F. Traub, Ed., Aca-
demic Press, New York, 1976, pp. 151-176.
6. BRENT, R.P. Computer Solution 0/ Nonlillear Equations. Academic Press, New York (to ap-
pear), Ch. 6.
7. DRSNT, U.. l'. A lo'ortran mUltiple-precision arithmetic package. Submitted to a technical jour-
nal.
8. CARLSON, B.C. Algorithms involving arithmetic and geometric means. Amer. Math. Monthly
78 (May 1971), 496-005.
9. CARLSON, B.C. An algorithm for computing logarithms and arctangents. Math. Camput. 16
(April 1972), M3-549.
10. FINB:EL, R., GUIBAS, L., AND SIiIONYI, C. Manuscript in preparation.
11. FISCHER, M.J., AND STOCB:MEYER, L.J. Fast on-line integer multiplication. J. Camput. Sy.tem
Sci•• 9 (Dec. 1974), 317-331.
12. GAUSS, C.F. Carl Friedrich Gau.. Weru, Bd. S. Gottingen, 1876, pp. 362-103.
13. GaSPER, R.W. Acceleration of series. Memo No. 304, M.LT. Artificial Intelligence Lab.,
M.I.T., Cambridge, Mass., 1974.
14. GUlLLOUD, J., AND BOUYER, M. 1,000,000 decimals de pi. Unpublishedmanusuipt..
15. KNUTH, D.E. The Art 0/ Computer Programming, Vol. t. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.,
1969. Errata and addenda: Rep. CS 194, Computer Sci. Dep., Stanford U., Stanford, Calif., 1970.
16. LAORANOE, J .L. OeulII'ea de Lagrange, Tome t. Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1868, pp. 267-272.
17. LEGENDRE, A.M. Eurcice. de Calcullntegral, Vol. I. Paris, 1811, p. 61.
18. SALAMIN, E. Computation of .. using arithmetic-geometric mean. To appear in Math. Comput.
19 ScHt)NHAGE, A., AND STRASSEN, V. Schnelle Multiplikation grosser Zahlen. Computing 7
(1971), 281-292.
20. ScllROEPPEL, R. Unpublished manuscript dated .May 1975.
21. SHAND, D., AND WRENCH, J.W. Calculation or .. to 100,000 decimals. Math. Compul. 16 (1962),
76-99.
22. SWEENEY, D.W. On the computation or Euler's constant. Math. Comput. 17 (1963), 170-178.
23. THACH lOR, H.C. Iterated square root expansions for the inverse cosine and inverse hyperbolic
cosine. Math. Comput. 16 (1961), 399-403.

RECEIVED MARCH 1975; REVISI:D SEPTI:MBER 1975

JoUlllal 01 'be Aoooeiat.ioD lor Compuw., Machinery. Vol. 23. No.3. April 1916.

433
 A NOTE ON THE IRRATIONALITY OF ,(2) AND '(3)
F. BEUKERS

1. Introduction

At the "Journees Arithmetiques" held at Marseille-Luminy in June 1978,

R. Apery confronted his audience with a miraculous proof for the irrationality of
'(3) = 1- 3 +2- 3 +3- 3 + .... The proof was elementary but the complexity and the
unexpected nature of Apery's formulas divided the audience into belicvers and
disbelievers. Everything turned out to be correct however. Two months later a com-
plete exposition of the proof was presented at the International Congress of Mathe-
maticians in Helsinki in August 1978 by H. Cohen. This proof was based 011 the
lecture of Apery, but contained ideas of Cohen and Don Zagier. For a morc extensive
record of this little history 1 refcr to 1\. J. van dcr Poortcn [1]. Apcry's proof will be
published in Acta Arit/lIJ1ctica.
In this note we givc another proof for the irrationality of "3) whieh is shorter
and, I think, more elegant. This proof is achievcd by mcans of double and triple
integrals, the shape of which is motivated by Apery's formulas. Like Apcry's proof it
also works for ((2), which is of course already known to be transcendental sincc it
equals n 2 /6. Most of the integrals that appear in thc proof are improper. The manipu-

f f
1 1-<

lations with these integrals can be justified if one replaces by and by letting e
tend to zero. 0 ,

2. Throughout this paper we denote the lowest common multiple of 1,2, ... , n
by d". The value of d" ean be estimated by
£III = IT p[log II/log P1 < 11 plog II/Io~ p = Il "(II),
Prime Prime
p~n p:!Ei:."

and the latter number is smaller than 3" for sufliciently large 11.

LEMMA 1. Lct rand s be nOll-negative integers. Ifr > s theil,

f r--'
I I

(a) -
xr v"
. l-xy
dxdy
o 0

is a rational number whose denominator is a divisor of d/.

ff -
I I
logxy
(b) --x"Y"dxdy
• I-xy
o 0

is a ratiollalllumber whose denominator is a divisor of d r J.

Received 18 November, 1978.

[BULL. LoNDON MATI-I. Soc., 11 (1979),268-272]

434
 A NOTE ON THE IRRATIONALITY OF ,(2) AND '(3) 269

If r = s, thell
1 1
yr 1 I
f I--dxdy
X'
(c) = (2)- 2"" - ... - 2"",
• I-xy I r
o 0

II { I I ).
1 I
log xy
(d) - --xyrdxdy =2 ((3)- - - ... - -
I-xy 13 ,.3 J
o 0

Rema,.k. In case r = 0, we let the sums 1- 2+ ... +,.-2 and 1- 3+ ... +,.-3 vanish.

Proof. Let (J be any non-negative number. Consider the integral

I I

rr
xr+a y.+a
dxd)'. (I)
.. I-x)'
o 0

Develop (l-xy)-l into a geometrical series and perform the double integration.
Then we obtain

L
k=O (k+r+(J+ 1) (k+s+(J+ I)
(2)

Assume that r > s. Then we can write this sum as

i _1_ { I I } __1_ { 1 + ... + _I_} . (3)

k=O r-s k+s+(J+ 1 k+r+(J+ 1 r-s S+ 1 +(J r+(J

If we put (J = 0 then assertion (a) follows immediately. If we differentiate with respect

to (J and put (J = 0, then integral (1) changes into

I I ---x
1 I
logxy
r y"dxdy,
l-xy
o 0
and summation (3) becomes
-1 { I
r-s (s+ 1)2
+ ... + -+} .
I'

Assertion (b) now follows straight away.

Assume /' = s, then by (1) and (2),

II
I I
xr+a yr+a 00

---=:--dxdy = L
l-xy k=O (k +r+(J+ W
o 0

By putting (J = 0 assertion (c) becomes obviolls. Differentiate with respect to (J and

put (J = O. Then we obtain

Ir
I 1
logxv 'r,-2
- - ' - xr y' dxdy = L ,
o
.0 I-xv
•
k=O (k+r+ 1)3

which provcs assertion (d).

435
270 F. BEUKERS

THEOREM 1. ,(2) is irrational.

Proof. For a positive integer n consider the integral

J.f
1 1
(I -y)" P,,(x)
dxtiy, (4)
I-xy
o 0

where P,,(x) is the Legendre-type polynomial given by n!P,,(x) = {;~} "x"(I -x)".
Note that P,,(x) E l[x]. In this proof we shall denote the double integration by the
single sign J. It is clear from Lemma I that integral (4) equals (A"+B,,,(2»d,,-2 for
some An E I and B" E I. After an n-fold partial integration with respect to x integral (4)
changes into

(- It f y"(1- y)" x"(I-x)"

(l-xy),,+1
dxdy. (5)

It is a matter of straightforward computation to show that

y(l-y)x(l-x)
':""":"-'!"'!""--'---'- ~
{'-"'5-I}S for all 0 ~ x ~ 1, 0 ~ J' ~ 1.
I-xy 2

Henee integral (4) is bounded in absolute value by

2
f
{ '-'" 5 - 1 } s" - I- dxcly
l-xy
= { '-'" 5 - 1 } s" ,(2).
2

Since integral (5) is non-zero we have

and hence

for sufficiently large n. This implies the irrationality of ,(2), for if ,(2) was rational the
expression in modulus signs would be bounded below independently of 11.

THEOREM 2. '(3) is irrational.

Proof. Consider the integral

ff
1 1
-Iogxy
-~;... PII(x)PII(y)dxdy, (6)
I-x)'
o u

436
 A NOTE ON TIlE IRRATIONALiTY OF (2) AND (3) 271

where Il!p"(x) = {~}"

dx
x'(I-x)". It is clear from Lemma 1 that integral (6) equals

(A,,+B" (3»)d,,-3 for some A"EZ, B"El. By noticing that

-log xy = f __
1
1_ _
dz,
l-xy 1- (l-xy)z
o
integral (6) can bc writtcn as

f --'--'--"---'
Pn(x)P,,(y)
dxclydz,
1- (l-xy)=

where J denotes the triple integration. After :tn II-fold partial integration with respect
to x our integral changes into

f (xyz)"(l-x)" P,,(y)
:-=---,--,-_~--,,-.o:....:.-
(1- (l-xy)z)u+ 1
dxdyclz.

Substitute

l-z
w=----
1- (l-xy)z

We obtain

f (1-x)n(l-w)"
Pu(y)
1-(1-xy)w
dxdydw.

After an n-fold partial integration with respect to y we obtain

f xU(I-x)U y"(1- y)" w"(l- w)"

-.!..----"--"---=------=...;'---=--~
(1- (l-xY)W),,+1
dxdydll'. (7)

It is straightforward to verify that the maximum of

x(l-x)y(l- y)w(l- w)(I- (l-xy)wt 1

occurs for x = y and then that

x(l-x)y(l-y)w(l-w) 4
~ (..}2- 1) for all 0 ~ x, y, IV ~ 1.
1-(I-xy)>>,

Hence integral (6) is bounded above by

(..}2-1)4"j
• 1
dxdydlV = (..}2-lt"
rr
I 1
-Iogxy
dxcly = 2(..}2-1t" (3).
1- (l-xy)w .o .0 I-xv
•

437
272 A NOTE ON THE IRRATIONALITY OF ,(2) AND (3)

Since integral (7) is not zero we have

0< IA,,+B,,(3)ld,,-3 < 2(3)(J2-1)4",
and hence

0< IAn+ B,,(3)1 < 2(3)d/(,j2-lt" < 2n3)27"(,j2-1)4H < (-5-4)"

for sufficiently large 11, which implies the irrationality of ,(3).

Reference
1. A. J. van der Poorten, "A proof that Eulcr missed ... Apcry's proof of the irrationality of ~(3)".
To appear.

Departmcnt of Mathematics,
University of Leidcn,
Postbus 9512,
2300 RA Leidcn,
Netherlands.

438
 195
I A Proof that Eu ler Missed '" '.
Apery's Proof of the Irrationality of t(3)
' .....
An Informal Report
Alfred van der Poorten
R. Ap~oy
O~partement de MathematiQues
1. Joumees Arithmetiques de Marseille-Luminy, June 1978 Exercise (colltillued ) et de MecaniQue
Unlversil~ de caen

The board of programme changes informed us that R. ~ I 112 ~ I

Apery (Caen) would speak Thursday, 14.00 "Sur I'irration- 01(2)= L 2 =- =3 ~ - - (3)
lI::;t " 6 '1 =1 1l2(~:r)
alite de t(3)." Though there had been earlier rumours of
his claiming a proof, scepticism was general. The lecture
tended to strengthen this view to rank disbelief. Those who o Considcr the recursion:
listened casually, or who were omicted with being non-
Francophone, appeared to hear only a sequence of unlikely 11 211" -(1I-1)2 I1n _ 2 =(11112_11/1 +3)11,,_10
assertions. n;;' 2. (4)

Let {b,~} be the sequence dell ned by b~ = I. ,,; = 3 and

Exercise the recursion; then the b,~ all arc integers! Let {a;,} be the
Prove the following anwzing claim,,: sequence dell ned by a~ = 0, a;
= 5 and the recursion: then
the a~ arc rational numbers with denominator dividing
(1, 2, ... , IIJ2.

~ a.a2" .ak_.
@a:'/b~ ... t(2) = 11 2/6; indeed the convergence is so fast
k=. (x+a.) ... (x+ak) x as to imply that for all intcgers p, q with q sufildently large
relative to e > 0
(I)
2 pl.
111 --I>~, 0 = 11.85078 ....
q q <

(}) Consider the recu rsion: I heard with some incredulity that, for one, Henri
Cohen (nordeaux, now Grenoble) believed that these claims
11 3l1n + (II - 1)311n _ 2 = (34n 3 - 5111 2 + 2711 - 5)lIn _ .. might well be valid. Very much intrigued, I joined Hendrik
Lenstra (Amsterdam) and Cohen in an evening's discussion
II;;' 2. (2)
in which Cohen explained and demonstrated most of the
details of the proof. We came away convinced that Profes-
Let {bnl be the sequence defined by b o = I, b. =5, and
seur Ap~ry had indeed found a quite miraculous and mag-
bn = lin for all II ; then the h" all arc integers! Let {a,,} be the
nificent demonstration of the irrationality of \(3). nut we
sequence defined byao = 0, a. = 6, and an = lin for all II;
remained unable to prove a critical step.
then the an are rational numbers with denominator dividing
2[1, 2, .. _, II]' (here [1, 2, .. _, II) is the Icm (lowest com-
mon multiple) of 1, .. _,11)_
2. For the Nonexpert Reader
@ an/bn ... 1"(3); indeed the convergence is so fast as to
prove that t(3) cannot be rational. To be precise, for all A number /3 is irraliollal if it is not of the form Po/qo: Po. qo
integers p, q with q sufficiently large relative to e> 0, integers (E 'ZJ. A rational number b is characterised by the

p 1
property that for p, q E Z (q > 0) and b p/q there exists *
an integer qo (> 0, of course) such that
It(3)--I>-o+' 0= 13.41782 ....
q q <
Ib-~I;;.-I-.
Moreover, analogous claims were made for \(2): q qqo

439
196
On the other hand for irrational (3 there arc always .; -lk _ k-I 1,}r.)2k
infinitely many p/q (for instance, the cOl/vergell1s of the !"(2k);: _1/ -(-I) ')"'(')k)1 B 2k •
I - - •
col/tinued fraction expansion of (3) such that
(5)

where the Ilernoulli numbers. 11/11. arc rational (n:!) =IT 2/C>,
r(4) = IT 4 /90, r(6) = IT 6 /945, ...). There arc some classical
Plainly this yields a criterion for irrationality, techniques I for detecting the irrationality of powers of IT,
but it is most useful to appe:11 to the theorem of Hemlite-
It there is all> Oal/d a sequel/ce {Pn/q,,} of ratiol/al Lindemann (whereby eQ is Iranscendental for algebraic
I/umbers such Ihal p"/q,, "'" (3 al/d ex '" 0) whence IT is transcendenlal (because e lfl = - I) and
so (} fol"tiori ils powers are irrational. So it has long been
known that 1(2k) is irr:ltional. k = I. 2..... On the other
I Pn-~I<_I-
l+b 11;;::: I')
,-, ••• hand tllere are no useful analogous closed evaluations of!"
q" q" at odd arguments. 2 Incidentally. (5) is demonstrated quite
easily.
thell (3 is irratio/lal.
The Bernoulli numbers arc defined by the generating
A successful application of the criterion may yield a function (a nontrivial example of an even function!)
measure of irrationality:

If 1(3 - (P,,/q,,)l < l/q,:+6 ,and fhe q" are mOl/otol/ic

incrcasi/lg willi qll <q1.:~ (for /I suffici",uly large re/afj)'e
fO K > 0). 111"/1 for all imegers p. q > 0 mffi£'iemly larg(' hence by the recursion
relative to E > o. l(l- (P/q)1 > (I/q( I +6)(6 -")H:).
{";: 1)110 + ("T I) I1J + ... + (",~J)/J" = O.
For example if the sequence {q" } increases geometrical. I
ly we may take K > 0 arbitrarily small so that I + (I/Il) Bo = I, BI = -"2; /I = 2. 3.....
becomes an irratio/lality degree for (3. To see the claim sup·
pose that 1(3 - (p/q)I';;; l/qT and select /I so that On the other hand it is well·known that
q1.:6J ';;;qT <q,~+6. Then

sinITz=ITz ii
,,=1
(1- .:~)
,,2'

I
Hence qT ';;;qq" <qq,::"J <q I+T(I+.)/(1+6) or
T < (I + 6)/(6 - K) + E as claimed. This argument is effec· 1 Sec for example I. Niven: Irratiollal Numbers (Carus Monographs
tive (the "sufficiently large" requirements can be made ex. #11. MAA·Wilcy. t 967).
plicit.) 2 There is however a famous formula of Ramanujan: Ict 0 and 11 be
positive numbers such UI3t eMil = 7r 2. Then if n is any positive

I
It is well-known (the theorem of Thue-Siegel-Roth) integer
that for (3 algebraic (a zero of a polynomial aoX" +
1 - __k- 2,,-J
+a JX"- J + ... + an. al e 2') always: 1(3- (P/q) I > l/q2+f, ",-n
/ ."t(2rJ+t)+ 1: _

I
2 k=J .14k _ I
for q sufficiently large relative to E> O. So if (3 is too well
approximable by rationals (6 > I above) then Pis 1I0t alge. =(_p)-n 1
-t(2n+t)+ - _
l: k- 2_
,,-J
_
/
braic, but IrallScendelllaL Unfortunately only a set of mea· 2 k=Je2Pk_1
n+J
sure zero of transcendental numbers can be detected in _ ,2n l: (_l)k B 2k B2,,+2_2k ",,+I-kll".
this way. whilst. since the set of algebraic numbers is count. - k=O (2k)1 (211 + 2 - 2k)!
able, almost all numbers are transcendental.
Taking" a ralion.1 multiple of n one sec. thai t(2n + I) is given
It is notoriously difficult to prove that any given natural. as a ralional multiple of ,,In+ I plus two very rapidly convergent
Iy occurring number is irrational, let alone transcendental. series. See for example: Ilrucc C. 8erndl: Modular Iransforma-
One may be fortunate: for example the usual series for e tions and generalizations of several formulae of Ramanujan:
implies immediately (easy exercise) that e is irrational. In Rocky MOIlIllDi/l J. of MDIIl •• 7 09]7) 147-189. Indeed Ihe
aboye formula is Ihe nalural analoque of Euler's formula (5).
the case of the (Riemann) r·function: res) =: r;' /1-' The cited paper gives many other formulas and detailed refer-
(Re s > J) there is the quite well·known fact that enL'eS.

440
 197
so Writing

11 COS 11 Z =11 cot liZ = -.! __ ~ ( 2= ) k! 2(11 - k)!

Sin 1rZ Z ,,=1 ;i~;I . €n,k = 2
k J (1I + k)! •

But because

ctrlZ + c - tr1z
liZ cot liZ = lIiz. . = 2~iz + 7riz =
e'uz _ c-- triZ e 2triZ _I
( 211)2m 2m
2: (_l)m IJ we have
moO (2111)! 2",Z ,

N ,,--1
and on the other hand L ~ (- I)k(err,k -- e,,_I.k)
1J=1 k=1

liZ cot liZ = I- 2 k ( k ~-)

,,2m
z2m
.
_ ~ 1 .., r:.(-1 )"-1
m%.1 '1=1
- ,,=I;;r - . . '~I 113(2::)
Comparing coefficients one has (5). With a little ingenuity N
one can avoid a direcl appeal to the infinite product for = L .(_l)k(eN.k - €k.k) =
k=1
sin liZ or to the expansion for 11 cot IIz. 3
Indeed, proving the irrationality of 1(211 + I).
,,= 1.2 •••. constitutes one of the outstanding problems
of the theory (ranking with the arithmetic nature of
or =: Iimn_~(1 + ... + (I/n).log II), and of CII. e + 11 ••. and on noting that as N'" 00 the first term on the right
which are yet undetermined). It is some measure of Apery's
achievement that these questions have been considered by
vanishes. we have 4 0.
mathematicians of the top rank over the past rew centuries
withou t much success being achieved. 4. Some Nearly Relevant Explanations

All this is quite irrelevant to the proof. It would suffice to

3. Some Irrelevant Explanations introduce the quantities (k ';'11)

For much of the following details I am indebted to Henri 4 Actually the formula CY
i!' quite well known: it \Va!' ob~crved
Cohen. All this due to Apcry. of course. the identity 'orne year< ago by Raymono Ayouh !Pcnn Statc) and it in ract
appears in print: Margrethe Munthe Hjortnac!': Overf0ring ilV
~ °I02 .. • o k_1 rekken kk=1 (l/k J ) iiI et he.lemt intep.thoc. 12,h ConI!.
Scolld. Ma,hs.l-und 10-15 All[(. 1953 (Lund 1954): indepen-
k=1 (X+OI)·.·(X+Ok) dently a~ain it was noticed by R. William Go~per. Jr. (Palo Alto).
sec Go!,per'~ paper: A calculu~ of ~eric~ rearrangemcnb A/~()rithms
follows easily on writing the right.hand side as Ao - AK and Complexity. Ncw Directions alld Recetrt Results. ed. J. Traub
and noti'!8...that each term on the left isA k _ 1 - A k • This (Academic Prc~s, 1976) 121-151, for relevant techniques.
explains\..!). Now putx =11 2, Ok = -k2, and take Henri Cohen remarked that Ihe formula is:
2
k';'K';'11 - I. to obtain r(3) ~ 45 Li3W
-2
+
2w
IS log W - 32 log 3 w
"-I (-Il-I(k _ 1)!2 (with w "" ~.( I +.JS) and U l(.Y) "" "i:.x 3 /n 3 , the trilogarithm).
k~1 (11 2 _1 2) .•. (,,2 _ k 2 ) Hjortnac~ and Ayouh, and respectivel)' Gosper notc the integral
rcpre~cntations (Cl.1~i1y shown equiva1ent)
I (_1)"-1(1I_1)!2
t(3) = 10 f::'g W,2 <oth If
= ,,2 - ,,2(,,2_ 12) ... (,,2_(11_1)2)
l(3) = 10 fb12 (.w;nh 11 dl.
I
2(-1)"-1
- ~-
,,2e,,") In Ihe ca5C t(2l the formula i~ even better known. It is. for
example, referred to by Z. R. Mclzak: Introduction to Concrete
Mathematics (Wiley. 1973), p. 85 (but the ~ufQ,!c~tcd proof i~ not
quite appropriate). ~ may he proved hy ~1i~htly varying the
J For a detailed set of reference!', and !'ome new proof!'. see argument in Section 3 - multiply by (- J)n-I indead of divid-
Bruce ('. Berndt: Elernent3TY evaluation or t(2,,). MaIlls Mal(. ing by n. Many formul3!, ~imilar to Q) and appear in the <V
48 (t 975).148-153. literature and the folklore.

441
198
that the arrays have the property that their "quotient"
(6) converges to n3), in the sense that given any "diagonal"
{II, k(/I)}, the quotient of the corresponding elements of
and to remark that plainly c".k -+ rO) as /I -+ 00, uniformly the two arrays converges to n3). Now apply the following
transformations to each array:
in k. One might hope that a sequence <'".k already implies the
=
irrationality of «3) (say, thc diagonal, with k /I) but this
d,~?~ -+ d,~~!._ k = d~:~
is not qoite so. To see this. it is wwful to prove a Icmma:
d,~:l-+ (~)d,~:l =d,fl
Lemma.
k
d,~~l-+ .'£ d')d,~~l' =d~~l
k =0

d,~~l-> (~)d,~~l =d,~~l

(equivalently: 2{1, 2, ... ,/1]3 C",k("!/) is an integer). k
d,\;l-+ ,'E
k=O
<Z·)d!71· = d!~l
Proof. We check the number of times that any given prime
p divides the denominator. But
("Zk) -+ (2";,-k)
-+ <ZH 2,,;;k)
so, because k
}:; (Z I)(~ I )(2";;k l )
ordp «;:'»":: [log
logp
n] _onJplll = ordpll, ...,11]- kl=O

k
~ (ZJ)(~I)(Z)(2";;kl)
kl =0

we have k k~ k k2 n n 2n- k t
'£ '£ (k2)(kJ)(kJ)(k2)( II ).
k2=0 kl=O

Of course the arrays have retained the properly Ihat their

"quotient" converges to ~(3), and we still have
2[ 1,2, .. .,lIj 3d".k E Z: We now take the maill diagonals
=
(k II) of the arrays, calling them respectively {a,,} and
which yields the assertion, because III ..:: k ..:: II. o {bIll and make the fantastic assertions embodied in ! 0
That is, each sequence satisfies the recurrence (2)! This is
We remark that those wlio know it wellS know that for plainly absurd since surely illteralia a solution {un} of(2)
1/ sufficiently large relative to Ii > D. (with integral initial vailles "0' UI) will have Un witll denom·
inatormorelikell!3 than like 1 (or even 2[1, 2•.. .,n)3).
[1,2, ... ,11) "::e"(l+·) In Marseille, our amazement was total when our HP·67s,
calculating {bll} on the one hand from the definition
(roughly: [I, 2, ... ," 1= lip .." pi log "fIOS pi ..;; lip .. " 1/ above, and on the other hand by Ihe recurrence (2), kept
e"). It will turn out that the C ... k have too
::::. /I"/Iog,, = on prodUCing the same values!
large a denominator relative to their closeness to 1(3). Hence
to apply the irrationality criterion we must somehowaccel·
erate the convergence. Apcry described this process as fol·
S. It Seems that Apery Has Shown that r(3) Is Irrational
lows:
Consider two triangular arrays (defined for k ..;; /I) with
=
entriesdJ~ CII.k("Zk) and (IIZk) respectively. We recall
We were quite unable to prove Ihat the sequences {a,,}
defined above did satisfy the recurrence (2) (Apery rather
tartly pointed out to me in Helsinki that he regarded. this
s ·rhos. who know it really well write 10gll, ..., nl = l;;=ID(" I/m) more a compliment than a criticism of his method). But
= tV(lI) where 0(,,) = :Ep .. n log p. The" it is known th.t
empirically,<numerically) the evidence in favour was utterly
tV(n)/" .. 1.03883 ••• (with maximum at" c 113) and indeed
tV(n) - n < (0.0242334 ••• ) ,,/Iog" for,," 525 752; See J. compelling. It seemed indeed that ~(3) had been proved
Barkley Rosser and Lowell SdlOCnfckl: Math. Comp. 29 (I 97S). irrational, because the rest, thus ®.'
follows quite easily:
243-269. Given (with p(n - I) = 34113 - 51n 2 + 2711 - 5),

442
 199
".111" - 1'(" - 1)11,,_, + (11 - 1)"11,,_ 2 =O. with
11 3bn - 1'(11 - 1)11"_1 + (11 - 1) J I1"_2 = O. _loga-3 _
Ii --I- - - 0.080529 ... >0.
ago: + 3
one multiplies the first equation by 11"_1' the second by
a,,_ ..
to obtain
lienee, by the irrationality criterion, t(3) is indeed irration·
n 3 (a"b,,_, -a,,-:-,bn) =
=
ai, and moreover, because /)-, 12.417820 ... we have:

=(n - 1)3(an_,bn_2-a"_2bn_')'
For all illlegers p, q > O.'I1llficielll{v IlIrge reiatil'f! to
Recallinga,bo - aob, =6 x I - 0 x 5 =6. this cleverly e>O:
yields
I t(3) - ~ I > q- (0 +<), 0 =13.417 820 ...
(7) q

Seeing that t(3) - ao/b o = t(3). it is easily induced 6 that

6. Some Trivial Verifications

To convince ourselves of the validity of Apcry's proof we

need only complete the follOWing exercise.
so

Exercise
Prol'e tile followi"g idelllilies:

On the other hand the recurrence relation makes it easy to (DLet

estimate b", at any rate asymptoticallY. \lie have

b" - (34 - 51,,-' + 27,,-2 - 5,,-3)b,,_,

+ (1 - 3,,-' + 311- 2 -,,-3)b"_2 = 0,
"I k (_I)m-,
andsit:tce thepolynomialx Z -34x+ 1 has zeros 17± 12Vi 1; 3
C",k = m=1 nl + m=1
1; 2m3(m") ("+mm)'
= (1 ± Vi)· we readily conclude that b" O(a"), =
a = (1 + Vi)4. In fact Cohen has, more precisely, calcu- =
Then ao O.a, = 6;"0 = I, b, = 5 and each sequence {a"}
lated that and {bn } satisfies the recurrence (2).
In the same spirit, the case of t(2) requires:
b,,=

We have to recall that the a" are not integers. But writing

p" = 2[1, 2, ••• , nJ 3a". q" = 2[1, 2, •• •,IIJ 3b"

= = =
Then a~ 0, a; 5; h~ = I, b; 3 and each sequence {a~}
and {b~} satisfies the recurrence (4).
wehavep",q" EZand
It is useful to notice that very little more than just prov-
ing these claims is required for Apery's proof. After all, it is
quite plain that an/b" -+ t(3); the b" are integers, and the
lemma of Section 4 shows that the a" are "near.integers."
In Section 5 we showed that given that the sequences satisfy
6 Wrlle t(3) - _"Ib" • x" ond no'. '1101 we hay" Xn - X"_, •
6In 3b"b"_., and X_ = 0. the recursion (2) the irrationality of t(3) follows because

443
200
from log a > 3 (a = (I + ...[i)4) we obtain Ii > O. Thus, as irrationality of r(3). Apery then made some remarks on the
implied in various asides. most of the earlier argument is status of the French language. and alluded 10 the underly.
quite irrelevant. Indeed I am indebted to John Conway ing motivation (as mentioned in Section 3) for his astonish-
for the remark that even 0is irrelevant. ing proof.

Exercise
Be the first in your block to prove by U 2-lille urgumelll Exercise
that r(3) is irrational. 7
A red herrillg'
® Given the definitions of ® show thata"b"_1 -a"_lb"
= b;;l and b" = O(a") with a = (I + y'2)4. Conclude that (J) Show that
r(3) is irrational because log a > 3.
tI3)= ~
5-1
Exercise Ii"? -64
Astound your friellds with all excellell1 irratiollality IIIL'fJ- 535-729
sure for "/f2. 1436 -4096
3105- ...
@ Given the definitions of 0
show Ulatu"b,,_1 -u"_lb,,
= 5(_1),,-1 11 -2 and b" = O/a") with a = (i
(I + 0))5.
Conclude that IlT 2 - (p/q)1 >q-(o",) with
0= 11.850782 ... for all integersp. q > Q(f).8
and deduce that r(3) = I. 202 056 903 •.. is irrational.
7.ICM '78, Helsinki. August 1978 (!)Show thaI

Neither Cohen nor I had been able to prove or 0 in ® 112

r(2)="6=3+ I
5
the intervening 2 months. After a rew days of fruitless
effort the specific problem was mentioned to Don Zagier 25+16
(Bonn), and with irritating speed he showed that indeed 69+81
the sequence {b~} salisfies the recurrence (4). This more or
less broke the dam and ®and 0
were quickly con·
135+256
223+ ...
quered. Henri Cohen addressed a very well-attended meet-
ing al 17.00 on Friday. August 18 in the language of the
majority. proving ® and explaining how this implied the

and deduce thatlT 2 has irrationality degree at most

7 The author docs not pretend to be able to do this. Notice thai II. 850 782 ....
in fact even less is needed: it is suffici~nt to show Q"h n - J -
= =
a"_lb,, 0(,.") and bn O(p"). with log ~ - log l' > 3.
8 Though we have long known that C(2) is irrational. A..,cfY\
result in this case is significant. The irrationality degn.~ for ,,2
is the best known: the irrationality degree implied for JI' is 8. Some Rather Complicated but Ingenious Explanations
23.701564 ... . These results comJ?are very favourably with
tho .. of Mahler: In - (P/q)1 > q-42: On tho approximation of n
Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Amste,dam A. 56 (= I"dag. Ma,h. 15/ According to a dictum of Uttlewood any identily. once
(1953) 29-42. and an indiealion that In - (p/qll> q-JO; see verified. is trivial. Surely CD
is very nearly a counterexample.
also K. Mahler: AppUealions of son,e formula. by Hermil. to The followinll is principally due to Zagier and Cohen. Inci-
the approximation of exponentials and logarithms. Math.
Anna/en 168 (1967) 200-227. Wirsing announced In - Ip/q)1
dentally. we first considered ® which appeared simpler.
>q-2I and MignoUe proved Ihal (fo,q sufticicOIly largcl bUI this was because we had failed to notice tllat ..
In - (P/q)1 > q- 20; Ihis is Ih. bes. known r.sulL II should be
noted that the ciled results depend on deep techniques and
complicated estimations in transcendence theory as contrasted
with the essentially element3l)' methods in A~ry':fi proof.
Mignolte (op. c;,.) .Iso shows Ihat In 2 - (p/qlJ > q-18. which
is weaker than Apcry's result. Now writing II - k for k links the arrays of Section 4 to 0.

444
 201
II is quite convenienl to wrile: C".k _. Cn.k_I' After some massive reorganisalionl'l) be·
comes
bll" '" (~)l(n;Ic)l, all" '" b"kell'" All." - AII• k _I with AII• k =B",kC".1e t

( b" = i
"=0
b"", a" = :£
k=O
bn"cn,,)
+ 5(:!1I +}) (-Ilk-Ik (~)(":k)
//(11 + I)

Then we wish to show that and we have completed <D,and. in passing, proved 0.
This of course verifies Apcry's claim to have proved t( 3)
irrational.

9. The Case of t(2)

We cleverly construct The arguments required to deal with the exercises are 0
quite similar to those already descrihed. It may however
be a kindness to the reader to reveal that it would be wise
to take
with the motive that
IJ",1e '" (k 2 + 3(211 + I)k - 11111 - <)1/ - 2) (Z)2(":k).
8",,,-8,,,,,_1 "'(II + 1)3("ZI)1("+l+,,)1_
Ie (II -I)!
_ (3411 3 + 5111 1 + 2711 + 5) (n1("Zk)1 + A"k '" 1J".kC",k + 3(- 1)"+ -I (k _ Tj!'

+ ,,3("k 1)2("-rlc)2.
Moreover
and, 0 mirabile dictu, the sequence {b"} does indeed salisfy
the recurrence (2) by virtue of the method of creative tcle-
_ 2( I),,+k-I k!2(II_k_l)!
c:",k-C"_I,k- - 1I(II+k)!'
scopillg (by the usual conventions: Bn" '" 0 for k < 0 or
k >11; note also thatPCn) '" 34113 +5In: + 27// + 5 implies
Pen -.1) = -P(-II).) and
The rest is plain sailing (or is it plane sailing?). We notice
that

(II + 1)3b"+I,kCn+I,k - P(//)bn,kC",k +,,3b"_I,kC"_I.k =

(also note that if Q(I/) = 11112 + 1111 + 3 then Q(II- I) =
'" (B... " - B",,,_.)c... ,, + -Q(-II».
+ (n + 1) 3bn+l,k(C"+I,,, -C'~k)-

- n3b"_I,k(C,~" - Cn-I.k)· (9)

I O. What on Earth is Going on Here?

Clearly
Apcry's incredible proof appears to be a mixture of
c... " _ C"-I," '" ~ + ~ (_I)m(m -1)!2(1I-171 -I)! miracles and mysteries. The dominating question is how
II m=1 (II +171)! to generalise all this. down to the Euler constant 'Y and up
to the general ~(t)? Here we have. apparently. the tip oran
iceberg which relates (I + yI2)4 to t"(3) and (I +0»5 <1
'" ....!... + ~ (_1)"'1II!1(11 -
n3 m=1 112(/1
III -
+m)!
k)! to t(2): we have surprising identities 0
and and 0,
startling continued rractions (produced by Cohen ror his
(- I)m-I(m -I)!) Helsinki talk). <D and (2). Do~s the complete berg look
- ,,2(// +m + I)! like this? For my part I incline to the view that much of
what has been presented constitutes a mystification rather
_ (- Ilk!l(l1- k -I)! than an explanation. For example Richard Askey (Madison,
- //2(n + k)! Wisconsin) has pOinted ou t to me that the sequences {b" }
and (b~} may be recognized as special values of certain
whilst not even a minor miracle is required to write down hypergeometric polynomials; immediately the recurrences

445
202
(2) and (4) become identities relating hypergeometric func· then the b" = ~~=o (~) (nr). and all are integers. Find an
tions and much of the magic fades away. Unfortunately expression for the Un in
the difficulties remain. because not all that much is known
about the higher generalisations of the classical hypergeo-
A(z)=(1_6z+Z 1 )-1/2 j(1-6t+t 2 )-1/2 dt=l: anz"
metric functions. For this. and other reasons. it is however o n=O
likely that one should think about recurrences of order
greater than 2. This. incidentally. means that the continued and nolice that the [I •...• Il)u" all are integers. Show Ihal
fractions constitute a red herring. In any event (1) obscures sequences {a,.} (ao = O. al = I) and {b,,} (b o '" I. b l '" 3)
a fundamental miracle. Its convergents P"IQ" are of course both salisfy
such that the sequences {Pn } and {Q,,} both satisfy
till" + (tI-I)II,.-2 '" (611- 3)11,,_1'

Now prove thai there is a conslant l\ such Ihal

The proof works (not because the continued fraction does A(z) - l\/J(=) = ~;=ot",.z" has no singularity at 3 - 2.,fi.
not terminate; that only works for regular continued frac· Deduce Ihat Ihen 'i, '" OCa-") with a '" (I + .,fi)2 and con-
= =
tions. bUI) because if Vo 1. VI 5 Ihen il happens thai clude thai it follows thai log 2 has irralionality degree at
(1I!)3 divides the integers Vn; more honeslly: it is already mos14.662 100 831 ..•.
enough (and is necessary) Ihat for allY initial illteger Of course Exercise ®
should remind us that recur-
values Vo. V .. (1I!)3 always divides 2[1 •.. .• II)3V". An rences may be quile irrelevant to the proof. The vital thing
analogous miracle makes the recurrence then is suitable definition of the ' .... k. so one is brought
back 10 looking for generalisations of@. But. for the
present. generaliS\ltion of Apcry's work remains. as they
say. a mystery wrapped in an enigma. 10
useful in proving the irrationality of n:!).9 These surprises Most startling of all though should be Ihe fact that
generalise Ihe following quile well known fact (to which I Apery's proof has no aspect Ihat would not have been
was alerted by Frits Beukers (Leiden»: the recurrence accessible to a mathematician of 200 years ago. The proof
we have seen is one that many mathematicians could have
fou nd. bu t missed.

= =
is such thalli! divides u" if Vo I. VI 3; and II! divides
This note was written :It Queen's University. Kingston, Ontario
whil:n the author was on study leavc from the University of
[I •...• II) V" for all inleger initial values Vo. VI' New Soulh Wales. Sydney. Auslrali ..
October. 1978

Exercise Postscripts. See L. Lewin Di/ogaritlllllS alld associated fUIlc-

tiolls (Macdonald. London. 1958) for many delighlful facts.
Wllat are tile higller alla/oglles? including the trilogarithm formula of4 which is given at p.
139. AI p. 89 of Louis Comtet Advanced Combifl(ltorics
® Show Ihal if (D. Reidel. Dordrecht. 1974) one is astonished to be asked
to prove as an exercise that
B(z) '" (I - 6z + Z2)-1/2 '" :!; b"z".
11=0
~ _I
,.=1 (~')
"'.!..+
3
21C,j3 .
2 7 ' ,,=1
~ 11(2,,") '" ~
9 Tom Cusick (Buffalo) has noticed that the rollowing recur~n"'C1l
also yield continued fractions '-~nverging to R' 2/6 :
,,2u ,,=-(7,,2_711+2)u n _1 +8(n-1)2ull _ 2 to Well. nol really. It isjusllh'l il i, nol .. all clear where to So.
(one solution 01' which is r:(l)J). and A numericallesl (suggesled by Cohen) implies that t(4) = ,,4/90
• (36/17) l:;;"=1 (I/n4(~~» (so Ihis is true /01' all prtlctlcal pur-
n 3u" = 2(2" - I) (3n 2 - 3fI + l)un _1 +(4" - 3) (4n - 4) poses) .nd it has been ,hown by Gosper Ihal
(4n - SIUn-2
(A SOlulion is l:(~)4).
tIS) = ~ ~
2 n=1
(!. +.! + .•• +
12 22
_1__ _ .i...)
(_I)"
(" _ 1)2 Sn 2 nJ(~"f
On first impression the first yields a worse irrationality decree David Hawkins (Boulder) sUSle5'" similar formulaL Apparently
for .2 than Ihat obtained by ApCry, and the secoRLI docs not such expressions can be generalcd virtually at will on using
)'iL'hJ irratioll;llil)" Oil all Aper)"s results arc int.lect.l remarkable. approprialc $t,i~$llccele,alor iJelllltics.

446
 203
In retrospect it seems clear that exercise ® really is
useful; implications are being considered by Bombieri et al
(at Princeton). For example, one's intuition is just wrong in
Seeing that ~eeling incre,dulity ~t the facts of 0.). All that these report
IS that the dIfferentIal equation

~1(X4_34X3+X2) d 3y +
dX \ dX 3
(see for example Melzak op cit p. 108) the first three
+ (6X 3 _ 103X2 + 3X) d 2y +
formulae (and the one with the trilogarithm) become quite dX 2
accessible to proof. but I had not detected anyone able to
prove the expression for t(4), until I proved it in March + (7X 2 - 112X+ I) !!L+
1979 after noticing a remark of Lewin that also dX
+ (X - S)y -
J X (log(2 sin -X)) 2 dx = -
2 w/3
(UI - 5110) } = 0
17114
- •
o 2 3,240
hastwoG-functiollsolutions namelya(X)=6X+a X2+ .
Sam Wagstaff (Illinois) and Andrew Odlyzko (Bell Labs)
b(X) = I + b l X +b2X 2. + ... ; a~d a(X) -n3
)b(X) is r:gular ....
have mentioned to me that numerical evidence suggests (in fact vanishes) at ,,' = (J - --./2)4. This is interesting, but
that there are formulae of the shape Q) or 0 nl)
for no longer incredible; and it is readily generalisable ... All
=
only for t 2, 3. 4 and this is verified by my studies in a this too is an idea of Beukers. In keeping with the bizarre
nature of the events reported here 1.0 Rccherche No. 97
current manuscript Some wonderful formulae . .. The
reeurrences9 are long known, see Comtet op cit p. 90. (France's Scielltific Americall) contained a report Roger
One can recognise the b" asob" = 4F3 ("i l.•", "il. -II; I)
Aplir), etl'irrrJliOlIlle1 by Michel Mendes-France; the report
and determine the recurrence CD
by way of three term
includes a lively description of the lecture at Marseille
(politely suppressed here) although Mendes-France was in
relations with cOllfiguous balanced series; sec J. A. Wilson
the U.S.A. at the time.
Hypergeometric series. recurrellce relatiolls and SOIllC new
Some officious readers have been critical of my casual
orthogonal fUllctions (Ph. D. thesis; U. Wisconsin·Madison.
use of the a-symbol; the fault is mine. not Apcry's. No
1978).
harm is done. Similarly it has been claimed that Apcry's
Frits Beukers (Leiden) A note olltite i"atiollality of
proof was not missed by Euler - 'Euler did not know the
n2) and t(3) (/. I,ond. Mat". Soc. to appear) has found
prime number theorem'; to me it seems hypercritical to
an elegant approach to Apery's proofs which entirely
suggest that [I, ... , II) =0«(1 + ...;2)411/3) could not have
avoids explicit identities, recurrences and other magic.
been noticed at the time. had it been needed. Anyhow, I
Instead just consider
considered it a racy title. It arosc after Cohen's report at
Helsinki. with someone sourly commenting' A victory for
1=-1/2}} P,,(x)P,,(y) log x)' dxdy=b t(3)-a the French peasant .. .'; to this Nick Katz retorted: 'No ... !
00 1 -xy "" No! This is marvellous! It is something Euler could have
done .. .'
noticing that the b" are integers and the a" are rationals
with the 2[1, .. . ,11)3 0" integral, whilst
March 1979
III q(3) (I _ ...;2)4"
1 d"
here P,,(z) = - - - (Zll (I - z)") is the
II! dz" School of Mothemlltics a,u} Physics
MOCQllorie University
Legendre polynomial. Again, there is no obvious way to North Ryde. New Soutlt Wales
generalise the proof. Australia 211 J

I}

447
MATHEMATICS OF COMPUTATION, VOLUME 34, NUMBER 149
JANUARY 1980, PAGES 305-312

Some New Algorithms for High-Precision

Computation of Euler's Constant
By Richard P. Brent* and Edwin M. McMillan
Abstract. We describe several new algorithms for the high-precision computation of
Euler's constant 'Y = 0.577 . . . . Using one of the algorithms, which is based on an
identity involving Ilessel functions, 'Y has been computed to 30,100 decimal places.
Ily computing their regular continued fractions we show that, if 'Y or exp('Y) is of the
form P/Q for integers P and Q, then IQI > 1015000.

1. Introduction. Euler's constant 1 is defined by

(1) 1 = lim (II", - In(m)),

IU-)oOO

where Hm = L~n= I Ilk.

Recently t(3) was proved irrational [17] with the aid of a rapidly converg-
ing continued fraction, and conceivably a similar method might be used to prove
the irrationality of 1. Thus, there is some interest in finding rapidly converging ex-
pressions for 'Y. We give several such expressions below.
Early computations of 1 used the Euler-Maclaurin expansion to accelerate con·
vergence of (1): see Brent [7] and Glaisher [I 2]. Sweeney [16] suggested a method
which avoids the need for computation of the Bernoulli numbers which appear in the
Euler-Maclaurin expansion, and Brent [7], [8] used Sweeney's method to compute
'Y to 20,700 decimal places. In Section 3 we describe an algorithm which is about
twice as fast as Sweeney's. The algorithm depends on some identities, given in Section
2, involving modified Bessel functions. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the algo-
rithm we have used it to compute 'Y to 30,100 decimal places; see Section 5. Some
other algorithms for the high-precision computation of 1 are briefly described and
compared in Section 4.
2. Some Bessel Function Identities. The modified Bessel functions liz) and
Ko(z) arc defined by

Received January 22, 1979; revised May 15, 1979.

AMS (MOS) SUbject classificatiolls (1970). Primary 10-04, 1 OA40; Secondary IOF20,
IOF35, 65A05, 68A20.
Key words and phrases. Eulcr's constant, Mascheroni's constant, gamma, Bessel functions,
rational approximation, regular continued fractions, multiple-precision arithmetic, Gauss-Kusmin
law.
-The work of the first author was supported in part by National Science Foundation grant
1-442427·21164-2 at the University of California, Berkeley. This work was also supported by the
U. S. Department of Energy under Contract W·7405·ENG·48.
© 1980 American Mathematical Society
0025-5718/80/0000-0020/$03.00
305

448
306 RICHARD 1'. IJRENT AND EDWIN M. McMILLAN

It is easy to verify, by carrying out the differentiation indicated above, that

So(z) - Ko(z)
(2) r + In(z/2) = ,
Jo(z)
where
~ (Z/2?k
So(z) = L - - H k·
k=O (k!)2
For real positive z, Ko(z) and Jo(z) have the asymptotic expansions

(3)

and

L
~

(4) Jo(z) - (21Tz)-'/'e z ak(z),

k=O

where
12 3 2 ... (2k - 1)2 [(2k)!] 2
k!(8z)k (k!)3(32z)k

A proof is given in Watson [19, Section 7.23].

For real z ;;;. 1, the first terms in the asymptotic expansions (3) and (4) give
upper and lower bounds on Ko(z) and Jo(z), respectively:

1T)1/2 z
o < Ko(z) < ( 2z e-

Thus, taking z = 2n ;;;. 2 in (2), we have

(5) 0< U(n)/V(n) - r = K o(2n)/Jo(2n) < rre- 411 ,

where

(6) U(n) = So(2n) - Jo(2n)ln(n) = L~ (nk)2

--;- (Hk - In(n»
k=O k.

and

(7) V(n) = Jo(2n) = L= (nk)2

k=O
--;-
k.
.
In the following section we describe an algorithm (Bl) for computing r using (5)
to (7). It is interesting to note that the relations (2) to (4) were essentially given by
Riemann [14] in 1855, but the possibility of using them to compute Euler's constant
appears to have been overlooked.
3. The Algorithm Bl. Suppose we wish to evaluate 'Y to d decimal places. If
we choose

(8) n = lc + I4ln(lO)dJ

449
 HIGH·PRECISION COMPUTATION OF EULER'S CONSTANT 307

for some suitable constant c then, from (5),

I')' - U(n)/V(n)1 < 1Te4 - 4c lQ-d.

Thus, we need only evaluate U(n) and V(II) sufficiently accurately, and then perform
one high·precision division, to evaluate,), to the required accuracy.
Let

B - ( nk)2
-
k - k! '

Then

(9) Ao = -In(n), Bo = I, Uo = A o' Vo = I,

and for k = 1, 2, ... , we have

Bk = B k_ l n2/k 2, Ak = (Ak_l n2 /k + Bk)/k.

(10)
Uk = Uk - l + A k , Vk = V k- l + B k ·
For Algorithm Bl, n is chosen according to (8). and working precision equiv-
alent to slightly more than d (floating) decimal places is used. In(n) is computed, e.g.
by the 0(d2 ) method of [9], and Ao. Bo. Uo and Vo are initialized as in (9). The
iteration (10) is terminated when, to the working precision, Uk = Uk - l and V k =
V k- l . The storage required is Oed) as Bk can overwrite B k- l , etc.
For j ;;.. 0, let 01., be the real positive root of

(11) 01., InOl.,- 01., = j.

Thus, 01. 0 = e "" 2.78, 01. 1 "" 3.59, 01. 2 "'" 4.32, 01. 3 "" 4.97, etc.
Using Stirling's approximation, we see that the number of iterations of (10)
required is

(12) K = OI.ln + O(ln(n» = ~OI.l In(lO)d + O(ln(d» "" 2.07d.

In analyzing the time required by Algorithm BI and other algorithms described

in Section 4, we make the following simplifying assumptions.
(a) Only the time required for the inner loop(s) is considered. (The computa-
tion of In(n) is common to all the algorithms considered, so the time required for this
is neglected. The final division of UK by VK takes time 0(d 2 ) if done as in [9], but
the constant factor is relatively small, and o(d2 ) methods exist [5].)
(b) Multiplication or division of a multiple-precision number (e.g. A k - l ) by a
small integer (e.g. n 2 or k) takes time d units. In the analysis (though not in the
implementation of the algorithm) the possibility of reducing the working precision
(e.g. for Ak and Bk when k "'" K) is neglected. Considering this possibility complicates
the analysis but is unlikely to alter the ranking of the algorithms discussed below.

450
308 RICHARD P. BRENT AND EDWIN M. McMILLAN

(c) Addition of two multiple-precision numbers takes time d units. (The con-
stant is assumed to be the same as for (b). Again, this is unlikely to change the rank-
ing of the algorithms.)
Using these assumptions, each iteration of (IO) requires time 8d (for 3 multiple-
precision additions, 2 multiplications and 3 divisions by small integers). Thus, from
(12), the time required by method 81 is about 2a l In(I O)dl ~ l6.5d1 .
It is important to note that we avoid keeping Hk or (Hk - In(n)) as a multiple-
precision number and multiplying by Bk in the inner loop. This would lead to a
method with time n(d 3 ) if the classical multiplication algorithm were used as in [9].
The idea of using the 8essel function identities to compute 'Y was suggested by the
second author, and the O(d 2 ) implementation was discovered by the first author.
If lerms in the slim (I 5) ~re grouped as ill [5] ~Ild the Schollh~ge-Strassell f~sl
multiplication algorithm r15] is used, it is possible to compute 'Y with error bounded
by 10-d in time O{d[ln(d)] 3I n [ln(d)]}, asymptotically faster than any of the n(d 2 )
algorithms considered here. However, such "fast" algorithms are very difficult to
implement and are slower than Algorithm 81 unless d is very large. Thus, we do not
consider them further.

4. Related Algorithms. In this section we briefly describe and compare several

closely related algorithms for the computation of 'Y.
4.1. Algorithm il2. From (2) we have

and from (3)

411
(13) Ko(2n) = Yz.(rr/n)'1'e- 211 L (-lla k (21l) + O(e- 611 /n).
k=O
Thus, we can find 'Y with error O(Il-'!.e- 811 ) if Ko(2n) is approximated using (13). If
e2n is computed using the Taylor series, and the time required to compute (rr/n)'1> is
neglected, the time required by this method (82) is about

[(8a 3 + 3a l + 6)ln(I0)/8]d1 ~ 16.3d1 ,

not appreciably less than for the simpler method ill.
4.2. Algorithm 83. To avoid the computation of (rr/n)'!.e- 11l in (13), we may
use the asymptotic series [I, Eq. (9.7.5)]
I k' [(2k)!] 3
( 14) I (211)K (2f!) - - " ----"-'--:.....:...--
o 0 411 kL-;:O (k!)4(\6n)2k

with k' < 211. Empirical evidence suggests that the relative error in (14) with
k' = 211 is O(I1-'lz e-411), but we have not been able to prove this. Assuming this er-
ror bound, the time required with k' = 211 is about

451
 HIGH-PRECISION COMPUTATION OF EULER'S CONSTANT 309

Tllis is less than the estimate 16.5d 2 for Algorithm B1, but we preferred to use BI
because of its simplicity and the difficulty in rigorously bounding the error in (14).
4.3. Exponential Integral Methods. Several algorithms are based on the identity
'Y + In(n) = Q(n) - R(n),

(I---
where
n e- X ) ~ nk(-l)k-1
(l5) Q(n) = r dx =L
Jo X k=I k!k
and
e- x
=fn
00

R(n) -dx = O(e-n/n).

X

Beyer and Waterman [3), [4) took /I "" In(JO)d, worked to precision equivalent to
2d decimal places to compensate for cancellation in the sum for Q(n), and neglected
R(n). The time required for this method is about 6a I ln(10)d2 "" 49.6d 2 , or three
times that for method B1.
Following the suggestion of Sweeney [16), Brent [7), [8) took /I "" !--2ln(10)d,
summed the series for Q(n) using the equivalent of 3d/2 decimal places, and approxi-
mated R(n) by its asymptotic expansion
e- n n-2 k!
(16) R(n) =- L - - + O(e- 2n /n).
/I k=O (-nl
Assunling the power series is used to compute en, the time required for this method
is about

about twice as much as for method Bl. Actual running times confirm this ratio.
Using the identity
nk
enQ(n) =L Hk -,
k=O k!
we can evaluate Q(n) by computing 'LHknk/k! and 'Lnk/k! by recurrences similar to
(10). Because all the terms in the two sums are positive, there is no need to increase
the working precision to much more than the equivalent of d decimal places. If II
"" In(10)d, and R(n) is neglected, the time required is about tao In(1O)d2 "" 43.8d 2 ,
slightly less than for Beyer and Waterman's method. If the asymptotic series (16) is
used for R(II), the time required is about
14(140: 1 + 3)ln(10)d2 "" 30.7d 2 ,
slightly greater than for Sweeney's method.
Instead of using the asymptotic expansion (16) for R(n), we could use Euler's
continued fraction [18, p. 350)
enR(n) = l/n + 1/1 + l/n + 2/1 + 2/n + 3/1 + 3/n + ...

452
310 RICHARD P. BRENT AND EDWIN M. McMILLAN

and the forward or backward recurrence relations. This has the advantage that R(n)
can be evaluated as accurately as desired, whereas with the asymptotic expansion (16)
the error is U(e- 2n In). The choice of the optimal n and the optimal number of terms
in the continued fraction (evaluated by the backward recurrence relations) gives a
method competitive with Algorithm Bl, but much more complicated.
4.4. A Generalization. For fixed p > 0, it follows from (1) that

(17)

With P = 1 we obtain essentially one of thc exponential integral methods mentioned

above, with error O(e-nln). With fJ = 2 we obtain method Bl. with error O(e- 4n ).
We shall sketch how the error in (17) may be estimated for integer p ;;. 2. Let
y(z) be a function of the real variable z, and L the operator defined by Ly = z(dyldz).
Then

Vp(z) = f
k=O
(z~k!f
and

Up(z) = L (H k -In(z) - 'YXzklk!f

k=O

are independent solutions of

(18) (LP - (pzf)y = o.

{To verify this for y = Up, let
_ ZkP+II
V
p,lI
(z) = L
k=O (k!f-1r(k + v +1)
.
Then it is easy to check that

(19) [(L + (p - l)v)(L - vf-l - (pzfl V p ,II(Z) = 0,

and the result follows by differentiating (19) with respect to v, setting v = 0, and ob-
serving that Up(z) = -aVp,,,(z)/avlv=o.} Now

Vp(z) - p-Y.(21TZP- p )/2 exp(pZ)

is the dominant solution of (18) as z -+ + 00. By analyzing the asymptotic behavior

of the subdominant solutions we obtain
I Up(z)/V/z) I = O(exp(-c(p)z» as z -+ + 00,

where c(P) = p(l - COS(21Tlp». Thus, the error in (17) for integer p ;;. 2 is
O(exp(-c(p)n» as n -+ 00. Since c(2) = 4, c(3) = 4.5, and c(P) :so;; 4 for p ;;. 4, only

the case p = 3 is worth considering as a computational alternative to method Bl (Le.

the case p = 2).

453
 HIGH·PRECISION COMPUTATION OF EULER'S CONSTANT 311

5. Computational Results. 'Y was computed to more than 30,100 decimal places
using method Bl and a multiple·precision arithmetic package [9] on a Univac 1100/42.
Three independent computations were performed, with n = 17,332 (using base 10,000
and 7,527 digits), n = 17,357 (base 65,535 and 6,260 digits), and n = 17,387 (base 65,536
and 6,271 digits). All three agreed to 30,100 decimal places, and the last two agreed to
30,141 decimal places. The computer time required for each computation was about
20 hours, much the same as for the 20,700 decimal place computation [7] using
Sweeney's method on the same machine.
We also computed G = exp(r) to more than 30,100 decimal places using the ex-
ponential routine in Brent's package [9] (with base 65,536 and 6,260 digits), and veri-
fied it by computing In (G) by the Gauss-Salamin algorithm [6] (with base 10,000 and
7,550 digits). TIle rounded 30,I00D values of 'Y and G arc given in [10].
TIle first 29,200 partial quotients in the regular continued fractions for 'Y and G
were computed and verified as in [7], [81. Statistics on the distributions of the first
29,000 partial quotients are given in Table 1, with notation as in [7, Table 21. A chi-
squared test did not show any significant difference (at the 5% level) between the ac-
tual distributions and the distribution predicted by the Gauss-Kusmin theorem [13].
A table of the first 29,000 partial quotients for 'Y and G is given in [Ill.
TAULE 1
Distribution of first 29,000 partial quotients for rand G
n number of number of expected
qi('Y) =n q;(G) = n number

12112 11992 12036.1

2 4809 4875 4927.8
3 2791 2760 2700.2
4 1727 1757 1707.9
5 1181 1168 1178.6
6 867 848 862.7
7 642 716 658.9
8 497 520 519.7
9 420 417 420.5
10 346 335 347.2
11-20 1624 1729 1694.1
21-50 1148 1103 1133.9
51-100 411 390 400.2
101-1000 378 349 37004
>1000 47 41 41.8

From the continued fractions for 'Y and G we can improve the Theorem of [7,
Section 71, where the lower bound on IQI was 10 10 ,000.

THEOREM L ffr or G = P/Qfor integers P and Q, then IQI > 10 15 ,000.

454
312 RICHARD I'. BRENT AND EDWIN M. McMILLAN

Acknowledgement. Tins work was initiated whlle the first author was visiting
the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences at the University
of California, Berkeley. The computations were performed at the Australian National
University.

Department of Computer Science

Australian National University
P. O. Box 4
Canberra, A. C. T. 2600, Australia

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

University of California
Berkeley, California 94720

\. M. AIIRAMOWITZ & I. A. STEGUN. lIandbook of Ma/lICrnatical Functions wit" For-

mulas, Graplls, and MatlJel1lat;cal Tables, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., 1964.
2. M. IIEELEI{. I{. W. GOSI'ER & R. SCIIROEI'I'EL, "1I:1kmelll," Melllo No. 239. M.I.T.
Artificial Intelligence Lab., Cambridge, Mass., 1972, pp. 70-71.
3. W. A. BEYER & M. S. WATERMAN, "Error analysis of a computation of Euler's con-
stant," Math. Comp., v. 28, 1974, pp. 599-604. MR 49 #6555.
4. W. A. BEYER & M. S. WATERMAN, "Decimals and partial quotients of EUler's can·
stant and In 2," UMT 19, Math. Comp., v. 28, 1974, p. 667. Errata: Math. Comp., MTE 549, v.
32,1978, pp. 317-318.
5. R. P. BRENT, "The complexity of multiple·precision arithmetic," Complexity of Com-
putational Problem Solving (R. S. Anderssen and R. P. Brent, Eds.), Univ. of Queensland Press,
Brisbane, 1976, pp. 126-165.
6. R. P. BRENT, "Multiple-precision zero-finding methods and the complexity of elemen-
tary function evaluation," Analytic Computational Complexity (J. F. Traub, Ed.), Academic Press,
New York, 1976, pp. 151-176. MR 52 #15938, 54 #11843.
7. R. P. BRENT, "Computation of the regular continued fraction for Euler's constant,"
Math. Comp., v. 31, 1977, PJl. 771-777. MR 55 #9490.
8. R. P. BRENT, "'Y and exp('Y) to 207000 and their regular continued fractions to 20000
partial quotients," UMT I, Math. Comp., v. 32, 1978, p. 31 \.
9. R. P. BRENT, "A Fortran multiple-precision arithmetic package," ACM TrailS. Math.
Software, v. 4, 1978, pp. 57-70.
10. R. P. BRENT, "Euler's constant and its exponential to 30,100 decimals," Computing
Research Group, Australian National University, Sept. 1978. Submitted to Mati •. Comp. UMT
file.
1 \. R. P. BRENT & E. M. McMILLAN, "The first 29,000 partial quotients in the regular
continued fractions for Euler's constant and its exponential," submitted to Math. Comp. UMT
file.
12. J. W. L. GLAISHER, "History of Euler's constant," Messenger of Math., v. 1, 1872,
PI'. 25-30.
13. A. YA. KHINTCHINE (A. JA. HINCIN), Continued Fractior.s, 3rd cd., (English transl.
by P. Wynn), Noordhoff, Groningen, 1963. MR 28 #5038.
14. G. F. B. RIEMANN, "Zur Theorie der Nobili'schen Farbenringe," Poggendorff's Anna-
len der Physik und Chemie, Bd. 95, 1855, PI'. 130-139. (Reprinted in Bernhard Riemann's
Gesllmmelte MatJrematiscl,e Werke und Wissensclia!tlicl,cr Nacl,'ass, Teubner, LeipZig, 1876, pp.
54-61.)
15. A. SCHONHAGE & V. STRASSEN, "Schnelle Multiplikation grosser Zahlen," Comput-
ing, V. 7,1971, PI'. 281-292.
16. O. W. SWEENEY, "On the computation of Euler's constant," MatI!. Comp., V. 17,
1963, PI'. 170-178. MR 28 #3522.
17. A. VAN DER 1'00RTEN, "A proof that Euler missed-Apery's proof of the irrational·
ity of 1'(3)," Matl!ematical Intelligence, v. 1, 1979, PI'. 196-203.
18. H. WALL, Analytic Theory of Continued Fractions, Van Nostrand, New York, 1948.
19. G. N. WATSON, A Treatise 011 the Tll<!ory of nessel Functions, 2nd ed .. Cambridge
Univ. Press, London, 1944.

455
A Proof that Euler Missed:
Evaluating t(2) the Easy Way
Tom M. Apostol

R. Apery [1] was the first to prove the irrationality of symmetry of this square about the u-axis we find

{(3) = f,fa.
0-'
Motivated by Apery's proof, F. Beukers [2] has given
a shorter proof which uses multiple integrals to
establish the irrationality of both {(2) and {(3). In this
note we show that one of the double integrals con- +4 f '"
sidered by Beukers,
"'"
1=
,
Jro f 0
, 1
--dxdy,
1 - xy
Since

f
x
dt
can be used to establish directly that {(2) = ,.,-2/6. This ~arc tan~
o a2 + t 2 a a
evaluation has been presented by the author for a
number of years in elementary calculus courses, but
does not seem to be recorded in the literature. we have
The relation between the foregoing integral and {(2)
is obtained by expanding the integrand in a geometric u
dv 1
J.
u
series and integrating term by term. Thus, we have v'2=U2 arc tan v'2=U2
2 - u2 + v'

I = J.' I.' n~.x°Yo dxdy =

Now we evaluate the integral another way and show

that I = ,.,-2/6. We simply rotate the coordinate axes
clockwise through an angle of 7T/4 radians by intro-
ducing the ·change of variables

u-v u+v
x= \72'y = \72

so that 1 - xy = (2 - u2 + v2)/2. The new region of

integration in the uv-plane is a square with two oppo-
site vertices at (0,0) and (Y2,O). Making use of the Tom M. Apostol

THE MATHE.\.1ATICAL INTELLJGENCER VOL. 5, NO.3 C 1983 Springer-Verlag New York 59

456
and The substitution u = y + +X(y2 - 1) in the integral
I.•.
~-. dv 1 V2 - u with respect to y converts this to
-2-_-U"-2'--+-V-2- v'2=Ii" arc tan v'2=Ui
, '
hence
P+Q= i, f. du t
dx
+ 2ux + x'

1= 4 f. 1/~
arc tan
U
\/2=""Ui v'2=Ui
du Now put u = cos I{J so that (sin 1{J)/(t + 2ux + x 2 ) =

d (
-d arc t a xn+. cos I{J) , hence
x sm I{J
v2 - u du
arc tan v'2=Ii" v'2=Ui = I, + I.,
P+Q = t
'2 I."• I{J dI{J = .,r
4"'
say. Put u = v'2 sin (J in I,so that du = v'2 cos (J d(J
= ~ d(J,and tan (J = u/~ This gives us
which, together with P = 2Q, implies P = .,r/6.
1,=4 f. ,,/8
(Jd(J=2
(
~t References
1. R. Apery (1979) Irrationalite de "2) et "3). Astir-
In I. we put u = v2 cos 2(J so that isque 61:11-13. Paris: Societe Mathematique de France.
2. F. Beukers (1979) A note on the irrationality of ,,2) and
du = -2\12 sin 2(J dO = -2\12 V1 - cos 21:1 dO = 2 '(3), Bull. Lon. Math. Soc. 11:268-272.
-2\12 V1 - u'/2 dl:l = -2v'2=1i" d(J, 3. F. Goldscheider (1913) Arch. Math. Phys. 20:323-324.

and California Institute of Technology

Pasadena, California 91125
\I2-u \12(1 - cos 2(J)
V2 2 cos' 2(J

= /1 - cos 2(J
" 1 + cos 2(J =
j 22 cos'
sin' (J
(J = tan 1:1,
Ergebnisse der Mathematik,
hence 3. Folge
A Series of Modern Surveys in
Mathematics
Edited by:

r
S. Fererman, N.H. Kuiper. P. Lax.
W. Schmid, J-P. Serre. J.L. Tits
Therefore 1= I, + I. = 6( ; .,r
6
R. Remmert, Managing Editor
Following five decades of successful pub-
lication, the first two volumes of the new
Note. Another evaluation of '(2) using double in- third sequence of this well-known series are
tegrals in a less straightforward manner was given by now available to the mathematics community.
F. Goldscheider [3] in response to a problem proposed
by P. Stickel. He considers the two double integrals
To order write:
Sprlncer-Verlac New York Inc,
f f
, 'dx dy , 'dx dy
P=
•
-andQ=
• t-xy 1. 1. 1+ xy
175 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. UlOlO

1
and shows first that P - Q = "2 P so P = 2Q. On the
other hand,

P+Q = { . dy I.' 1
dx
+ xy'
60 1HE MATHEMAnCAL INTELUGENCER VOL. 5. NO.3. ,983

457
Putting God Back In Math* equaling three are mentioned in 1 Kings 7:23 and 2
Chronicles 4:2.
by Lynn O'Shaughnessy There is absolutely no mention of 3.14 and its sub-
sequent, non-repeating digits anywhere in the Bible,
While creationists' beliefs are being weighed by an Ar- the professors note.
kansas judge, a sister organization has evolved, if you If a pi of 3 is good enough for the Bible, it is good
will, hundreds of miles away in the hallowed halls of enough for modern man, concludes the institute's
Emporia State University. founder, Samuel Dicks, a professor of medieval his-
A bold collection of free-thinking Kansas heretics tory. Mr. Dicks attributes a great deal of the modem
has decided to continue the work started by the cre- malaise to the Godless pi, which he contends is "an
ationists, who want the biblical explanation of the be- atheistic concept promoted by secular humanists."
ginning of man taught in the schools. About 100 pro- "To think that God in his infinite wisdom would
fessors, students and a few publicity-shy Emporia create something as messy as this (3.14 and on) is a
ministers have formed the Institute of Pi Research. monstrous thought," Mr. Dicks concludes.
Quite simply, the institute wants to put God back Are these pi patrons really on the level?
into mathematics. Or at least back into pi. "I think we deserve to be taken as seriously as the
Pi is the symbol for 3.14159265 and on to infinity, creationists," Mr. Dicks replies bluntly, appearing to
that impossibly awkward number that is used to mul- be not the least bit amused.
tiply the diameter of a circle to obtain the circle's cir- Only with a great deal of reluctance will members
cumference. The contemporary pi was discovered by of the institute, with the motto, "Pi is 3 any way you
Anaxagoras, an ancient Greek, who was sentenced to slice it," admit they are full of baloney. It is their way
die for his efforts. But members of the institute are of poking fun at the creationists by pointing out that
clamoring for the return of the pi used by architects of even the Bible makes mistakes-or at least seems to.
King Solomon's Temple. According to the Bible, the In jest, the members say they want public schools
builders used a pi of 3 to construct parts of the majestic to give the ancient pi equal time in the classrooms.
structure. Measurements revealing the use of pi "If the Bible is right in biology, it's right in math,"
states Loren Pennington, an economic historian.
• Reprinted by pennission of TIlt [(Q ...... City Times. copyright 1982. To lend some credibility to its crusade, the institute
Originally published in TIlt [(Q ...... City Times. January S. 1982. TIlt charmed an Emporia State mathematics professor,
Inttlligenar wishes to thank the author and the newspaper for per- Marion Emerson, into its fold. Mr. Emerson, who real-
mission to reprint this article. izes he is being exploited for the good of the institute,

76 THE MATHEMAnCAL lNI'ELUGENCER VOL 5. NO. '. 1983

458
 Samuel Dicks (left) and Marion
Emerson (right)

says he has paid a price among his colleagues for his The group now is trying to lend its taped show to
conversion. any sympathetic television station, but the response so
"Some of them think it's awful," he savs. far has been underwhelming. Refusing defeat, pi en-
Not content to stay within the ivory t~wer, the in- thusiasts are sending letters to Midwestern legislatures
stitute recently turned to the university's cable channel asking them to give pi equal time. If they succeed they
to spread the word. The show featured a string of pro- have plenty of other targets.
fessors explaining why their theory should not be dis- Says Mr. Pennington, the historian: "Our next step
counted as "pi in the sky." is to replace the insidious secular humanistic meter
A physicist maintained that the glow of the constel- with the biblical cubit."
lation Perseus proves that pi 3 is correct. A historian
blamed Arabs using oil barrels made with the lesser pi
for the energy crisis, and Mr. Emerson, the token
mathematician, produced a wheel he made using pi 3. Editor's Note: Those interested in joining the Institute for
The wheel, however, had six sides. Pi Research can do so by writing to The Institute for Pi
"Of course it makes for a bumpy wheel," he Research, 617 Exchange Street, Emporia, Kansas 66801,
conceded. USA. There is no membership fee . The Institute encourages
The institute's convoluted theories have won con- individuals to form their own local chapter of research as-
verts at several universities, including the University sociates.
of Kansas, Iowa State University and the Texas Tech Readers are also invited to borrow a videotape on the In-
math department. The group even sent a letter to Pres- stitute and its activities which is available on loan at no cost
ident Reagan asking for his support. The reply is long (except return postage). The videotape is suitable for math-
overdue, but Mr. Dicks believes the leader is a closet ematics clubs or departmental viewing. Write to Instruc-
believer because he said in a recent speech: "The pi (e) tional Media Center, Emporia State University, Emporia,
isn't as big as we think." Kansas 66801 and specify either 112" VHS or 3/4" U-matic.

THE MATHEMATICAL n-.lElUGENCER VOL. 5. NO. 4., 1983 77

459
218 THE MA THEMA TICAL GAZETTE

69.30 A remarkable approximation to 7t

In the first book of Kings, we find a description of the temple built by
King Solomon in which the measurements of the various parts are stated. In
Chapter 7 v. 23 the 'molten sea', a large basin containing water in which the
priests washed their hands and feet before performing the rites, is described.
The verse states (in the A. V.)
"And he (Solomon) made a molten sea, ten cubits from one brim to the
other: it was round all about, and its height was five cubits; and a line of
thirty cubits did compass it round about."
From this verse it appears that 1t is taken to be 3, which is clearly
inaccurate. Various explanations have been advanced by commentators; for
example that the Bible is not interested in giving exact constructional details
and so rounds to the nearest integer, or that the verse has taken into account
the thickness of the material i.e. the ten cubits is an external diameter
whereas the 30 cubits is the internal circumference. In this note I shall take
a different approach, based on the Masoretic text and certain peculiarities
that one finds in the original Hebrew of this verse.
Before discussing our problem it is necessary to note two points. Firstly,
in the Masoretic text there are certain peculiarities of spelling found

460
NOTES 219

occasionally (qethib) which are read differently (qere). Both of these are
found in Hebrew Bibles, the former in the text and the latter either in the
margin or at the foot of the page. In our verse there is one of these; the word
translated line is written (in transliteration) qwh but read qw. (Vowels are
not considered as proper letters in Hebrew and so have not been included,
the word in fact is read qaw.)
The second point concerns the numerical notation of the ancients. Both
the ancient Greeks and Jews used letters to denote numbers, the first nine
letters representing the units I to 9, the next nine 10, 20 up to 90, and the
following letters 100, 200 etc. Numbers were represented by a combination
of letters in no particular order, and so every word had a numerical
equivalent. This is the basis of numerological interpretations of Scripture
which seem very forced to those of us who do not use letters to represent
numbers. However, to the ancients, a word was a number and so equating
words of the same numerical value seemed quite natural.
If it is assumed that Scripture is Holy Writ, i.e. that it contains no
meaningless items, the problem of the discrepancy between qere (qw) and
qethib (qwh) is apparent. Why does our verse have an extra h? The
following numerical calculation may prove interesting to the reader.
In Hebrew, the letters q, wand h have numerical values, 100, 6 and 5
respectively. Thus the word translated line in its written form has numerical
value III whereas as read the value is 106. If we take the ratio of these
numbers as a correcting factor for the apparent value of 1t as 3 and calculate
III
3x-
106
we obtain 3· 141509 to 7 significant figures. This differs from the true value
of 1t by less than 10- 4 which is remarkable. In view of this, it might be
suggested that this peculiar spelling is of more significance than a cursory
reading might have suggested.
M. D. STERN
John Dalton Faculty of Technology, Manchester Polytechnic, Chester
Street, Manchester Ml 5GD

461
MATHEMATICS OF COMPUTATION
VOLUME 42, NUMUEIt illS
JANUARY 1984, PAGI.!:S l09-117

On a Sequence Arising in Series for 7T

By Morris Newman'" and Daniel Shanks

Abstrac:t. In a rc:c:c:nt investigation or dihedral quartic fields (6) a rational sequenc:c: (a.) was
encountered. We show that these a" are positive integers and that they satisfy sU"Prising
congruences modulo a prime p. They generate unknown p-adic numbers and may therefore be
compared with the cubic recurrences in (I). where the corresponding p-adic numbers arc
known completely (2). Other unsolved problems are presented. The growth of the a. is
examined and a new algorithm for computing a. is given. An appendix by D. Zagier. which
carries the investigation rurthcr. is addc:d.

1. Introduction. The sequence {a,,} that begins with

(I) a l = I, a2 = 47, = 2488, a4 = 138799,
a3

as = 7976456, a6 = 467232200,
and which is defined below, is encountered in a set of remarkable convergent series
for 'IT. These are {see (6)):

(2) 'IT = _1_(-IOg1 U 1- 24

IN
f
,,_1
(-I)":" un),
where N is a positive integer and U = U(N) is a real algebraic number determined
by N. Some of these series are remarkable because of their almost unbelievably rapid
rates of convergence.
For example, for N = 3502, (2) converges at 79 decimals per term and its leading
term, namely
1
---logU
13502 '
differs from 'IT by less than 7.37 . 10- 82 • In this case,
(3) U = U(3502) = (2defg) -6,
where
(4) d=D+';D 2 -1, e=E+';E 2 -1,
f=F+~, g=G+~,
for the quadratic surds
D = H1071 + 184{34), E = Hl553 + 266{34),
(5)
F = 429 + 30412, G = H627 + 44212).
In this example, the six an in (I) already give 'IT correctly to over 500 decimals.

Rec:c:ived September 9, 1982.

1980 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primary 10005, IOA35, IOB40.
·The work or the first author was supported by the National Scienc:c: Foundation.

Cl1984 American Mathematical Society

0025-5718/84 $1.00 + .S.2S pcr page
199

462
200 MORRIS NEWMAN AND DANIEL SHANKS

For N = 2737, and the more general

(6)
the quadratic surds
D = 1(621 + 49v'T6i-) , E = H321 + 251f6T),
(7)
F = H393 + 311f6T), G = H2529 + I 991f6T) ,
and (4) unchanged, define its negative value of U(2737). Now (2) converges at only
69 decimals per term. See [6] for other examples of even and odd N, and the
corresponding positive and negative values of U, where (2) also converges very
rapidly.
The definition given in [6] of all is rather complicated. We have a relation

n (I +
00

(8) U = V V")24
11=1

between our U = U( N) and the number

(9)
The inversion of (8) gives Vas a power series in U:
00

(10) V= L (-I)"-I C" U "

11=1

that begins with c i = I, c 2 = 24, c j = 852, .... Now, in the power series for

(11) log { n (I + V")

00

II_I
. }
= V +-
V2
2
+ "',

substitute (10), and thereby define Gil recursively by

( 12) E (-1)"-1 a:U"=log{oo

00
n(l + V") }.
n-I ,,=1

Then, the logarithm of (8) gives us (2).

In [6], only the six coefficients in (1) were given, since they were computed by
hand, a tedious operation. (The original Gil so computed contained an error which
was discovered when R. Brent kindly attempted to verify (2) for N = 3502 to the
aforementioned 500 decimals.) Clearly, the an are best calculated using a digital
computer. The first 100 values of Gil and cn were so computed in about 8 minutes.
The first 50 values of G n and CII are given in Tables 1 and 2.
2. Properties of an' A. We observe that all G n in Table I are positive integers. It
was obvious from the recursion above that the all are rational but not that they are
positive and integral. However, we prove below that

n {l +X2k-I)2411,
00

(13) 24a ll isthecoefficientofx n in

k-I

which implies that an is a positive integer.

B. We observe that all all in Table I satisfy
(14) Gil is odd if and only if n is a power of 2.

463
 ON A SEQUENCE ARISING IN SERIES FOR ." 201

This unexpected result is reminiscent of C. R. Johnson's conjecture for the parity of

the number of subgroups of the classical modular group of a given index N, see [7].
That conjecture was proved by Stothers and, independently, by A. O. L. Atkin. The
present observation (14) is proved below.
C. A striking paradox about this proven (14) for the parity of all is this: As
presented above, the CII in (10) would appear to constitute a simpler sequence than
our all in (12), since its definition is much more direct. Nonetheless, we have been
unable to determine the parity of CII. In Table 2 one readily observes that
(14a) CII is odd only when II = Sk + I and is odd if k = 0, 1,2,4,6.
But what are these k? We do not know, and do not even have a conjecture for the
parity of CII.
It is easy to prove (14a) and to compute CII modulo 2. The parity of CII appears to
be random with increasing k just as is the parity of the unrestricted partition
function p( II). (See [S] for the latter.) As for the claim above that we have a paradox
here, see Zagier's comment in the appendix.
D. A second, more important paradox concerns all modulo 3. We conjectured
(i5) all $. 0 mod 3
for all II. While (15) appears simpler than (14), we did not prove it. Every positive
integer II has a unique representation
( 16)
with nonnegative k, m. A stronger conjecture than (15) is
( 17) a 3'(3m ± I) == ± I mod 3.
For greater clarity, let us rewrite (17) as follows:
(I Sa) u 3m + I == I mod 3,
(ISb) a 3m - 1 == - I mod 3,
(lSc) a 3m == am mod3.
These are clearly equivalent to (17). We did not prove the simple-Iookillg (lSa) and
(ISb). The more subtle-looking (ISc) we did prove; it is a simple corollary of a much
mo.re general congruence given in E below.
We did verify (17) up to a 143 == - I mod 3 by computer, and we both believed it to
be true. After we finished the first version of this paper, we showed the conjecture to
D. Zagier, and, as we expected, he proved it. See the appendix.
E. The important general congruence alluded to above, and proved below, is
(19)
valid for every prime p and all positive integers m and k. For k = I this gives us
(20)
and (ISc) is obviously the case p = 3.
Congruence (20) is computationally useful. For example, what is a 94 modulo 94?
Since
a 2 . 47 == a 2 = 47 mod 47,

464
202 MORRIS NEWMAN AND DANIEL SIIANKS

we have a 94 == 0 mod 47. But also a 94 == 0 mod 2, by (14). Therefore a 94 == 0 mod 94.
Similarly, we can evaluate alp modulo 2p for any prime p, and in particular we see
that, for any prime p,
(21 ) a 2p ~ I mod 2p.
F. The choice m = I in (20) gives us
(22)
which we call thc Fermat Property. It is a necessary condition for primality. Of
course, we ask: Is
(23) at! == I mod n, n> I,
a sufficient condition for primality?
We have just secn in (21) that n = 2p can never satisfy (23). But consider
a J = 2488 = 3 . 829 + I.
Since 829 is prime, we have by (20) that
a l487 == a J == I mod 829,
and similarly
a l487 == a 829 mod 3.
But 829 = 3m + I, and since (18a) is now true, we also have
(~4) a 2487 == I mod 3.
Then (23) holds for the composite 2487 = 3 . 829. So (23) is not a sufficient
condition for primality. Even if it were, it would not be a practical test for primality.
The calculation of at! modulo n requires at least O(n) operations by any algorithm
known to us.
G. We return to (19) and specialize in a different direction; m = I gives us
(25)
Fix p and consider the sequence
(26) k = 1,2,3, ....

If we write these numbers to the base p, (25) guarantees that each time k is increased
by 1, and we add one more p-adic digit on the left, all the earlier p-adic digits on the
right remain unchanged. Thus, for each p, the sequence (26) defines a p-adic number.
For example, for p = 2, (26) begins (in decimal) as I, 3, 7, 15, IS, 47, ... , and so
we have the 2-adic number (reading from right to left)
. .. I 0 0 0 I 0 I 1 1 1. (base 2).
Similarly, for p = 3 and 5, we have

... 0 I 1 I. (base 3)
... 411. (baseS).

But what are thcse p-adie numbers? We do not know. Are they algebraic or
transcendental? We do not know. Contrast this ignorance with the situation in I
below.

465
 ON A SEQUENCE ARISING IN SERIES FOR 1T 203

We do have, for every p,

(27)
so the first two p-adic digits on the right are both I. The first I follows from the
Fermat Property (22) but the second I does not follow from the general congruence
(19), and again contrasts with the situation in I below. This (27) was first proved by
our colleague L. Washington. Our proof below is different.
Perhaps we should note that the sequence
(28) k = 1,2,3, ...

defines the same p-adic number that (26) does. The latter looks a little simpler since
it adds exactly one p-adic digit each time.
H. After we discovered (18c), we were inspired to generalize it to (19) because of a
recent paper [I] concerning some entirely different sequences; namely, a doubly
infinite set of cubic recurrences. It suffices for our discussion here to examine only
one of these recurrences. Let
(29) A(I) = I, A(2) = I, A(3) = 4, A{n + 3) = A{n + 2) + A{n).
We have [I]

(30)
just as before. So we also have the Fermat Property and p-adic numbers defined by

(31)

1. But the A(n) are nonetheless quite different than the a". First, since
A(4) == I mod4, A(9) == 4 mod 9,
(27) does not hold, and the second p-adic digit is not invariant. Second, we can
identify the p-adic numbers (31). For example, for p = 2, we now have
... I 00 I 0 I . = x (base 2).
Squaring this, it is easy to show that
x2 + x + 2 = 0,
and so x is one of the 2-adic numbers

H-1±r-:7).
In fact, for every p, (31) is an abelian algebraic integer; see [I], [2].
The evaluation of these algebraic integers is of much algorithmic interest and is
also of much mathematical interest since, e.g., it leads to new ideas in cyclotomy; see
[5]. But more to the present investigation, this p-adic approach enables one to solve
problems about A( n) that were previously intractable, as in [2].
One might hope that the determination of the p-adic numbers in (26) would be
equally valuable for an. Presumably, the distinctive property (27) plays a role in their
arithmetic characterization. We commend these problems to the reader.
J. If we generalize (31) to
(32)

466
204 MORRIS NEWMAN AND DANIEL SHANKS

for p fixed, and m any integer, we define a set of p-adic numbers. This set is finite,
and each of these numbers is either an algebraic conjugate of that for m = I, or is a
related abelian integer of a lower degree.
Similarly, in the present investigation,
(33)
with m a fixed positive integer, defines a p-adic number for each m generalizing (26).
But we have not seriously examined this set of p-adic numbers and know little about
it.
K. Let us note some other differences between A(n) and all' The former sequence
is periodic modulo p for every p, but the latter is not. The former is a reversible
recurrence, and so we have
A(O) = 3, A( -I) = 0, A( -2) = -2 .....
while all is not defined for n < 1. The value of A(n) modulo n can be computed in
O(log 1/) operations. We know of no algorithm that is that efficient for our all
modulo n. We have
A(n) = a" + {J" + y"
for known values of a, (J, y while we know of no explicit formula for all'
Since all and A(n) are so very different, it is all the more surprising that they have,
in (19) and (30), an elaborate, important property in common. We call this property
the generalized p-adic law.
Naturally, one asks: Can one characterize all sequences a( n) that satisfy this law?
This may already be known.
Zagier also comments on the comparison of an and A(n).
L. We now turn to the growth of the an' In the analytic function V(U) in (10) the
closest singularity to the point U = 0, V = 0 is the branch point at U = - t."
V = -e-"; see [6, Appendix BJ. Therefore, the radius of convergence of (10) is t4'
and it follows that

(34) lim clI + I = 64.

11-00 ell

In the substitution of (10) into (II), the growth of the all is dominated by the
growth of the Cn' and it may be shown that also
(35) lim ant I = 64.
11-00 an
M. We therefore have the asymptotic formula
(36) log an - n log 64,
but an asymptotic formula for an itself was lacking. We expected that

(37) an - pc (64 )" , C, {J constants,

n
but we did not prove it.
In the Appendix, Zagier determines that {J = ! (as we expected), and that

fiT ( r(3/4) )2
C=1T f(I/4)

467
 ON A SEQUENCE ARISING IN SERIES FOR" 205

Further, he gives two more terms in the asymptotic series. and thereby enables one
to estimate a" very accurately.
Prior to this work we had already found the inequalities (38) below, and since
these are of some interest, we include the derivation.

(38) Ic ( ) " < 24a" < ( 64 )" .

63.87
3yn
N. Zagier's evaluation of C suggests the following sequel. This C is closely related
to the famous lemniscate constant, and, in retrospect, some such result should have
been expected. In [6], the group C(4) was basic, and therefore our sequence a" is
intimately connected with this group. But the lemniscate constant often arises with
C(4); for example, Q(/ - 14) has C(4) as its class group, and, in counting numbers
of the form u 2 + 14v 2 , the lemniscate constant enters via the constant /3 14 referred
to in [9, Eq. (5)].
3/1 4[ ..
Now, in the modular group, one encounters p = y I as well as i = y I, and
therefore C(3) as well as C(4), and [6. p. 405] specifically refers to analogous theories
for C(3) and C(6). So, there may well be other sequences analogous to a" that would
arise in this way. We have not yet studied this.
In the quadratic form 4u 2 + 2uv + 7v 2 we do have class number 3, and in
counting numbers of this form one does indeed encounter a constant which contains
r(1/6) instead of r(1/4); see [10, Eq. (5)]. If there are such sequences, one would
expect Zagier's calculations to have analogues here.
3. Proofs of the Theorems. The function
00

y = x Il (J + Xk )24
k-I

defined in (8) (the variable names have been changed) is of importance in the theory
of the elliptic modular functions. y is a Hauptmodul for the congruence subgroup
ro(2) of the classical modular group r, considered as a function of the complex
variable 'T, where x = exp(2'1Ti'T), im'T > O. (See [4] for a good general reference on
this topic.) However, all that is required here is a formal study of the coefficients of
y", where n is an integer. In this connection certain complex integral formulas
assQciated with the inversion of a function of the form y = x + b2 x2 + ... (or the
reversion of a power series of this form) will be used freely. These are classical, and
may be found for example in the book by Behnke and Sommer [3].
The numbers a" are defined by the relationship (12), rewritten as

(39) logy - log x = 24 L 00

(-I)
II-Ia
2y".
II_I n
Differentiating (39) with respect to y, and then multiplying by y, we have that

(40) Y dx
I - ~ 24 ~ (1),,-1 "
dll = .t...- - a"y
:..r 11=1

Hence for some suitable positive number t, we have that

( -I)"-1 24a =_I_J (I_~ dX) -,,-Id

"2'1Ti Lvl-r x dll
J
Y [)',

468
206 MORRIS NEWMAN AND DANIEL SHANKS

so that, for n ;;. I,

(- 1)""1 24a" = -1-.1

2Wl 1)'I=r
(~dX )Y" dy.
x dy
This implies that, for some suitable positive number r',

( I
-1 ) ,,-1 24a,,=--. 1 I
-;-y-"dx
2Wl Ixl=r' x

= --.1 n (I + X k )-24"dx.
I 00
X-,,-I
2Wl Ixl-r' k-I

It follows that, for n ;;. I, (- 1)" . 24a" is the coefficient of x" in the power series
expansion of nk'= l{l + X k )-24". If we use the fact that
00 00

f1 (I + x A ) 1= f1 (I - XU I),
k= I k= I

and replace x by - x, we obtain (13) and write

THEOREM 1. The number 24a" defined by (39) is the coefficient of x" in the illfillite
product Dk'_,{l + X U - I )24".
This proves immediately that these numbers are positive, but a small additional
discussion is required to prove that a" is an integer (because of the factor 24).
We set

n (1 +
00 00

(41) XU - I )24" = L C,,(k)xk,

k-I k=O

so that
(42) 24a" = C,,(n).
We find by logarithmic differentiation of (41) and known properties of Lambert
series that the integers C,,( k) satisfy the recurrence formula
k
(43) kC,,(k) = 24n L (-I}"-'o*(s)C,,(k - s), k;;. I,

where C,,(O) = 1, and

(44) o*{s) = L d.
dis
dodd

For the choice k = n, (42) and (43) imply that

L"
(45) a" =
.-1 (-I)"'-lo*(s)C,,(n- s),
which shows at once that a" is an integer. That is, we have proved
THEOREM 2. The numbers a" defined by (39) are positive integers.
Our next objective is to prove (14), which states the remarkable fact that a" is odd
if and only if n is a power of 2. For this purpose we need to know the parity of the
function o*{s), defined by (44). We have the following simple lemma, whose proof

469
 ON A SEQUENCE ARISING IN SERIES FOR 'IT 207

we omit:
LEMMA 1. The function o*(s) is odd if and only if s is a square, or twice a square.
This lemma and formula (45) imply that
(46) a" == L C,,(n - S2) + L C,,(n- 2S2) mod 2.
In the first summation, s runs over all positive integers such that SZ ~ n, and, in the
second summation, s runs over all positive integers such that 2S2 ~ II.
First note that
(I + U)16 == (I + U 2 )K mod 16,
where the congruence means that coefficients of corresponding powers of u are
congruent. This readily implies that

Ii (I +
k-I
X U - I )4HI1 == fI (I +
k-I
X 4k - Z )2411 mod 16,

which in turn implies that

24a 211 == 24a" mod 16,
(47) a 2" == a" mod 2.
Congruence (47) is the special case p = 2 of the general congruence (20), to be
proved later.
Thus, in order to determine the parity of (I", it is only necessary to choose n odd,
which we now do. If we note that

n (I + n (I +
00 00
X U - I )24" == X I6k - 8 )3" mod2,
k-I k=1

we see that C,,(k) is even except possibly when k == 0 mod 8. Then (46) implies that
(48) an == L Cn(n - S2) + L C,,(n - 2S2) mod 2.
lI-zs 2.,Omod8

But It is odd. Thus the second sum in (48) is empty, and in the first sum s must be
odd, implying that n == 1 mod 8. Put n = 8t + 1. Then

(49) a 81 +1 == sEd C 81 + 1 (8t + 1- S2) == L CKI+ I (8(t - r2; r)) mod 2,

where r runs over all nonnegative integers such that 1(r 2 + r) ~ t.
We have

L
00
C81 + I (k)x k = n (1 +
00
X Zk - I )Z4(RI+I)
k-O k=1

== n (I +
00
X 8k - 16 )3(HI+ I) mod 2,
k-I
so that

n (I +
00 00
L C81 + 1(8k)x k == X 2k - I )241+3 mod 2.
k=O k=1

470
208 MORRIS NEWMAN AND DANIEL SHANKS

Thus

n (I + n (I +
00 00 00
XU-1)-J. L CS t+I(8k)x k == X 2k - I )241 mod2.
k=1 k-O k-i

Now use the Jacobi identity

fI (I -
k- I
xk)J =
k-O
f (-I)k(2k + l)x(k 1 +k)/2

and the fact that

n (I + X n (I -
00 00
2k - I )-J == xk)J mod2.
k-I k-I

Then

n (I +
00 00 00

L X(k'+kl/2 L CX/'I(Sk)x k == X 2k - I )241 mod2.

k-O k-() k- I

It follows that
L CS/+1(S(t - Hr2 + r»))
is congruent modulo 2 to the coefficient of Xl in nk'-I(l + X 2k - 1)24/. But this
coefficient is odd if and only if t = 0 (it is divisible by 24 otherwise, since then the
coefficient is 24a l ). It follows from (49) that a s,+ I is odd if and only if t = O.
Summarizing, we have proved
THEOREM 3. The number a" is odd if and only if n is a power of 2.
Our next objective is to prove (19). If p is a prime and k a positive integer, then
(I + u)P' == (I + uP)P'-' mod pk,
where once again the congruence is understood to hold for corresponding powers of
u. It follows that if m is any positive integer,
(50) (I + u)"'P' == (I + uP)"'P'-' mod pk.
Formula (50) now implies that
00 k 00 kl
(51) n(l +x2 .• -1)24mp == n(l +x2PS_p)24mp - mod p k+6,
s= I ~i= 1

where

3' p = 2,
l) = { 1, p = 3,
0, p> 3.

Comparing coefficients of x mp* on both sides of (51), we find that

24a mp ' == 24a mp'-' mod pk+8,

so that, for all primes p,

471
 ON A SEQUENCE ARISING IN SERIES FOR" 209

That is, we have proved

THEOREM 4. Lei P be Qprime, m, k positive integers. Then
(52)

We now go on to formula (27), which reads

Qpl == 1 + P mod p2, p prime.
Since (52) implies that

it is sufficient to prove that

Qp == I +pmodp2, p prime.
We may assume that p > 3, since the cases p = 2, 3 may be verified directly. We
have
p-I p-I ( ),-1
(l+u)P=l+u P + L(~)u'==I+uP+PL -Ir u'modp2,
r-I r-l

so that
(I + u)P p-I (-1)'-1 u'
I
+u
p == 1 + P L
,-I r
-I--P mod p2.
+u
Now choose u = X 2k - l, product for k. = 1,2,3, ... , and raise both sides to the 24th
power. We get

(I + X2k - 1 )24p (_1)'-1

nao

k-t (I +X2kp-p)24
== 1 + 24p L
r
x,(2k-l)
--:::-:--:-
1 +X p(2k-l)
mod p2
,
t"'''p-I
k .. t

n (I + X2k - n (I + x 2kp - p )24. S mod p2,

ao ao
I )24p 5
k-I k-I

where

S =- I + 24p L

Comparing coefficients of x P , we find that

24Qp 5 24 + 24p mod p2,
so that
Q p 5 1 + P mod p2.
We state this result as L. Washington's
THEOREM 5. Let p be Qprime. Then
Qpl 5 Qp 5 1 + P mod p2.

472
210 MORRIS NEWMAN AND DANIEL SHANKS

We note that these congruences may be strengthened, if desired. A slightly more

involved proof along the same lines will show for example that
(53) a p' == a p' _ I + pk mod pk + I.
However, it does not seem possible to determine a,,' modulo pk precisely, except for
small values of k.
We now turn to the inequalities of (38). Theorem I implies that 24a" is equal to

(54) L (2411) ( 2411 ) ( 2411) ...

"l II) "5
"i :; , o.
Since 111 = 11, II) = 115 = = 0 is a permissible choice, we find that

(55) 24£1" :;;, (2~1/).

A simple application of Stirling's formula gives

24a" >
I
r
(2424)"
-'1 > I "
r (63.87) ,
3yn 23-- 3yn
proving the lower bound.
For the upper bound, we have that if r is any number such that 0 < r < \, then

I
24a,,=--. f
2 'IT I I-'I-r
()" -dxx ,
g x

where

It follows that
(56)
Now the function g(x) is an entire modular function on the congruence subgroup
ro(4) of r, considered as a function of the complex variable T, where x = exp(2'lTiT),
and im T > o. It is easy to show by the transformation formulae for g(x) that
g(e") = 64.
Choosing r = e- w in (56) gives
24a" < 64",
which is the desired upper bound.
Summarizing, we have proved
THEOREM 6. The number a" satisfies the illequalities

~ (63.87)" < 24£1" < 64".

3vII

4. Computation. The first dozen or so coefficients a" were initially computed using
the complicated formula (40). After Theorem 1 was discovered, recurrence formula
(43) was used. The coefficients o*(s) arc small and easily computed, and (43) is
convenient and simple to implement. The practical programming problems that arise
are consequences of the fact that the an become large. This is best handled by

473
 ON A SEQUENCE ARISINti IN SERIES FOR" 211

computing them modulo a sufficient number of large primes, and then using the
Chinese Remainder Theorem to recover their exact values.
The coefficients e" were computed by means of a general program that reverts a
power series y = x + .... This program computes the coefficients of the powers of y
and then solves a triangular system of equations to determine the desired coefficients
in the reverted power series x = y + .... Once again, residue arithmetic must pe
used, since the coefficients e" also become large.
The computation of a" modulo m, where some prime factors of m are small, is
awkward (if not impossible) using formula (43). because of the necessity of the
division there. The alternative here is to generate u = 0k'-I(I + X 2k - l ) modulo 24m
and then to form U 24 " by successive squarings modulo 24m. This is time-consuming
and becomes impractical if n is only moderately large; say" = 1000.
Wc note that multi precision computation (rather than mouular computation)
would be even more time-consuming. In any case there is very little point in
calculating the exact value of a IlKKI • say. since it is a number of some 1800 uccimal
digits.
TABLE 1. a", n = 1(1)50
I I
2 47
3 2488
4 138799
5 7976456
6 467232200
7 27736348480
8 1662803271215
9 100442427373480
10 6103747246289272
II 372725876150863808
12 22852464771010647496
13 1405886026610765892544
14 86741060172969340021952
15 53U 19034082318043U26208
16 332577246704242U9511725615
17 20U5377769544663820" 9905000
IS 1285027807539621869480480977880
19 800666108867535 1340.a21525593280
20 4995543732566526565060187887772024
21 312067903389730540416319245145039936
22 19516459352109724206910675815791735872
23 1221787478073080268912138739833447254528
24 7U58881238278398609546573647116818306504
25 4801399849802188285872546222298724299377856
26 301358552889212442951924121355286655092791360
27 18928524108186605379268259069278244869735006720
28 1189719542605042010945455887482239233732751142080
29 74824958481405101799295401923145498080031496317440
30 4708731584940969251488540213411242070133095720768000
31 296483323638911778793802123013217365155428610625064960
32 186775710390554245020425743500780710385559629348 I 0664495
33 1177200955467256907707767829606512556434525730284672082280
34 74229820742983998523807878655148660941364"4757170232076440
35 4682657672641000613276353688819373189604961982881761635174080
36 295516785862704112676947743865736338547152307208873658542187480
37 18656838683258040776726836797753969443154060448210951169536087360
38 117828755093726564949 1805466460363896744099593833261406542090821440
39 744412594335484265106646211823394221821786891341724796 731 00078686 720
40 470454687 6230537 64905166992863503729931504405523341864331350434 7890040
41 2974106963802275104 7358482192645975459858757799795 t261584830786025989440
42 I 8807176292551896455842616399574167855948518855982280636468413444438841280
43 118963250585878541566426818539U6831681 00 129628680952371909240 156 78644805120
44 75269436592700558660145646818728077 6697 44495 7 4 7378078929068356 71 0829357904960
45 476360673573947707870226230130661819690433045434203617256780461762611484560 1280
46 3015502193576553229589041987 48139655940272138707157 414253528789096123355242370560
47 1909349 II 05382437947961430595496009051927 469794600124607374594862297809973497425920
48 12092294218331282145321652319043980240884565325791846 7337 4 7 65702204525386892709582280
49 7 6599462222171488217 46956280755544484032982037593664562842850396 759984253"03748392640
50 485324947627958494301875254413551 82058358236525693281 04071808l197n997 U0220U776 7U82272

474
ZlZ MORRIS NEWMAN AND DANIEL SllANKS

TABLE 2. clI ' n = 1(1)50

1.
2. 24
1. 8~2
4. 1~744
~. Ib4~794
4. 8041~214
7. 4094489992
8. 214888~73248
9. 11~42~1~4022~~
10. 41146 7~9194H80
II. 1~061~1~219194764
12. 197104363904b131296
13. 111949770426110147638
14. 64146 711 ~79893862604J2
I~. 3703602178923180 100~~832
16. 21 ~2~284426246 779936288 192
17. 12~BJ4827193~91 846243~403307
18. 739421 896H196970~82980 I 0~1~2
19. 436497 6407960~~6~468849283684 7 6
20. 2~8741 0364 717642~3091461 ~ 177338~6
21. I ~394~869902996363142821 37771674830
22. 9190~ I ~421268412760420220~361 0468n2
23. ~~03646762403 191119912920~0938~4619064
24. lJO~ II 39700 181468708379~ I 0 18822929~83296
2~. 198997~64644299363614619190~846 70328932936
26. 120 I 009~419986698~2377J4I72~017264646~263808
27. 72644 780644930761214233409~b41 037l~ I ~70840864
28. 44030lJ89644084844~~7l20488960637974J~000 10 1120
29. 26 7378816 79936412894483281631417~7626H0496197160
30. 1626~7220~4441 3978 16J7900~41779~ 1326622909J~n7~200
J I. 9911 ~2768~383 19~721813290296878l9972182179189040~024
32. 60489928J8489884320220690~704~2720283440J~971 329679616
n. 36970837 629844039304J8~084970877~9241 ~81702420491637l0~3
14. 2242721~29649J34 73811094424611780861 36 7l092~6~8871 ~I ~49624
35. I 38664468~~830843 1~77 61890811937 4 772~7~6J 1693607188403 I 07204
36. 8~0802~994J6 7861890277~9227 4660883399661217742484~ II 042274~92
17. ~22628821 ~64~687~4438041 ~06364388~0322427 4143202783433 146082~86
38. 321 3898~~48624J71 ~640640473921 870466 7~~86611 ~9~448962068083978800
39. 19784297~9430649446 7~726648 I ~373H~9232419682894 78163616 79884306280
40. 1219090761 04~628~493614778036466 74943~37l7124~39846206817~3204~ 147200
41. 7~ 1 89~22344236~ 1~384284814160248222807~871873~04166~6248~678140184~ 142
42. 4641 ~7063 1218468681 ~0~9~27~ 17944876002791 319~093 I 38271111 ~2961 ~837J9~088
43. 28477 46 764 7~089b804997893~61 H 703666~n8207147928J24649291999779~984278904
44. 1773241664402616 71 0~7023088242~007~3890621 342141 ~490637994 700~ 19~684712498~6
4~. 10973 I 3 1487740204~88lJ6321 n262~837317180219364~4 7042774128246~8J7822892310 196
46. 479~384~6~68~64B2722B91468369199B79527?19914978BO~44n980 1024414700081667049312
47. 42111869007828945~ II ~44296817 408862600 13~8~3211727 617262~~ I 3~21 ~209597140927~ 1440
48. 26114944381 n 14 779~44 7827227l36~J42~4469992~ 144997518688B7410774444201 OB09229B03648
49. 1620~248412~40 1927069~07~08B6323568414080002~ 124729097 40 112089~4 7498~03876684089~389~
~O. 100621989~~8697 666940849746~~ 178289b2b48006981672860143436~83077 43170090blI911363941160

ApPENDIX

By D. Zagier
Asymptotics and Congruence Properties of the a"
In this appendix we prove an asymptotic formula and a congruence modulo 3 for
the numbers a", assuming various more or less well-known facts from the theory of
modular forms whose proofs can be found in standard textbooks on modular and
elliptic functions (e.g. Lang's or Weil's).
Let T denote a variable in the upper half-plane, q = e 2m , and V(T) =
qn(1 + q")24 (q and V were denoted by V and V in Section I and by x and yin
Section 3). Then U(T) = ~(2T)/~('T), where ~(T) = qn(1 - q,,)24 is the usual

475
 ON A SEQUENCE ARISING IN SERIES FOR 7r 213

discriminant function, so U is a nowhere vanishing modular function on fo(2) and

its logarithmic derivative
I U'( )
(I) /(T) = -. _T_ = I + 24 L o*(n)qn
00
(0* as in (44»
2m U( T) n-I

is a modular form of weight 2 on f o(2). The definition of an can be expressed as

(2)

an identity valid in a neighborhood of T = ioo (it cannot be valid for all T for which
the series converges, since U is f o(2)-invariant and / is not). From the formula for
the number of zeros of a modular form, we see that /( T) vanishes only at points T
which are f o(2)-equivalent to TO = (I + i)/2 (that/ docs vanish at TO can be seen by
applying the transformation equation of / to (~ ~.:) E 1~)(2», and (I) then shows that
T --> U( T) is locally biholomorphic except at these points. Hence the only singularity
in (2) oceurs at U = U( TO) = - 1/64, so to obtain the asymptotics of the an we must
look at the Taylor series expansions of / and U near TO- In view of (I) and the
equation /( TO) = 0, it will suffice for this to compute the derivatives /(P)( TO) for
P;;' I.
Now the derivative of a modular form is not a modular form, but, if F is a
modular form of weight k on a subgroup f of SL(2, Z), then F' - (."ik/6)E2F is a
modular form of weight k + 2 on f, where E2 = 1 - 24Ln ;;..(Ldln d)q" is the usual
"Eisenstein series of weight 2 on SL(2, Z)" (not actually a modular form), related to
/ by /(T) = 2E2(27") - E2(T). Applying this fact p times and using the identity
E2 = (.,,;;6)(E1 - E 4), where E4 = 1 + 240Ln ;;.I(Ldl n d 3 )qn is the Eisenstein series
of weight 4 on SL(2, Z), we find by induction that the function

(3) t (P)
,.-0
f(k + p) (_ ."i E
P. f(k+p.) 6 2
)P-,. F(")
is a modular form of weight k + 2p on f. We apply this to F = /, f = fo(2), Ii = 2.
All modular forms on fo(2) are polynomials in / and E4 (this follows easily from the
formulas for the dimensions of the spaces of modular forms of given weight), so we
can identify (3) by computing the first few terms of its q-expansion; we find

/ ,."i "'i(
-3' E d= -3' 2/2_ E4)'

r - ."iEd' -
2 2
~ Ei/= - ~ /E4 ,
3· 3·
/ m - 2."iEd" - .,,2Elr + "'9' El/= "'9' /2(4/2 - 3E4 ).

etc. At T = TO = (I + i)/2 we have/ = 0, E2 = 6/." and E4 = -12a\ where

I f( 1/4)
a = --- = 0.834626841678 ...
2{; r(3/4)

476
214 MORRIS NEWMAN AND DANIEL SHANKS

(this follows from the well-known £2(i) = 3/7T and £4(i) = 30A together with the
transformation properties of £2 and £4 under SL(2, Z». Hence we find inductively
from the above formulas the values
1'( TO) = - 47Tia 4 , f"hJ) = 247Ta 4 , f m ( TO) = 1447Tia 4
and, continuing in the same way,
f(iv)(TO ) = -9607Ta 4 , f(V)(TO ) = -72007Tia 4 - 967T 5 i a l2.
Using (I), we obtain the Taylor expansions

and

The second of these expresses IC:t--64{J as a power series in e with \eading term
27Ta 2 e; inverting this power series and substituting the result into the Taylor
expansion ort, we can write I/fas a Laurent series in (1 + 64U)I/2:

f( 1 ) = ~(I + 64U)-1/2 + _1-4 + 3 - :2a 4 (I + 64U)I/2

T 2a 27Ta 87T 0: 6

Comparing this with (2) gives

_64" 2- 2,,(2n)( I 3-7T 2a 4 1

a" - 24 . n 2a2 - 87T2a6 2n - 1

15 + 97T 2a 4 - 47T 4 a 8 3
+ ... )
+ 967T 4a lO (2n - 1)(2n - 3)

64" ( 3
= 48a\0;n 1 - 87T2a4 n-- I + (15 1 ) )
647T4a8 - 128 n- 2 + . .. .

We have proved

THEOREM. The sequence an has an asymptotic expansion of the form

a = C64"
- (1 - ~
a a + ... )
+ -2
II {il n 112 '

with

C = {Ii f(3/4)2 = 0.0168732651505

12 f( 1/4)2

al = 6 f(3/4)4 = 0.07830067 a = 60 [(3/4)8 __1_ = 0.002405668

f(I/4)4 2 f(I/4)8 128

477
 ON A SEQUENCE ARISING IN SERIES FOR 'IT 215

We give two numerical examples.

n a"

50 4.853249476 X 10 87 4.853249382 X 10 87
100 6.996107097 X 10 177 6.996107081 X 10 177

As a second application of the modular form description of the a", we prove the
congruence properties (18a, b) of the numbers all (mod 3). These can be written in
the form

= {O (mod 3) ir 3111.
na" - I (mod 3) if 3 f II,
or

II_I
E(-l}"-I nap" == U(l- ~)
1+ U
(mod 3).

On the other hand, differentiating (2) and substituting (I), we see that
1
L L no*(n)q".
00 00
I( 'T)3 (_I),,-I n ap( 'T)" = 48vr/'( 'T) =
II-I II-I

Since 1 == 1 (mod 3), we have to prove that

U(I-U)
--->---3...!.. == L00
no*(n)q" (mod 3).
1+ U II-I

From the description of modular forms on fo(2) as polynomials in 1 and E4 it

follows that the modular function U must be related to E41P by a fractional linear
transformation; comparing the first few Fourier coefficients we find

E4 = 1 + 256U
12 1 + 64U '
where

a modular form of weight 4 on f o(2). Since E4 and P are congruent to I (mod 48), it
is clear that 4.p has integral coefficients, so that the numbers b( n) are 3-integral,
which is all we will need; actually, the b(n) themselves are integral, as one can see
from the identity .p = U(f2 - 64.p) or from the formula

.p = ( L q,,2/B)B.
11>0
II odd

478
216 MORRIS NEWMAN AND DANIEL SHANKS

From V = .p/(f2 - 64.p) we obtain

V(1 - V) = .p(P - 64.p)(P - 65.p)
1+ V3 (12 _ 64.p)3 +.p3

== .p(P - .p)(l2 + .p) =.!f.. _ (.!f..)3 (mod 3).

/6 /2 /2
Since / == 1 (mod 3). the q-expansion of the right-hand side of this is congruent to
.p - .p3 or ~ (b(n) - b(n/3»q" modulo 3 (with the usual convention b(n/3) = 0 if
3 t n). so the congruence we have to prove is
(4) n17"(II) == ben) - b(II/3) (mod3).
The form E4(2'1") = 1 + 240~" ... 173(n)q2" is a modular form of weight 4 on fo(2)
and hence a linear combination of P and E4 or of E4 and .p. Comparing two Fourier
coefficients gives E4(2'1") = E4 - 240.p or
I
.p( '1") = 240 (E4( '1") - E4(2'1"». ben) = 173(11) - 03(n/2).

Clearly 173(11) == 03(11/3) (mod 3) if 31 II, so (4) is true in this case. On the other hand,
03(II) == o. (n) = ~d I" d (mod 3) since d 3 and d are congruent. and. combining the
divisors d and n/d. we see that 17.(11) == 0 (mod 3) if n == -1 (mod 3) or equivalently
17.(11) == no.(n) (mod 3) if II ~ 0 (mod 3). Hence for 3 t II we have
173(n) - 173(n/2) == 11(17.(11) - 20.(11/2» = 110"(11) (mod 3)
as required.
Having proved the formula for a" (mod 3) we offer a conjectural formula for a"
(mod 5):
if 51 ".
if n = 5k + 8,0 < 8 < 5, k odd.
if n = lOr + 8,0 < 8 < 5.
It is true up to II = 100.
Finally. we make a remark about the nature of the numbers a". Equation (2)
suggests that the natural generalization of this sequence is the sequence (a,,) defined
by a generating function of the form F = ~ a"u". where u is a Hauptmodul for some
group f of genus 0 (e.g. f = SL 2 (Z), u = r
I. f = fo(2), u = V, or f = fo(2) u

fo(2) (~ -.(/i), u = V(V + 2· 2/V» and Fa meromorphic modular form of some

weight k on f. This definition includes both the an (with k = - 2) and the sequence
(A(II)} mentioned several times in the paper (since these satisfy a recursion with
constant coefficients and hence ~ A(n)vn is a rational function of V and therefore a
modular form of weight k = 0), which may explain their parallel properties. The
sequence {en} defined by (10) of the paper has no such interpretation. which may
explain why it apparently does not have such nice arithmetic properties.
Department of Mathematics
University of California
Santa Barbara, California 93106
Department of Mathematics
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland 20742

479
 ON A SEQUENCE ARISING IN SERIES FOR 'IT 217

I. WILUAM ADAMS & DANIEL SHANKS, "Strong primality tests that are not sufficient," Math. Comp.,
v.39,1982,pp.255-300.
2. WILUAM ADAMS & DANIEL SHANKS, "Strong primality tests. II-Algebraic identification oC the
p-adic limits and their implications." (To appear.)
3. H. BEHNKE & F. SOMMER, Theorie der analytischen FUllktiollell einer complexen VeranderlichcII,
Springer, Berlin, 1965, viii + 603 pp.
4. MARVIN 1. KNOPP, Modular FUllctions in Analytic Number Theory, Markham, Chicago, Ill., 1970,
x + 150pp.
5. DERRICK H. LEHMER & EMMA LEHMER, "Cyclotomy with short periods," Math. Comp., v. 41,1983,
pp. 743-758.
6. DANIEL SHANKS, "Dihcdral quartic approximations and series Cor '11," J. Numbcr Theory, v. 14,
1982, pp. 397-423.
7. DANIEL SHANKS, "Review oC A. O. L. Atkin's table," Math. Comp., v. 32,1978, p. 315.
8. THOMAS R. PARKIN & DANIEL SHANKS, "On the distribution oC parity in the partition Cunction,"
Math. Conrp., v. 21, 1967, pp. 446-480.
9. DANIEL SHANKS & LARRY P. ScHMID, "Variations on a theorem oC Landau," Math. Comp., v. 20,
1966, pp. 551-569.
10. DANIEL SHANKS, "Review 112", Math. Comp., v. 19, 1965, pp. 684-686.

480
 L' ElJseiglJement Mathematique, t. 30 (1984), p. 275-330

THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN OF GAUSS

by David A. Cox

INTRODUCTION

The arithmetic-geometric mean of two numbers a and b is defined to be

the common limit of the two sequences {an} ;;"=0 and {b n}:'=0 determined
by the algorithm
a o = a, b,
(0.1)

Note that a l and b l are the respective arithmetic and geometric means of a
and /J, 112 and 1J2 the corresponding means of a I and /J I , etc. Thus the limit
(0.2) M(a, b) = lim an = lim

really does deserve to be called the arithmetic-geometric mean of a and b.

This algorithm first appeared in a paper of Lagrange, but it was Gauss who
really discovered the amazing depth of this subject. Unfortunately, Gauss
published little on the agM (his abbreviation for the arithmetic-geometric
mean) during his lifetime. It was only with the publication of his collected
works [12] between 1868 and 1927 that the full extent of his work became
apparent. Immediately after the last volume appeared, several papers (see [15]
and [35]) were written to bring this material to a wider mathematical
audience. Since then, little has been done, and only the more elementary
properties of the agM are widely known today.
In § 1 we review these elementary properties, where a and b are positive
real numbers and the square root in (0.1) is also positive. The convergence
of the algorithm is easy to see, though less obvious is the connection
between the agM and certain elliptic integrals. As an application, we use
M(j2, 1) to determine the arc length of the lemniscate. In § 2, we allow a
and b to be complex numbers, and the level of difficulty changes dramatically.

481
276 D. A. cox

The convergence of the algorithm is no longer obvious, and as might be

expected, the square root in (0.1) causes trouble. In fact, M(a, b) becomes a
multiple valued function, and in order to determine the relation between the
various values, we will need to "uniformize" the agM using quotients of the
classical Jacobian theta functions, which are modular functions for certain
congruence subgroups of level four in SIJ.,2, Z). The amazing fact is that
Gauss knew all of this! Hence in § 3 we explore some of the history of
these ideas. The topics encountered will range from Bernoulli's study of clastic
rods (the origin of the lemniscate) to Gauss' famous mathematical diary
and his work on secular perturbations (the only article on the agM published
in his lifetime).
I would like to thank my colleagues David Armacost and Robert Breusch
for providing translations of numerous passages originally in Latin or
German. Thanks also go to Don O'Shea for suggesting the wonderfully
quick proof of (2.2) given in § 2.

1. THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN OF REAL NUMBERS

When tI and h arc positive real numbers, the properties of the agM M(a, h)
are well known (see, for example, [5] and [26]). We will still give complete
proofs of these properties so that the reader can fully appreciate the difficulties
we encounter in § 2.
We will assume that a ~ b > 0, and we let {a n }:= 0 and {b n }:" 0 be as
in (0.1), where bn+ 1 is always the positive square root of anbn. The usual
inequality between the arithmetic and geometric means,
(a + b)/2 ~ (ab)'/2 ,

immediately implies that an ~ bn for all n ~ o. Actually, much more is true:

we have
(1.1) a ~ al ~ ... ~ an ~ an+ I ~ ... ~ bn+ I ~ bn ~ ... ~ bl ~ b
(1.2) 0 ~ an - bn ~ 2-n(a-b).

To prove (Ll), note that an ~ bn and an+ I ~ bn+ I imply

and (1.1) follows. From bn + 1 ~ bn we obtain

482
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 277

and (1.2) follows by induction. From (1.1) we see immediately that lim an
and lim bn exist, and (1.2) implies that the limits are equal. Thus, we can
use (0.2) to define the arithmetic-geometric mean M(a, b) of a and b.
Let us work out two examples.
Example I. M(a, a) = a.
This is obvious because a = b implies an = bn = a for all n ~ O.

Example 2. M(.j2, 1) = 1.1981402347355922074...

The accuracy is to 19 decimal places. To compute this, we use the fact
that an ~ M(a, b) ~ bn for all n ~ 0 and the following table (all entries are
rounded off to 21 decimal places).

n an bn
0 1.414213562373905048802 1.000000000000000000000
1.207106781186547524401 1.189207115002721066717
2 1.198156948094634295559 1.198123521493120122607
3 1.198140234793877209083 1.198140234677307205798
4 1.198140234735592207441 1.198140234735592207439

Such computations are not too difficult these days, though some extra
programming was required since we went beyond the usual 16 digits of
double-precision. The surprising fact is that these calculations were done not
by computer but rather by Gauss himself. The above table is one of four
examples given in the manuscript "De origine proprietatibusque generalibus
numerorum mediorum arithmetico-geometricorum" which Gauss wrote in
1800 (see [12, III, pp. 361-371]). As we shall see later, this is an especially
important example.
Let us note two obvious properties of the agM :

(1.3)
M(Aa, i..b) = i..M(a, b) .
Both of these follow easily from the definition of M(a, b).
Our next result shows that the agM is not as simple as indicated by
what we have done so far. We now get our first glimpse of the depth
of this subject.

483
278 D. A. cox

THEOREM 1.1. If a ~ b > 0, then

Proof. Let I(a, b) denote the above integral, and set ~ = M(a, b). Thus
we need to prove I(a, b) = (Tt/2)~ -I. The key step is to show that
(1.4)
The shortest proof of (1.4) is due to Gauss. He introduces a new variable
<p' such that
. 2a sin<p'
(\.5) SIn<p = -----
a + b + (a-b)sin2<p' .

Note that 0 ::::; <p' ::::; Tt/2 corr~sponds to 0 ::::; <p ::::; Tt/2. Gauss then asserts
"after the development has been made correctly, it will be seen~' that
(1.6) (a 2 cos 2 <p + b2sin2<p)-1/2d<p = (a f cos 2<p' + b f sin 2<p')- 1/2d<p'
(see [12, III, p. 352]). Given this, (1.4) follows easily. In "Fundamenta nova
theoriae functionum ellipticorum," Jacobi fills in some of the details Gauss
left out (see [20, I, p. 152]). Specifically, one first proves that

2 cos<p'(a f cos 2<p' + b f sin 2<p')1/2

cos<p = .
a + b + (a-b)sm 2<p'

a + b - (a-b)sin 2 <p'
(a 2cos 2<p+b 2sin 2<p)1/2 = a - - - - - - - : - -
a + b + (a-b)sin2<p'
(these are straightforward manipulations), and then (1.6) follows from these
formulas by taking the differential of (1.5).
Iterating (1.4) gives us
I(a, b) = I(al' bd = l(a 2 , b 2 ) = ... ,
so that l(a, b) = lim l(an , bn ) = 7t/2~ since the functions

(a;cos 2<p+b;sin2<p)-1/2

converge uniformly to the constant function ~ - I. QED

This theorem relates very nicely to the classical theory of complete
elliptic integrals of the first kind, i.e., integrals of the form

484
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 279

To see this, we set k = a - bb . Then one easily obtains

a+

I(a, b) = (2.jk+
a -1 F 1 k ,1t/2 , )
so that (1.4) is equivalent to the well-known formula

F G~, 1t/2) = (1 + k) F(k, 1t/2)

(see [16, p. 250] or [17, p. 908]). Also, the substitution (1.5) can be written as

. "" (1 + k)sin<j)'
SIn", = 1 + k sin 2<j)' ,
~--'---=---

which is now called the Gauss transformation (see [32, p. 206]).

For someone well versed in these formulas, the derivation of (1.4) would
not be difficult. In fact, a problem on the 1895 Mathematical Tripos was
to prove (1.4), and the same problem appears as an exercise in Whittaker
and Watson's Modern Analysis (see [36, p. 533]), though the agM is not
mentioned. Some books on complex analysis do define M(a, b) and state
Theorem 1.1 (see, for example, [7, p. 417]).
There are several other ways to express Theorem 1.1. For example, if
o ~ k < 1, then one can restate the theorem as
(1.7)
1
k k) = -2 f"/2 (1-k2 sin2y)- 1/2dy = -2 F(k, 1t/2) .
M(l + ,1- 1t 0 1t
Furthermore, using the well-known power series expansion for F(k, 1t/2)
(see [16, p. 905]), we obtain

(1.8)
1 f [1.3. "'n' (2n-1)] 2 k2n .
M(l+k,l-k) n=O 2 n!

Finally, it is customary to set k' = .jt=k2. Then, using (1.3), we can

rewrite (1.7) as

(1.9)
1 - = -2
-- f"/2 (l-k2 sin2y)-1/2dy
M(l, k') 1t 0 •

485
280 D. A. cox

This last equation shows that the average value of the function
(1- k 2 sin 2y) -
112 on the interval [0, 1£/2] is the reciprocal of the agM of the

reciprocals of the minimum and maximum values of the function, a lovely

interpretation due to Gauss- sec [12,111, p. 371].
One application of Theorem 1.1, in the guise of (1.7), is that the algorithm
for the agM now provides a very efficient method for approximating the
elliptic integral F(k, 1£/2). As we will sec in § 3, it was just this problem
that led Lagrange to independently discover the algorithm for the agM.
Another application of Theorem 1.1 concerns the arc length of the
lemniscate r2 = cos 29 :

-I

Using the formula for arc length in polar coordinates, we see that the total
arc length is

4 f: 4
(r 2 + (dr/d9)2)1/2 d9 = 4 f: 4
(cos 29)-1/2 d9 .

The substitution cos 29 = cos 2 <1> transforms this to the integral

4 f: 2
(l+cos 2<1»-1/2d<l> = 4 f: 2
(2cos 2<1>+sin 2<1»-1/2d<l>.

Using Theorem l.l to interpret this last integral in terms of M(y'2, 1),
we see that the arc length of the lemniscate r2 = cos 29 is 21£/M(.j2, 1).
From Example 2 it follows that the arc length is approximately 5.244,
and much better approximations can be easily obtained. (For more on the
computation of the arc length of the lemniscate, the reader should consult [33].)
On the surface, this arc length computation seems rather harmless.
However, from an historical point of view, it is of fundamental importance.
If we set z = cos<l>, then we obtain

486
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 281

The integral on the right appeared in 1691 in a paper of Jacob Bernoulli

and was well known throughout the 18th century. Gauss even had a special
notation for this integral, writing

& = 2 f~ (I_Z4)-1/2dz.
Then the relation between the arc length of the lemniscate and M(.j2, 1)
can be written
M(y0., 1) = ~.
&

To see the significance of this equation, we turn to Gauss' mathematical

diary. The 98th entry, dated May 30, 1799, reads as follows:
We have established that the arithmetic-geometric mean between 1 and
y0. is 1[/& to the eleventh decimal place; the demonstration of this
fact will surely open an entirely new field of analysis.
(See [12, X.l, p. 542].) The genesis of this entire subject lies in Gauss'
observation that these two numbers are the same. It was in trying to
understand the real meaning of this equality that several streams of Gauss'
thought came together and produced the exceptionally rich mathematics
which we will explore in § 2.
Let us first examine how Gauss actually showed that M(.j2, 1) = 1[/&.
The proof of Theorem 1.1 given above appeared in 1818 in a paper on
secular perturbations (see [12, III, pp. 331-355]), which is the only article
on the agM Gauss published in his lifetime (though as we've seen, Jacobi
knew this paper well). It is more difficult to tell precisely when he first
proved Theorem 1.1, although his notes do reveal that he had two proofs
by December 23, 1799.
Both proofs derive the power series version (1.8) of Theorem 1.1. Thus
the goal is to show that M( 1 + k, 1- k) - 1 equals the function

(1.10)

The first proof, very much in the spirit of Euler, proceeds as follows.
Using (1.3), Gauss derives the identity

(1.11) M(1 + - -2t2 ' 1- 2t)

--2 = --2
1
M(l +t 2 , 1- t 2 ).
l+t l+t l+t

487
282 D. A. cox

He then assumes that there is a power series expansion of the form

1
~~-:--,----:-:- = 1 + Ak
2
+ Bk
4
+ Ck
6
,+ ... .
M(1+k,l-k)

By letting k = t 2 and 2t/(1 + t 2) in this series and using (1.11), Gauss obtains

1 + AC~tt2)2 + BC~tt2)4 + CC~112)6 + ...

= (1 +t 2)(1 +At 4 +Bt 8 + Ct 12 + ... ).

Multiplying by 2t/(1 +( 2 ), this becomes

_2_t_ + A(~)3 + B(~)5 + ... = 2t(1+At 4 +Bt 8 + ... ).

1 + t2 1+ t 2 1+ t 2
A comparison of the coefficients of powers of t gives an infinite system of
equations in A, B, C, .. , . Gauss showed that this system is equivalent to the
equati,ons 0 = 1 - 4A =' 9A - 16B = 25B - 36C = ... , and (1.8) follows
easily (see [12, III, pp. 367-369] for dp-tails). Gauss' second proof also
uses the identity (1.11), but in a different way. Here, he first shows that
the series y of (1.10) is a solution of the hypergeometric differential equation
(1.12)

This enables him to show that y satisfies the identity

y (~)
1 +t
= (1 + t2)y(t2) ,

so that by (1.11), F(k) = M(1+k, 1-k)y(k) has the property that

2t )
F ( 1 + t 2 = F(t ).
2

Gauss then asserts that F(k) is clearly constant. Since F(O) = 1, we obtain a
second proof of (1.8) (see [12, X.l, pp. 181-183]). It is interesting to note
that neither proof is rigorous from the modern point of view: the first
assumes without proof that M( 1 + k, 1- k) - 1 has a power series expansion,
and the second assumes without proof that M(1 + k, 1 - k) is continuous (this
is needed in order to show that F(k) is constant).

We can be certain that Gauss knew both of these proofs by December 23,
1799. The evidence for this is the 102nd entry in Gauss' mathematical

488
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 283

diary. Dated as above, it states that "the arithmetic-geometric mean is itself

an integral quantity" (see [12, X.l, p. 544]). However, this statement is not
so easy to interpret. If we turn to Gauss' unpublished manuscript of 1800
(where we got the example M(.j2, 1», we find (1.7) and (1.8) as expected,
but also the observation that a complete solution of the differential equation
(1.12) is given by
A B
( 1.13) A,BEC
M(1 +k, l-k) + M(I, k) ,

(see [12, III, p. 370]). In eighteenth century terminology, this is the "complete
integral" of (1.12) and thus may be the "integral quantity" that Gauss was
referring to (see [12, X.l, pp. 544-545]). Even if this is so, the second proof
must predate December 23, 1799 since it uses the same differential equation.
In § 3 we will study Gauss' early work on the agM in more detail.
But one thing should be already clear: none of the three proofs of Theorem 1.1
discussed so far live up to Gauss' May 30, 1799 prediction of "an entirely
new field of analysis." In order to see that his claim was justified, we will
need to study his work on the agM of complex numbers.

2. THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

The arithmetic-geometric mean of two complex numbers a and b is not

easy to define. The immediate problem is that in our algorithm
ao = a, bo = b,
(2.1)

there is no longer an obvious choice for b n + l ' In fact, since we are

presented with two choices for bn + 1 for all n ~ 0, there are uncountably
many sequences {an}:'~ 0 and {bn}:'~ 0 for given a and b. Nor is it clear
that any of these converge!
We will see below (Proposition 2.1) that in fact all of these sequences
converge, but only countably many have a non-zero limit. The limits of
these particular sequences then allow us to define M(a, b) as a multiple
valued function of a and b. Our main result (Theorem 2.2) gives the relation-
ship between the various values of M(a, b). This theorem was discovered

489
284 D. A. COX

by Gauss in 1800, and we will follow his proof, which makes extensive use
of theta functions and modular functions of level four.
We first restrict ourselves to consider only those a's and h's such that
a # 0, b # 0 and a # ±b. (If a=O, b=O or a= ±h, one easily sees that the
sequences (2.1) converge to either 0 or a, and hence are not very interesting.)
An easy induction argument shows that if a and b satisfy these restrictions,
so do a" and h" for alln ~ 0 in (2.1).
We next give a way of distinguishing between the two possible choices
for each b"+ I '

Definition. Let a, b E C* satisfy a # ± b. Then a square root b I of ab is

called the right choice if 1 a l - hi 1 :;;; 1 a l + b l 1 and, when 1 a l - hi 1
1al + b l I, we also have Im(bdad > O.
To see that this definition makes sense, suppose that Im(bdad = O.
Then bl/a l = r E R, and thus

since ,. # O. Notice also that the right choice is unchanged if we switch a

and b, and that if a and h are as in § 1, then the right choice for (ab)I/2 is the
positive one.
H thus seems natural that we should define the agM using (2.1) with
b" + I always the right choice for (a"b")1/2. However, this is not the only
possibility: one can make some wrong choices for b" + I and still get an
interesting answer. For instance, in Gauss' notebooks, we find the following
example:

n a" b"
0 3.0000000 1.0000000
2.0000000 -1.7320508
2 .1339746 1.8612098i
3 .0669873 + .9306049i .3530969 + .3530969i
4 .2100421 + .6418509i .2836903 + .6208239i
5 .2468676 + .6313374i .2470649 + .6324002i
6 .2469962 + .6318688i .2469962 + .6318685i

(see [12, Ill, p. 379]). Note that b l is the wrong choice but bn is the right
choice for n ~ 2. The algorithm appears to converge nicely.
Let us make this idea more precise with a definition.

490
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 285

Definition. Let a, b E C· satisfy a oF- ±b. A pair of sequences {an}:'=o

and {bn}:'=o as in (2.1) is called good if bn+ 1 is the right choice for
(lI n hn )I/2 for all but finitely many n ~ O.
The following proposition shows the special role played by good sequences.

PROPOSITION 2.1. If a, b E C· satisfy a oF- ±b, then any pair of

sequences {an} :'= 0 and {b n}:'= 0 as in (2.1) converge to a common limit,
and this common limit i.~ non-zero if and only if {an} :'=0 and {b n} :'=0 are
good sequences.

Proof. We first study the properties of the right choice b l of (ab)I/2

in more detail. Let 0 ~ ang(a, b) ~ n denote the unoriented angle between a
and b.
Then we have:
(2.2) 1al - b l 1 ~ (1/2) 1a - b 1
(2.3) ang(a., btl ~ (1/2) ang(a, b) .
To prove (2.2), note that
1a. - b. 1 1al + h. 1 = (1/4) 1a - b 12 .
Since 1a. - b. 1 ~ 1a. + b. I, (2.2) follows immediately. To prove (2.3), let
9 1 = ang(a., btl and 9 = ang(a, b). From the law of cosines
1a. ± b. 12 = 1a. 12 + 1b. 12 ± 21 a. lib. 1cos9. ,
we see that 9. ~ n/2 because 1a. - b. 1 ~ 1a. + b. I. Thus
ang(a., bl) = 9. ~ n - O. = ang(a., -b l ) .
To compare this to 9, note that one of ±b., say b'., satisfies ang(a, b '.)
= ang(b '., b) = 9/2. Then the following picture

a ~---+-----::::;o--'-------::::::=o... b

L'En.seipement math6m., t. xxx. f'aac. 3-4. 19

491
286 D. A. cox

shows that ang(al, b'l) ~ 0/2. Since b'l = ±b 1 , the above inequalities imply
that
ang(a 1 , bd ~ ang(a 1 , b'd ~ (1/2) ang(a, b) ,

proving (2.3).
Now, suppose that {an},~)=o and {bn}:'=o are not good sequences. We set
Mn = max{1 an I, I bn I}, and it suffices to show that lim Mn = O. Note that
M n + 1 ~ M n for n ~ O. Suppose that for some n, bn + 1 is not the right choice
for (a nbn)1/2. Then - bn+ 1 is the right choice, and thus (2.2), applied to an
and bn , implies that

la n+21 = (1/2)lan+1 - hnlll ~ (1/4)1 an - hnl ~ {I/2)M n ·

However, we also have I bn + 2 I ~ M n' It follows easily that

(2.4) Mn+3 ~ (3/4)M n •

Since {an} :'=0 and {b n}:'=0 are not good sequences, (2.4) must occur infinitely
of~en, proving that lim M n = O.
n ...... (Xl

Next, suppose that {an},~:"O and {bn},~x:"o are good sequences. By neglecting
the first N terms for N sufficiently large, we may assume that b n + 1 is
tht: right choice for all n ~ 0 and that ang(a, b) < 7t (this is possible by (2.3)).
We also set en = ang(a n , bn ). From (2.2) and (2.3) we obtain

(2.5)

Note that an - an + I = (l/2)(a n- bn), so that by (2.5),

I an - an + 1 I~ 2- (n + 1) Ia - bI

Hence, if m '>' n, we see that

Ian - ami ~ :t: la k - ak + 1 1 ~ Ct: 2-(k+I)} a - bl < 2- n la - bl·

Thus {a n }:'= 0 converges because it is a Cauchy sequence, and then (2.5)

implies that lim an = lim bn .
It remains to show that this common limit is nonzero. Let

Clearly I bn+ I I ~ mn· To relate Ian + I I and mn, we use the law of cosines:

492
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 287

(2Ia. + tI)2 = I a. I 2 + I b. I 2 + 2 I a. I I b. I cose.

~ 2m; (1 +cose.) = 4m; cos 2(e./2).

It follows that m. + I ~ cos(e./2)m. since 0 ~ e. < Tt (this uses (2.5) and the
fact that eo = ang(a, b) < Tt). Using (2.5) again, we obtain

m. ~ (tIl cOS(eo/2k») mo .
However, it is well known that

(See [16, p. 38]. When eo = 0, the right hand side is interpreted to be 1.) We
thus have

for all n ~ 1. Since 0 ~ eo < Tt, it follows that lim a. = lim b. #- O. QED
n-+oo "-+00

We now define the agM of two complex numbers.

Definition. Let a, b E C* satisfy a #- ± b. A nonzero complex number Il

is a value of the arithmetic-geometric mean M(a, b) of a and b if there
are good sequences {a.},~)= 0 and {b.}:'= 0 as in (2.1) such that
Il = lim a. = lim b•.

Thus M(a, b) is a multiple valued function of a and b and there are a

countable number of values. Note, however, that there is a distinguished
value of M(a, b), namely the common limit of {a.}:'=o and {b.}:'=o where
b. + I is the right choice for (a.b.)1/2 for all n ~ O. We will call this the
simplest value of M(a, b). When a and b are positive real numbers, this
simplest value is just the agM as defined in § 1.
We now come to the major result of this paper, which determines how
the various values of M(a, b) are related for fixed a and b.

THEOREM 2.2. Fix a, b E C* which satisfy a #- ± b and I a I ~ I b I,

and let Il and A. denote the simplest values of M(a, b) and M(a+b, a-b)
respectively. Then all values Il' of M(a, b) are given by the formula

493
288 D. A. cox

1 d ic
- = - +-,
Il' Il A
where d and c are arbitrary relatively prime integers satisfying
d == 1 mod 4 and c == 0 mod 4.

Proof Our treatment of the agM of complex numbers thus far has
been fairly elementary. The proof of this theorem, however, will be quite
dilTerent; we will finally discover the "entirely new field of analysis" predicted
by Gauss in the diary entry quoted in § 1. In the proof we will follow
Gauss' ideas and even some of his notations, though sometimes translating
them to a modern setting and of course filling in the details he omitted
(Gauss' notes are extremely sketchy and incomplete - see [12, III, pp. 467-
468 and 477-478]).
The proof will be broken up into four steps. In order to avoid writing a
treatise on modular functions, we will quote certain classical facts without
proof.

Step 1. Theta Functions

Let ~ = {t E C: Imt > O} and set q = en;.. The Jacobi theta functions
are defined as follows:

I
"0

p(t) = 1 + 2 qn2 = 8 3(t, 0) ,

"=1

q(t) = 1 + 2 f (- 1)nqn2 = 8 4(t, 0) ,

n=1

r(t) = 2 f
"=1
q(2n-l)2/ 4 = 8 2(t, 0) .

Since I q I < 1 for t E ~, these are holomorphic functions of t. The notation

p, q and r is due to Gauss, though he wrote them as power series in
e- n', Ret> 0 (thus he used the right half plane rather than the upper half
plane ~ - see [12, III, pp. 383-386]). The more common notation 8 3 , 8 4
and 8 2 is from [36, p. 464] and [32, p. 27].
A wealth of formulas are associated with these functions, including the
product expansions:

p(t) = Il
"-'
(1_q2n)(l+q2n-I)2,
n=1

Il
ao
(2.6) q(t) = (1_q2n)(1_q2n-l)2,
n=1

494
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 289

0"
r('t) = 2ql/4 f1 (l_q2n)(1 +q2n)2,
n=1
(which show that p('t), q('t) and r('t) are non vanishing on f», the trans-
formations:
p('t+ 1) = q('t) , p( -1/'t) = (- i't)1/2p('t) ,
(2.7) q('t+ 1) = p('t), q( -1/'t) = (- i't)l/2r('t) ,
r('t+ 1) = e tti/ 4r('t), r( -1/'t) = (- i't)1/2q('t) ,
(where we assume that Re( - i't)1/2 > 0), and finally the identities
p('t)2 + q('t)2 = 2p(2't) 2 ,
(2.8) p('t)2 - q('t)2 = 2r(2't)2,
p('t)q('t) = q(2't)2,

and
p(2't)2 + r(2't)2 = p('t)2,
(2.9) P(2't)2 - r(2't)2 = q('t)2,
q('t)4 + r('t)4 = p('t)4.

Proofs of (2.6) and (2.7) can be found in [36. p. 469 and p. 475], while
one must turn to more complete works like [32, pp. 118-119] for proofs of
(2.8). (For a modern proof of (2.8), consult [34].) Finally, (2.9) follows easily
from (2.8). Of course, Gauss knew all of these formulas (see [12, III,
pp. 386 and 466-467]).
What do these formulas have to do with the agM? The key lies in (2.8):
one sees that P(2't)1 and q(2't)1 are the respective arithmetic and geometric
means of p('t)2 and q('t)2! To make the best use of this observation, we
need to introduce the function k'('t) = q('t)2/p('t)1.
Then we have:

LEMMA 2.3. Let a, b E C* satisfy a =F ± b, and suppose there is 't E f>

such that k'('t) = b/a. Set J.l = a/p('t)l and, for n ~ 0, an = J.l p(2n't)2
and b n = J.l q(2n't)1. Then
(i) {an},~)=1i and {bn},~)=o are good sequences satisfying (2.1),
(ii) lim an = lim bn = J.l.
11-00 II-a)

Proof. We have ao = a by definition, and b o = b follows easily from

k'(T) = b/a. As we observed above, the other conditions of (2.1) are clearly

495
290 D. A. cox

satisfied. Finally, note that exp(1ti2·t) -+ 0 as n -+ 00, so that lim P(2·T)2

..... 00

= lim q(2·t)2 = I, and (ii) follows. Since Jl ::/= 0, Proposition 2.1 shows that
{a.} :'=0 and {b.} :'=0 are good sequences. QED
Thus every solution t of k'(t) = b/a gives us a value Jl = a/p(t)2 of
M(a, b). As a first step toward understanding all solutions of k'(t) = bfa, we
introduce the region F 1 S;;; f>:
Fl = {tef>:IRetl:::;; 1, I Re(l/t) I :::;; l}

F. shaded

-I o
The following result is well known.

LEMMA 2.4. k,2 assumes every value in C - to, I} exactly once in

F'l = Fl - (aF1n{tef>: Ret <O}).
A proof can be found in [36, pp. 481-484]. Gauss was aware of similar
results which we will discuss below. He drew F 1 as follows (see [12, III,
p. 478]).

1
o Raum fUr t und -
t

-;

Note that our restrictions on a and b ensure that (b/a)2 E C - I}. to,
Thus, by Lemma 2.4, we can always solve k'(t)2 = (b/a)2, Le., k'(t) = ±b/a.
We will prove below that

(2.10) k' (2t: 1) = - k'(t) ,

496
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 291

which shows that we can always solve k'(t) = b/a. Thus, for every a and b
as above, M(a, b) has at least one value of the form a/p(t)2, where k'(',) = b/a.
Three tasks now remain. We need to find all solutions t of k'(t) = bfa,
we need to see how the values a/p(t)2 are related for these t'S, and we need
to prove that all values of M(a, b) arise in this way. To accomplish these
goals, we must first recast the properties of k'(t) and p(tf into more modern
terms.
Step 2. Modular Forms of Weight One.
The four lemmas proved here are well known to experts, but we include
their proofs in order to show how easily one can move from the classical
facts of Step 1 to their modern interpretations. We will also discuss what
Gauss had to say about these facts.
We will use the transformation properties (2.7) by way of the group

SL(2, Z) = {(: !): a, b, c, d E Z, ad-be = I}

which acts on f) by linear fractional transformations as follows: if
"I = (ac db) E SL(2, Z) and t E f), then "It = at
ct
+
+d
b.
For example, if

S = (~ -1)o and
1)
1
, then -1
St = - ,
t
Tt = t + 1,

which are the transformations in (2.7). It can be shown that Sand T

generate SL(2, Z) (see [29, Ch. VII, Thm. 2]), a fact we do not need here.
We will consider several subgroups of SL(2, Z). The first of these is r(2),
the principal congruence subgroup of level 2:

r(2) = {"I E SL(2, Z): "I == G~) mod 2} .

Note that -1 E r(2) and that r(2)/{ ± 1} acts on f).

LEMMA 2.5.
(i) r(2)/ { ± I} acts freely on f).

(ii) r(2) is generated by -I, U = (~ ~) and V = G~).

(iii) Given t E f), there is "I E r(2) such that "It E 1'1 .

497
292 D. A. cox

Proof. Let y = (: ~) be an element of r(2).

(i) If 1: E ~ and y1: = 1:, then we obtain e1: 2 + (d-a)1: - b = O. If e = 0,
then y = ± 1 follows immediately. If e '" 0, then (d - a)2 + 4 be < 0 because
1: E~. Using ad - be = 1, this becomes (a+d)2 < 4, and thus a + d = 0
since a and d are odd. However, band e are even so that

1 == ad - be == ad == - a 2 mod 4

This contradiction proves (i).

(ii) We start with a variation of the Euclidean algorithm. Given y as
above, let r l = a - 2a , e, where al E Z is chosen so that 1 r l 1 is minimal.
Then 1 r l 1 ~ 1c I, and hence 1rl 1 < 1e 1 since a and e have different parity.
Thus

Note that e and r l also have different parity. Continuing this process, we
obtain
c = 2a2 r l + r2, 1r2 1 < 1r l 1,
rl = 2a3 r2 + r3, 1r3 1 < 1r2 1,

r2n-1 = + r2n+I'
2a2n+1 r2n r2n+1 ±1,
r2n = 2a2n +2 r2n+ 1 + 0,
since GCO(a, e) = 1. Then one easily computes that

V-a'.H u-a, ... ... v-a, u-a, y = (~ 1 :).

Since the left-hand side is in r(2), the right-hand side must be of the form
± U m , and we thus obtain
y = ± Ua, va, ... Ua,... va, •• , um •
(iii) Fix 1: E~. The quadratic form 1X1: + y 12 is positive definite for
x, y E R, so that for any S ~ Z2, 1X1: + Y 12 assumes a minimum value at

some (x, y) E S. In particular, 1C1: + d 12, where y = (: ~) E r(2), assumes a

minimum value at some Yo E r(2). Since 1m y1: = 1m 1: 1e1: + d 1- 2, we see

498
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 293

that " = Yo' has maximal imaginary part, i.e., 1m 't' ~ 1m yt' for y E r(2).
Since 1m t' = 1m Vt', we may assume that 1 Re t' 1 :s;; 1. Applying the above
inequality to v± 1 E r(2), we obtain
1m t' ~ 1m V±lt' = 1m t' 12t' ± 11- 2 .
Thus 12t ± 1 1 ~ 1, or 1t ± (1/2) 1 ~ 1/2. This is equivalent to 1 Re l/t' 1 :s;; 1,
and hence t' E Fl. QED
We next study how P(,) and q(,) transform under elements of r(2).

LEMMA 2.6. Let y = (: !) E r(2), and assume that a == d == 1 mod 4.

Then
(i) p(yt)2 = (Ct + d) p(t)2 ,
(ii) q(yt)2 = i"(ct+d) q(t)2.

Proof. From (2.7) and V = (~ -1)o (0 1)

V-I _ lOwe obtain

p(Vt)2 = p(t)2, p(Vt)2 = (2t+ 1) p(t)2 ,

(2.11) q( Vt)2 = -(2t + 1) q(t)2 .

Thus (i) and (ii) hold for V and V. The proof of the previous lemma shows
that 'Y is in the subgroup of r(2) generated by V and V. We now proceed
by induction on the length of y as a word in V and V.

(i) If y = (: !) and p(yt)2 = (ct+d) p(t)2 then (2.11) implies that

p(Vyt)2 = p(yt)2 = (Ct+d) p(t)2,

p(Vyt)2 = (2yt+ 1) p(yt)2 = (2yt+ l)(ct+d) p(t)2
= (2a+c)t+(2b+d») p(t)2.

However Vy = C:), Vy = (2a:c 2b:d) , so that (i) now holds for

Vyand Vy.

(ii) Using (2.11) and arguing as above, we see that if y = (: !)

va, Vb, ... va. Vb. , then

499
294 D. A. cox

However, U and V commute modulo 4, so that

y == (2~bi 2~a) mod 4.

Thus c == 2I:.b. mod 4, and (ii) follows. QED
Note that (2.10) is an immediate consequence of Lemma 2.6.
In order to fully exploit this leQlma, we introduce the following subgroups
of r(2):
r(2)o = {y e r(2): a == d == 1 mod 4} ,
r 2(4) = {yer(2)o:c == o mod 4}
Note that r(2) = {± I} . r(2)o and that r 2(4) has index 2 in r(2)o. From
Lemma 2.6 we obtain

(2.12)
~(y'[)2 = (c'[ + d) q('[)2 , Ye r 2(4) .
Since these functions are holomorphic on f), one says that p(t)2 and q('[)2
are weak modular forms of weight one for r(2)o and r 2(4) respectively.
The term more commonly used is modular form, which requires that the
functions be holomorphic at the cusps (see [30, pp. 28-29] for a precise
definition). Because r(2)o and r 2(4) are congruence subgroups of level
N = 4, this condition reduces to proving that

(2.13)

are holomorphic functions of ql/2 = exp(27ti't/4) for all y e SL(2, Z). This will
be shown iater.
In general, it is well known that the square of a theta function is a
modular form of weight one (see [27, Ch. I, § 9]), although the general theory
only says that our functions are modular forms for the group

r(4) = {y e SL(2, Z): y == G~) mod 4}

(see [27, Ch. I, Prop. 9.2]). We will need the more precise information
given by (2.12).
We next study the quotients of f) by r(2) and r 2(4). From Step 1,
recall the region F 1 ~ f). We now define a larger region F:
F = {'[ef):IRe'[l ~ 1, 1'[ ±1/41 ~ 1/4, 1'[ ±3/41 ~ 1/4}.

500
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 295

F shaded

F 1 above dashed lines

-I -1/2 o 112

We also set
F'l = Fl - (oF , n {t E~: Ret < O})

F' = F-(oFn{tE~:Ret<O}).

LEMMA 2.7. F'l and F' are fundamental domains for r(2) and r 2(4)
respectively, and the functions k'2 and k' induce biholomorphic maps

k'2 : ~/r(2) .:. C - {O, l}

k' : ~/r 2(4) .:. C - {O, ± 1} .

Proof A simple modification of the proof of Lemma 2.6 shows that if
y = (: !) E r(2), then p(yt)4 = (ct + d)2 p(t)\ q(yt)4 = (ct+d)2 q(t)4. Thus
k'2 is invariant under r(2).
Given t E~, Lemma 2.5 shows that yt E F 1 for some y E r(2). Since

U = (~ ~) maps the left vertical line in of 1 to the right one and

y = (~ ~) maps the left semicircle in of 1 to the right one, we may

assume that yt E F'I. If we also had crt E F'1 for cr E r(2), then k'(crt)2
= k'(t)2 = k'(yt)2, so that crt = yt by Lemma 2.4. This shows that F'1 is a
fundamental domain for r(2).
Since r(2)0 ::::: r(2)/{ ± I}, F'1 is also a fundamental domain for r(2)0·
Since r 2(4) has index 2 in ['(2)0 with 1 and V as coset representatives,
it follows that
F* = F'I V V(F'I n {tE~:Re't ~ O})v y-l(F'1 n {'tE~:Re't > O})

501
296 D. A. cox

F* shaded

-I -1/2 o 1/2

is a fundamental domain for r 2(4). Since (=! =~) E r 2(4) takes the far
left semicircle in aF to the far right one, it follows that F' is a fundamental
dom'lin for r 2(4).
It now follows easily from Lemma 2.4 that k,2 induces a bijection
k,2 : ~/r(2) ..... C - {O, I}. Since r(2)/{ ± I} acts freely on ~ by Lemma 2.5,
~/r(2) is a complex manifold and k,2 is holomorphic. A straightforward
argument then shows that k,2 is biholomorphic.
Next note that k' is invariant under r 2(4) by (2.12), and thus induces a
map k': ~/r 2(4) ..... C - {O, ± I}. Since ~/r(2) = ~/r(2)o, we obtain a com-
mutative diagram:

k'
..... C - {O, I}

! g
i'l"
~/r(2)o ..... C - {O, I}

where f is induced by r 2(4) S;; r(2)o and g is just g(z) = Z2. Note that g is a
covering space of degree 2, and the same holds for f since [r(2)o : r 2(4)] = 2
and r(2)o acts freely on ~. We know that k,2 is a biholomorphism, and
it now follows easily that k' is also. QED
We should point out that r(t)2 has properties similar to p("t)2 and q("t)2.
Specifically, r("t)2 is a modular form of weight one for the group

r 2(4)' = {y E r(2):"y == (! ~) mod 4},

which is a conjugate of r 2(4). Furthermore, if we set k("t) = r("t)2/P("t)2,
then k is invariant under r 2(4)' and induces a biholomorphism k: ~/r 2(4)'

502
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 297

-> c- {O, ± I}. We leave the proofs to the reader. Note also that k(t)2
+ k'(t)2 = 1 by (2.9).
Our final lemma will be useful in studying the agM. Let F 2 be the
region (1/2)F l ' pictured below. Note that F 2 s; F.

/
~ --" \, I

-I -1/2 o 1/2
F2 shaded
F, F 1 indicated by dashed lines

LEMMA 2.8.
k'(F tl = {z E C - {O, ± l} : Rcz ~ O} ,
k'(F 2) = {z E C - {O, ± 1} : I z I ,,;;; I} .
Proof We will only treat k'(F 2), the proof for k'(F tl being quite similar.
We first claim that {k'(t): Ret = ± 1/2} = SI - {± 1}. To see this, note
that Ret = ± 1/2 and the product expansions (2.6) easily imply that k'('r)
= k'(t)-l, i.e., I k'(t) I = 1. How much of the circle is covered? It is easy
to see that k'( ± 1/2 + it) -> 1 as t -> + 00. To study the limit as t -> 0,
note that by (2.10) we have

k'(±1/2+it) = -k'(±1/2+~t)'
As t -> 0, the right-hand side clearly approaches -1. Then connectivity
arguments easily show that all of SI - {± I} is covered.
Since k' is injective on F' by Lemma 2.7, it follows that k'(F 2) - SI
is connected. Since I k'(it) I < 1 for t > °
by (2.6), we conclude that
k'(F 2) s; {z E C - {O, ± l} : I z I ,,;;; l}.
Similar arguments show that
k'(F - F 2) s; {z E C : I z I > t} .

503
298 D. A. cox

Since k'(F) = C - {O, ± I} by Lemma 2.7, bOlh inclusions musl be equalilies.

QED
Gauss' collected works show that he was familiar with most of this
material, though it's hard to tell precisely what he knew. For example, he
basically has two things to say about k'('t):
(i) k'('t) has positive real part for 't E F 1,
(ii) the equation k'('t) = A has one and only one solution 't E F 2.

(See [12, III, pp. 477-478].) Neither statement is correct as written. Modifica-
tions have to be made regarding boundary behavior, and Lemma 2.8 shows
that we must require I A I ~ 1 in (ii). Nevertheless, these statements show that
Gauss essentially knew Lemma 2.8, and it becomes clear that he would not
have been greatly surprised by Lemmas 2.4 and 2.7.
Let us see what Gauss had to say about other matters we've discussed. He
was quite aware of linear fractional transformations. Since he used the right
half plane, he wrote
, at - bi
t = , a d - be = I, a, b, e, d E Z, Ret> 0
eti + d
(see [12, III, p. 386]). To prevent confusion, we will always translate formulas
into ones involving 't E f>.
Gauss decomposed an element "'( E SL(2, Z) into simpler ones by means of
continued fractions. For example, Gauss considers those transformations
't* = "'('t which can be written as

- 1
't' = - - + 2a 1
't
- 1
(2.14) 'til = -,- + 2a2
't

- 1
't* = 't('" = - -
't( .. - l )
+ 2a..

(see [12, X.1, p. 223]). If U = (~ ~) and Y = G~), J then 'til = ua'y-a1't,

so that for n even we see a similarity to the proof of Lemma 2.5 (ii).
The similarity becomes deeper once we realize that the algorithm used in

the proof gives a continued fraction expansion for a/e, where "'( = (: !).

504
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 299

However, since n can be odd in (2.14), we are dealing with more than just
elements of r(2).
Gauss' real concern becomes apparent when we see him using (2.14)
together with the transformation properties of p('t). From (2.7) he obtains

p('t*) = J( - i't)( - i't') ... (- i't(n 1) p('t)

(see [12, X.1, p. 223]). The crucial thing to note is that if 't* = y't,

Y = (: :), then (-i't) .. ·(-i't(n-l) is just c't +d up to a power of i.

This tells us how p('t) transforms under those 1's described by (2.14). In
general, Gauss used similar methods to determine how p('t), q('t) and r(r)
transform under arbitrary elements y of SL(2, Z). The answer depends in part

on how y = (: ~) reduces modulo 2. Gauss labeled the possible reductions

as follows:

a o o
b o 1 o
c o o 1
d o o
2 3 4 5 6

(see [12, X.1, p. 224]). We recognize this as the isomorphism SL(2, Z)!r(2)
~ SL(2, F 2)' and note that (2.14) corresponds to cases 1 and 6. Then the

transformations of p(r), q(r) and r('t) under y = (; : ) E SL(2, Z) are given by

1 2 3 4 5 6
h- p(y't) =
1 p('t) q('t) r('t) q('t) r(r) p('t)
(2.15) h- q(yr) =
1 q('t) p('t) p(r) r(r) p(r) r(t)
h - 1 r(y't) = r(r) r(r) q('t) p('t) q('t) q('t)

where h = (e'(c't+d»)1/2 and A is an integer depending on both y and which

one of p(r). q(r) -or r('t) is being transformed (see [12, X.1, p. 224]). Note that
Lemma 2.6 can be regarded as giving a careful analysis of A in case 1.
An analysis of the other cases may be found in [13, pp. 117-123]. One
consequence of this table is that the functions (2.13) are holomorphic functions

505
300 D. A. cox

of ql/2, which proves that p('t) 2, q('t)2 and r(.)2 are modular forms, as
claimed earlier.
Gauss did not make explicit use of congruence subgroups, although they
appear implicitly in several places. For example, the table (2.15) shows Gauss
using r(2). As for r(2)o, we find Gauss writing

where y = ( _a
e -b
d ) and, as he carefully stipulates, "ad - be = 1,
a == d == I mod 4, b, e even" (see [12, Ill, p. 478]). Also, if we ask which
of these y's leave k' unchanged, then the above equation immediately gives
us r 2(4), though we should be careful not to read too much into what
Gauss wrote.
More interesting is Gauss' use of the reduction theory of positive definite
quadratic forms as developed in Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (see [11, § 171]).
This can be used to determine fundamental domains as follows. A positive
definite quadratic form ax 2 + 2bxy + ey2 may be written a 1x - .y 12 where
• E t;. An easy computation shows that this form is equivalent via an
element y of SL(2, Z) to another form a' 1x - .'y 12 if and only if.' = y-l •.
Then, given • e~, Gauss applies the reduction theory mentioned above to
1x - .y 12 and obtains a SL(2, Z)- equivalent form A 1x - .'y 12 = Ax2
+ 2Bxy + Cy2 which is reduced, i.e.
2IBI~A~C

(see [11, § 171] and [12, X.l, p. 225]). These inequalities easily imply that
1 Re.' 1 ~ 1/2, 1 Re 1/.' 1 ~ 1/2, so that .' lies in the shaded region

-I -1/2 o 112

506
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 301

which is well known to be the fundamental domain of SL(2, Z) acting on tl

(see [29, Ch. VII, Thm. 1]).
This seems quite compelling, but Gauss never gave a direct connection
between reduction theory and fundamental domains. Instead, he used reduc-
tion as follows: given 1: E tl, the reduction algorithm gives 1:' = y1: as
above and at tlte same time decomposes y into a continued fraction similar
to (2.14). Gauss then applies this to relate p(1:') and p(1:), etc., bringing us
back to (2.15) (see [12, X.l, p. 225]). But in another place we find such
continued fraction decompositions in close conjunction with geometric
pictures similar to FI and the above (see [12, VIII, pp. 103-105]). Based
on this kind of evidence, Gauss' editors decided that he did see the connection
(see [12, X.2, pp. 105-106]). Much of this is still a matter of conjecture,
but the fact remains that reduction theory is a powerful tool for finding
fundamental domains (see [6, Ch. 12]) and that Gauss was aware of some
of this power.
Having led the reader on a rather long digression, it is time for us to
return to the arithmetic-geometric mean.
Step 3. The Simplest Value
Let FA = {1: E F: 11: - 1/41 > 1/4, 11: + 3/41 > 1/4}. We may picture
F A as follows.

FA shaded

-I -1/2 o 1/2
Let a, b E C* be as usual, and let 1: E tl satisfy k'(1:) = b/a. From Lemma 2.3
we know that Il = a/p(t)2 is a value of M(a, b). The goal of Step 3 is to
prove the following lemma.

LEMMA 2.9. If 1: E FA, then Il is the simplest value of M(a, b).

Proof From Lemma 2.3 we know that
(2.16) an = Il p(2n1:)2 , bn = Il q(2n1:)2 , n = 0, 1,2, ...
gives us good sequences converging to Il. We need to show that b n + 1 is the
right choice for (a nbn )1/2 for all n ~ o.

L'Enseignement math~m., t. xxx, rase. 3-4. 20

507
302 D. A. cox

The following equivalences are very easy to prove:

bn+l)
I a. + I - bn + I I :;;; I an + I + bn+ I I ¢> Re ( - - ~ 0
a.+ I

I anti - bn + 1 I = I anti + bil+l I¢> Re ( - I)

b.+- = o.
ant 1
Recalling the definition of the right choice, we see that we have to prove,

for all n ~ bn +-l )

0, that Re ( -
an + I
~ 0, and If
. Re - (b -) >
- = 0, then 1m -otl
otl )
an + I an + 1
(b o.
From (2.16) we see that
bn+I = q(2n+ l.t )2 = k'(2n+ It)
a. + , p(2 n + I t)2 '

so that we are reduced to proving that if t E F J\, then for all n ~ 0,

Re(k'(2 n + It») ~ 0, and if Re(k'(2n + It») = 0, then Im(k'(2 n + It») > O.
Let F, denote the region obtained by translating F I by ± 2, ± 4, etc.
The drawing below pictures both FI and F.

-2 -I o 2
FI shaded
F indicated by dashed lines

Since k'(t) has period 2 and its real part is nonnegative on F I by Lemma 2.8,
it follows ~hat the real part of k'(t) is nonnegative on all of Fl. Further-
more, it is clear that on F I' Re(k'(t») = 0 can occur only on iJF I. The
product expansions (2.6) show that k'(t) is real when Ret = ± 1, so that
on F I, Re(k'(t») = 0 can occur only on the boundary semicircles. From the
periodicity of k'(t) we conclude that k'(t) has positive real part on the
interior F? of FI .
If t E F", then the above drawing makes it clear that 2n + It E F1 for
/I ~ 0 and that 2" I It E F? for n ~ 1. We thus see that Re(k'(2 n + l.t ») > 0

for n ~ 0 unless n = 0 and 2t E iJF I • Thus the lemma will be proved once
we show that Im(k'(2t») > 0 when t E F," and 2t E of,.
These last two conditions imply that 2. lies on one of the semicircles A
and B pictured below.

508
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRY MEAN 303

F I indicated by dashed lines

-I o 2
By periodicity, k' takes the same values on A and B. Thus it suffices to
show that Im(k'(2t») > 0 for 2t E A. Since S = (0 -1)
1 0 maps the line
Reo = 1 to A, we can write 2t = -I/o, where Reo = 1. Then, using (2.7),
we obtain

k'(2t) = k'( -I/o) = q( -1/0)2 = r(0)2 .

p( -1/0)2 p( 0)2

Since Reo = 1, the product expansions (2.6) easily show that

Im(r(0)2/p(0)2) > 0,
which completes the proof of Lemma 2.9. QED
Step 4. Conclusion of the Proof.
We can now prove Theorem 2.2. Recall that at the end of Step 1 we
were left with three tasks: to find all solutions 't of k'('t) = bfa, to relate
the values of a/p(T.)2 thus obtained, and to show that all values of M(a, b)
arise in this way.
We are given a, be C* with a -:f. ±b and 1a 1 ~ 1b I. We will first find
'to E F 2 n F" such that k'('to) = b/a. Since 1 b/a 1 ~ 1, Lemma 2.8 gives us
'to E F 2 with k'('t o) = b/a. Could 'to fail to lie in F"? From the definition
of F", this only happens when 'to lies in the semicircle B pictured below.

Ilil l ! lilil !I I !I~il il i'l l l l!tl~I!l li!·.!il!I I I I!lil l F2 shaded

. ~

-1/2 o 1/2

509
304 D. A. cox

However, y= 1 0) E r 2(4) takes B to the semicircle A. Since k' is

(
-4 I
invariant under r 2(4), we have k'(yt o) = k'(t o) = h/ll. Thus, replacing TO by
yTo, we may assume that To E F2 n F".
It is now easy to solve the first two of our tasks. Since k' induces a
bijection b/r 2(4) ~ C - {O, ± I}, it follows that all solutions of k'(t) = b/a are
y r
given by T = yto, E 2(4). This gives us the following set of values of
M(a, b):

Recalling the statement of Theorem 2.2, it makes sense to look at the

reciprocals of these values:
R = {p(YTo)2/a: Y E r i4)}

By (2.12), p(yto)2 = (ct o +d)p(t o)2 for y = (: ~)Er2(4) £ r(2)o. Setting

~l = a/p(To)2, we have

R = {(cto+d) p(TO)2/lI: y= (: ~) E r 2(4)}

{(cto+d)/Il:y = (: !)Er 2 (4)}.

An easy exercise in number theory shows that the bottom rows (c, d) of
elements of r 2(4) are precisely those pairs (c, d) satisfying GCD(c, d) = 1,
c == 0 mod 4 and d == 1 mod 4. We can therefore write

R = {(cTo+d)/ll: GCD(c, d) = 1, c == 0 mod 4, d == 1 mod 4} .

Then setting A = ill/To gives us

(2.17) R = {~ + ~ : GCD(c, d) = 1, d == 1 mod 4, c == 0 mod 4} .

Finally, we will show that Il and A are the simplest values of M(a, b)
and M(a + b, a - b) respectively. This is easy to see for Il: since to E F" ,
Lemma 2.9 implies that Il = a/p(t o)2 is the simplest value of M(a, b).
Turning to A., recall from Lemma 2.3 that a = IIp(t o)2 and b = Ilq(t O)2.

C:J (~~)
Thus by (2.8) and (2.7),

a + b = ll(p('tO)2 +q(to)2) = 21l p(2'to)2 = 21l p 2 ,

510
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 305

which implies that

a +b = A. p( -1/2'to)2 , a - b = A. q( - 1/2'to)2 .

Hence A. is a value of M(a+b, a-b). To see that it is the simplest value,

we must show that -1/2'to e F" (by Lemma 2.9). Since to e F 2' we have

2'to e Fl' But F 1 is stable under S = (~ -~). so that -1/2'to e Fl'

The inclusion F 1 S; F" is obvious, and -1/2'to e F" follows. This completes
our first two tasks.
Our third and final task is to show that (2.17) gives the reciprocals of
all values of M(a, b). This will finish the proof of Theorem 2.2. So let 11' be a
value of M(a, b), and let {a,,},~)=o and {bll} :'=0 be the good sequences such that
11' = lim a" = lim b". Then there is some m such that b" + 1 is the right
choice for (a"b,,)1/2 for all n ~ m; and thus 11' is the simplest value of
M(a m, bm). Since k' : F' -+ C - {O, ± I} is surjective by Lemma 2.7, we can find
t E F' such that k'('t) = bm/a m • Arguing as above, we may assume that
't E F". Then Lemma 2.9 shows that 11' = am/p(t)2 and also that for 11 ~ 111,

(2.18)

Let us study am - l and bm - I ' Their sum and product are 2 am and b!
respectively. From the quadratic formula we see that

Using (2.9), we obtain

a! - b! = 11' 2(P('t)4_q('t)4) = 11' 2r('t)4,

so that, again using (2.9), we have
~ 1l'p('t/2)2

~ ll'q(t/2)2.
Thus, either

511
306 D. A. cox

In the former case, set 'I = ,/2. Then from (2.18) we easily see that for
n:;:': m -1,
(2.19) a/l = Il' p(2" - m + 1'1)2 , b/l = Il' q(2" - m' l.r 1)2 .

If the latter case holds, let ' I = ,/2 + 1. From (2.7) we see that am - 1
= Il' p(11)2, bm - 1 = Il' q(11)2, and it also follows easily that p(2"-m+ I.rl )
= p(2/1-ml ) and q(2"-m+ 11d = q(2/1-ml ) for all n :;:,: m. Thus (2.19) holds for
"1
this choice of and n :;:,: m - 1.
By induction, this argument shows that there is 1m E f, such that for all
n :;:,: 0,
all = Il' p(2/11m )l , b" = Il' q(2/1'm)2 .

In particular, Il' = a/p('mf and k'('m) = b/a. Thus (IlT I = p(lm)2/a is in the
set R of (2.17). This shows that R consists of the reciprocals of all values
of M(a, b), and the proof of Theorem 2.2 is now complete. QED

We should poin~ out that the proof just given, though arrived at
independently, is by no means original. The first proofs of Theorem 2.2
appeared in 1928 in [15] and [35]. Geppert's proof [15] is similar to ours
in the way it uses the theory of theta functions and modular functions.
The other proof [35], due to von David, is much shorter; it is a model of
elegance and conciseness.
Let us discuss some consequences of the proof of Theorem 2.2. First, the
formula A = ill/l o obtained above is quite interesting. We say that "0
"uniformizes" the simplest value Il of M(a, b), where

Writing the above formula as 10 = i ~, we see how to explicitly compute

10 in terms of the simplest values of M(a, b) and M(a+b, a-b). This is
especially useful when a > b > O. Here, if we set c = J
a 2 - b2 , then,
using the notation of § 1, the simplest values are M(a, b) and M(a, c), so that

. M(a, b)
(2.20) 10 = 1---.
M(a, c)

A nice example is when a = j2 and b = 1. Then c = 1, which implies

10 = i! Thus M(.fi, 1) = j2/p(i)2 = l/q(i)2. From § 1 we know M(j2, 1)

= rr/(J), which gives us the formulas

512
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 307

(2.21)
mjre = q(i)2 = (l-2e-n+2e-4n_2e-9n+ ... )2.

We will discuss the importance of this in § 3.

Turning to another topic, note that M(a, b) is clearly homogeneous of

degree 1, i.e., if Jl is a value of M(a, b), then CJl is a value of M(ca, cb)
for C E C*. Thus, it suffices to study M(l, b) for bE C - {O, ± I}. Its values
are given by Jl = Ijp(t)2 where k'(t) = b. Since k': f> --+ C - {O, ± I} is a
local biholomorphism, it follows that M(I, b) is a multiple valued holomorphic
function. To make it single valued, we pull back to the universal cover
via k', giving us M( 1, k'(t»). We thus obtain

M( 1, k'(t») = Ijp(t)2.

This shows that the agM may be regarded as a meromorphic modular form
of weight -1.

f:
Another interesting multiple valued holomorphic function is the elliptic
integral
2
(l-k 2sin2<j»-1/2d<l>. This is a function of k E C - {O, ± I]. If
we pull back to the universal cover via k: f> --+ C - {O, ± I} (recall from
Step 2 that k(t) = r(t)2jp(t)2), then it is well known that

-2
re
f n 2 (1-k(t)2sin 2 <1>t 1/2d<l> = p(t)2
0
'

(see [36, p. 500]). Combining the above two equations, we obtain

which may be viewed as a rather amazing generalization of (1.9).

Finally, let us make some remarks about the set .If of values of M(a, b),
where a and b are fixed. If Jl denotes the simplest value of M(a, b), then
it can be shown that I JlI ~ I Jl' I for Jl' E.If, and I JlI is a strict maximum
if ang(a, b) -j:. re. This may be proved directly from the definitions (see [35]).
Another proof proceeds as follows. We know that any Jl' E.A. can be
written
(2.22) Jl' = Jl/(cto + d) ,

513
308 D. A. cox

where to E F 2 and (; !) E r 2(4). Thus it suffices to prove that I cto + d I ;;. 1

whenever to E F 2 and (: ~) E r 2(4). This is left as an exercise for the

reader.
We can also study the accumulation points of JI. Since I Cto + d I
is a positive definite quadratic form in c and d, it follows from (2.22) that
o E C is the only accumulation point of JI. This is very satisfying once we
recall from Proposition 2.1 that 0 E C is the common limit of all non-good
sequences {an}:'=o and {bn}:'=o coming from (2.1).
The proof of Theorem 2.2 makes one thing very clear: we have now seen
"an entirely new field of analysis." However, before we can say that Gauss'
prediction of May 30, 1799 has been fulfilled, we need to show that the
proof given above reflects what Gauss actually did. Since we know from
Step 2 about his work with the theta functions p(t), q(t) and r{t) and the
modular function k'(t), it remains to see how he applied all of this to the
arithmetic-geometric mean.
The connections we seek are found in several places in Gauss' notes.
For example, he states vcry clearly that if

(2.23)

then the sequences an = J.1 p(2nt)2, bn = J.1 q(2 nt)2 satisfy the agM algorithm
(2.1) with J.1 as their common limit (see [12, III, p. 385 and pp. 467-468J).
This is precisely our Lemma 2.3. In another passage, Gauss defines the
"einfachste Mittel" (simplest mean) to be the limit of those sequences where
Re(b.+ l/an) > 0 for all n ;;. 0 (see (12, III, p. 477]). This is easily seen to
be equivalent to our definition of simplest value when ang(a, b) =1= 1t. On the
same page, Gauss then asserts that for t E F 2, J.1 is the simplest value of
M(a, b) for a, b as in (2.23). This is a weak form of Lemma 2.9. Finally,
consider the following quote from [12, VIII, p. 101J: "In order to solve the
. q(t)
equatlOn - = A, one sets A2 = tl/m and takes the agM of m and n;
pet)
let this be J.1. One further takes the agM of m and Jm 2 - nZ , or, what
is the same, of m + nand m - n; let this be A.. One then has t = J.1IA..
This gives only one value of t; all others are contained in the formula

ext - 2~i
t' = ---"--
o - 2yti '

514
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 309

where IX, 13. y, D signify all integers which satisfy the equation IXD - 4J3y = 1."
Recall that Ret > 0, so that our t is just ti. Note also that the last
assertion is not quite correct.
Unfortunately, in spite of these compelling fragments, Gauss never actually
stated Theorem 2.2. The closest he ever came is the following quote from
[12, X.1, p. 219]: "The agM changes, when one chooses the negative value for
one of n', n", n'" etc.: however all resulting values are of the following
form:
1 1 4ik
(2.24) -=-+-."
(11) 11 A
Here. Gauss is clearly dealing with M(m, n) where m > n > o. The fraction
1/11 in (2.24) is correct: in fact, it can be shown that if the negative value
of n(r) is chosen, and all other choices are the right choice, then the cor-
responding value 11' of M(m, n) satisfies

(see [13, p. 140]). So (2.24) is only a very special case of Theorem 2.2.
There is one final piece of evidence to consider: the 109th entry in
Gauss' mathematical diary. It reads as follows:
Between two given numbers there are always infinitely many means
both arithmetic-geometric and harmonic-geometric, the observation of
whose mutual connection has been a source of happiness for us.
(See [12, X.l, p. 550]. The harmonic-geometric mean of a and b is
M(a-I,b-I)-I.) What is amazing is the date of this entry: June 3,1800,
a little more than a year after May 30, 1799. We know from § 1 that
Gauss' first proofs of Theorem 1.1 date from December 1799. So less than
six months later Gauss was aware of the multiple valued nature of M(a, b)
and of the relations among these values! One tantalizing question remains:
does the phrase "mutual connection" refer only to (2.24), or did Gauss have
something more like Theorem 2.2 in mind? Just how much did he know
about modular functions as of June 3, 18oo? In order to answer these
questions, we need to examine the history of the whole situation more
closely.

515
310 D. A. cox

3. HISTORICAL REMARKS

The main difficulty in writing about the history of mathematics is that

so much has to be left out. The mathematics we are studying has a richness
which can never be conveyed in one article. For instance, our discussion
of Gauss' proofs of Theorem 1.1 in no way does justice to the complexity
of his mathematical thought; several important ideas were simplified or
omitted altogether. This is not entirely satisfactory, yet to rectify such gaps
is beyond the scope of this paper. As a compromise, we will explore the
three following topics in more detail:
A. The history of the lemniscate,
B. Gauss' work on inverting lemniscatic integrals, and
C. The chronology of Gauss' work on the agM and theta functions.

A. The lemniscate was discovered by Jacob Bernoulli in 1694. He gives

the equation in the form
xx + yy = aJxx - yy
(in § 1 we assumed that a = 1), and he explains that the curve has "the
form of a figure 8 on its side, as of a band folded into a knot, or of a
lemniscus, or of a knot of a French ribbon" (see [2, p. 609]). "Lemniscus"
is a Latin word (taken from the Greek) meaning a pendant ribbon fastened

f:
to a victor's garland.
More interesting is that the integral (1 - Z4) - 1/2dz, which gives one-
quarter of the arc length of the lemniscate, had been discovered three years
earlier in 169·1! This was when Bernoulli worked out the equation of the
so-called elastic curve. The situation is as follows: a thin elastic rod is bent
until the two ends are perpendicular to a given line L.

516
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 311

After introducing cartesian coordinates as indicated and letting a denote OA,

Bernoulli was able to show that the upper haif of the curve is given by the
equation
(3.1)

where 0 ~ x ~ a (see [2, pp. 567-600]).

It is convenient to assume that a = 1. But as soon as this is done,
we no longer know how long the rod is. In fact, (3.1) implies that the

f: f:
arc length from the origin to a point (x, y) on the rescaled elastic curve is

(I_Z 4)-1/2dz. Thus the length of the whole rod is 2 (1_Z4)-1/2dz,

which is precisely Gauss' (j)!

How did Bernoulli get from here to the lemniscate? He was well aware
of the transcendental nature of the elastic curve, and so he used a standard
seventeenth century trick to make things more manageable: he sought
"an algebraic curve ... whose rectification should agree with the rectification
of the elastic curve" (this quote is from Euler [9, XXI, p. 276]).
Jacob actually had a very concrete reason to be interested in arc length:
in 1694, just after his long paper on the elastic curve was published, he
solved a problem of Leibniz concerning the "isochrona paracentrica" (see
[2, pp. 601-607]). This called for a curve along which a falling weight recedes
from 'or approaches a given point equally in equal times. Since Bernoulli's
solution involved the arc length of the elastic curve, it was natural for him
to seek an algebraic curve with the same arc length. Very shortly thereafter,
he found the equation of the lemniscate (sec [2, pp. 608-612]). So we really
can say that the arc length of the lemniscate was known well before the
curve itself.
But this is not the full story. In 1694 Jacob's younger brother Johann
independently discovered the lemniscate! Jacob's paper on the isochrona
paracentrica starts with the differential equation

(xdx + ydy)Jy = (xdy- ydx)Ja '

which had been derived earlier by Johann, who, as Jacob rather bluntly
points out, hadn't been able to solve it. Johann saw this comment for the
first time when it appeared in June 1694 in Acta Eruditorum. He took up
the challenge and quickly produced a paper on the isochrona paracentrica
which gave the equation of the lemniscate and its relation to the elastic
curve. This appeared in Acta Eruditorum in October 1694 (see [3, pp. 119-

S17
312 D. A. cox

122]), but unfortunately for Johann, Jacob's article on the lemniscate appeared
in the September issue of the same journal. There followed a bitter priority
dispute. Up to now relations between the brothers had been variable,
sometimes good, sometimes bad, with always a strong undercurrent of com-
petition between them. After this incident, amicable relations were never
restored. (For details of this controversy, as well as a fuller discussion of
Jacob's mathematical work, see [18].)
We need to mention one more thing before going on. Near the
end of Jacob's paper on the lemniscate, he points out that the y-value
I: z2(a 4 - Z4) - 1/2dz of the elastic curve can be expressed as the difference

of an arc of the ellipse with semiaxes a.j2 and a, and an arc of the
lemniscate (see [2, pp. 611-612]). This observation is an easy consequence
of the equation
a2dz
I o (a..,...--;,----::-~ IX z dz 2 IX (a-2-+ Z2) 1/2
4 _z 4)1/2 +
x
(3.2) = - dz
0 (a 4 _z 4)1/2 0 a 2 _z 2 .

What is especially intriguing is that the ratio .j2: 1, so important in Gauss'

observation of May 30, 1799, was present at the very birth of the lemniscate.
Throughout the eighteenth century the elastic curve and the lemniscate
appeared in many papers. A lot of work was done on the integrals

I~ (l-Z4)- 1/2dz and I~ z2(l-Z4)- 1/2 dz. For example, Stirling, in a work
written in 1730, gives the approximations

I I dz
o~-
- 1.31102877714605987

I Jl-z
I

o
z2dz
4
=
.59907011736779611

(see [31, pp. 57-58]). Note that the second number doubled is
1.19814023473559222, which agrees with M(.j2, 1) to sixteen decimal places.
Stirling also comments that these two numbers add up to one half the
circumference of an ellipse with .j2 and 1 as axes, a special case of
Bernoulli's observation (3.2).

f
Another notable work on the elastic curve was Euler's paper "De miris
" b us curvae eI
propnetatl '
astlcae sub equatlone
. y = xxdx contentae"
r.--:4
y1_X4

518
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 313

which appeared posthumously in 1786. In this paper Euler gives approxima-

tions to the above integrals (not as good as Stirling's) and, more importantly,

I II
proves the amazing result that

(3.3) IoJi-z dz
2 '
z 2 dz
o~ = 4"
1t

(see [9, XXI, pp. 91-118]). Combining this with Theorem l.l we see that

so that the coincidence noted above has a sound basis in fact.

We have quoted these two papers on the elastic curve because, as we
will see shortly, Gauss is known to have read them. Note that each paper
has something to contribute to the equality M(fi, 1) = n/fD: from Stirling,
we get the ratio fi: 1, and from Euler we get the idea of using an
equation like (3.3).
Unlike the elastic curve, the story of the lemniscate in the eighteenth
century is well known, primarily because of the key role it played in the
development of the theory of elliptic integrals. Since this material is thoroughly
covered elsewhere (see, for example, [1, Ch. 1-3], [8, pp. 470-496], [19, § 1-§ 4]
and [21, § 19.4]), we will mention only a few highlights. One early worker
was C. G. Fagnano who, following some ideas of Johann Bernoulli, studied
the ways in which arcs of ellipses and hyperbolas can be related. One result,
known as Fagnano's Theorem, states that the sum of two appropriately
chosen arcs of an ellipse can be computed algebraically in terms of the
coordinates of the points involved. He also worked on the lemniscate,
starting with the problem of halving that portion of the arc length of the
lemniscate which lies in one quadrant. Subsequently he found methods for
dividing this arc length into 11 equal pieces, where 11 = 2m, 3· 2m or 5· 2m.
These researches of Fagnano's were published in the period 1714-1720 in an
obscure Venetian journal and were not widely known. In 1750 he had his
work republished, and he sent a copy to the Berlin Academy. It was given
to Euler for review on December 23, 1751. Less than five weeks later, on
January 27, 1752, Euler read a paper giving new derivations for Fagnano's
results on elliptic and hyperbolic arcs as well as significantly new results on
lemniscatic arcs. By 1753 he had a general addition theorem for lemniscatic
integrals, and by 1758 he had the addition theorem for elliptic integrals
(see [9, XX, pp. VII-VIII]). This material was finally published in 1761,

519
314 D. A. cox

and for the first time there was a genuine theory of elliptic integrals. For
the next twenty years Euler and Lagrange made significant contributions,
paving the way for Legendre to cast the field in its classical form which
we glimpsed at the end of § 1. Legendre published his definitive treatise on
elliptic integrals in two volumes in 1825 and 1826. The irony is that in
1828 he had to publish a third volume describing the ground breaking papers
of Abel and Jacobi which rendered obsolete much of his own work
(see [23]).
An important problem not mentioned so far is that of computing tables
of elliptic integrals. Such tables were needed primarily because of the many
applications of elliptic integrals to mechanics. Legendre devoted the entire
second volume of his treatise to this problem. Earlier Euler had computed
these integrals using power series similar to (1.8) (see also [9, XX, pp. 21-55]),
but these series often converged very slowly. The real breakthrough came
in Lagrange's 1785 paper "Sur une nouvelle methode de calcul integral"
(see [22, pp. 253-312]). Among other things, Lagrange is concerned with
integrals of the form

(3.4)

where M is a rational function of y2 and p ~ q > O. He defines sequences

p, p', p", ... , q, q', q", ... as follows:

(3.5)

and then, using the substitution

y' = y((l +p2y2)(1 +q2y2»1/ 2

(3.6)
1 + q2y2

he shows that

Two methods of approximation are now given. The first starts by

observing that the sequence p, p', p", ... approaches + ex> while q, q', q", ...
approaches O. Thus by iterating the substitution (3.6) in the integral of (3.4),

520
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 315

one can eventually assume that q = 0, which gives an easily computable

integral. The second method consists of doing the first backwards: from (3.5)
one easily obtains
p = (p' + q')/2 , q = (p' q')1/2 .

Lagrange then observes that continuing this process leads to sequences

p', p, 'p, "p, ... , q', q, 'q, "q, ... which converge to a common limit (see [22,
p. 271]). Hence iterating (3.6) allows one to eventually assume p = q,
again giving an easily computable integral.
So here we are in 1785, staring at the definition of the arithmetic-
geometric mean, six years before Gauss' earliest work on the subject. By
setting py = tan<\l, one obtains

so that (3.6) and (3.7) are precisely (1.5) and (1.6) from the proof of The-
orem 1.1. Thus Lagrange not only could have defined the agM, he could
have also proved Theorem 1.1 effortlessly. Unfortunately, none of this
happened; Lagrange never realized the power of what he had discovered.
One question emerges from all of this: did Gauss ever see Lagrange's
article? The library of the Collegium Carolinum in Brunswick had some of
Lagrange's works (see [4, p. 9]) and the library at Gottingen had an
extensive collection (see [12, X.2, p. 22]). On the other hand, Gauss, in
the research announcement of his 1818 article containing the proof of
Theorem 1.1, claims that his work is independent of that of Lagrange and
Legendre (see [12, Ill, p. 360]). A fuller discussion of these matters is in
[12, X.2, pp. 12-22]. Assuming that Gauss did discover the agM independently,
we have the amusing situation of Gauss, who anticipated so much in Abel,
Jacobi and others, himself anticipated by Lagrange.
The elastic curve and the lemniscate were equally well known in the
eighteenth century. As we will soon see, Gauss at first associated the integral
f(l-Z4)-1/2dZ with the elastic curve, only later to drop it in favor of the

lemniscate. Subsequent mathematicians have followed his example. Today, the

elastic curve has been largely forgotten, and the lemniscate has suffered thc
worse fate of being relegated to the polar coordinates section of calculus
books. There it sits next to the formula for arc length in polar coordinates,
which can never be applied to the lemniscate since such texts know nothing
of elliptic integrals.

521
316 D. A. cox

B. Our goal in describing Gauss' work on the lemniscate is to learn

more of the background to his observation of May 30, 1799. We will see
that the lemniscatic functions played a key role in Gauss' development of
the arithmetic-geometric mean.
Gauss began innocently enough in September 1796, using methods of

f f
Euler to find the formal power series expansion of the inverse function of
first (1- x 3) -1/2dx, and then more generally (1- x") - 1/2dx (see [12, X.l,

p. 502]). Things became more serious on January 8, 1797. The 51st entry

f
in his mathematical diary, bearing this date, states that "I have begun to
investigate the elastic curve depending on (l-X 4 )-1/2dx." Notes written

at the same time show that Gauss was reading the works of Euler and
Stirling on the elastic curve, ~s discussed earlier. Significantly, Gauss later
struck out the word "elastic" and replaced it with "Iemniscatic" (see [12, X.I,
pp. 147 and 510]).

f:
Gauss was strongly motivated by the analogy to the circular functions.
For example, notice the similarity between &/2 = (1- Z4) - 1/2dz and

1t/2 = f: (1 - Z2) - 1/2dz. (This similarity is reinforced by the fact that many

eighteenth century texts used & to denote 1t - see [12, X.2, p. 33].)
Gauss then defined the lemniscatic functions as follows:

sinlemn (f: (1_Z 4)-1/2d Z) = x

coslemn (&/2 - f: (1-Z 4)-1/2 dZ) = x

(see [12, III, p. 404]). Gauss often used the abbreviations sl q, and c1 q,
for sinlemn q, and coslemn q, respectively, a practice we will adopt. From
Euler's addition theorem one easily obtains

(3.8)

I J.. J..' _ sl q, c1 q,' + sl q,' c1 q,

(3.9) s ('I' + '1') - 1 _ sl q, sl q,' cI q, c1 q,'

(see [12, X.l, p. 147]).

522
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 317

Other formulas can now be derived in analogy with the trigonometric

functions (see [25, pp. 155-156] for a nice treatment), but Gauss went much,
much farther. A series of four diary entries made in March 1797 reveal the
amazing discoveries that he made in the first three months of 1797. We will
need to describe these results in some detail.
Gauss started with Fagnano's problem of dividing the lemniscate into n
equal parts. Since this involved an equation of degree n 2 , Gauss realized that
most of the roots were complex (see [12, X.l, p. 515]). This led him to
define sl <I> and c1 <I> for complex numbers <1>. The first step is to show that
sl(iy) = i sl y, c1(iy) = 1/c1(Y)'

(the first follows from the change of variable z = iz' in f (1- Z4) - 1/2dz,
and the second follows from (3.8)). Then (3.9) implies that
sl x + i sl y c1 x cl Y
sl(x+iy) = - - - - - - -
cl Y - i sl x sl y cl x

(see [12, X.1, p. 154]).

It follows easily that sl <I> is doubly periodic, with periods 2& and 2;&.
The zeros and poles of sl <I> are also easy to determine; they are given by
<I> = (m+in)& and <I> = (2m-l)+i(2n-l)) (&/2), m, nEZ, respectively. Then
Gauss shows that sl <I> can be written as

sl <I> = M(<I»
N(<I»

where M(<I» and N(<I» are entire functions which are doubly indexed
infinite products whose factors correspond to the zeros and poles respect-
ively (see [12, X.I, pp. 153-155]). In expanding these products, Gauss
writes down the first examples of Eisenstein series (see [12, X.l, pp. 515-516]).
He also obtains many identities involving M(<I» and N(<I», such as

(3.10) N(2<1» = M(<I»4 + N(<I»4

(see [12, X.l, p. 157]). Finally, Gauss notices that the numbers N(&)
and en/ 2 agree to four decimal places (see [12, X.l, p. 158]). He comments
that a proof of their equality would be "a most important advancement
of analysis" (see 12, X.1, p. 517]).
Besides being powerful mathematics, what we have here is almost a
rehearsal for what Gauss did with the arithmetic-geometric mean: the

L'Enseignement mathem., t. XXX, fase. 3-4. 21

523
318 D. A. cox

observation that two numbers are equal, the importance to analysis of

proving this, and the passage from real to complex numbers in order to
get at the real depth of the subject. Notice also that identities such as
(3.10) are an important warm-up to the theta function identities needed
in § 2.
Two other discoveries made at this time require comment. First, only
a year after constructing the regular 17-gon by ruler and compass, Gauss
found a ruler and compass construction for dividing the lemniscate into
five equal pieces (see [12, X.l, p. 517]). This is the basis for the remarks
concerning f (l_X4)-1/2dx made in Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (see [11,
§ 335]). Second, Gauss discovered the complex multiplication of elliptic
functions when he gave formulas for sl(1 + i)cj>, N(l + i)cj>, etc. (see [12, III,
pp. 407 and 411]). These discoveries are linked: complex multiplication on
the elliptic curve associated to the lemniscate enabled Abel to determine
all n for which the lemniscate can be divided into n pieces by ruler and
compass. (The answer is the same as for the circle! See [28] for an
excellent modern account of Abel's theorem.)
After this burst of progress, Gauss left the lemniscatic functions to work
on other things. He returned to the subject over a year later, in July 1798,
and soon discovered that there was a better way to write sl cj> as a quotient
of entire functions. The key was to introduce the new variable s = sin (i cj>).

Since sl cj> has period 2li), it can certainly be written as a function of s.

By expressing the zeros and poles of sl cj> in terms of s, Gauss was able
to prove that
I cj> = P(cj»
s Q(cj» ,

where

Q(cj» = (l - (e"/2 ::2 "/2)2) (l - (e 3R/2::2_ 3,,/2)2) . .

(see [12, III, pp. 415-416]). Relating these to the earlier functions M(cj»
and N(cj», Gauss obtains (letting cj> = \jI(j)
M(\jIli) = e".2/ 2 P(\jIli) ,

524
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 319

NN,G) = ea• 2/2 Q(\jIG) ,

(see [12, III, p. 416]). Notice that N(G) = i /2 is an immediate consequence
of the second formula.
Many other things were going on at this time. The appearance of rt/G)
sparked Gauss' interest in this ratio. He found several ways of expressing
G)/rt, for example

(3.11) ~rt = j2
2
(1 + (~)2 ~ + (~)2! + (~)2 ~ + ...)
2 2 8 4 16 8 '

and he computed G)/rt to fifteen decimal places (see [12, X.1, p. 169]).

f:
He also returned to some of his earlier notes and, where the approximation
2 z2(1_z 4 )- 1/2 dz ~ 1.198 appears, he added that this is rt/G) (see [12, X.1,

pp. 146 and 150]). Thus in July 1798 Gauss was intimately familiar with
the right-hand side of the equation M(j2, 1) = rt/G). Another problem he
studied was the Fourier expansion of sl <1>. Here, he first found the numerical
value of the coefficients, i.e.
sl \jiG) = .95500599 sin \jIrt - .04304950 sin 3 \jIrt + ... ,
and then he found a formula for the coefficients, obtaining

see [12, X.l, p. 168 and III, p. 417]).

The next breakthrough came in October 1798 when Gauss computed the
Fourier expansions of P(<I» and Q(<I». As above, he first computed the
coefficients numerically and then tried to find a general formula for them.
Since he suspected that numbers like e-", e-"/2, etc., would be involved,
he computed several of these numbers (see [12, III, pp. 426-432]). The final
formulas he found were

P(\jICi'J) =
23/4(rt/G)1/2 (e-"/4 sin \jIrt - e- 9 ,,/4 sin 3 \jIrt + e- 2SR /4 sin 5\j1rt - .. )

(3.12) Q(\jIG) =
r 1/4(1t/G)1/2 (1 + 2e-· cos 2\j1rt + 2e- 4 • cos 4\j1rt + 2e- 9R cos 6\j1rt + ..)

525
320 D. A. COX

(see [12, X.1, pp. 536-537]). A very brief sketch of how Gauss proved
these formulas may be found in [12, X.2, pp. 38-39].
These formulas are remarkable for several reasons. First, recall the theta
functions 0 1 and 0 3 :
0 1(z, q) = 2ql/4 sin z - 2q9/4 sin 3z + 2q25/4 sin 5z - ...
(3.13)
0 3 (z, q) = I + 2q cos 2z + 2q4 cos 4z + 2q 9 cos 6z + ...
(see [36, p. 464]). Up to the constant factor 2 -l/4(rc/(j)1/2, we see that
P(IjI(j) and Q(IjI(j) are precisely 0 1(ljIrc, e- and 0 3 (ljIrc, e- respectively.
K) K)

Even though this is just a special case, one can easily discern the general
form of the theta functions from (3.12). (For more on the relation between
theta functions and sl <1>, see [36, pp. 524-525]).
Severa~ interesting formulas can be derived from (3.12) by making specific
choice for 1jI. For example, if we set IjI = 1, we obtain

fiji. = 2-1/4(1 + 2e- K+ 2e- 4K + 2e- 9K + ...) .

Also, if we set IjI = 1/2 and use the nontrivial fact that P({j)/2) = Q«(j)/2)
= 2- 1/ 4 (this is a consequence of the formula Q(2<1» = p(<I»4 + Q(<I»4 - see
(3.10», we obtain

(3.14)

Gauss wrote down these last two formulas in October 1798 (see [12, III,
p. 418]). We, on the other hand, derived the first and third formulas as
(2.21) in § 2, only after a very long development. Thus Gauss had some
strong signpo:!ts to guide his development of modular functions.
These results, all dating from 1798, were recorded in Gauss' mathematical
diary as the 91st and 92nd entries (in July) and the 95th entry (in
October). The statement of the 92nd entry is especially relevant: "I have
obtained most elegant results concerning the lemniscate, which surpasses
all expectation-indeed, by methods which open an entirely new field to us"
(see [12, X.1, p. 535]). There is a real sense of excitement here; instead
of the earlier "advancement of analysis" of the 63rd entry, we have the much
stronger phrase "entirely new field." Gauss knew that he had found
something of importance. This feeling of excitement is confirmed by the

526
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 321

95th entry: "A new field of analysis is open before us, that is, the investigation
of functions, etc." (see [12, X.I, p. 536]). It's as if Gauss were so enraptured
hc didn't even bother to finish the sentence.
More importantly, this "new field of analysis" is clearly the same
"entirely new field of analysis" which we first saw in § 1 in the 98th entry.
Rather than being an isolated phenomenon, it was the culmination of years
of work. Imagine Gauss' excitement on May 30, 1799: this new field which
he had seen grow up around the lemniscate and reveal such riches, all of a
sudden expands yet again to encompass the arithmetic-geometric mean, a
subject he had known since age 14. All of the powerful analytic tools he had
developed for the lemniscatic functions were now ready to be applied to
the agM.
C. In studying Gauss' work on the agM, it makes sense to start by
asking where the observation M(fi, 1) = n/('J) came from. Using what we
have learned so far, part of this question can now be answered: Gauss was
very familiar with n/('J), and from reading Stirling he had probably seen the
ratio -Ii: 1 associated with the lemniscate. (In fact, this ratio appears in most
known methods for constructing the lemniscate-see [24, pp. 111-117].) We
have also seen, in the equation N«('J) = en / 2 , that Gauss often used numerical
calculations to help him discover theorems. But while these facts are
enlightening, they still leave out one key ingredient, the idea of taking the
agM of fi and 1. Where did this come from? The answer is that every
great mathematical discovery is kindled by some intuitive spark, and in our
case, the spark came on May 30, 1799 when Gauss decided to compute
M(.j2,I).
We are still missing one piece of our picture of Gauss at this time:
how much did he know about the agM? Unfortunately, this is a very
difficult question to answer. Only a few scattered fragments dealing with the
agM can be dated before May 30, 1799 (see [12, X.l, pp. 172-173 and 260]).
As for the date 1791 of his discovery of the agM, it comes from a letter
he wrote in 1816 (see [12, X.I, p. 247]), and Gauss is known to have
been sometimes wrong in his recollections of dates. The only other knowledge
we have about the agM in this period is an oral tradition which holds
that Gauss knew the relation between theta functions and the agM in 1794
(see [12, III, 493]). We will soon see that this claim is not as outrageous
as one might suspect.
It is not our intention to give a complete account of Gauss' work on
the agM. This material is well covered in other places (see [10], [12, X.2,

527
322 D. A. cox

pp. 62-114], [13], [14] and [25]-the middle three references are especially
complete), and furthermore it is impossible to give the full story of what
happened. To explain this last statement, consider the following formulas:
B + (1/4)B 3 + (9/64)B 5 + ... = (2Z1/2 + 2Z 9i 2 + ... )2 = ,2,
(3.15)
a
M(a, b) = 1+ (1/4)B2 + (9/64)B 4 + ... ,

where B = (1_(b/a)2)1/2. These come from the first surviving notes on the
agM that Gauss wrote after May 30, 1799 (see [12, X.l, pp. 177-178]).
If we set a = 1 and b = k' = ~, then B = k, and we obtain

1+ (1/4)k 2 + (9/64)1<4 + ...

M(l, k')
(3.16)
k
_..,...-:--,- = (2Z1/2 + 2Z 9/2 + )2 = ,2
M(l, k') ....

The first formula is (1.8), and the second, with Z = eKit / 2 , follows easily
from what we learned in § 2 about theta functions and the agM. Yet the
formulas (3.15) appear with neither proofs nor any hint of where they came
from. The discussion at the end of § 1 sheds some light on the bottom
formula of (3.15), but there is nothing to prepare us for the top one.
It is true that Gauss had a long-standing interest in theta functions,
going back to when he first encountered Euler's wonderful formula

n=
L
00

-00
(-1)" X(3"2+n)/2 = n (I-x").
00

n=1

The right-hand side appears in a fragment dating from 1796 (see [12, X.l,
p. 142]), and the 7th entry of his mathematical diary, also dated 1796, gives a
continued fraction expansion for
1-2+8-64+ ....
Then the 58th entry, dated February 1797, generalizes this to give a con-
tinued fraction expansion for
1- a + a3 - a6 + a lO - •••

(see [12, X.l, pp. 490 and 513]). The connection between these series and
lemniscatic functions came in October 1798 with formulas such as (3.14).

528
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 323

This seems to have piqued his interest in the subject, for at this time he
also set himself the problem of expressing

(3.17)

as an infinite product (see [12, X.I, p. 538]). Note also that the first
formula of(3.14) gives r with z = e-·12 •
Given these examples, we can conjecture where (3.15) came from. Gauss
could easily have defined p, q and r in general and then derived identities
(2.8)-(2.9) (recall the many identities obtained in 1798 for P(<I» and Q(<I>~see
(3.10) and [12, III, p. 410]). Then (3.15) would result from noticing that
these identities formally satisfy the agM algorithm, which is the basic content
of Lemma 2.3. This conjecture is consistent with the way Gauss initially
treated z as a purely formal variable (the interpretation z = e-·it/2 was only
to come later-see [12, X.l, pp. 262-263 and X.2, pp. 65-66]).
The lack of evidence makes it impossible to verify this or any other
reasonable conjecture. But one thing is now clear: in Gauss' observation
of May 30, 1799, we have not two but three distinct streams of bis thought
coming together. Soon after (or simultaneous with) observing that M(.j2, 1)
= n/(b, Gauss knew that there were inimate connections between lemniscatic
functions, the agM, and theta functions. The richness of the mathematics we
have seen is in large part due to the many-sided nature of this confluence.
There remain two items of unfinished business. From § 1, we want to deter-
mine more precisely when Gauss first proved Theorem 1.1. And recall from § 2
that on June 3, 1800, Gauss discovered the "mutual connection" among
the infinitely many values of M(a, b). We want to see if he really knew the
bulk of § 2 by this date. To answer these questions, we will briefly
examine the main notebook Gauss kept between November 1799 and
July 1800 (the notebook is "Scheda Ac" and appears as pp. 184-206 In
[12, X.l]).
The starting date of this notebook coincides with the l00th entry of
Gauss' mathematical diary, which reads "We have uncovered many new
things about arithmetic-geometric means" (see [12, X.I, p. 544]). After several
pages dealing with geometry, one all of a sudden finds the formula (3.11)
for (b/n. Since Gauss knew (3.15) at this time, we get an immediate proof
of M(.j2, 1) = n/(b. Gauss must have had this in mind, for otherwise why
would he so carefully recopy a formula proved in July 1798? Yet one could
also ask why such a step is necessary: isn't Theorem 1.1 an immediate
consequence of (3.15)? Amazingly enough, it appears that Gauss wasn't yet

529
324 D. A. cox

aware of this connection (see [12, X.l, p. 262]). Part of the problem is
that he had been distracted by the power series, closely related to (3.rS),
which gives the arc length of the ellipse (see [12, X.I, p. 177]). This
distraction was actually a bonus, for an asymptotic formula of Euler's for
the arc length of the ellipse led Gauss to write

(1t/2)(x - cxx- I -j3x- 3 - ••• )

(3.18) M(x, 1) = 10g(l/z)

where x = k-I, and z and k are as in (3.16) (see [12, X.I, pp. 186 and
268-270]). He was then able to show that the power series on top was
(k M(I, k')t 1, which implies that

z = ex p ( - ~. M(I, k'»)
2 M(I, k)

(see [12, X.l, pp. 187 and 190]). Letting z = e Kit/ 2, we obtain formulas
similar to (2.20). More importantly, we see that Gauss is now in a position
to uniformize the agM; z is no longer a purely formal variable.
In the process of studying (3.18), Gauss also saw the relation between
the agM and complete elliptic integrals of the first kind. The formula

follows easily from [12, X.I, p. 187], and this is trivially equivalent to (1.7).
Furthermore, we know that this page was written on December 14, 1799
since on this date Gauss wrote in his mathematical diary that the agM
was the quotient of two transcendental functions (see (3.18», one of which
was itself an integral quantity (see the WIst entry, [12, X.l, 544]). Thus
Theorem 1.1 was proved on December 14, 1799, nine days earlier than our
previous estimate.
Having proved this theorem, Gauss immediately notes one of its
corollaries, that the "constant term" of the expression (1 + J.1 cos 2<1»-1/2 is
M(~, 1)-1 (see [12, X.l, p. 188]). By "constant term" Gauss means
the coefficient A in the Fourier expansion
(1+J.1cos 2<1»-1/2 = A + A'cos<l> + A"cos2<1> + ...

2 fK/2
Since A is the integral - (1 + J.1 cos 2<1»-1/2d<l>, the desired result follows
1t 0
from Theorem 1.1. This interpretation is important because these coefficients

530
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 325

are useful in studying secular perturbations in astronomy (see [12, X.l,

pp. 237-242]). It was in this connection that Gauss published his 1818 paper
[12, III, pp. 331-355] from which we got our proof of Theorem 1.1.
What Gauss did next is unexpected: he used the agM to generalize the
lemniscate functions to arbitrary elliptic functions, which for him meant inverse
functions of elliptic integrals of the form

f(1 + J.l 2 sin 2 <1»- 1I2 d<l> = f(I-X 2)(1 + J.l 2X2)t 1/2dx .

Note that J.l = 1 corresponds to the lemniscate. To start, he first set

J.l = tan v,

1t cos v 1t cos V
li)= , li)' = -::-::-:---,,------.,.
M(I, COSY) M(I, sinv)

and finally

(3.19) z = exp (_ ~. li)') = exp (_ ~. M(l, C~SV»).

2 li) 2 M(I, smv)

Then he defined the elliptic function S(<I» by S(<I» = :~~) where

(3.20)

WNfli) = JM(I, COSY) (1 +2z 2 cos2"'1t+2zBcos4\jnt+ ... )

(see [12, X.l, pp. 194-195 and 198]). In the pages that follow, we find
the periods 2li) and 2ili)', the addition formula, and the differential equation
connecting S(<I» to the above elliptic integral. Thus Gauss had a complete
theory of elliptic functions.
In general, there are two basic approaches to this subject. One involves
direct inversion of the elliptic integral and requires a detailed knowledge of
the associated Riemann surface (see [17, Ch. VII]). The other more common
approach defines elliptic functions as certain series (~-functions) or quotients
of series (theta functions). The difficulty is proving that such functions invert
all elliptic integrals. Classically, this uniformization problem is ~olved by
studying a function such as k(t)2 (see [36, § 20.6 and § 21.73]) or j(t) (as in
most modern texts-see [30, § 4.2]). Gauss uses the agM to solve this
problem: (3.19) gives the desired uniformizing parameter! (In this connection,

L'Enseignement math6m., t. XXX, Case. 3-4. 22

531
326 D. A. cox

the reader should reconsider the from [12, VIII, p. 101] given near
the end of § 2.)
For us, the most interesting aspect of what Gauss did concerns the
functions T and W. Notice that (3.20) is a direct generalization of (3.12);
in fact, in terms of (3.13), we have

T(ljflU) = Jl-1/ 2 JM(1,cosv) 8 1(1jf1t,Z2),

W(ljflU) = J M(l, cosv) 8 3 (1jf1t, Z2) •

Gauss also introduces T(lU/2- <1» and W(lU/2 - <1», which are related to the
theta functions 8 2 and 8 4 by similar formulas (see [12, X.I, pp. 196 and
275]). He then studies the squares of these functions and he obtains
identities such as

(this, of course, is the modern formulation-sec [12, X.I, pp. 196 (Eq. 14)
and 275]). When <I> =' 0, this reduces to the first formula
p(-t)2 + q(t)2 = 2p(2t)2

of (2.8). The other formulas of (2.8) appear similarly. Gauss also obtained
product expansions for the theta functions (see [12, X.1, pp. 201-205]).
In particular, one finds all the formulas of (2.6). These manipulations yielded
the further result that
00

1 +Z+ Z3 + Z6 ZlO + ... - [] (1-z)-1(1-z 2),

n= 1

solving the problem he had posed a year earlier in (3.17).

From Gauss' mathematical diary, we see that the bulk of this work was
done in May 1800 (see entries 105, 106 and 108 in [12, X.1, pp. 546-549]).
The last two weeks were especially intense as Gauss realized the special
role played by the agM. The 108th entry, dated June 3, 1800, announces
completion of a general theory of elliptic functions ("sinus lemniscatici univer-
salissime accepti"). On the same day he recorded his discovery of the "mutual
connection" among the values of the agM !
This is rather surprising. We've seen that Gauss knew the basic identities
(2.6), (2.8) and (2.9), but the formulas (2.7), which tell us how theta functions
behave under linear fractional transformations, are nowhere to be seen, nor
do we find any hint of the fundamental domains used in § 2. Reading this
notebook makes it clear that Gauss now knew the basic observation of

532
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 327

Lemma 2.3 that theta functions satisfy the agM algorithm, but there is no
way to get from here to Theorem 2.2 with.out knowing (2.7). It is not
until 1805 that this material appears in Gauss' notes (see [12, X.2, pp. 101-
103]). Thus some authors, notably Markushevitch [25], have concluded that
on June 3, 1800, Gauss had nothing approaching a proof of Theorem 2.2.
Schlesinger, the last editor of Gauss' collected works, feels otherwise.
He thinks that Gauss knew (2.7) at this time, though knowledge of the
fundamental domains may have not come until 1805 (see [12, X.2, p. 106]).
Schlesinger often overestimates what Gauss knew about modular functions,
but in this case I agree with him. As evidence, consider pp. 287-307 in
[12, X.1]. These reproduce twelve consecutive pages from a notebook written
in 1808 (see [12, X.1, p. 322]), and they contain the formulas (2.7), a clear
statement of the basic observation of Lemma 2.3, the infinite product
manipulations described above, and the equations giving the division of the
agM into 3, 5 and 7 parts (in analogy with the division of the lemniscate).
The last item is especially interesting because it relates to the second half
of the 108th entry: "Moreover, in these same days, we have discovered the
principles according to which the agM series should be interpolated, so as
to enable us to exhibit by algebraic equations the terms in a given pro-
gression pertaining to any rational index" (see [12, X.1, p. 548]). There is no
other record of this in 1800, yet here it is in 1808 resurfacing with other
material (the infinite products) dating from 1800. Thus it is reasonable to
assume that the rest of this material, including (2.7), also dates from 1800.
Of course, to really check this conjecture, one would have to study the
original documents in detail.
Given all of (2.6)-(2.9), it is still not clear where Gauss got the basic
insight that M(a, b) is a mUltiple valued function. One possible source of
inspiration is the differential equation (1.12) whose solution (1.13) suggests
linear combinations similar to those of Theorem 2.2. We get even closer
to this theorem when we consiser the periods of S(<I»:

m(i) + in(i)' = 1t cos V ( m + in . )

M(l, COSy) M(l, smv)

where m, n are even integers. Gauss' struggles during May 1800 to understand
the imaginary nature of these periods (see [12, X.2, pp. 70-71]) may have
influenced his work on the agM. (We should point out that the above
comments are related: Theorem 2.2 can be proved by analyzing the mono-
dromy group-r 2(4) in this case-of the differential equation (1.12).) On the
other hand, Geppert suggests that Gauss may have taken a completely different

533
328 D. A. cox

route, involving the asymptotic formula (3.18), of arriving at Theorem 2.2

(see [14, pp. 173-175]). We will of course never really know how Gauss
arrived at this theorem.
For many years, Gauss hoped to write up these results for publication.
He mentions this in Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (see [11, § 335]) and in the
research announcement to his 1818 article (see [12, III, p. 358]). Two
manuscripts written in 1800 (one on the agM, the other on lemniscatic
functions) show that Gauss made a good start on this project (see [12, III,
pp. 360-371 and 413-415]). He also periodically returned to earlier work and
rewrote it in more complete form (the 1808 notebook is an example of
this). Aside from the many other projects Gauss had to distract him, it is
clear why he never finished this one: it was simply too big. Given his
predilection for completeness, the resulting work would have been enormous.
Gauss finally gave up trying in 1827 when the first works of Abel and
Jacobi appeared. As he wrote in 1828, "I shall most likely not soon prepare
my investigations on transcendental functions which I have had for many
years-since 1798-because I have many other matters which must be cleared
up. Herr Abel has now, I see, anticipated me and relieved me of the burden
in regard to one third of these matters, particularly since he carried out all
developments with great concision and elegance" (see [12, X.l, p. 248]).
The other two thirds "of these matters" encompass Gauss' work on the
agM and modular functions. The latter were studied vigorously in the
nineteenth century and are still an active area of research today. The agM,
on the other hand, has been relegated to the history books. This is not
entirely wrong, for the history of this subject is wonderful. But at the same
time the agM is also wonderful as mathematics, and this mathematics
deserves to be better known.

534
 THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN 329

REFERENCES

[1] ALLING, N. L. Real Elliptic Curves. North-Holland Mathematics Studies, Vol. 54,
North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1981.
[2] BERNOULLI, Jacob. Opera, Vol. I. Geneva, 1744.
[3] BERNOULLI, Johann. Opera omnia, Vol. I. Lausanne, 1742.
[4] BUHLER, W. K. Gauss: A Biographical Study. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg-
New York, 1981.
[5] CARLSON, B. C. Algorithms involving Arithmetic and Geometric Means. Amer.
Math. Monthly 78 (1971), 496-505.
[6] CASSELS, J. W. S. Rational Quadratic Forms. Academic Press, New York, 1978.
[7] COPSON, E. T. An Introduction to the Theory of Functions of a Complex
Variable. Oxford U. Press, London, 1935.
[8] ENNEI'ER, A. Elliptische FUllctiollell: Theorie ulld Geschiclile. Halle, 11176.
[9] EULER, L. Opera Omnia, Series Prima, Vol. XX and XXI. Teubner, Leipzig and
Berlin, 1912-1913.
[10] FUCHS, W. Das arithmetiseh-geometrische Mittel in den Untersuchungen von
Carl Friedrich Gauss. Gauss-Gesellschcift Got/ingen, Mittelullgell No. 9
(1972), 14-38.
[11] GAUSS, C. F. Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. Translated by A. Clark, Yale U. Press,
New Haven, 1965 (see also [12, I]).
[12] - - Werke. Gottingen-Leipzig, 1868-1927.
[13] GEPPERT, H. Bestimmung der Anziehung eines elliptischen Ringes. Ostwald's
Klassiker, Vol. 225, Akademische Verlag, Leipzig, 1927.
[14] - - Wie Gauss zur elliptischen Modulfunktion kam. Deutsche Mathematik 5
(1940), 158-175.
[15] - - Zur Theorie des arithmetisch-geometrischen Mittels. Math. Anllalen 99
(1928), 162-180.
[16] GRADSHTEYN, I. S. and I. M. RYZHIK. Table of Integrals, Serie.~ and Products.
Academic Press, New York, 1965.
[\7] HANCOCK, H. Lectures 0/1 the Theory of Elliptic FUlictiolis. Vol. I. Wiley,
New York, 1910.
[18] HOFFMAN, J. E. Ober Jakob Bernoullis Beitriige zur Infinitesimalmathematik.
L'Enseignement Math. 2 (1956), 61-171.
[19] HOUZEL, C. Fonctions Elliptiques et Integrals AbCliennes. In Abrege d'/iistoire
des mathematiques 1700-1900, Vol. II. Ed. by J. Dieudonne, Hermann,
Paris, 1978, 1-112.
[20] JACOBI, C. C. J. Gesammelte Werke. G. Reimer, Berlin, 1881.
[21] KLINE, M. Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times. Oxford
U. Press, New York, 1972.
[22] LAGRANGE, J. L. CEuvres, Vol. II. Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1868.
[23] LEGENDRE, A. M. Traite des Fonctions Elliptiques. Paris, 1825-1828.
[24] LoCKWOOD, E. H. A Book of Curves. Cambridge U. Press, Cambridge, 1971.
[25] MARKUSHEVITCH, A. I. Die Arbeiten von C. F. Gauss iiber Funktionentheorie.
In C. F. Gauss Gedenkband Anliisslich des 100. Todestages am 23. Februar
1955. Ed. by H. Reichart, Teubner, Leipzig, 1957, 151-182.
[26] MIEI., G. Of Calculations Past and Present: The Archimedean Algorithm.
Amer. Math. Monthly 90 (1983), 17-35.
[27] MUMFORD, D. Tata Lectllres on Theta I. Progress in Mathematics Vol. 28,
Birkhiiuser, Boston, 1983.

535
330 D. A. cox

[28] ROSEN, M. Abel's Theorem on the Lemniscate. Amer. Math. Monthly 88 (1981),
387-395.
[29] SERRE, J.-P. Cours d'Arithmetique. Presses U. de France, Paris, 1970.
[30J SHIMURA, G. Introduction to the Arithmetic Theory of Automorphic Functions.
Princeton U. Press, Princeton, 1971.
[31] STIRLING, J. Methodus Differentialis. London, 1730.
[32J TANNERY, J. and J. MOLK. Elements de la Theorie des Fonctions Elliptiques,
Vol. 2. Gauthiers-Villars, Paris, 1893.
[33] TODD, 1. The Lemniscate Constants. Comm. of the ACM 18 (1975), 14-19.
[34] van der POL, B. Demonstration Elementaire de la Relation e; = e~ + e~
entre les Differentes Fonctions de Jacobi. L'Enseignement Math. 1 (1955),
258-261.
[35] von DAVID, L. Arithmetisch-geometrisches Mittel und Modulfunktioo. J. fUr die
Reine u. Any. Math. 159 (1928),154-170.
[36] WHITTAKER, E. T. and G. N. WATSON. A Course of Modern Analysis, 4th ed.
Cambridge U. Press, Cambridge, 1963.

(Re~u Ie 21 novembre 1983)

David A. Cox
Department of Mathematics
Amherst College
Amherst, MA 01002 (USA)

536
SIAM REVIEW e 1984 Society (or Industrial and Applied Mathematics
Vol 26. No.3. July 1984 002

THE ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN AND FAST COMPUTATION OF

ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS·
J. M. BORWEINt AND P. B. BORWEINt

Abstract. We produce a self contained account of the relationship between the Gaussian arithmetic-
geometric mean iteration and the fast computation of elementary functions. A particularly pleasant algorithm
for." is one of the by-products.

Introduction. It is possible to calculate 2" decimal places of 11' using only n iterations
of a (fairly) simple three-term recursion. This remarkable fact seems to have first been
explicitly noted by Salamin in 1976 [16]. Recently the Japanese workers Y. Tamura and
Y. Kanada have used Salamin's algorithm to calculate 11' to 223 decimal places in 6.8
hours. Subsequently 224 places were obtained ([18] and private communication). Even
more remarkable is the fact that all the elementary functions can be calculated with
similar dispatch. This was proved (and implemented) by Brent in 1976 [5]. These
extraordinarily rapid algorithms rely on a body of material from the theory of elliptic
functions, all of which was known to Gauss. It is an interesting synthesis of classical
mathematics with contemporary computational concerns that has provided us with these
methods. Brent's analysis requires a number of results on elliptic functions that are no
longer particularly familiar to most mathematicians. Newman in 1981 stripped this
analysis to its bare essentials and derived related, though somewhat less computationally
satisfactory, methods for computing 11' and log. This concise and attractive treatment may
be found in [15].
Our intention is to provide a mathematically intermediate perspective and some bits
of the history. We shall derive implementable (essentially) quadratic methods for
computing 11' and all the elementary functions. The treatment is entirely self-contained
and uses only a minimum of elliptic function theory.
1. 3.141592653589793238462643383279502884197. The calculation of 11' to great
accuracy has had a mathematical import that goes far beyond the dictates of utility. It
requires a mere 39 digits of 11' in order to compute the circumference of a circle of radius
2 x 1025 meters (an upper bound on the distance travelled by a particle moving at the
speed of light for 20 billion years, and as such an upper bound on the radius of the
universe) with an error of less than 10- 12 meters (a lower bound for the radius of a
hydrogen atom).
Such a calculation was in principle possible for Archimedes, who was the first person
to develop methods capable of generating arbitrarily many digits of 11'. He considered
circumscribed and inscribed regular n-gons in a circle of radius I. Using n = 9' he
obtained
6336 14688
3.1405 . . . = - 0 7 5 < 11' < - 6 75 - 3.1428.
2 I .2 4 3.
If 1/A" denotes the area of an inscribed regular 2"-gon and 1/ B" denotes the area of a
circumscribed regular 2"-gon about a circle of radius 1 then

(1.1) An+1 = .JA.B.,

.Received by the editors February 8, 1983, and in revised form November 21, 1983. This research was
partially sponsored by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
tDepartment of Mathematics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4H8.

351

Reprinted with permission from SIAM Review, pp. 351-365, Vol. 26, 1984. Copyright 1984
by the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, Philadelphia, PA. All rights reserved.

537
352 J. M. BORWEIN AND P. B. BORWEIN

This two-term iteration, starting with A 2 - 1/2 and B 2 - 1/4, can obviously be used to
calculate 1r. (See Edwards [9, p. 34].) Ait for example, is 3.14159266 which is correct
through the first seven digits. In the early sixteen hundreds Ludolph von Ceulen actually
computed 7r to 35 places by Archimedes' method [2].
Observe that A.:- 2-' cosec (012') and B.- 2-.- 1 cotan (012·+1) satisfy the above
recursion. So do A.:- 2-' cosech (012') and B.:- 2-.- 1 cotanh (012.+ 1). Since in both
cases the common limit is 1/0, the iteration can be used to calculate the standard inverse
trigonometric and inverse hyperbolic functions. (This is often called Borchardt's algo-
rithm [6], [19].)
If we observe that
I
A.+I - Bn+1 - ,.... Tn (A. - B.)
2( vA.I vB. + I)
we see that the error is decreased by a factor of approximately four with each iteration.
This is linear convergence. To compute n decimal digits of 7r, or for that matter arcsin,
arcsinh or log, requires O(n) iterations.
We can, of course, compute 7r from arctan or arcsin using the Taylor expansion of
these functions. John Machin (1680-1752) observed that

7r - 16 arctan G) - 4 arctan (2~9)

and used this to compute 7r to 100 places. William Shanks in 1873 used the same formula
for his celebrated 707 digit calculation. A similar formula was employed by Leonhard
Euler (1707-1783):

7r - 20 arctan (~) + 8 arctan ( :9)'

This, with the expansion

arctan (x) =
y-x ( 1 + -2 y + -2.4 y2 + ... )
3 3.5
where y - x 2 I( 1 + x 2 ), was used by Euler to compute 7r to 20 decimal places in an hour.
(See Beckman [2] or Wrench [21] for a comprehensive discussion of these matters.) In
1844 Johann Dase (1824-1861) computed 7r correctly to 200 places using the formula

~ = arctan (i) + arctan G) + arctan (~).

Dase, an "idiot savant" and a calculating prodigy, performed this "stupendous task" in
"just under two months." (The quotes are from Beckman, pp. 105 and 107.)
A similar identity:

7r = 24arctan(~) + 8 arctan (5\) + 4arctan(2~9)

was employed, in 1962, to compute 100,000 decimals of 7r. A more reliable "idiot savant",
the IBM 7090, performed this calculation in a mere 8 hrs. 43 mins. [17].
There are, of course, many series, products and continued fractions for 7r. However,
all the usual ones, even cleverly evaluated, require O( fii) operations ( +, x, +, r) to
arrive at n digits of 7r. Most of them, in fact, employ O(n) operations for n digits, which is

538
 ARITHMETIC·GEOMETRIC MEAN AND fAST COMPUTATION 353

essentially linear convergence. Here we consider only full precision operations. For a time
complexity analysis and a discussion of time efficient algorithms based on binary splitting
see [4].
The algorithm employed in [17] requires about 1,000,000 operations to compute
1,000,000 digits of 11". We shall present an algorithm that reduces this to about 200
operations. The algorithm, like Salamin's and Newman's requires some very elementary
elliptic function theory. The circle of ideas surrounding the algorithm for 11" also provides
algorithms for all the elementary functions.

2. Extraordinarily rapid algorithms for algebraic functions. We need the following

two measures of speed of convergence of a sequence (a.) with limit L. If there is a constant
C, so that
la•• , - LI:::; e,la. - LI2
for all n, then we say that (a.) converges to L quadratically, or with second order. If there
is a constant C2 > 1 so that, for all n,
la. - LI :::; Ci 2'
then we say that (a.) converges to L exponentially. These two notions are closely related;
quadratic convergence implies exponential convergence and both types of convergence
guarantee that a. and L will "agree" through the first 0(2") digits (provided we adopt the
convention that .9999... 9 and 1.000 ...0 agree through the required number of digits).
Newton's method is perhaps the best known second order iterative method. Newton's
method computes a zero off(x) - y by
f(x.) - y
(2.1) x,+, := X. - f'(x.)

and hence, can be used to computef- ' quadratically from/, at least locally. For our
purposes, finding suitable starting values poses little difficulty. Division can be performed
by inverting (1/ x) - y. The following iteration computes 1/y:
(2.2)
Square root extraction ( ,fj) is performed by

(2.3) X.+I := H x. + f.).

This ancient iteration can be traced back at least as far as the Babylonians. From (2.2)
and (2.3) we can deduce that division and square root extraction are of the same order of
complexity as multiplication (see [5]). Let M(n) be the "amount of work" required to
multiply two n digit numbers together and let D(n) and S(n) be, respectively, the
"amount of work" required to invert an n digit number and compute its square root, to n
digit accuracy. Then
D(n) - O(M(n»
and
S(n) = O(M(n».
We are not bothering to specify precisely what we mean by work. We could for example
count the number of single digit multiplications. The basic point is as follows. It requires

539
354 J. M. BORWEIN AND P. B. BORWEIN

O(log n) iterations of Newton's method (2.2) to compute I/y. However, at the ith
iteration, one need only work with accuracy 0(2i). In this sense, Newton's method is
self-correcting. Thus,

D(n) ~ O(~ M(2 ») ~ O(M(n»

i

provided M (2i) ;;; 2M (2 i- I ). The constants concealed beneath the order symbol are not
even particularly large. Finally, using a fast multiplication, see [12], it is possible to
multiply two n digits numbers in O(n log (n) log log (n» single digit operations.
What we have indicated is that, for the purposes of asymptotics, it is reasonable to
consider multiplication, division and root extraction as equally complicated and to
consider each of these as only marginally more complicated than addition. Thus, when we
refer to operations we shall be allowing addition, multiplication, division and root
extraction.
Algebraic functions, that is roots of polynomials whose coefficients are rational
functions, can be approximated (calculated) exponentially using Newton's method. By
this we mean that the iterations converge exponentially and that each iterate is itself
suitably calculable. (See [13].)
The difficult trick is to find a method to exponentially approximate just one
elementary transcendental function. It will then transpire that the other elementary
functions can also be exponentially calculated from it by composition, inversion and so
on.
For this Newton's method cannot suffice since, if fis algebraic in (2.1) then the limit
is also algebraic.
The only familiar iterative procedure that converges quadratically to a transcenden-
tal function is the arithmetic-geometric mean iteration of Gauss and Legendre for
computing complete elliptic integrals. This is where we now turn. We must emphasize
that it is difficult to exaggerate Gauss' mastery of this material and most of the next
section is to be found in one form or another in [10].
3. The real AGM iteration. Let two positive numbers a and b with a > b be given.
Let ao,~ a, bo'~ b and define

(3.1 )

for n in N.
One observes, as a consequence of the arithmetic-geometric mean inequality, that
an ;;; an+ I ;;; bn+ I ;;; bn for all n. It follows easily that (an) and (b n) converge to a common
limit L which we sometimes denote by AG(a, b). Let us now set
(3.2) Cn .~ ~a~ - b~ for n c N.
It is apparent that
I c~ c~
(3.3) Cn+1 ~ 2: (an - bn) ~ 4an+1 ;;; 4L'

which shows that (c n ) converges quadratically to zero. We also observe that

(3.4)
which allows us to define an, bn and Cn for negative n. These negative terms can also be
generated by the conjugate scale in which one starts with a~= a o and b~,~ Co and defines

540
 ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN AND FAST COMPUTATION 355

(a~) and (b~ by (3.1). A simple induction shows that for any integer n
(3.5)
Thus, backward iteration can be avoided simply by altering the starting values. For future
use we define the quadratic conjugate k'·~ ~ for any k between 0 and I.
The limit of (an) can be expressed in terms of a complete elliptic integral of the first
kind,

(3.6) I(a, b) .= 1./

o
2
d8
~a2 cos 8 + b sin 8 2 2 2
•

In fact

I(a b) I f~ dt
(3.7) =-
, 2 -x ~(a2 + t 2 )(b 2 + t2 )

as the substitution t= a tan 8 shows. Now the substitution of u .= 1/2 (t - (ablt» and
some careful but straightforward work [15] show that

(3.8) [(a, b) I((a; b), ftlh).

=

It follows that [(an, bn) is independent of n and that, on interchanging limit and integral,

[(ao, bo) = lim [(an, bn) = I(L, L).

Since the last integral is a simple arctan (or directly from (3.6» we see that

(3.9)

Gauss, of course, had to derive rather than merely verify this remarkable formula. We
note in passing that AG(., ,) is positively homogeneous.
We are now ready to establish the underlying limit formula.
PROPOSITION I.

(3.10) lim [lOg (~)

k-O' k - 1(1, k)] = O.

Proof Let

and

I - k' sin 0 dO.

I + k' sin 0
Since I - (k' sin 8)2 = cos 2 0 + (k sin 8)2 = (k' cos 8)2 + k 2, we can check that
1(1, k) = A(k) + B(k).
Moreover, the substitution u= k' cos 8 allows one to evaluate

(3.11) A(k).= l0
k'
~U2
du+ k2 =
(I + k')
log - k - .

541
356 J. M. BORWEIN AND P. B. BORWEIN

Finally, a uniformity argument justifies

(3.12) lim 8(k) = 8(0) = IT/2 cos (J.d(J = log 2,

k-O' 0 I + sm (J
and (3.11) and (3.12) combine to show (3.10). 0
It is possible to give various asymptotics in (3.10), by estimating the convergence rate
in (3.12).
PROPOSITION 2. For k E (0, I j

(3.13) l'Og(~) -/(l,k) I;:;; 4k2/(I,k);:;; 4k2(8 + Ilogkl).

Proof Let

Il(k) = log (~) - I( I, k).

As in Proposition I, for k E (0, I],

(3.14)

III (k)l;:;; l'Og(~) -IOg(1 : k') 1+ l.f/2[ I - k' sin (J

1 + k'sin (J
I - sin (J] d(J I.
I + sin (J

We observe that, since I - k' = I - ~ < k 2,

(3.15)

Also, by the mean value theorem, for each (I there is a I' E [0, kj, so that
I - k' sin (J I - sin (J]
I + k' sin (J I + sin (J

I - (1 - k 2) sin (J I - sin (J]

1 + (I - k 2) sin (J I + sin (J

~I+(l-'l)SinO
[~I 2l'sin(J 1
= _ (I -1'2)sin(J' (I + (I -1'2)sin(J)2 k

This yields

- k' sin (J I-s~n(J]d(JI;:;;2k21T/2 d(J,. ;:;;2,fik 2/(l,k)

+ k' sin (J 1 + sm (J o..j 1 - k sIn (J
which combines with (3.14) and (3.15) to show that
IIl(k) I;:;; (I + 2 ,fi)k 2 I( I, k) ;:;; 4k 2/(l, k).
We finish by observing that
7r
k/(I,k)s.-
- 2

542
 ARITHMETIC·GEOMETRIC MEAN AND FAST COMPUTATION 357

allows us to deduce that

1(1. k) ~ 21rk + log (i). o

Similar considerations allow one to deduce that
(3.16) IIl(k) -1l(h)1 ~ 2"11"Ik - hi

for 0 < k. h < 1/ J2.

The next proposition gives all the information necessary for computing the elemen-
tary functions from the AGM.
PROPOSITION 3. The AGM satisfies the folloWing identity (for all initial values):

(3.17)
,.....~ a,
,
lim 2 - -a~ log -
c,
(4a,) = -"II" .
2
Proof One verifies that

-2
"II" = hm
• a,1 ' b')
' (ao. 0 (by (3.9»
,.....~

= lim a~/(a'_,. b'_,) (by (3.8»

= lim a~/(2'a,. 2'c,) (by 3.5».

Now the homogeneity properties of I( '. ,) show that

1(2'a•• 2'c.) = 2-' 1(1.

a. a.
S).
Thus

2 n--~
a~[ I. - •
-"II" = lim 2- • -
a. a.
( c.)
and the result follows from Proposition I. 0
From now on we fix ao:= a~:= I and consider the iteration as a function of bo := k
and Co := k'. Let p. and Q, be defined by

(3.18)
4
P.{k):= ( :..
)2'.-• Q.(k) = -;.
a.
a,
and let P(k) := limn--~ P.(k). Q(k) = Iim,.....~ Q.(k). Similarly let a := a(k)- Iimn--~ a,
and a' :- a'(k) := Iimn--~ a;"
THEOREM I. ForO < k < lone has·

(a) P(k) = exp ("II"Q(k».

(3.19)
(b) 0 ~ P.(k) _ P(k) ~ I ~6 k 2 (a. ~ a).

(c) IQ.(k) _ Q(k) I ~ a' Ia - a'ia;: I a' - a~1

Proof (a) is an immediate rephrasing of Proposition 3, while (c) is straightforward.

543
358 J. M. BORWEIN AND P. B BORWrlN

To see (b) we observe that

(3.20)

because 4aft+1 CUI = C~, as in (3.3). Since aul ;:;; a. we see that

-aUI) D
- ro,
a.
(3.21)

since a. decreases to a. The result now follows from (3.21) on summation. 0

Thus, the theorem shows that both P and Q can be computed exponentially since (a.)
can be so calculated. In the following sections we will use this theorem to give
implementable exponential algorithms for 11" and then for all the elementary functions.
We conclude this section by rephrasing (3.19a). By using (3.20) repeatedly we derive
that

(3.22)

Let us note that

au I
a.
_ a. + h.
2a.
= ~
2
(1 + ~),
a.
and x. :- h.1 a. satisfies the one-term recursion used by Legendre [14]

(3.23)
Ux;. k.
X ul := X. + 1 Xo:=

Thus, also

(3.24) P
.+ I
(k) = _16_
1_ k
Ii (I +2 X)2.- (11 -+ x.X.)2-' .
2 j-O
j
J
=

When k:- 2- 1/2, k = k' and one can explicitly deduce that p(2- 1/2 ) = e". When k _ 2- 1/2
(3.22) is also given in (16].
4. Some interrelationships. A centerpiece of this exposition is the formula (3.17) of
Proposition 3.

(4.1) 1 (4a.)
lim I i log -
...... ~ 2 c.
= -
11"
lim -; ,
a.
2 ......m a.
coupled with the observation that both sides converge exponentially. To approximate log x
exponentially, for example, we first find a starting value for which

(::·rr -x.

This we can do to any required accuracy quadratically by Newton's method. Then we

compute the right limit, also quadratically, by the AGM iteration. We can compute exp
analogously and since, as we will show, (4.1) holds for complex initial values we can also
get the trigonometric functions.

544
 ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN AND FAST COMPUTATION 359

There are details, of course, some of which we will discuss later. An obvious detail is
that we require 7r to desired accuracy. The next section will provide an exponentially
converging algorithm for 7r also based only on (4.1). The principle for it is very simple. If
we differentiate both sides of (4.1) we lose the logarithm but keep the 11"!
Formula (3.10), of Proposition I, is of some interest. It appears in King [II, pp. 13,
38] often without the "4" in the log term. For our purposes the "4" is crucial since without
it (4.1) will only converge linearly (like (log 4)/2'). King's 1924 monograph contains a
wealth of material on the various iterative methods related to computing elliptic integrals.
He comments [II, p. 14]:
"The limit [(4.1) without the "4"] does not appear to be generally known, although
an equivalent formula is given by Legendre (Fonctions eliptiques, t. I, pp. 94-10 I)."
King adds that while Gauss did not explicitly state (4.1) he derived a closely related
series expansion and that none of this "appears to have been noticed by Jacobi or by
subsequent writers on elliptic functions." This series [10, p. 377] gives (4.1) almost
directly.
Proposition I may be found in Bowman [3]. Of course, almost all the basic work is to
be found in the works of Abel, Gauss and Legendre [I], [10] and [14]. (See also [7].) As
was noted by both Brent and Salamin, Proposition 2 can be used to estimate log given 7r.
We know from (3.13) that, for 0 < k;;; 10- 3 ,

Ilog(~)-I(1'k)1 <lOk 2 110gkl.

By subtraction, for 0 < x < I, and n ~ 3,

(4.2) 1I0g (x) - [J(1, 10-') - 1(1, IO-'x)] I < n 10- 2(.-1)
and we can compute log exponentially from the AGM approximations of the elliptic
integrals in the above formula. This is in the spirit of Newman's presentation [15].
Formula (4.2) works rather well numerically but has the minor computational drawback
that it requires computing the AGM for small initial values. This leads to some linear
steps (roughly log (n» before quadratic convergence takes over.
We can use (3.16) or (4.2) to show directly that 11" is exponentially computable. With
k:~ 10-' and h :~ 10- 2• + 10-' (3.16) yields with (3.9) that, for n ~ I,

1log (10-' + 1) - ~[AG(l~ 10 .) - AG(I, 10:' + 10- 2.)] I;;; 101-2·.

Since I log (x + l)/x - II;;; x/2 for 0 < x < I, we derive that

(4.3) 7r
10' _AG(I, 10-'10' + 10-
I ~_[ AG(l,IO') ··11~101-'
2.) - •

Newman [15] gives (4.3) with a rougher order estimate and without proof. This
analytically beautiful formula has the serious computational drawback that obtaining n
digit accuracy for 7r demands that certain of the operations be done to twice that
precision_
Both Brent's and Salamin's approaches require Legendre's relation: for 0 < k < I

(4.4) 1(1, k)J(1, k') + 1(1, k')J(1, k) - 1(1, k)l(l, k') ~ '2
7r

where J(a, b) is the complete elliptic integral o/the second kind defined by

J(a, b):~ [r/2 ~a2 cos 2 (J + b 2 sin 2 (J d(J.

545
360 J. M. BORWEIN AND P. B. BORWEIN

The elliptic integrals of the first and second kind are related by

(4.5) J(ao, bo) = (a5 - ~ ~ 2·C~) /(ao, bo)

where, as before, c~ = a~ - b~ and a. and b. are computed from the AG M iteration.
Legendre's proof of (4.4) can be found in [3] and [8]. His elegant elementary
argument is to differentiate (4.4) and show the derivative to be constant. He then
evaluates the constant, essentially by Proposition I. Strangely enough, Legendre had
some difficulty in evaluating the constant since he had problems in showing that k 2 log (k)
tends to zero with k [8, p. 150].
Relation (4.5) uses properties of the ascending Landen transformation and is derived
by King in [11].
From (4.4) and (4.5), noting that if k equals 2- 1/ 2 then so does k', it is immediate
that

(4.6)

This concise and surprising exponentially converging formula for 11" is used by both
Salamin and Brent. As Salamin points out, by 1819 Gauss was in possession of the AGM
iteration for computing elliptic integrals of the first kind and also formula (4.5) for
computing elliptic integrals of second kind. Legendre had derived his relation (4.4) by
1811, and as Watson puts it [20, p. 14] "in the hands of Legendre, the transformation
[(3.23)] became a most powerful method for computing elliptic integrals." (See also [10],
[l4] and the footnotes of [11].) King [II, p. 39] derives (4.6) which he attributes, in an
equivalent form, to Gauss. It is perhaps surprising that (4.6) was not suggested as a
practical means of calculating 11" to great accuracy until recently.
It is worth emphasizing the extraordinary similarity between (1.1) which leads to
linearly convergent algorithms for all the elementary functions, and (3.1) which leads to
exponentially convergent algorithms.
Brent's algorithms for the elementary functions require a discussion of incomplete
elliptic integrals and the Landen transform, matters we will not pursue except to mention
that some of the contributions of Landen and Fagnano are entertainingly laid out in an
article by G.N. Watson entitled "The Marquis [Fagnano] and the Land Agent [Land-
en]" [20]. We note that Proposition 1 is also central to Brent's development though he
derives it somewhat tangentially. He also derives Theorem 1(a) in different variables via
the Landen transform.

5. An algorithm for 11". We now present the details of our exponentially converging
algorithm for calculating the digits of 11". Twenty iterations will provide over two million
digits. Each iteration requires about ten operations. The algorithm is very stable with all
the operations being performed on numbers between 1/2 and 7. The eighth iteration, for
example, gives 11" correctly to 694 digits.
THEOREM 2. Consider the three-term iteration with initial values

given by

546
 ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC MEAN AND FAST COMPUTATION 361

(ii) 13 := 1/2 ( 13. + I )

n+1 an (3,. + an '

(iii) 1rn+I= 1r.I3n+1 C: ;:::).

Then 1r. converges exponentially to 1r and

Proof Consider the formula

(5.1) I
-log
2'
1r
4- - -
c.
(a.) a.
-
2 a~
which. as we will see later. converges exponentially at a uniform rate to zero in some
(complex) neighbourhood of I/..fi. (We are considering each of a•• b•• c•• d.. b~. c~ as
being functions ofa complex initial value k. i.e. bo = k. b = ~. o = = I.) o a ao
Differentiating (5.1) with respect to k yields

(5.2) ~
2
(a.a. _~)
c.
_~%(a. _~)
a. a. a. 2
which also converges uniformly exponentially to zero in some neighbourhood of I/..fi.
(This general principle for exponential convergence of differentiated sequences of
analytic func~ions is a trivial consequence of the Cauchy integral formula.) We can
compute a•.
b. and C. from the recursions
.
an+1 :=
a.+ b.
--2-'

(5.3)

.
CHI :="2I (.a. - )
b·.,

where ao :- 0.0 0 := I. ao:= I and bo := k. .

We note that a. and b. map Iz I Re(z) > 01 into itself and that a. and b. (for
sufficiently large n) do likewise.
It is convenient to set

(5.4) a
a.
:=- and
a.
13.:= If
• b.
•
with
I
ao:- k and 130:- o.
We can derive the following formulae in a completely elementary fashion from the basic
relationships for a•• b. and c. and (5.3):

(5.5)
IL
vb.) .JQ,. -
b.) .
(a. .fb.

547
362 J. M. DORWEIN AND P. D. DORWEIN

I _ a.+ 1 C.+ I = 2(a. - fJ.)

(5.6)
Qn+1 c.+ 1 (a. - l)(fJ. + I) •

_ ~ (112
(5.7) an+ I - 2 a. + a.-1/2) •

(5.8) _ 1/2 (fJ. + I )

fJ.+1 - a. fJ. + a ••

(5.9) a.+1 - I = 2aI1/2 (112

a. - 1)2•
•
_ fJ _ a!/2 (I - a.)(fJ. - a.)
(5.10) an+1 .+1 - 2 a.({3. + a.) •

a.+1 - {3n+1 (l + a!/2)2 (a. - fl.)

(5.11)
a.+1 - I - (fl. + a.) • (a.-I)'
From (5.7) and (5.9) we deduce that a. - + I uniformly with second order in compact
subsets of the open right half-plane. Likewise, we see from (5.8) and (5.10) that fl. - I
uniformly and exponentially. Finally, we set

(5.12) I (a. -
fJ.)
'Y. ,- 2· a. - I .

We see from (5.1l) that

(5.13)

and also from (5.6) that

(5.14)

Without any knowledge of the convergence of (5.1) one can, from the preceding
relationships, easily and directly deduce the exponential convergence of (5.2), in
{z liz - Y21;:; C < Y2}. We need the information from (5.1) only to see that (5.2) converges
to zero.
The algorithm for 11' comes from multiplying (5.2) by a.1 a. and starting the iteration
at k ,= 2- 1/2 • For this value of k a~ = a., (a~) = -a. and

_1_ (I _ ao+l C
2"+1 Q,,+l
HI

C"+I
)_1I'
which by (5.14) shows that
'Y.
1r : = - - - 1 1 '
• I + fl. .

Some manipulation of (5.7), (5.8) and (5.13) now produces (iii). The starting values for
a., fl. and 'Y. are computed from (5.4). Other values of k will also lead to similar, but
slightly more complicated, iterations for 11'.
To analyse the error one considers
'Y.+I 'Y. [ (I +a!/2)2 I]
I + flo+l - I + fl. = 2(fJ. + a.HI + fJn+l) - (l + fJ.) 'Y.

548
 ARITHMETlC·GEOMETRIC MEAN AND FAST COMPUTATION 363

and notes that. from (5.9) and (5.10). for n ~ 4.

la. - 11 ~ 10I 2'+2 and Ifj. - II ~ 10 I

2'+2'

(One computes that the above holds for n = 4.) Hence.

11 :'~~+I - 1:·fj.1 ~ 11O!'+llh.1

and

I +'Y. fj. - I
1 1r ~ 102"
1 o
In fact one can show that the error is of order 2'e -w2'·'.
If we choose integers in [a, a-I]. 0 < a < Y2 and perform n operations
( +. -. x. +. r) then the result is always less than or equal to 15 2'. Thus. if'Y > a, it is not
possible. using the above operations and integral starting values in [a. a-I]. for every n to
compute 11" with an accuracy of 0('Y- 2') in n steps. In particular. convergence very much
faster than that provided by Theorem 2 is not possible.
The analysis in this section allows one to derive the Gauss-Salamin formula (4.6)
without using Legendre's formula or second integrals. This can be done by combining our
results with problems 15 and 18 in (11]. Indeed. the results of this section make
quantitative sense of problems 16 and 17 in [11]. King also observes that Legendre's
formula is actually equivalent to the Gauss-Salamin formula and that each may be
derived from the other using only properties of the AGM which we have developed and
equation (4.5).
This algorithm. like the algorithms of §4. is not self correcting in the way that
Newton's method is. Thus. while a certain amount of time may be saved by observing that
some of the calculations need not be performed to full precision it seems intrinsic (though
not proven) that O(log n) full precision operations must be executed to calculate 1r to n
digits. In fact, showing that 11" is intrinsically more complicated from a time complexity
point of view than multiplication would prove that 1r is transcendental [5].
6. The complex AGM iteration. The AG M iteration

is well defined as a complex iteration starting with 00 ,= I. bo ,- z. Provided that z does not
lie on the negative real axis, the iteration will converge (to what then must be an analytic
limit). One can see this geometrically. For initial z in the right half-plane the limit is given
by (3.9). It is also easy to see geometrically that a. and b. are always nonzero.
The iteration for x.:- b.la. given in the form (3.23) as X.+I := 2.rx;.lx" l satisfies
( _ I) = (l - .rx;.)2
(6.1) x .. I I + x.
This also converges in the cut plane C - (-00,0]. In fact. the convergence is uniformly
exponential on compact subsets (see Fig. I). With each iteration the angle 8. between x.
and I is at least halved and the real parts converge uniformly to 1.
It is now apparent from (6.1) and (3.24) that

(6.2) P.(k) := (4a.)2'"

C.
= (I ~ x.X.)2"
1

549
364 J. M. BORWEIN AND P. B. BORWEIN

'n

FIG. I.

and also,
a.
Q.(k)- a;:
converge exponentially to analytic limits on compact subsets of the complex plane that
avoid
D:= {Z E CI Z ¢ (-00,0) u [I, oo)}.
Again we denote the limits by P and Q. By standard analytic reasoning it must be that
(3.19a) sti11 holds for k in D.
Thus one can compute the complex exponential-and so also cos and sin-
exponentially using (3.19). More precisely, one uses Newton's method to approximately
solve Q(k) = z for k and then computes P.(k). The outcome is fl. One can sti11 perform the
root extractions using Newton's method. Some care must be taken to extract the correct
root and to determine an appropriate starting value for the Newton inversion. For
example k:= 0.02876158 yields Q(k) = I and P.(k) = e to 8 significant places. If one now
uses k as an initial estimate for the Newton inversions one can compute e l +/8 for I (} I ;:;; 11'/8.
Since, as we have observed, e is also exponentially computable we have produced a
sufficient range of values to painlessly compute cos (} + i sin (} with no recourse to any
auxiliary computations (other than 11' and e, which can be computed once and stored). By
contrast Brent's trigonometric algorithm needs to compute a different logarithm each
time.
The most stable way to compute p. is to use the fact that one may update c. by
c~
(6.3) C.+ I = -4-'
Q"+I

One then computes a., b. and c. to desired accuracy and returns

(~. f2' or e(a. c~ f2'. b.)

This provides a feasible computation of p., and so of exp or log.

550
 ARITHMETIC·GEOMETRIC MEAN AND F"ST COMPUTATION 365

In an entirely analogous fashion, formula (4.2) for log is valid in the cut complex
plane. The given error estimate fails but the convergence is still exponential. Thus (4.2)
may also be used to compute all the elementary functions.

7. Concluding remarks and numerical data. We have presented a development of the

AGM and its uses for rapidly computing elementary functions which is, we hope, almost
entirely self-contained and which produces workable algorithms. The algorithm for 11" is
particularly robust and attractive. We hope that we have given something of the flavour of
this beautiful collection of ideas, with its surprising mixture of the classical and the
modern. An open question remains. Can one entirely divorce the central discussion from
elliptic integral concerns? That is, can one derive exponential iterations for the elemen-
tary functions without recourse to some nonelementary transcendental functions? It
would be particularly nice to produce a direct iteration for e of the sort we have for 11"
which does not rely either on Newton inversions or on binary splitting.
The algorithm for 11" has been run in an arbitrary precision integer arithmetic. (The
algorithm can be easily scaled to be integral.) The errors were as follows:

Iterate Digits correct Iterate Digits correct

I 3 6 170
2 8 7 345
3 19 8 694
4 41 9 1392
5 83 10 2788

Formula (4.2) was then used to compute 2 log (2) and log (4), using 11" estimated as
above and the same integer package. Up to 500 digits were computed this way. It is worth
noting that the error estimate in (4.2) is of the right order.
The iteration implicit in (3.22) was used to compute e' in a double precision Fortran.
Beginning with k := r 1/2 produced the following data:

Iterate p. - e' a.lb. - I

I 1.6 X 10- 1 1.5 X 10- 2
2 2.8 X 10-- 2.8 x 10-'
3 1.7 X 10- 20 9.7 x 10- 11
4 < 10- 40 1.2 X 10- 21

Identical results were obtained from (6.3). In this case Yn= 4a n/ en was computed by the
two term recursion which uses x .. given by (3.23), and

(7.1 )
2 16
Yn+1
I +Xn)2 Yn'2
( --2-
Yo:= I _ k 2 ' =

One observes from (7.1) that the calculation of Yn is very stable.

We conclude by observing that the high precision root extraction required in the
AG M [18], was actually calculated by inverting Y = 1/ x 2 • This leads to the iteration
3xn - x~y
(7.2) Xn+1 =
2
for computing y -1/2. One now multiplies by y to recapture /Y. This was preferred because
it avoided division.

551
366 J. M. BORWEIN AND P. B. BORWEIN

REFERENCES

[I) N. H. ABEL, Oeuvres completes. Grondahl and Son, Christiana, 188 \.

(2) P. BECKMAN, A History of Pi, Golem Press, Ed. 4, 1977.
(3) F. BoWMAN, Introduction 10 Elliptic Functions, English Univ. Press, London, 1953.
[4) R, P. BRENT, Multiple-precision zero-finding and the complexity of elementary function evaluation. in
Analytic Computational Complexity, J. F. Traub, ed., Academic Press, New York, 1975, pp.
151-176.
(5) - - - , Fast multiple-precision evaluation of elementary functions, J. Assoc. Comput. Mach., 23
(1976), pp. 242-25\.
(6) B. C. CARlSON, Algorithms involving arithmetic and geometric means, Amer. Math. Monthly, 78( 1971),
pp.496-505.
[7] A. CAYLEY, An Elementary Treatise on Elliptic Functions. Bell and Sons, 1895, republished by Dover,
New York, 196\.
(8) A. EAGLE, The Elliptic Functions as They Should Be. Galloway and Porter, Cambridge, 1958.
(9) C. H. EDWARDS, Jr. The Historical Development of the Calculus, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1979.
[10] K. F. GAUSS, Werke, Bd 3, Gottingen, 1866,361-403.
[II] L. V. KING, On the direct numerical calculation of elliptic functions and integrals. Cambridge Univ.
Press, Cambridge, 1924.
(12) D. KNUTH, The Art of Computer Programming. Vol. 2: Seminumerical Algorithms. Addison-Wesley,
Reading, MA, 1969.
(13) H. T. KUNG AND J. F. TRAUB, All algebraic functions can be computed fast, J. Assoc. Comput. Mach.,
25( 1978),245-260.
[14] A. M. LEGENDRE, Exercices de calculintegral. Vol. I, Paris, 181 \.
(15) D. J. NEUMAN, Rational approximation versus fast computer methods, in Lectures on Approximation
and Value Distribution, Presses de l'Universite de Montreal, Montreal, 1982, pp. 149-174.
(16) E. SALAMIN, Computation oJ ... using arithmetic-geometric mean, Math. Comput. 135(1976), pp.
565-570.
(17) D. SHANKS AND J. W. WRENCH, Jr. Calculation of"l'to 100,000 decimals, Math. Comput., 16 (1962), pp.
76-79.
(18) Y. TAMURA AND Y. KANADA, Calculation of "I' to 4,196.293 decimals based on Gauss-Legendre
algorithm, preprint.
[19] J. TODD, Basic Numerical Mathematics, Vol. I, Academic Press, New York, 1979.
(20) G. N. WATSON, The marquis and the land agent. Math. Gazette, 17 (1933), pp. 5-17.
(21) J. W. WRENCH, Jr. The evolution of extended decimal approximations to .... The Mathematics Teacher,
53( 1960), pp. 644-650.

552
MATHEMATICS OF COMPUTATION
VOLUME 44. NUMBER 169
JANUARY 1985. PAGES 207-210

A Simplified Version of the Fast Algorithms

of Brent and Salamin
By D. J. Newman*

Abstract. We produce more elementary algorithms than those of Brent and Salamin for,
respectively, evaluating eX and 'IT. Although the Gauss arithmetic-geometric process still plays
a central role, the elliptic function theory is now unnecessary.

In their remarkable papers, Brent [1] and Salamin [3], respectively, used the theory
of elliptic functions to obtain "fast" computations of the function eX and of the
number 'fT. In both cases rather heavy usc of elliptic function theory, such as the
transformation law of Landen, had to be utilized. Our purpose, in this note, is to
give a highly simplified version of their constructions. In our approach, for example,
the incomplete elliptic integral is never used.
We begin as they did with the Gauss arithmetic-geometric process, T(a, b) =
«a + b)/2, ({ib) which maps couples with a;;;' b > 0 into same. From the inequali-
ties

(a+b)/2-{{ib =(ra-.fb)2 ~(a-b)2

(a+b)/2+{{ib ra+.fb"'" a+b'

and

(a+b)/2 ~~=.~
{{ib ({ib Vb'
we see that Ti(a, b) goes to its limiting couple (m, m) (m = m(a, b) the so-called
arithmetic-geometric mean) with "quadratic" speed. Indeed, m(a, b) is determined
to n places for an j of around log log alb + log n. The log log from the ..ja/b
inequality expressing the time till the ratio first goes below 2, and the log from the
«a - b)/(a + b))2 inequality expressing the time for the error squaring to do its
job.
Next, we recall Gauss' beautiful formula:

Received October 7, 1981; revised November 17, 1981, and March 22, 1984.
1980 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primary 65015. 33A25. 41A25.
'Supported in part by NSF Grant MGS 7802171.
©1985 American Mathematical Society
0025-5718/85 $1.00 + S.25 per page
207

553
208 D.J. NEWMAN

which follows from the fact that this (complete) elliptic integral is invariant under T.
This fact, that namely

is a simple consequence of the change of variables t = (x - ab/x)/2. Namely, we

obtain

dt -_ x + 2ab dx,
2

2x

o< x < 00, so that indeed we have

Accordingly, a repeated use of this invariance gives

and this is exactly Gauss' formula.

Actually, it is handier for us to work with what we might call the harmonic-geo-
metric mean which can be defined by h(a, b) = ab/m(a, b) or, alternatively, as the
limit under repeated applications of S, rather than T, where
S(a, b) = (1ab,2ab/(a + b»).
In these terms Gauss' formula reads

The only place that we actually use this formula is to establish the asymptotic
formula:
2
h(N, I) = -log4N + O(I/N2).
'Tf

(This simple-looking formula certainly deserves an elementary proof independent of

elliptic integrals, but we are unable to find one.)
So begin with

554
 FAST ALGORITHMS OF BRENT AND SALAMIN 209

and observe that the map x -+ N/x leaves the integrand invariant. Thereby, we
conclude

1~ ~ 100
~
o ';(1 + x 2)(1 + x 2/N 2 ) = ~ ';(1 + x 2)(1 + x 2/N 2)
which gives us
h(Nl)=il~ dx
, 'IT 0 1(1 + x 2)(1 + x 2/N 2 )
=i 1~ 1 (1 - x 2/2N 2 + O(.t 4/N 4 }) ~
'IT 0 ';(1 + x 2)

= ilfii(
'IT 0
1
II + x 2
_ 2-)
2N2
dx + O(1/N2)

= i(log(1N + IN + 1) - Ij4N) + O(1/N2)

'IT
and so, since
IN + IN + 1 = 21N(1 + Ij(2N + 2/N(N + 1) n,
we obtain

log(1N + IN + 1) = log21N + 1/4N + o( ~2)'

which together with the previous gives

h(N, 1) = ; log 21N + o( ~2) = ;log4N + o( ~2)'

as required. (This result can also be found in [2].)
Summarizing, then, we have produced a fast method for obtaining n places of
2Iog4N/'IT (if N is of the size en). But, and here is the trick, this combination of 'IT
and the logarithm can be used to yield both of them separately, and we can thereby
rederive both Salamin's and Brent's results.
To obtain 'IT we examine the difference, h(N + 1,1) - h(N, 1), and observe that
N(h(N + 1,1) - h(N, 1» = 2/'IT + O(ljN) which gives n place accuracy for 'IT if
we choose, e.g., N = 2n.
For the logarithm, on the other hand, we look to the quotient, h(N + 1, l)/h(N, 1).
This time we obtain
N( h(N + 1,1) _ 1) = N log(1 + I/N) + O(ljN2) = 1
h(N,I) log4N + O(ljN) log4N + O(ljN) .
From this we will be able to evaluate log x throughout the interval (3,9), and so, of
course, throughout any interval. And thereby, we will be able to obtain eX, the
inverse function, by the usual use of the (fast) Newton iteration scheme.
To obtain log x, then, in the interval (3,9), we first calculate N = ix n , a process
that takes only log n multiplications. But then the above formula becomes, upon
substitution of this value of N,
1
'4nx
n(hHX"+I,I)
h(lx", l) -
1)
=
1
logx +
o(n)
x" =
1
logx +
o(n)
3"
which does give the desired n place evaluation of log x.

555
210 D.l.NEWMAN

This trick of "differencing" h(N + 1,1) and h(N, 1), of course, carries a price.
Thus we must compute these two quantities to 2n places and so the running time is
around twice as long as the corresponding ones of Brent and Salamin.
Mathematics Department
Temple University
Broad and Montgomery Ave.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122

1. R. BRENT, "Fast multiple evaluation of elementary functions," J. Assoc. Comput. Mach., v. 23, 1976,
pp.242-251.
2. R. BRENT, Multiple-Precisioll Zero-Filldillg Methods alld the Complexity of Elemelltary FUllctioll
Evaluatioll (J. F. Traub, cd.), Academic Press, New York, 1975, pp. 151-176.
3. E. SALAMIN, "Computation of '1T using the arithmetic-geometric mean," Math. Comp., v. 30, 1976, pp.
565-570.

556
The Evidence

Is 1T Normal? face of the deeper question whether the digits of 1T are

"random." That normality is not sufficient follows
by Stan Wagon from the observation that a truly random sequence of
digits ought to be normal when only digits in positions
The nature of the number 1T has intrigued mathema- corresponding to perfect squares are examined. But if
ticians since the beginning of mathematical history. all such positions in a normal number are set to 0, the
The most important properties of 1T are its irrationality number is still normal. On the other hand, more rig-
and transcendence, which were established in 1761 orous definitions of "random" exclude 1T because 1T'S
and 1882, respectively. In the twentieth century the decimal expansion is a recursive sequence. For an en-
focus has been on a different sort of question, namely lightening discussion of the general problem of de-
fining randomness, see the section on "What is a
whether 1T, despite being irrational and transcen-
Random Sequence" in volume 2 of Knuth's trilogy.
dental, is normal.
The idea of normality, first introduced by E. Borel Thus deeper questions are lurking, but so little is
known about 1T'S decimal expansion that it is reason-
in 1909, is an attempt to formalize the notion of a real
able to focus on whether 1T is normal to base ten. To
number being random. The definition is as follows: A
real number x is norlllal ill base b if in its representation put our ignorance in perspective, note that it is not
in base b all digits occur, in an asymptotic sense, even known that all digits appear infinitely often: per-
haps
equally often. In addition, for each III, the bm different
m-strings must occur equally often. In other words, 1T = 3.1415926 ..... 01001000100001000001.. ..
Iim ......"'N(s,n)ln = b- m for each III-string 5, where N(s,lI)
is the number of occurrences of s in the first n base-b In order to gather evidence for 1T'S normality one
digits of x. A number that is normal in all bases is would like to examine as many digits as possible.
called normal. The apparent randomness of 1T'S digits Those who have pursued the remote digits of 1T have
had been observed prior to the precise definition of often been pejoratively referred to as "digit hunters,"
normality. De Morgan, for example, pointed out that but certain recent developments have added some
one would expect the digits to occur equally often, but glamor to the centuries-old hunt. In 1975 Brent and
yet the number of 7's in the first 608 digits is 44, much Salamin, independently, discovered an algorithm that
lower than expected. However, it turned out that his dramatically lowered the time needed to compute
count was based on inaccurate data. large numbers of digits of 1T. Moreover, the algorithm
There are lots of normal numbers-Borel proved has important connections with efficient algorithms for
(see Niven or §9.12 of Hardy and Wright) that the set computing various transcendental functions (sin,
of non-normal numbers has measure zero-but it is arctan, exp, log, elliptic integrals) to great accuracy.
difficult to provide concrete examples. While an un- The reader is probably aware that various arctangent
dergraduate at Cambridge University, D. Cham per- formulas have been central in the computation of 1T.
nowne proved that 0.12345678910111213 ... is normal Early investigators used series such as the one for
in base 10, but an explicit example of a normal number arctan 1Iv3, but convergence was much speeded by
is still lacking. the use of formulas such as the following, by means
The question of 1T'S normality only scratches the sur- of which Machin computed 100 decimals of 1T in 1706:
1T = 16arctan1l5 - 4arctan1l239. Indeed, this same
formula was used in the first computer calculation, the
Column Editor: Stan Wagon. Department of Mathematics, Smith EN lAC's computation of 2037 digits in 1949. Com-
CoDege, Northampton, Massachusetts 01063. USA. puters have become much faster, and various opti-

THE MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCER VOL. 7. NO.3 e 1985 Springer-Verlag New York 65

557
 -Year Time Number of digits Computer time per digit
1949 -70 hours 2,037 -2 minutes
1958 100 minutes 10,000 0.6 second
1961 8.43 hours 100,000 113 second
1973 23.3 hours 1,000,000 1112 second
1983 <30 hours 16,000,000 <11155 second

Sophisticated algorithms, combined with ever-faster machilles, have led to increas-

ingly more efficient computations of "IT'S digits during the computer age.

Table 1

mizing tricks help speed up computations, but even and bn = Van_1 bn _ l . Gauss had investigated such
the million-digit computation in 1973 used the same limits and had proved that AG(a,b) equals "lT121, where
sort of formula, this one due to Gauss:
"IT = 48arctan1l18 + 32arctan1l57 ± 20arctanl/239.
A limiting aspect of the arctangent formulas is the
number of full-precision operations that must be car- a complete elliptic integral of the first kind. To get a
ried out. By an operation we mean one of +, x, +, formula for "IT let aD, bo be 1, 11Y2, respectively, and
V. Since large-precision square roots and divisions define dn to be a~ - ~; then
can be performed in essentially as much time as that
required by a full-precision multiplication (Newton's
method can be used for both; see Borwein and Bor-
"IT = 4(AG(1,1IY2»2/(1 - i
j= 1
2i + 1d-) •
'
wein), this measure of complexity (number of full-pre-
cision operations) is as good as the more usual "time If is defined to be 4a~ +1/(1 - "k'J -I 2i + Idi), then
"ITn
complexity" for comparing algorithms. Now, an ex- "lTnconverges quadratically to "IT. This means, roughly,
amination of the rate of convergence of the arctangent that the number of correct digits doubles from one "lTn
series shows that the arctangent method uses O(n) to the next.
(Le., at most en, c a constant) full-precision operations Quadratic convergence is most familiar from New-
to compute n decimals of "IT; for example, the Shanks ton's method of approximating solutions to algebraic
and Wrench computation of 100,000 decimals used just equations. Thus, from a computational perspective, "IT
under 105,000 full-precision operations. Thus there.are behaves like an algebraic number.
two basic time costs involved in the pushing of a cal- A more precise error analysis shows that "lTI6 is ac-
culation from n to IOn digits: curate to 178,000 digits, "lTI9 to over a million, "lT22 to
over ten million, and "lT26 to almost 200,000,000 digits.
(1) the number of operations increases by a factor of Since the computation of "lTn requires 7n full-precision
10, and operations, the improvement over the classical algo-
rithm is impressive: 100,000 digits require only 112 full-
°
(2) the time for each full-precision operation is about
1 times grea ter. preciSion operations!
The fact that c log II full-precision operations yield n
The Brent-Salamin algorithm requires only 0 (log n) digits of "IT means that the time complexity (essentially,
full-precision operations for n digits of "IT. Since log II number of bit operations) of the computation is
barely increases when n is replaced by lOn, the first of o (n 10g2n loglog n); this uses the fact that -n-digit mul-
the two costs just mentioned is almost entirely elimi- tiplication is of complexity O(n log n loglog n). Thus
nated! these fast algorithms for "IT are just about the fastest
The Brent-Salamin formula uses ideas that go back possible: it takes n steps just to write down n digits,
to Gauss and Legendre, but prior to the 1970s no one and there is not much room between nand n 10g2n
had thought to apply these ideas to evaluate "IT. The loglog n.
formula exploits the speed of convergence of the de- For refinements of the Brent-Salamin formulas, ap-
fining sequences for the arithmetic-geometric mean of plications to the computation of transcendental func-
two numbers. Given positive reals ao > bo, their arith- tions, and some proofs, see the paper by Borwein and
metic-geometric mean, AG(ao,bo)' is defined to be the Borwein, who are preparing a book on the arithmetic-
common limit of {an}' Ibn}, where an = (an_1 + bn_I )12 geometric mean. See the paper by Cox for more on the

66 THE MATIID.IATICAl.l!"TEll1GENCER VOL 7. NO.3, 19115

558
 Type of harld Expected number Actual number
No two digits the same 604,800 604,976
One pair 1,008,000 1,007,151
Two pair 216,000 216,520
Three of a kind 144,000 144,375
Full house 18,000 17,891
Four of a kind 9,000 8,887
Five of a kind 200 200
Distribution of the first two million poker hands in the digits of 1T.
Table 2

arithmetic-geometric mean and for a historical account normality in base ten, and Table 2 contains the fre-
of Gauss's work. quencies of poker hands from the first ten million
There is a surprising connection between these digits; there is no significant deviation from the ex-
modern algorithms and the method of Archimedes. pected values.
Archimedes used inscribed and circumscribed poly- Writers over the years have been fond of mentioning
gons to approximate 1T. Now, if An is the reciprocal of that 20 decimals of 1T suffice for any application imag-
the circumference of a 2n-gon inscribed in a unit circle inable. Moreover, the millions of digits now known
and Bn likewise for a circumscribed 2n-gon, then An shed absolutely no light on how to prove 1T'S nor-
and Bn satisfy: Bn + 1 = j(An + Bn) and An + 1 = mality. But these criticisms miss the point. Huyghens,
V AnBn + \. Thus the double sequence of Archimedes in using an extrapolative techinque to extend Ar-
obeys a recursion almost identical to the defining re- chimedes' calculations, was the first to use an impor-
cursion for AG(1I2, 114). Archimedes' sequences con- tant technique that, in this century, has come to be
verge much more slowly, however: each iteration de- known as the Romberg method for approximating def-
creases the error by, approximately, a factor of four. inite integrals. And the arithmetic-geometric mean al-
The Brent-Salamin algorithm has been implemented gorithms and their refinements are closely connected
in Japan by Kanada, Tamura, Yoshino, and Ushiro to the fastest known techniques for evaluating multi-
who, in 1983, used it to compute 16 million decimal precision transcendental functions. Thus digit-hunting
places. They checked the first 10,013,395 of these using has an importance that goes beyond the mere exten-
Gauss's arctangent relation. The computation of 16 sion of the known decimal places of 1T.
million digits took less than 30 hours of CPU time,
although some time (10-20%) was saved by the reuse
of intermediate values from earlier computations. See References
Table 1 for a comparison with previous computations.
The check took only 24 hours, but the two times are
not comparable since the arctangent computation was J. M. Borwein and P. B. Borwein, The arithmetic-geometric
mean and fast computation of elementary functions, SIAM
performed on a much faster computer, a Japanese Hi- Review 26, (1984) 351-366.
tachi supercomputer with a speed of 630 MFLOPS R. P. Brent, Multiple-precision zero-findings methods and
(million floating-point operations per second). the complexity of elementary function evaluation, in An-
A forthcoming paper by Kanada contains a statistical alytic Computational Complexity, J. F. Traub, ed., New York:
Academic Press, 1976, pp. 151-176.
analysis of the first ten million digits, which show no D. Cox, The arithmetic-geometric mean of Gauss, Ens. Math.
unusual deviation from expected behavior. The fre- 30, (1984) 275-330.
quencies for each of the ten digits are: 999,440; 999,333; G. H. Hardy and E. M. Wright, An Introduction to the Theory
1,000,306; 999,964; 1,001,093; 1,000,466; 999,337; of Numbers, 4th edition, London: Oxford, 1975.
1,000,207; 999,814; and 1,000,040. Moreover, the speed Y. Kanada, Y. Tamura, S. Yoshino, and Y. Ushiro, Calcu-
lation of 1T to 10,013,395 decimal places based on the
with which the relative frequencies are approaching Gauss-Legendre algorithm and Gauss arctangent rela-
1110 agrees with theory. Consider the digit 7 for ex- tions, Mathematics of Computation (forthcoming).
ample. Its relative frequencies in the first 10' digits D. E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming. vol. 2,
(i = 1, ... , 7) are 0, .08, .095, .097, .10025, .0998, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969.
.1000207, which seem to be approaching 1/10 at the I. Niven, Irrational Numbers, Carus Mathematical Mono-
graphs, No. 11, The Mathematical Association of America.
speed predicted by probability theory for random Distributed by Wiley, New York, 1967.
digits, namely at a speed approximately proportional E. Salamin, Computation of 1T using arithmetic-geometric
to ltVn. The poker test is relevant to the question of mean, Mathematics of Computation 30, (1976) 565-570.

THE MATHEMATlCAllNTElUGENCER VOl. 7. NO.3. 1985 67

559
 Circle Digits
A Self-Referential Story
Michael Keith

For a time I
stood pondering on circle
sizes. The large computer
mainframe quietly processed all of its
assembly code. Inside my entire hope lay for
figuring out an elusive expansion. Value: pi.
Decimals expected soon. I nervously entered a format
procedure. The mainframe processed the request. Error.
I, again entering it. carefully retyped. This iteration gave
zero error printouts in all success. Intently I waited.
Soon, roused by thoughts within me, appeared narrative mnemonics
relating digits to verbiage! The idea appeared to exist but only
in abbreviated fashion little phrases typically. Pressing on I
then resolved, deciding firmly about a sum of decimals to use - likely
around four hundred, presuming the computer code soon halted!
Pondering these ideas, words appealed to me. But a problem of zeros did
exist. Pondering more, solution subsequently appeared. Zero suggests a
punctuation element. Very novel! My thoughts were culminated. No
periods, I concluded. All residual marks of punctuation = zeros. First
digit expansion answer then came before me. On examining some problems
unhappily arose. That imbecilic bug! The printout I possessed showed four
nine as foremost decimals. Manifestly troubling. Totally every number
looked wrong. Repairing the bug took much effort. A pi mnemonic with
letters truly seemed good. Counting of all the letters probably should
suffice. Reaching for a record would be helpful. Consequently, I
continued, expecting a good final answer from computer. First number
slowly displayed on the the flat screen - 3. Good. Trailing digits
apparently were right also. Now my memory scheme must probably be
implementable. The technique was chosen. elegant in scheme: by self
reference a tale mnemonically helpful was ensured. An able title
suddenly existed "Circle Digits". Taking pen I began. Words
emanated uneasily. 1 desired more synonyms. Speedily I found my
(alongside me) Thesaurus. Rogets is probably an essential in
doing this, instantly 1 decided. I wrote and erased more.
The Rogets clearly assisted immensely. My story
proceeded (how lovely!) faultlessly. The end, above
all, would soon joyfully overtake. So, this memory
helper story is incontestably complete. Soon I
will locate publisher. There a narrative
will I trust immediately appear,
producing fame. THE END.

56 THE MATHEMATICAL INTELLlGE:-..'CER VOL. 8, ~O. 3 f, ]91'6 Sprin);~'r-\'t'rlJ)i; \:t' ..... Y\,rk

560
The previous self-referential story is a mnemonic for
the first 402 decimals of the number pi. As it indicates,
merely count the number of letters in each word of the
story (beginning with the first word, "For", up to and
including the final words, "The End") to obtain the
successive decimals to pi. Any punctuation mark other
than a period represents a zero digit (a period stands
for no digit). Words of longer than 9 letters represent
two adjacent digits (for example, a twelve-letter word
represents the two digits 1 - 2). A digit written literally
stands for the same digit in the expansion. This fea-
ture is only used once in the story (the first sentence of
the seventh paragraph); overuse of this feature would
be considered "cheating".
As far as I can determine, this story establishes a
new record length for a literary pi mnemonic, al-
though clearly the length of such a mnemonic is lim-
ited only by the patience of the constructor. This story
has the added twist of self-reference, as it describes
within itself its title, its method of construction, its
length, and its subject. Incidentally, it has been
checked by a computer program for correctness to the
decimals of pi.
For those who want to compose even longer mne-
monics using the same or similar rules, the following
points may be of interest:
1. At decimal 601, the first triple-zero occurs. Clearly
we can handle this with the present scheme, but a
little ingenuity is required. No quadruple-zeros
occur within at least the first 10,000 decimals, so we
don't have to concern ourselves with that possi-
bility.
2. At decimal 772 we encounter the amazing sequence
9999998. This seven-digit group has the largest digit
sum of any seven-digit group in the first million
decimals! Because of the resulting requirement for
seven adjacent long words, it also poses quite a
challenge in encoding.

We have seen pi-mnemonic sentences, poems, and

now, a short story. Perhaps some day a complete
novel?

046 Abbington Dril>e

Hightstown, N.]. 08520

THE ~ATHEMATICAL INTELlICENCER VOL. 8, :'\'0. 3, 1986 57

561
MATHEMATICS OF COMPUTATION
VOLUME 50. NUMBER 181
JANUARY 1988. PAGES 283-296

The Computation of 1r to 29,360,000 Decimal Digits

Using Borweins' Quartically Convergent Algorithm
By David H. Bailey

Abstract. In a recent work [6), Borwein and Dorwein derived a class of algorithms based
on the theory of elliptic integrals that yield very rapidly convergent approximations to
elementary constants. The author has implemented Borweins' quartically convergent
algorithm for 1/.. , using a prime modulus transform multi-precision technique, to com-
pute over 29,360,000 digits of the decimal expansion of ... The result was checked by
using a different algorithm, also due to the Borweins, that converges quadratically to
... These computations were performed as a system test of the Cray-2 operated by the
Numerical Aerodynamical Simulation (NAS) Program at NASA Ames Research Center.
The calculations were made possible by the very large memory of the Cray-2.
Until recently, the largest computation of the decimal expansion of .. was due to
Kanada and Tamura [12) of the University of Tokyo. In 1983 they computed approxi-
mately 16 million digits on a Hitachi S-81O computer. Late in 1985 Gosper [9) reported
computing 17 million digits using a Symbolics workstation. Since the computation de-
scribed in this paper was performed, Kanada has reported extending the computation
of .. to over 134 million digits (January 1987).
This paper describes the algorithms and techniques used in the author's computation,
both for converging to ,.. and for performing the required multi-precision arithmetic. The
results of statistical analysC8 of the computed decimal expansion are also included.

1. Introduction. The computation of the numerical value of the constant 11'

has been pursued for centuries for a variety of reasons, both practical and theo-
retical. Certainly, a value of 11' correct to 10 decimal places is sufficient for most
"practical" applications. Occasionally, there is a need for double-precision or even
multi-precision computations involving 11' and other elementary constants and func-
tions in order to compensate for unusually severe numerical difficulties in an ex-
tended computation. However, the author is not aware of even a single case of a
"practical" scientific computation that requires the value of 11' to more than about
100 decimal places.
Beyond immediate practicality, the decimal expansion of 11' has been of interest
to mathematicians, who have still not been able to resolve the question of whether
the digits in the expansion of 11' are "random". In particular, it is widely suspected
that the decimal expansions of 11', e, ..ti,..,fEr, and a host of related mathematical
constants all have the property that the limiting frequency of any digit is one
tenth, and that the limiting frequency of any n-long string of digits is 1O- n • Such
a guaranteed property could, for instance, be the basis of a reliable pseudo-random
number generator. Unfortunately, this assertion has not been proven in even one
instance. Thus, there is a continuing interest in performing statistical analyses on
Received January 27, 1986; revised April 27, 1987.
1980 Mathematic~ Subject ClaMification (1985 ReviBion). Primary U-{)4, 65-{)4.

©1988 Amerlc.an Mathematical Sodety

0025-5718/88 S1.00 + 1.2S per page

283

562
284 DAVID H. BAILEY

the decimal expansions of these numbers to sce if there is any irregularity that
would 8Uggest this assertion is false.
In recent years, the computation of the expansion of 7r has assumed the role as
a standard test of computer integrity. If even one error occurs in the computation,
then the result will almost certainly be completely in error after an initial correct
section. On the other hand, if the result of the computation of 7r to even 100,000
decimal places is correct, then the computer has performed billions of operations
without error. For this reason, programs that compute the decimal expansion
of 7r are frequently used by both manufacturers and purchasers of new computer
equipment to certify system reliability.
2. History. The first serious attempt to calculate an accurate value for the
constant 7r was made by Archimedes, who approximated 7r by computing the areas
of equilateral polygons with increasing numbers of sides. More recently, infinite
series have been used. In 1671 Gregory discovered the arctangent series
z3 Z5 Z7
tan-l(z) =z-"3 +"5 -"7 + ....
This discovery led to a number of rapidly convergent algorithms. In 1706 Machin
used Gregory's series coupled with the identity
7r = 16tan- l (I/5) - 4tan- l (I/239)
to compute 100 digits of 7r.
In the nearly 300 years since that time, most computations of the value of 7r,
even those performcd by computer, have employed some variation of this technique.
For instance, a series based on the identity
1r = 24 tan- l (1/8) + 8tan- l (I/57) + 4 tan- l (1/239)
was used in a computation of 1r to 100,000 decimal digits using an IBM 7090 in
1961 (15). Readers interested in the history of the computation 7r are referred to
Beckmann's entertaining book on the subject (2).
3. New Algorithms for 7r. Only very recently have algorithms been discov-
ered that are fundamentally faster than the above techniques. In 1976 Brent (7)
and Salamin (14) independently discovered an approximation algorithm based on
elliptic integrals that yields quadratic convergence to 7r. With all of the previous
techniques, the number of correct digits increases only linearly with the number
of iterations performed. With this new algorithm, each ,wditional iteration of the
algorithm approximately doubles the number of correct digits. Kanada and Tamura
employed this algorithm in 1983 to compute 7r to over 16 million decimal digits.
More recently, J. M. Borwein and P. B. Borwein [4) discovered another quadrat-
ically convergent algorithm for 1r, together with similar algorithms for fast compu-
tation of all the elementary functions. Their quadratically convergent algorithm
= =
for 1r can be stated as follows: Let ao .;2, bo 0, Po = 2 +.;2. Iterate
(..;ai + 1/,(iik) b _ ..;ai(1 + ble) _ Pleb/c+l(1 + a/c+l)
ale+! = 2 ' Ie+!- alc+ble ' Pie+!- l+ble+l .
Then Pic converges quadratically to 1r: Successive iterations of this algorithm yield
3,8, 19,40,83, 170,345,694, 1392, and 2788 correct digits of the expansion of 1r.

563
 THE COMPUTATION OF ". TO 29,360,000 DECIMAL DIGITS 285

However, it should be noted that this algorithm is not self-correcting for numerical
errors, so that al1 iterations must be performed to ful1 precision. In other words, in
a computation of 11' to 2788 decimal digits using the above algorithm, each of the
ten iterations must be performed with more than 2788 digits of precision.
Most recently, the Borweins [6) have discovered a general technique for obtaining
even higher-order convergent algorithms for certain elementary constants. Their
quartic ally convergent algorithm for 1/11' can be stated as fol1ows: Let ao = 6-4y'2
and Yo = y'2 - 1. Iterate
1 - (1 _ y:)1/4
Yk+l = 1 + (1 - y:)1/4'
ale+1 =ale(1 + y/c+t}4 - 221e+3 YIe+1(1 + Yk+l + Y~+1)'
Then ale converges quartically to 1/11': Each successive iteration approximately
quadruples the number of correct digits in the result. As in the previous case, each
iteration must be performed to at least the level of precision desired for the final
result.
4. Multi-Precision Arithmetic Techniques. A key element of a very high
precision computation of this sort is a set of high-performance routines for perform-
ing multi-precision arithmetic. A naive approach to multi-precision computation
would require a prohibitive amount of processing time and would, as a result,
sharply increase the probability that an undetected hardware error would occur,
rendering the result invalid. In addition to employing advanced algorithms for such
key operations as multi-precision multiplication, it is imperative that these algo-
rithms be implemented in a style that is conducive for high-speed computation on
the computer being used.
The computer used for these computations is the Cray-2 at the NASA Ames
Research Center. This computation was performed to test the integrity of the
Cray-2 hardware, as wel1 as the Fortran compiler and the operating system. The
Cray-2 is particularly well suited for this computation because of its very large
main memory, which holds 228 = 268,435,456 words (one word is 64 bits of data).
With this huge capacity, all data for these computations can be contained entirely
within main memory, insuring ease of programming and fast execution.
No attempt was made to employ more than one of the four central processing
units in the Cray-2. Thus, at the same time these calculations were being per-
formed, the computer was executing other jobs on the other processors. However,
full advantage was taken of the vector operations and vector registers of the system.
Considerable care was taken in programming to insure that the multi-precision al-
gorithms were implemented in a style that would admit vector processing. Most key
loops were automatically vectorized by the Cray-2 Fortran compiler. For those few
that were not automatically vectorized, compiler directives were inserted to force
vectorization. As a result of this effort, virtually all arithmetic operations were
performed in vector mode, which on the Cray-2 is approximately 20 times faster
than scalar mode. Because of the high level of vectorization that was achieved using
the Fortran compiler, it was not necessary to use assembly language, nonstandard
constructs, or library subroutines.

564
286 DAVID H. BAILEY

A multi-precision number is represented in these computations as an (n + 2)-

long array of floating-point whole numbers. The first cell contains the sign of the
number, either 1, -I, or 0 (reserved for an exact zero). The second cell of the array
contains the exponent (powers of the radix), and the remaining n cells contain the
mantissa. The radix selected for the multi-precision numbers is 107 • Thus the
number 1.23456789 is represented by the array 1,0,1,2345678,9000000,0,0, ... , O.
A floating-point representation was chosen instead of an integer representation
because the hardware of numerical supercomputers such as the Cray-2 is designed
for floating-point computation. Indeed, the Cray-2 does not even have full-word
integer multiply or divide hardware instructions. Such operations are performed by
first converting the operands to floating-point form, using the floating-point unit,
and converting the results back to fixed-point (integer) form. A decimal radix was
chosen instead of a binary value because multiplications and divisions by powers of
two are not performed any faster than normal on the Cary-2 (in vector mode). Since
a decimal radix is clearly preferable to a binary radix for program troubleshooting
and for input and output, a decimal radix was chosen. The value 107 was chosen
because it is the largest power of ten that will fit in half of the mantissa of a single
word. In this way two of these numbers may be multiplied to obtain the exact
product using ordinary single-precision arithmetic.
Multi-precision addition and subtraction are not computationally expensive com-
pared to multiplication, division, and square root extraction. Thus, simple algo-
rithms suffice to perform addition and subtraction. The only part of these opera-
tions that is not immediately conducive to vector processing is releasing the carries
for the final result. This is because the normal "schoolboy" approach of beginning
at the last cell and working forward is a recursive operation. On a vector super-
computer this is better done by starting at the beginning and releasing the carry
only one cell back for each cell processed. Unfortunately, it cannot be guaranteed
that one application of this process will release all carries (consider the case of two
or more consecutive 9999999's, followed by a number exceeding 107 ). Thus it is
necessary to repeat this operation until all carries have been released (usually one
or two additional times). In the rare cases where three applications of this vector-
ized process are not successful in releasing all carries, the author's program resorts
to the scalar "schoolboy" method.
Provided a fast multi-precision multiplication procedure is available, multi-
precision division and square root extraction may be performed economically us-
ing Newton's iteration, as follows. Let Xo and Yo be initial approximations to the
reciprocal of a and to the reciprocal of the square root of a, respectively. Then

Xk+l = xk(2 - aXk), Yk+l = Yk(3 -2 ay~)

both converge quadratically to the desired values. One additional full-precision mul-
tiplication yields the quotient and the square root, respectively. What is especially
attractive about these algorithms is that the first iteration may be perfomlCd using
ordinary single-precision arithmetic, and subsequent iterations may be performed
using a level of precision that approximately doubles each time. Thus the total
cost of computation is only about twice the cost of the final iteration, plus the one
additional multiplication. As a result, a multi-precision division costs only about

565
 THE COMPUTATION OF,,,, TO 29,360,000 DECIMAL DIGITS 287

five times as much as a multi-precision multiplication, and a mUlti-precision square

root costs only about seven times as much as a multi-precision multiplication.
5. Multi-Precision Multiplication. It can be seen from the above that the
key component of a high-performance multi-precision arithmetic system is the mul-
tiplyoperation. For modest levels of precision (fewer than about 1000 digits), some
variation of the usual "schoolboy" method is sufficient, although care must be taken
in the implementation to insure that the operations are vectorizable. Above this
level of precision, however, other more sophisticated techniques have a significant
advantage. The history of the development of high-performance multiply algo-
rithms will not be reviewed here. The interested reader is referred to Knuth (13).
It will suffice to note that all of the current state-of-the-art techniques derive from
the following fact of Fourier analysis: Let F(x) denote the discrete Fourier trans-
form of the sequence x = (XO,Xl,X2, ... ,XN-d, and let F-l(x) denote the inverse
discrete Fourier transform of x:
N-l
FIe(x) = ~
L.J xjw''Ie ,
j=O
where w = is a primitive Nth root of unity. Let C(x, y) denote the convo-
e- 2fri / N
lution of the sequences x and y:
N-l
CIe(x,y) = E
XjYIe-j,
j=O
where the subscript k - i is to be interpreted as k - i + N if k - i is negative. Then
the "convolution theorem", whose proof is a straightforward exercise, states that
F[C(x, y») = F(x)F(y),
or expressed another way,
C(x,y) = F- 1[F(x)F(y)J.
This result is applicable to multi-precision multiplication in the following way.
Let x and y be n-long representations of two multi-precision numbers (without the
sign or exponent words). Extend x and y to length 2n by appending n zeros at the
end of each. Then the multi-precision product z of x and y, except for releasing
the carries, can be written as follows:
Zo = xoyo
%1 = XOYI + X1YO
%2 = XOY2 + X1YI + X2YO

Zn-l = X01ln-l + xl11n-2 + ... + :l:n-l1/0

%2n-3 = Xn -l1/n-2 + Xn -21/n-l

Z2n-2 = Xn-1Yn-l
Z2n-l = O.

566
288 DAVID H. BAILEY

It can now be seen that this "multiplication pyramid" is precisely the convolution
of the two sequences x and y, where N = 2n. The convolution theorem states that
the multiplication pyramid can be obtained by performing two forward discrete
Fourier transforms, one vector complex multiplication, and one reverse transform,
each of length N = 2n. Once the reSUlting complex numbers have been rounded
to the nearest integer, the final multi-precision product may be obtained by merely
releasing the carries as described in the section above on addition and subtraction.
The key computational savings here is that the discrete Fourier transform may
of course be economically computed using some variation of the "fast Fourier trans-
form" (FFT) algorithm. It is most convenient to employ the radix two fast Fourier
transform since there is a wealth of literature on how to efficiently implement this
algorithm (see [1), [8), and [16)}. Thus, it will be assumed from this point that
N = 2m for some integer m.
One useful "trick" can be employed to further reduce the computational require-
ment for complex transforms. Note that the input data vectors x and y and the
result vector z are purely real. This fact can be exploited by using a simple pro-
cedure ([8, p. 169]) for performing real-to-complex and complex-to-real transforms
that obtains the result with only about half the work otherwise required.
One important item has been omitted from the above discussion. If the radix 107
is used, then the product of two cells will be in the neighborhood of 1014 , and the
sum of a large number of these products cannot be represented exactly in the 48-
bit mantissa of a Cray-2 floating-point word. In this case the rounding operation
at the completion of the transform will not be able to recover the exact whole
number result. As a result, for the complex transform method to work correctly, it
is necessary to alter the above scheme slightly. The simplest solution is to use the
radix 106 and to divide all input data into two words with only three digits each.
Although this scheme greatly increases the memory space required, it does permit
the complex transform method to be used for multi-precision computation up to
several million digits on the Cray-2.

6. Prime Modulus Transforms. Some variation of the above method has

been used in almost all high-performance multi-precision computer prograIllS, in-
cluding the program used by Kanada and Tamura. However, it appears to break
down for very high-precision computation (beyond about ten million digits on the
Cray-2), due to the round-off error problem mentioned above. The input data can
be further divided into two digits per word or even one digit per word, but only with
a substantial increase in run time and main memory. Since a principal goal in this
computation was to remain totally within the Cray-2 main memory, a somewhat
different method was used.
It can readily be seen that the technique of the previous section, including the
usage of a fast Fourier transform algorithm, can be applied in any number field in
which there exists a primitive Nth root of unity w. This requirement holds for the
=
field of the integers modulo p, where p is a prime of the form p kN + 1 ([11, p.
85]). One significant advantage of using a prime modulus field instead of the field
of complex numbers is that there is no need to worry about round-off' error in the
results, since all computations are exact.

567
 THE COMPUTATION OF II' TO 29,360,000 DECIMAL DIGITS 2S9

However, there are some difficulties in using a prime modulus field for the trans-
form operations above. The first is to find a prime P of the form kN + 1, where
N = 2m • The second is to find a primitive Nth root of unity modulo p. As it turns
out, it is not too hard using a computer to find both of these numbers by direct
search. Thirdly, one must compute the multiplicative inverse of N modulo p. This
can be done using a variation of the Euclidean algorithm from elementary number
theory. Note that each of these calculations needs to be performed one time only.
A more troublesome difficulty in using a prime modulus transform is the fact
that the final multiplication pyramid results are only recovered modulo p. If p is
greater than about 1024 then this is not a problem, but the usage of such a large
prime would require quadruple-precision arithmetic operations to be performed in
the inner loop of the fast Fourier transform, which would very greatly increase the
run time. A simpler and faster approach to the problem is to use two primes, PI
and P2, each slightly greater than 1012 , and to perform the transform algorithm
above using each prime. Then the Chinese remainder theorem may be applied to
the results modulo PI and P2 to obtain the results modulo the product PIP2. Since
PIP2 is greater than 1024 , these results will be the exact multiplication pyramid
numbers. Unfortunately, double-precision arithmetic must still be performed in the
fast Fourier transform and in the Chinese remainder theorem calculation. However,
the whole-number format of the input data simplifies these operations, and it is
possible to program them in a vectorizable fashion.
Borodin and Munro ([3, p. 90)) have suggested using three transforms with three
primes Pl,P2 and P3, each of which is just smaller than half of the mantissa, and
using the Chinese remainder theorem to recover the results modulo PIP2P3. In this
way, double-precision operations are completely avoided in the inner loop of the
FFT. This scheme runs quite fast, but unfortunately the largest transform that can
be performed on the Cray-2 using this system is N = 219 , which corresponds to a
maximum precision of about three million digits.
Readers interested in studying about prime modulus number fields, the Euclidean
algorithm, or the Chinese remainder theorem are referred to any elementary text
on number theory, such as [10) or (11). Knuth (13) and Borodin (3) also provide
excellent information on using these tools for computation.
7. Computational Results. The author has implemented all three of the
above techniques for multi-precision multiplication on the Cray-2. By employing
special high-performance techniques [1), the complex transform can be made to run
the fastest, about four times faster than the two-prime transform method. However,
the memory requirement of the two-prime scheme is significantly less than either
the three-prime or the complex scheme, and since the two-prime scheme permits
very high-precision computation, it was selected for the computations of 11'.
One of the author's computations used twelve iterations of Borweins' quartic
algorithm for 1/11', followed by a reciprocal operation, to yield 29,360,128 digits
of 11'. In this computation, approximately 12 trillion arithmetic operations were
performed. The run took 28 hours of processing time on one of the four Cray-2
central processing units and used 138 million words of main memory. It was started
on January 7, 1986 and completed January 9, 1986. The program was not running
this entire time-the system was taken down for service several times, and the run

568
290 DAVID H. BAILEY

was frequently interrupted by other programs. Restarting the computation after a

system down was a simple matter since the two key multi-precision number arrays
were saved on disk after the completion of each iteration.
This computation was checked using 24 iterations of Borweins' quadratically
convergent algorithm for 11". This run took 40 hours processing time and 147 million
words of main memory. A comparison of these output results with the first nm
found no discrepancies except for the last 24 digits, a normal truncation error.
Thus it can be safely assumed that at least 29,360,000 digits of the final result are
correct.
It was discovered after both computations were completed that one loop in the
Chinese remainder theorem computation was inadvertently performed in scalar
mode instead of vector mode. As a result, both of these calculations used about
25% more run time than would otherwise have been required. This error, however,
did not affect the validity of the computed decimal expansions.
8. Statistical Analysis of 11". Probably the most significant mathematical
motivation for the computation of 11", both historically and in modern times, has
been to investigate the question of the randomness of its decimal expansion. Before
Lambert proved in 1766 that 11" is irrational, there was great interest in checking
whether or not its decimal expansion eventually repeats, thus disclosing that 11" is
rational. Since that time there has been a continuing interest in the still unan-
swered question of whether the expansion is statistically random. It is of course
strongly suspected that the decimal expansion of 11", if computed to sufficiently high
precision, will pass any reasonable statistical test for randomness. The most fre-
quently mentioned conjecture along this line is that any sequence of n digits occurs
with a limiting frequency of lO- n •
With 29,360,000 digits, the frequencies of n-long strings may be studied for
randomness for n as high as six. Beyond that level the expected number of any
one string is too low for statistical tests to be meaningful. The results of tabulated
frequencies for one and two digit strings are listed in Tables 1 and 2. In the first
table the Z-score numbers are computed as the deviation from the mean divided
by the standard deviation, and thus these statistics should be normally distributed
with mean zero and variance one.
TABLE 1
Single digit statistics
Digit Count Deviation Z-score
0 2935072 -928 - 0.5709
1 2936516 516 0.3174
2 2936843 843 0.5186
3 2935205 -795 - 0.4891
4 2938787 2787 1.7145
5 2936197 197 0.1212
6 2935504 -496 - 0.3051
7 2934083 -1917 -1.1793
8 2935698 -302 - 0.1858
9 2936095 95 0.0584

569
 THE COMPUTATION OF 1r TO 29,360,000 DECIMAL DIGITS 291

TABLE 2
Two digit frequency counts
00 293062 01 293970 02 293533 03 292893 04 294459
05 294189 06 292688 07 292707 08 294260 09 293311
to 294503 11 293409 12 293591 13 294285 14 294020
15 293158 16 293799 17 293020 18 293262 19 293469
20 293952 21 293226 22 293844 23 293382 24 293869
25 293721 26 293655 27 293969 28 293320 29 293905
30 293718 31 293542 32 293272 33 293422 34 293178
35 293490 36 293484 37 292694 38 294152 39 294253
40 294622 41 294793 42 293863 43 293041 44 293519
45 293998 46 294418 47 293616 48 293296 49 293621
50 292736 51 294272 52 293614 53 293215 54 293569
55 294194 56 293260 57 294152 58 293137 59 294048
60 293842 61 293to5 62 294187 63 293809 64 293463
65 293544 66 293123 67 293307 68 293602 69 293522
70 292650 71 294304 72 293497 73 293761 74 293960
75 293199 76 293597 77 292745 78 293223 79 293147
80 292517 81 292986 82 2~3637 83 294475 84 294267
85 293600 86 -293786 87 293971 88 293434 89 293025
90 293470 91 292908 92 293806 93 292922 94 294483
95 293104 96 293694 97 293902 98 294012 99 293794
The most appropriate statistical procedure for testing the hypothesis that the
empirical frequencies of n-Iong strings of digits are random is the X2 test. The X2

t
statistic of the k observations XI, X2, ••• ,XI< is defined as

X
2
=i=1 (Xi -Ei)2
E,
where Ei is the expected value of the random variable Xi. In this case k = 10~ and
Eo = to-r&d for all i, where d = 29,360,000 denotes the number of digits. The mean
of the X2 statistic in this case is k - 1 and its standard deviation is V2(k - 1). Its
distribution is nearly normal for large k. The results of the X2 analysis are shown
in Table 3.
TABLE 3
Multiple digit X2 statistics
Length X2 value Z-score
1 4.869696 - 0.9735
2 84.52604 -1.0286
3 983.9108 -0.3376
4 10147.258 1.0484
5 100257.92 0.5790
6 1000827.7 0.5860
Another test that is frequently performed on long pseudo-random sequences is
an analysis to check whether the number of n-Iong repeats for various n is within
statistical bounds of randomness. An n-Iong repeat is said to occur if the n-Iong

570
292 DAVID H. BAILEY

digit sequence beginning at two different positions is the same. The mean M and
the variance V of the number of n-long repeats in d digits are (to an excellent
approximation)
11 .1O- n d 2
V=----
18
Tabulation of repeats in the expansion of 1r was performed by packing the string
beginning at each position into a single Cray-2 word, sorting the resulting array,
and counting equal contiguous entries in the sorted list. The results of this analysis
are shown in Table 4.
TABLE 4
Long repeat statistics
10 42945 43100. - 0.677
11 4385 4310. 1.033
12 447 431. 0.697
13 48 43.1 0.675
14 6 4.31 0.736
15 1 0.43 0.784
A third test frequently performed as a test for randomness is the runs test. This
test compares the observed frequency of long runs of a single digit with the number
of such occurrences that would be expected at random. The mean and variance of
this statistic are the same as the formulas for repeats, except that ~ is replaced by
2d. Table 5 lists the observed frequencies of runs for the calculated expansion of 1r.
The frequencies of long runs are all within acceptable limits of randomness. The
only phenomenon of any note in Table 5 is the occurrence of a 9-long run of sevens.
However, there is a 29% chance that a 9-long run of some digit would occur in
29,360,000 digits, so this instance by itself is not remarkable.
TABLE 5
Single-digit run counts
Length of Run
Digit 5 6 7 8 9
0 308 29 3 0 0
1 281 21 1 0 0
2 272 23 0 0 0
3 266 26 5 0 0
4 296 40 6 1 0
5 292 30 4 0 0
6 316 33 3 0 0
7 315 37 6 2 1
8 295 36 3 0 0
9 306 40 7 0 0
9. Conclusion. The statistical analyses that have been performed on the ex-
pansion of 1r to 29,360,000 decimal places have not disclosed any irregularity. The
observed frequencies of n-long strings of digits for n up to 6 are entirely unremark-
able. The numbers of long repeating strings and single-digit runs are completely

571
 THE COMPUTATION OF ,.. TO 29,360,000 DECIMAL DIGITS 293

acceptable. Thus, based on these tests, the decimal expansion of 1f appears to be

completely random.
Appendix
Selected Output Listing

Initial 1000 digits:

3.
14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510
58209749445923078164062862089986280348253421170679
82148086513282306647093844609550582231725359408128
48111745028410270193852110555964462294895493038196
44288109756659334461284756482337867831652712019091
45648566923460348610454326648213393607260249141273
72458700660631558817488152092096282925409171536436
78925903600113305305488204665213841469519415116094
33057270365759591953092186117381932611793105118548
0744623799627495673518857527248912279381830~194912
98336733624406566430860213949463952247371907021798
60943702770539217176293176752384674818467669405132
00056812714526356082778577134275778960917363717872
14684409012249534301465495853710507922796892589235
42019956112129021960864034418159813629774771309960
51870721134999999837297804995105973173281609631859
50244594553469083026425223082533446850352619311881
71010003137838752886587533208381420617177669147303
59825349042875546873115956286388235378759375195778
18577805321712268066130019278766111959092164201989
Digits 4,999,001 to 5,000,000:
49480754784558100182731931632488412804488722296956
79855015464855780486736535227902836997918084867230
64962221004527085768335035212069684801817137616329
97561738425160340472537100056351640342162492027179
66824926458930960182645026923102266570541641475347
20341554913770421505764452807809035248393621093031
02288096238486877923145240841637271180953058890040
68843766781431498914299893621278545260143140439048
49938801556336059513116731891132765777881364690708
47036863411196323063886507480852125682842257852524
03086993703255692093960818587414181230484153204049
20234989002732447593020323794790776444752398445514
67304403210968985244961967143433964895893190552338
49818852746844924836314634250006421630628686858848
27453318669926734730642735036364002856022218966350
11429182634J19974163253372368798553451111253055262
39104082639970934508146672521381105913047210052428
18988626533169469331951675296209306752291590715999
89846179288059262000848638138811280944056488021060
48865855191846702365421761783505181721320764619715

572
294 DAVID H. BAILEY

Digits 9,999,001 to 10,000,000:

55097818243516728227849910720400286757907904466335
12718202979525150617725334066894988956424703269230
15399820900390166275224338184424808589395293652582
53635658584175485536744818650289245188206447853280
79129675504865572929083083485483937583334671019089
12067114536955173140929461823466478725289529974204
02127635235923293305770179423865225963240694027480
60412880303092452481034941582735932443887273109397
41634889604695819245395151341043433998381874650972
33692635225791472454244401326312964396391209607800
16344851199125420819737407446045899742145731042313
64456486501937801063526603744056568823861389375443
97351681296831567911618884222251141477322612331396
18606080373110348692660933940438416300326143449280
50821131575737727739821551522286509997662432587213
93393445902091662272905493493827178205126669021149
47192311380933822311224099588372246332501222323378
96895269025366263941267010317327864987170257149617
76105155492579857592045532468944687427025046397905
65326553194060999469787333810631719481735348955897
Digits 14,999,001 to 15,000,000:
75161912582729034437123279749256311511925243956985
41466735069194815163837226073925151887751751659741
00622880726448602209456930414488539882981108512492
30626088375966783621649753412539683084922711342513
94953995693625441331401738133085848172315887473225
66862139251938540102249475575494947158395623512785
67033888824495551084462300472407612165952784386252
83059992302223284865934566262929748436827730812030
14434593689874259766415514412097984133998015934584
35393475650624323850160432731918805126406671871353
77555766214670931813151162879500509710551795152818
09093154481058044767364122166100032425098263166257
41730518220480715488224616563891344046934208103238
39903254029881746342496583186836947486194257533540
36331223838222392494056270856378033056213544686593
02986821714952808585949418676532291067339817684850
77576151785057277099880627370814385794117668763599
75814499149890314594098525960336377989988228138579
03954608500076180754880433958468619641092762653446
79645205263473393286074979323931503141172775669803

573
 THE COMPUTATION OF ". TO 29.360.000 DECIMAL DIGITS :l95

Digits 19,999,001 to 20,000,000:

24662421652199659486815804456810191516438951601691
66156526528445124126249995515004465281646092893016
37396198596248627116552469686381679679898926165214
19985145392716546108714664257998278750239431446690
24524827883001435830699295155565194378002452231513
03498450165135282534109758167508041457187906821950
98156889669401540575560430489547131781464796920586
99611799897126388736531564345333853581593559913668
62608486227029865668230856391322081859205243349223
41898466479821052634622968628766495150696262416056
24275201300452308788083860012754008114751496913646
62422297630443481605116791864334302662386921297850
27885235888942133721123400642720173755448112632485
38990548569368292370090889371435442648824207842546
28067400727949203553263884395310176843535902614634
16307233029969045465206192626213143248919480318684
24091340888618503237670440817047193079665711842568
49026891445701681736816189861189706430445120614936
61903651815020193466156644931359013005891342158185
95012447895232808191116291055801380049338634521644
Digits 24,999,001 to 25,000,000:
64626316657188401626812035835150250932381126804132
24521114629610113811130611683224431149346115591163
91099108362268853888484703199982396604181954241350
36635859521304516812109809678948655653409228442863
24948936001342207955968740967092110719683856558205
30816048151902240856062148174123551023529985810792
74189214723685203602121713995138514107079374902532
54350785997288413483911434952219864948321330490074
60146435121254311259573947301142531184570914224080
72612210306331872567179327168155609249989038137333
66960257521334843154895361888436208731274888674781
18373984739313750077149269011462219615798047067514
35050981335283641909759090614464729227662129370246
41057090874450108027231969863517024941726518038367
32762891741863822149208539226376382907305941739639
07549588865849168186491743776218287261919660505923
92475138836587226649359524383297861404378228288281
13596312642574370611956801291356036342637793562761
36031501909491563106238168922672241753290045253446
07864115924597806944245511285225546774836191884322

574
 296 DAVID H. BAILEY

Digits 29,359,001 to 29,360,000:

34192841788915229643368473881977698539005746219846
69525347577001729886543392436261840972591968259157
61107476294007303074005235627829787025544075405543
99895071530598162189611315050419697309728290606067
18890116138206842589980215445395753593792898823575
01412347486672046935635735777380648437308573291840
62108496330974827689411268675222975523230623956833
62631148916063883977661973091499155192847894109691
39612265329351195978725566764256462895375180907449
49363092921314127640888510170422584084744149319118
65755825721772836144977978766052285469047197596264
76680055360842209689517737135008611890452433015212
37693745702070338988940123376693961057269535278146
99719136307074643201853864071307997507974509883554
65961575782849747512645786441130845325323149405419
17263364899647912032878171893387317819324912382342
18648271763723022561720016348368584955658165112489
95446848720693621957797943429494640258419939089135
34266985232776239314365259670832026370250924776814
70490971424493675414330987259507806654322272888253

NAS Systems Division

NASA Ames Research Center
Mail Stop 258-5
Moffett Field, California 94035

1. D. H. BAILEY, "A high-performance fast Fourier transform algorithm for the Cray-2," J.
Supercomputing, v. 1, 1987, pp. 43-60.
2. P. BECKMANN, A Huto'1l 0/ Pi, Golem Press, Boulder, CO, 1971.
3. A. BORODIN & I. MUNRO, The Computational Complezity 0/ Algebraic and Numeric Problema,
American Elsevier, New York, 1975.
4. J. M. BORWEIN & P. B. BORWEIN, "The arithmetic-geometric mean and fast computation
of elementary functions," SIAM RelJ., v. 26, 1984, pp. 351-366.
5. J. M. BORWEIN & P. B. BORWEIN, "More quadratically converging algorithms for 1r,"
Math. Comp., v. 46, 1986, pp. 247-253.
6. J. M. BORWEIN & P. B. BORWEIN, Pi and the AGM-A Study in Analytic Number Theory
and Computational Complmty, Wiley, New York, 1987.
7. R. P. BRENT, "Fast multiple-precision evaluation of elementary functions," J. Assoc. Comput.
Mach., v. 23, 1976, pp. 242-251.
8. E. 0. BRIGHAM, The Faat Fourier Tran4orm, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1974.
9. W. GOSPER, private communication.
10. EMIL GROSSWALD, Topics/rom the Theory 0/ Numbers, Macmillan, New York, 1966.
ll. G. H. HARDY & E. M. WRIGHT, An Introduction to the Theory 0/ Numbers, 5th ed., Oxford
Univ. Press, London, 1984.
12. Y. KANADA & Y. TAMURA, Calculation 0/1r to 10,013,395 Decimal Place. Baaed on the
Gauss-Legendre Algorithm and Gauss Arctangent Relation, Computer Centre, University of Tokyo,
1983.
13. D. KNUTH, The Art 0/ Computer Programming, Vol. 2: Seminumerical Algorithma, Addison-
Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1981.
14. E. SALAM IN, "Computation of 1r using arithmetic-geometric mean," Math. Comp., v. 30,
1976, pp. 565-570.
15. D. SHANKS & J. W. WRENCH, JR., "Calculation of 1r to 100,000 decimals," Math. Comp.,
v. 16, 1962, pp. 76-99.
16. P. SWARZTRAUBER, "FFT algorithms for vector computers," Parallel Comput., v. 1, 1984,
pp.45-&4.

575
 Vectorization of Multiple·Precision Arithmetic Program
and
201,326,000 Decimal Digits of 1t Calculation

Yasumasa Kanada
Computer Centre, University of Tokyo,
Bunkyo-ku Yayoi 2-11-16, Tokyo 113, Japan

More than 200 million decimal places of 7t were calculated using arithmetic-geometric mean formula
independently discovered by Salamin and Brent in 1976. Correctness of the calculation were verified
through Borwein's quartic convergent formula developed in 1983. The computation took CPU times of 5
hours 57 minutes for the main calculation and 7 hours 30 minutes for the verification calculation on the
HITAC S-820 model 80 supercomputer with 256 Mb of main memory and 3 Gb of high speed semicon-
ductor storage, Extended Storage, for shorten 1/0 time.
Computation was completed in 27th of January 1988. At that day two programs generated values up
to 3><226, about 201 million. The two results agreed except for the last 21 ctigits. These results also agree
with the 133,554,000 places calculation of 7t which was done by the author in January 1987. Compare to
the record in 1987, 50% more decimal ctigits were calculated with about 1/6 of CPU time.
Computation was performed with real arithmetic based vectorized Fast Fourier Transform (FFI)
multiplier and newly vectorized multiple-precision add, subtract and (single word) constant multiplication
programs_ Vectorizations for the later cases were realized through first order linear recurrence vector
instruction on the S-820. Details of the computation and statistical tests on the first 200 million digits of
7t-3 are reported.

1. Introduction
Since the epoch-making calculation of 7t to 100,000 decimals [17], several computations have been
performed as in Table 1. The development of new algorithms and programs suited to the calculation of 1t
and new high speed computers with large memory and high speed large semiconductor ctisk, Extended
Storage or Solid State Disk, threw more light on this fascinating number.
There are many arctangent relations for 7t[9]. However, all these computations until 1981 and
verification for 10,000,000 decimal calculation of our previous record[21] used arctangent formulae such
as:

1t = 16arclan.!. - 4arclan-1- Machin

5 239 '
1 1 1
= 24arclan 8 + 8arclanS? + 4arclan 239 ' Stormer
1 1 1
= 48arClall 18 + 32arclall"57 - 20arclan 239 ' Gauss

= 32arclon...!.. - 4arclall-l - - 16arcloll-l - Klingenstiema

10 239 515 .

In 1976, an innovative quadratic convergent formula for the calculation of 1t was published indepen-
dently by Salamin [14] and Brent [5]. Later in 1983, quadratic, cubic, quadruple and septet convergent
product expansion for 7t, which are competitive with Salamin's and Brent's formula, were also discovered
by two of Borwein[2]. These new formulae are based on the arithmetic-geometric mean, a process whose
rapid convergence doubles, triples, quadruples and septates the number of significant ctigits at each step.
The arithmetic-geometric mean is the basis of Gauss' method for the calculation of elliptic integrals. With
the help of the elliptic integral relation of Legendre, 7t can be expressed in terms of the arithmetic-
geometric mean and the resulting algorithm retains quadratic, cubic, quartic and septic convergence of the
arithmetic-geometric mean process.

117

Reprinted with pennission. Copyright 1988 by Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved.

576
 The author and Mr. Y. Tamura have calculated 1t up 10 more than 200 million decimal places by
using the formula of Brent and Salam in and verified through Borwein's quartic convergent algorithm for 1t.
Even for the quartic convergent algorithm, quadratic convergent algorithm of Brent and Salamin is faster
through actual FORTRAN programs.
For reducing the computing time, theoretically fast multiple-precision multiplication algorithm was
implemented through normal fast Fourier transform (FFA), inverse fast Fourier transfom'l (FFS) and convo-
lution operations[ll] as befor.e[19,9,21,8J. And in order to get· more speed than before, vectorization
schemes to the multiple-precision add, subtract and (single word) constant mUltiplication were introduced
for the first time.
Calculation of 200 million decimal places of 1t was completed in January 27, 1988 and needed 5
hours 57 minutes of CPU time on a HITAC S-820 model 80 supercomputer at Hitachi Kanagawa Works
under a VOS3/HAP/ES 31 bit addressing operating system. Main memory used was about 240 Mb and 2.7
Gb of Extended Storage was also required. If the machine had more memory, CPU time could be reduced
and more Extended Storage, calculation decimals could be extended with minor changes in the FORTRAN
programs.
The algorithms used in the 200 million place calculation are briefly explained in section 2. Program-
ming in FORTRAN is discussed in section 3. Results of statistical tests and some interesting figures for
the 200,000,000 decimals of 1t appear in section 4.

2. How to Calculate 7t: Algorithmic Aspects

In this section we briefly explain the algorithms used in the 200 million decimal place calculations.

2.1. The Gauss·Legendre Algorithm: Main Algorithm

The theoretical basis of the Gauss-Legendre algorithm for 1t is explained in the references [2,5, 14].
Here, we sumrr..mze the quadratic algorithm for 1t. (Refer to the references for the details.)
We first define the arithmetic-geometric mean agm(ao,brJ). Let ao, b o and Co be positive numbers
satisfying a~ = b~ + c~. Define ao , the sequence of arithmetic means, and bo , the sequence of geometric
means, by

Also, define a positive number sequence co:

(1)
Note lilat, two relations easily follow from these definitions.
(ao_1 - bo_l ) 2
c. = 2 = (ao_1 - ao ) , c. = 4 x ao+l x c,"1 . (2)

Then, ogm(oo,b o) is the common limit of the sequences a o and b o ' namely
agm (a o,b rJ) = lim a. = lim b.
""""'- ,,---+-
Now, 1t can be e.xpressed as follows:
1t = 4osm(1,k)osm(1,k) (4)
1- I-2i (c/ + c'})
i=1

where 00 = a'o = I, b o = k, b'o = k' and k 2 + k,2 = I. It is easier to compute squares of Cj and C'j by
Eq. (2) than 10 calculate c/ and c'} by Eq. (I).
The symmetric choice of k = k' = 2- 1/l is recommendable for the actual calculation and it causes the
two sequences of arithmetic-geometric means to coincide. Then, Eq. (3) becomes
1t = 4 (ogm ~I ,2-112»2 (4)
1- 'L2j"lc/
j=1

After n square root operations in computing ogm = ogm (1,2- 112), 1t can be approximated by 1t.:

118

577
 40.2+1

±2 ±2
7t. =----'-- (5)
1- j +1 c! 0.25 - c!
j-1
j=1 j=1

Then, the absolute value of 7t - 7t. is bounded as follows (Theorem 2b in reference [14]) :
: 7t - 7t. : < (rr2xl.·~/ogm~ exp(-7tX2A+l) . (6)

Thus, the formula has the quadratic convergence nature. We must note here that all operations and con-
stants in Eq. (4) must be correct up 10 the required number of digits plus IX (20 to 30 as the guard digits for
200 million decimal digits calculation).
Then the sequences of ogm and ogm related 7t are calculated by the following algorithm;
A := 1; B := 2- 112; T := 1/4; X := 1;

while A -B >2-' do begin

W :=A*B; V :=A;A :=A+B;A :=A12;
V := V-A; V := V*V; V :=V*X;
T := T-V; B := VW; X := 2*X end;

A :=A*B;B := liT; A :=A*B;

return A .
Here, A, B , T, V and W are full-precision variables and X is a double-precision variable. After twenty
eight iterations of the main loop, 7t to 200 million decimal places is to be obtained.

2.2. Borwein's Quartic Convergent Algorithm: Verification Algorithm

Borwein's quartic convergent algorithm is explained as the following scheme:

00 = 6 - 4 x ..J2, Yo = ..J2 - 1
1 - (1 - Yt 4)114
v. 1
h+
=
1 + (1 +_Yt 4)114 '
0l+1 = 0t x (1 + Yl+l)4 - 22k +3 X Yt+l X (1 + Yt+l + Yl+l~'

7t = -1 for large k.
Ot

Here, precisions for Ot and Yt must be more than the desired digits. This algorithm is basically the same
with that used for the main run of the 29 million decimal calculation done by Dr. D.H. Bailey[1]. Dr. Bai-
ley used the following Borwein's quadratic convergent algorithm for the verification calculation:

7t =Pk for large k.

Here, precisions for Ot, bt and Pk must be more than the desired digits. It is to be noted that the Gauss-
Legendre algorithm is superior 10 the Borwein's algorithms explained here as in the Table 2.

2.3. Calculation of Reciprocals and Square Roots

As is easily seen from the algorithms explained above, arithmetic operations, reciprocals and square
roots must be computed with high efficiency in order to reduce the computing time. Theoretical bases for
fast calculation of reciprocals and square roots of multi-precision numbers appear in references
[16,12,4,5]. In this subsection we summarize the algorithms used in the actual calculation.
The reciprocal of C is obtained by the Newton iteration for the equation f (x) = x-I - C '" 0:
Xi+l = Xi x (2 - C x Xi) • (7)

119

578
 A single-. double- or quadruple-precision approximation of lIC is a reasonable selection for .1'0. i.e. initial
Slarting value for the NewlOn iteration.
Sqllare roots of C should be calculated through the multiplication of C and the result obtained by the
NeWlOn iteration for the equation / Cx) =.1'-2 - C • 0:
XI x(3-C XX?)
.1';+1= 2 (8)

In this case also. a single-. double- or quadruple-precision approximation of l/-IC is a reasonable selection
for %0. initial starting value.
Compare this 10 Ihe well known NeWlOn iteration for Ihe equation / Cx) =.1'2 - C .. 0:
(.1'1+.£)
XI
.1'1+1 =-""""2"";"- (9)

The ilUation of Eq. (8) is better in bolh computing complexity and in actual calculation !han the iteration
of Eq. (9). The order of convergence for Ihe iterations of Eq. (7) and Eq. (8) is two. This convergence
speed is favorable in the aclllal calculation. It is 10 be noted Ihat in these iterations the whole operation
need not to be done with full-precision at each step. That is. if k -precision calculation is done at step j.
2k -precision calculation is sufficient for at step j + 1.

2.4_ Multiple-precision Multiplication

SchOnhage-Strassen's algorithm [1S]. which uses the discrete Fourier transform wilh modulo 2' + I.
could be Ihe key multiple-precision multiplication a1gorilhm for speeding up the 7t calculation. However.
Ihis a1gorilhm is so hard to implement and needs binary 10 decimal radix conversion for Ihe final result.
Dr. Bailey also used discrete Fourier transform but wilh three prime modulo computation followed by Ihe
reconstruction through Chinese Remainder Theorem for his 29 million decimal places calculation[I].
Now. we focused Ihe special scheme which utilizes Ihe fact of "tM Fourier transform 0/ a convolu-
tion product is tM ordinary product of the Fourier transforms."
Let consider Ihe product C of two length n wilh radix X integers A and B. Note Ihat Ihe radix X
need not 10 be a power of 2.
20-1 20-1
A = LajX I .B = LblX I •
i~ i=O

where OSal<X.OSbl<X for OSi<n-l. O<o,_I<X.O<b,_I<X and oi=bl=O. for

i<O.nSi.
Then.

Thus.
20-1
Ci = L aibj-i' for i = O•••• • 211-2. and c20-1 = O.
j>4J

If co =up (27ti 1211) is a 2n Ih root of unity. the one-dimensional Fourier transform of the sequences
of complex numbers (000 01' ••.• 020-1). (b o• b l • • • • • b20_I) and (co. CI. • C20-I) are defined as
Ihe sequences of (8 00 al • • • • • 8 20 - 1), (bOo b l • • • • • b20_I) and (eo. el • ...• e20_I). respectively.
Here.
20-1 20-1 20-1
al = L 0i COil • hi =L bj COil. C, =L Ci COil. for 0 SIS 211 -I .
1>4J i.o i.o
Then. (ao6o. a161• • • • • Q20-1 20 - 1)6 is equal to (eo. el • • • • • e20_I) as the followings:
20-1 20-1 20-1 20-1 20-1 20-1 20-1
01 61 = (L a;coh') (L bico1i ) =L L aibj COl (I+j) = L (L ajb,_j)coll = L CICOli
104 i04 j.o i.o 104 i>4J 104

120

579
 In these discussions, radix X might be an any number. However, CJ) must be a complex nwnber,
namely floating point real arithmetic operations are needed in the process of Fourier transformation. If and
only if all the floating point real arithmetic operations are performed exactly, this scheme should give the
correct result as discussed in page 290-295 of reference[1I). Compared to the discrete Fourier transform
based multiplier, floating point real arithmetic operations based Fourier transform seems ideal and
dangerous, but attractive as for the actual multiple-precision multiplication method.
The reasons are:
1) The speed of double precision floating point operations is faster than integer operations in the
available machine, especially for supercomputers. And in general, the number of bits obtain-
able in one double precision floating point instruction is longer than that obtainable in one
single integer instruction.
2) Conversion from binary results to decimal results needs other techniques and coding. (Simple
is besL Scht)nhage-Strassen's discrete FFT algorithm is the binary data multiplier.)
3) A qualified high-speed FFT routine was available as a library. (Qualified programming
improves the reliability of the program. If we adopt Sch~nhage-Strassen's discrete FFT algo-
rithm, we have to code for iLl
4) Chinese remainder based discrete FFT algorithm is not so fast as far as the Dr. Y. Ushiro's
experiment in 1983[20) is concerned. (He showed the inferiority of Chinese remainder based
discrete FFT to us prior to the Dr. Bailey's experiment[I). We needed a faster multiple-
precision multiplier.)
Followings are the algorithm used in our calculation. Here, let consider the multiplication of two
m x 2~ bit (= m x (logJ02) x 2~ decimal digit) integers A and B through our schemes.
Step I: Prepare two 2 x 2" entry double precision floating point array.
Step 2: Convert both of m x 2" bit integers into double precision floating point numbers. (The
first half of 2 x 2" entry contains information for m x 2" bit, namely, m bit information
per one double precision floating point array entry.)
Step 3: Initialize to double precision floating point zero for the second half of 2 x 2" entry.
Step 4: Apply 2"+1 point normal Fourier transform, say FFA, operations to A and B giving A' and
B', respectively.
Step 5: Do the convolution product operations between A' and B' giving new 2 x 2" entry double
precision array C '.
Step 6: Apply 2"+1 point inverse Fourier transform, say FFS, operations to C' giving C. (Now, C
is the double precision floating point array of 2 x 2" entry. lf operations FFA, FFS and
convolution product are performed in infinite precision, each entry of C should be the exact
double precision floating point representation for integer with maximum value of
2" x (2m_l)2. However, these representation are slightly deviated from exact integer in the
actual operation. Because, infinite precision operations are impossible to perform.)
Step 7: Convert each entry of C (let it to be x) into integer representation. (Conversion should be
done with IDNlNT operation in FORTRAN. (IDNlNT(x) = IDINT(x+0.5OO).) If absolute
value of (x-DFLOAT(IDNINT(x))) is near to 0.5DO, the multiplication is considered to be
incorrect We don't know that criterion of 0.4500 is sufficient or not. However criterion
of 0.200, for example, was sufficient enough in the actual multiplication.)
Step 8: Normalize C under the suitable base. The base of 2 m or 10m ( Io I)(,2) is better for binary or
decimal representation. Final result is the result of multiplication between A and B.
According to the theoretical and experimental analysis of error in FFT [6,10), FFT attains rather
stable error behavior. Theoretically roughly speaking, 2' point FFT attains I log (1) bits error at the max-
imum (worst case). This means that FFA and the convolution product followed by FFS would acquire
21 log (I) bits error at the maximwn, even if the trigonometric functions at coefficients for the butterfly
operation are calculated exactly.
Available mantissa bits are 56 for double-precision floating point data of the Japanese supercomput-
ers. (CRAY and ETA machines adopt 48 bit mantissa representation for the floating point numbers.) Then,
the following equation must be satisfied for the worst case;

121

580
 bits available in the calculation ~ (guard bits for FFA and FFS opera/ions) +
(necessary bits for preserving the results)
56 ~ 2 (n+l) log (n+l) + log (2" x (2"'-li) .
Here n is an integer. Thus. even for m = 1.
n So 7 .
The analysis suggests a maximum n of 7. However. the maximum n depends on the method of program-
ming. errors in uigonometric function calculations. value of m. etc. (There is another error analysis for the
floating point real FFT multiplier in reference [1 1] which specifies the radix X in our explanation to be the
power of2.)
The error analysis for the actual calculation is hard. Then. we have checked the availability of the
FFT multiplier based on the above schemes through acrual programs. We monitored the deviations from
integer values after the stage of conversion to integer representation as explained in Step 7 of the above
explanation. The monitoring secures a maximum n of 24. for the condition of one data point. a double
word. holds 3 decimals at the maximum (m is about 10) on the first half of 2 x 224 data points and zero on
the second half of 2 x 224 data points. Then we decided that the maximum length of multiplicand to be
multiplied in-core is 3 x 224 decimal places (about 50 million decimals) in the actual multiplication.
For multiplying 3 x 226 decimal places numbers (multiple-precision data for 200 million decimal
places). we used the classical 0 (n ~ algorithm. e.g. school boy method. for the data of 2261224 = 22 =4
units with base of 224 x 1.000! It is possible to realize mUltiple-precision multiplier all through FFT. not
through school boy method. In order to do so. we must write exira program for out-of-core version of
FFT. We preferred to utilize the reliability of the numerical libraries.

2.5. Vectorizatlon or Multiple-Precision Add, Subtract and (Single Word) Constant Multiplication
For the programs of multiple'precision add. subtract and (single word) constant multiplier. time con-
suming process is releasing the "borrow or carry."
If the machine has special instruction for vectorizing first order linear recurrence relation of the fol-
lowing. the process of releasing the borrow or carry could be vectorized. (Now. all of the Japanese super-
computers are equipped with such instructions.)
DO 10 I = ...
10 A(I) = B(I) * A(I·l) + C(I)
Here. vector A has a nature of first order linear recurrence relation. The following program which were
extracted form the source codes of the acrual run will explain how to rewrite the program for multiple-
precision adder. Same strategies can be applied to the multiple· precision routines for subtract and (single
word) constant multiplication.

C ;nteger*' -- HA. HB. ICYC=carry). ICWC=~ork). IONESC=base=10**6)

C re.l*S -- YC=~ork). ZC=earry). CYC=work). CWC=work)
C re.l*S -- ONEDS=DFLOATCIONES). ONEDHS=1.DO/ONEDS. HLFDHS=.5DO*ONEDHS
DO 10 J=NDA.1.-1 DO 10 J=NDA.2.-1
ICW=HACJ)+HBCJ)+ICY YCJ)=HACJ)+HBCJ)
IFC ICW.GE.IONES ) THEN ZCJ-1)=YCJ)*ONEDHS+ZCJ)-ONEDHS
HACJ)=ICW-IONES ZCJ):DINTCZCJ)+HLFDHS)
ICY=1 10 CONTINUE
ELSE ==> Z(1)=DINTCZCJ)+HLFDHS)
HACJ)-ICW DO 11 J=NDA.2.-1
ICY=O HACJ)=YCJ)+ZCJ)-ZCJ-1)-ONEDS
END IF 11 CONTI NUE
10 CONTINUE CW=DFLOATCHA(1)+HBC1»+ZC1)
CY=DINTCCW-ONEDHS+HLFDHS)
HA(1)=CW-CY*ONEDS

3. How to Calculate x: Programming Aspects

The actual programs, written in FORTRAN. consisted of 3426 (main) and 3642 (verification) lines of
source code with comment lines. The numbers of program units are 59 (main) and 64 (verification). In
this section we brie1ly overview the actual programming.

122

581
 About the half of the sub-programs are routines related to multiple-precision multiplication. Others
are routines for addition, subtraction, reciprocal operations, square root operations, file I/O operations, elc.
The HITAC S-820 model 80 is a so called 2nd generation supercomputer in Japan. The machine is
single processor model and has theoretical peak performance of 3Gflops. Maximum attachable main
memory size is 512 Mb and Extended Storage size is 12 Gb. FFT routines, FFA and FFS, are carefully
selected from the non-vectorized FORTRAN numerical library which was provided by the Hitachi and
source codes were slightly modified by myself for the vectorization.

3.1. Layout of Storage

As explained in section 2, we used a floating point real FFT whose accuracy is secured under the
conditions of
(1) 224+1 point double-precision floating point real FFT,
(2) maximum number at each entry point for the first half entry is non negative number and
must be bounded by 1,000,
(3) the second half entry contains zero.
These conditions allow in-core multiplication of numbers with 224 x 3 ( = 50,331,648) decimals. If we
want more decimals 10 be calculated in-core (on main memory), we must reduce the above conditions, e.g.
(1) 224+1 points -> 229+1 points,
(2) maximum number at each entry point of 1,000 -> 100.
These new conditions would allow numbers of up 10 2 29 X 2 (= 1,073,741,824) decimals 10 be manipulated
in-core. (JV e did not check the validity of these conditions through actual run. Our examples are only for
explanation!) However, currently available maximum memory size prevent such higher precision calcula-
tions in-core. In order to run with such ideal conditions, at least 8 GB of main memory should be avail-
able. Now, the cases with 217+1 points or 2 18+1 points and maximum number at each entry point of 10,000
were applied for the previous our 7t calculations including 133 million decimals record. The increase of
in-core operable FFT points is the major factor for the speed-up 10 the 11: calculation.
It was impossible to obtain 200 million decimal places through in-core operations because of avail-
able main memory size. Therefore we introduced the user controlled virtual memory scheme for saving
high precision constants of 1/-.12, -.12, 11:, and several working storage with compression factor of 6 decimals
I 4 bytes. (Integer representation was used for saving slOrages on the extended storage. For FFT, a 3
decimals I 8 bytes scheme - double precision floating point representation - was needed as explained.)
These schemes needed about 240 Mb of main memory for the wooong storage, input and output (I/O)
buffer, object codes, elc. As for the extended storage size, 13.5 Mb /1 million decimal places was needed.

3_2. Optimization for Speedup

We have employed several optimization schemes:
1) Multiplication by 1 -> normal copy operation.
2) Multiplication by 2 -> normal addition operation.
3) Deletion of unnecessary FFA and FFS operations.
4) Reuse of internal iteration results.
For 1) arid 2), explanation is simple enough. In the following two subsections, we explain the details of 3)
and 4).

3.2.1. How to Delete FFA and FFS Operations

As explained in section 2.4, the school boy method was employed for multiple-precision multiplica-
tion (for data length longer than in-core operable length). Now as for an example of 4 x 4 school boy
method, let consider the simple case of 2 x 2. That corresponds 10 the multiplication of two integers, both
with a length of 3 x22S and in-core operable length of 3 x 224. Without optimization, each 224 x 1,000
decimal based mUltiplication needs eight FFA for input and four FFS for output as fol1ows;
(AI x BASE +A0 x (B 1 x BASE +B0
= {FFS of (FFA of A I • FFA of B i» x BASE z
+«FFS of (FFA of AI·FFA of B0)+(FFS of (FFA of Az-FFA of B I») X BASE

123

582
 -+{FFS of (FFA of Al ' FFA of Bi) ,
where . is the convolution product for the Fourier transfonned data, + is the vector-wise addition and
BASE is 22A x 1,000_
There are very many FFA and FFS operations. These operations can be reduced a lot by the follow-
ing schemes:
1) First apply FFA operations 10 AI' A l , BI and B l • Let the results be A{, Az', BI' and B,.',
respectively.
2) Now (AI', B 2' + A 2' . B I') preserve infonnation in the sense explained in section 2.4.
3) Then, the linearity of FFS operation satisfies the following equation:
(AI x BASE + Ai) x (B I x BASE + Bi)
= (FFS of (AI', B I ') X BASEl + (FFS of (AI', B 2' + A 2' · B I') x BASE
+ (FFS of (A 2" B 2' ) ·
According 10 the results of CPU time profile analysis for 33 million decimal places calculation, multiplica-
tion occupies 90% of CPU time. (Here, CPU time does not contain the time for input and output opera-
tions.) Thus, this optimization is rather efficient when the length of multiplicand becomes long. (In this
case, FFA operations was reduced from 8 to 4 and FFS operations was reduced from 4 10 3.)

3.2.2. Reuse or Internal Iteration Results

Newton's iteration for square roots and reciprocals has second order convergence nature. This
implies that internal iteration results at the calculation of the half-length precision of 1t can be the initial
value for the iteration at the calculation of the full-length precision of!t. (And this selection is the best
selection for reducing CPU time.) According 10 measurements of CPU time, this scheme reduced the CPU
time 10-20% for the 16 or 33 million decimal places calculation.
If we utilize this fact, we can reduce the computation time probably by 10-20%. To do so, however,
we had 10 prepare the permanent slOrage of about 1.5 Gb. This was completely impossible at the time of
actual run. For the hislOry of !t calculation, we had saved the internal iteration results from the calculation
of 16 million decimal places (data size is around 100 Mb). That data helped for the calculation of 32 mil-
lion decimal places of !t substantially. And also for the calculation of 16 million decimal places of !t, we
had utilized the internal iteration results from the calculation of 8 million decimal places.

4. Statistical Analysis or 200,000,000 Decimals or x

In order to analyze the statistics of 200,000,000 decimals of !t, we used the same statistical tests as
Pathria[l3), except that the number of digits expanded from 100,000 10 200,000,000. In this section we
brie1\y show the statistical data and some interesting figures from the 200,000,000 decimals of!t. Now, the
2oo,OOO,OOO-th decimal number of It - 3 is 9.

4.1. Results or Statistical tests

Five kinds of statistical tests were perfonned. These are the frequency test, the serial tests, the Poker
hand test, the gap test and the five-digit sum test. We have reproduced only the results of frequency test in
the Table 3_ The other results are to be published through the reference[7).

4.2. Some Interesting Figures

Analysis of digit sequences for 200,000,000 decimal places of 1t - 3 gives some interesting figures;
1) A longest descending sequence of 2109876543 appears (from 26,160,634) only once. The next
longest descending sequence is 876543210 (from 2,747,956) only. The next longest descending
sequence of length 8 appears 9 times.
2) The longest ascending sequence is 901234567 which appears from 197,090,144. The next
longest ascending seqllCnce is 23456789 (from 995,998), 89012345 (from 33,064,267,
39,202,678, 62,632,993 and 78,340,559), 90123456 (from 35,105,378, 44,994,887, 98,647,533
and 127,883,114), 56789012 (from 100,800,812 and 139,825,562), 67890123 (from
102,197,548, 135,721,079 and 178,278,161), 01234567 (from 112,O99,767), 78901234 (from

124

583
 119,172,322, 122,016,838, 182,288,028 and 195,692,744), 12345678 (from 186,557,266) and
45678901 (from 194,981,709). The next longest ascending sequence of length 7 appears 170
times.
3) A sequence of maximum multiplicity (of 9) appears 3 times. These are 7 (from 24,658,601), 6
(from 45,681,781) and 8 (from 46,663,520). The next longest sequence of multiplicity (of 8)
appears 16 times.
4) The longest sequence of 27182818 appears from 73,154,827, 143,361,474 and 183,026,622.
The next longest sequence of 2718281 appears 22 times.
5) The longest sequence of 14142135 appears from 52,638, 10,505,872 and 143,965,527. The
next longest sequence of 1414213 appears from 13,816,189, 40,122,589, 72,670,122,
87,067,359, 104,717,213, 115,301,872, 145,035,762, 147,685,125, 155,299,021, 165,871,476,
166,005,277, 166,491,213 and 191,208,533. The next longest sequence of 141421 appears 169
times.
6) The longest sequence of 31415926 appears 2 times. These are from 50,366,472 and
157,060,182. The next longest sequence of 3141592 appears 7 times.

5. Conclusion
Details of 201,326,000 decimal digits of 7t calculation and some results of statistical tests on
200,000,000 decimals of 7t are presented. The original program is written in FORTRAN 77 and heavily
utilizes floating point operations. Multiple-precision add, subtract and constant multiplication programs
were also vectorized through linear recurrence special instruction. Programs do not depend on the scheme
of round-off and cut-off to the results for the floating point operations. Then, not only round-off machine,
e.g. supercomputers of CRAY Inc. and ETA systems, but also cut-off machine, e.g. Japanese supercomput-
ers, can generate correct 7t digits. The program calls few system specific subroutines, e.g. CLOCK, TIME,
but adaptation to the new machine is easy. In order to get speed, available main memory size is crucial
and shorten elapsed time, availability of high speed I/O devices is also crucial. Thus, the 7t calculation
program based on the scheme explained here can be a good benchmark program for the supercomputer.
We have programmed the fast multiple-precision multiplication through a floating point real FFT
package, which was available as one of the program libraries. This means that half a hundred lines of code
is sufficient for the fast multiple-precision multiplication. (A few lines of array declaration, one line for
calling the FFA routine, a few lines of convolution products, one line for calling the FFS routine and a few
lines of normalization under a suitable base.) These schemes would be of benefit to other high-precision
constant and function calculations. And another scheme, high utilization of floating point operations in the
processing of integers, is also favorable for the integer calculation, especially to number crunchers.
As the Table 1 shows, it took 12 years for extending the length of known 7t value from 100,000 to
1,000,000, 10 years from 1,000,000 to 10,000,000 and 4 years from 10,000,000 to the order of
100,000,000. When can we unveil the digits after 1,000,000,000, how and by whom?

6. Acknowledgments
The author would like to express my thanks to Mr. YoshiaJci Tamura for his collaboration with me
and to Dr. Kazunori Miyoshi for utilizing his statistical analysis program for 7t. Thanks are also due to Mr.
Akihiko Shibata for his information concerning the history of 7t calculation. I also thank to Hitachi Co. for
giving me a chance to extend the length of 7t value.

125

584
 Calculated b1 Machine used Dale PredslOll TIme Formula

Rci1wiuner et at EI\'IAC 1949

(calculi.... )
(2040)
doclared
""""""
2037
(ched:)
-7Ob
(ched:)
M(M)
("7Ob)
Nicholson ok l ....d NORC 1954 (3093) 3092 13m M(M)
(13m)
Fdtca Pe,IIUI 1957 (10021) 7480 33b K(G)
(33b)
GenU)'1 mM704 1958 (10000) 10000 1h4Om M(M)
(lh 4Om)
Fdtca p.,a.UI · (10021) 10020 33h
(33b)
K(G)

GuiIloud mM704 1959 (16167) 16167 4.3h M(M)

(4.3h)
Sbonks ok W..... ch mM7090 1961 (100265) 100265 8h43m S(G)
(4b 22m)
Guilloud A FilIi&1rO mM 7030 1966 (250000) 250000 41h 55m G(S)
(24h 35m)
GuiIloudA Dicbampt CDC 6600 1967 (SOOOOO) SOOOOO 28b 10m G(S)
(16h 35m)
Guilloud A Bouyer CDC 7600 1973 (1001250) 1001250 23h 18m G(S)
(13h 4Om)
Miyosbi A Kanada FACOMM·2oo 1981 (2000040) 2000036 137.3h K(M)
200000O (143.3h)
Gumoud
" 1981·82 (1)
2000050
20000s0
"
(1)
It

Tamura MELCOM 900ll 1982 (2097152) 2097144 7h 14m L(l..)

(2h 21m)
Tamura A Kanada HITAC M·28OH · (4194304) 4194288 2h 21m L(l..)

Tamura A Kanada
. · (8388608) 8388576
(6h 52m)
6h 52m L(l..)
« 3Ob)
Kanada, Yoshino ok . 1983 (16777216) 16777206 < 30b L(l..)
Tamura (6h 36m)
U.biro ,. Kanadl HITAC S·810120 1983 (10013400) 10013395 < 24h 0(1.)
Oa. 10000000 « 3Ob)
"
Gosper Symbolic. 3670 1985 <>,,17526200) 17526200 R(B4)
Oct. (28h)
Bailey CRAY·2 1986 (29360128) 29360111 28h B4(B2)
Ian. 29360000 (4CfJ)
Kanad. ,. Tamura HITAC S·810120 1986 (33554432) 33554414 6h36m L(l..)
Sop. 33554000 (23h)
Kanada A Tamura HITAC S·810120 1986 (67108864) 67108839 23h L(l..)
Oa. (3Sh 15m)
Kanada, Tamura, NECSX·2 1987 (134214728) 134214700 3Sh 15m L(B4)
Kubo etc. Ian. 133554000 (48h 2m)
Kanada A Tamura HITAC S·82O/80 1988 (201326572) 201326551 Sh 57m L(B4)
Ian. 201326000 (7h 30m)

Table 1. Historical records of Ihe calculation of 7t performed on electronic computers. M, K, G, S, L, R,

B4 and B2 are the formulae of Machin, K1ingenstiema, Gauss, StOrmer, and Gauss-Legendre, formula
explained in the reference[3], Borwein's quartic convergent. Borwein's quadratic convergent, respectively.
Symbol 'x' means 'un\cnown'. Check time means the additional time for the calculated value checking.
This information was basically obtained from Mr. Shibata[18].

126

585
 Type of operation Brent et. al. Borwein's Quartic Borwein's quadratic
X 112 or X ll4 n n n
x 2n+2 5n 6n
reciprocal 1 n+l 2n
+,- 3n+l 6n 3n

Table 2. Comparison of basic, time consuming, operations in the three historically important algorithms for
7t calculation. Here n is a number of iterations. In order to compare with fare, both side columns numbers
should be doubled.

Di,it , 1.2
,
3 4 5 6 7 9
,
0 1 2

100 1 12 11 10 I 9 12 14 4.20

.,
200 19 20 24 19 22 213 16 12 25 23 6.80
500 45 ~9 ~ ~O 53 so 36 53 52 6.88
lk 93 116 103 102 93 97 94 95 101 106 4.74
2k 112 212 207 lU 195 lOS 200 197 2132 212 4.34
51< 466 532 496 459 501 525 513 ." 492 ~21 10.77
10K 961 1026 1021 974 1012 1()046 lOll 970 941 1014 9.32
20K 19~ 1997 1916 1916 2043 2012 2017 1953 1962 2020 7.72
50K S033 S055 ",67 4947 5011 SOS2 SOli 4977 5030 5010 5.86
lOOK 9999 10137 9901 l002S 9971 10026 10029 l002S 9971 9902 4.09
lOOK 20104 20063 19192 20010 19174 20199 1919' 20163 19956 19141 7.31
500K 49915 49984 49753 SOOOO S0357 S023S 49124 50:00 49911 49791 7.73
1M 99959 99751 100026 100229 100230 l003~9 99~ 99100 99915 100106 5.51
2M 199792 199535 200077 200141 200013 200S21 199403 200310 199447 200691 9.00
4M 399419 399463 399t22 399913 400792 400032 399032 400650 400113 400694 7.92

5M 499620 499191 499S01 499933 500~ SOOO2S 4917S1 SOOIIO 499180 5009S' 7.88
8M 799111 100110 799781 100234 100202 100154 19m5 IOOS60 100631 100311 3.79
10M 999440 999333 1000306 999964 1001093 1000466 999337 lOOO2!J1 99911. 1000040 2.78
ISM IS00011 1499675 1501044 1499917 1501166 1500417 1491447 1499514 IS00435 1499234 4.07

20M 2001162 1999132 2001409 1999343 2001106 2000125 1999269 1991404 1999720 1999630 4.17

-
25M 2500496 2499915 2S00707 2499313 2502126 2500139 2499603 2491290 2499119 2499522 5.28
30M 2999157 30005~ 3000969 2999222 3OO2.l93 2999997 2999~ 2991175 2999592 3000193 4.3.
SOM .;999632 500= S000513 .(~9'6~ 41999197 04991017 4;991195 049910494 4999733 6.17
80M 7998107 1002781 10018:zJ 7997656 1003525 7996500 7991165 7999319 1000301 1001034 5.95
100M 9999922 10002475 10001092 9991442 10003163 9993471 9999417 9999610 10002110 9999521 7.27
150M 14991619 15001110 15001S16 14999130 1S0031129 14993562 14991434 14999462 15001416 15002012 4.90
200M 19997437 20003774 20002115 200C)t'UD 19999146 199'93031 19999161 2l3OOO:zJ7 20002307 2l3OOO562 4.13

Table 3. Summary of frequency for the first 200,000,000 digits of 7t - 3 and corresponding X2 values.

127

586
 References
1. Bailey, D.H., "The Computation of 7ti to 29,360,000 Decimal Digits Using Borwein's Quartically
Convergent Algorithm," Math. Comp., vol. 50, no. 181, pp. 66-88, Jan. 1988.
2. Borwein, J.M. and Borwein, P.B., Pi and the AGM - A study in Analytic Number Theory and Compu-
tational Complexity, A Wiley-Interscience Publication, New York, 1987.
3. Borwein, J.M. and Borwein, P.B., "Ramanujan and Pi," Scientific Alrrerican, vol. 258, pp. 66-73,
Feb. 1988.
4. Brent, R.P., "Fast Multiple·Precision Evaluation of Elementary Functions," J. ACM., vol. 23, no. 2,
pp. 242-251, April 1976.
5. Brent, R.P., "Multiple-Precision Zero-Finding Methods and the Complexity of Elementary Function
Evaluation," in Analytic Computational Complexity, ed. Traub, J.F., pp. 151-176, Academic Press,
New York, 1976.
6. Gentleman, W.M. and Sande, G., "Fast Fourier Transfonns - For Fun and Profit," AFIPS Con!
Proc. FJCC, vol. 29, pp. 563-578, Spartan Books, San Francisco, Calif., November 1966.
7. Kanada, Y., "Statistical Analysis of 7t up to 200,000,000 Decimal Places," CCUT-TR-88-02, in
preparation, Computer Centre, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Yayoi 2-11-16, Tokyo 113, Japan,
Nov.1988.
8. Tamura, Y., Yoshino, S., Ushiro, Y. and Kanada, Y., "Circular Constant - It's High Speed Calcula-
tion Method and Statistics -," in Proceedings Programming Symposium. in Japanese, Infonnation
Processing Society of Japan, Jan. 1984.
9. Tamura, Y. and Kanada, Y.• "Calculation of It to 4,194,293 Decimals Based on the Gauss·Legendre
Algorithm," CCUT-TR-83-0I, Computer Centre, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Yayoi 2-11-16,
Tokyo 113, Japan, May 1983.
10. Kaneko, T. and Liu, B., "Accumulation of Round-Off Error in Fast Fourier Transfonns," J. ACM.,
vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 637-654. Oct. 1970.
11. Knuth, D.E., The Art o/Computer Programming. Vol. 2: Seminumerical Algorithms. Addison-Wesley,
Reading. Mass., 1981.
12. Laasonen, P., "On the Iterative Solution of the Matrix Equation A X'2 - I = 0," Math. Tables and
Other ,lids to Comp .• vol. 12. pp. 109-116, 1958.
13. Pathria, RK., "A Statistical Study of Randomness Among the First 10.000 Digits of 7t," Math.
Comp., vol. 16, pp. 188·197, 1962.
14. Salamin, E., "Computation of 7t Using Arithmetic-Geometric Mean," Math. Comp., vol. 30, no. 135,
pp. 565·570, July 197,6.
15. SchOnhage, A. and Strassen, V.• "Schnelle Multiplikation Grosser Zahlen," Computing, vol. 7, pp.
281·292, 1971.
16. Schutz, G., "Iterative Berechnung der Reziproken Matrix," Z. Angew. Math. Mech., vol. 13, pp. 57-
59,1933.
17. Shanks, D~ and Wrench, Jr. W., "Calculation of 1t to 100,000 Decimals," Math. Comp., vol. 16, pp.
76-79. 1962.
18. Shibata, A., 1982-1983. Private communications
19. Tamura, Y., "Calculation of It to 2 Million Decimals Using Legendre-Gauss' Relation," Proceeding
of the International Latitude Observatory of Mizusawa No.22 (in Japanese) in press, Internal Latitude
Observatory of Mizusawa, Hoshigaoka-cho 2·12, Mizusawa City, 023 Iwate Prefecture, Japan, 1983.
20. Ushiro, Y., "Calculation of Multiple-Precision Numbers through Vectorizing Processor," in Numeri-
cal Calculation Workshop. in Japanese, Infonnation Processing Society of Japan, 26-28 May. 1983.
21. Kanada, Y., Tamura, Y .• Yoshino, S. and Ushiro, Y., "Calculation of 7t to 10,013,395 Decimal
Places Based on the Gauss·Legendre Algorithm and Gauss Arctangent Relation," CCUT-TR-84-01,
Computer Centre, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Yayoi 2-11·16, Tokyo 113,lapan, Dec 1983.

128

587
 Ramanujan and Pi
Some 75 years ago an Indian mathematical genius developed ways
of calculating pi with extraordinary efficiency. His approach is now
incorporated in computer algorithms yielding millions of digits ofpi

by Jonathan M. Borwein and Peter B. Borwein

P I, the ratio of any circle's cir'

cumference to its diameter, was
computed in 1987 to an unprec·
shed light on some of the riddles sur-
rounding pi, a universal constant that
is not partic,ularly well understood,
ty has ever been attempted_ The ef-
fort is certainly worthwhile. Rama-
nujan's legacy in the "Notebooks"
edented level of accuracy: more than In spite of its relatively elementary promises not only to enrich pure
100 million decimal places. last year nature. For example, although it has mathematics but also to find applica-
also marked the centenary of the been proved that pi cannot ever be tion in various fields of mathematical
birth of Srinivasa Ramanujan, an en- exactly evaluated by subjecting posi- physics. Rodney J. Baxter of the Aus-
igmatic Indian mathematical genius tive Integers to any combination of tralian National University, for exam-
who spent much of his short life in adding, subtracting, multiplying, di- ple, acknowledges that Ramanujan's
isolation and poor health. The two viding or extracting roots, no one has findings helped him to solve such
events are in fact closely linked, be- succeeded in proving that the digits problems in statistical mechaniCS as
cause the basic approach underlying of pi follow a random distribution the so-called hard-hexagon model,
the most recent computations of pi (such that each number from 0 to 9 which considers the behavior of a
was anticipated by Ramanujan, al- appears with equal frequency). It is system of interacting particles laid
though its implementation had to possible, albeit highly unlikely, that out on a honeycomblike grid. Simi-
await the formulation of efficient al- after a while all the remaining digits larly, CarlosJ. Moreno ofthe City Uni-
gorithms (by various workers includ- of pi are O's and l's or exhibit some versity of New York and Freeman J.
ing us), modern supercomputers and other regularity. Moreover, pi turns Dyson of the Institute for Advanced
new ways to multiply numbers. up in all kinds of unexpected places Study have pointed out that Ramanu-
Aside from providing an arena in that have nothing to do with circles. jan's work is beginning to be applied
which to set records of a kind, the If a number is picked at random from by physicists in superstring theory_
quest to calculate the number to mil- the set of integers, for instance, the Ramanujan's stature as a mathe-
lions of decimal places may seem probability that it will have no re- matician is all the more astonishing
rather pointless. Thirty-nine places peated prime divisors is six divided when one considers his limited for-
of pi suffice for computing the cir- by the square of pI. No different from mal education. He was born on De-
cumference of a circle girdling the other eminent mathematicians, Ra- cember 22, 1887, into a somewhat
known universe with an error no manujan was prey to the fascinations impoverished family of the Brahmin
greater than the radius of a hydrogen of the number. caste in the town of Erode In south-
atom. It is hard to imagine physical ern India and grew up in Kumba-
situations requiring more digits. Why
are mathematicians and computer T approaches
he ingredients of the recent
to calculating pi are
konam, where his father was an ac-
countant to a clothier. His mathemat-
SCientists not satisfied with. say, the among the mathematical treasures ical precocity was recognized early,
first 50 digits of pi? unearthed by renewed interest in Ra- and at the age of seven he was given
Several answers can be given. One manujan's work. Much of what he a scholarship to the Kumbakonam
is that the calculation of pi has be- did, however, is still inaccessible to Town High School. He is said to have
come something of a benchmark investigators. The body of his work recited mathematical formulas to his
computation: it serves as a measure is contained in his "Notebooks," schoolmates-including the value of
of the sophistication and reliability of which are personal records written pi to many places.
the computers that carry it out. In ad- in his own nomenclature. To make When he was 12, Ramanujan mas-
dition, the pursuit of ever more ac- matters more frustrating for math- tered the contents of S. l. loney's
curate values of pi leads mathema- ematicians who have studied the rather comprehensive Plane Trigo-
ticians to intriguing and unexpect- "Notebooks," Ramanujan generally nometry, Including its discussion of
ed niches of number theory. Another did not include formal proofs for his the sum and products of infinite se-
and more ingenuous motivation is theorems. The task of deciphering quences, which later were to figure
simply "because it's there." In fact, pi and editing the "Notebooks" is only prominently in his work. (An Infinite
has been a fixture of mathematical now nearing completion, by Bruce C. sequence is an unending string of
culture for more than two and a half Berndt of the University of Illinois at terms, often generated by a simple
millenniums. Urbana-Champaign. formula. In this context the interest-
Furthermore, there is always the To our knowledge no mathemati- ing sequences are those whose terms
chance that such computations will cal redaction of this scope or difficul- can be added or multiplied to yield
112 © 1988, IEEE, Reprinted with permission from Science and Applications; Supercomputing 88:
Volume 11,117-128,1988.

588
an identifiable, finite value. If the completely, and yet "they must be In 1917 Ramanujan was made a Fel-
terms are added, the resulting ex- true, because if they "'ere not true, 10\\ uf the Royal Society of London
pression is called a series; if they are no one would have had the imagina' and a fellow of Trinity College-the
multiplied, it is called a product.) tion to invent them." first Indian to be awarded either hon-
Three years later he borrowed the Hardy immediately invited Rama· or. Yet as his prominence grew his
Synopsis ofElementary Results in Pure nujan to come to Cambridge. In spite health dNeriorated sharply, a de-
Mathematics, a listing of some 6,000 of his mother's strong objections as cline perhaps accelerated by the dif-
theorems (most of them given with- well as his own reservations, Rama- ficulty of maintaining a strict vege-
out prooO compiled by G. S. Carr, a nujan set out for England in March of tarian diet in war-rationed England_
tutor at the University of Cambridge. 1914. During the next fi \'e years Har- Although Ramanujan was in and
Those two books were the basis of dy and Ramanujan worked together out of sanatoriums, he continued to
Ramanujan's mathematical training. at Trinity College. The blend of Har· pour forth new results. In 1919, when
In 1903 Ramanujan was admitted to dy's technical expertise and Rama· peace made travel abroad safe again,
a local government college. Yet total nujan's raw brilliance produced an Ramanujan returned to India. Al-
absorption in his own mathematical unequaled collaboration. They pub- ready an icon for young Indian intel-
diversions at the expense of every· lished a series of seminal papers on lectuals, the 32-year·old Ramanujan
thing else caused him to fail his ex· the properties of variolls arithmetic died on April 26, 1920, of what was
amlnatlons, a pattern repeated four functions,laying the groundwork for then diagnosed as tuberculosis but
years later at another college In Ma- the answer to such questions as: How now is thought to have been a severe
dras. Ramanujan did set his avoca- many prime divisors is a given num· vitamin deficiency. True to mathe-
tion aside-if only temporarily-to ber likely to have? How many ways matics until the end, Ramanujan did
look for a job after his marriage in can one express a number as a sum not slow down during his last, pain-
1909. Fortunately In 1910 R. Rama- of smaller positive integers? racked months, producing the re-
chandra Rao, a well·to-do patron of
mathematics, gave him a monthly
stipend largely on the strength of fa-
vorable recommendations from vari-
ous sympathetic Indian mathemati-
cians and the findings he already had
jotted down in the "Notebooks."
In 1912, wanting more convention-
al work, he took a clerical position
in the Madras Port Trust, where the
chairman was a British engineer, Sir
Francis Spring, and the manager was
V. Ramaswami Aiyar, the founder
of the Indian Mathematical Socie-
ty. They encouraged Ramanujan to
communicate his results to three
prominent British mathematicians.
Two apparently did not respond; the
one who did was G. H. Hardy of Cam-
bridge, now regarded as the foremost
British mathematician of the period.

H crank
ardy, accustomed to receiving
mail, was inclined to dis-
regard Ramanujan's letter at first
glance the day it arrived, January
16, 1913. But after dinner that night
Hardy and a close colleague, John
E. Littlewood, sat down to puzzle
through a list of 120 formulas and the-
orems Ramanujan had appended ,to
his letter. Some hours later they had
reached a verdict: they were seeing
the work of a genius and not a crack-
pot. (According to his own "pure-tal-
ent scale" of mathematicians, Hardy
was later to rate Ramanujan a 100,
Littlewood a 30 and himself a 25. The SRINIVASA RAMANUJAN, born in 1887 in India, managed in spite of limited formal
German mathematician David Hil- education to reconstruct almost single·handedly much of the edifice of number theory
bert, the most influential figure of the and to go on to derive original theorems and formulas. like many illustrious mathema·
time, merited only an 80.) Hardy de- ticlans before him, Ramanujan was fascinated by pi: the ratio of any circle's circumfer·
scribed the revelation and its conse- ence to its diameter. Based on his investigation of modular equations (see box on page
quences as the one romantic incident 114), he formulated exact elo.l'ressions for pi and derived from them approximate val-
in his life. He wrote that some of ues. As a result of the work of various investigators (including the authors), Ramanu·
Ramanujan's formulas defeated him jan's methods are now better understood and have been implemented as algorithms.

112A

589
markable work recorded in his so- the "Notebooks." Roughly speaking, ample (x'), (x') or {(x'). The "order"
called "Lost Notebook." a modular equation is an algebra- of the modular equation Is given by
ic relation between a function ex- the integral power. The simplest
namanujan's work on pi grew in pressed in terms of a variable x-in modular equation Is the second-or-
Klarge part out of his Investigation mathematical notation, {(xl-and the der one: ((x) - 2 ..J7'(.7) / [1 + {(x'lJ. Of
of modular equations, perhaps the same function expressed in terms of course, not every function will satis-
most thoroughly treated subject in x raised to an integral power, for ex- fy a modular equation, but there Is
a class of functions, called modular
functions, that do. These functions
PERIMETER OF have various surprising symmetries
CIRCUMSCRIBED PERIMETER OF that give them a special place In
POLYGON INSCRIBED POLYGON mathematics_
Ramanujan was unparalleled in his
WHERE ability to come up with solutions to
n = NUMBER modular equations that also satisfy
OF SIDES other conditions. Such solutions are
called singular values. It turns out
that solving for singular values in
certain cases yields numbers whose
natural logarithms coincide with pi
(times a constant) to a surprising
number of places [see box on page
n=6 1141. Applying this general approach
with extraordinary virtuosity, Rama-
nujan produced many remarkable in-
finite series as well as single-term ap-
proximations for pi_ Some of them
are given In Ramanujan's one formal
paper on the subject, Modular Equa-
~=3.464"· tions and Approximations to TT, pub-
lished in 1914.
Ramanujan's attempts to approxi-
mate pi are part of a venerable tradi-
tion. The earliest Indo-European civi-
lizations were aware that the area of
a circle is proportional to the square
of its radius and that the circumfer-
n=12
ence of a circle is directly proportion-
al to its diameter. Less clear, howev-
er, Is when it was first realized that
the ratio of any circle's circumfer-
ence to its diameter and the ratio of
any circle's area to the square of its
radiUS are in fact the same constant,
P.=3.10S"· which today is designated by the
I symbol n. (The symbol, which gives
the constant its name, Is a latecomer
in the history of mathematics, having
been Introduced in 1706 by the En-
glish mathematical writer William
Jones and popularized by the SWiss
mathematician Leonhard Euler in the
18th century.)
A rchimedes of Syracuse, the great-
J-\.est mathematician of antiquity,
rigorously established the equiva-
lence of the two ratios in his treatise
Measurement o{ a Circle. He also cal-
culated a value for pi based on math-
Pc=3.1S9"· 1j=3.132·" ematical principles rather than on di-
ARCHIMEDES' METHOD for estimating pi relied on Inscribed and circumscribed regu- rect measurement of a circle's cir-
lar polygons (polygons with sides of equallengthl on a circle having a diameter of one cumference, area and diameter. What
unit (or a radius of half a unit). The perimeters of the inscribed and circumscribed poly- Archimedes did was to inscribe and
gons served respectively as lower and upper bounds for the value of pL The sine and circumscribe regular polygons (poly-
tangent functions can be used to calculate the polygons' perimeters, as is shown here, gons whose sides are all the same
but Archimedes had to develop equivalent relations based on geometric constructions_ length) on a circle assumed to have a
Using 96-slded polygons, he determined that pi Is greater than 3'°/.. and less than 3'f,. diameter of one unit and to consider
1128

590
the polygons' respective perimeters ber in parts of Europe, is said to have tween trigonometric functions and
as lower and upper bounds for possi- served as his epitaph. algebraic expressions can be appre-
ble values of the circumference of the ciated by qmsidering a circle that
circle, which is numerically equal to
pi [see Illustration on opposite page).
T largely
he development
by Isaac
of calculus,
Newton and
has a radius of one unit and its center
at the origin of a Cartesian x-y plane.
This method of approaching a val- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, made it The equation .for the Circle-whose
ue for pi was not novel: inscribing possible to calculate pi much more area is numerically equal to pi-is
polygons of ever more sides in a cir- expeditiously. Calculus provides ef- x2 + y2 = I, which is a restatement of
cle had been proposed earlier by ficient techniques for computing the Pythagorean theorem for a right
Antiphon, and Antiphon's contempo- a function's derivative (the rate of triangle with a hypotenuse equal to
rary, Bryson of Heraclea, had added change In the function's value as its 1. Moreover, the sine and COSine of
circumscribed polygons to the proce- variables change) and its integral the angle between the positive x axis
dure. What was novel was Archime- (the sum of the function's·values over and any point on the circle are equal
des' correct determination of the ef- a range of variables). Applying the respectively to the point's coordi-
fect of doubling the number of sides techniques, one can demonstrate nates, y and x; the angle's tangent is
on both the circumscribed and the in- that Inverse trigonometric functJons simply y/x.)
scribed polygons. He thereby devel- are given by Integrals of quadratic Of more importance for the pur-
oped a procedure that, when repeat- functions that describe the curve of a poses of calculating pi, however, is
ed enough times, enables one in prin- Circle. (The Inverse of a trigonomet- the fact that an inverse trigonometric
ciple to calculate pi to any number of ric function gives the angle that cor- function can be "expanded" as a se-
digits. (It should be pointed out that responds to a particular value of the ries, the terms of which are comput-
the perimeter of a regular polygon function. For example, the inverse able from the derivatives of the func-
can be readily calculated by means tangent of 1 Is 45 degrees or, equiva- tion. Newton himself calculated pi
of simple trigonometric functions: lently,lT/4 radians.) to IS places by adding the first few
the sine, COSine and tangent func- (The underlying connection be- terms of a series that can be derived
tions. But in Archimedes' time, the
third century B.C., such functions
were only partly understood. Archi- WALUS' PRODUCT (1665)
medes therefore had. to rely mainly
on geometric constrUctions, which !=2x2x4X4x6x6x8x8x ... =
2 Ix3 3X5 5x7 7x9
fI ~
n_I4n2-1
made the calculations considerably
more demanding than they might ap-
pear today.) GREGORY'S SERIES (1671)
Archimedes began with inscribed
and circumscribed hexagons, which 2!=1_1+Ll+"'=2: !..::.1.r
4 3 5 7 n-O 2n + 1
yield the inequality 3 < IT < 2 -/3. By
doubling the number of sides four
times, to 96, he narrowed the range
MACHIN'S FORMULA (1706)
of pi to between 3'0/" and 3'1'" obtain-
ing the estimate IT'' 3.14. There is
some evidence that the extant text
i= 4 arctan (115) - arctan (11239), Xl XS X' ~
where arctan X = X- 3 + S -,]+···=2. (-1)" n+l
n_O
~(2n,,)

of Measurement of a Circle is only a

fragment of a larger work in which RAMANUJAN (1914)
Archimedes described how, starting
with decagons and doubling them six
times, he got a five-digit estimate:
IT'' 3.1416.
Archimedes' method is conceptu-
BORWEIN AND BORWEIN (19B7)
ally simple, but in the absence of a
ready way to calculate trigonometric
functions it requires the extraction of ~~
roots, which is rather time-consum- 12 ~ _1)n 6n)! 212.175710 912V'6t + 1.657.145277.365 + n 13.773.980.892 672v'6t + 107.578.229802750)
ing when done by hand. Moreover, n-O (n)I'(3n)![5.280(236.674 + 30.303 61)1(3n."',
the estimates converge slowly to pi:
their error decreases by about a fac-
tor of four per iteration. Neverthe- TERMS OF MATHEMATICAL SEQUENCES can be summed or multiplied to yield values
less, all European attempts to calcu- for pi (divided by a constant) or its reciprocal The first two sequences, discovered re-
late pi before the mid-17th century spectively by the mathematicians John Wallis and James Gregory, are probably among
relied in one way or another on the best-known. but they are practically useless for computational purposes_ Not even
the method. The 16th-century Dutch 100 years of computing on a supercomputer programmed to add or multiply the terms
of either sequence would yield 100 digits of pi. The formula discovered by John Machin
mathematician Ludolph van Ceulen made the calculation of pi feasible, since calculus allows the inverse tangent (arc tan-
dedicated much of his career to a gent) of a number, x, to be expressed in terms of a sequence whose sum converges
computation of pi. Near the end of his more rapidly to the value of the arc tangent the smaller x Is. Virtually all calculations for
life he obtained a 32-digit estimate pi from the beginning of the 18th century until the early 1970's have relied on varia-
by calculating the perimeter of in- tions of Machin's formula. The sum of Ramanujan's sequence converges to the true val-
scribed and circumscribed polygons ue of 1/1T much faster: each successive term in the sequence adds roughly eight more
having 262 (some IOU) sides. His val- correct digits_ The last sequence, formulated by the authors, adds about 2S digits per
ue for pi, called the Ludolphian num- term; the first term (for which n is 0) yields a number that agrees with pi to 24 dlgils_

113

591
as an expression for the inverse of chin, however, made it practicable to ly eight hours. (He was perhaps
the sine function. He later confessed calculate pi by means of a series ex- the closest precursor of the modern
to a colleague: "I am ashamed to tell pansion for the inverse-tangent func- supercomputer, at least in terms of
you to how many figures I carried tion. He noted that pi divided by 4 Is memory capacity.) In 1853 William
these calculations, having no other equal to 4 times the Inverse tangent Shanks outdid Dase by publishing
business at the time." of 1/5 minus the inverse tangent of his computation of pi to 607 places,
In 1674 Leibnlz derived the formula 1/239. Because the inverse-tangent although the digits that followed
1-1/3+1/5-1/7... -n/4, which is series for a given value converges the 527th place were wrong. Shank's
the Inverse tangent of 1. (The general more quickly the smaller the value task took years and was a rather rou-
Inverse· tangent series was originally is, Machin's formula greatly Simpli- tine, albeit laborious, application of
discovered in 1671 by the Scottish fied the calculation. Coupling his for- Machin's formula. (In what must itself
mathematician james Gregory. In- mula with the series expansion for be some kind of record, 92 years
deed, similar expressions appear to the Inverse tangent, Machin comput- passed before Shank's error was de-
have been developed independently ed 100 digits of pi In 1706. Indeed, his tected, in a comparison between his
several centuries earlier In India.) technique proved to be so powerful value and a 530-place approximation
The error of the approximation, de- that all extended calculations of pi produced by D. F. Ferguson with the
fined as the difference between the from the beginning of the 18th centu- aid of a mechanical calculator.)
sum of n terms and the exact value of ry until recently relied 011 variants of The advent of the digital comput-
n/4, Is roughly equal to the n+ lth the method. er saw a renewal of efforts to cal-
term In the series. Since the denomi- culate ever more digits of pi, since
nator of each successive term in-
creases by only 2, one must add ap-
T woserve19th-century calculations de-
special mention. In 1844jo-
the machine was Ideally suited for
lengthy, repetitive "number crunch-
proximately 50 terms to get two-digit hann Dase computed 205 digits of pi Ing." ENIAC, one of the first digital
accuracy, 500 terms for three-digit in a matter of months by calculating computers, was applied to the task In
accuracy and so on. Summing the the values of three Inverse tangents june, 1949, by john von Nl;!umann
terms of the series to calculate a val- in a Machin-like formula. Dase was a and his colleagues. ENIAC produced
ue for pi more than a few digits long calculating prodigy who could mul- 2,037 digits in 70 hours. In 1957 G. E.
is clearly prohibitive. tiply 100-dlglt numbers entirely in Felton attempted to compute 10,000
An observation made by john Ma- his head-a feat that took him rough- digits of pi, but owing to a machine
error only the first 7,480 digits were
correct. The 10,OOO-dlglt goal was
reached by F. Genuys the following
MODULAR FUNCTIONS AND APPROXIMATIONS TO PI year on an IBM 704 computer. In 1961
A modular function is a function, Mq), that can be related through an algebraic expression Daniel Shanks and john W. Wrench,
called a modular equation to the same function expressed In terms of the same variable, q, jr., calculated 100,000 digits of pi in
raised to an integral power: Mq"). The integral power, p, determines the Horder" of the less than nine hours on an IBM 7090.
modular equation. An example of a modular function is The million-digit mark was passed in
Mq) = 16q!1 (//qf:..)I. 1973 by jean Guilloud and M. Bouyer,
a feat that took just under a day of
Its associated seventh-order modular equation, which relates l\(q) to A(q7), is given by computation on a CDC 7600. (The
computations done by Shanks and
'ti(q)A(q1) +~II-Mqml-Mq1)1 = I. Wrench and by Guilloud and Bouyer
Singular values are solutions of modular equations that must also satisfy additional condi-
were In fact carried out twice using
tions. One class of singular values corresponds to computing a sequence of values, kpo different inverse-tangent identities
where for pi. Given the history of both hu-
kp - Vi;(e--v,,) man and machine error In these cal-
culations, It Is only after such verifi-
and p takes integer values. These values have the curious property that the logarithmic cation that modern "digit hunters"
expression consider a record offiCially seLl
.::l. log ( ~)
Although an Increase in the speed
Vp 4 of computers was a mcijor reason
ever more accurate calculations for
coincides with many of the first digits of pi. The number of digits the expression has In pi could be performed, it soon be-
common with pi Increases with larger values of p. came clear that there were inescap-
Ramanujan was unparalleled in his ability to calculate these singular values. One of his most able limits. Doubling the number of
famous .s the value when p equals 210, which _ included in his original letter to G. H. digits lengthens computing time by
Hatdy.ltls
at least a factor of four, if one applies
k210 - (V2-1 )2(2-V3)(v7-V6)2(8-3v7l(V'iii-3)2(V'i5-V14)(4-V1S)2(6-V3s). the traditional methods of perform-
ing arithmetic in computers. Hence
This number, when plugged into the logarithmic expression, agrees with pi through the first even allowIng for a hundredfold in-
20 decimal places. In comparison, k2" yields a number that agrees with pi through more
than one million digits. crease in computational speed, Gull-
loud and Bouyer's program would
.AppJying this general approach, RamanuJan constructed a number of remarkable series for have required at least a quarter cen-
pi, including the one shown in the U1ustration on the preceding page. The general approach
also underlies the two-step, iteratiw algorithms in the top illustration on the opposite page. tury to produce a billion-digit value
In each iteration the first step (calculating y"l corresponds to computing one of a sequence for pi. From the perspective of the
of singular values by solving a modular equation of the appropriate order; the second step early 1970's such a computation did
(calculating a"l is tantamount to taking the logarithm of the singular value. not seem realistically practicable.
Yet the task is now feaSible, thanks
114

592
 y}

~
not only to faster computers but also (a)Let Yo = ao=~
to new, efficient methods for mul-
tiplying large numbers in comput- and
ers. A third development was also a::
crucial: the advent of iterative algo- Yn+l = 1-~ Qn +l = [(1 +Yn+t)2an J-2n + 1 Yn+l :c
rithms that quickly converge to pi. 1+ v1-Y1; l/a, 1/0-.. 1I~ l/a. I-

(An iterative algorithm can be ex- :i:

<!l
pressed as a computer program that (b) let Yo = V2-1 ao= 6 - 4V2 694 z
repeatedly performs the same arith- i5
and (3
metic operations, taking the output Z
1-~ 0
of one cycle as the input for the next.) Yn+l =
U
These algorithms, some of which we 1+~ 171
8 41 ~
constructed, were in many respects
anticipated by Ramanujan, although
an +1 = [(1 +Yn+,)4an l-2 2n +3Yn+ ,(1 +Yn+1 + y~+,)
l/a, 110, l/a3 l /n,
a
i5
he knew nothing of computer pro- u.
0
gramming. Indeed, computers not (e) let So = 5(Vs -2) no = ~ a:
only have made it possible to apply 848 UJ
en
Ramanujan's work but also have and ::;
:J
helped to unravel It. Sophisticated Sn.'= Sn(Z + ~ + 1)2' where X = ~ -1, V = (X-l)2+7 z
algebraic-manipulation software has
allowed further exploration of the and Z = \YX(V + YV2-4X3) 166
road Ramanujan traveled alone and 2 5 31
unaided 75 years ago. [S~-5
an.,=S~an - 5n -2- + YSn(S~ 2Sn + 5>1 l /a , 1/0-.. 1/~ l /n.

O ne of the interesting lessons of

theoretical computer science is ITERATIVE ALGORITHMS that yield extremely accurate values of pi were developed
that many familiar algorithms, such by the authors. (An iterative algorithm is a sequence of operations repeated in such a
as the way children are taught to way that the ouput of one cycle is taken as the input for the next.) Algorithm a con-
verges to l/rr quadratically: the number of correct digits given by OCn more than dou-
multiply in grade school. are far from bles each time n is increased by 1. Algorithm b converges quartically and algorithm c
optimal. Computer scientists gauge converges qulntically, so that the number of coinciding digits given by each iteration
the efficiency of an algorithm by increases respectively by more than a factor of four and by more than a factor of five.
determining its bit complexity: the Algorithm b is possibly the most efficient known algorithm for calculating pi; it was run
number of times individual digits are on supercomputers in the last three record-setting calculations. As the authors worked
added or multiplied in carrying out on the algorithms it became clear to them that Ramanujan had pursued similar meth-
an algorithm. By this measure, add- ods in coming up with his approximations for pi. In fact, the computation of So in algo-
ing two n-digit numbers in the nor- rithm c rests on a remarkable fifth-order modular equation discovered by Ramanujan_
mal way has a bit complexity that in-
creases in step with n; multiplying 100,000,000
two n-digit numbers in the normal
way has a bit complexity that in-
creases as n2 • By traditional methods, 10,000,000 -
multiplication is much "harder" than
addition In that it is much more time-
consuming. 1,000,000 - -
Yet,as was shown in 1971 by A.
Sch1)nhage and V. Strassen, the mul- a::
u.
tiplication of two numbers can in the- 0 100,000 .... r--
ory have a bit complexity only a little U)
I-
greater than addition. One way to a
achieve this potential reduction in bit i5 10.000 I-
complexity is to implement so·called u. ,--
0
fast Fourier transforms (FFT'S). FFT- a:
based multiplication of two large UJ
en
numbers allows the intermediary ::; 1.000 I- -
:J
computations among individual dig- Z
its to be carefully orchestrated so
that redundancy is avoided. Because 100 r- -
division and root extraction can be

n
reduced to a sequence of multiplica-
tions, they too can have a bit com- 10 r-
plexity just slightly greater than that
of addition. The result is a tremen-
dous saving in bit complexity and
1 PRE- -1450 1706 1949 1957 1961 1973 1985 1987
hence in computation time. For this
HISTORY
reason all recent efforts to calculate
pi rely on some variation of the FFT NUMBER OF KNOWN DIGITS of pi has Increased by two orders of magnitude (factors
technique for multiplication. of 10) in the past decade as a result of the development of iterative algorithms that can
Yet for hundreds of millions of dig- be run on supercomputers equipped with new, efficient methods of multiplication.

115

593
its of pi to be calculated practically a Karl Gustav jacob jacobi In 1829, we of third, fourth and higher orders.
beautiful formula known a century realized we could in principle arrive In january, 1986, David H. Bailey of
and a half earlier to Carl Friedrich at a value for pi by evaluating inte' the National Aeronautics and Space
Gauss had to be rediscovered. In the grals of a class called elliptic inte- Administration's Ames Research
mid· 1970's Richard P. Brent and Eu- grals, which can serve to calculate Center produced 29,360,000 decimal
gene Salamln Independently noted the perimeter of an ellipse. (A circle, places of pi by iterating one of our
that the formula produced an algo- the geometric setting of previous ef- algorithms 12 times on a Cray-2 su-
rithm for pi that converged quadrati- forts to approximate pi, is simply an percomputer. Because the algorithm
cally, that Is, the number of digits ellipse with axes of equal length.) is based on a fourth·ordt:r modular
doubled with each Iteration. Between Elliptic Integrals cannot generally equation, It converges on pi quar-
1983 and the present Yasumasa Ka- be evaluated as Integrals, but they tically, more than quadrupling the
nada and his colleagues at the Uni- can be easily approximated through number of digits with each iteration.
versity of Tokyo have employed this iterative procedures that rely on A year later Kanada and his col-
algorithm to set several world rec- modular equations. We found that leagues carried out one more it-
ords for the number of digits of pl. the Gauss·Brent-Salamln algorithm Is eration to attain 134,217,000 places
We wondered what underlies the actually a specific case of our more on an NEC SX-2 supercomputer and
remarkably fast convergence to pi of general technique relying on a sec- thereby verified a similar computa·
the Gauss-Brent-Salamln algorithm, ond-order modular equation. Quick- tlon they had done earlier using the
and In studying it we developed gen- er convergence to the value of the in- Gauss-Brent-Salamln algorithm. (Iter-
eral techniques for the construction tegral, and thus a faster algorithm for ating our algorithm twice more-a
of similar algorithms that rapidly pi, Is possible If higher-order modu- feat entirely feasible If one could
converge to pi as well as to other lar equations are used, and so we somehow monopolize a supercom-
quantities. Building on a theory out- have also constructed various algo- puter for a few weeks-would yield
lined by the German mathematician rithms based on modular equations more than two billion digits of pi.)

HOW TO GET TWO BILUON DIGITS OF PI

I for
terative methods are best suited
calculating pi on a computer,
WITH A CALCULATOR* and so It is not surprising that Rama-
nujan never bothered to pursue
them. Yet the basic Ingredients of the
Let
iterative algorithms for pi-modular
YO=V2-1 "0 = 6-4'-"2
equations in particular-are to be
found in Ramanujan's work. Parts of
y, = (1-~I-Y04)Jll+~I-Yo41 "', = (1 +y,)4 "O-2ly,(1 +y, +YI2) his original derivation of Infinite se-
ries and approximations for pi more
Y2 = (1-~I-y,4)Jl1+~I-y,41 a2 = (I+Y2)4",,-25y2(1+Y2+Y22)
than three-quarters of a century ago
Y3 = (1-~I-Y24)Jll+~I-Y241 al = (1+Y3)4a2- 27Yl(HYl+Yl2) must have paralleled our own efforts
to come up with algorithms for pi. In-
Y4 = (1-~I-Yl411(1+~I-Yl4) a4= (l+yc>4 a3 -29y4(I+Y4+yi) deed, the formulas he lists in his pa·
Ys = (1-~I-Y44)/(1 +~I-Y44) as = (I+YS)4"4-2"Ys(I+YS+Ys2) per on pi and In the "Notebooks"
helped us greatly In the construction
y, = (1-~I-YS4)1(1+~I-YS4) "'& = (1+ys!"a5- 2'ly,(HY6+Y62) of some of our algorithms. For exam-
Y7 = (1-~I-y,4)Jl1+~I-y,4) a7 = (1 +Y7)4",-2'5y7(HY7+Y72) ple, although we were able to prove
that an 11 th-order algorithm exists
Ya = (1-~I-Y74)Jll +~1_Y74) "8 = (1 +Yal4"7-217Ya(1 +Ya+Ya2) and knew its general formulation, It
was not until we stumbled on Rama-
y, = 11-.v,::y;.4j1(1 +~I-Ya41 a9 = (1 +y,)4 "a-2'9y,(1 +Yg+Yg2)
nujan's modular equations of the
Y,o = 11-~I-y,4)Jll +~I-y,41 u'o = (1 +y,ol" ag-22'Y,oI1 +Y,o+Y,o2) same order that we discovered its un-
expectedly simple form.
y" = (1-~I-YIO')Jll +~I-Y,o'l u" = (Hy,,)4a,o-22lyl1(HY,,+Yl12) Conversely, we were also able to
Y'2 - (1-~I-y,,4)Jl1+~I-Y1141 a'2 = (1 +Y'2)4 ",,-225y'2(1 +Y'2+Y'22) derive all Ramanujan's series from
the general formulas we had devel-
YIl - (1-~I-Y'2·)Jll +~I-Y'2·1 a'3 - (1 +y,~a'2-227YIl(1 +Y'l+YIl2) oped. The derivation of one, which
Y14 = (1-~I-Y'l4)Jll +~I-YIl41 a'4 = (1+y,.)4all-229y14(1+Y14+Y142) converged to pi faster than any other
series we knew at the time, came
Y,s - (1-~I-Y144)Jl1+~I-Y1441 "IS = (1 +Y,sl"a14- 2l'Yls(1 +Y,s+Y,s2l about with a little help from an unex-
pected source. We had justified all
1/''''5 agress with" for more than two billion decimal digits
the quantities In the expression for
the series except one: the coefficient
'Of course, the calculator needs to have a two-billion-digit display; on a pocket calcu- 1,103, which appears in the numera-
lator the computation would not be wry interesting after the second iteration.
tor of the expression [see fIIustration
on page 113). We were convlnced-
EXPLICIT INSTRUCnONS for executing algorithm b In the top lUustration on the pre- as Ramanujan must have been-that
ceding page makes it possible In principle to compute the first IWO billion digits of pi In 1,103 had to be correct. To prove It
a matter of minutes. All one needs Is a calculator that bas IWO memory registers and the we had either to simplify a daunting
usual capaciry to add, subtract, multiply, divide and extract roots. Unfortunately most equation containing variables raised
calculators come with only an elght-dlgit display, which makes the computation moot. to powers of several thousand or
1I6

594
to delve considerably further Into
somewhat arcane number theory.
8y coincidence R. William Gasper,
Jr., of $ymbolics, Inc., had decided In
1985 to exploit the same series of Ra-
manujan's for an extended·accuracy
value for pi. When he carried out the
calculation to more than 17 million
digits (a record at the time), there was
to his knowledge no proof that the
sum of the series actually converged
to pi. Of course, he knew that mil-
lions of digits of his value coincided
with an earlier Gauss-Brent·Salamin
calculation done by Kanada. Hence
the possibility of error was vanish·
ingly small.
As soon as Gosper had finished his
calculation and verified it against
Kanada's, however, we had what we
needed to prove that 1,103 was the
number needed to make the series
true to Within one part in 10 10•000•000 •
In much the same way that a pair of
Integers differing by less than 1 must
be equal, his result sufficed to specify
the number: it is precisely 1,103. In ef-
fect, Gasper's computation became
part of our proof. We knew that the
series (and its associated algorithm)
is so sensitive to slight Inaccuracies
that ifGosper had used any other val·
ue for the coeffiCient or, for that mat-
ter, if the computer had introduced
a single-digit error during the calcu·
lation, he would have ended up
with numerical nonsense instead of
a value for pi.
Ramanujan·type algorithms for ap·
proximating pi can be shown to be
very close to the best possible. If all RAMANUJAN'S "NOTEBOOKS" were personal records In which he jotted down many
the operations Involved in the exe- of his formulas. The page shown contains various thlrd-order modular equations-all
cution of the algorithms are totaled In Ramanujan's nonstandard notation. Unfortunately Ramanujan did not bother to In·
(assuming that the best techniques c1ude formal proofs for the equations; others have had to compile, edit and prove them.
known for addition, multiplication The formulas in the "Notebooks" embody subtle relations among numbers and func·
and root extraction are applied), the tions that can be applied In other fields of mathematics or even In theoretical physics.
bit complexity of computing n digits
of pi is only marginally greater than
that of multiplying two n·digit num· pressed as a number plus a fraction, of commentary. The task is made all
bers. But multiplying two n·digit and so on). Unfortunately they are the more difficult by the nonstandard
numbers by means of an FFT-based listed with little-if any-indication mathematical notation in which the
technique is only marginally more of the method by which Ramanujan formulas are written. Hence a great
complicated than summing two n· proved them. Littlewood wrote: "If deal of Ramanujan's work will not
digit numbers, which Is the simplest a significant piece of reasoning oc· become accessible to the mathemat·
of the arithmetic operations possible curred somewhere, and the total mix· ical community until Berndt's proj·
on a computer. ture of evidence and intuition gave ect is finished.
him certainty, he looked no further." Ramanujan's unique capacity for
M felt
athematics has probably not yet
the full impact of Ramanu·
The herculean task of editing the
"Notebooks," initiated 60 years ago
working intuitively with complicated
formulas enabled him .to plant seeds
jan's genius. There are many other by the British analyst~ G. N. Watson in a mathematical garden (to borrow
wonderful formulas contained in the and B. N. Wilson and now being com· a metaphor from Freeman Dyson)
"Notebooks" that revolve around pleted by Bruce Berndt, requires pro· that is only now coming into bloom.
integrals, infinite series and cantin' viding a proof, a source or an occa· Along with many other mathema·
ued fractions (a number plus a frac- sional correction for each of many ticians, we look forward to seeing
tion, whose denominator can be thousands of asserted theorems and which of the seeds will germinate in
expressed as a number plus a frac- identities. A single line in the "Note· future years and further beautify the
tion, whose denominator can be ex- books" can easily elicit many pages garden.

117

595
 Approximations and complex multiplication

according to Ramanujan

by

D.V. Chudnovsky*), G.V. Chudnovsky*)

Department of Mathematics
Columbia University
New York, NY 10027

*)This work was supported in part by the N.S.F., U.s. Air

Force and O.C.R.E.A.E. program.

RAMANUJAN REVISITED 375 Copyright (~') IYXK hy Academic Press. Inc.

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
ISBN O-12-05X560-X

596
376 D.V. CIIUDNOVSKY AND G.V. CIIUDNOVSKY

Introduction

This talk revolves around two focuses: complex multiplica-

tions (for elliptic curves and Abelian varieties) in connec-

tion with algebraic period relations, and (diophantine) appro-

ximations to numbers related to these periods. Our starting

point is Ramanujan's works [1], [2] on approximations to ~

via the theory of modular and hypergeometric functions. We

describe in chapter 1 Ramanujan's original quadratic period--

quasiperiod relations for elliptic curves with complex multi-

plication and their applications to representations of frac-

tions of TT and other logarithms in terms of rapidly conver-

gent nearly integral (hypergeometric) series. These represen-

tations serve as a basis of our investigation of diophantine

approximations to rr and other related numbers. In Chapter 2

we look at period relations for arbitrary CM-varieties follow-

ing Shimura and Deligne. Our main interest lies with modular

(Shimura) curves arising from arithmetic Fuchsian groups act-

ing on H. From these we choose arithmetic triangular groups,

where period relations can be expressed in the form of hyper-

geometric function identities. particular attention is devot-

ed to two (commensurable) triangle groups, (0,3;2,6,6) and

(0,3;2,4,6), arising from the quaternion algebra over m with

the discriminant D = 2.3. We also touch upon the algebraic

597
 APPROXIMATIONS AND COMPLEX MULTII'L1CATION 377

independence problem for periods and quasiperiods of general

CM-varieties and particularly CM-curves associated with the

triangle groups (hypergeometric curves as we call them). The

diophantine approximation problem for numbers connected with

periods, particularly for multiples of ~, is analyzed using

Pade approximations to power series representing these numbers.

We give a brief review of pad~ approximations, their effec-

tive construction, and problems of analytic and arithmetic

(p-adic) convergence of pad~ approximants. pade approximations

to nearly integral power series (G-functions) are used in con-

nection with Ramanujan-like representations of l/~ and other

similar period constants. We discuss measures of irrationality

for algebraic multiples of n and related numbers that follow

from pad~ approximation methods.

The problem of uniformization by nonarithmetic subgroups

is discussed in connection with the Whittaker conjecture [11]

on an explicit expression for accessory parameters in the

(Schottkey-type) uniformization of hyperelliptic Riemann sur-

faces of genus g 2 2 by Fuchsian groups. On the basis of num-

erical computations of monodromy groups of linear differential

equations, we concluded that the conjecture [11] is generical-

ly incorrect. Moreover, it appears that accessory parameters

in the uniformization problem of Riemann surfaces defined over

Ql are nonalgebraic with the exception of uniformization by

arithmetic subgroups and of cases when the differential equa-

tions are reduced to hypergeometric ones (the monodromy group

598
37H D.V. CIIUDNOVSKY AND G.V. CIIUDNOVSKY

is connected to one of the triangle groups). We briefly des-

cribe numerical and theoretical results on the transcendence

of elements of the monodromy groups of linear differential

equations over m(x).

We conclude the paper with a discussion of numerical

approximations to solutions of algebraic and differential

equations. We present generalizations of our previous re-

sults [12] on the complexity of approximations to solutions

of linear differential equations. We describe a new, "bit-

burst" method of evaluation of solutions of linear differen-

tial equations everywhere on their Riemann surface. In the

worst case, an evaluation with n bits of precision at an n-

bit point requires O(~it(n)10g3n) boolean (bit) operations,

where ~it(n) is the boolean complexity of an n-bit mUltipli-

cation. For functions satisfying additional arithmetic condi-

3
tions (e.g. E-functions and G-functions) the factor log n
2
could be further decreased to log n or, even, log n. We also

describe the natural parallelizationsofthe presented algo-

rithms that are well suited for practical implementation.

We want to .thank the organizers of the Ramanujan con-

ference and, particularly, B. B.erndt and R. Askey. We want

to thank the IBM Computer Algebra Group for their help and

access to the SCRATCHPAD System. We thank SYMBOLICS Corpora-

tion for the use of their workstation 3645.

599
 APPROXIMATIONS AND COMPLEX MULTIPLICATION 379

1. Complex multiplications and Ramanujan's

period relations

Most of the material in this talk evolves around mathe-

matics closely associated with one of the earliest Ramanujan

papers "Modular equations and approximations to n" [1] pub-

lished in 1914, which according to Hardy [2] "is mainly Indian

work, done before he came to England." In that or another way

the same kind of mathematics appears in later Ramanujan re-

search, including his notebooks. Hardy interpreted many of

Ramanujan's results and identities as connected mainly with

"complex multiplication", and Ramanujan's interest in resolv-

ing modular equations in explicit radicals was later picked

up in watson's outstanding series [3] of "Singular Moduli"

papers. Singular moduli themselves, and general modular equa-

tions relating automorphic functions with respect to con-

gruence subgroup of a full modular group are traditional sub-

j ects of late XIX century mathematics, whose importance is

clearly realized in modern number theory and algebraic geome-

try, particularly in diophantine geometry in connection with

arithmetic theory of elliptic curves and rational points on

them. Also modular equations turned up as a convenient tool

of fast operational complexity algorithms of computation of n

and of values of elementary functions (see corresponding

600
3!lO O.V. CIIUONOVSKY ANO G.V. CIIUONOVSKY

chapters in Borweins' book [5]).

Instead of complex multiplication as merely a subject of

"singular moduli" of elliptic functions we will touch upon

the complex mUltiplication in a slightly more general context:

from the point of view of nontrivial endomorphisms of certain

classes of Jacobians of particular algebraic curves. (we are

not goingto discuss a variety of complex "complex multiplica-

tion" subjects on L-functions and Abelian varieties, though

we'll have to borrow particular consequences of vast theories

developed in general by Shimura, Deligne and others.)

The choice of curves is clearly determined by Ramanujan's

interest: these are curVeS with 4 critical points, whose

Abelian periods are expressed via hypergeometric integrals

(for simplicity one can call those curves hypergeoroetric ones),

see [10].

Transforming one of the 4 critical points into infinity

and normalizing, one recovers the Gauss hypergeometric func-

tion integrals representative of these periods. We display

these well-known expressions:

F(a,b:c:z)
rIc) r 1 x b-l (l-x) c-b-l (l-xz) -a dx,
rIb) rIc-b) • 0

(c > b > 0), with the expansion near z o·

1 + a.b . z + ~a+l).b(b+l) 2
F(a,b:c:z) z + ...
c.1 c· (c+ 1) . 1· 2

Our primary interest in complex multiplication is not

arithmetical but transcendental; rather than to study the

601
 APPROXIMATIONS AND COMPLEX MULTIPLICATION 3S1

number-theoretic~ functions associated with complex multipli-

cation invariants, we want to know the basic facts about the

values of these invariants: are these numbers transcendental

(over Z)? If algebraic relations do exist, over what fields

of definition do they exist? These basic questions of trans-

cendence, algebraic independence and linear independence are

the subject of diophantine approximations. with these ques-

tions come their qualitative counterparts: when numbers are

irrational (transcendental), how well are they approximated by

rationals? Can these best approximations be determined ef-

fectively and/or explicitly? (Usually one asks in this con-

text: can one determine the continued fraction expansion of

the number?)

The class of numbers we are interested in is generated

Over m by periods and quasiperiods of Abelian varieties,

i.e. by integrals

.r wand .r T)
y v
for differentials w and T) of the first and the second kind,
I
respectively, from HDR (A) , and y € HI (A,Z), for an Abelian

variety A defined over m.

In particular, when A is a Jacobian J(r) of a non-

singular curve rover m, we are looking at periods and qua-

siperiods forming the full Riemann matrix of r-total of

2g x 2g elements, where g denotes the genus of r.

In this context, co~plex multiplications, understood as

602
.1X2 I>.V. ClIlII)NOVSKY ANI> <i.V. ClIlJI>NOVSKY

nontrivial endomorphisms of A, are usually expressed as non-

trivial algebraic relations among the elements of Riemann's

original 2g x g pure period matrix IT of A. These "purely

period relations" are well known, and are mainly algebraic in

nature, and in one-dimensional case (g = 1), give pairs of

periods whose ratio is a "singular module". An interesting

thing discovered by Ramanujan in this classical (even in his

time) field was the existence of new quasiperiods relations.

In the weierstrass-like notation, commonly accepted nowdays,

period and quasiperiod relations in the elliptic curve case

can be described as follows.

One starts with an elliptic curve over m with a Weier-

2
strass equation y g3 (g2,g3 E W), having the
ID2
fundamental periods wI' w2 (with 1m- > 0) and the correspond-
wI
ing quasi-periods 1)1,1)2. The only relation between ali and 1)j

that always holds is the Legendre identity:

Thus IT belongs to the field generated by periods and

quasiperiods over m. In the complex multiplication case

w2 .
T = -- LS an imaginary quadratic number.
wI
Whenever T E m(J-d) for d > 0, invariants g2 and g3 can

be chosen from the Hilbert class field of m(J-d), and this

field is the minimal extension with this property.

A priori complex multiplication means only a single

relation between wi.

603
 APPROXIMATIONS AND COMPLEX MULTIPLICATION 383

It seems tho.t until Ramanujan' s paper nobody explicitly

stated the existence of the second relation between periods

and quasiperiods. This relation is the following one:

2
Whenever T is a quadratic number: AT + BT + C = 0,

the four numbers: wl,w2'~1'~2 are linearly dependent over m

only on two of them.

Explicitly:

(1.1)

The relations (1.1) are not entirely original: Legendre's

investigation of the lemmiscate case provides with (1.1) in

two cases .• where is equivalent to i or to p under

SL 2 (Z): moreover, these cases were clearly known to Euler, who

evaluated the appropriate complete elliptic integrals. How-

ever, those two particular cases are "wrong ones": in these

cases the importance of the relation (1.1) is lost because

a = 0, and it is hard to understand the need for its appear-

ance. In a few other special singular moduli cases, (1.1)

appears in the classical literature, see [4].

Of course, Ramanujan did not use the Weierstrass equa-

tions and preferred the Legendre ones, where one can see the

hypergeometric functions instantly.

In order to pass to Legendre notations [5], one puts

4x 3 - g2 x - g3 = 4(x-e l ) (x-e 2 ) (x-e3 ), and looks at the modular

604
384 D.V. CIIUDNOVSKY AND G.V. CI-IUDNOVSKY

function

el - e3

(an automorphic function k 2 ~ k 2 (T) with respect to the prin-

cipal congruence subgroup r(2) of r(l) = SL 2 (Z) in the variable

T in H = (z: Im Z > 0). Then the periods and quasi periods

are expressed through the complete elliptic integrals of the

first and second kind:

We also look at K(k'), E(k') for k,2 = 1 - k 2 • then wl'~l

are expressed in terms of K K(k), E = E(k), while w2'~2 are

expressed in terms of iK' and iE':

K iK'

Invariant a in (l.l)--a nontrivial part of the Ramanu-

jan quasiperiod relation--is easily recognized as one of the

simplest values of "nonholomorphic Eisenstein series". Weil's

treatise [6] creates a clear impression that this quantity and

its algebraicity had been known to Kronecker (or even Eisen-

stein). It seems to us that though similar and more general

functions were carefully examined, this particular connection

had been reconstructed by Weil, and cannot be easily separated

605
 APPROXIMATIONS AND COMPLEX MULTIPLICATION 385

from his own work on period relations. The "nonholomorphic"

Eisenstein series are too important to be ignored.

The usual Eisenstein series associated with the lattice L

of periods: ~ = ZW l ~ ZW2 are

-k
I: w for k 4,6, . . . .
w€.,e
wFO
The corresponding normalized inhomogeneous series ~(T) are

defined as

or

for ) k-l
"k_l(n = ~dlnd ,and q =
These q-series were subject of a variety of Ramanujan's

studies [1-2] with his preferred notations a P,Q,R for ~(T)

with k = 2,4,6, respectively.

For k = 2 the proper definition of Gk (w l ,w 2 ) is a non-

holomorphic one arising from

- - -2s
H(s,z) = r: (z+w) Iz+w\
w€~
as:
-2 -2s
w "Iwl .

In the ~(T) notations, the quasiperiod relation is ex-

pressed by means of the function

(1. 2)

606
3X6 D.V. CIIUDNOVSKY AND G.V. C1IUDNOVSKY

which is invariant under the action of f(l) but nonholomor-

phic. It is this object that was studied by Ramanujan in con-

nection with a in (1.1). Ramanujan ac~~ally proved in [1]

that this function admits algebraic values whenever T is

imaginary quadratic. Moreover, Ramanujan [1] presented a var-

iety of algebraic expressions for this function, differentiat-

ing modular equations.

His work, or Weil's, shows that the function in (1.2)

has values from the Hilbert class field (!l(T,j('r» of (!l(T) for

quadratic T. The relation of (1.2) to a is simple: for

~ = S2(T) from (1.2), a = (B + 2AT)~·g3/g2'

Amazingly, Mordell in his notes [1] on Ramanujan paper

missed the true importance of (1.1) or (1.2). stating merely

" ... Ramanujan's method of obtaining purely algebraical appro-

ximations appears to be new." These relations were rediscover-

ed in the 70's (among the rediscovers was Siegel [7]), see

particularly [9], and stimulated search for multidimensional

generalizations of the period relations promoted by Weil [8].

We'll talk about generalizations of elliptic period relations

later, but meanwhile let us look on relations (1.1) once more.

One can combine (1.1) with the Legendre relation to arrive to

a phenomenally looking "quadratic relation" derived by Ramanu-

jan, that expresses Tl in terms of squares of ("1 and "1 only

(no w2 and "2!) All this is interesting, as an algebraic

identity, but Ramanujan transforms these quadratic relations

into rapidly convergent generalized hypergeometric representa-

607
 APPROXIMATIONS AND COMPLEX MULTIPLICATION 3X7

tion of simple algebraic multiples of l/IT. To do this he

needed not only modular functions but also hypergeometric

function identities.

We reproduce first Ramanujan's own favorite [1], which

was used by Gosper in 1985 in his 17.5.10 6 decimal digit com-

putation of IT:

00
(4n) ! (44) .
~ (1103 + 26390n)
,4
n=O n.

(Numeration here is temporarily borrowed from [1].)

The reason for this pretty representation of l/IT lies in

the representation of (K(k)/IT)2 as a 3F2-hypergeometric func-

tion. Apparently there are four classes of such representa-

tions all of which were determined by Ramanujan: these are

four distinct classes of 3F2-representation of l/ft, all based

on special cases of Clausen identity (and all presented by

Ramanujan [1]):

1 2 ( 2a,a+b,2b I)
F(a,b;a+b-t;2;z) 3 F2 1 z . (1. 3)
a+b+:2,2a+2b

Unfortunately, the Clausen identity is a unique one--no other

nontrivial relation between parameters makes a product of

hypergeometric functions a generalized hypergeometric function.

We display the basis for the Ramanujan's series represen-

tation for l/n. We'll discuss them later in connection with

arithmetic triangle groups. Meanwhile, what is good in these

identities for diophantine approximations? First of all,

Ramanujan approximations to IT are indeed remarkably fast

608
 D.V. CIIUDNOVSKY AND G.V. CIIUDNOVSKY

numerical schemes of evaluation of TI. Unlike some other num-

erical schemes these are series schemes, that can be ac-

celerated into Pade approximation schemes. These pade appro-

ximations schemes are better numerically, but more important,

they are nontrivial arithmetically good rational approximations

to algebraic multiples of TI, that provide nontrivial measures

of diophantine approximations.

(Deviating momentarily, we want to compare Pade approxi-

mations vs. power series approximations in numerical evalua-

tion of functions and constants. Remarkably, asymptotically

there is no significant difference between Boolean complexi-

ties of evaluation of Pade approximations to solutions of lin-

ear differential equations and of power series approximations

within a given precision. Unfortunately, asymptotically there

is no gain in the degree of approximations either; moreover

there is a significant difference in storage requirements.

Pade approximations require more storage. Even in cases when

explicit Pad~ approximations are known, gains of using them can

be visible only in about hundreds of digits of precision; not

below or above. That is why unless special circumstances call

for (like uniform approximations with a minimal storage in or-

dinary precision range), Pade approximations and continued

fraction expansion techniques should net be used for numerical

evaluation.

However, in diophantine approximations we have no choice.

Only Pad6 approximations and a vast army of their generaliza-

609
 APPROXIMATIONS AND COMPLEX MULTIPLICATION

tions are capable of approximating functions and constants

and tell something of their arithmetic nature, of their ir-

rationalities and transcendences, measures of approximation,

etc.) .

All Ramanujan's quadratic period relations (four types)

can be deduced from one series by modular transformations, and

~e choose the series as the one associated ~ith the modular

invariant J = J (T) • In the place of Ramanuj an's nonholomor·-

phic function ~e take, as above in (1.2):

Then the Clausen identity gives the follo~ing 3F2-repre-

sentation for an algebraic multiple of lin:

(1. 4)

1
TT 1/2'
(d (1728-J(T»

Here if T = (1+J~)/2, If h(-d) 1 the second factor in

the right hand side is a rational number, The largest one

class discriminat -d = -163 gives the most rapidly convergent

series (though coefficients are slightly strange):

00

L ( c +} ----1§~
3
l n •
n=O (3n)!n! (640,320) n

(640,320)3/2 1
(1. 5)
163·8'27'7'll'19·127·~·

610
3\10 D.V. CfIUDNOVSKY AND G.V. CIIUDNOVSKY

Here

13 ,591,409
163·2·9·7·11·19·127

l+oE'ID 3
(and, of course, J ( 2 ) = - (640,320) ).

Ramanujan [1] provides instead of this a variety of other

formulas connected mainly with the three other triangle groups

commensurable with r(l).

Four classes of 3F2 representations of algebraic multi-

ples of l/rr correspond to four 3F2 hypergeometric functions

(that are squares of 2Fl representations of complete elliptic

integrals via the Clausen identity). These are

, , 00

F (1/ 2 1/6 5/6\x) (6n)! (-L)n

L: (1. 6)
3 2 1 1
n=O (3n) ! n! 3 12 3

, 3/4 , 1/2\x)
00
F (1/4 J.!!l.ll (~ ) n (1. 7)
321 1 L: 4 4
n=O n! 4

, , (2n).: 3 (~) n
00
F (1/2 1/2 1/2 Ix) (1. 8)
321 1 L:
n=O 11.,b 26

F (1/3 , 2/3 , 1/2 'x)

00
J1!!.U ..R!!.U (_x_) n (1. 9)
321 1 L:
n=O ,3 ,2 33 22 .
n. n. .

The first function is the one arising in (1.4) with

3
x = 12 /J(T). Other three functions correspond to modular

transformations of J(T). This means that appropriate x X(T)

is a modular function of higher level (e.g. in (1.8), x

2 2 2 2
4k (l-k ) for k = k (T», and series (1.7)-(1.9) for the same

T have slower convergence rates than the series in (1.6).

Representations similar to (1.5) can be derived for any

of the series (1.6)-(1.9) for any singular moduli T € m(j=Q)

611
 APPROXIMATIONS ANI) COMPLEX MULTIPLICATION 3<)1

and for any class number h(-d}, thus extending Ramanujan list

[1] ad infinum. There is a simple recipe to generate these

new identities, instead of elaborate procedure proposed in

[1] (see also [5]) based on differentiating of modular equa-

tions. To derive these identities one needs the explicit

expressions of x.
J
= X(T.}
J
with the representatives T. in
J
H

of algebraically conjugate values of automorphic function

- - l+./-d
x = X(T} for T e W(J-d} (say T = J-d or T = 2 ). E.g. for
3
X(T) = 12 IJ(T}, Tj: j = 1, ... ,h(-d} corresponds to the class

number of W(J~}. The necessary values of S2(Tj} are easy to

compute from q-series representation of Ek(T}, if to USe the

formula (1.2). These computations can be carried out in bound-

ed precision, because, as we know, S2(Tj) lies in the Hilbert

class field of W(J-d) and because, whenever J(T.} is algebra-

J
ically conjugate to J(Ti)' numbers S2(Tj) and s2(Ti) are also

algebraically conjugate. This allows us to express s2(T) in

terms of J(T) and J-d explicitly using only finite precision

approximations to all S2(T j ). This way one obtains rapidly

convergent 3F2 representations of algebraic multiples of rr

by nearly integral power series. When h(-d) > 1, these

series contain nonrational numbers, making the series (1.5)

the fastest convergent series representing a multiple of l/rr,

and having rational number entries only.

Even before Ramanujan's remarkable approximations to ~,

singular moduli evaluations were used to approximate multiples

of rr by logarithms of algebraic numbers (usually the values

612
392 D.V. CHUDNOVSKY AND G.V. CHUDNOVSKY

of modular invariants). One of the first series of such appro-

ximations belongs to Hermite [13]. Of course, by now it is

reproduced in hundreds of papers and we have to give a custo-

mary example. One is looking here at the expansion of the

modular invariant near infinity:

J(T) = q -1 + 744 + 196884q + 21493760q

2
+ ...

for q = e 2TTiT The elementary theory of complex mUltiplica-

tion shows that for T = (1+J-d)/2, q-l e -TTjd is very close

to an algebraic integer J(T) of degree h(-d). Usual examples

(see description in [14]) involve the largest one class dis-

criminant -163, d = 163,when:

eTTJ163 = -262537412640768743.9999999999992 ...

There is a variety of these and similar approximations

of TT by logarithms of other classical automorphic functions.

One of the most popular, studied by Shanks et. al. [15], has

a simple q-expansion:

<_l)k+l k k 1
00

log f + Jd. TT 24 L: - -
k
q (l-q ) - .
k=l

It is also known that the right side can be expanded in

powers of f:

00

10gf+Ja.-rr L: (-1) n-l

n=l

Here a are integers. Shanks [15] looks at specialization of

n

613
 APPROXIMATIONS AND COMPLEX MULTIPLICATION 393

this formula for -d with class groups of special structure for

relatively large d. These approximations are not technically

approximations to n, but rather to a linear form in nand

in another logarithm. All of them are natural consequences of

Schwarz theory and the representation of the function inverse

to the automorphic one (say J{T)) as a ratio of two solutions

of a hypergeometric equation. One such formula is

2
tn{k ) - t n (16) + (1. 10)

and another (our favorite) is Fricke's [16]

1 5 12 3
G (12" '1'2: 1 : J )
2ni· ,. tn J + . (loll)
1 5 12 3
F ( 12 '12" : 1 : J )
00 (a)n(b)n n-l 1 1 2
Here G(a,b:c:x) : ~n=O (c) n! .(Lj=o{a+j + b+j - c+j)}
n
is the hypergeometric function (of the second kind) in the

exceptional case, when there are logarithmic terms.

Perhaps the most popular approximations to linear forms

in n and in another logarithm are associated with Stark-

Baker solution to one-class and two-class problems (cf. [17]).

stark's approach [18] is based on Kronecker's limit formula,

and in a way, similar to approximations given above, one

represents

2
L(l'X)·L{l,XX') - ~ n
p\k

-d
for X (. ) (~), k > 0 as a rapidly convergent

614
394 D.V. CIIUDNOVSKY AND G.V. CllUDNOVSKY

2 2
q l/k -serLes
. (h ere f ax + bxy + cy runs through a complete

set of unequivalent quadratic forms with the discriminant -d).

Using Dirichlet's class number formula one obtains an except-

ional approximation (as above) to the linear form in two 10-

garithms:

lh(-kd).log EJk - qnJdl <

for an arbitrary fundamental unit Ejk of m(Jk) and for one-

class discriminant -d. These remarkable linear forms were

generalized by stark to three-term linear forms in the class

number two case.

(While these unusually good approximations can be used

in the class number problem--approximations are so good that

they are impossible for large d--these linear forms cannot be

used for the analysis of arithmetic properties of the indivi-

dual logarithms, like n, entering the linear form. Moreover,

as the class number grows, the number of the terms in the

linear form grows.)

Important developments initiated by Ramanujan in his

truly algebraic approximations to lin can be extended to the

analysis of linear forms in logarithms presented above. In

fact, each term in these linear forms can be separately re-

presented by a rapidly convergent series in l/J with nearly

integral coefficients.

For this one takes an automorphic function ~(T) with reS-

pect to one of the congruence subgroups of r(l) and expand

615
 APPROXIMATIONS AND COMPLEX MULTIPLICATION 395

functions like F(;2';2;1;12 3/J), G(1~'1~;1,;123/J) in powers

of ~(T) instead of J(T). Whenever ~(T) is automorphic with

respect to a classical triangle group, we arrive to the cor-

responding usual hyp~rgeometric functions.

other logarithms, like ", can be represented as values

of convergent series satisfying Fuchsian linear differential

equations. This is particularly clear for log £Jk of a fun-

damental unit £Jk of a real quadratic field m(Jk). To repre-

sent this number as a convergent series (in, say, l/J(T» one

uses Kronecker's limit formula expressing this logarithm

log £jk in terms of products of values of Dedekind's A-function

("Jugandtraum", see [6]). Such an expression of log £JK in

terms of power series in l/J(T) for T ; (1+J:d)/2 for any

d == 3(8), depends, unfortunately, on k, because k is re-

1ated to the level of the appropriate modular form ~ ; ~k(T).

For k = 5 Siegel [19] made an explicit computation that

expresses J(T) in terms of the resolvent ~5(T) of 5-th degree

modular equation known from the classical theory of 5-th de-

gree equations. His relations [19] were:

and
h(-5p)/2
£

for T; (1+J-p)/2 and E: = E:./S. Hereonehas p 5 3(5); if

-1
p = 2(5) and replaces e by e in the expression of

J = Jh).

616
396 D.V. CHUDNOVSKY AND G.V. CHUDNOVSKY

This, in combination with Ramanujan's approximation to

TI, allows one to express log e (its multiple) as a convergent

series in l/J (or in l/~).

617
468 D.V. CHUDNOVSKY AND G.V. CHUDNOVSKY

References

[1] S. Ramanujan, Collected papers, Cambridge, 1927,

23-39.

[2] G.H. Hardy, Ramanujan, Cambridge, 1940.

[3] G.N. Watson, Some singular moduli (I);(II);(III);

(IV); Quart. J. Math. Oxford, 3 (1932), 81-98; 189-212;
proc. London Math. Soc. 40 (1936), 83-142; Acta Arithme-
tica, 1 (1936), 284-323.

[4] J.M. Borwein, P.B. Borwein, pi and the AGM, Wiley,

1987.

[5] E.T. Whittaker, G.N. Watson, A Course of Modern

Analysis, 4 ed., Cambridge, 1927.

[6] A. Weil, Elliptic Functions According to Eisenstein

and Kronecker, springer, 1976.

[7] C.L. Siegel, Bestimmung der elliptischen Modulfunk-

tionen durch eine Transformations gleichung, Abh. Math.
Sem. Univ. Hamburg, 27 (1964), 32-38.

[8] A. Weil, Sur les Periodes des Int~grales Ab~liennes,

Comm. Pure Appl. Math., 29 (1976), 813-819.

[9] D. Masser, Elliptic Functions and Transcendence,

Lecture Notes Math., v. 437, springer, 1975.

[10] S. Lefschetz, On certain numerical invariants of

algebraic varieties with application to Abelian varie-
ties, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., 22 (1921), 327-482.

[11] E.T. whittaker, On hyperlemniscate functions, a

family of automorphic functions, J. London Math. Soc.,
4 (1929), 274-278.

[12] D.V. Chudnovsky, G.V. Chudnovsky, Computer assisted

number theory, Lecture Notes Math., springer, 1240,
1987, 1-68.

[13] Ch. Hermite, Sur la Theorie des Equations Modu1aires,

C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris., 48 (1859), 940-1079-1097; 49
(1859), 16-110-141.

618
 APPROXIMATIONS AND COMPLEX MULTIPLICATION 469

[14] H.M. Stark, Class-numbers of complex quadratic fields,

Lecture Notes Math., Springer, v. 320, 1973, 153-174.

[15] D. Shanks, Dihedral quartic approximation and series

for n, J. Number Theory, 14 (1982), 397-423.

[16] R. Fricke, Die E11iptischen Funktionen und ihre

Anwendungen, v. 1, Teubner, 1916.

[17] A. Baker, Transcendental Number Theory, Cambridge,

1979.

[18] H.M. Stark, A transcendence theorem for class num-

ber problems, I~ II~ Ann. Math. 94 (1971), 153-173~
96(1972), 174-209.

[19] C.L. Siegel, Zum Beweise des Starkschen Satzes,

Invent. Math., 5 (1968), 180-191.

[20] G. Shimura, Automorphic forms and the periods of

Abelian varieties, J. Math. Soc. Japan, 31 (1979), 561-59.

[21] G. Shimura, The arithmetic of certain zeta functions

and automorphic forms on orthogonal groups, Ann. of Math.,
III (1980), 313-375.

[22] P. De1igne, Va1eurs de fonctions L et periodes

d'integra1es, proc. Symp. Pure Math., v. 33, Part 2, Amer.
Math. Soc., providence, R.I., 313-346.

[23] P. De1igne, Cycles de Hodge abso1us et periodes des

int~gra1es des vari~t~s ab~liennes,Soc. Math. de France,
Memoire, NO 2, 1980, 23-33.

[24] G. Shimura, Introduction to the Arithmetic Theory

of Automorphic F,)rms, princeton, University press, 1971.

[25] G. Shimura, Y. Taniyama, Complex Multiplication of

Abelian Varieties and Its Applications to Number Theory,
publications of the, Mathematical Society of Japan, N0 6,
1961.

[26] G.V. Chudnovsky, Algebraic independence of values

of exponential and elliptic functions. proceedings of
the International congress of Mathematicians, Helsinki,
1979, Acad. Sci. Tennice, Helsinki, 1980, v. 1, 339-350.

[27] B.H. Gross, N. Koblitz, Gauss sums and the p-adic

[-function, Ann. of Math., 109 (1979), 569-581.

[28] R. Fricke .• F. Klein, Vorlesungen uber die Theorie

der Automorphen Functionen. bd. 2, Tenbner, 1926.

619
47() I).V. CIIUI)NOVSKY AND G.V. CIIUDNOVSKY

[29] R. Morris, On the automorphic functions of the group

(0,31tl,t2,t3)' Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., 7 (1906), 425-448.

[30] K. Takeuchi, Arithmetic triangle groups, J. Math.

Soc. Japan, 29 (1977), 91-106.

[31] H.P.F. Swinnerton-Dyer, Arithmetic groups in Dis-

crete Groups and Automorphic Functions, Academic press,
1977, 377-401.

[32} J.I. Hutchinson, On the automorphic functions of the

group (0,312,6,6), Trans. Amer. Math. Soc .• 5 (1904),
447-460.

[33] D.V. chudnovsky, G.V. Chudnovsky, Note on Eisenstein's

system of differential equations, in Classical and Quan-
tum Models and Arithmetic problems, M. Dekker, 1984,
99-116.

[34] D.V. Chudnovsky, G.V. Chudnovsky, The use of compu-

ter algebra for diophantine and differential equations, m
Computer Algebra as a Tool for Research in Mathematics and
Physics, proceeding of the International Conference, 1984,
New York University, M. Dekker, 1987.

[35] D.V. Chudnovsky, G.V. Chudnovsky, Applications of

pad~ approximations to diophantine inequalities in values
of G-functions, Lecture Notes Math., v. 1135, Springer,
1985, 9-50.

[36] K. Mahler, Perfect systems, Compositio Math., 19

(1968), 95-166.

[37] D.V. Chudnovsky, G.V. Chudnovsky, Applications of

pad~ approximations to the Grothendieck conjecture on
linear differential equations, Lecture Notes Math., v.
1135, springer, 1985, 51-100.

[38] C.L. Siegel, Uber einige Anwendungen diophantischer

Approximationen, Abh. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. phys. Math.
K1. 1, 1929.

[39] G.V. Chudnovsky, Contributions to the Theory of

Transcendental Numbers, Mathematical Surveys and Mono~
graphs, v. 19, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, R.I., 1984.

[40] G.V. Chudnovsky, Pade approximation and the Riemann

monodromy problem, in Bifurcation Phenomena in Mathemati-
cal Physics and Related Topics, D. Reidel, Boston, 1980,
448-510.

620
 APPROXIMATIONS AND COMPLEX MULTIPLICATION 471

[41] G.V. Chudnovsky, Rational and Pad~ approximation to

solutions of linear differential equations and the mono-
dromy theory. Lecture Notes physics, v. 126, Springer,
1980, 136-169.

[42] G.V. Chudnovsky, pad~ approximations to the generaliz-

ed hypergeometric functions. I., J. Math. Pures et
Appliques, paris, 58 (1979), 445-476.

[43] G.V. Chudnovsky, On the method of Thue-Siegel, Ann.

of Math., 117 (1983),325-382.

[44] C.l .. Siegel. Transcendental Numbers, I'rinceton

university press, 1949.

[45] G.V. Chudnovsky, Rational approximations to linear

forms of exponentials and binomials, proc. Nat'l Acad.
Sci. U.S.A., 80 (1983), 3138-3141.

[46] n.v. Chudnovsky, G.V. Chudnovsky, A random walk in

higher arithmetic, Adv. Appl. Math., 7 (1986), 101-122.

[47] H. poincare, Sur les groupes des equations 1ineaires,

Acta. Math., 4 (1884) 201-312.

[48] n.A. Hejhel, Monodromy groups and poincare series,

Bull. Amer. Math. Soc., 84 (1978), 339-376.

[49] E.T. Whittaker, On the connexion of algebraic func-

tions with automorphic functions, Phil. Trans., 122
A(1898), 1-32.

[50] R.A. Rankin, The differential equations associated

with the uniformization of certain algebraic curveS, Proc.
ROy. Soc. Edinburgh, 65 (1958) 35-62.

[51] A. Schonhage, V. strassen, Schnelle Multiplikation

grosser zahlen, Computing, 7 (1971), 281-292.

[52] n.v. Chudnovsky, G.V. Chudnovsky, Algebraic complexi-

ties and algebraic curves over finite fields, proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci. USA, 84 (1987), 1739-1743.

[53] A. Schonhage, Equation solving in terms of compu-

tational complexity, Proc. International congress of
Mathematicians, Berkeley, 1986.

[54] R.P. Brent, Multiple-precision zero-finding methods

and the complexity of elementary function evaluation, in
Analytic Computational complexity, J.F. Traub, Ed.,
Academic press, 1975, 151-176.

621
472 D.V. CHUDNOVSKY AND G.V. CI-IUDNOVSKY

[55] R.P. Brent, The complexity of multiple-precision

arithmetic, in complexity of Computational Problem
Solving, R.S. Anderson and R.P. Brent, Eds. Univ. of
Queensland Press, Brisbane, Australia, 1975, 126-165.

[56) D.V. Chudnovsky, G.V. Chudnovsky, On expansions

of algebraic functions in power and Puiseux series, I;
II; J. of Complexity, 2 (1986), 271-294; 3 (1987), 1-25.

[57J O. Perron, Die Lehre von den Kettenbruchen,

Teubner, 1929.
~~ D. Bini, V. Pan, Polynomial djvision and its
computational complexity, J. of Complexity, 2 (1986),
179-203.
[59] D. A. Hejhal, A classical approach to a well-known
spectral correspondence on quaternion groups, Lecture
Notes Math., v. 1135, Springer, 1985, 127-196.

622
Rcprintcd from the AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL MOI.THLY
Vol. 96. No.3. March 1989

Ramanujan, Modular Equations, and Approximations to Pi or

How to Compute One Billion Digits of Pi
J. M. BORWEIN ASD P. B. BORWEIN
Malhemali<'S Departnlelll. Dalhousil! L'lIil'erlil,l'. lIalifax. N.S. 83/1 3./5 Canada

alld
D. H. BAltEY
NASA Anll!s Resl'arch Cellll?r. Mo//ell Field. CA 94035

Preface. The year 1987 was the centenary of Ramanujan"s birth. He died in 1920
Had he not died so young, his presence in modern mathematics might be more
immediately felt. Had he lived to have access to powerful·algebraic manipulation
software. such as MACSYMA, who knows how much more spectacular his already
astonishing career might have been.
This article will follow up one small thread of Ramanujan's work which has
found a modern computational context, namely, one of his approaches to approxi-
mating pi. Our experience has been that as we have come to understand these pieces
of Ramanujan's work, as they have become mathematically demystified, and as we
have come to realize the intrinsic complexity of these results, we have come to
realize how truly singular his abilities were. This article attempts to present a
considerable amount of material and. of necessity, little is presented in detail. We
have, however, given much more detail than Ramanujan provided. Our intention is
that the circle of ideas will become apparent and that the finer points may be
pursued through the indicated references.
I. Introduction. There is a close and beautiful connection between the transfor-
mation theory for elliptic integrals and the very rapid approximation of pi. This
connection was first made explicit by Ramanujan in his 1914 paper "Modular
Equations and Approximations to 'IT" [26]. We might emphasize that Algorithms 1
and 2 are not to be found in Ramanujan's work, indeed no recursive approximation
of 'IT is considered, but as we shall see they are intimately related to his analysis.
Three central examples are:
Sum 1. (Ramanujan)

.: = {8 f (4n)! [1103 + 26390nJ

'IT 9801 n-O (n!)" 396 4n

Algorithm I. Let ao .s: 6 - 4.fi and Yo ,:z .fi - 1.

Let

and

201

623
202 J. M. BORWEIN, P. B. BORWEIN. AND D. H. BAILEY [March

Then
o < a" - 1/'17 < 16 . 4"e- 2 ' 4 ""
and an converges to 1/'17 quartically (that is, with order four).
Algorithm 2. Let So := 5(/5 - 2) and ao := 1/2.
Let
25
s •.j-J := - - - - - - : : - 2- ,
(z + x/z + 1) s"
where
x:= 5/s" - 1 y := (x - 1)2 +7
and

Let

an+ 1
._ 2
.- s"a" - 5
n{ -s;2- -5 + '·-(;-;:2----7"") }
ys" s" - 2s" + 5 .

Then
1 ..
o<a - - < 16 . 5"e->"
" '17
and an converges to 1/'17 quintically (that is, with order five).
Each additional term in Sum 1 adds roughly eight digits, each additional iteration
of Algorithm 1 quadruples the number of correct digits, while each additional
iteration of Algorithm 2 quintuples the number of correct digits. Thus a mere
thirteen iterations of Algorithm 2 provide in excess of one billion decimal digits of
pi. In general, for us, pth-order convergence of a sequence {an) to a means that a"
tends to a and that
lan+l - al ~ Cia n - alP
for some constant C > O. Algorithm 1 is arguably the most efficient algorithm
currently known for the extended precision calculation of pi. While the rates of
convergence are impressive, it is the subtle and thoroughly nontransparent nature of
these results and the beauty of the underlying mathematics that intrigue us most.
Watson [37], commenting on certain formulae of Ramanujan, talks of
a thrill which is indistinguishable from the thrill which I feel when I enter the
Sagrestia Nuovo of the Capella Medici and see before me the austere beauty of
the four statues representing "Day," "Night," "Evening," and "Dawn" which
Michelangelo has set over the tomb of Giuliano de' Medici and Lorenzo
de 'Medici.
Sum 1 is directly due to Ramanujan and appears in [26]. It rests on a modular
identity of order 58 and, like much of Ramanujan's work, appears without proof
and with only scanty motivation. The first complete derivation we know of appears

624
1989) RAMANUJAN, MODULAR EQUATlOr.;S. ASD APPROXIMATIONS TO PI 203

in [tI). Algorithms 1 and 2 are based on modular identities of orders 4 and 5,

respectively. The underlying quintic modular identity in Algorithm 2 (the relation
for s,,) is also due to Ramanujan, though the first proof is due to Berndt and will
appear in [7).
One intention in writing this article is to explain the genesis of Sum 1 and of
Algorithms 1 and 2. It is not possible to give a short self-contained account without
assuming an unusual degree of familiarity with modular function theory. Also, parts
of the derivation involve considerable algebraic calculation and may most easily be
done with the aid of a symbol manipulation package (MACSYMA, MAPLE,
REDUCE, etc.). We hope however to give a taste of methods involved, The full
details are available in [11).
A second intention is very brieny to describe the role of these and related
approximations in the recent extended precision calculations of pi. In part this
entails a short discussion of the complexity and implementation of such calcula-
tions. This centers on a discussion of multiplication by fast Fourier transform
methods. Of considerable related interest is the fact that these algorithms for 'IT are
provably close to the theoretical optimum.
2. The State of Our Current Ignorance. Pi is almost certainly the most natural of
the transcendental numbers, arising as the circumference of a circle of unit diame-
ter. Thus, it is not surprising that its properties have been studied for some
twenty-five hundred years. What is surprising is how little we actually know.
We know that 'IT is irrational, and have known this since Lambert's proof of 1771
(see (5)). We have known that 'IT is transcendental since Lindemann's proof of 1882
[23). We also know that '11' is not a Liouville number. Mahler proved this in 1953. An
irrational number 13 is Liouville if. for any n. there exist integers p and q so that

0< 113 - !!...I <

q
2..
q"
Liouville showed these numbers are all transcendental. In fact we know that

1'11' - ~I > qLs (2.1)

for p. q integral with q sufficiently large. This irrationality estimate, due to

Chudnovsky and Chudnovsky [16) is certainly not best possible. It is likely that
14.65 should be replaced by 2 + e for any e > O. Almost all transcendental numbers
satisfy such an inequality. We know a few related results for the rate of algebraic
approximation. The results may be pursued in [4) and [11).
We know that e'" is transcendental. This follows by noting that eft = (-1)-; and
applying the Gelfond-Schneider theorem (4). We know that '11' + log 2 + v'2log 3 is
transcendental. This result is a consequence of the work that won Baker a Fields
Medal in 1970. And we know a few more than the first two hundred million digits
of the decimal expansion for '11' (Kanada, see Section 3).
The state of our ignorance is more profound. We do not know whether such basic
constants as '1T + e. '1T/e, or log '11' are irrational, let alone transcendental. The best
we can say about these three particular constants is that they cannot satisfy any
polynomial of degree eight or less with integer coefficients of average size less than
10 9 (3). This is a consequence of some recent computations employing the

625
204 1. M. BORWEIN. P. B. BORWEIN. AND D. H. BAILEY [March

Ferguson-Forcade algorithm [17]. We don't know anything of consequence about

the single continued fraction of pi, except (numerically) the first 17 million terms.
which Gosper computed in 1985 using Sum 1. Likewise, apart from listing the first
many millions of digits of 'IT. we know virtually nothing about the decimal expan-
sion of 'IT. It is possible, albeit not a good bet. that all but finitely many of the
decimal digits of pi are in fact O's and l's. Carl Sagan's recent novel Contact rests on
a similar possibility. Questions concerning the normality of or the distribution of
digits of particular transcendentals such as 'iT appear completely beyond the scope
of current mathematical techniques. The evidence from analysis of the first thirty
million digits is that they are very uniformly distributed [2]. The next one hundred
and seventy million digits apparently contain no surprises.
In part we perhaps settle for computing digits of 'iT because there is little else we
can currently do. We would be amiss, however. if we did not emphasize that the
extended precision calculation of pi has substantial application as a test of the
"global integrity" of a supercomputer. The extended precision calculations de-
scribed in Section 3 uncovered hardware errors which had to be corrected before
those calculations could be successfully run. Such calculations. implemented as in
Section 4. are apparently now used routinely to check supercomputers before they
leave the factory. A large-scale calculation of pi is entirely unforgiving; it soaks into
all parts of the machine and a single bit awry leaves detectable consequences.

3. Matters Computational
I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I carried these calculations. hoeing
no other business at the time.
Isaac Newton
Newton's embarrassment at having computed 15 digits. which he did using the
arcsinlike formula

'IT = 313 + 24( ~ __ 1___ 1 ___ 1 _ _ ... )'

4 12 5 . 2s 28 . 27 72 . 29

= 4313 + 241''------'
o'v x - x dx,
2

is indicative both of the spirit in which people calculate digits and the fact that a
surprising number of people have succumbed to the temptation [5].
The history of efforts to determine an accurate value for the constant we now
know as 'IT is almost as long as the history of civilization itself. By 2000 B.C. both the
Babylonians and the Egyptians knew 'IT to nearly two decimal places. The Babyloni-
ans used, among others, the value 3 1/8 and the Egyptians used 3 13/81. Not all
ancient societies were as accurate, however-nearly 1500 years later the Hebrews
were perhaps still content to use the value 3, as the following quote suggests.
Also. he made a molten sea of ten cubits from brim to brim, round in compass.
and five cubits the height thereof; and a line of thirty cubits did compass it round
about.
Old Testament, 1 Kings 7:23
Despite the long pedigree of the problem, all nonempirical calculations have
employed, up to minor variations, only three techniques.

626
191<9) RAMANUJAN. MODUI.AR EQUATIO!'S. A!"O APPROXIMATIONS TO PI 205

i) The first technique due to Archimedes of Syracuse (287-212 B.C.) is, recur-
sively. to calculate the length of circumscribed and inscribed regular 6 . 2"-gons
ahout a circle of diameter 1. Call these quantities a" and b", respectively. Then
a ll := 213. bll := 3 and. as Gauss's teacher Pfaff discovered in 1800.

a n .. !:= --- and b"'1 := \a"'l b".

a" + b"
Archimedes. with n = 4, obtained
3~'" < ':T < 3~.
While hardly better than estimates one could get with a ruler. this is the first method
that can be used to generate an arbitrary number of digits, and to a non numerical
mathematician perhaps the problem ends here. Variations on this theme provided
the basis for virtually all calculations of 'IT for the next 1800 years. culminating with
a 34 digit calculation due to Ludolph van Ceulen (1540-1610). This demands
polygons with about 260 sides and so is extraordinarily time consuming.

ii) Calculus provides the basis for the second technique. The underlying method
relies on Gregory's series of 1671

arctan x = l, 1 +dt
x
t2 = x - '3
x3
+
x5
"5 - '" Ixl s 1
coupled with a formula which allows small x to be used, like
1. ( 1 .
~4 = 4 arctan.( -)
5 - arctan. -239 ) .

This particular formula is due to Machin and was employed by him to compute 100
digits of 'IT in 1706. Variations on this second theme are the basis of all the
calculations done until the 1970's including William Shanks' monumental hand-
calculation of 527 digits. In the introduction to his book [32], which presents this
calculation, Shanks writes:
Towards the close of the year J850 the A uthor first formed the design of rectifying
the circle to upwards of 300 places of decimals. He was fully aware at that time,
that the accomplishment of his purpose would add little or nothing to his fame as a
Mathematician though it might as a Computer: nor would it be productive of
anything in the shape of pecuniary recompense.
Shanks actually attempted to hand-calculate 707 digits but a mistake crept in at
the 527th digit. This went unnoticed until 1945, when D. Ferguson, in one of the
last "nondigital" calculations, computed 530 digits. Even with machine calculations
mistakes occur, so most record-setting calculations are done twice-by sufficiently
different methods.
The advent of computers has greatly increased the scope and decreased the toil of
such calculations. Metropolis, Reitwieser, and von Neumann computed and ana-
lyzed 2037 digits using Machin's formula on ENIAC in 1949. In 1961, Dan Shanks
and Wrench calculated 100,000 digits on an IBM 7090 [31]. By 1973. still using
Machin-like arctan expansions, the million digit mark was passed by Guillard and
Bouyer on a CDC 7600.

627
206 1. M. BORWEIN, P. B. BORWEIN, AND D. H. BAILEY [March

iii) The third technique, based on the transformation theory of elliptic integrals,
provides the algorithms for the most recent set of computations. The most recent
records are due separately to Gosper, Bailey, and Kanada. Gosper in 1985 calcu-
lated over 17 million digits (in fact over 17 million terms of the continued fraction)
using a carefully orchestrated evaluation of Sum 1.
Bailey in January 1986 computed over 29 million digits using Algorithm 1 on a
Cray 2 [2]. Kanada, using a related quadratic algorithm (due in basis to Gauss and
made explicit by Brent [12] and Salamin [21]) and using Algorithm 1 for a check,
verified 33,554,000 digits. This employed a HITACHI S-810/20, took roughly eight
hours, and was completed in September of 1986. In January 1987 Kanada extended
his computation to 227 decimal places of 'IT and the hundred million digit mark had
been passed. The calculation took roughly a day and a half on a NEC SX2 machine.
Kanada's most recent feat (Jan. 1988) was to compute 201,326,000 digits, which
required only six hours on a new Hitachi S-820 supercomputer. Within the next few
years many hundreds of millions of digits will no doubt have been similarly
computed. Further discussion of the history of the computation of pi may be found
in [5] and [9].
4. Complexity Concerns. One of the interesting morals from theoretical com-
puter science is that many familiar algorithms are far from optimal. In order to be
more precise we introduce the notion of bit complexity. Bit complexity counts the
number of single operations required to complete an algorithm. The single-digit
operations we count are +, -, X. (We could, if we wished, introduce storage and
logical comparison into the count. This, however, doesn't affect the order of growth
of the algorithms in which we are interested.) This is a good measure of time on a
serial machine. Thus, addition of two n-digh integers by the usual method has bit
complexity O(n), and straightforward uniqueness considerations show this to be
asymptotically best possible.
Multiplication is a different story. Usual multiplication of two n-digit integers
has bit complexity O(n2) and no better. However, it is possible to multiply two
n-digit integers with complexity O(n(log n)(loglog n». This result is due to
Schonhage and Strassen and dates from 1971 [29]. It provides the best bound known
for multiplication. No multiplication can have speed better than O(n). Unhappily,
more exact results aren't available.
The original observation that a faster than O(n2) multiplication is possible was
due to Karatsuba in 1962. Observe that
(a + bl0n)(c + dl0n) = ac + [(a - b)(c - d) - ac - bd]10n + bdl0 2n •
and thus multiplication of two 2n-digit integers can be reduced to three multiplica-
tions of n-digit integers and a few extra additions. (Of course multiplication by IOn
is just a shift of the decimal point.) If one now proceeds recursively one produces a
multiplication with bit complexity

Note that log2 3 = 1.58 ... < 2.

We denote by M(n) the bit complexity of multiplying two n-digit integers
together by any method that is at least as fast as usual multiplication.
The trick to implementing high precision arithmetic is to get the multiplication
right. Division and root extraction piggyback off multiplication using Newton's

628
1989) RAMANUJAN. MODULAR EQUATIONS. AND APPROXIMATIONS TO PI 207

method. One may use the iteration

X k + 1 = 2Xk - xfy
to compute I/y and the iteration

Xk+1 = ~(Xk
2
+ .:!::..)
xk

to compute .;y. One may also compute 1/ /Y from

x k (3 - yxt)
2
and so avoid divisions in the computation of /Y.
Not only do these iterations
converge quadratically but. because Newton's method is self-correcting (a slight
perturbation in X k does not change the limit), it'is possible at the kth stage to work
only to precision 2k. If division and root extraction are so implemented. they both
have bit complexity O(M(n». in the sense that n-digit input produces n-digit
accuracy in a time bounded by a constant times the speed of multiplication. This
extends in the obvious way to the solution of any algebraic equation, with the
startling conclusion that every algebraic number can be computed (to n-digit
accuracy) with bit complexity O(M(n». Writing down n-digits of Ii or 3..f[ is (up
to a constant) no more complicated than multiplication.
The Schonhage-Strassen multiplication is hard to implement. However. a multi-
plication with complexity O«log n)2+fn) based on an ordinary complex (floating
point) fast Fourier transform is reasonably straightforward. This is Kanada's
approach. and the recent records all rely critically on some variations of this
technique.
To see how the fast Fourier transform may be used to accelerate multiplication.
let x := (xo. XI' x 2•...• x n_ l ) and Y := (Yo. )'1' Yz •...• Yn -I) be the representations
of two high-precision numbers in some radix b. The radix b is usually selected to be
some power of 2 or 10 whose square is less than the largest integer exactly
representable as an ordinary floating-point number on the computer being used.
Then. except for releasing each "carry." the product Z := (zo. ZI' Z2 ••..• z2n-l) of x
and Y may be written as
Zo = XoYo
Zl = XOYI + xIYo
z2 = x OY2 + XIYI + X 2 Yo

Zn_1 = XOYn-1 + x IYn-2 + ... +Xn-IYO

Z2n-3 = x n-IYn-2 + x n-2Yn-1

z2n-2 = xn-!Yn-!
z2n-! = O.
Now consider x and Y to have n zeros appended, so that x, y, and Z all have
length N = 2n. Then a key observation may be made: the product sequence Z is

629
208 1. M. BORWEIN, P. B. BORWEIN, AND D. H. BAILEY [March

precisely the discrete convolution C(x, y):

N-I
Zk = Ck(x, y) = L x;>'k_j'
j-O

where the sUbscript k - j is to be interpreted as k - j + N if k - j is negative.

Now a well-known result of Fourier analysis may be applied. Let F(x) denote
the discrete Fourier transform of the sequence x, and let F-1(.y) denote the inverse
discrete Fourier transform of x:
N-I
Fk(x):= L x;e- 2 r.i j k/S
j-O
1 N-I
F;;I(X) := - L xjeh,ijk/N.
N j-O

Then the "convolution theorem," whose proof is a straightforward exercise, states

that
F[C(x, y)] = F(x)F(y)
or, expressed another way,
C(x, y) = rl[F(x)F(y)].
Thus the entire multiplication pyramid z can be obtained by performing two
forward discrete Fourier transforms, one vector complex multiplication and one
inverse transform, each of length N = 2n. Once the real parts of the resulting
complex numbers have been rounded to the nearest integer, the final multi precision
product may be obtained by merely releasing the carries modulo b. This may be
done by starting at the end of the Z vector and working backward, as in elementary
school arithmetic, or by applying other schemes suitable for vector processing on
more sophisticated computers.
A straightforward implementation of the above procedure would not result in
any computational savings-in fact, it would be several times more costly than the
usual "schoolboy" scheme. The reason this scheme is used is that the discrete
Fourier transform may be computed much more rapidly using some variation of the
well-known "fast Fourier transform" (FFT) algorithm [13]. In particular, if N = 2n!,
then the discrete Fourier transform may be evaluated in only 5m2 m arithmetic
operations using an FFT. Direct application of the definition of the discrete Fourier
transform would require 22m + 3 floating-point arithmetic operations, even if it is
assumed that all powers of e- 2 <ri/N have been precalculated.
This is the basic scheme for high-speed multiprecision multiplication. Many
details of efficient implementations have been omitted. For example, it is possible to
take advantage of the fact that the input sequences x and y and the output
sequence z are all purely real numbers, and thereby sharply reduce the operation
count. Also, it is possible to dispense with complex numbers altogether in favor of
performing computations in fields of integers modulo large prime numbers. Inter-
ested readers are referred to [2], [8], [13], and [22].
When the costs of all the constituent operations, using the best known tech-
niques, are totalled both Algorithms 1 and 2 compute n digits of '1T with bit
complexity O( M( n )log n), and use O(1og n) full precision operations.

630
1989] RAMANUJAN. MODULAR EQUATlO~S. AND APPROXIMATIONS TO PI 209

The bit complexity for Sum 1. or for 'IT using any of the arctan expansions, is
between 0«logn)2M(n» and O(IIM(n» depending on implementation. In each
case. one is required to sum O( n) terms of the appropriate series. Done naively, one
obtains the latter bound. If the calculation is carefully orchestrated so that the terms
are grouped to grow evenly in size (as rational numbers) then one can achieve the
former bound. but with no corresponding reduction in the number of operations.
The Archimedean iteration of section 2 converges like 1/4 n so in excess of II
iterations are needed for n-digit accuracy. and the bit complexity is O( nM( n ».
Almost any familiar transcendental number such as e. y, f(3). or Catalan's
constant (presuming the last three to be nonalgebraic) can be computed with bit
complexity O((\og II )M( n» or O((\og II )2M( n ». None of these numbers is known
to be computable essentially any faster than this. In light of the previous observa-
tion that algebraic numbers are all computable with bit complexity O( M( n », a
proof that 'IT cannot be computed with this speed would imply the transcendence of
'IT. It would. in fact. imply more. as there are transcendental numbers which have
complexity O(M(n». An example is 0.10100100001 ....
It is also reasonable to speculate that computing the nth digit of 'IT is not very
much easier than computing all the first n digits. We think it very probable that
computing the nth digit of 'IT cannot be O( n).

5. The Miracle of Theta Functions

When I was a student. abelian functions ,,·ere. as all effect of the Jacobian
tradition. considered the ullcontested summit of mathematics. and each of us was
ambitious to make progress ill this field. Alld 1I0W'? The younger generation
hardly knows abelian functions.
Felix Klein [21]
Felix Klein's lament from a hundred years ago has an uncomfortable timelessness
to it. Sadly. it is now possible never to see what Bochner referred to as .. the miracle
of the theta functions" in an entire university mathematics program. A small piece
of this miracle is required here [6]. [11]. [28]. First some standard notations. The
complete elliptic integrals of the first and second kind. respectively,

K(k) := l o
wk

h-
dt
k 2sin2t
(5.1)

and
(5.2)

The second integral arises in the rectification of the ellipse. hence the name elliptic
integrals. The complementary modulus is
k':=~
and the complementary integrals K' and E' are defined by
K'(k):= K(k') and E'(k):= E(k').
The first remarkable identity is Legendre's relation namely
'IT
E(k)K'(k) + E'(k)K(k) - K(k)K'(k) = "2 (5.3)

631
210 J. M. BORWEIN. P. B. BORWEIN. AND D. H. BAILEY [March

(for 0 < k < 1), which is pivotal in relating these quantities to pi. We also need to
define two Jacobian theta functions
'00

8 2(q):= L q<n+l/2)' (5.4)

n- -00

and
(5.5)
n- - 00

These are in fact specializations with (t = 0) of the general theta functions. More
generally
00

8 3 (t, q):= L qn'e imt (im t > 0)

n- - 00

with similar extensions of 9 2 , In Jacobi's approach these general theta functions

provide the basic building blocks for elliptic functions, as functions of t (see [111,
[39]).
The complete elliptic integrals and the special theta functions are related as
follows. For Iql < 1
'IT
K(k) = 28;(q) (5.6)

and

E(k) = (k')2[ K(k) + k d:~k)], (5.7)

where
9i(q) 9 2(- )
k:= k(q) = 9f(q) , k' := k'( ) = 3 q (5.8)
q 9f(q)
and
(5.9)

The modular function A is defined by

9 2 (q) ]4
A(t) := A(q) := k 2 (q):= [ - - , (5.10)
9 3 (q)
where

We wish to make a few comments about modular functions in general before

restricting our attention to the particular modular function A. Modular functions are
functions which are meromorphic in H, the upper half of the complex plane, and
which are invariant under a group of linear fractional transformations, G, in the
sense that
f(g(z» =f(z) VgE G.

632
1989] RAMANUJAN, MODULAR EQUATIONS, AND APPROXIMATIONS TO PI 211

[Additional growth conditions on f at certain points of the associated fundamental

region (see below) are also demanded.] We restrict G to be a subgroup of the
modular group r where r is the set of all transformations w of the form
at + b
w(t) = et + d'
with a, b, e, d integers and ad - be = 1. Observe that r is a group under composi-
tion. A fundamental region Fa is a set in H with the property that any element in H
is uniquely the image of some element in Fa under the action of G. Thus the
behaviour of a modular function is uniquely determined by its behaviour on a
fundamental region.
Modular functions are, in a sense, an extension of elliptic (or doubly periodic)
functions-functions such as sn which are invariant under linear transformations
and which arise naturally in the inversion of elliptic integrals.
The definitions we have given above are not complete. We will be more precise in
our discussion of A. One might bear in mind that much of the theory for A holds in
considerably greater generality.
The fundamental region F we associate with A is the set of complex numbers
F.= {im t ~ O} () [{lretl < 1 and
I2t ± 11 > 1} u {re t = -1} u {l2t + 11 = I}].
The A-group (or theta-subgroup) is the set of linear fractional transformations w
satisfying
at + b
w(t)'=et+d'

where a, b, c, d are integers and ad - be = 1, while in addition a and d are odd

and band c are even. Thus the corresponding matrices are unimodular. What
makes A a A-modular function is the fact that A is meromorphic in {im t > O} and
that
A(w(t» .- A(t)
for all w in the A-group, plus the fact that A tends to a definite limit (possibly
infinite) as t tends to a vertex of the fundamental region (one of the three points
00».
(0, - 1), (0, 0), (;, Here we only allow convergence from within the fundamental
region.
Now some of the miracle of modular functions can be described. Largely because
every point in the upper half plane is the image of a point in F under an element of
the A-group, one can deduce that any A-modular function that is bounded on F is
constant. Slightly further into the theory, but relying on the above, is the result that
any two modular functions are algebraically related, and resting on this, but further
again into the field, is the following remarkable result. Recall that q is given by
(5.9).
THEOREM 1. Let z be a primitive pth root of unity for p an odd prime. Consider the
pth order modular equation for A as defined by
(S.U)

633
212 J. M. BORWElN. P. B. BORWElN. AND D. H. BAILEY [March

where

and

Then the function Wp is a polynomial in x and A (independent of q) .....hich has integer

coefficients and is of degree p + 1 ill both x alld A.
The modular equation for A usually has a simpler form in the associated
variables u := X I/ 8 and v:= AI/8. In this form the 5th-order modular equation is
given by
(5.12)

In particular

are related by an algebraic equation of degree p + 1.

The miracle is not over. The pth-order multiplier (for A) is defined by

(5.13)

and turns out to be a rational function of k(qP) and k(q).

One is now in possession of a pth-order algorithm for K/'lT. namely: Let
k;:= k(qP'). Then

2K(k o) -I -I _I
- - ' - = Mp (k o• kl)Mp (k l • k2)Mp (k 2• k3) ....
'IT

This is an entirely algebraic algorithm. One needs to know the pth-order modular
equation for A to compute k;+1 from k; and one needs to know the rational
multiplier Mp. The speed of convergence (O(c P'). for some c < 1) is easily deduced
from (5.13) and (5.9).
The function A(t) is I-Ion F and has a well-defined inverse. A-I. with branch
points only at 0, 1 and 00. This can be used to provide a one line proof of the "big"
Picard theorem that a nonconstant entire function misses at most one value (as does
exp). Indeed, suppose g is an entire function and that it is never zero or one; then
exp(A -1(g(Z))) is a bounded entire function and is hence constant.
Littlewood suggested that, at the right point in history. the above would have
been a strong candidate for a 'one line doctoral thesis'.
6. Ramanujan's Solvable Modular Equations. Hardy (19) commenting on
Ramanujan's work on elliptic and modular functions says
It is here that both the profundity and limitations of Ramallujan's knowledge
stand out most sharply.
We present only one of Ramanujan's modular equations.

634
1989) RAMANUJAN, MODULAR EQUATIONS, AND APPROXIMATIO:-:S TO PI 213

THEOREM 2.

(6.1 )

where for i = 1 and 2

with
50 3{qS) 2
X := --..,.-'- - 1 and v := (x - 1) + 7.
0 3 ( q) .
This is a slightly rewritten form of entry 12(iii) of Chapter 19 of Ramanujan's
Second Notebook (see [7], where Berndt's proofs may be studied). One can think of
Ramanujan's quintic modular equation as an equation in the multiplier Mp of
(5.13). The initial surprise is that it is solvable. The quintic modular relation for A,
Ws' and the related equation for AI/B. Os. are both nonsolvable. The Galois group of
the sixth-degree equation Os (see (5.12» over Q(v) is As and is nonsolvable. Indeed
both Hermite and Kronecker showed, in the middle of the last century, that the
solution of a general quintic may be effected in terms of the solution of the
5th-order modular equation (5.12) and the roots may thus be given in terms of
the theta functions.
In fact. in general. the Galois group for Wp of (5.11) has order p(p + 1)(p - 1)
and is never solvable for p ~ 5. The group is quite easy to compute, it is generated
by two permutations. If

then T ..... T + 2 and T..... - , - - - - : -

(IT + 1)
are both elements of the A-group and induce permutations on the Ai of Theorem 1.
For any fixed p. one can use the q-expansion of (5.10) to compute the effect of
these transformations on the Ai' and can thus easily write down the Galois group.
While Wp is not solvable over Q(A), it is solvable over Q(A. AO)' Note that Ao is
a root of Wp' It is of degree p + 1 because Wp is irreducible. Thus the Galois group
for Wp over Q(A. Ao) has order p(p - 1). For p = 5.7, and 11 this gives groups of
order 20, 42, and 110, respectively, which are obviously solvable and, in fact, for
general primes, the construction always produces a solvable group.
From (5.8) and (5.10) one sees that Ramanujan's modular equation can be
rewritten to give AS solvable in terms of Ao and A. Thus, we can hope to find an
explicit solvable relation for Ap in terms of A and AO' For p = 3, Wp is of degree 4
and is, of course, solvable. For p = 7, Ramanujan again helps us out, by providing a
solvable seventh-order modular identity for the closely related eta function defined
by

1J(q) := qh n (1 - q2n).
ao

n-l

The first interesting prime for which an explicit solvable form is not known is the
"endecadic" (p = 11) case. We consider only prime values because for nonprime
values the modular equation factors.

635
214 1. M. BORWEIN, P. B. BORWEIN, AND D. H. BAILEY [March

This leads to the interesting problem of mechanically constructing these equa-

tions. In principle, and to some extent in practice, this is a purely computational
problem. Modular equations can be computed fairly easily from (5.11) and even
more easily in the associated variables u and L'. Because one knows a priori bounds
on the size of the (integer) coefficients of the equations one can perform these
calculations exactly. The coefficients of the equation, in the variables u and L', grow
at most like 2n. (See [11].) Computing the solvable forms and the associated
computational problems are a little more intricate-though still in principle entirely
mechanical. A word of caution however: in the variables u and v the endecadic
modular equation has largest coefficient 165, a three digit integer. The endecadic
modular equation for the intimately related function J (Klein's absolute int.ariant)
has coefficients as large as
27090964785531389931563200281035226311929052227303 X 29231952°11253.
It is, therefore, one thing to solve these equations, it is entirely another matter to
present them with the economy of Ramanujan.
The paucity of Ramanujan's background in complex analysis and group theory
leaves open to speculation Ramanujan's methods. The proofs given by Berndt are
difficult. In the seventh-order case, Berndt was aided by MACSYMA-a sophisti-
cated algebraic manipulation package. Berndt comments after giving the proof of
various seventh-order modular identities:
Of course, the proof that we have given is quite unsatisfactory because it is a
verification that could not have been achieved without knowledge of the result.
Ramanujan obviously possessed a more natural, transparent, and ingenious
proof.
7. Modular Equations and PI. We wish to connect the modular equations of
Theorem 1 to pi. This we contrive via the function alpha defined by:
E'(k) 'IT

a(r):= K(k) - (2K(k»2' (7.1)

where
k:= k(q) and q:= e-"';;.
This allows one to rewrite Legendre's equation (5.3) in a one-sided form without the
conjugate variable as

i =- K[ITE - (IT - a(r»)K]. (7.2)

We have suppressed, and will continue to suppress, the k variable. With (5.6) and
(5.7) at hand we can write a q-expansion for a, namely,

[-;---OO~]4
a(r) = ____ - (7.3)
2: n 2

n--oc q

636
1989J RAMANUJAN, MODULAR EQUATIONS. AND APPROXIMATIONS TO PI 215

and we can see that as r tends to infinity q = e - "I' tends to zero and a( r) tends to
1/'IT. In fact

(7.4)

The key now is iteratively to calculate a. This is the content of the next theorem.
THEOREM 3. Let ko:= k(q), kl := k(qP) and Mp:= MpCko' k l ) as in (5.13).

c[
Theil

( 2) a(r) k5 k2 Pk{2 k I Mp ]
apr = M2 - vr M2 - P I + M '
P P P
where' represents the full derivative of Mp \dth respect to k Q • In particular, a is
algebraic for rational arguments.

We know that K(k l ) is related via Mp to K(k) and we know that E(k) is
related via differentiation to K. (See (5.7) and (5.13).) Note that q ..... qP corre-
sponds to r ..... p2r. Thus from (7.2) some relation like that of the above theorem
must exist. The actual derivation requires some careful algebraic manipulation. (See
[llJ, where it has also been made entirely explicit for p := 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7, and
where numerous algebraic values are determined for a(r).) In the case p := 5 we
can specialize with some considerable knowledge of quintic modular equations to
get:
THEOREM 4. Let s:= 1/M5 (k o, k l ). Then
(S2_ 5 )
a(25r)=s 2a(r)-..fr [ 2

This couples with Ramanujan's quintic modular equation to provide a derivation of

Algorithm 2.
Algorithm 1 results from specializing Theorem 3 with p := 4 and coupling it with
a quartic modular equation. The quartic equation in question is just two steps of the
corresponding quadratic equation which is Legendre's form of the arithmetic
geometric mean iteration, namely:
21k
kl = 1 + k'
An algebraic pth-order algorithm for 'IT is derived from coupling Theorem 3 with
a pth-order modular equation. The substantial details which are skirted here are
available in [11 J.

8. Ramanujan's sum. This amazing sum,

.: = .;s f (4n)! [1103 + 26390n]
'IT 9801 n-O (n!t 396 4n
is a specialization (N = 58) of the following result, which gives reciprocal series f('~
'IT in terms of our function alpha and related modular quantities.

637
216 J. M. BORWEIN, P. B. BORWEIN, AND D. H. BAILEY [March

THEOREM 5.

-1) (1) (3)

f (4" 2 (n!)
- - d (N)
.: = " ; ,," x~"+ I, (8.1 )
'IT ,,_() .
where,

with

d (N) = [ a ( N) X,v
.. 1 + k ,v2
-I __ -12 + n..fN (12
..fN]
4 g.y
gN -
2
'12)
g.y

and

Here (e)" is the rising/aetoria/: (e),,:= e(e + l)(e + 2)··· (e + n - 1).

Some of the ingredients for the proof of Theorem 5, which are detailed in [Ill,
are the following. Our first step is to write (7.2) as a sum after replacing the E by K
and dK/dk using (5.7). One then uses an identity of Clausen's which allows one to
write the square of a hypergeometric function 2FI in terms of a generalized
hypergeometric 3F2' namely, for all k one has

(1 +k2)[2K~k)r =3F2(~'~'~'l'l:(gI2:g-12n
_f
.. -0
w.w.m. (.":.-,,j'"
(1)"(1),, n!
Here g is related to k by
4k(k,)2 = (gl2 + g_12)-1
(1 + k 2)2 2
as required in Theorem 5. We have actually done more than just use Clausen's
identity. we have also transformed it once using a standard hypergeometric substitu-
tion due to Kummer. Incidentally, Clausen was a nineteenth-century mathematician
who, among other things, computed 250 digits of 'IT in lS47 using Machin's formula.
The desired formula (S.1) is obtained on combining these pieces.
Even with Theorem S, our work is not complete. We still have to compute
k S8 '= k(e-"Jsi) and asK '= a(SS).
In fact

2
gsa -
(ti9+S)
2

638
 1989] RAMANU1AN, MODULAR EQUATIONS. AND APPROXIMATIONS TO PI 217

is a well-known invariant related to the fundamental solution to Pell's equation for

29 and it turns out that

aSH = (
!i9 + 5
2
)6(99!i9 - 444){99V2 - 70 - 13!i9).

One can, in principle. and for N := 58. probably in practice. solve for k", by directly
solving the Nth-order equation
WN(k~.,1 - k,t) = O.

For N = 58, given that Ramanujan [26] and Weber [38] have calculated gS8 for us,
verification by this method is somewhat easier though it still requires a tractable
form of Wsx . Actually. more sophisticated number-theoretic techniques exist for
computing k", (these numbers are called singular moduli). A description of such
techniques. including a reconstruction of how Ramanujan might have computed the
various singular moduli he presents in [26]; is presented by Watson in a long series
of papers commencing with [36]; and some more recent derivations are given in [11]
and [30]. An inspection of Theorem 5 shows that all the constants in Series 1 are
determined from gS8' Knowing a is equivalent to determining that the number 1103
is correct.
It is less clear how one explicitly calculates a S8 in algebraic form, except by brute
force. and a considerable amount of brute force is required; but a numerical
calculation to any reasonable accuracy is easily obtained from (7.3) and 1103
appears! The reader is encouraged to try this to. say, 16 digits. This presumably is
what Ramanujan observed. Ironically, when Gosper computed 17 million digits of ."
using Sum I, he had no mathematical proof that Sum 1 actually converged to 1/.".
He compared ten million digits of the calculation to a previous calculation of
Kanada et a!. This verification that Sum 1 is correct to ten million places also
provided the first complete proof that aSH is as advertised above. A nice touch-that
the calculation of the sum should prove itself as it goes.
Roughly this works as follows. One knows enough about the exact algebraic
nature of the components of dn(N) and xI{ to know that if the purported sum (of
positive terms) were incorrect, that before one reached 3 million digits, this sum
must have ceased to agree with 1/.". Notice that the components of Sum 1 are
related to the solution of an equation of degree 58, but virtually no irrationality
remains in the final packaging. Once again, there are very good number-theoretic
reasons, presumably unknown to Ramanujan, why this must be so (58 is at least a
good candidate number for such a reduction). Ramanujan's insight into this
marvellous simplification remains obscure.
Ramanujan [26] gives 14 other series for 1/.", some others almost as spectacular
as Sum I-and one can indeed derive some even more spectacular related series.-
He gives almost no explanation as to their genesis, saying only that there are
"corresponding theories" to the standard theory (as sketched in section 5) from
which they follow. Hardy, quoting Mordell, observed that "it is unfortunate that
Ramanujan has not developed the corresponding theories." By methods analogous

·(Added in proof) Many related series due to Borwein and Borwein and to Chudno\"sky and
Chudnovsky appear in papers in Ramanujan Revisited, Academic Press, 1988.

639
 218 1. M. BORWEIN. P. B. BORWEIN. AND D. H. BAILEY [March

to those used above. all his series can be derived from the classical theory [11],
Again it is unclear what passage Ramanujan took to them. but it must in some part
have diverged from ours.
We conclude by writing down another extraordinary series of Ramanujan·s.
which also derives from the same general body of theory.
1 "" (2 )342n + 5
:.; = E ,:'
,1-0
212n+4'

This series is composed of fractions whose numerators grow like 2~" and whose
denominators are exactly 16 . 21211. In particular this can be used to calculate the
second block of n binary digits of 'IT without calculating the first n binary digits.
This beautiful observation. due to Holloway. results. disappointingly. in no intrinsic
reduction in complexity.
9. Sources. References [7]. [11]. [19]. [26]. [36]_ and [37] relate directly to Ra-
manujan's work. References [2]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [12]. [22]. [24]. [27]. [29]. and [31]
discuss the computational concerns of the paper.
Material on modular functions and special functions may be pursued in [I]. [6].
[9]. [14]. [IS]. [18], [20], [28], [34], [38], and [39]. Some of the number-theoretic
concerns are touched on in [3]. [6], [9]. [11]. [16]. [23]. and [35].
Finally, details of all derivations are given in [11].

REFERENCES
1. M. Abramowitz and I. Stegun. Handbook of Mathematical Functions. Dover. New York. 1%4.
2. D. H. Bailey. The Computation of .. to 29.360.000 decimal digits using Borwein5' quarlically
convergent algorithm. MOlh. COmpUI .• 50 (1988) 283-96.
3. _ _ • Numerical results on the transcendence of constants involving ". e. and Euler's constant.
Malh. Compul •• SO (1988) 275-81.
4. A. Baker. Transcendental Number Theo!),. Cambridge Univ. Pr~ London. 1975.
5. P. Beckmann. A History of Pi. 4th ed .• Golem Press. Boulder. CO. 1977.
6. R. Bellman. A Brief Introduction to Theta Functions. Holt. Reinhart and Winston. New York.
1961.
7. B. C. Berndt. Modular Equations of Degrees 3. 5. and 7 and Associated Theta Functions Identities.
chapter 19 of Ramanujan's Second Notebook. Springer-to be published.
8. A. Borodin and I. Munro. The Computational Complexity of Algebraic and Numeric Problems.
American Elsevier. New York, 1975.
9. 1. M. Borwein and P. B. Borwein. The arithmetic-geometric mean and Cast computation oC
elementary functions. SIAM Rev .• 26 (1984). 351-365.
10. _ _ • An explicit cubic iteration Cor pi. BIT. 26 (1986) 123-126.
11. _ _ • Pi and the AGM-A Study in Analytic Number Theory and Computational Complexity.
Wiley. N.Y.• 1987.
12. R. P. Brent. Fast multiple-precision evaluation of elementary functions. J. ACM. 23 (1976)
242-251.
13. E. O. Brigham. The Fast Fourier Transform. Prentice-Hall. Englewood C1iCfs. N.1 .• 1974.
14. A. Cayley. An Elementary Treatise on Elliptic Functions. Bell and Sons. 1885; reprint Dover. 1961.
IS. A. Cayley. A memoir on the transformation of elliptic functions. Phil. Trans. T.• 164 (1874)
397-456.
16. D. V. Chudnovsky and G. V. Chudno\·sky. Pad!! and Rational Approximation to Systems of
Functions and Their Arithmetic Applications. Lecture Notes in Mathematics 1052. Springer. Berlin.
1984.
17. H. R. P. Ferguson and R. W. Forcade. Generalization of the Euclidean algorithm Cor real numbers
to all dimensions higher than two. Bull. AMS. 1 (1979) 912-914.
18. C. F. Gauss. Wcrkc. Glittingcn 1866-1933. Bd 3. pp. 361-403.

640
1989] RAMANUJAN, MODULAR EQUATIONS, AND APPROXIMATIONS TO PI 219

19. G. H. Hardy. Ramanujan. Cambridge Univ. Press, London, 1940.

20. L. V. King. On The Direct Numerical Calculation of Elliptic Functions and Integrals. Cambridge
Univ. Press. 1924.
21. F. Klein. Development of Mathematics in the 19th Century. 1928. Trans Math Sci. Press. R.
Hermann ed .• Brookline. MA. 1979.
22. D. Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming. vol. 2: Seminumerical Algorithms. Addison-Wesley,
Reading. MA. 1981.
23. F. Lindemann. Ober die Zahl fl. Malh. Ann .• 20 (1882) 213-225.
24. G. Miel. On calculations past and present: the Archimedean algorithm. Amer. Malh. MOn/hil'.9O
(1983) 17-35.
25. O. J. Newman. Rational Approximation Versus Fast Computer Methods. in Lectures on Approxi-
mation and Value Distribution. Presses de l'Uni"ersite de Montreal. 1982. pp. 149-174.
26. S. Ramanujan. Modular equations and approximations to fl. Quar/. J. Malh. 45 (1914) 350-72.
27. E. Salamin. Computation of fI using arithmetic-geometric mean. Malh. Compul .• 30 (1976)
565-570.
28. B. Schoenberg. Elliptic Modular Functions. Springer. Berlin. 1976.
29. A. Schonhage and V. Strassen. Schnelle Multiplikation Grosser Zahlen. CompUling. 7 (1971)
281-292.
30. D. Shanks. Dihedral quartic approximations and series for fl. J. Number Theo~l'. 14 (1982)
397-423.
31. D. Shanks and 1. W. Wrench. Calculation of fI to 100.000 decimals. Malh CompUl .• 16 (1962)
76-79.
32. W. Shanks. Contributions to Mathematics Comprising Chiefly of the Rectification of the Circle to
607 Places of Decimals. G. Bell. London. 1853.
33. Y. Tamura and Y. Kanada. Calculation of '" to 4.196.393 decimals based on Gauss-Legendre
algorithm. preprint (1983).
34. J. Tannery and J. Molk. Fonctions Elliptiques. vols. 1 and 2. 1893: reprint Chelsea. New York.
1972.
35. S. Wagon. Is fI normal? The Malh lmelligencer. 7 (1985) 65-67.
36. G. N. Watson. Some singular moduli (1). Quart. J. Malh .• 3 (1932) 81-98.
37. ___ • The final problem: an account of the mock theta functions. J. Lolldoll Malh. Soc .• 11
(1936) 55-80.
38. H. Weber, Lehrbuch der Algebra. Vol. 3. 1908: reprint Chelsea. New York. 1980.
39. E. T. Whittaker and G. N. Watson. A Course of Modem Analysis. 4th ed. Cambridge Uni\'. Press.
London. 1927.

641
Reprinled from the AMERICAN MATIlEMATlCAL MONTIlLY
Vol. 96, No. 8, October 1989

Pi, Euler Numbers, and Asymptotic Expansions

1. M. BoJt.WEIN. P. B. BoJt.WDN, and K. DJLCHEJt. I , nnlhmuie Univenit)'. Hali/ax, Canat/Q

JONATHAN M. BORWEIN was an Ontario Rhodes Scholar (1971) at Jesus

College, Oxford, where he completed a D. Phil. (1974) with Michael Demp-
ster. Since 1974 he has worked at Dalhousie University where he is professor
of mathematics. He has also been on faculty at Carnegie· Mellon University
(1980-82). He was the 1987 Coxeter·lames lecturer of the Canadian Mathe-
matical Society and was awarded the Atlantic Provinces Council on the
Sciences 1988 Gold Medal for Research. His research interests include
functional analysis, classical analysis, and optimization theory.

PETER B. BORWEIN obtained a Ph.D. (1979) from the University of

British Columbia, under the supervision of David Boyd. He spent 1979-80 as
a NATO research fellow in Oxford. Since then he has been on faculty at
Dalhousie (except for a sabbatical year at the University of Toronto) and is
now Associate Professor of Mathematics. His research interests include
approltimation theory, classical arialysis, and compleltity theory.

KARL DtLCHER received his undergraduate education and a Dip!. Math.

degree at Technische Universitit C1austhal in West Germany. He completed
his Ph.D (1983) at Queen's University in KingstoD, Ontario with Paulo
Ribenboim. Since 1984 he has beeD teaching at Dalhousie, where he is now
Assistant Professor. His research interests include Bernoulli numbers and
polynomials, and classical complex analysis.

1. Introduction. Gregory's series for 71, truncated at 500,000 terms, gives to forty
places

500.000 (_l)k-l
4 ~ 2k _ 1 = 3.14159Q6535897932404626433832~9502884197.
Ie-I

The number on the right is not 71 to forty places. As one would expect, the 6th
digit after the decimal point is wrong. The surprise is that the next 10 digits are
correct. In fact, only the 4 underlined digits aren't correct. This intriguing observa-
tion was sent to us by R. D. North [10) of Colorado Springs with a request for an
explanation. The point of this article is to provide that explanation. Two related

1 Research of the authors supported in part by NSERC of Canada.

681

642
682 1. M. BORWEIN, P. B. BORWEIN, AND K. DlLCHER [October

examples, to fifty digits, are

7T 50.000 (_I)k-l
- =2 L
2 k-l 2k - 1
I.5707~63267948916I923I32I19I6397520520985833I47388

1 -1 5 - 61
and
50.000 (_I)k+l
log2= L k
k-l

.693IJ7I80§59945309397232I2I474I76568048300I3446572,
- - - --
1 -1 2 - 16 272
where all but the underlined digits are correct. The numbers under the underlined
digits are the numbers that must be added to correct these. The numbers 1, -1, 5,
- 61 are the first four Euler numbers while 1, -1, 2, -16, 272 are the first five
tangent numbers. Our process of discovery consisted of generating these sequences
and then identifying them with the aid of Sloane's Handbook of Integer Sequences
[11]. What one is observing, in each case, is an asymptotic expansion"of the error in
Euler summation. The amusing detail is that the coefficients of the expansion are
integers. All of this is explained by Theorem 1.
The standard facts we need about the Euler numbers {E;), the tangent numbers
{T,}. and the Bernoulli numbers {B j }, may all be found in [1] or in [6]. The numbers
are defined as the coefficients of the power series
00 E Z2"
secz = L (-1)"
11-0
(22 " )'
n .
' (1.1)

To Z211+1
L (- I) ,,+ 1 -;-:2"_+....:1_-:--
00
tan Z =
,,-0 (2n + I)! and To = 1, (1.2)

Z 00 B z"
-.-- =
e - 1
L -"-,-.
,,-0 n.
(1.3)

They satisfy the relations

L
II (2n)
2k E2k = 0, (1.4)
k-O
-nT,,_1
B" = 2"(2" _ I} n ;;" 1, (1.5)

and

(1.6)

These three identities allow for the easy generation of {E,,}, {T,,}, and {B,,}. The

643
1989) PI, EULER NUMBERS, AND ASYMPTOTIC EXPANSIONS 683

first few values are recorded below.

n 0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8
En 1 0 -1 0 S 0 -61 0 1365
r.. 1 -1 0 2 0 -16 0 272 0
-1 1 -1 1 -1
B. 1
2 6
0
30
0 -42 0 -30
It is clear from (1.4) that the Euler numbers are integral. From (1.5) and (1.6) it
follows that the tangent numbers are integers. Also,
4n+I(2n )! 2(2n)!
IE2nl- ~2n+1 and IB2nl- (2~)2n

as follows from (5.1) and (5.2) below. The main content of this note is the following
theorem. The simple proof we offer relies on the Boole Summation Formula, which
is a pretty but less well-known analogue of Euler summation. The details are
contained in Sections 2 and 3 (except for c] which is a straightforward application of
Euler summation). More complicated developments can be based directly on Euler
summation or on results in (9).
THEOREM 1. T,he following asymptotic expansions hold:
_ NI2 (_1)"-1 E
.. ~ 2 ...
a] -2 - 2 L:
"-1
2k
-
1 - i.J
... -0
N 2 m+l
1 1 5 61
- - - -3+ -S- - + ...
N N N N7
N/2(_I)Ie-l
b] log2 - L: k
Ie-I
1 1 2 16 272
=--- + 4- - -6 + -8 - ...
N
2 N N N N
and
c]
6

From the asymptotics of {En} and {Bn} and (1.5) we see that each of the above
infinite series is everywhere divergent; the correct interpretation of their asymptotics
is
a']

-N-2 m= L:
K
L: 0 ( (2K + I)! )
oo T2m-l T2m
b') - -2m-+
1

... -1 m-l
N ( ~ N)2K-l

c']

644
684 1. M. BORWEIN. P. B. BORWEIN. AND K. DILCHER [October

where in each case the constant concealed by the order symbol is independent of N
and K. In fact. the constant 10 works in all cases.

2. The Boole Summation Fonnula. The Euler polynomials En(x) can be defined
by the generating function
2e'x "" ,n
-,- = L En(x). (It i < 'IT); (2.1)
e +1 n-O /I.

(see [1. p. 804]). Each En(x) is a polynomial of degree /I with leading coefficient 1.
We also define the periodic Euler function En(x) by

for all x. and

It can be shown that En(x) has continuous derivatives up to the (n - l)st order.
The following is known as Boole's summation Connula (see. for example.
[9. p. 34]).
LEMMA 1. Let f(t) be a function with m continuous deril'atives. defined 011 the
interval x EO t EO x + "'. Then for 0 " h EO 1

m-l ",k 1
f(x + h",) = L k'lEk(h). "2(/(k)(X + "') + f(k)(X») + Rm.
k-O .

where

Rm
_ 1
-"2'"
mil E(m1(h_ I)!- I) f
0
m_ (m)
(x + ",t)dt.

This summation formula is easy to establish by repeated integration by parts of

the above integral. It is remarked in [9. p. 26] that this formula was known to Euler.
for polynomial f and without the remainder tenn. Also note that Lemma 1 turns
into Taylor's fonnula with Lagrange's remainder term if we replace h by h/w and
let w approach zero.
To derive a convenient version of Lemma 1 for the applications we have in mind.
we set '" = 1 and impose further restrictions on f.
LEMMA 2. Let f be a function with m continuous derivatives. defined on 1 ~ x.
Suppose that f(k)(/) .... 0 as t .... 00 for all k = 0.1 •...• 111. Then for 0 " h " 1

where

R = -
11"" E m
-1 (h - t)
f(m)(x + t)dt.
m 2 0 (111 - I)!

645
'1989) PI, EULER NUMBERS, AND ASYMPTOTIC EXPANSIONS 685

3. The Remainder for Gregory's Series. The Euler numbers En may also be
defined by the generating function
2 x til
- - = LEn - , (3.1)
e' + e-' n-O II!
Comparing (3.1) with (2.1). we see that

En = 2nEn( ~). (3.2)

The phenomenon mentioned in the introduction is entirely explained by the next

proposition-if we set n = 500,000. It is also clear that we will get similar patterns
for n = lOm/2 with any positive integer m.
PROPOSITION 1. For positive integers nand M we have
co (_1)k M 2E
4 L 2k + 1
k-n
= (_1)n L (2 n ):Ll
k-O
+ R1(M), (3.3)

where
21EHfi
I R1(M) I".; (2n)2~';.t.

Proof. Apply Lemma 2 with I(x) = 1/x; then set x = nand h = 1/2. We get
~ (_1)" m-lEk (1/2) (_1)kk!
L. - - - -
v-O n + v + 1/2
="
k":O
2k
! n
k+ i + R m, (3.4)

with
R = ':l coEm - 1 (h - t) (_l)mm!
m 2 0 (m - 1)! (x + I) m + 1 dt.
We multiply both sides of (3.4) by 2( -1)". Then the left-hand side is seen to be
identical with the left-hand side of (3.3). After replacing m by 2M + 1 and taking
into account (3.2) and the fact that odd-index Euler numbers vanish, we see that the
first terms on the right-hand sides of (3.3) and (3.4) agree. To estimate the error
term, we use the following inequality,

(see, e.g., [1, p. 805]). Carrying out the integration now leads to the error estimate
given in Proposition 1. 0

4. An Analogue For log 2. Lemma 2 can also be used to derive a result ~imilar to
Proposition 1, concerning truncations of the series
00 (_1)k+l
log2 = L k (4.1)
k-i

In this case the tangent numbers Tn will play the role of the En in Proposition 1. It

646
686 1. M. BORWEIN, P. B. BORWEIN, AND K. DILCHER [October

follows from the identity

1
tanz=- (2e 2iZ
-1 )
; e 21Z +1
together with (1.2) and (2.1) that
Tn = (-I}n 2n£n(l) (4.2)
as in [9, p. 28]. The T" can be computed using the recurrence relation To = 1 and

t (Z)2
k-O
k Tn _ k + T" = 0 for n ~ 1.
Other properties can be found, e.g., in (8) or [9, Ch. 2).
PROPOSITION 2. For positive integers nand M we have

{ 1
L00 (
- 1)k+1 =(-lr+1-+L~ +R(M)
M T. }
(4.3)
k-n+1 k 2n k-1 (2n)2k 1 ,

where

Proof. We proceed as in the proof of Proposition 1. Here we take x = nand

h = 1. Using (4.2) and the fact that To = 1 and T2k = 0 for k ~ 1, we get the
summation on the right-hand side of (4.3). The remainder term is estimated as in the
proof of Proposition 1. 0
Using Proposition 2 with n = lOM/2 one again gets many more correct digits of
log 2 than is suggested by the error term of the Taylor series.

S. Generalizations. Proposition 1 and 2 can be extended easily in two different.

directions.
i). The well-known infinite series (see, e.g., [1, p. 807])

(n = 0,1, ... ), (5.1)

and

(n = 1,2, ... ) (5.2)

can be considered as extensions of Gregory's series and of (4.1). These series admit
exact analogues to Propositions 1 and 2; one only has to replace I(x) = l/x by
I(x) = X-(2n+ II, respectively x-(lnl, in the proofs.

647
.1989] PI, EULER NUMBERS, AND ASYMPTOTIC EXPANSIONS 687

We note that the Euler-MacLaurin summation formula leads to similar results for

L k- 2n = IB 12
:lC 2n - 1
2n 77 2n (5.3)
k-l (2n)!'
where multiples of the Bernoulli numbers B2n take the place of the En and Tn in
Propositions 1 and 2.
ii). A generalization of the Euler-MacLaurin and Boole summation formulas was
derived by Berndt [3]. This can be applied to character analogues of the series
(5.1)-(5.3). The roles of the En and Tn in Proposition 1 and 2 are then played by
generalized Bernoulli numbers or by related numbers.
6. Additional Comments. TIle phenomenon observed in the introduction results
from taking N to be a power of ten; taking N = 2 . 10 m also leads to "clean"
expressions. References [1], [5], [6], and [9] include the basic material on Bernoulli
and Euler numbers, while [8] deals extensively with their calculation, and [2]
describes an entertaining analogue of Pascal's triangle. Much on the calculation of
pi and related matters may be found in [4]. Euler summation is treated in [5], [6],
and [9], while Boole summation is treated in [9]. Related material on the computa-
tion and acceleration of alternating series is given in [7].

Added in Proof. A version of the phenomeon was observed by M. R. Powell

and various explanations were offered (see The Mathematical Gazette, 66 (1982)
220-221, and 67(1983) 171-188).

REFERENCES
1. M. Abramowitz and I. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions, Dover, N.Y., 1964.
2. M. D. Atkinson, How to compute the series expansions of sec x and tan x, Amer. Math. Momhiy,
93 (1986) 387·388.
3. B. C. Berndt, Character analogues of the Poisson and Euler· Maclaurin summation formulas with
applications, J. Number Theory, 7 (1975 413·445.
4. J. M. Borwein and P. B. Borvo'ein, Pi and the AGM • A Study in Analytic Number Theory and
Computational Complexity, Wiley, N.Y., 1987.
5. T. J. I'a Bromwich, An Introduction to the Theory of Infinite Series, 2nd ed., MacMillan, london,
1926.
6. R. l. Graham, D. E. Knuth, and O. Patashnik, Concrete Mathematics, Addison Wesley, Reading,
Mass., 1989.
7. R. Johnsonbaugh, Summing an alternating series, this MONTHLY, 86 (1979) 637·648.
8. D. E. Knuth and T. J. Buckholtz, Computation oC Tangent, Euler, and Bernoulli numbers, Math.
Comput., 21 (1967) .663·688.
9. N. Norlund, Vorlesungen uber Differenzenrt!Chnung, Springer·Verlag, Berlin, 1924.
10. R. D. North. personal communications, 1988.
11. N. J. A. Sloane, A Handbook of Integer Sequences, Academic Press. New York, 1973.

648
An Alternative Proof of the Lindemann-Weierstrass Theorem

F. Ih:UKI:RS. J. 1'. Bf:ZIVIN. P. ROIIIIA

Dedicated to the Memory of Philippe Robha

FRITS BUIKI:RS: horn in 1953. University education in Leiden. Netherlands.

Currently teaching ilt the State Universily of Utrecht. Research interests arc
numher Ihcory .IIU.I ~lrilhI1lCIic.: propcrlic~ of lillc.u di(rcrcnli,11 t,.·quations.

JEAN,PAlil. nf:ZIVIN: educated at the Ecole Normale Supcrieure and the

Universities of Paris VI and VII. He currently teaches at the University of
Paris VI. Research interests arc p,adic analysis. linear recurrent sequences
and arithmetic properties of formal power series.

PHII.II'I'I: ROIIIIA: born in 1941. died on Octoher 12. 1988. Doctorate degree
at the University of I'aris in 1972. and professor at the University I'aris XI
from 1975 until his untimely death. Domain of research: {"adic analysis.
mainly p'adic differential equations with emphasis on p'adic cohomologies.

Introduction. In December 1987 J. P. Bezivin and Ph. Robba found a new proor
of the Lindemann-Weierstrass theorem as a by-product of their criterion of rational-
ity for solutions or dirrerential equations. Let us recall the Lindemann-Weierstrass
theorem, to which we shall refer as LW from now on.
Let a l , ••. , a" hi, ... , b, be algebraic numbers such that the bj arc alll/onzero and the
a j are mutually distinct. Then
ble o , + b 2e + ...
02 +b,e'" '* O.
It is well known that the transcendence of 'IT follows from LW in the following
way. Suppose, on the contrary, that 'IT is algebraic. Then so is 'lTFT and LW now
'*
implies that e"Fl + 1 0, which is certainly not true. Thus we conclude that 'IT is
transcendental.
The usual proof of LW is essentially due to Hilbert and has been polished by a
number of authors. One such version can be found in [2, Ch. XI] or in [4, Ch. I), [3).
The new proof of Bezivin and Robba looks totally different. It can be considered as

193

649
194 F. BEUKERS. J. P. BEZIVIN. AND P. ROBBA [March

a direct consequence of their criterion of rationality for solutions of linear differen-

tial equations.
The Bezivin-Robba criterion is based on a theorem of P6Iya-Bertrandias. which is
far from easy and relies heavily on p- adic analysis. We refer the interested reader to
[1]. In March 1988 F. Beukers found that the use of the P6lya-Bertrandias criterion
is much too heavy and can be avoided in a very elementary way. The result is a new
proof of LW which is elementary and can compete with the usual one in shortness
and simplicity. There is always a possibility that the similarity between the proofs is
stronger than one would expect at first sight. In fact, very soon after a first draft of
this paper was written (May 1988) Yu. Nesterenko pointed out to us that the
numbers v,,(k) which we use are equal to the integrals

which are used in the Hilbert proof. In spite of such similarities we feel that the
arguments of our proof are nice enough to present in front of a wider audience. We
would like to thank the referee for several improvements upon our presentation.
THEOREM. Let b l , ... , b" a l , ... , a, E ij such that b; *0 Vi and the a; are
mutually distinct. Then

Proof. Consider the Taylor series expansion

where, clearly,
,
un = L b;a? (1 )
;-1

Put (X - a 1) ' " (X - a,) = X' - alX,-1 - ... - a,. Clearly, for any i = 1•... , t
and any n E Z .. 0

By taking suitable linear combinations and using (1) it follows that

(2)
Without loss of generality we may assume that urI E 0, 'lin. If not, then consider
the product
D(o(bl)eO(a,)x + ... +o(b,,)eo(a,)x)
°
taken over all 0 E Gal(O(b l , ••• , b" a l , ... , a,)/O), which, after evaluation, again
acquires the form

where now the sets {b;}, {a;} are Galois-stable. This implies that the correspond-
ing numbers a; and u:. are rational. So from now on we assume un E 0, 'lin and

650
1990) AN ALTERNATIVE PROOF OF THE LINDEMANN-WEIERSTRASS THEOREM 195

D; E Q (i = 1•...• I). Let D be a common denominator of the D;. Put A =

max(1. la;I). After multiplication with a suitable integer. if necessary. we may
assume "0 ••..• U'_I E Z. Hence. using (2) rccursivc\y.
D"U"E Z. (3)
and by (1).
lu,,1 ~ cIA"
for some ('I > 0 .md all II ~ O. Now suppose that blc'" + ... + b,c'" = O. or.
equivalently.
U
E -f =
co
O.
,-0 r.
Put
" U
v" = II' ~ ...::.
. i..J ,
,-0 r.

IE"-fI I E -f I __
and notice

Iv,,1 = n! U
= n! co U
~ C
I - E
00
_ A' , (4)
r-O r. ,-,,+1 r. n+1 ,-,,+1 (r - n + 1).
If we had A = D = 1. like in the high school proof of e ff: Q. inequality (4) gives us
a contradiction since we have both v" E Z and Iv,,1 ~ c2i(n + 1). i.e. v" = 0 for all
su£ficiently large II. in other words I:;fv"X" is a polynomial. In our general case a
similar principle works.
Claim:
00

E v"X" E Q(X).
11-0

Assuming the claim we proceed with the proof. Define

00

veX) = E V"X".
,,-0
Notice that
Vn _ 1
v" Un
or Vn - nV"_l = u,,"
II! (n - I)! n!
So.
co co
E (v" - IIV,,_I)X" = L U"X". (5)
11-0 ,,-0
Using (1). the right-hand side of (5) is seen to be
co , b.
E U"X" = E 1 _ I X.
11-0 i-I a;
whereas the left-hand side equals
d d
veX) - X dX(Xv(X» = (1 - X)v(X) - x 2 dXv(X).

651
196 1'. DEUKERS. J. P. D{;ZIVIN. AND P. RODDA [March

So (5) becomes
, b. d
2'V(X) = L ' .
i_II - aiX
2'= _X2-
dX
+ (1 - X) . (6)

By the claim we know that v( X) E Q( X) and so the non-zero poles of 2'v( X)

have order at least two. However. the right-hand side of (6) has only simple poles.
This contradiction proves our theorem, since the assumption b1e tJI, + ... +b,e tJI, = 0
has turned out to be untenable. 0
It now remains to prove our claim. We first observe that. as v is a solution of the
differential equation (6). if v is a rational function then its poles must be at the
points l/a i. Therefore we expect that there exists an integer k such that (1 - a1X
- ... - a,X')kv(X) is a polynomial.
DEFINITION. For any k. n E Z ,,0 we define v,,(k) as coefficient in the formal
power series
k
E v,,(k)X" = (1 - E v"X".
00 00
a1X - ... - a,X')·
,,-0 ,,-0
For later use we also note that
v,,(k + 1) = v,,(k) - a1v,,_I(k) - ... - a,v,,_,(k) Cor all n ~ I, k ~ O. (7)

LEMMA 1. Let C = I + lall + ... +la,l. For alln ~ kl we have

i) Iv,,(k)1 ~ C2A"Ck
ii) D"v,,(k) E Z
iii) k! divides D"v,,(k).
Proof The first two assertions follow easily by induction on k from (3). (4) and
(7). The third assertion can be shown as follows. Write
v" = u" + IIU,,_I + ... +1I(n - 1) ... (n - k + 2)U,,_k+l + w".
where w" = n!E;o..ou,/rL Notice that D"-k W" E Z and k! divides D"-kw,,. Con-
sider the power series
00

veX) = E V"X"
11-0 ,.-0
Then
00

veX) - w(X) = E {u" + nU,,_l + ... +n(n - 1) ... (n - k + 2)U,,_k+dX".

For any 0 ~ r ~ k - 1 we observe that
00 , 00

L lI(n - 1) ... (n - r + l}u,,_,X" = L L r!( ~)bia7X"

n-O i~Jn-O

, 1
= E r! bia;X' ,+ 1
i-I (1 - aiX)
P,(X)
(1 - alX - ... - a,X,)'+l'

652
19901 AN ALTERNATIVE PROOF OF TilE LINDEMANN-WEIERSTRASS TIIEOREM 197

where Pr ( X) is a polynomial of degree < I(r + 1). Hence

P(X)
v(X)-w(X)= k'
(I - ulX - ... - IX')
where P( X) is a polynomial of degree < Ik. Hence v,,(k) = 11',,( k) 'tI 1/ ~ kl, where
00

L w,,(k)X" = (1 - ulX - ... - 1IIX')~w( X).

,, - 0

Since k! divides [)" ~ W", we see that k! divides /)"11',,( k ) = /)"11,,( k) as asserted .
Proof of the Claim. It is sufficient to prove that L::'_oV,,( k) X" E Q[ XI for some
kEN . From the Lemma it follows that if v,,(k) "*
0 and 1/ ~ kl, then
k! <ID"v,,(k)1 < c 2 (AD)"C k.
Hence, if k! > c 2(AD)"C k and II ~ kL then v,,(k) = O. Choose ko so large that
k! > c 2 (AD)lOk'C k 'tIk ~ k o. Then
v,,(k) = 0 for all k ~ ko, kL < II < lOkI. (8)
This situation can be pictured as follows: If a point (n, k) falls in the shaded region,
we have automatically v,,(k) = 0 according to (8). So, finally, by (7) and induction
on II - lOkL, it follows that v,,(k) = 0 for all (II, k) in the infinite triangular region
ko < k < 11/101. Thus we conclude that v,,(k o) = 0 'till ~ kol and hence
L::'_ov,,(k)X" E Q[X], which proves our claim.

-
II

REFERENCES
I. J. P. Rczivin and 1'. Rohha, Rational solution of linear differential operations, J. Australiall Mutfr .
Soc. (to appear).
2. G. H. Hardy and E. M. Wright, An Introduction to the Theory of Numhers, Oxford University
Press, 1959.
3. D. Hilhert, Gcsammelte Ahhandlungen, vol. I, Chelsea, 1965, pp. 1-4.
4. A. Baker, Transcendental Numher Theory, Camhridge Univ. Press, 1975.

653
THE TAIL OF 1t
Roger Webster
THE UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD

Fourteenth Annual IMO Lecture

at
The Royal Society

Tuesday 17th September 1991

654
 A CHRONOLOGY OF 7r

2000 Babylonians use 7r = 25/8 and Egyptians use 7r = 256/81

900 Bible, I Kings 7:23 implies 7r = 3
434 Anaxagoras attempts to square the circle
414 Aristophanes refers to squaring the circle in his comedy The Birds
240 Archimedes shows that 3* < 7r < 3~ using his classical method
480 Tsu Chung-chih approximates 7r by 355/113
1429 AI-Kashi calculates 7r to 16 decimal places
1593 Viete expresses 7r as an infinite product using only 2s and Vs
1610 Ludolph van Ceulen calculates 7r to 35 decimal places
1621 Snell refines Archimedes' classical method
1630 Grienberger uses Snell's refinement to calculate 7r to 39 decimal places
1655 Wallis shows that ~ = ~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~ ...
1671 James Gregory finds that tan- 1 x = x - x3 /3 + x5 /5 - ... for Ixl:5 1
1674 Leibniz shows that 7r/4 = + 1/5 - ...
1 -1/3
1699 Sharp uses Gregory's series with x = v'3 to calculate 7r to 71 decimal places
1706 Machin finds 7r to 100 decimal places
1706 William Jones first uses 7r for the circle ratio
1736 Euler proves that 1/1 2 + 1/22 + 1/32 + ... = 7r 2 /6
1737 Euler uses the symbol 7r, thus establishing it as standard notation
1761 Lambert shows that 7r is irrational
1777 Buffon devises his needle problem
1794 Legendre shows that 7r 2 is irrational
1844 Johann Dase, a lightning calculator, finds 7r to 200 decimal places
1873 Shanks calculates 7r to 707? decimal places
1882 Lindemann shows that 7r is transcendental, so the circle cannot be squared
1945 Ferguson finds errors, starting with the 528th place, in Shanks' value for 7r
1948 Ferguson and Wrench publish corrected value of 7r to 808 decimal places
1949 ENIAC performs first electronic computation of 7r to 2,037 decimal places
1973 Guilloud and Bouyer in Paris compute 7r to a million decimal places
1976 Salamin and Brent find an arithmetic-geometric mean algorithm for 7r

1989 Chudnovsky brothers in New York compute 7r to 1,011,196,691 decimal places

1989 Kanada in Tokyo finds 7r to 1,073,740,000 decimal places

655
 UBIQUITOUS 7r

This mysterious 3.141592 ... , which comes in at

ALL every door and window, and down every chimney.
ANALYSIS De Morgan
LIES
HERE Numbers may Come and numbers may go, but 7r
goes on for ever.
J Anon

PUZZLE 7r: Pi makes frequent appearances in crosswords - a particularly fine clue is the fol-
lowing: 3.1421001000500, blow it! (7)

PRECISION 7r: Thirty-nine decimal places of 7r suffice to compute the circumference of a

circle girdling the known universe to within an accuracy of the radius of a hydrogen atom.

PRIME 7r: Euler discovered the following formula for 7r /2 - the numerators are the odd primes,
the denominators are even numbers not divisible by 4, differing by 1 from the numerators:
7r 3 5 7 11 13 17 19
2 2 6 6 10 14 18 18

PROBABILISTIC 7r: The probability that a number chosen at random from the set of"natu-
ral numbers has no repeated prime divisors is 6/7r 2 , as so too is the probability that two natural
numbers written down at random are prime to each other.

PARISIAN 7r: The Palais de la Decouverte in Paris houses a small circular gallery dedi-
cated to 7r. In 1937 its cupola was adorned with a spiral of 707 large wooden numbers depicting
Shanks' expansion of 7r. Imagine the embarrassment, and expense, caused to the Museum by
Ferguson's discovery in 1945 that the last 180 numbers were all wrong!

PULCHRITUDINOUS 71": In 1988 Mathematical Intelligencer asked its readers to rate 24

theorems, on a scale from 0 to 10, for beauty. Top, with an average score of 7.7, was e i 1'r = -1.

POETIC 7r: The first of the following two stanzas is a limerick composed by one Harvey
L. Carter, the second is the cheer of California Institute of Technology 'Beavers'.

Tis a favorite project of mine Secant, cosine, tangent, sine

A new value of pi to assign. Logarithm, logarithm,
I would fix it at 3 Hyperbolic sine,
For it's simpler, you see 3 point 14159
Than 3 point 14159. Slipstick, sliderule
TECH TECH TECH!

If 7r were 3, this sentence

would look something like this.

656
 PUZZLE 'if
EASY AS 7r: Father watched Junior in his playpen laying out blocks in a most neat
row: CADAEIBF. Something about the sequence of letters astounded him. Was Junior
a natural mathematician or was it only a coincidence? When Junior added the ninth
block, Father gasped. The sequence was mathematically perfect. What was the ninth
block, and what was the sequence?

CIRCULAR 7r: Write the letters of the English alphabet, in capitals, clockwise
around a circle. Cross out those letters that have vertical symmetry, i.e. A,H, ... ,Y.
How are the groups of letters that remain related to IT ?

ANAGRAMMATICAL 7r: Try the following clue taken from the TIMES CROSS-
WORD PUZZLE NO 17,926 of 10th March 1989: Enable IT to be used as a common
denominator (8).

GCSE 7r: When is IT equal to 29 ?

A-LEVEL 7r: Prove that

22/7 - IT = loo
l x4(1 - X)4
1 +x
2 dx.

OLYMPIAD 7r: Show that there exists precisely one set of three single-digit positive
integers a, b, e such that

IT/4 = tan- I 1/a + tan- I 1/b + tan-II/c.

TWO DIGIT 7r: How is 11.001001000011111101101 ... related to IT ?

TELEGRAPHIC 7r: Spot the error in the following sentence taken from the Daily
Telegraph of 2nd January 1991: The team includes David and Gregory Chudnovsky, who
won a place in the Guinness Book of Records by computing pi, the ratio between the
diameter and the radius of a circle, to more than a thousand million decimal places.

eCCeNTRIC 7r: What is eccentric about the number (lT4 + lTS)t ?

GREEK 7r: When was IT equal to 80 and ,IT equal to 80,000 ?

MANILA 7r: Find the missing term in the sequence P, PA, PAK, PE, - , PL, Py.

ROMAN 7r: Move one match in the diagram below to produce a correct? equation.

657
 The Deconstruction of Pi
That was when I saw the Pendulum.
The sphere, hanging from a long wire set into the ceiling of the choir,
swayed back and forth with isochronal majesty.
I knew-but anyone could have sensed iJ in the magic of that serene
breathing-that the period was_governed by the square root of the length
of the wire and by 7;, that number which however irrational to sublunar
minds, through a higher rationality binds the circumference and diameter
of all possible circles. The time it took the sphere to swing from end to
end was determined by an arcane conspiracy between the most timeless of
measures: the singularity of the point of suspension, the duality of the
plane's dimensions, the triadic beginning of 1i, the secret quadratic nature
of the root, and the unnumbered perfection of the circle itself.
Eco, Umberto, Foucault's Pendulum, Ballantine, 1988, p. 3.

342 THE COLLEGE MATHEMATICS JOURNAL

658
Pi Mnemonics and the Art of Constrained Writing

Michael Keith
June 1996

Following the success of "Circle Digits", my prose mnemonic for the first 402 digits of 1t that
was published in The Mathematical Intelligencer in 1986, I began work on several even more
ambitions mnemonics. I realized that, in esssence, the construction of a literary 1t mnemonic is a
(rather difficult) form of constrained writing. Constrained writing is the art of constructing a
work of prose or poetry that obeys some artificially-imposed constraint. (For example, the
French novel La Disparition by George Perec does not contain the letter e.)

In writing a 1t mnemonic the number of letters in each word is dictated by the digits of 1t. Not
satisfied with the difficulty ofthis single constraint, I took up the challenge of rewriting a well-
known English poem, attempting to preserve as much as possible the story, tone, and rhyme
scheme of the original, while at the same time making the word lengths a mnemonic for 1t.

Here is the result.

Poe,E.
Near A Raven

Midnights so dreary, tired and weary.

Silently pondering volumes extolling all by-now obsolete lore.
During my rather long nap - the weirdest tap!
An ominous vibrating sound disturbing my chamber's antedoor.
"This", I whispered quietly, "I ignore".

Perfectly, the intellect remembers: the ghostly fires, a glittering ember.

Inflamed by lightning's outbursts, windows cast penumbras upon this floor.
Sorrowful, as one mistreated, unhappy thoughts I heeded:
That inimitable lesson in elegance - Lenore -
Is delighting, exciting ...nevermore.

Ominously, curtains parted (my serenity outsmarted),

And fear overcame my being - the fear of "forevermore".
Fearful foreboding abided, selfish sentiment confided,
As I said, "Methinks mysterious traveler knocks afore.
A man is visiting, of age threescore."

Taking little time, briskly addressing something: "Sir," (robustly)

"Tell what source originates clamorous noise afore?
Disturbing sleep unkindly, is it you a-tapping, so slyly?
Why, devil incamate!--" Here completely unveiled I my antedoor;--
Just darkness, I ascertained - nothing more.

659
While surrounded by darkness then, I persevered to clearly comprehend.
I perceived the weirdest dream ... of everlasting "nevermores".
Quite, quite, quick nocturnal doubts fled - such relief1 - as my intellect said,
(Desiring, imagining still) that perchance the apparition was uttering a whispered "Lenore".
This only, as evermore.

Silently, I reinforced, remaining anxious, quite scared, afraid,

While intrusive tap did then come thrice - 0, so stronger than sounded afore.
"Surely" (said silently) "it was the banging, clanging window lattice."
Glancing out, I quaked, upset by horrors hereinbefore,
Perceiving: a "nevermore".

Completely disturbed, I said, "Utter, please, what prevails ahead.

Repose, relief, cessation, or but more dreary 'nevermores'?"
The bird intruded thence - 0, irritation ever since! -
Then sat on Pallas' pallid bust, watching me (I sat not, therefore),
And stated "nevermores".

Bemused by raven's dissonance, my soul exclaimed, "I seek intelligence;

Explain thy purpose, or soon cease intoning forlorn 'nevermores'!"
''Nevermores'', winged corvus proclaimed - thusly was a raven named?
Actually maintain a surname, upon Pluvious seashore?
1 heard an oppressive "nevermore".

My sentiments extremely pained, to perceive an utterance so plain,

Most interested, mystified, a meaning 1 hoped for.
"Surely," said the raven's watcher, "separate discourse is wiser.
Therefore, liberation I'll obtain, retreating heretofore-
Eliminating all the 'nevermores' ".

Still, the detestable raven just remained, unmoving, on sculptured bust.

Always saying "never" (by a red chamber's door).
A poor, tender heartache maven - a sorrowful bird - a raven!
0,1 wished thoroughly, forthwith, that he'd fly heretofore.
Still sitting, he recited "nevermores".

The raven's dirge induced alarm - "nevermore" quite wearisome.

1 meditated: "Might its utterances summarize of a calamity before?"
0, a sadness was manifest - a sorrowful cry of unrest;
"0," 1 thought sincerely, "it's a melancholy great - furthermore,
Removing doubt, this explains 'nevermores' ".

Seizing just that moment to sit - closely, carefully, advancing beside it,
Sinking down, intrigued, where velvet cushion lay afore;
A creature, midnight-black, watched there - it studied my soul, unawares.
Wherefore, explanations my insight entreated for.
Silently, 1 pondered the "nevermores".

660
"Disentangle, nefarious bird! Disengage - I am disturbed!"
Intently its eye burned, raising the cry within my core.
"That delectable Lenore - whose velvet pillow this was, heretofore,
Departed thence, unsettling my consciousness therefore.
She's returning - that maiden - aye, nevermore."

Since, to me, that thought was madness, I renounced continuing sadness.

Continuing on, I soundly, adamantly forswore:
"Wretch," (addressing blackbird only) "fly swiftly - emancipate me!"
"Respite, respite, detestable raven - and discharge me, I implore!"
A ghostly answer of: "nevermore".

" 'Tis a prophet? Wraith? Strange devil? Or the ultimate evil?"

"Answer, tempter-sent creature!", I inquired, like before.
"Forlorn, though firmly undaunted, with 'nevermores' quite indoctrinated,
Is everything depressing, generating great sorrow evermore?
I am subdued!", I then swore.

In answer, the raven turned - relentless distress it spumed.

"Comfort, surcease, quiet, silence!" - pleaded I for.
"Will my (abusive raven!) sorrows persist unabated?
Nevermore Lenore respondeth?", adamantly I encored.
The appeal was ignored.

"0, satanic inferno's denizen -- go!", I said boldly, standing then.

°
"Take henceforth loathsome "nevermores" - 0, to an ugly Pluton ian shore!
Let nary one expression, bird, remain still here, replacing mirth.
Promptly leave and retreat!", I resolutely swore.
Blackbird's riposte: "nevermore".

°
So he sitteth, observing always, perching ominously on these doorways.
Squatting on the stony bust so untroubled, therefore.
Suffering stark raven's conversings, so I am condemned, subserving,
To a nightmare cursed, containing miseries galore.
Thus henceforth, I'll rise (from a darkness, a grave) -- nevermore!

-- Original: E. Poe
-- Redone by measuring circles.

A few closing remarks:

The poem encodes the first 740 digits of 1[, starting with the word "Poe" all the way through the
final word of the signature lines, "circles". The encoding rule is this: a word of n letters
represents the digit n if n<9, the digit 0 if n=l 0, and two adjacent digits if n> I 0 (for example, a
12-letter word represents the digit' l' followed by '2'). This encoding rule is both more elegant

661
and easier to satisfy than the method I used in "Circle Digits" (which was to use non-full-stop
punctuation marks to indicate a zero digit).

Due to the nature of the 1t-mnemonic constraint, one concession is made to the form of Poe's
original. In the original there are six lines per stanza, with the fourth and fifth lines usually
being very similar. Clearly, reproducing this feature exactly is not possible given the nature of
1t'S digits, so the fifth line in each stanza is simply omitted.

However, most of the other features of Poe's poem have been retained, even to the point of
using many of the same words. For the most part the story is followed at both the macro and
micro level - for example, the bird enters and sits on the bust of Pallas on the next to last line of
the seventh stanza, just as in the original.

Finally, note the use of the term "blackbird" a couple of times. Though not strictly correct (a
raven is a black bird, not a blackbird), its appearance is quite appropriate, being a subtle nod to
the e-less novel La Disparition by that master of constrained writing, George Perec. Perec's
novel was recently translated into English by Gilbert Adair, and in translation contains another
constrained version of "The Raven", in this case devoid of the letter e. The title of Adair's poem
is ...Black Bird!

662
 ON THE RAPID COMPUTATION OF
VARIOUS POLYLOGARITHMIC CONSTANTS

DAVID BAILEY, PETER BORWRIN 1 AND SIMON PLOUFFE

ABSTRACT.

We give algorithms for the computation of the d-th digit of certain transcendental
numbers in various bases. These algorithms can be easily implemented (multiple
precision arithmetic is not needed), require virtually no memory, and feature run
times that scale nearly linearly with the order of the digit desired. They make
it feasible to compute, for example, the billionth binary digit of log (2) or 11" on a
modest work station in a few hours run time.

We demonstrate this technique by computing the ten billionth hexadecimal digit of

11", the billionth hexadecimal digits of 11"2, log(2) and log2(2), and the ten billionth
decimal digit of log(9/10).

These calculations rest on the observation that very special types of identities exist for
certain numbers like 11", 11"2, log(2) and log2(2). These are essentially polylogarithmic
ladders in an integer base. A number of these identities that we derive in this work
appear to be new, for example the critical identity for 11":

1 Research supported in part by NSERC of Canada.

1991 Mathematics Subject Classification. 11A05 11 Y16 68Q25.
Key words and phrases. Computation, digits, log, polylogarithms, SC, 11", algorithm.

Typeset by A"-'fS- TE;X

663
1. Introduction.

It is widely believed that computing just the d-th digit of a number like 7r is really
no easier than computing all of the first d digits. From a bit complexity point of
view this may well be true, although it is probably very hard to prove. What we will
show is that it is possible to compute just the d-th digit of many transcendentals in
(essentially) linear time and logarithmic space. So while this is not of fundamentally
lower complexity than the best known algorithms (for say 7r or log(2», this makes
such calculations feasible on modest workstations without needing to implement
arbitrary precision arithmetic.
We illustrate this by computing the ten billionth hexadecimal digit of 7r, the billionth
hexadecimal digits of 7r 2, log(2) and log2 (2), and the ten billionth decimal digit of
log(9/1O). Details are given in Section 4. A previous result in this same spirit
is the Rabinowitz-Wagon "spigot" algorithm for 7r. In that scheme, however, the
computation of the digit at position n depends on all digits preceding position n.
We are interested in computing in polynomially logarithmic space and polynomial
time. This class is usually denoted SC (space = 10gO(1) (d) and time = dO(l) where
d is the place of the "digit" to be computed). Actually we are most interested in
the space we will denote by SC* of polynomially logarithmic space and (almost)
linear time (here we want the time = O(dlogO(l)(d»). There is always a possible
ambiguity when computing a digit string base b in distinguishing a sequence of
digits a(b - 1)(b - 1)(b - 1) from (a + 1)000. In this particular case we consider
either representation as an acceptable computation. In practice this problem does
not arise.
It is not known whether division is possible in SC, similarly it is not known whether
base change is possible in SC. The situation is even worse in SC*, where it is not
even known whether multiplication is possible. If two numbers are in SC* (in the
same base) then their product com pu tes in time = 0 (d 2 10gO( 1) (d» and is in SC
but not obviously in SC*. The d2 factor here is present because the logarithmic
space requirement precludes the usage of advanced multiplication techniques, such
as those based on FFTs.
We will not dwell on complexity issues except to point out that different algorithms
are needed for different bases (at least given our current ignorance about base
change) and very little closure exists on the class of numbers with d-th digit com-
putable in SC. Various ofthe complexity related issues are discussed in [6,8,9,11,14].
As we will show in Section 3, the class of numbers we can compute in SC* in base
b includes all numbers of the form

(1.1)

where p and q are polynomials with integer coefficients and c is a positive integer.
Since addition is possible in SC*, integer linear combinations of such numbers are
also feasible (provided the base is fixed).

664
The algorithm for the binary digits of 7r, which also shows that 7r is in SC* in base
2, rests on the following remarkable identity:

Theorem 1. The following identity holds:

(1.2)

This can also be written as:

(1.3) 7r -
-
L 16liJ
00

i=1
Pi---
" 8 Z
[Pil = [4,0,0, -2, -1, -1,0,0]

where the overbar notation indicates that the sequence is periodic.

Proof. This identity is equivalent to:

(1.4)

which on sUbstituting y := -I2x becomes

[1 16y-16 d
7r = io y4 - 2 y3 + 4 y - 4 y.

The equivalence of (1.2) and (1.4) is straightforward. It follows from the identity

lo1/v'2 xk-l
- - - dx =
1 - XS
l1/v'2 L
0 i=O
00
Xk- 1
•
+S • dx

t;
1 00 1
= -12k 16i (8i + k)
That the integral (1.4) evaluates to 7r is an exercise in partial fractions most easily
done in Maple or Mathema.tica.. 0

This proof entirely conceals the route to discovery. We found the identity (1.2) by
a combination of inspired guessing and extensive searching using the PSLQ integer
relation algorithm [3,121.
Shortly after the authors originally announced the result (1.2), several colleagues,
including Helaman Ferguson, Tom Hales, Victor Adamchik, Stan Wagon, Donald
Knuth and Robert Harley, pointed out to us other formulas for 7r of this type. One
intriguing example is

00 1 2 2 1 1/2 1/2 1/4

7r = ~
.=0
16i (8i + 1 + 4i + 2 + 4i + 3 - 4i + 5 - 4i + 6 - 4i + 7)'

665
which can be written more compactly as

(_1)i 2 2 1
----:v- (4i + 1 + 4i + 2 + 4i + 3) .
00

1r = ~
,=0
In [2], this and some related identities are derived using Mathematica.
As it turns out, these other formulas for 1r can all be written as formula (1.2) plus
a rational multiple of the identity

1 -8 8 4 8 2 2 1
?:
00

o= ,=0
16i (8i + 1 + 8i + 2 + 8i + 3 + 8i + 4 + 8i + 5 + 8i + 6 - 8i + 7) .

The proof of this identity is similar to that of Theorem 1.

The identities of the next section and Section 5 show that, in base 2, 1r2, log2 (2)
and various other constants, including {log(2), log(3), ... , log(22)} are in SC*. (We
don't know however if log(23) is even in SC.)
We will describe the algorithm in the Section 3. Complexity issues are discussed
in [3,5,6,7,8,9,14,19,21] and algorithmic issues in [5,6,7,8,14]. The requisite special
function theory may be found in [1,5,15,16,17,20].

2. Identities.
As usual, we define the m-th polylogarithm Lm by
00 .

(2.1) Lm(z) := L
i=l Z
Z'
7n' Izi < 1.

The most basic identity is

(2.2)

which shows that log(1- 2- n ) is in SC* base 2 for integer n. (See also section 5.)
Much less obvious are the identities

and

These can be written as

00

(2.5) 2 '""' ai [ail = [1, -3, -2, -3, 1,0]

1r = 36 L...J 2ii2 '
i=l

666
 2 00 b;
(2.6). log (2) = 2~2zz
" ~2' [b;] = [2, -10, -7, -10,2, -1].
;=1

Here the overline notation indicates that the sequences repeat. Thus we see that
7f2 and log2 (2) are in SC* in base 2. These two formulas can alternately be written

2 9 00 1 16 24 8 6 1
7f = '8 ~ 64; ((6i + 1)2 - (6i + 2)2 - (6i + 3)2 - (6i + 4)2 + (6i + 5)2)
2 1 00 1 -16 16 40 14 10 1
log (2) = '8 ~ 64; ((6i)2 + (6i + 1)2 (6i + 2)2 (6i + 3)2 (6i + 4)2 + (6i + 5)2)·
Identities (2.3)-(2-6) are examples of polylogarithmic ladders in the base 1/2 in
the sense of [16]. As with (1.2) we found them by searching for identities of this
type using an integer relation algorithm. We have not found them directly in print.
However (2.5) follows from equation (4.70) of [15] with 0: = 7f /3, {3 = 7f /2 and "( =
7f /3. Identity (2.6) now follows from the well known identity

(2.7)

A distinct but similar formula that we have found for 7f2 is

16 8 16 442
(8i + 2)2 (8i + 3)2 (8i + 4)2 (8i + 5)2 - (8i + 6)2 + (8i + 7)2
which can be derived from the methods of section 1.
There are several ladder identities involving L3:

(2.8) 35/2((3) - 7f 2 10g(2) = 36L 3(1/2) - 18L 3(1/4) - 4L 3(1/8) + L 3(1/64),

(2.9) 210g 3 (2) - 7((3) = -24L3(1/2) + 18L3(1/4) + 4L 3 (1/8) - L3(1/64) ,

The favored algorithms for 7f of the last centuries involved some variant of Machin's
1706 formula:
7f 1 1
(2.11) - = 4 arctan - - arctan - .
4 5 239
There are many related formula [15,16,17,20] but to be useful to us all the arguments
of the arctans have to be a power of a common base, and we have not discovered
any such formula for 7f . One can however write
7f 1 1
(2.12) - = 2 arctan to + arctan JO
2 y2 y8

667
This can be written as

00 ( 1); ;
(2.13) h7r = 4f(1/2) + f(1/8) where f(x):=" -. x
~ 2z+1
.=1

and allows for the calculation of V27r in SC*.

Another two identities involving Catalan's constant G, 7r and log(2) are:

G _ 7rlog(2) _ ~ Ci
(2.14) [Ci] = [1,1,1,0, -1, -1, -1,0]
8 - L 2 Li±l J '2 '
;=1 2 z

and

5 2 log2(2) ~ d;
(2.15) [d;] = [1,0,-1,-1,-1,0,1,1]
96 7r - 8 = L
;=1
2 Li±l J '2
2 z
'

These may be found in [17 p. 105, p. 151]. Thus SG - 7r log(2) is also in SC* in
base 2, but it is open and interesting as to whether G is itself in SC* in base 2.
A family of base 2 ladder identities exist:

(2.16)
L m (I/64) _ L m (I/8) _ 2 L m (I/4) +4 L m (I/2) __
5 -'-.(-_10....;::g:...>....(2..!..!.))_m
6m - 1 3m - 1 2m - 1 9 9 m!

7r 2 (-log(2) )m-2 7r 4 (-log(2) )m-4 403 ((5)( _log(2))m-5 _ 0

+ -5-'-4-(o-m';;;"':"'_-"-'27)!:-- 486 (m - 4)! 1296 (m - 5)! -.
The above identity holds for 1 :5 m :5 5; when the arguments to factorials are
negative they are taken to be infinite so the corresponding terms disappear. See
[16, p. 45].
As in the case of formula (1.2) for 7r, colleagues of the authors have subsequently
pointed out several other formulas of this type for various constants. Three exam-
ples reported by Knuth, which are based on formulas in [13, p. 17, 18, 22, 47, 139],
are
1 1 1/2 1/4 1/8
L
00

hln(l + h) = 16i (8i + 1 + 8i + 3 + 8i + 5 + 8i + 7)

.=0

v'2arctan(l/h) = , L
00 1
-6'
1 1/2
( - S1' - -z+
1 z z+
S 3· + -S·-
z+5
1/4
- -z+
S· 7)
I/S
.=0
00 1 1 1 1/2 1/4
arctan(I/3) =~ 16; (Si + 1 - Si + 2 - Si + 4 - Si + 5)
.=0

Thus these constants are also in class SC*. Some other examples can be found in
[IS].

668
3. The Algorithm.
Our algorithm to compute individual base-b digits of certain constants is based on
the binary scheme for exponentiation, wherein one evaluates xn rapidly by succes-
sive squaring and multiplication. This reduces the number of multiplications to
less than 2Iog 2 (n). According to Knuth [14], where details are given, this trick
goes back at least to 200 B.C. In our application, we need to perform exponentia-
tion modulo a positive integer c, but the overall scheme is the same - one merely
performs all operations modulo c. An efficient formulation of this algorithm is as
follows.
To compute r = bn mod c, first set t to be the largest power of two ~ n, and set
r = 1. Then

A: if n ;::: t then r +- br mod c; n +- n - t; endif

t +- t/2
if t ;::: 1 then r +- r2 mod c; go to A; endif
Here and in what follows, "mod" is used in the binary operator sense, namely as the
binary function defined by x mod y := x - [x/y]y. Note that the above algorithm
is entirely performed with positive integers that do not exceed c2 in size. Thus it
can be correctly performed, without round-off error, provided a numeric precision
of at least 1 + 2log 2 c bits is used.
Consider now a constant defined by a series of the form

where b and c are positive integers and p( k) is a polynomial with integer coefficients.
First observe that the digits in the base b expansion of S beginning at position n+ 1
can be obtained from the fractional part of bnS. Thus we can write
bn -
E -(k)
00 ck
(3.4) bnS mod 1 = mod 1
P
k=O

Ln/cJ bn-ck modp(k) bn-ck

E E
00

= p( k) mod 1 + mod 1
k=O k=Ln/cJ+l p(k)

For each term of the first summation, the binary exponentiation scheme is used
to evaluate the numerator. Then floating-point arithmetic is used to perform the
division and add the result to the sum mod 1. The second summation, where
the exponent of b is negative, may be evaluated as written using floating-point
arithmetic. It is only necessary to compute a few terms of this second summation,
just enough to insure that the remaining terms sum to less than the "epsilon" of
the floating-point arithmetic being used. The final result, a fraction between 0 and
1, is then converted to the desired base b.

669
Since floating-point arithmetic is used here in divisions and in addition modulo 1,
the result is of course subject to round-off error. If the floating-point arithmetic
system being used has the property that the result of each individual floating-point
operation is in error by at most one bit (as in systems implementing the IEEE
arithmetic standard), then no more than log2(2n) bits of the final result will be
corrupted. This is actually a generous estimate, since it does not assume any
cancelation of errors, which would yield a lower estimate. In any event, it is clear
that ordinary IEEE 54-bit arithmetic is sufficient to obtain a numerically significant
result for even a large computation, and "quad precision" (i.e. 128-bit) arithmetic,
if available, can insure that the final result is accurate to several digits beyond
the one desired. One can check the significance of a computed result beginning
at position n by also performing a computation at position n + 1 or n - 1 and
comparing the trailing digits produced.
The most basic interesting constant whose digits can be computed using this scheme
IS
1
E k2k
00

log(2) =
k=l

in base 2. Using this scheme to compute hexademical digits of 1r from identity (1.2)
is only marginally more complicated, since one can rewrite formula (1.2) using four
sums of the required form. Details are given in the next section. In both cases, in
order to compute the n-th binary digit (or a fixed number of binary digits at the
n-th place) we must sum O(n) terms of the series. Each term requires O(log(n))
arithmetic operations and the required precision is O(log(n)) digits. This gives
a total bit complexity of O(nlog(n)M(1og(n))) where M(j) is the complexity of
multiplying j bit integers. So even with ordinary multiplication the bit complexity
is O(n log3 (n)).
This algorithm is, by a factor of 10g(log(1og(n))), asymptotically slower than the
fastest known algorithms for generating the n-th digit by generating all of the first
n digits of log(2) or 1r [71. The asymptotically fastest algorithms for all the first
n digits known requires a Strassen-Schonhage multiplication [19]; the algorithms
actually employed use an FFT based multiplication and are marginally slower than
our algorithm, from a complexity point of view, for computing just the n-th digit. Of
course this complexity analysis is totally misleading: the strength of our algorithm
rests mostly on its easy implementation in standard precision without requiring
FFT methods to accelerate the computation.
It is clear that the above methods can easily be extended to evaluate digits of
contstants defined by a formula of the form

~ p(k)
S = f::o bckq(k)'
where p and q are polynomials with integer coefficients and c is a positive integer.
Similarly if p and q are slowly growing analytic functions of various types the
method extends.

670
4. Computations.
We report here computations of 11", log(2), log2(2), 11"2 and log(9/1O), based on
the formulas (1.1), (2.2), (2.5), (2.6) and the identity log(9/1O) = -L 1 (1/10),
respectively.
Each of our computations employed quad precision floating-point arithmetic for
division and sum mod 1 operations. Quad precision is supported from Fortran on
the IBM RS6000/590 and the SGI Power Challenge (RBOOO), which were employed
by the authors in these computations. We were able to avoid the usage of explicit
quad precision in the exponentiation scheme by exploiting a hardware feature com-
mon to these two systems, namely the 106-bit internal registers in the multiply-add
operation. This saved considerable time, because quad precision operations are
significantly more expensive than 64-bit operations.
Computation of 11"2 and log2(2) presented a special challenge, because one must
perform the exponentiation algorithm modulo k 2 instead of k. When n is larger than
only 213 , some terms of the series (2.5) and (2.6) must be computed with a modulus
k 2 that is greater than 226 . Squares that appear in the exponentiation algorithm will
then exceed 252 , which is the nearly the maximum precision of IEEE 64-bit floating-
point numbers. When n is larger than 226 , then squares in the exponentiation
algorithm will exceed 2104 , which is nearly the limit of quad precision.
This difficulty can be remedied using a method which has been employed for ex-
ample in searches for Wieferich primes [10]. Represent the running value r in the
exponentiation algorithm by the ordered pair (r1' r2), where r = r1 + k-r2' and
where r1 andr2 are positive integers less than k. Then one can write

When this is reduced mod k 2 , the last term disappears. The remaining expression is
of the required ordered pair form, provided that r? is first reduced mod k, the carry
from this reduction is added to 2r1r2, and this sum is also reduced mod k. Note
that this scheme can be implemented with integers of size not exceeding 2k 2 • Since
the computation of r2 mod k 2 is the key operation of the binary exponentiation
algorithm, this means that ordinary IEEE 64-bit floating-point arithmetic can be
used to compute the n-th hexadecimal digit of 11"2 or log2(2) for n up to about
224. For larger n, we still used this basic scheme, but we employed the multiply-
add "trick" mentioned above to avoid the need for explicit quad precision in this
section of code.
Our results are given below. The first entry, for example, gives the 106-th through
106 + 13-th hexadecimal digits of 11" after the "decimal" point. In all cases we did the
calculations twice - the second calculation was similar to the first, except shifted
back one position. Since this changes all the arithmetic performed, it is a highly
rigorous validity check. Thus we believe that all the digits shown below are correct.

671
 Constant: Base: Position: Digits from Position:

1r 16 106 26C65E52CB4593
107 17AF5863EFED8D
108 ECB840E21926EC
109 85895585A0428B
10 10 921C73C6838FB2

log(2) 16 106 418489A9406EC9

107 815F479E2B9102
108 E648F40940E13E
109 B1EEF1252297EC

1r2 16 106 685554E1228505

107 9862837AD8AABF
108 4861AAF8F861BE
109 437A2BA4A13591

log2 (2) 16 106 2EC7EDB82B2DF7

107 33374B47882B32
108 3F55150F1AB3DC
109 8BA7C885CEFCE8

log(9/1O) 10 106 80174212190900

107 21093001236414
108 01309302330968
109 44066397959215
10 10 82528693381274
These computations were done at NASA Ames Research Center, using workstation
cycles that otherwise would have been idle.

5. Logs in base 2.
It is easy to compute, in base 2, the d-th binary digit of

(5.1)
So it is easy to compute log(m) for any integer m that can be written as
(2 at - 1)(2a 2 - 1)··· (2 ah - 1)
(5.2) m:= (2bt _ 1)(2b2 _ 1) ... (2b j - 1) .
In particular the n-th cyclotomic polynomial evaluated at 2 is so computable. A
check shows that all primes less than 19 are of this form. The beginning of this list
IS:
{2,3,5,7, 11, 13, 17,31,43,57,73, 127,151,205,257}.

10

672
Since
2 18 - 1 = 7 . 9 . 19· 73,
and since 7, .J9 and 73 are all on the above list we can compute log(19) in SC*
from
log(19) = log(218 - 1) - log(7) -log(9) -log(73).
Note that 211 - 1 = 23·89 so either both log(23) and log(89) are in SC* or neither
is.
We would like to thank Carl Pomerance for showing that an identity of type (5.2)
does not exist for 23. This is a consequence of the fact that each cyclotomic poly-
nomial evaluated at two has a new distinct prime factor. We would also like to
thank Robert Harley for pointing out that 29 and 37 are in se" in base 2 via
consideration of the Aurefeuillian factors 22 "-1 + 2" + 1 and 22n - 1 - 2" + 1.

6. Relation Bounds.
One of the first questions that arises in the wake of the above study is whether there
exists a scheme of this type to compute decimal digits of 'Ir. At present we know
of no identity like (1.2) in base 10. The chances that there is such an identity are
dimmed by some numerical results that we have obtained using the PSLQ integer
relation algorithm [3, 12]. These computations establish (with the usual provisos
of computer "proofs") that there are no identities (except for the case n = 16) of
the form

1
al
11"=-+- 00
-1 [ a 2 + a3
+ ... + am+l ]
,
ao ao {; n k mk+ 1 mk+ 2 mk+m

where n ranges from 2 to 128, where m ranges from 1 to min(n,32), and where
the Euclidean norm of the integer vector (ao,al,··· ,am+d is 10 12 or less. These
results of course do not have any bearing on the possibility that there is a formula
not of this form which permits computation of 11" in some non-binary base.
In fact, J. P. Buhler has reported a proof that any identity for 11" of the above form
must have n = 2K or n = "j2K. This also does not exclude more complicated
formulae for the computation of 11" base 10.

7. Questions.
As mentioned in the previous section, we cannot at present compute decimal digits
of 11" by our methods because we know of no identity like (1.2) in base 10. But it
seems unlikely that it is fundamentally impossible to do so. This raises the following
obvious problem:
1] Find an algorithm for the n-th decimal digit of 11" in SC... It is not even clear
that 11" is in SC in base 10 but it ought to be possible to show this.
2] Show that 11" is in SC in all bases.
3] Are e and "j2 in SC (SC*) in any base?

11

673
Similarly the treatment of log is incomplete:
4] Is log(2) in SC* in base 10?
5] Is log(23) in SC* in base 2?

8. Acknowledgments.
The authors wish to acknowledge the following for their helpful comments: V.
Adamchik, J. Bon-vein, J. Buhler, R. Crandall, H. Ferguson, T. Hales, R. Harley,
D. Knuth, C. Pomerance and S. Wagon.

12

674
 REFERENCES

1. M. Abramowitz & LA. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions, Dover, New York, NY,
1965.

2. V. Adamchik & S. Wagon, Pi: A 2000-year search changes direction (preprint).

3. A. V. Aho, J.E. Hopcroft, & J. D. Ullman, The Design and Analysis of Computer Algorithms,
Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1974.

4. D. H. Bailey, J. Borwein and R. Girgensohn, Experimental evaluation of Euler sums, Exper-

imental Mathematics 3 (1994), 17-30.

5. J. Borwein, & P Borwein, Pi and the AGM - A Study in Analytic Number Theory and
Computational Complexity, Wiley, New York, NY, 1987.

6. J. Borwein & P. Borwein, On the complexity of familiar functions and numbers, SIAM Review
30 (1988),589-601.

7. J. Borwein, P. Borwein & D. H. Bailey, Ramanujan, modular equations and approximations

to pi, Amer. Math. Monthly 96 (1989),201-219.

8. R. Brent, The parallel evaluation of general arithmetic expressions, J. Assoc. Comput. Mach.
21 (1974),201-206.

9. S. Cook, A taxonomy of problems with fast parallel algorithms, Information and Control 64
(1985),2-22.

10. R. Crandall, K. Dilcher, and C. Pomerance, A search for Wieferich and Wilson primes
(preprint).

11. R. Crandall and J. Buhler, On the evaluation of Euler sums, Experimental Mathematics 3,
(1995), 275-285.
12. H. R. P. Ferguson & D. H. Bailey, Analysis of PSLQ, an integer relation algorithm (preprint).

13. E. R. Hansen, A Table of Series and Products, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1975.

14. D. E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming. Vol. 2: Seminumerical Algorithms, Addison-
Wesley, Reading, MA, 1981.

15. L. Lewin, Polylogarithms and Associated FUnctions, North Holland, New York, 1981.

16. L. Lewin, Structural Properties of Polylogarithms, Amer. Math. Soc., RL, 1991.
17. N. Nielsen, Der Eulersche Dilogarithmus, Halle, Leipzig, 1909.

18. S. D. Rabinowitz and S. Wagon, A spigot algorithm for pi, Amer. Math. Monthly 103 (1995),
195-203.
19. A. Schonhage, Asymptotically fast algorithms for the numerical multiplication and division
of polynomials with complex coefficients, in: EUROCAM (1982) Marseille, Springer Lecture
Notes in Computer Science, vol. 144, 1982, pp. 3-15.

20. J. Todd, A problem on arc tangent relations, MAA Monthly 56 (1940), 517-528.

21. H. S. Wilf, Algorithms and Complexity, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1986.

13

675
BAILEY: N 1\SA AMES RESEARCH CENTER, MAIL STOP T27 A-I, MOFFETT FIELD, CA, USA
94035-1000 dbaileyQnas .nasa.gov

BORWEIN: DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS, SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY, BURN-

ABY, B.C., CANADA V5A IS6 pbOrlleinOcecm.sfu.ca

PLOUFFE: DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS, SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY, BURN-

ABY, B.C., CANADA V5A IS6 plouffeOcecm.sfu.ca

14

676
Appendix I: On the Early History of Pi

Our earliest source on 7r is a problem from the Rhind mathematical papyrus,

one of the few major sources we have for the mathematics of ancient Egypt.
Although the material on the papyrus in its present form comes from about
1550 B.C. during the Middle Kingdom, scholars believe that the mathematics
of the document originated in the Old Kingdom, which would date it perhaps
to 1900 B.C. The Egyptian source does not state an explicit value for 7r, but
tells, instead, how to compute the area of a circle as the square of eight-ninths
of the diameter. (One is reminded of the 'classical' problem of squaring the
circle.)
Quite different is the passage in I Kings 7, 23 (repeated in II Chronicles 4,
21), which clearly implies that one should multiply the diameter of a circle
by 3 to find its circumference. It is worth noting, however, that the Egyptian
and the Biblical texts talk about what are, a priori, different concepts: the
diameter being regarded as known in both cases, the first text gives a factor
used to produce the area of the circle and the other gives (by implication) a
factor used to produce the circumference. 1
Also from the early second millenium are Babylonian texts from Susa.
In the mathematical cuneiform texts the standard factor for multiplying the
diameter to produce the circumference is 3, but, according to some interpre-
tations, the Susa texts give a value of 2 31.
Another source of ancient values of 7r is the class of Indian works known as
the Sulba Sfitras, of which the four most important, and oldest are Baudhayana,
.Apastamba, Katyayana and Manava (resp. BSS, ASS, KSS and MSS), com-
posed during the period from 800 to 200 B.C. The Sulba Sutras are concerned
with mathematical rules for complying with the requirements of of Hindu rit-
ual, specifically with measuring and constructing sacrificial pits and altars.
The requirements of religious ritual led to the problems of squaring the circle
and, as it has been called, 'circling the square'.
For this latter problem all the Sulba Sutras state varying forms of a rule
that produces, for a circle whose area is equal to that of a square of side a,
the radius
a(2 + Vi)
r = 6 (*),
which gives for 7r in the context of areas a value nearly 3.088. 3 For 7r as a
IThe importance of making this distinction in historical investigations is pointed out in
A. J. E. M. Smeur, "On the Value Equivalent to 11" in Ancient Mathematical Texts. A New
Interpretation," Archive for History of Exact Sciences 6 (1970), 249 - 270.
20. Neugebauer, "Exact Sciences in Antiquity," (2nd Edition) Dover, New York (1969),
p.47.
3This value results from circumscribing a circle around the given square and then in-
creasing one-half the side of the square by t of the difference between the radius of the
circumscribed circle and half the side of the square. The resulting sum is alleged to be the
radius of the circle equal to the given square.

677
factor for obtaining the circumference the MSS gives 3! - and advises the
reader that 'not even a hair's length is extra'4.
For squaring the circle BSS, KSS and ASS all state rules that give (\3l)2
as the area of a square equal to a circle, which they all admit is only a coarse
approximation and which, indeed, gives 7r = 3.004. BSS also gives for the side,
a, of a square equal in area to a circle of diameter d
d d d d
a=d--+---
8 8 . 29 8 . 29 . 6
+ 8 . 29 . 6 . 8 ,
which was perhaps obtained by solving (*) above for a and using the Sulba's
value of v'2 = ~b~. 5
Given that the problem of expressing the area of a circle as that of a
certain square appeared in so many ancient cultures it is hardly surprising
that it appeared in ancient Greece as welL There is a jesting reference to it
in Aristophanes's play The Birds (413 B.C.), and geometrical attacks on the
problem from around that time, in the works of Hippocrates of Chios, Bryson
and Antiphon, are known. 6 In fact, Hippocrates was aware of the contents of
what we know as Euclid's Elements XII, 2:

'Circles are to one another as the squares on their diameters,'

a proposition which implies that the circle and the square on its diameter
(and hence on its radius) bear a constant ratio to one another, but there is
no evidence that any of this early work resulted in a numerical value for 7r. It
was Archimedes (277 - 212 B.C.) who first established rigorously a connection
between the area of a circle and its circumference in Prop. 1 of his treatise
Measurement of the Circle, which we include in this volume. It is in this
treatise as well where his famous upper and lower bounds for 7r occur, in the
form of Proposition 3: the circumference of any circle is greater than 3 ~~ times
the diameter and less than 3 ~g times the diameter.
Heron of Alexandria (fl. ca. 60 A.D.) writes, in his Metrica (i, 26), that
Archimedes in a (now lost) work Plinthides and Cylinders made a better ap-
proximation to 7r. The figures are garbled, but it seems the denominators
were on the orders of tens of thousands and the numerators on the orders
of hundreds of thousands. The French historian, P. Tannery, has made two
possible emendations of the text, either of which gives as the mean of the two
limits, the approximation 7r = 3.141596. In his Almagest (vi, 7) Ptolemy (150
to
A.D.) gives for the circumference of a circle the value 3 + +~, i.e. 3.1416,
times its diameter. Since this exactly corresponds to the perimeter of a regular
360-gon inscribed in a circle, calculated according to his table of chords in a
4For other values from the MSS and references to the literature on the Sulba Stitras, see
R. C. Gupta, "New Indian Values of pi from the Manava Sulba Siitra." Centaurus 31 (1988),
114 - 125.
5Datta B., "Science of the Sulba," University of Calcutta, Calcutta (1932), 143-4.
6See pp. 220-235 in T.L. Heath, A History of Greek Mathematics, vol. 1, Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1921, for details on this and the other Greek material cited below.

678
circle, there is no doubt that Ptolemy used his chord table (Almagest i,ll) as
the basis for calculating 'Ir.
In the period from the late fifth to the early seventh century of our era in
India two astronomers stated rules for measuring circles that implied values
of 'Ir. The earlier of these, Aryabha~a (b. 476), in his work known as the
Aryabhatiya gives correctly the area of a circle as that of the rectangle whose
sides are half the circumference and half the diameter, and then gives the
volume of a sphere as the area of the [great] circle multiplied by its square
root. 7 Then in Rule 10 we are told
'Add 4 to 100, multiply by 8, and add 62,000. The result is ap-
proximately the circumference of a circle of which the diameter is
20,000.'8
This value of 'Ir, ~~g~~, yields the decimal equivalent 3.1416. 9
In his notes on Rule 10. Kaye states that the second of the two writers
we referred to above, the astronomer Brahmagupta (b. 598), gives for 'Ir the
values 3 and v'1Q, and that Brahmagupta finds fault with Arhybhata for using
in one place 3393
1080
and in another 3g93
1 50'
10
Both Greek and Indian science came to the court of the 'Abbasid califs in
the latter part of the eighth and early ninth centuries. One of the most im-
portant writers of this latter period was Mu1;unmad ibn Mus8. al-KhwarizmI,
whose Algebra was composed during the first third of the ninth century and
dedicated to the Calif al-Ma'mun. Between its opening section on algebra and
its third (and final) section on the calculation of inheritances, al-KhwarizmI's

tical man' takes 3.

work contains, a section on mensuration,l1 with the following rules: The 'prac-
as the value which, multiplied by the diameter, produces
the circumference, 'though it is not quite exact.' Geometers, on the other
hand, take the circumference either as v'1O. d· d or, if they are astronomers,
as W~C~od. He next gives the same rule as that found in Aryabha~a and the
Banu Mfis8. ( see below), i.e. that any circle is equal to the rectangle whose
one side is half the circumference and whose perpendicular side is the radius.
Finally, al-KhwarizmI states that
'If you multiply the diameter of any circle by itself, and subtract
from the product one-seventh and half of one-seventh of the same,
then the remainder is equal to the area of the circle,'
7 "The Aryabha~iya of Aryabha~a," (W.E. Clark, tr.), Chicago, U. of Chicago Press (1930).
See Rule 7, p. 27.
8The use of large values for the diameter was one way of avoiding fractions.
9 An earlier work than the Aryabha~iya is the Suryasiddhanta, although its present form
incorporates later material. The value of 'II' in an early part of the Suryasiddhanta is v1O( =
3.1623), but in the section on the Sine table the value used is 10,8000: 3438(= 3.14136).
lOKaye, G.R., "Notes on Indian Mathematics, No.2," J. Asiatic Society of Bengal 4, No.
3 (1908), 122.
llpp. 71-72, in: AI-Khwarizml, Mu~ammad ibn Musa, "The Algebra," (ed. and trans. F.
Rosen) London: Oriental Translation Fund, 1831. Reprinted in Hildesheim, Zurich & New
York: Georg Olms Verlag, (1986).

679
the implicit value for 7r in the rule A = (1- ~ - !.
~ )d2 being 272 • He describes
this as coming 'very nearly to the same result' as the previous rule, for this
rule effectively replaces half the circumference by 3~r.
Only slightly later than the Algebra is the material included in our volume
from the Banu Musa, three brothers from a well-to-do family who worked
in Baghdad and who aided the growth of mathematical sciences in medieval
Islam by their patronage of scientists and translators as well as by their own
scientific compositions. The material we have selected comes from a transla-
tion of a Latin version of their work On the Measurement of Plane and Solid
Figures and states explicitly as a theorem that 7r is a constant. It also points
to the use of sexagesimal (base-60) fractions for recording the results of em-
ploying Archimedes' method for calculating, decimal fractions not having been
invented yet.
It is patent in the case of the Banu Musa, and can hardly be doubted
in that of al-Khwarizml, that their material on the circle depended wholly on
earlier sources (Hellenistic and Hindu). In the centuries immediately following
these writers Islamic authors obtained new and better values for 7r, but in
the context of trigonometric investigations aimed at improved tables of the
Sine. Thus the 10th century Persian mathematician Abu'l-Wafa' al-BuzjanI
calculated the circumference of a circle of diameter 120 as 376 and a fraction
which is greater than ~g + ~ + ~ and less than ~g + ~ + + ~. io\
AI-KashI, who reports this value, says this means an uncertainty in the
circumference of the Earth on the order of 1,000 cubits. He also notes that
this introduced into the Chord tables of Abu'l-Wafa' an error of about ~
too low for the chord of an arc of 1/2° (in a circle of radius 60°). Of course,
al-Kashi who, as was said of Euler, could calculate as eagles can fly, gives the
correct value of this chord, to six sexagesimal places.
The Persian polymath, al-BlrunI, a younger contemporary of Abu'l-Wafa',
calculated the perimeters of inscribed and circumscribed 180-gons for a circle
of diameter 120 and took the arithmetic mean of the two values to obtain
the estimate of the circumference of the circle which, if applied to the Earth,
would result in an error of 1 farsang. The approximation was, however, suffi-
ciently accurate to ensure that the value al-BlrunI used in the Sine table of his
astronomical work, the MasildI Canon, was accurate to the third sexagesimal
place. Incidentally, this Persian writer, al-BIrunI (fl. ca.1020), also made a
deep study of Indian civilization and science during a stay there. He wrote in
his India (I, 168) that the astronomical work, the Paulisasiddhanta, gives for
7r the value 3 lifo'one equivalent to that of .Aryabhata. 12
AI-KashI passes over in silence the roughly 350 years intervening between
al-BlrunI's death and his own period of activity, which we take to mean that he
knew of no important advances in the calculation of 7r in that interval. Of the
12Finding this value in a version of what was originally a Greek astronomical work (by a
writer named Paul) that was translated into Sanskrit in the third or fourth century of our
era is, as Kaye suggests in his notes, cited earlier, evidence that the- value did not originate
with Arhybhata.

680
Indian activity in this period we report only that of Bhaskara II (fl. ca. 1115)
who takes the Earth's diameter to be 1581 yojnas and calls its circumference
4967 yojnas, which implies a value of of 'II" of tg~r, Le. 3.1417. His famous
mathematical work, the Lilavati, gives the two traditional values of
3927
and ¥-
mo·
After such a long hiatus, the 15th century witnessed two brilliant achieve-
ments, one due to the florescence of Islamic civilization taking place in the
early years of that century at the court of Ulugh Beg in Samarqand, and the
other taking place in South India, in what is now the state of Kerala. The
first-mentioned was that of al-KashI who recorded it in his Treatise on the
Circumference of the Circle, beginning with the words,

'Praise to Allah who knows the ratio of the diameter to the cir-
cumference ... and peace to Mul.lammad, the Chosen, the center
of the circle of prophets.'

AI-KashI was Director of the Observatory and one of the ornaments of the
court of the grandson of Tamurlane, Ulugh Beg, who reigned in Samarqand
during the years early in the 15th century. Ulugh Beg was himself a highly
competent astronomer who seemed to delight in posing problems from the
mathematical side of astronomy to confound his entourage of scientists. AI-
KashI, who suffered from no false modesty, wrote more than one letter to
his father explaining how often only he, of all the scholars there assembled,
could immediately solve a problem posed by Ulugh Beg. AI-KashI's goal in
his Treatise on the Circumference, written in 1424, is to determine the ratio
of the circumference of a circle to its diameter so accurately that, when one
uses that value to compute not just the circumference of the Earth but that
of the whole cosmos,13 one would find a value that varies from the true value
by less that the width of a hair that is lo
the width of a barley-corn. 14
To do so he computes the circumferences of inscribed and circumscribed
regular polygons having 3· 228 (= 805,306,368) sides to obtain for the value of
2'11" the base-sixty approximation 6; 16,59,28,01,34,51,46,14,50, where each
pair of digits after the semicolon records the numerator of successive powers
of lo. For those of his readers who were not astronomers (and therefore might
not find the base-60 system familiar) he also converts the value to decimal
fractions. The treatise is remarkable in the history of mathematics up to al-
KashI's time not only for the value of 'II" it records but also, as Paul Luckey
remarks in his preface, for the format of the sexagesimal calculations, his
control of those calculations and his error estimates.
13 AI-Kishi took his value to be 600,000 times that of the Earth's circumference.
14 AI-KiishI,Jamshid ibn Mas'ud. AI-Risala al-Muhitiya, "Treatise on the Circumfer-
ence," (P. Luckey, tr.), Abhandlungen der deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin.
Klasse fur Math. und Allgemeine Naturwiss. Jahrgang 1950, Nr. 6. Berlin (1953).
This treatise has not been translated into English. There are, however, excellent Russian
and German translations. the latter, by Paul Luckey, being the one we have used.

681
 Only very shortly after al-Kashl's accomplishment the Indian astronomer
Madhava gave a method for the (implicit) calculation of 1r which was quite
different from that which had been known up to that time, and that was the
discovery of calculating 1r by means of an infinite series, in fact the one known
today as 'Gregory's series. What Madhava showed was that the circumference
of a circle of diameter d may be approximated by C(n), where

4d 4d
C(n) = - - -
1 3
+ -4d
5
- ... + (-1)
(n-1) 4d
2n -1
+ n
(-1) ·4dF(n)
'
and F(n) is an error term we shall discuss below. According to Gold and
Pingree,

'Madhava . . . lived and worked in large family compounds called

illams within a small area on the Western coast of south India, in
the modern state of Kerala. He himself was from an illam .. . a
few miles north of Cochin. His family was Bra.hm~a. . . He was
both a mathematician and an astronomer, and his dated works
were composed in 1403 and 1418.,15

This makes him a exact contemporary of al-Kash1. The selection we repro-

duce in this book is translated from an account of Madhava's discovery by
Nilakant1;ta, who wrote it in 1501. By the time of S~kara (ca. 1530) there
were three different forms for the term F(n), namely

n 2 +1
Fa(n) = 4n a + 5'
n
Hayashi, Kusuba and Yano point out in their paper16 that C(19), with the
error term Fa(19), yields 9 correct decimal places of 1r. (Their paper, apart
from its intrinsic interest, also provides a useful bibliography for one wishing
to further explore Keralese work on infinite series.)

15 Gold, David and Pingree, David. "A Hitherto Unknown Sanskrit Work concerning
Madhava's Derivation of the Power Series for Sine and Cosine," Historia Scientiarum, No.
42 (1991), 49- 65.
16Hayashi, T., Kusuba., T. and Yano, M. "The Correction of the Madhava Series for the
Circumference of a Circle," Centaurus 33 (1990), 149 -174.

682
Appendix II: A Computational Chronology for Pi

The next two tables provide a reasonably complete accounting of computations

from 2000 BeE to 1996 AD. The tables are taken from: David H. Bailey,
Jonathan M. Borwein, Peter B. Borwein, and Simon Plouffe, "The Quest for
Pi," The Mathematical Intelligencer 19 (1997), 50-57.
There is a considerable history of computations uncovering subtle (and not
so subtle) computer problems in both hardware and software. There is also
a long history of errors in calculation. Witness the error Shanks made in his
1853 computation that went unnoticed for almost a century.
As a result recent records tend only to be considered as such after some
validation, often by a second computation using a different algorithm. Of
course, provided the claimed record includes some of the digits it is easily
checked by the next person aspiring to hold the record.
As this book goes to print the tables are already out of date. The current
record for decimal digits (due to Yasumasa Kanada) is in excess of 17.1 billion
(234 ) digits. This computation was performed on a Hitachi SR2201 Massively
Parellel Processor with 210 processors. This took under 7 hours to perform
twice, once with the Brent-Salamin algorithm and once with the quartic al-
gorithm of Borwein and Borwein both of which are given in Appendix III.
Also Fabrice Bellard has recently computed the 400 billionth binary digit
of 7f' by the methods given in [70]. He determines that the hexadecimal digits
starting at the 100 billionth are 9C381872D27596F81DOE48B95A6C46.

683
Babylonians 2000? BCE 1 3.125 (3~)
Egyptians 2000? BCE 1 3.16045 (4(~)2)
China 1200? BCE 1 3
Bible (1 Kings 7:23) 550? BCE 1 3
Archimedes 250? BCE 3 3.1418 (ave.)
HonHanShu 130 AD 1 3.1622 (= .JiO?)
Ptolemy 150 3 3.14166
Chung Hing 250? 1 3.16227 (.JiO)
WangFau 250? 1 3.15555 (~4ff)
LiuHui 263 5 3.14159
Siddhanta 380 3 3.1416
Tsu Ch'ung Chi 480? 7 3.1415926
Aryabhata 499 4 3.14156
Brahmagupta 640? 1 3.162277 (= .JiO)
AI-Khowarizmi 800 4 3.1416
Fibonacci 1220 3 3.141818
Al-Kashi 1429 16
Otho 1573 6 3.1415929
Viete 1593 9 3.1415926536 (ave.)
Romanus 1593 15
VanCeulen 1596 20
Van Ceulen 1615 35
Newton 1665 16
Sharp 1699 71
Seki 1700? 10
Kamata 1730? 25
Machin 1706 100
De Lagny 1719 127 (112 correct)
Takebe 1723 41
Matsunaga 1739 50
Vega 1794 140
Rutherford 1824 208 (152 correct)
Strassnitzky and Dase 1844 200
Clausen 1847 248
Lehmann 1853 261
Rutherford 1853 440
Shanks 1874 707 (527 correct)

Table 1: History of 7r Calculations (Pre 20th Century)

684
Ferguson 1946 620
Ferguson Jan. 1947 710
Ferguson and Wrench Sep. 1947 808
Smith and Wrench 1949 1,120
Reitwiesner et al. (ENIAC) 1949 2,037
Nicholson and Jeenel 1954 3,092
Felton 1957 7,480
Genuys Jan. 1958 10,000
Felton May 1958 10,021
Guilloud 1959 16,167
Shanks and Wrench 1961 100,265
Guilloud and Filliatre 1966 250,000
Guilloud and Dichampt 1967 500,000
Guilloud and Bouyer 1973 1,001,250
Miyoshi and Kanada 1981 2,000,036
Guilloud 1982 2,000,050
Tamura 1982 2,097,144
Tamura and Kanada 1982 8,388,576
Kanada, Yoshino and Tamura 1982 16,777,206
Ushiro and Kanada Oct. 1983 10,013,395
Gosper 1985 17,526,200
Bailey Jan. 1986 29,360,111
Kanada and Tamura Sep. 1986 33,554,414
Kanada and Tamura Oct. 1986 67,108,839
Kanada, Tamura, Kubo, et. al Jan. 1987 134,217,700
Kanada and Tamura Jan. 1988 201,326,551
Chudnovskys May 1989 480,000,000
Chudnovskys Jun. 1989 525,229,270
Kanada and Tamura Jul. 1989 536,870,898
Kanada and Tamura Nov. 1989 1,073,741,799
Chudnovskys Aug. 1989 1,011,196,691
Chudnovskys Aug. 1991 2,260,000,000
Chudnovskys May 1994 4,044,000,000
Takahashi and Kanada Jun. 1995 3,221,225,466
Kanada Aug. 1995 4,294,967,286
Kanada Oct. 1995 6,442,450,938

Table 2: History of 7r Calculations (20th Century)

685
 Appendix III - Selected Formulae for Pi

Fifty decimal digits of 1r. One hundred thousand digits may be found in [38].
1r = 3.1415926535897932384626433832795028841971693993751...

Archimedes ([3],[4])
Let ao := 2V3, bo := 3 and
2a n bn
an +l:= ---,;... and
an + bn
Then an and bn converge linearly to 1r (with an error O(4-n)).
(ca 250 Be)
Francois Viete [9]

(ca 1579)
John Wallis ([10],[11])

1r 2·2·4·4·6·6·8·8···
-=
2 1·3·3·5·5·7·7·9···
(ca 1655)
William Brouncker [37]

4
1r= ----=--
1 + 2+ 19
2+¢
(ca 1658)
Madhava, James Gregory, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz ([7],[13],[14])

1r 111
4"=1- 3 +5"-7+ ...
(1450-1671)
Isaac Newton [16]

1r = 3V3 +24 (~ _ _1_ _ _1 ___ 1 __ ...)

4 12 5.2 5 28.2 7 72.2 9

(ca 1666)

686
Machin Type Formulae ([31],[32],[37])
1r 1 1
4" = 4 arctan( '5) - arctan( 239)

1r 1 1
4" = arctan(2) + arctan('3)

1r 1 1
4" = 2 arctan(2) - arctan(7)

1r 1 1
4" = 2 arctan( '3) + arctan ( 7)
(1706-1776)
Leonard Euler [17]

1r2 1 1 1 1
6
- 1 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 + ...
1r4 1 1 1 1
90
- 1+-+-
24
+ - + - + .. ·
34 44 54
1r2
fl m2e:)
00
1
6
-
3

(ca 1748)
Srinivasa Ramanujan ([29],[64])

! = ~ ( 2n ) 3 42n + 5
1r LJ n 212n+4
n=O

! = V8 ~ (4n)! [1103 + 26390n]

1r 9801 !;;o (n!)4 3964n

Each additional term of the latter series adds roughly 8 digits.

(1914)
Louis Comtet [49]

(1974)

687
Eugene Salamin [46], Richard Brent [47]
Set ao= 1, bo = 1/ V2 and So = 1/2. For k = 1,2,3, ... compute
ak-l + bk-l
ak - 2
bk - Jak-lbk-l
ck - ak2 - b2k
sk - sk-l - 2 k ck
2a2
-is..
Pk -
sk
Then Pk converges quadratically to 7r.
(1976)
Jonathan Borwein and Peter Borwein [64]
Set ao = 1/3 and So = (v'3 - 1)/2. Iterate
3
rk+1 - 1 + 2(1 - s~)1/3
rk+1 - 1
sk+1 -
2
ak+l - r~+1ak - 3k(r~+1 - 1)
Then l/ak converges cubically to 7r.
(1991)
Set ao = 6 - 4V2 and Yo = V2 - 1. Iterate
1 - (1 - yt)1/4
Yk+1 - 1 + (1 - yt)1/4
= ak(l + Yk+d 4 - 22k+3 Yk +1 (1 + Yk+1 + Y~+1)
Then ak converges quartically to 1/7r.
(1985)
David Chudnovsky and Gregory Chudnovsky [63]

.!.=12~(-1)n (6n)! 13591409+n545140~34

7r ~ (n!)3(3n)! (640320 3 )n+1/2 .

Each additional term of the series adds roughly 15 digits.

(1989)

688
Jonathan Borwein and Peter Borwein [62]

.!. = 12 ~ (-1)n(6n)! (A + nB)

7r f;o (n!)3(3n)! C n+1/2
where

A .- 212175710912V6l + 1657145277365
B .- 13773980892672V6l + 107578229802750
C .- [5280(236674 + aOaOaV6l)]3.

Each additional term of the series adds roughly 31 digits.

(1989)
The following is not an identity but is correct to over 42 billion digits

(1985)
Roy North [65]
Gregory's series for 7r, truncated at 500,000 terms gives to forty places

500,000 (_1)1:-1
4 E
1:=1
2k-1

=3.14159Q653589793240462643383229502884197.

Then only the underlined digits are incorrect.

(1989)
David Bailey, Peter Borwein and Simon Plouffe [70]

7r = t;
00 1 4 2 1 1
16i (8i + 1 - 8i + 4 - 8i + 5 - 8i + 6)

(1996)

689
 Appendix IV - Translations of Viete and Huygens

Translation of Article 9 (Excerpt 1): Viete.

Various Responses on Mathematical Matters:
Book VIII (1593)

CHAPTER XVIII.
Ratio of the inscribed polygons in order in a circle to the circle.

Archimedes squared the parabola through continuously inscribing a triangle

existing "in a rational ratio". In fact since he inscribed, over a very large triangle
inscribed in the parabola triangles in a continuous ratio with this largest one,
constantly sub-quadruple, to the infinite: for this reason he concluded that the
parabola is the four thirds of this very large triangle. Thus Antiphon could not
square the circle since triangles continuously inscribed exist "in an irrational
ratio". Could not a circle then be squared? If in fact the figure composed
of triangles established to the infinite in the sub-quadruple ratio with a given
larger triangle is made four-thirds to the same one there is a certain knowledge
of the infinite. And a plane figure will equally be able to be composed of
inscribed triangles "in a ratio" continuously on the circle up to infinity, albeit
"irrational" and vague. And this figure will be in a certain ratio with the largest
inscribed triangle. On the other hand as the Euclidians assure it they pretend
that an angle larger than acute and smaller than an obtuse is not a right angle.
I so propose about it so that it is allowed to philosophise more freely about
this uncertain and inconsequent matter of a polygon which you want regularly
inscribed up to a polygon with an infinite number of sides or if it is so a circle;
I propose so.

Proposition 1.
If two ordered polygons are inscribed in the same circle and if on the
other hand the number of sides of angles of the first one is sub-double
of the number of sides or angles of the second: the first polygon will
be to the second one as the apotome of the side of the first one is
to the diameter.

690
 Eighth answer book

I call the apotome of a side the subtended of the periphery that is left to the
half circle by the one on which the side is subtended.
Thus in a circle with center A let be inscribed a scalene ordered polygon
with side BD. And let the circumference BD cut into two at E be subtended
by BE. And thus let another polygon with side BE be inscribed. Then the
number of sides or angles of the first polygon will be sub doubled of the number
of sides or angles of the second one. On the other hand let D and C be joined.
I say that the first polygon with side BD is to the polygon with side BE.

END OF PAGE 398

or ED as DC is to BC. This is why. Let D and A and E and D be joined.

The first polygon is made of as many triangles as the sides or angles of the first
polygon. On the other hand the first polygon is made altogether of as many
trapezoids BEDA. Then the first polygon is to the second polygon what the
triangle BAD is to the trapezoid BEDA. Of course this trapezoid BEDA is
divided into two triangles BAD and BED with BD as a common base. Then
the triangles with the same base are to each other what the heights are to each
other. And thus let the half diameter AE be drawn intersecting BD at F. Then
since the circumference was cut in half at E, AE intersects BD at a right angle.
And thus AF is the height of triangle B D A and FE the height of triangle
BED. This is why triangle BAD is to triangle BED as AF is to EF and,
by construction of triangle BAD, is to triangles BAD and BED put together
which is a trapezoid BEDA as AF is to AE. And then the first polygon will
be to the second in the same ratio. But AF is to AE or AB as DC is to BC.
But angle BCD is like BFA and for this reason AF and DC are parallel. Then
the first polygon with side BD is to the second polygon with side BE or ED
as DC is to BG. Which was to be proved.

Proposition II.
If infinitely ordered polygons are inscribed in the same circle and if
the number of the side of the first is sub-doubled of the number of
sides of the second and sub-quadruple of the number of sides of the
third sub-octuple of the fourth the sixth to the fifth and with no
interruption with a continuous sub ratio.
The first polygon will be to the third as the plane made by the
apotome of the first and second polygon is to the square of the
diameter.
In addition to the fourth as the solid made by the apotome of
the first second and third poltgons is to the cube of the diameter.
To the fifth as the plano-plane made by the apotome of the sides
of the first, second, third, and fourth polygons is to the quadrato-
square of the diameter.

691
 Eighth answer book

To the sixth as the plano-solid made by the apotome of the

sides of the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth polygons is to the
quadrato-cube of the diameter.
And will be to the seventh as the solido-solid made by the apo-
tome of the sides of the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth
polygons to the cubo-cube of the diameter. And this continually
progressing into infinite.

Let B be the apotome of the side of the first polygon C of the second D, of
the third F, of the fourth G, of the fifth H, of the sixth. Let Z be the diameter
of the circle. From the previous proposition the first polygon will be to the
second polygon as B to Z. And thus what is done to B in the second polygon
will be equal to what is done to Z in the first polygon. And the second polygon
will be to the third as C is to Z. And subsequently the area made by the second
polygon and B is the area made by the first, and Z to the area made by the third
polygon and B as C is to Z. This is why the area made by the first polygon
and Z squared is equal to the area made by the third polygon as the plane B
times C. Thus the first polygon is to the third polygon as the plane B times C
is to Z squared. And the area made by the third and the plane B times C will
be equal to the area made by the first one and Z squared. Again according to
the same above proposition the third polygon is to the fourth polygon as D is
to Z. And subsequently the area made by the third plane and B times C the
area made by the first and Z squared, to the area made by the fourth plane and
B times C, is as D to Z. This is why the area made by the first and Z cubed
will be equal to the area made by the fourth and the solid B times C times D.
Then the first polygon is to the fourth as B times C times D to Z cubed. And
by the same method of demonstration it will be of the fifth one as B times C
times D times F is to Z quadrato-squared. To the sixth, as B times C times D
times F times G is to Z quadrato-cubed. To the seventh, as B times C times
D times D times F times G times H is to Z cubo-cubed. And this is through
a constant progression towards infinity.

END OF PAGE 399

Corollary.
And thus the square inscribed in the circle will be as the side of
this square to the highest power of the diameter divided by the area
continuously made by the side of the apotome of the octagon of the
sixteen sided, of the thirty-two sided, of the sixty-four sided, of the
one hundred and twenty-eight sided, of the two hundred and fifty-
six sided polygons and in this sub-double ratio of all the remaining
angles or sides.

692
 Eighth answer book

Let the square be the first polygon inscribed in the circle, the octagon will be
the second, the sixteenth sided polygon the third, the thirty-two sided polygon
the fourth, and this continuously in order. And thus the square inscribed in
the circle will be to the extreme polygon (with an infinite number of sides) as
the area made by the apotomes of the sides of the square of the octagon of the
sixteen sided polygon, and of all the remaining in this sub-double ratio to the
infinite is to the highest power of the diameter. And through a common division
as the apotome of the square is to the highest power of the diameter divided by
the area made by the apotomes of the sides of the octagon of the sixteen sided
polygon and of all the remaining in this sub-double ratio to the infinite. On
the other hand the apotome of the square inscribed in the circle is equal to the
side itself and the polygon with an infinite number of sides is equal to the circle
itself.
Let 2 be the diameter of the circle. The side of the inscribed square in
that circle will be V2 the square itself 2. The apotome of the side of the octagon
-/2 + V2. 2+ -/2 + V2.
The apotome of the side of the sixteen sided polygon }

The apotome of the side of the thirty-two side polygon J2 + }2 + -/2 + V2.
The apotome of the side of the sixty-four sided polygon

J2 + J2 + }2 + -/2 + V2. And this in a continuous pattern.

On the other" hand let 1 be the diameter and N the circle; ! will be to N as

~ to the unit divided by N times !+ J! +~ times

!+ !+ J! + ~ times !+ ~ + J~ + J~ + ~.
Let x be the diameter; A the plane of the circle. Half of the square of x will
be to the plane A as the root of ~x squared to x to the highest power divided by
the binomial root of ~x squared + the root of txquadrato-squared times the
binomial root of ~x squared + the binomial root of ~x quadrato-squared + the
root of x quadrato-quadrato-quadrato-squared times the binomial root of ~x
squared + the root of binomial ~x quadrato-squared + the root of binomial of
~x quadrato-quadrato-quadrato-squared + the root of !xquadrato-quadrato-
quadrato-quadrato-quadrato-quadrato-quadrato-squared times the root etc ...
this uniform method being kept up to the infinite.

693
 Translation of Article 9 (Excerpt 2):
Franc;ois Viete
Defense for the New Cyclometry or
"Anti-Axe"

Those who tried to set the circle equal to thirty-six figures of hexagon seg-
ments, unluckily failed in this attempt. Indeed, what certain result can be
reached by using completely uncertain quantities to solve them? If they add or
subtract equals to equals, if they divide or multiply by equals, if they invert,
permute and at last increase or decrease with certain ratios of proportions, they
won't go forward one inch in their research, but they will make the mistake that
Logicians call "requiring what is demanded", Diophantus's "inequality" or they
will get mistaken through a wrong calculation, whereas they would have fore-
seen it, if any light from the true analytic doctrine had enlightened them. On
the other hand, those who hate these double bladed weapons, "one mouthed"
are fainthearted and resent now Archimedes being attacked. But Archimedes
lives. And indeed "the false proofs about what is true, the false arithmetic", the
Unproved, magnificent words, shock him.
I make known

"those who carry round shields decorated with clouds,

and weapons unreached by actions",

and even "double bladed axes", of which they are first fortified, to inspire "wars",
in case maybe the enemies' boldness would be strong enough.

Proposition I.

The ratio of the circumference of the dodecagon inscribed in the

circle to the diameter is smaller than the triple and one eighth.
I draw from center A, with a scalene interval AB, the circle BCD, on which
is taken the circumference of the hexagon, which is cut into two parts at D, and
let DB be subtended. Then DB is the side of the dodecagon which, multiplied

694
 Cyclometry or "anti-axe"

by twelve up to E, DE, will be equal to the circumference of the dodecagon

inscribed in the circle BDC. On the other hand, let the diameter DF be drawn.
I say that the ratio of DE to DF is smaller than the ratio of the triple to one
eighth.
In fact, let BC and BA be joined and let DF intersect BC even in G. It will
divide it into halves and at right angles. On the other hand, let triangle DEH
be drawn similar to the triangle DBG.
Since line BC is subtended on the hexagon circumference, for this reason BA
or DA is equal to BC itself. This is why AC or BC being made of eight parts,
BG is made of four same parts. And the square of AG is 48, and for this reason
AG is larger than 6H. On the other hand, DG itself is smaller than Its. And
since DE was made of twelve times DB itself, EH will also be twelve times BG
itself, and

END OF PAGE 437

DH is twelve times DG itself. This is why EH will be. madei2

of 48 same parts.
And DH will be smaller than 13, much smaller than 1213. On the other hand,
the square of the side 48 is 2,304; surely the square of 13 is 169. And these two
squares make 2473, not quite 2500, square of the side 50. This is why line DE,
the square of which is equal to the squares of EH, DH, is smaller than 50. And
the ratio of 50 to 16 is the triple and one eighth exactly. Then the ratio of DE
to DF is smaller than the triple and one eighth. Which was to be proved.
Science is absolutely as much arithmetic as geometric. Rational magnitudes
are precisely designated by rational numbers, the irrationals by irrationals. And
if someone measures quantities with numbers, and if he perceives them through
his calculation different from what they really are, it is not the art's mistake but
the worker's mistake.
Even more truly, as Proclus says, "Arithmetic is more exact than Geometry".
If carefully calculated, the diameter being made of one part, the circumference
of the dodecagon is made of the side of the binomial 72 - v'3,888. Whoever
says otherwise is mistaken, either the geometer in his measurements, or the
calculator in his numbers.
On the other hand, the circumference of the circle is greater than the triple
plus one eighth, as the school of mathematicians did not doubt up to now that
it is smaller than one seventh. Because Archimedes truly demonstrated that.
Then, "a manifest absurdity" it was not to be induced according to a wrong
calculation. The straight line is larger than the circular contained by the same
endpoints, Archimedes taking the contrary "from the common nations" and also
Eutocius demonstrating the same, and generally exposing "of all lines having
the same extremities, the straight line is the shortest".

695
 Cyclometry or "anti-axe"

Proposition II.

The part of the half diameter of the circle divided by the quadratix,
from the center up to the quadratix, is larger than the mean propor-
tional between the half diameter and two fifths of the half diameter.
Given the quarter of circle ABC, BD the quadratixj let AE be taken equal
to two fifths of the half diameter AB or ACj and let the mean proportional of
AE, AC be AF. I say that AD is larger than AF.
Indeed from what was demonstrated by Pappus about the quadratix, the
half diameter AB or AC is the mean proportional of the circumference BC and
AD. Let AB be made of 7 parts. The circumference BC, which is one quarter
of the perimeter, will be less than 11. Indeed, the existing diameter 14 is less
than the perimeter 44. On the other hand let AB be 35. The circumference
[BC] will be less than 55. And

END OF PAGE 438

AD, the area contained by [the arc] BC, is equal to the square of AB. This is
why AD will be larger than 22ft. On the other hand, AB, which is AC, is 35',
and AE 14 and AF is smaller then 22~. Then AD will be larger than AF.
Which was to be proved.
This is why if from the diameter AB is subtracted the line AG equal to AF
itself and if the parallelogram GHDA is completed, it will be "another length",
not a square. And when the square Be is completed, the diagonal BK will not
go through H, but through a certain point I further from point D. And it was
worth noting that this wrong representation was to be avoided.

Proposition III.

The square of the circumference of the circle is less than the decuple
of the square of the diameter.
Let the diameter be 7. The square of the diameter will be 49. And the
decuple of the same 490. But the circumference of the circle will be less than
22, and consequently its square less than 484.
On the other hand, this opinion from the Arabs about the circle to be squared
has been rejected for a long time: the square of the circumference of the circle
is the decuple of the square of the diameter. Surely what would be proposed
opposed to, "contradictory to" against Archimedes' demonstration, will not be
related.

696
 Cyclometry or "anti-axe"

Proposition IV.

The ratio of the circle to the inscribed hexagon is greater than the
ratio of 6 to 5.
Let hexagon BCDEFG be inscribed in the circle with center A. I say that
the ratio of the circle with center A to the hexagon BCDEFG is greater than
the ratio of 6 to 5.
Indeed, AB, AC, BC, being joined, let the perpendicular AZ be on BC.
Then since in triangle ABC, the legs AB, AC are equal, the base was cut in
two at Z and BZ, ZC are equal. On the other hand, triangle ABC is equilateral.
Indeed, the two legs are a half diameter. But since the base is the side of the
hexagon, it is equal to the half diameter. Then half diameter BA or AC being
made 30, BZ or ZC is 15 and AZ is less than 26, the square of which is 676,
since indeed the difference of the squares of AB, BZ is exactly 675. Then the
rectangle contained by BZ, AZ is equal to triangle BAC. And thus, let 15 be
multiplied by 26, which gives 390. Then as the square of AB will be 900, as
triangle ABC will be less than 390, or (all being divided by 30) the square of AB
being 30, triangle ABC will be less than 13. Let AD, AE, AF, AG be joined.
Then hexagon BCDEFG is made of six triangles equal to BAC itself. This is
why if the square of AB is 30, the hexagon will be less than 78. Or if the square
AB is five, the hexagon will be less than thirteen parts.

END OF PAGE 439

But surely as is the ratio of the perimeter of the circle to the diameter, such
is the ratio of the area made by the perimeter of the circle and the quarter of
the diameter to the area made by the diameter and the quarter of the diameter.
But the area made by the perimeter of the circle and the quarter of the diameter
is equal to the circle. On the other hand the area made by the diameter and
the quarter of the diameter is the square itself of the half diameter. Then as is
the ratio of the perimeter to the diameter, such is the ratio of the circle to the
square of the half diameter. On the.other hand, if diameter is 1, the perimeter
is larger than 3~ and even more obviously larger than 3~ or 3~. Then if the
square of the half diameter AB is five, like before, the circle will be larger than
15 ~. On the other hand, the hexagon was in the same parts less than 13. This
is why the ratio of the circle to the inscribed hexagon will be larger than the
ratio of 15 ~ to 13, which is, of 125 to 104, or 6 to 4 g~, and, more obviously,
greater than the ratio of six to five. Which was to be proved.
Then those who made it equal to the hexagon and the fifth part of the hexagon,
do not square the circle "according to the thing", since it is made larger according
to the limits set by Archimedes "from the same principles". On the other hand,

697
 Cyclometry or "anti-axe"

they belong to our Platonic School, oh naive professors. This is why do not fight
against our geometric principles. And surely so that they will not amputate the
circle "using axes", that in spite of the received damage, they might be shortened
toward a sharper end of their sparrow tail.

Proposition V.

Thirty-six segments of the hexagon are larger than the circle.

Indeed since the ratio of the circle to its inscribed hexagon is larger than the
ratio of six to five, or of one to five sixths, for this reason, the difference between
the circle and the hexagon is six segments of the hexagon. The six segments of
the hexagon are more than one sixth of the circle and so, thirty-six segments
will be larger than the unit of the circle. Which was to be proved.

Proposition VI.

Any segment of the circle is larger than the sixth of the similar
segment similarly drawn in a circle whose radius is equal to the
base of the proposed segment.
In circle BDC drawn under center A, let the circumference BD that you
want, be subtended; on the other hand, let line BE touch the circle and from
center B with the interval BC let another circle be drawn.
So the circumference ED will be similar to half of the circumference BD.
And thus let circumference DF be taken double of DE itself and let BF, AD be
joined. Then the sectors BAD, FBD will be similar. I say that the segment of
circle BDC contained by line BD and the circumference by which it is subtended,
is larger than one sixth of sector FBD.

END OF PAGE 440

Indeed, let the spiral line be drawn, with origin B, passing through D, BD
increasing the beginning of rotation BEZ as large as angle BED is the part of
four right angles. Then, since the third part of sector EBD is the area contained
between line BD and the spiral. Because Pappus demonstrated that according
to Archimedes, proposition XXII of book IV of Mathematical Collections, surely,
the area of sector FBD will consequently be the same as the sextuple part [of
the area contained between the line BD and the spiral]; because sector FBD

698
 Cyclometry or "anti-axe"

was made double of sector EBD. And surely the spiral will not intersect with
the circumference, because it would be absurd, and the spiral in its progression
does not come outside the circle before reaching point D; for however that angle
EBD is cut by line BGH, intercepting the spiral at G, and the circumference at
H. The ratio of line BG to line BD will be the one of angle EBD to angle EBG,
which is the one of circumference BD to circumference BH, according to the
condition on spirals. But the ratio of circumference BD to circumference BH is
larger than the ratio of "the sublending BD to BH. Indeed the ratio of larger
circumference to smaller ones is larger than the ratio of the lines with the lines
subtended by the same circumferences. This is why line BH will exceed line
BG. And the same will happen in any line we want, intersecting angle EBD.
And thus the spiral will go under circumference BD and it will leave a certain
space between itself and the circumference. And surely through this space the
segment of circle limited by line BD and the circumference, will exceed the space
between the same line and the spiral which was proved equal to a sixth of sector
FBD then this segment will be larger than the sixth of sector FBD. Which was
to be proved.

Corollary.

And from there, it is equally obvious that thirty-six segments of the

hexagon are greater than the circle.
Indeed, when BD will reach to be the segment of the hexagon, the sectors
FBD, BAD, will be equal since their half diameters BD, AD will be equal. Then
six segments of the hexagon will be larger than sector BAD, in such a way that
thirty-six segments will be larger than six sectors, which is, than the whole
circle.
A theorem no less general could be proposed to be proved by the geomet-
ric mean, through parabolas, or rather by the way through which parabolas are
squared. Any circle segment is larger than one and one-third the segment itself
fixed at the base of the inscribed isosceles triangle. As it will soon appear that
the ratio of thirty-six hexagon segments to the circle, is larger than the one of
48 to 47. Even more through more cautious calculation, only the thirty-four
segments and the space a little larger than two thirds of the segment, about less
than three quarters, are found to fill up the circle. On the other hand it is pos-
sible to show this way to the eyes what in the segment exceeds one third of the
twelfth.

699
 Cyclometryor "anti-axe"

Proposition VII.

In a given circle, it is required to cut off from the hexagon segment,

the thirty-sixth part of the circle itself.
Given a circle of center A, diameter BC, the hexagon segment BD. The
thirty-sixth part of the circle itself needs to be taken apart from the given circle
BDC, the hexagon segment BD limited by line BD and the circumference which
is subtended.
Let line BE touch the circle and let a spiral line starting at B, going through
D be drawn, BD being a part of the conversion as much as part of an angle
EBD is four rights, then the third part of sector EBD is the space limited by
line BD and the spiral. On the other hand, BD is equal to half diameter BA,
because BD is through hypothesis the hexagon side and angle EBD is the third
of one right, since the circumference BD is by size two thirds of a right. Then
sector EBD is the twelfth of the circle, and consequently the spiral space BD is
the third of on twelfth, which is the thirty-sixth part of the circle. On the other
hand, the spiral will intersect the segment, it will not be concurrent with the
circle, or it will cut off a circular space in the advancement from B, before

END OF PAGE 441

it reaches D, like it was proved.

Then in the given circle BDC, the thirty-sixth part of the circle itself was
cut off from the hexagon segment BD. Which was to be done.
And let the blunt hatchet blade be weakened enough by this shield made of
seven soft leathers.
If some wanted a rough draft of this "fight with the axe" itself, let them not
miss it, let them watch it in these short pages.

Analysis of the Circle.

According to the "axe cuts".

1.

The circle consists of six hexagon cuttings.

700
 Cyclometry or "anti-axe"

II.

The hexagon cutting consists of the hexagon segment and the hexagon trian-
gle, or the larger.

III.

The hexagon triangle, be it larger, consists of the hexagon segment and one
hatchet.

IV.

The hatchet consists of two hexagon segments and the hatchet complement.

V.

The complement of the hatchet consists of the hexagon segment and the re-
maining segment.

VI.

Again the complement of the hatchet consists of the smaller triangle and the
remaining of the smaller triangle. On the other hand, the smaller triangle is
the fifth part of hexagon triangle, or of the larger.

END OF PAGE 442

Two True Lemmas.

The first.

Ten smaller triangles are equal to six hexagon segments and to

two complements of the hatchet.
Indeed the hexagon triangle consists of the segment and the hatchet, and
the hatchet consists of two segments and the complement; for this reason, two
hexagon triangles consist in six segments and two complements. Which was to
be proven.

The second.

Forty smaller triangles equal the circle and two complements of the
hatchet.

701
 Cyclometry or "anti-axe"

Indeed since the circle is equal to six cuttings of the hexagonal sectors, since
on the other hand the sectors are equal to six hexagon triangles and six segments,
since then six hexagon triangles make thirty smaller triangles: for this reason,
the circle equals thirty smaller triangles and six segments. On both sides, let
two complements of the hatchet be added. Then the circle along with two
complemants of the hatchet will be equal to thirty smaller triangles, according
to the above lemma: then forty smaller triangles equal six hexagon segments
and two complements of the hatchet. Which was to be proven.

"Fallacies" .
I say that a smaller triangle equals its remaining.
"As proof'.
Indeed since the circle with the complements of the hatchet (which indeed
make two smaller triangles and two remainings of the smaller triangle) equals
thirty-six smaller triangles and again four. On the other hand, let two smaller
triangles be taken way. There, when they will be taken out of two complements,
they will leave two remainings of the triangle. Here, when they will be taken
out of four triangles, they will leave two triangles. So the two remaining are
equal to two triangles.
"Illogical Refutation".
Equal parts can be taken out of equal whole parts, not out of parts of
equals, so that the ones left are equal. To take away a part of equals is to take
the remaining of the whole equal to the remaining, as here the circle equals
thirty-six smaller triangles. Surely, this is formally denied and is very wrong.
To accept that it is demonstrated by itself, is to want to seem to be mistaken
demonstratively.
Two Other True Lemmas for Another "Fallacy".
The first.
Twenty-four parts of the hexagon triangle and six segments equal
twenty-four segments and six complements of the hatchet.
Indeed, since the hexagon triangle consists of three segments and one com-
plement of the hatchet, on the other hand, since the circle is made of six trian-
gles and six segments with six complements equal the circle. And because four
fourths make the unit, twenty-four quarters of the hexagon circle, with at the
same time six segments, will equally equal the circle. On the other hand the
ones equal to the unit are equal between themselves. This is why twenty-four
quarters of the hexagon triangle and six segments equal twenty-four segments
and six complements of the hatchet. Which was to be proven.

702
 Cyclometry or "anti-axe"

END OF PAGE 443

The Second.

Given three unequal quantities, if the medium taken twenty-four

times and added to the same one taken six times equals the smallest
one taken twenty-four times and added to the smallest on taken six
time equals the smallest one taken twenty-four times and added to
the largest taken six times: the difference between the quadruple of
the middle one and the triple of the smallest equals the largest one.
Indeed let B be the smallest, D the middle one, A the largest. Then according
to the hypothesis 6B plus 24D will equal 6A plus 24B. On both sides, let 24B
be subtracted. Then 24D minus 18B will equal 6A. And all being divided by
6D, 4D minus 3B will equal A. Which had to be stated.

"U nproved Theorem".

There are three unequal figures in the plane and commensurable be-
tween themselves, the smallest is a hexagon segment; the middle one
is the quarter of the hexagon triangle; the largest is the complement
of the hatchet-
The inequality and the degree of this inequality could be proved but nobody
will ever prove either the symmetry or the asymmetry, except if he first compares
the hexagon triangle to the circle or another line; surely this comparison is not
known up to here, "and if precisely there is an equal success, it is lying in the
Gods' knees".

"Pseudo-Porism" .

And thus as the quarter of the hexagon triangle is made of

five parts, the segment must be four.

703
 Cyclometry or "anti-axe"

"As proof".

Let B be the hexagon segment, D the quarter of the hexagon triangle, Z

the complement of the hatchet. Then the three quantities are unequal, and the
smallest of these, D the medium, Z the largest, are related to each other as a
number to another. Let D be made of five parts, such as B will be made of three
or four, and no more. On the other part, but if this can be done, let it be made
of three parts; according to the first and second lemma, Z will be made of eleven.
And thus the complement will consist of two segments and three-quarters. On
the other hand, this meaning inspires repugnance. This is why B is made of
four.

"illogical Refutation".

Quantity D is given made of five parts, B can be shown larger than three
parts. Surely will B made of four for this reason? This being accepted, is it
denied that B relates to D as a number to a number? The conclusion is not at all
syllogistic. Indeed, if B is made of four parts and some small rational fraction,
why is not four and a half related to five as a number to a number, which is like 9
to 10, other than "illogic or non geometric". Reasonably D is being made of 11
parts, B is made a little larger than 9, and Z a little smaller than 17, according
to Archimedes limits. On the other hand, out of these two ''false fights" were
spread the remainings of the "sectors with the hatchet according to the area of
the circle and the wrong surfaces of the spheres".

"End of comparison to a hatchet's sector".

END OF PAGE 444

Second Example of "Fight with an Axe".

"An outline, Prom the Addendum".

In the circle with center A, let the hexagon circumference BCD be taken and
let AB, AD, BD be joined. On the other hand, from AB, let a line be drawn,
having the ratio of its square to the square of AB the same as the ratio of one
to five. And that, through E, the parallel to AD itself be drawn intersecting BD
at F.
And thus let triangle BEF made of equal angles, and the fifth of it.

704
 Cyclometry or "anti-axe"

Lemma I. True.
Thirty-seven triangles BEF are larger than circle BCD.
Indeed, in what is written for the Mathematical Table, it was proved that
the circle relates to the square of the half diameter very close to 31, 415, 926,
536 to 10, 000, 000, 000. On the other hand, side AB, which is the half diameter,
being made of 100, 000 small parts, the height of the equilateral triangle ABD
is 86, 6025 4,036\100,000. And thus:
The triangle ABD is made of 4, 330, 127, 019
The triangle BEF, 866,025,404
Thirty-seven triangles BE 32, 042, 939, 948
Exceeding the circle 31, 415, 926, 536
By the small parts 627,013,412

Lemma II. True.

The circle BCD is not larger than thirty-six segments BCDF.
Even more, circle BCD is much smaller than thirty-six segments BCDF.
Indeed sector BAD is one sixth of the whole circle.
And thus:
If the circle is 31, 415, 926, 536
The sector BAD is 5, 235, 987, 756
Let triangles ABD be subtracted from it 4,330,127,019
It remains the hexagon sector
or the mixtiline space BCDF 905, 860, 737
On the other hand three dozens of such segments are 32,610,986,532
Exceeding the circle by the small parts 1,195,059,996

END OF PAGE 445

"Pseudo-Porism" .

Then thirty-seven triangles BEF are larger than thirty segments

BCDF.

705
 Cyclometry or "anti-axe"

"Illogical Refutation" .

In the grammar, to give to the ship the south winds, or to give the ships to
the south winds, have the same meaning.
But in geometry, to say that circle BCD is not larger than thirty-six segments
BCDF is different from saying that thirty-six segments BCDF are not larger
than circle BCD. The first is true, the second is false.
Then when I argue this way:
Thirty-seven triangles are larger than the circle.
But thirty-six segments are not larger than the circle.
Then thirty-seven triangles are larger than thirty-six segments.
I conclude syllogistically, but wrongly, because I take the wrong. On the
other hand, I sin in the logic laws when I establish the syllogism in this
formula:
The circle is smaller than thirty-seven triangles.
The circle i~' dot larger than thirty-six segments.
Then thirty-seven triangles are large than thirty-six segments.
On the other hand, there is "loss of the eyeti' not "of the intelligence". Indeed
since truly, at the beginning, it was proposed that the measure of the circum-
ference of the circle is not larger than thirty-six hexagon segments, it is read,
according to what was done above, that it is neither smaller, and, from there,
was extracted its wrong corollary.

END.

706
 Translation of Article 12 : Christiani Hugenii
Determining the Magnitude of the Circle

Problem IV. - Proposition XX.

To find the ratio between the circumference and the diameter; and through given
chords in a given circle, to find the length of the arcs which they subtend.
Let a circle of center D, with CD as a diameter, and let AB be the arc one
sextant of the circumference, for which we draw the chord AB and the sine AM.
If we suppose then that the half diameter DB is 100,000 parts, the chord BA
will contain the same number. But AM will be made of 86,603 parts and not
one less (which means that if we would take away one part or one unit of the
86,603 we would have less than what it should be), since it is half of the side of
the equilateral triangle inscribed in the circle.
From there, the excess of AB over AM becomes 13397, less than the true
value. One third of it is 4465~, which, added to 100,000 of AB, gives 104,465~,
which is less than arc AB. And this is a first lower limit; in the following, we
will find another one, closer to the real value. But first we must also find an
upper limit, according to the same theorem.
Then a fourth proportional is to be found for three numbers. The first equals
the double parts of AB and the triple of AM. It will then be 459807, less than
the real value, (as we also have to make sure that this number here is less; and
in the same way with the other as we will specify) the second is equal to the
quadruple of AB and to AM, which is 486,603, more than the real value. And
the third is one third of the excess of AB over AM, 4466, more than the real
value, which, added to AB or 100,000 gives 104 727, larger than the number of
parts which are AB sextant of the periphery (according to the above). Then we
already found the length of arc AB within an upper and lower limit, of which
two the last is far closer to the real value because the number 104, 719 is closer
to the real value.
But through these two, we will obtain another lower limit more exact than
the first one, using the following precept, which results from a more precise
examination of the center of gravity.

END OF PAGE 384

707
 Determining the magnitude of a circle

Add the four thirds of the difference of the above limits to the double of the
chord and the triple of the sine, and the same ratio as between the line made
this way and three and one third, or 130 times the sum of the sine and the chord,
also exists between the excess of the chord over the sine and another line; this
last one added to the sine will be a line smaller than the arc.
The lower limit was 104,465~; the upper one is 10,427; their difference is
261i. Again we need to find a fourth proportional to three numbers. The first
one is the double of the parts AB increased by the triple of AM and by the four
thirds of the difference of the limits; we find 460, 158, larger than the real value.
The second is the 130 of AB and AM taken together, 622,008, smaller than the
real value. Last the third is the excess of AB over AM, 13, 397, smaller than
the real value. The fourth proportional to these numbers is 18,109, smaller than
the real value.
Then if we add this to the number of parts of AM, 86,602~, less than the
real value, we get 104, 711~ less than arc AB. Thus the sextuple of these parts,
628,269, will be less than the whole circumference. But because 104727 of these
parts were found larger than Arc AB, their sextuple will be larger than the
circumference. Thus the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is smaller
than the one of 628,362 to 200,000 and larger than the one of 628,268 to 200,000,
or smaller than the one of between 314,181 and 100,000 and larger than the
one of 314,135 to 100,000. From that, the ratio is certainly smaller than 3t
and larger than 3~~. From there also is refuted Longomontanus' mistake, who
wrote that the periphery is larger than 314,182 parts, when the radius contains
100,000.
Let us suppose that arc AB is ~ of the circumference; than AM, half of the
side of the square inscribed in the circle, will measure 7,071,068 parts, and the
radius DB measures 1,000,000, and not one less. On the other hand AB, side
of the octagon, measures 7,653,668 parts and not one more. Through this data,
we will find, in the same manner as above, as first lower limit of the length of
arc AB 7,847,868. Then as upper limit 7,854,066. And from these two, again,
a more precise lower limit 7,853,885. This results in the ratio of the periphery
to the diameter being less than 31,416t and more than 31,415 to 10,000.
And as the difference between the upper limit 7,854,066 and the real length
of the arc

END OF PAGE 385

is less than 85 parts (arc AB, according to what we proved above is larger than
7,853,981) and as 85 parts are less than two seconds, which is 1 oii 000 of the
circumference, because the whole circumference has more than 60,000;000 parts,
it is obvious that, if we try to find the angles of a right triangle using the given
sides, the same way as we did for the upper limit above, the error can never be
more than two seconds; even if the sides of the right angle are equal, as they
were here in triangle DAM.
But if the ratio of side DM to MA is such that the angle ADM does not exceed
a quarter of a right angle, the error will not be more than a third. Because,

708
 Determining the magnitude of a circle

taking arc AB equal to 1~ of the circumference, AM will be half of the side of

the equilateral octagon inscribed in the circle, and equal to 382,683,433 parts
and not more, but AB will be the side of the sixteen sides polygon and then
will contain 390,180,644 parts, and not one more, with the radius DB containing
1,000,000,000 parts. This way is found a first lower limit of the length of arc AB
of 392,679,714 parts. And the upper limit is 392,699,148. And from there again
a lower limit of 392,699,010. But, what was proved above results in arc AB, 110
of the circumference, being larger than 392,699,081 parts, which the upper limit
exceeds by 67 parts. But these are less than a third, which is 77,7010,000 of the
whole circumference, since the circumference is larger than 6,000,000,000.
Then, out of these new limits just found, the ratio of the circumference to the
diameter will come smaller than 314593i to 1,000,000 but larger than 314,592
to 1,000,000.
And if we take an arc AB equal to 610 of the circumference, which is six parts
of the total 360, AM will be half of the side of the (inscribed) polygon with 30
angles, made of 10,452,846,326,766 parts with a radius of 100,000,000,000,000,
and not one less. And AB is the side of the (inscribed)8 polygon with 60
angles, 10,467,191,248,588 and not one more. Through this data is found arc
AB according to the first lower limit 10,471,972,889,195 then the upper limit
10,471,975,512,584. And from there the other lower limit 10,471,975,511,302.
This results in the ratio of the periphery to the diameter being less than

END OF PAGE 386

31,415,926,538 to 10,000,000,000, but larger than 31,415,926,533 to

10,000,000,000.
If we had to find these limits through adding the sides of the inscribed and
circumscribed polygons, we would have to go up to 400,000 sides. Because
with the 60 angles inscribed and circumscribed polygons, we only prove that
the ratio of the periphery to the diameter is less than 3,145 to 1,000, and larger
than 3,140. Thus, the number of exact digits through this calculation seems
to be three times higher, and even more. But if someone tries it, he will see
that the same always happens with the following polygons; we know why but it
would take a long explanation .
On the other hand, I believe it is clear enough how, for other inscribed scalene
polygons, it is possible to find, through the above methods, the length of the
arcs subtended. Because, if they are larger than the side of the inscribed square,
we will have to find the length of the remaining arc on the half circumference,
the chord of which is then also given. But we must also know how to find the
chords of the half-arcs, when the chord of the full arc is given. And this way, if
we want to use bisections, we will be able to find without any difficulty for any
chord the length of its arc, as close as we want. This is useful for examining
tables of sines, and even for their composition; because, knowing the chord of a
given arc, we can determine with enough accuracy the length of the arc which
is slightly larger or smaller.

709
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Credits

We would like to extend our thanks to various publishers for granting permission to reprint the
following articles:

[l) A.B. Chace, The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, The National Council of Teachers of Mathe-
matics, Reston, Virginia, 1979, pp. 92-93 and Plate 72 (Problem 50). Reprinted with permis-
sion from the The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus by Arnold Buffum Chace. 1927-29. Reprint,
with a note on the text by Phillip S. Jones and Bruce E. Meserve, Reston, VA: National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1979. Second Printing, 1986.
(2) H. Engels, Quadrature of the Circle in Ancient Egypt, Historia Mathematica 4 (1977), 137-
140. Reprinted by permission of Academic Press.
(3) T.L. Heath (trans)., The Works of Archimedes with the Method of Archimedes, Dover Publi-
cations Inc., NY, 1953, pp. 91-98.
(4) G.M. Phillips, Archimedes the Numerical Analyst, The American Mathematical Monthly 88
(1981), 165-169. Reprinted by permission of the author.
(5) Lam Lay-Yong and Ang Tian-Se, Circle Measurements in Ancient China, Historia Mathemat-
ica 13 (1986),325-340. Reprinted by permission of Academic Press.
(8) W. Hope-Jones, Correspondence. Ludoph (or Ludolff or Lucius) van Ceulen, The Mathemati-
cal Gazette 22 (1938),281-282. Reprinted by permission of the Mathematical Association.
(10) J. Wallis, Computation of Pi by Successive Interpolations, in A Source Book in Mathematics,
1200-1800. Copyright © 1969 by Harvard University Press. Reprinted by permission of Harvard
University Press.
(14) R. Roy, The Discovery of the Series Formula for Pi by Leibniz, Gregory and Nilakantha,
Mathematics Magazine 63 (1990), 291-306. Reprinted by permission of the author.
[l5) W. Jones, The First Use of Pi for the Circle Ratio, in A Source Book in Mathematics, Volume
II (D.E. Smith, Ed.), Dover Publications Inc., NY, 1959, pp. 346-347.
[l6] I. Newton, Of the Method of Fluxions and Infinite Series, The Mathematical Works of Isaac
Newton, Volume I, Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York, 1964, pp. 128-131.
[l7) L. Euler, Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite. Book I, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1988-
1990, pp. 137-153. (Translated from the Latin by J.D. Blanton). Reprinted by permission of
Springer-Verlag, New York, Inc.
(19) Lambert, A.M. Irrationality of Pi, in A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200-1800. Copyright
1969 by Harvard University Press. Reprinted by permission of Harvard University Press.
(22) F. Lindemann, Ueber die Zahl Pi, Mathematische Annalen 20 (1882), 213-225. Reprinted by
permission of Springer-Verlag, New York, Inc.
717
 718 Credits

[24] D. Hilbert, Ueber die Transcendenz der Zahlen e und pi. Mathematische Annalen 43 (1893),
216-219. Reprinted by permission of Springer-Verlag, New York, Inc.
[25] E.J. Goodwin, Quadrature of the Circle, The American Mathematical Monthly 1 (1894), 246-
247. Reprinted by permission of the Mathematical Association of America.
[26] W.E. Eddington, House Bill No. 246, Indiana State Legislature, 1897, Proceedings 0/ the
Indiana Academy 0/ Science 45 (1935), 206-210. Reprinted by permission of the Indiana
Academy of Science.
[27] D. Singmaster, The Legal Values of Pi, The Mathematical Intelligencer 7 (1985), 69-72.
Reprinted by permission of Springer-Verlag, New York, Inc.
[28] and [29] S. Ramanujan, Squaring the Circle and Modular Equations and Approximations to
Pi in: S. Ramanujan: Collected Papers (G.H. Hardy, P.V. Seshuaigar, and B.M. Wilson,
Eds.), Chelsea, New York, 1962, pp. 22 and 23-29. Reprinted by permission of Academic
Press.
[30] G.N. Watson, The Marquis and the Land Agent; A Tale of the Eighteenth Century, The Mathe-
matical Gazette 17 (1933), 5-17. Reprinted by permission of the Mathematical Association.
[31] J.P. Ballantine, The Best (?) Formula for Computing Pi to a Thousand Places, The American
Mathematical Monthly 46 (1939), 499-501. Reprinted by permission of The Mathematical
Association of America.
[32] R.H. Birch, An Algorithm for the Construction of Arctangent Relations, Journal 0/ the
London Mathematical Society 21 (1946), 173-174. Reprinted by permission of the Canadian
Mathematical Society.
[33] Reprinted from "A Simple Proof that Pi is Irrational," by Ivan Niven, Bulletin of the American
Mathematical Society, Volume 53, Number 7, July (1947),509, by permission of the American
Mathematical Society.
[34] G.W. Reitwiesner, An ENIAC determination of pi and e to more than 2000 Decimal Places,
Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation 4 (1950),11-15. Reprinted by permission
of the A MS.
[35] H.C. Schepler, The Chronology of Pi, Mathematics Magazine 23 (1950), 165-170,216-228,
and 279-283. Reprinted by permission of Mathematics Magazine.
[36] K. Mahler, On the Approximation of Pi, Indagationes Mathematicae 15 (1953), 30-42. Re-
printed by permission of Indagationes Mathematicae.
[37] J. W. Wrench, Jr., The Evolution of Extended Decimal Approximations to Pi, The Mathemat-
ics Teacher 53 (1960), 644-650. Reprinted with permission from the Mathematics Teacher,
copyright © 1960 by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
[38] D. Shanks and J.W. Wrench, Jr., Calculation of Pi to 100,000 Decimals, Mathematics 0/
Computation 16 (1962), 76-99. Reprinted by permission of Mathematics o/Computation.
[39] D.W. Sweeney, On the Computation of Euler's Constant, Mathematics 0/ Computation 17
(1963), 170-178. Reprinted by permission of Mathematics o/Computation.
[40] A. Baker, Approximations to the Logarithms of Certain Rational Numbers, Acta Arithmetica
10 (1964), 315-323. Reprinted by permission of the Institute of Mathematics, Polish Academy
of Sciences.
[42] K. Mahler, Applications of Some Formulae by Hermite to the Approximation of Exponentials
and Logarithms, Mathematische Annalen 168 (1967), 200-277. Reprinted by permission of
Springer-Verlag, New York, Inc.
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dotes and Mathematical Circles Revisited: A Second Collection 0/ Mathematical Stories and
Anecdotes. PWS Publishing Company, Boston, 1969 and 1971.
[45] J. Todd, The Lemniscate Constants, Communications 0/ the ACM 18 (1975), 14-19. Copy-
right © 1975 Association for Computing Machinery, Inc. (ACM). Reprinted by permission.
[46] E. Salamin, Computation of Pi Using Arithmetic-Geometric Mean, Mathematics 0/ Computa-
tion 30 (1976),565-570. Reprinted by permission.
[47] R.P. Brent, Fast Multiple-Precision Evaluation of Elementary Function, Journal 0/ the ACM
23 (1976),242-251. Copyright © 1976 Association for Computing Machinery, Inc. Reprinted
by permission.
Credits 719

[48] F. Beukers, A Note on the Irrationality of Zeta(2) and Zeta(3), Bulletin o/the London Mathe-
matical Society 11 (1979), 268-272.
[49] A.J. van der Poorten, A Proof that Euler Missed ... Apery's Proof of the Irrationality
of Zeta(3) The Mathematical Intelligencer, 1 (1979), 195-203. Reprinted by permission of
Springer-Verlag, New York, Inc.
[50] R.P. Brent and E.M. McMillan, Some New Algorithms for High-Precision Computation of
Euler's Constant, Mathematics 0/ Computation 34 (1980), 305-312. Reprinted by permission
of Mathematics 0/ Computation.
[51] T.M. Apostol, A Proof that Euler Missed: Evaluating Zeta(2) the Easy Way, The Mathemati-
cal Intelligencer 5 (1983), 59-60. Reprinted by permission of Springer-Verlag, New York, Inc.
[52] L. O'Shaughnessy, Putting God Back in Math, The Mathematical Intelligencer 5 (1983), 76-
77. Reprinted by permission of Springer-Verlag, New York, Inc.
[53] M.D. Stern, A Remarkable Approximation to Pi, The Mathematical Gazette 69 (1985), 218-
219. Reprinted by permission of the Mathematical Association of America.
[54] M. Newman and D. Shanks. On a Sequence Arising in Series for Pi, Mathematics 0/ Computa-
tion 42 (1984),199-217. Reprinted by permission of Mathematics o/Computation.
[55] D.A. Cox, The Arithmetic-Geometric Mean of Gauss, L 'Ensignement Mathematique 30
(1984),275-330. Reprinted by permission of L'Enseignement Mathematique.
[56] J.M. Borwein and P.B. Borwein, The Arithmetic-Geometric Mean and Fast Computation of
Elementary Functions. Reprinted with permission from SIAM Review, pp. 351-365, Vol. 26,
1984. Copyright © 1984 by the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania. All rights reserved.
[57] D.J. Newman, A Simplified Version of the Fast Algorithms of Brent and Salamin, Mathematics
o/Computation 44 (1985), 207-210. Reprinted by permission of Mathematics o/Computation.
[58] S. Wagon, Is Pi Normal? The Mathematical Intelligencer 7 (1985), 65-67. Reprinted by permis-
sion of Springer-Verlag, New York, Inc.
[59] M. Keith, Circle Digits: A Self-Referential Story, The Mathematical In telligen cer 8 (1986),56-
57. Reprinted by permission of Springer-Verlag, New York, Inc.
[60] D.H. Bailey, The Computation of Pi to 29,360,000 Decimal Digits Using Borweins' Quartically
Convergent Algorithm, Mathematics 0/ Computation 50 (1988), 283-296. Reprinted by per-
mission of Mathematics 0/ Computation.
[61] Y. Kanada, Vectorization of Multiple-Precision Arithmetic Program and 201,326,000 Decimal
Digits of Pi Calculation. Copyright © 1988 IEEE. Reprinted with permission from Supercom-
puting 88: Volume II, Science and Applications, 117-128.
[62] J.M. Borwein and P.B. Borwein, Ramanujan and Pi, Scientific American 256 (1988),112-117.
Reprinted with permission. Copyright © 1988 by Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved.
[63] D.V. Chudnovsky and G.V. Chudnovsky, Approximations and Complex Multiplication Ac-
cording to Ramanujan, in Ramanujan Revisited (G.E. Andrews, R.A. Askey, B.C. Berndt,
K.G. Ramanathan, and R.A. Rankin, Eds.), Academic Press, Inc., Boston, MA, 1988, pp.
375-396 & 468-472. Reprinted by permission of Academic Press.
[64] J .M. Borwein, P .B. Borwein, and D.H. Bailey, Ramanujan, Modular Equations, and Approx-
imations to Pi, or How to Compute One Billion Digits of Pi, The American Mathematical
Monthly 96 (1989),201-219. Reprinted by permission of authors.
[65] J.M. Borwein, P.B. Borwein, and K. Dilcher, Pi, Euler Numbers, and Asymptotic Expansion,
The American Mathematical Monthly 96 (1989), 681-687. Reprinted by permission of the
authors.
[66] F. Beukers, J.P. Bezivin, and P. Robba, An Alternative Proof of the Lindemann-Weierstrass
Theorem, The American Mathematical Monthly 97 (1990), 193-197. Reprinted by permission
of the authors.
[67] Webster, The Tail 0/ Pi. Fourteenth Annual IMO Lecture at the Royal Society (17th September
1991). Reprinted by permission of the author.
[70] D.H. Bailey, P.B. Borwein and S. Plouffe, On the Rapid Computation of Various Polylogari-
thmic Constants, Mathematics 0/ Computation 66 (1997), 903-913. Reprinted by pennission
of the AMS.
 A Pamphlet on Pi
servIng as a
Supplement for the Third Edition
of
Pi: A Source Book l

lCentre for Experimental and Constructive Mathematics (CECM) and Depart-

ment of Mathematics, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby BC Canada V5A 1S6.
Research supported by NSERC, the Canada Foundation for Innovation and the Can-
ada Research Chair Program. E-mail: [email protected]@cecm.sfu.ca.
[email protected].

721
Contents

1 Pi and Its Friends 1

1.1 A Recent History of Pi . . . . . . 1
The ENIAC Integrator and Calculator 7
1.2 Computing Individual Digits of Pi. . . 7
1.3 Does Pi Have a Nonbinary BBP Formula? 14

2 Normality of Numbers 17
2.1 Normality: A Stubborn Question .. 17
2.2 BBP Constants and Normality. . . . 22
2.3 A Class of Provably Normal Constants 26

3 Historia Cyclometrica 29
3.1 1 Kings, 2 Chronicles, and Maimonides ............. 29
3.2 Franc;ois Viete. Book VIII, Chapter XVIII. . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Ratio of Regular Polygons, Inscribed in a Circle, to the Circle 30
Defense Against the New Cyclometry or ANTI-AXE 33
3.3 Christian Huygens.
Problem IV, Proposition XX . . . . . . . 43
Determining the Magnitude of the Circle 43

4 Demotica Cyclometrica 47
4.1 Irving Kaplansky's "A Song about Pi" 47
4.2 Ludolph van Ceulen's Tombstone 47

References 55

iii

723
1

Pi and Its Friends

This chapter and the next are paraphrased from the book Mathematics by Ex-
periment [11].

1.1 A Recent History of Pi

The first truly electronic computation of 7r was performed in 1949 on the original
ENIAC. This calculation was suggested by John von Neumann, who wished to
study the digits of 7r and e. Computing 2037 decimal places of 7r on the ENIAC
required 70 h. A similar calculation today could be performed in a fraction of a
second on a personal computer.
Later computer calculations were further accelerated by the discovery of ad-
vanced algorithms for performing the required high-precision arithmetic opera-
tions. For example, in 1965 it was found that the newly discovered fast Fourier
transform (FFT) could be used to perform high-precision multiplications much
more rapidly than conventional schemes. These methods dramatically lowered
the computer time required for computing 7r and other mathematical constants
to high precision. See also Refs. 3 and 19.
In spite of these advances, until the 1970s all computer evaluations of 7r
still employed classical formulas, usually one of the Machin-type formulas. Some
new infinite-series formulas were discovered by Ramanujan around 1910, but
these were not well known until quite recently, when his writings were widely
published. Ramanujan's related mathematics may be followed in Refs. 10, 18,
and 23. One of these series is the remarkable formula
~ = 2\1'2 ~ (4k)!(1103 + 26390k). (1.1.1)
7r 9801 {:o' (k!)4396 4k

Each term of this series produces an additional eight correct digits in the result.
Bill Gosper used this formula to compute 17 million digits of 7r in 1985. Gosper
1

725
2 Pi and Its Friends

also computed the first 17 million terms of the continued fraction expansion of
71". At about the same time, David and Gregory Chudnovsky found the following
variation of Ramanujan's formula:

~ = 12 ~ (_1)k (6k)!(13591409 + 545140134k)

(1.1.2)
71" L...J (3k)! (k!)3 640320 3k+3/2 .
k=O

Each term of this series produces an additional 14 correct digits. The Chud-
novskys implemented this formula using a clever scheme that enabled them to
utilize the results of an initial level of precision to extend the calculation to
even higher precision. They used this method in several large calculations of 71",
culminating with a computation to over 4 billion decimal digits in 1994.
Along this line, it is interesting to note that the Ramanujan-type series [see
Ref. 17 (p. 188)]

~ =
71" L
00 (C:))
16n
3 42 n + 5
16
(1.1.3)
n=O

permits one to compute the billionth binary digit of 1/71" without computing the
first half of the series.
Although the Ramanujan and Chudnovsky series are considerably more ef-
ficient than the classical formulas, they share with them the property that the
number of terms one must compute increases linearly with the number of digits
desired in the result. In other words, if you want to compute 71" to twice as many
digits, you have to evaluate twice as many terms of the series.
In 1976, Eugene Salamin and Richard Brent independently discovered an
algorithm for 71" based on the arithmetic-geometric mean (AGM) and some ideas
originally due to Gauss in the 1800s (although, for some reason, Gauss never saw
the connection to computing 71"). The Salamin-Brent algorithm may be stated
as follows. Set ao = 1, bo = 1/O, and So = 1/2. Calculate
ak-l + bk- 1
ak = 2

bk Vak-lbk-l,

Ck - ak2 - b2k'

Sk Sk-l - 2kck'

2a 2
_k
Pk (1.1.4)
Sk

726
 A Recent History of Pi 3

Then, Pk converges quadratically to 71": Each iteration of this algorithm approxi-

mately doubles the number of correct digits-successive iterations produce 1, 4,
9,20,42,85, 173,347, and 697 correct decimal digits of 71". Twenty-five iterations
are sufficient to compute 71" to over 45-million-decimal-digit accuracy. However,
each of these iterations must be performed using a level of numeric precision
that is at least as high as that desired for the final result.
Beginning in 1985, one of the present authors (Jonathan Borwein) and his
brother Peter Borwein discovered some additional algorithms of this type [13].
One is as follows. Set ao = 1/3 and So = (V3 - 1)/2. Iterate
3
Tk+l -
1 + 2(1 - Sf)1/3'
Tk+l - 1
Sk+l -
2
ak+l - T~+1ak - 3k(T~+1 - 1). (1.1.5)

Then, l/ak converges cubically to 7I"---each iteration approximately triples the

number of correct digits. Another algorithm is as follows: Set ao = 6 - 4V2 and
Yo = V2 - 1. Iterate

1 - (1 - Yt)1/4
Yk+l -
1 + (1 - yt)1/4 '
ak(l + Yk+l)4 - 22k +3 Yk +1(1 + Yk+l + Y~+1). (1.1.6)

Then, ak converges quartically to 1/71". This particular algorithm, together with

the Salamin-Brent scheme, has been employed by Yasumasa Kanada of the
University of Tokyo in several computations of 71" over the past 15 years or so,
including his 1999 computation of 71" to over 206 billion decimal digits.
Shanks, who in 1961 computed 71" to over 100,000 digits, once declared that a
billion-digit computation would be "forever impossible." However, both Kanada
and the Chudnovskys computed over 1 billion digits in 1989. Similarly, the intu-
itionist mathematicians Brouwer and Heyting once asserted the "impossibility"
of ever knowing whether the sequence "0123456789" appears in the decimal ex-
pansion of 71" [17]. This sequence was found in 1997 by Kanada, beginning at
position 17,387,594,880. Even as late as 1989, British mathematical physicist
Roger Penrose, ventured in the first edition of his book The Emperor's New
Mind that we are not likely to know whether a string of "ten consecutive sev-
ens" occurs in the decimal expansion of 71" [22, p. 115]. By the time his book was
published, Kanada had already found a string of 10 consecutive sixes in his 480-
million-digit computation of 71". When one of the present authors mentioned this
to Penrose in 1990, he replied that he was "startled to learn how far the combi-
nation of human mathematical ingenuity with computer technology has enabled

727
4 Pi and Its Friends

the calculation of the decimal expansion of 7r to be carried out." Accordingly, he

changed his text to "twenty consecutive sevens," which appeared in subsequent
printings of the book. This was just in time, as a string of 10 consecutive sevens
was found by Kanada in 1997, beginning at position 22,869,046,249.
In December 2002, Kanada, with a team consisting of Y. Ushiro of Hitachi,
H. Kuroda and M. Kudoh of the University of Tokyo, and the assistance of
nine others from Hitachi, completed computation of 7r to over 1.24 trillion deci-
mal digits. Kanada and his team first computed 7r in hexadecimal (base 16) to
1,030,700,000,000 places, using the following two arctangent relations for 7r:

7r
1 ) + 128 tan -1 ( 57
= 48 tan -1 ( 49 1 ) + 48 tan -1 ( 110443'
1 ) - 20 tan -1 ( 239 1 )

7r = 176 tan- 1 (517) + 28 tan- 1 (2~9) - 48 tan- 1 (6~2) + 96 tan- 1 (12~43) .

(1.1. 7)
The first formula was found in 1982 by K. Takano, a high school teacher and
song writer. The second formula was found by F. C. W. Stormer in 1896.
Kanada and his team evaluated these formulas using a scheme analogous to
that employed by Gosper and the Chudnovskys, in that they were able to avoid
explicitly storing the multiprecision numbers involved. This resulted in a scheme
that is roughly competitive in efficiency compared to the Salamin-Brent and
Borwein quartic algorithms they had previously used, yet with a significantly
lower total memory requirement. In particular, they were able to perform their
latest computation on a system with 1 Tbyte (10 12 bytes) main memory, the
same as with their previous computation, yet obtain six times as many digits.
After Kanada and his team verified that the hexadecimal-digit strings pro-
duced by these two computations were in agreement, they performed an addi-
tional check by directly computing 20 hexadecimal digits beginning at position
1,000,000,000,001. This calculation employed an algorithm that we will describe
in Section 1.2 and required 21 h run time, much less than the time required for
the first step. The result of this calculation, B4466E8D21 5388C4E014, perfectly
agreed with the corresponding digits produced by the two arctan formulae. At
this point, they converted their hexadecimal value of 7r to decimal and con-
verted back to hexadecimal as a check. These conversions employed a numerical
approach similar to that used in the main and verification calculations. The
entire computation, including hexadecimal and decimal evaluations and checks,
required roughly 600 h run time on their 64-node Hitachi parallel supercom-
puter. The main segment of the computation ran at nearly 1 Tflop/s (i.e., 1
trillion floating-point operations per second), although this performance rate
was slightly lower than the rate of their previous calculation of 206 billion digits.
Full details will appear in an upcoming paper [18].

728
 A Recent History of Pi 5

Figure 1.1: The ENIAC "Integrator and Calculator"

According to Kanada, the 10 decimal digits ending in position 1 trillion

are 6680122702, and the 10 hexadecimal digits ending in position 1 trillion are
3F89341CD5]. Some data on the frequencies of digits in 1r, based on Kanada's
computations, are given in Section 2.1. Additional information of this sort is
available from Kanada's Web site: http://www . super-computing. org. Addi-
tional historical background on record-breaking computations of 1r is available
at http://www.cecm.sfu.ca/personal/ jborwein/pLcover. html.

A listing of some milestones in the recent history of the computation of 7r is

given in Table 1.1.

In retrospect, one might wonder why in antiquity 1r was not measured to an

accuracy in excess of 22/7. One conjecture is that it reflects not an inability to do
so but, instead, a very different mind-set to a modern (Baconian) experimental
one.

For those who are familiar with The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy it is
amusing that 042 occurs at the digits ending at the 50-billionth decimal place
in each of 1r and 1/1r-thereby providing an excellent answer to the ultimate
question "What is forty-two?"

Much lovely additional material, "both sensible and silly" can be found in Pi
Unleashed [2] and in the Joy of Pi [10] (www.joyofpi.com/).

729
6 Pi and Its Friends

Table 1.1: Digital era 7r calculations

Ferguson 1946 620

Ferguson 1947 710
Ferguson and Wrench 1947 808
Smith and Wrench 1949 1,120
Reitwiesner et al. (ENIAC) 1949 2,037
Nicholson and Jeenel 1954 3,092
Felton 1957 7,480
Genuys 1958 10,000
Felton 1958 10,021
Guilloud 1959 16,167
Shanks and Wrench 1961 100,265
Guilloud and Filliatre 1966 250,000
Guilloud and Dichampt 1967 500,000
Guilloud and Bouyer 1973 1,001,250
Miyoshi and Kanada 1981 2,000,036
Guilloud 1982 2,000,050
Tamura 1982 2,097,144
Tamura and Kanada 1982 4,194,288
Tamura and Kanada 1982 8,388,576
Kanada, Yoshino and Tamura 1982 16,777,206
Ushiro and Kanada Oct. 1983 10,013,395
Gosper Oct. 1985 17,526,200
Bailey Jan. 1986 29,360,111
Kanada and Tamura Sep. 1986 33,554,414
Kanada and Tamura Oct. 1986 67,108,839
Kanada, Tamura, Kubo, et al. Jan. 1987 134,217,700
Kanada and Tamura Jan. 1988 201,326,551
Chudnovskys May 1989 480,000,000
Chudnovskys Jun. 1989 525,229,270
Kanada and Tamura Jul. 1989 536,870,898
Kanada and Tamura Nov. 1989 1,073,741,799
Chudnovskys Aug. 1989 1,011,196,691
Chudnovskys Aug. 1991 2,260,000,000
Chudnovskys May 1994 4,044,000,000
Takahashi and Kanada Jun. 1995 3,221,225,466
Kanada Aug. 1995 4,294,967,286
Kanada Oct. 1995 6,442,450,938
Kanada and Takahashi Jun. 1997 51,539,600,000
Kanada and Takahashi Sep. 1999 206,158,430,000
Kanada, Ushiro, Kuroda, Kudoh Dec. 2002 1,241,100,000,000

730
 Computing Individual Digits of Pi 7

The ENIAC Integrator and Calculator

ENIAC, built in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania, had 18,000 vacuum

tubes, 6000 switches, 10,000 capacitors, 70,000 resistors, and 1500 relays, was
10 ft tall, occupied 1800 ft 2 and weighed 30 tons. ENIAC could perform 5000
arithmetic operations per second-lOOO times faster than any earlier machine,
but a far cry from today's leading-edge microprocessors, which can perform more
than 4 billion operations per second.
The first stored-memory computer, ENIAC could store 200 digits, which,
again, is a far cry from the hundreds of megabytes in a modern personal com-
puter system. Data flowed from one accumulator to the next, and after each ac-
cumulator finished a calculation, it communicated its results to the next in line.
The accumulators were connected to each other manually. A photo is shown in
Figure 1.1. We observe that the photo-obtained digitally-requires orders of
magnitudes more data than ENIAC could store.

1.2 Computing Individual Digits of Pi

An outsider might be forgiven for thinking that essentially everything of interest
with regard to 7r has been discovered. For example, this sentiment is suggested
in the closing chapters of Beckmann's 1971 book on the history of 7r [6, p. 172J.
Ironically, the Salamin-Brent quadratically convergent iteration was discovered
only 5 years later, and the higher-order convergent algorithms followed in the
1980s. In 1990, Rabinowitz and Wagon discovered a "spigot" algorithm for 7r,
which permits successive digits of 7r (in any desired base) to be computed with
a relatively simple recursive algorithm based on the previously generated digits
(see Ref. 31).
However, even insiders are sometimes surprised by a new discovery. Prior
to 1996, almost all mathematicians believed that if you want to determine the
dth digit of 7r, you have to generate the entire sequence of the first d digits.
(For all of their sophistication and efficiency, the above-described schemes all
have this property.) However, it turns out that this is not true, at least for
hexadecimal (base 16) or binary (base 2) digits of 7r. In 1996, Peter Borwein,
Simon Plouffe, and one of the present authors (Bailey) found an algorithm for
computing individual hexadecimal or binary digits of 7r [3J. To be precise, this
algorithm has the following properties:

1. directly produces a modest-length string of digits in the hexadecimal or

binary expansion of 7r, beginning at an arbitrary position, without needing
to compute any of the previous digits

731
8 Pi and Its Friends

2. can be implemented easily on any modern computer

3. does not require multiple precision arithmetic software

4. requires very little memory

5. has a computational cost that grows only slightly faster than the digit
position.

Using this algorithm, for example, the 1 millionth hexadecimal digit (or the
4 millionth binary digit) of 1r can be computed in less than a minute on a 2001-
era computer. The new algorithm is not fundamentally faster than best known
schemes for computing all digits of 1r up to some position, but its elegance and
simplicity are nonetheless of considerable interest. This scheme is based on the
following remarkable new formula for 1r:

Theorem 1.2.1:

1 (4
1r=
L
t=O
00 2 1 1)
16i 8i + 1 - Si + 4 - 8i + 5 - 8i + 6 .
(1.2.8)

Proof. First note that for any k < 8,

1
1/,;2 xk-1

o 1 -x 8 dx
_
-
r
10
o
1/,;2
L
00

i=O
X k -1+ 8i dx

1 00 1
2k/2 ~ 16 (Si + k)·
i
(1.2.9)

Thus, one can write

t; 161 (4+ 1 - 2+
00 1 1)
4 - 8i + 5 - 8i + 6

_1
i Si 8i
1 /,;2 4V2 - 8x 3 - 4V2x4 - 8x 5
- 1 8 ~, (1.2.10)
o -x
which, on substituting y = V2x, becomes
t 16y -16 d
10 y4-2 y3+4y-4 Y
t 4y
10 y2 - 2 dy -
r
10
1 4y - S
y2 _ 2y + 2 dy

1r. (1.2.11)

732
 Computing Individual Digits of Pi 9

However, in presenting this formal derivation, we are disguising the actual

route taken to the discovery of this formula. This route is a superb example of
experimental mathematics in action.
It all began in 1995, when Peter Borwein and Simon Plouffe of Simon Fraser
University observed that the following well-known formula for log 2 permits one
to calculate isolated digits in the binary expansion of log 2:

1
L
(Xl

log2 = k2 k ' (1.2.12)

k=O

This scheme is as follows. Suppose we wish to compute a few binary digits begin-
ning at position d + 1 for some integer d > O. This is equivalent to calculating
{2 d log 2}, where {-} denotes fractional part. Thus, we can write

2 d- k } 2 d- k }
LT +LT
d (Xl
{ {
k=O k=d+l

mod k }
L +L
d 2d-k (Xl 2d-k }
{ {
k k . (1.2.13)
k=O k=d+l

We are justified in inserting "mod k" in the numerator of the first summation
because we are only interested in the fractional part of the quotient when divided
by k.
Now, the key observation is this: The numerator of the first sum in Eqn.
(1.2.13), namely 2d - k mod k, can be calculated very rapidly by means of the bi-
nary algorithm for exponentiation, performed modulo k. The binary algorithm
for exponentiation is merely the formal name for the observation that exponenti-
ation can be economically performed by means of a factorization based on the bi-
nary expansion of the exponent. For example, we can write 317 = ((((3 2)2)2)2).3,
thus producing the result in only 5 multiplications, instead of the usual 16. Ac-
cording to Knuth, this technique dates back at least to 200 BeE [19]. In our
application, we need to obtain the exponentiation result modulo a positive inte-
ger k. This can be done very efficiently by reducing modulo k the intermediate
multiplication result at each step of the binary algorithm for exponentiation. A
formal statement of this scheme is as follows:

Algorithm 1.2.2: Binary algorithm Jor exponentiation modulo k.

To compute r = bn mod k, where r, b, n, and k are positive integers: First,

set t to be the largest power of two such that t ~ n, and set r = 1. Then

733
10 Pi and Its Friends

A: if n ~ t then r f - br mod k; n f - n - t; endif

t f - t/2
if t ~ 1 then r f - r2 mod k go to A; endif
o

Note that the above algorithm is performed entirely with positive integers that
do not exceed k 2 in size. Thus, ordinary 64-bit floating-point or integer arith-
metic, available on almost all modern computers, suffices for even rather large
calculations. The 128-bit floating-point arithmetic (double-double or quad pre-
cision), available at least in software on many systems, suffices for the largest
computations currently feasible.
We can now present the algorithm for computing individual binary digits of
log 2.

Algorithm 1.2.3: Individual digit algorithm for log 2.

To compute the (d + l)st binary digit of log2: Given an integer d > 0,

(1) calculate each numerator of the first sum in Eqn. (1.2.13), using Algorithm
1.2.2, implemented using ordinary 64-bit integer or floating-point arithmetic;
(2) divide each numerator by the respective value of k, again using ordinary
floating-point arithmetic; (3) sum the terms of the first summation, discarding
any integer parts; (4) evaluate the second summation as written using floating-
point arithmetic-only a few terms are necessary because it rapidly converges;
and (5) add the result of the first and second summations, discarding any integer
part. The resulting fraction, when expressed in binary, gives the first few digits
of the binary expansion of log 2 beginning at position d + 1. 0

As soon as Borwein and Plouffe found this algorithm, they began seeking
other mathematical constants that shared this property. It was clear that any
constant Q; of the form

p(k)
L
00

Q; = q(k)2k' (1.2.14)
k=O

where p(k) and q(k) are integer polynomials, with degp < degq and q having
no zeros at positive integer arguments, is in this class. Further, any rational
linear combination of such constants also shares this property. Checks of various
mathematical references eventually uncovered about 25 constants that possessed
series expansions of the form given by Eqn. (1.2.14).

734
 Computing Individual Digits of Pi 11

As you might suppose, the question of whether 7r also shares this property
did not escape these researchers. Unfortunately, exhaustive searches of the math-
ematicalliterature did not uncover any formula for 7r of the requisite form. How-
ever, given the fact that any rational linear combination of constants with this
property also shares this property, Borwein and Plouffe performed integer rela-
tion searches to see if a formula of this type existed for 7r. This was done, using
computer programs written by one of the present authors (Bailey), which im-
plement the "PSLQ" integer relation algorithm in high-precision, floating-point
arithmetic [4,14,15,21].
In particular, these three researchers sought an integer relation for the real
vector (0:1,0:2,··· ,O:n), where 0:1 = 7r and (O:i' 2 :::; i :::; n) is the collection
of constants of the requisite form gleaned from the literature, each computed
to several-hundred-decimal-digit precision. To be precise, they sought an n-Iong
vector of integers (ai) such that Ei aiO:i = 0, to within a very small "epsilon."
After a month or two of computation, with numerous restarts using new 0: vectors
(when additional formulas were found in the literature), the identity (1.2.8) was
finally uncovered. The actual formula found by the computation was

7r = 4F(1/4, 5/4; 1; -1/4) + 2tan- 1 (1/2) -log5, (1.2.15)

where F(1/4, 5/4; 1; -1/4) = 0.955933837 ... is a hypergeometric function eval-

uation. Reducing this expression to summation form yields the new 7r formula:

7r = L 161
00

t=O
i
(4 2 1 1)
8i + 1 - 8i + 4 - 8i + 5 - 8i + 6 .
(1.2.16)

To return briefly to the derivation of formula (1.2.16), let us point out that
it was discovered not by formal reasoning or even by computer-based symbolic
processing, but, instead, by numerical computations using a high-precision im-
plementation of the PSLQ integer relation algorithm. It is most likely the first
instance in history of the discovery of a new formula for 7r by a computer. We
might mention that, in retrospect, formula (1.2.16) could be found much more
quickly, by seeking integer relations in the vector (7r, 8 1 , 8 2 , .•. ,88 ), where
00 1
8j = L
k=O
16k(8k + j) .
(1.2.17)

Such a calculation could be done in a few seconds on a computer, even if one did
not know in advance to use 16 in the denominator and 9 terms in the search,
but instead had to stumble on these parameters by trial and error. However, this
observation is, as they say, 20-20 hindsight. The process of real mathematical
discovery is often far more tortuous and less elegant than the polished version
typically presented in textbooks and research journals.

735
12 Pi and Its Friends

It should be clear at this point that the scheme for computing individual
hexadecimal digits of 7r is very similar to Algorithm 1.2.3. For completeness, we
state it as follows:

Algorithm 1.2.4: Individual digit algorithm for 7r.

To compute the (d + l)st hexadecimal digit of 7r: Given an integer d > 0, we

can write

using the Sj notation of Eqn. (1.2.17). Now, apply Algorithm 1.2.3, with

d k
d 16 - } 16 - } d k
{16 d S j } = {{ 2: 8k + j + 2: 8k+j
00

{{
k=O

{; 8k+j
k=d+l
d 16d-k mod 8k + j} 00

+ k~l 8k+j
16d- k }
(1.2.19)

instead of Eqn. (1.2.13), to compute {16 d Sj } for j = 1,4,5,6. Combine these

four results, discarding integer parts, as shown in Eqn.(1.2.18). The resulting
fraction, when expressed in hexadecimal notation, gives the hex digit of 7r in
position d + 1, plus a few more correct digits. 0

As with Algorithm 1.2.3, multiple-precision arithmetic software is not

required---ordinary 64-bit or 128-bit floating-point arithmetic suffices even for
some rather large computations. We have omitted here some numerical details for
large computations-see Ref. [3]. Sample implementations in both C and Fortran-
90 are available from the Web site http://www . nersc . gOYr dhbailey.
One mystery that remains unanswered is why formula (1.2.8) was not dis-
covered long ago. As you can see from the above proof, there is nothing very
sophisticated about its derivation. There is no fundamental reason why Euler,
for example, or Gauss or Ramanujan could not have discovered it. Perhaps the
answer is that its discovery was a case of "reverse mathematical engineering."
Lacking a motivation to find such a formula, mathematicians of previous eras
had no reason to derive one. However, this still doe~ not answer the question
of why the algorithm for computing individual digits of log 2 had not been dis-
covered before--it is based on a formula, namely Eqn. (1.2.12), that has been
known for centuries.
Needless to say, Algorithm 1.2.4 has been implemented by numerous re-
searchers. In 1997, Fabrice Bellard of INRIA computed 152 binary digits of

736
 Does Pi Have a Nonbinary BBP Formula? 13

Table 1.2: Computed Hexadecimal Digits of 7r

Hex Digits Beginning at

Position This Position
106 26C65E52CB4593
107 17AF5863EFED8D
108 ECB840E21926EC
109 85895585A0428B
1010 921C73C6838FB2
1011 9C381872D27596
1.25 x 1012 07E45733CC790B
2.5 x 1014 E6216B069CB6C1

7r starting at the trillionth position. The computation took 12 days on 20 work-

stations working in parallel over the Internet. His scheme is actually based on
the following variant of 1.2.8:
00 (-l)k
7r = 4L4k(2k+1)

1f; 8 1)
k=O
00 (_l)k (32
(1.2.20)
- 64 1024k 4k + 1 + 4k + 2 + 4k + 3 .
This formula permits individual hex or binary digits of 7r to be calculated roughly
43% faster than Eqn.(1.2.8).
A year later, Colin Percival, then a 17-year-old student at Simon Fraser
University, utilized a network of 25 machines to calculate binary digits in the
neighborhood of position 5 trillion, and then in the neighborhood of 40 trillion.
In September 2000, he found that the quadrillionth binary digit is "0," based on
a computation that required 250 CPU-years of run time, carried out using 1734
machines in 56 countries. Table 1.2 gives some results known as of this writing.
One question that immediately arises in the wake of this discovery is whether
or not there is a formula of this type and an associated computational scheme
to compute individual decimal digits of 7r. Searches conducted by numerous
researchers have been unfruitful. Now it appears that there is no nonbinary
formula of this type-this is ruled out by a new result coauthored by one of
the present authors (see Section 1.3) [12]. However, none of this removes the
possibility that there exists some completely different approach that permits
rapid computation of individual decimal digits of 7r. Also, there do exist formulas
for certain other constants that admit individual digit calculation schemes in
various nonbinary bases (including base 10).

737
14 Pi and Its Friends

1.3 Does Pi Have a Nonbinary BBP Formula?

As mentioned earlier, from the day that the BBP formula (Bailey, Borwein, and
Plouffe) for 7r was discovered, researchers have wondered whether there exist
BBP-type formulas that would permit computation of individual digits in bases
other than powers of 2 (such as base 10). This is not such a far-fetched possibility,
because both base-2 and base-3 formulas are known for 7r2 , as well as for log 2.
However, extensive computations failed to find any nonbinary formulas for 7r.
Recently, it has been shown that there are no nonbinary Machin-type arc-
tangent formulas for 7r. We believe that if there is no nonbinary Machin-type
arctangent formula for 7r, then there is no nonbinary BBP-type formula of any
form for 7r. We summarize this result here. Full details and other related results
can be found in Ref. [16].
We say that the integer b > 1 is not a proper power if it cannot be written as
c for any integers c and m > 1. We will use the notation ordp(z) to denote the
m

p-adic order of the rational Z E Q. In particular, ordp(p) = 1 for prime p, and

ordp(q) = 0 for primes q =1= p and ordp(wz) = ordp(w) + ordp(z). The notation
Vb(P) will mean the order of the integer b in the multiplicative group of the
integers modulo p. We will say that p is a primitive prime factor of bm - 1 if m is
the least integer such that pi (bm -1). Thus, p is a primitive prime factor of bm -1
provided Vb(P) = m. Given the Gaussian integer Z E Q[i] and the rational prime
p = 1 (mod 4), let Op(z) denote ordp(z) - ordj)(z), where p and p are the two
conjugate Gaussian primes dividing p and where we require 0 < ~(p) < R(p) to
make the definition of Op unambiguous. Note that

(1.3.21)

Given K E R, with 2 ::; b E Z and b not a proper power, we say that K has a
Z-linear or Q-linear Machin-type BBP formula to the base b if and only if K can
be written as a Z-linear or Q-linear combination (respectively) of generators of
the form

1)
arctan ( bm =
(i )
<;Slog 1 + bm = bm £; b2 (-l)k
00
mk(2k + 1)' (1.3.22)

We will also use the following theorem, first proved by Bang in 1886:

Theorem 1.3.1: The only cases where bm -1 has no primitive prime factor(s)
are when b = 2, m = 6, and bm - 1 = 32 . 7, and when b = 2N - 1, NEZ,
m = 2, and bm -1 = 2N +1(2 N - 1 -1).

We can now state the main result of this section:

738
 Does Pi Have a N onbinary BBP Formula? 15

Theorem 1.3.2: Given b > 2 and not a proper power, then there is no Q-linear
Machin-type BBP arctangent formula for Jr.

Proof: It follows immediately from the definition of a Q-linear Machin-type

BBP arctangent formula that any such formula has the form

(1.3.23)

where n > 0 E Z, nm E Z, and M 2: 1, nM i- O. This implies that

M
II (b m - itm E eni7r Qx = QX (1.3.24)
m=l

For any b > 2 and not a proper power, we have Mb ::; 2, so it follows from Bang's
theorem that b4M - 1 has a primitive prime factor, say p. Furthermore, p must be
odd, because p = 2 can only be a primitive prime factor of bm - 1 when b is odd
and m = 1. Since p is a primitive prime factor, it does not divide b2M - 1, and
so p must divide b2M + 1 = (b M + i)(bM - i). We cannot have both plb M + i and
plb M - i, as this would give the contradiction that pl(b M + i) - (b M - i) = 2i. It
follows that p == 1 (mod 4) and that p factors as p = pp over Z[i], with exactly
one of p, and p dividing bM - i. Referring to the definition of e, we see that we
must have ep(b M - i) i- O. Furthermore, for any m < M, neither p nor p can
divide bm - i because this would imply p I b4m - 1, 4m < 4M, contradicting the
fact that p is a primitive prime factor of b4M - 1. Thus, for m < M, we have
ep(bm - i) = O. Referring to Eqn. (1.3.23), using Eqn. (1.3.21) and the fact that
n M i- 0, we get the contradiction
M
o i- nMBp(b M - i) = 2:= nmBp(b m - i) = Bp( QX) = O. (1.3.25)
m=l

Thus, our assumption that there was a b-ary Machin-type BBP arctangent for-
mula for Jr must be false. 0

739
2

Normality of Numbers

2.1 Normality: A Stubborn Question

Given a real number a and an integer b > 2, we say that a is b-normalor
normal base b if every sequence of k consecutive digits in the base-b expansion
of a appears with limiting frequency b- k . In other words, if a constant is 10-
normal, then the limiting frequency of "3" (or any other single digit) in its
decimal expansion is 1/10, the limiting frequency of "58" (or any other two-digit
pair) is 1/100, and so forth. We say that a real number a is absolutely normal if
it is b-normal for all integers b > 1 simultaneously.
In spite of these strong conditions, it is well known from measure theory
that the set of absolutely normal real numbers in the unit interval has measure
one or, in other words, that almost all real numbers are absolutely normal [20].
Further, from numerous analyses of computed digits, it appears that all of the
fundamental constants of mathematics are normal to commonly used number
bases. By "fundamental constants," we include 7r, e, v'2, the golden mean T =
(1 + v'5)/2, as well as logn and the Riemann zeta function «(n) for positive
integers n > 1, and many others. For example, it is a reasonable conjecture
that every irrational algebraic number is absolutely normal, because there is no
known example of an irrational algebraic number whose decimal expansion (or
expansion in any other base) appears to have skewed digit-string frequencies.
Decimal values are given for a variety of well-known mathematical constants
in Table 2.1[14, 16]. In addition to the widely recognized constants such as 7r and
e, we have listed Catalan's constant (G), Euler's constant (--r), an evaluation of
the elliptic integral of the first kind K(l/v'2), an evaluation of an elliptic integral
of the second kind E(l/v'2), Feigenbaum's a and 8 constants, Khintchine's con-
stant K and Madelung's constant M 3 • Binary values for some of these constants,
as well as Chaitin's n constant (from the field of computational complexity) [14],
are given in Table 2.2. As you can see, none of the expansions in either table
17

741
18 Normality of Numbers

Figure 2.1: A random walk based on a million digits of 7r.

exhibits any evident "pattern."

The digits of 7r have been studied more than any other single constant, in
part because of the widespread fascination with 7r. Along this line, Yasumasa
Kanada of the University of Tokyo has tabulated the number of occurrences of
the 10 decimal digits "0" through "9" in the first one trillion decimal digits of 7r.
These counts are shown in Table 2.3. For reasons given in Section 1.2, binary (or
hexadecimal) digits of 7r are also of considerable interest. To that end, Kanada
has also tabulated the number of occurrences of the 16 hexadecimal digits "0"
through "F" as they appear in the first one trillion hexadecimal digits. These
counts are shown in Table 2.4. As you can see, both the decimal and hexadecimal
single-digit counts are entirely reasonable.
Some readers may be amused by the PiSearch utility, which is available at
http://pi.nersc . gOY. This online tool permits one to enter one's name (or any
other modest-length alphabetic string, or any modest-length hexadecimal string)
and see if it appears encoded in the first 4 billion binary digits of 7r (Le., the first
1 billion hexadecimal digits of 7r). Along this line, a graphic based on a random
walk of the first million decimal digits of 7r, courtesy of David and Gregory
Chudnovsky, is shown in Figure 2.1. It maps the digit stream to a surface in
ways similar to those used by Mandelbrot and others.
The question of whether 7r, in particular, or, say, J2 is normal or not has in-
trigued mathematicians for centuries. However, in spite of centuries of effort, not
a single one of the fundamental constants of mathematics has ever been proven
to be b-normal for any integer b, much less for all integer bases simultaneously.
This is not for lack of trying-some very good mathematicians have seriously

742
 Normality: A Stubborn Question 19

Table 2.1: Decimal Values of Various Mathematical Constants

Constant Value
V2 1.4142135623730950488 ...
v'3 1.7320508075688772935 ...
v'5 2.2360679774997896964 ...
¢ -_ 0-1
2 0.61803398874989484820 ...
7r 3.1415926535897932385 ...
1/7r 0.31830988618379067153 ...
e 2.7182818284590452354 ...
l/e 0.36787944117144232160 ...
e'" 23.140692632779269007 ...
log2 0.69314718055994530942 ...
log 10 2.3025850929940456840 ...
log2 1O 3.3219280948873623478 ...
log10 2 0.30102999566398119522 ...
log2 3 1.5849625007211561815 ...
((2) 1.6449340668482264365 ...
((3) 1.2020569031595942854 ...
((5) 1.0369277551433699263 ...
G 0.91596559417721901505 ...
I 0.57721566490153286061 ...
r(1/2) = Vi 1.7724538509055160273 ...
r(1/3) 2.6789385347077476337 ...
r(1/4) 3.6256099082219083121 ...
K(l/y'2) 1.8540746773013719184 ...
E(l/ y'2) 1.3506438810476755025 ...
aj 4.669201609102990 ...
8j 2.502907875095892 ...
K 2.6854520010653064453 ...
M3 1.7475645946331821903 ...

743
 20 Normality of Numbers

Table 2.2: Binary Values of Various Mathematical Constants

Constant Value
~ 11.001001000011111101101010100010001000010110100011000010001 .. .
e 10.101101111110000101010001011000101000101011101101001010100 .. .
vf:2 1.0110101000001001111001100110011111110011101111001100100100 .. .
vf:3 1.1011101101100111101011101000010110000100110010101010011100 .. .
log 2 0.1011000101110010000101111111011111010001110011110111100110 .. .
log 3 1.0001100100111110101001111010101011010000001100001010100101 .. .
D 0.0000001000000100001000001000011101110011001001111000100100 .. .

Table 2.3: Statistics for the First Trillion Decimal Digits of ~

Digit Occurrences
0 99999485134
1 99999945664
2 100000480057
3 99999787805
4 100000357857
5 99999671008
6 99999807503
7 99999818723
8 100000791469
9 99999854780
Total 1000000000000

744
 Normality: A Stubborn Question 21

Table 2.4: Statistics for the First Trillion Hexadecimal Digits of 7r

Digit Occurrences
0 62499881108
1 62500212206
2 62499924780
3 62500188844
4 62499807368
5 62500007205
6 62499925426
7 62499878794
8 62500216752
9 62500120671
A 62500266095
B 62499955595
C 62500188610
D 62499613666
E 62499875079
F 62499937801
Total 1000000000000

745
22 Normality of Numbers

investigated this problem, but to no avail. Even much weaker results, such as
"the digit '1' appears with nonzero limiting frequency in the binary expansion
of 1r" and "the digit '5' appears infinitely often in the decimal expansion of J2"
have heretofore remained beyond the reach of modern mathematics.
One result in this area is the following. Let fen) = 2:1~j~nLloglOjJ. Then,
the Champernowne number

L
00

10n:f(n) = 0.12345678910111213141516171819202122232425 ... ,

N=O

(i.e., where the positive integers are concatenated) is known to be lO-normal,

with a similar form and normality result for other bases (the authors are indebted
to Richard Crandall for the formula above). However no one, to the authors'
knowledge, has ever argued that this number is a "natural" or "fundamental"
constant of mathematics.
Consequences of a proof in this area would definitely be interesting. For
starters, such a proof would immediately provide an inexhaustible source of
provably reliable pseudorandom numbers for numerical or scientific experimen-
tation. We also would obtain the mind-boggling but uncontestable consequence
that if 1r, for example, is shown to be 2-normal, then the entire text of the Bible,
the Koran, and the works of William Shakespeare, as well as the full J5IEX source
text for this book, must all be contained somewhere in the binary expansion of
1r, where consecutive blocks of eight bits (two hexadecimal digits) each represent
one ASCII character. Unfortunately, this would not be much help to librarians
or archivists, because every conceivable misprint of each of these books would
also be contained in the binary digits of 1r.

2.2 BBP Constants and Normality

Until recently, the BBP formulas mentioned in Sections 1.2 and 1.3 were as-
signed by some to the realm of "recreational" mathematics-interesting but of
no serious consequence. However, the history of mathematics has seen many in-
stances where results once thought to be idle curiosities were later found to have
significant consequences. This now appears to be the case with the theory of
BBP-type constants.
What we shall establish here, in a nutshell, is that the 16-normality of 1r
(which, of course, is equivalent to the 2-normality of 1r), as well as the normality
of numerous other irrational constants that possess BBP-type formulas, can be
reduced to a certain plausible conjecture in the theory of chaotic sequences. We
do not know at this time what the full implications of this result are. It may be
the first salvo in the resolution of this age-old mathematical question or it may

746
 BBP Constants and Normality 23

be merely a case of reducing one very difficult mathematical problem to another.

However at the least, this result appears to layout a structure-a "road map" of
sorts-for the analysis of this question. Thus, it seems worthy of investigation.
We will also establish that a certain well-defined class of real numbers, un-
countably infinite in number, is indeed b-normal for certain bases b, a result not
dependent on any unproven conjecture. We will also present some results on the
digit densities of algebraic irrationals. All of these recent results are direct de-
scendants of the theory of BBP-type constants that we have presented in Section
1.2 and Ref. [l1J.
The results for BBP-type constants derive from the following observation,
which was given in a recent paper by one of the present authors and Richard
Crandall [4J. Here, we define the norm IIail for a E [0,1) as Iiall = min(a, I-a).
With this definition, Iia - ,811 measures the shortest distance between a and ,8
on the unit circumference circle in the natural way. Suppose a is given by a
BBP-type formula, namely,

p(k)
L bkq(k)
00

a = (2.2.1 )
k=O

°
where p and q are polynomials with integer coefficients, with ~ degp < deg q,
and with q having no zeros at positive-integer arguments. Now, define the recur-
sive sequence (xn) as Xo = 0, and

p(n)}
Xn = { bXn-l + q(n) , (2.2.2)

where the notation {.} denotes fractional part, as earlier. Recall from Section 1.2
that we can write the base-b expansion of a beginning at position n + 1, which
we denote an, as

(2.2.3)

Now, observe that the sequence (xn) generates the first part of this expression. In
particular, given E > 0, assume that n is sufficiently large such that p(k)jq(k) < E

747
24 Normality of Numbers

for all k 2: n. Then, we can write, for all sufficiently large n,

f bn-kp(k)
k=n+l q(k)

L
00

< 10 bn - k
k=n+l
10
b -1 < E.
(2.2.4)

With this argument, we have established the following, which we observe is also
true if the expression p(k)/q(k) is replaced by any more general sequence r(k)
that tends to zero for large k:
Theorem 2.2.1: Let a be a BBP-type constant as defined earlier, with an the
base-b expansion of a beginning at position n + 1, and (xn) the BBP sequence
associated with a, as given in Eqn. (2.2.2). Then, IX n - ani ---t 0 as n ---t 00.
In other words, the BBP sequence associated with a (as given in formula
(2.2.2)) is a close approximation to the sequence (an) of shifted digit expansions,
so much so that we might expect that if one has a property such as equidistri-
bution in the unit interval, then the other does also. We now state a hypothesis,
which is believed to be true, based on experimental evidence, but which is not
yet proven:

Hypothesis A (Bailey-Crandall). Let p(x) and q(x) be polynomials with

integer coefficients, with 0 :::; degp < deg q, and with q having no zeros for
positive-integer arguments. Let b 2: 2 be an integer and let rn = p(n)/q(n).
Then, the sequence x = (xo, Xl, X2, ... ) determined by the iteration Xo = 0 and
Xn = {bXn-l + rn} (2.2.5)
either has a finite attractor or is equidistributed in [0, 1).
The terms "equidistributed" and "finite attractor" are defined in Refs. [4, 11J.
Here, we rely on intuition.
Theorem 2.2.2: Assuming Hypothesis A, any constant a given by a formula
of the type a = LkP(k)/(bkq(k)), with p(k) and q(k) polynomials as given in
Hypothesis A, is either rational or normal base b.
We should note here that even if a particular instance of Hypothesis A could
be established, it would have significant consequences. For example, if it could
be established that the simple iteration given by Xo = 0 and

Xn = {2Xn-l + ~} (2.2.6)

748
 BBP Constants and Normality 25

is equidistributed in [0,1), then it would follow from Theorem 2.2.2 that log 2 is
2-normal. Observe that this sequence is simply the BBP sequence for log 2. In a
similar vein, if it could be established that the iteration given by Xo = 0 and

{ 16 120n2 - 89n + 16 }
(2.2.7)
Xn-l + 512n4 - 1024n3 + 712n 2 - 206n + 21

is equidistributed in [0,1), then it would follow that 7r is 16-normal (and thus

2-normal also). This is the BBP sequence for 7r. The fractional term here is
obtained by combining the four fractions in the BBP formula for 7r, namely Eqn.
(1.2.8), into one fraction and then shifting the index by 1.
Before continuing, we mention a curious phenomenon. Suppose we compute
the binary sequence Yn = l2xnJ, where (xn) is the sequence associated with log 2
as given in Eqn. (2.2.6). In other words, (Yn) is the binary sequence defined as
Yn = 0 if Xn < 1/2 and Yn = 1 if Xn ~ 1/2. Theorem 2.2.1 tells us, in effect, that
(Yn) eventually should agree very well with the true sequence of binary digits of
log 2. In explicit computations, we have found that the sequence (Yn) disagrees
with 15 of the first 200 binary digits of log 2, but in only one position over the
range 5000 to 8000.
As noted earlier, the BBP sequence for 7r is Xo = 0, and Xn as given in
Eqn. (2.2.7). In a similar manner as with log 2, we can compute the hexadecimal
digit-sequence Yn = l16xnJ. In other words, we can divide the unit interval into
16 equal subintervals, labeled (0,1,2,3, ... ,15) and set Yn to be the label of
the subinterval in which Xn lies. When this is done, a remarkable phenomenon
occurs: the sequence (Yn) appears to perfectly (not just approximately) produce
the hexadecimal expansion of 7r. In explicit computations, the first one million
hexadecimal digits generated by this sequence are identical with the first one
million hexadecimal digits of 7r - 3. (This is a fairly difficult computation, as
it must be performed to very high precision and is not easily performed on a
parallel computer system.)

Conjecture. The sequence (l16x nJ), where (xn) is the sequence of iterates de-
fined in Eqn. (2.2.7), precisely generates the hexadecimal expansion of 7r - 3.

Evidently this phenomenon arises from the fact that in the sequence associated
with 7r, the perturbation term r n = p( n) / q( n) is summable, whereas the corre-
sponding expression for log 2, namely l/n, is not summable. In particular, note

749
26 Normality of Numbers

that expression (2.2.4) for a = 1r is

120k2 - 89k + 16
L
00

Ilan- xnll = k=n+l

16j - n (512k 4 _ 1024k3 + 712k2 - 206k + 21)
120(n + 1)2 - 89(n + 1) + 16
16(512(n + 1)4 - 1024(n + 1)3 + 712(n + 1)2 - 206(n + 1) + 21)
~

(2.2.8)

so that

L
00

Ilan- xnll ~ 0.01579 .... (2.2.9)

n=l

For the sake of heuristic argument, let us assume for the moment that the
an are independent, uniformly distributed random variables in (0,1) and let
on = Ilan- xnll. Note that an error (Le., an instance where Xn lies in a different
subinterval of the unit interval than an) can only occur when an is within on of
one of the points (0,1/16,2/16, ... ,15/16). Because Xn < an for all n (where
< is interpreted in the wrapped sense when Xn is slightly less than 1), this
event has probability 16on . Then, the fact that the sum (2.2.9) has a finite value
implies, by the first Borel-Cantelli lemma, that there can only be finitely many
errors [9, p. 153]. The comparable figure for log 2 is infinite, which implies by
the second Borel-Cantelli lemma that discrepancies can be expected to appear
indefinitely, but with decreasing frequency. Further, the small value of the sum
(2.2.9) suggests that it is unlikely that any errors will be observed. If instead of
summing relation (2.2.9) from 1 to infinity, we instead sum from 1,000,001 to
infinity (since we have computationally verified that there are no errors in the
first one million elements), then we obtain 1.465 x 10-8 , which suggests that it
is very unlikely that any errors will ever occur.

2.3 A Class of Provably Normal Constants

We now summarize an intriguing recent development in this arena, due to one
of the present authors and Richard Crandall, which offers additional hope that
the BBP approach may eventually yield the long-sought proof of normality for
1r, log2 and other BBP-type constants [5]. In the previous section, we noted
that the 2-normality of

1
L
00

log 2 (2.3.10)
n2 n
n=l

750
 A Class of Provably Normal Constants 27

rests on the (unproven) conjecture that the iteration given by Xo = 0 and Xn =

{2X n -1 + l/n} is equidistributed in the unit interval. We now consider the class
of constants where the summation defining log 2, namely Eqn. (2.2.6), is taken
over a certain subset of the positive integers:

1 00 1
a b,c - ""'
~ nbn - ""'
~ ckbck , (2.3.11)
n=c k>l k=l
where b > 1 and c > 2 are integers. The simplest instance of this class is

Lk 1
L 1
00

a2,3 n2n = 3k23k (2.3.12)

n=3 >1 k=l
0.0418836808315029850712528986245716824260967584654857 ... 10
= O.OAB8E38F684BDA12F684BF35BA781948BOFCD6E9E06522C3F35B ... 16.

We first prove the following interesting fact:

Theorem 2.3.1: Each of the constants ab,c, where b > 1 and c > 2 are integers,
is transcendental.

Proof. A famous theorem due to Roth, states [23] that if IP/Q - al < l/Q2+E
admits infinitely many rational solutions P/Q (i.e., if a is approximable to degree
2 + E for some E > 0), then a is transcendental. We show here that ab,c is
approximable to degree c - 8. Fix a k and write

ab,c = P/Q + L
n>k
1
cnbcn' (2.3.13)

where gcd(P, Q) = 1 and Q = ckbck . The sum over n gives

(2.3.14)

Now, ck log b + k logc = log Q, so that ck < 10gQ/ 10gb, and we can write
ckc < (log Q / log b)C = Qc(loglogQ-loglogb)/logQ. (2.3.15)

Thus, for any fixed 8 > 0,

1 1
Qc(l+loglogb/log Q-loglogQ/logQ) < Qc-8 (2.3.16)

for all sufficiently large k. D

751
28 Normality of Numbers

Consider now the BBP sequence associated with (};2,3, namely, the sequence
defined by Xo = 0 and

(2.3.17)

where Tn = lin if n = 3k and Tn = 0 otherwise. Successive iterates of this

sequence are:
1 2 1 2 1 2
0, 0, 0, 3' 3' 3' 3' 3' 3'
4 8 7 5 1 248 7 5 1 248 7 5 1 2
9' 9' 9' 9' 9' 9' 9' 9' 9' 9' 9' 9' 9' 9' 9' 9' 9' 9'
13 26 25 23 19 11 22 17 7 14 1 2 4 8 16 5 10 20
27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27'
13 26 25 23 19 11 22 17 7 14 1 2 4 8 16 5 10 20
27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27' 27'
13 26 25 23 19 11 22 17 7 14 1 2 4 8 16 5 10 20
27'27'27'27'27'27'27'27'27'27'27'27'27'27'27'27'27'27'

(2.3.18)

A pattern is clear: the sequence consists of a concatenation of triply-repeated

segments, each consisting of fractions whose denominators are successively higher
powers of 3 and whose numerators range over all integers less than the denom-
inator that are coprime to the. denominator. Indeed, the successive numerators
in each subsequence are given by the simple linear congruential pseudorandom
number generator Zn = 2zn - 1 mod 3i for a fixed j.
What we have observed is that the question of the equidistribution of the
sequence (xn) (and, hence, the question of the normality of (};2,3) reduces to the
behavior of a concatenation of normalized pseudorandom sequences of a type
(namely, linear congruential) that have been studied in mathematical literature
and which, in fact, are widely implemented for use by scientists and engineers.
These observations lead to a rigorous proof of normality for many of these con-
stants. In particular, we obtain the result that each of the constants

(}; b,c -- '"'

L..J
n=ck>l
1
nbn --'"'00
1
L..J ck bck ,
k=l
(2.3.19)

where b > 1, and c is odd and coprime to b, is b-normal. This result was first given
in Ref. [5]. One may present significantly simpler proof, although it requires a
modest excursion into measure theory and ergodic theory.

752
3

Historia Cyclometrica

3.1 1 Kings, 2 Chronicles, and Maimonides

We quote two versions of the famous and controversial biblical text suggesting
that setting Pi equal to three sufficed for the Old Testament:

"Then he [Solomon] made the molten sea: it was round, ten cubits
from brim to brim, and five cubits high. A line of thirty cubits would
encircle it completely." [21, 1 Kings 7:23]

and:

"Then he made the molten sea: it was round, ten cubits from rim
to rim, and five cubits high. A line of thirty cubits would encircle it
completely." [21, 2 Chronicles 4:2]

Several millennia later, the great Rabbi Moses ben Maimon Maimonedes
(1135-1204) is translated by Tzvi Langermann, in "The 'true perplexity' " [15,
p. 165] as clearly asserting the irrationality of Pi.

"You ought to know that the ratio of the diameter of the circle to
its circumference is unknown, nor will it ever be possible to express
it precisely. This is not due to any shortcoming of knowledge on our
part, as the ignorant think. Rather, this matter is unknown due to
its nature, and its discovery will never be attained."

29

753
30 Historia Cyclometrica

3.2 Fran~ois Viete. Book VIII, Chapter XVIII.

Ratio of Regular Polygons, Inscribed in a Circle, to the

Circle
Archimedes squared the parabola by continuously inscribing triangles that are
IN A RATIONAL RATIO. 1 For, having inscribed the greatest possible triangle
in the parabola, he further inscribed triangles in continuous proportion to the
greatest, namely in the constant ratio 1 to 4, infinitely. And so he concluded
that the parabola is four thirds of that greatest triangle. But Antiphon could
not square the circle in that way, since triangles inscribed continuously in a
circle are in an IRRATIONAL RATIO and constantly changing. But will it not be
possible to square the circle, then? For if a figure, composed of triangles that are
constructed successively and infinitely in the ratio 1 to 4 to the given greatest
triangle, is made four thirds of the same, then there is a certain knowledge of the
infinitely many. And it is possible to compose a plane figure of triangles that are
infinitely and continuously inscribed in a circle in A RATIO, albeit IRRATIONALS
and constantly changing. And this composed figure will have a certain ratio
to the greatest inscribed figure. The Euclideans, however, will maintain with
authority that an angle greater than an acute and smaller than an obtuse is
not a right angle. About that I propose the following so that it is possible to
philosophize more freely about the uncertain and changing [ratio] of any regular
polygon, inscribed in a circle, to a polygon with an infinite number of sides, or
a circle if you will.

Proposition 1. If two regular polygons be inscribed in the same circle, and if

furthermore the number of sides or angles of the first one is half of the sides
or angles of the second one, then the first polygon will be to the second as the
apotome of the first side is to the diameter. ("Apotome of a side" is my name
for the cord which subtends the arc of the semicircle that supplements the arc
subtended by the side.)

[Proof of Proposition 1.] Thus, in a circle with centre A, diameter BC, let any
regular polygon be inscribed, whose side is BD. And let the arc BD, bisected at
E, be subtended by BE [and ED]. That is to say, let another polygon be inscribed
whose side is BE. So the number of sides or angles of the first polygon will be
half of the number of sides or angles of the second. Let DC be joined. I say that
the first polygon with side BD is to the second polygon

1 Greek in original is rendered in small capitals.

754
 Book VIII, Chapter XVIII. 31

END OF PAGE 398 2

with side BE or ED as DC to BC. For let DA, ED be joined. The first polygon
consists of as many triangles BAD as there are sides or angles in the first polygon.
And the second polygon consists of as many trapezia BEDA. Therefore the first
polygon is to the second as the triangle BAD is to the trapezium BEDA. But the
trapezium BEDA is divided into two triangles BAD, BED, whose common base
is BD. And triangles whose base is the same are [to each other] as the heights.
Therefore, let the half diameter AE be drawn intersecting BD in F. Thus, since
the arc BD is bisected in E, AE intersects BD at right angles. Therefore AF is
the height of the triangle BDA and FE is the height of the triangle BED. And
so the triangle BAD is to the triangle BED as AF to EF, and componendo the
triangle BAD to the triangles BAD, BED together, that is the trapezium BEDA,
as AF to AE. And the first polygon will be to the second in that ratio, too. But,
AF is to AE or AB as DC is to BC; for, the angle BDC is right, as is the angle
BFA, and therefore AF and DC are parallel. Thus the first polygon, whose side
is BD, is to the second polygon, whose side is BE or ED, as DC to Be. Which
was to be shown.
Proposition 2. If in one and the same circle infinitely many regular polygons
are inscribed, and the number of sides of the first is 1/2 of the sides of the second,
and 1/4 of the number of sides of the third, 1/8 of the fourth, 1/16 of the fifth,
and so on in continuous halvings, then the first polygon will be to the third as
the product of [lit. "the rectangle contained by"] the apotomes of the sides of
the first and the second is to the square on the diameter. To the fourth it will
be as the product of [lit. "the solid made 01"] the apotomes of the sides of the
first, the second, and the third is to the cube on the diameter. To the fifth it
will be as the product of the four lengths [lit. "plano-planum"] of the apotomes
of the sides of the first, the second, the third, and the fourth is to the fourth
power of [lit "quadrato-quadratum on"] the diameter. To the sixth it will be as
the product of the five lengths [lit. ''plano-solidum''] of the apotomes of the sides
of the first, the second, the third, the fourth, and the fifth is to the fifth power of
[lit. "quadrato-cubum on"] the diameter. To the seventh it will be as the product
of the six lengths [lit. "solido-solidum"] of the apotomes of the sides of the first,
the second, the third, the fourth, the fifth, and the sixth is to the sixth power
of [lit. "cubo-cubum on"] the diameter. And so on in continuous progression ad
infinitum. [Having noted Viete's terms for various kinds of products and powers

2These page numbers refer to those of the original printed Latin text of the work reprinted
in this volume.

755
32 Historia Cyclometrica

of geometrical magnitudes we henceforth translate them by modern terminology

for products.]
[Proof.] Let B be the apotome of the side of the first polygon, C of the second,
D of the third, F of the fourth, G of the fifth, H of the sixth. And let the diameter
of the circle be Z. According to the first proposition the first polygon will be to
the second as B to Z; therefore the product of B and the second polygon will be
equal to the product of Z and the first polygon. But the second polygon will be
to the third as C to Z; consequently the product of the second polygon and B,
that is the product of the first polygon and Z, will be to the product of the third
polygon and B as C to Z. Therefore the product of the first polygon and Z squared
equals the product of the third polygon and the product of B,C. Therefore the
first polygon is to the third as the product of B,C to Z squared. And the product
of the third polygon and the product B x C is equal to the product of the first
polygon and Z squared. Again, according to the same previous proposition, as
the third polygon is to the fourth, so is D to Z. And consequently, the product
of the third and the rectangle B times C, that is the product of the first and
Z squared, is to the product of the fourth and the rectangle B times C, as D
to Z. Therefore, the product of the first [polygon] and Z to the third power is
equal to the product of the fourth [polygon] and B times C times D. Therefore
the first polygon is to the fourth as B times C times D to Z cubed. By the same
method of demonstration it [the first polygon] will be to the fifth as B times C
times D times F to Z to the fourth power. To the sixth as B times C times D
times F times G to Z to the fifth power. To the seventh as B times C times D
times F times G times H to Z to the sixth power. And so forth in this constant
progression ad infinitum.

END OF PAGE 399

Corollary. Therefore the square inscribed in the circle will be as the side of this
square to the highest power of the diameter divided by the continuous product of
the apotomes of the sides of the octagon, the sixteen-gon, the polygon with 32
sides, with 64 sides, with 128 sides, with 256 sides, and of all the others in the
half ratio of angles and sides.
[Proof.] For, let the square be the first polygon inscribed in the circle; then
the octagon will be the second, the sixteen-gon the third, the thirty-two-gon the
fourth, and so on in continuous order. Thus the square inscribed in the circle
will have the same ratio to the extreme polygon~with infinitely many sides~as
the product made by the apotomes of the sides of the square, the octagon, the
sixteen-gon, and all the others in the half ratio ad infinitum has to the highest
power of the diameter. And by a common division [the square inscribed in the

756
 Book VIII, Chapter XVIII. 33

circle will have the same ratio to the extreme polygon] as the apotome of the side
of the square has to the highest power of the diameter divided by the product of
the apotomes of the sides of the octagon, sixteen-gon, and the others in double
ratio ad infinitum. But the apotome of the side of the square inscribed in a circle
is the side itself, and the polygon with infinitely many sides is the circle itself.
Let the circle's diameter be 2, and the side of the inscribed square be J2. The
apotome ofthe 8-gon isJ2 + J2. The apotome of the 16-gon is V2 + J2 + J2.
J
The apotome of the 32-gon is 2 + V 2 + J2 + J2. The apotome of the 64-gon

is V+ V+ ,,/2 +
2 2 ../2 + ,/2. And so on in that. pwgrossion.
But then, let the diameter be 1 and the [area of the] circle N. [Viete writes,
in the manner of Diophantus "IN".] 1/2 [the area of the inscribed square] will
be to N as.JI/2 to the unit divided by

Vl/2 + .JI/2, times J 1/2 + Vl/2 + .JI/2,

times VI/2 + VI/2+ )1/2+ Vfl2,

times 1/2 + VI/2+ VI/2+ )1/2+ Vfl2,

times 1/2 + 1/2 + VI/2 + VI/2 + )1+ "/1]2.

Let the diameter be X and the circle (equal to) the plane area A. The half
square on X will be to the area A as the side of the half square on X to the
greatest power of X divided by the product of the binomial square root [i.e., a
square root of the sum of two terms] of (1/2X 2 the square root of 1/2X4 ) times
the binomial square root of (1/2X 2 + the binomial square root of (1/2X 4 + the
square root of 1/2X 8 ))) times the binomial square root of (1/2X 2 + the binomial
square root of (1/2X 4 + the binomial square root of (1/2X 8 + the square root of
1/2X 16 ))) ... times ... etc. ad infinitum while observing this uniform method.

Defense Against the New Cyclometry or ANTI-AXE

Those who have tried to set the circle equal to thirty-six segments of the hexagon
by means of their figures which they call hatchets, unluckily are wasting their
efforts. For how can determined results be obtained from splitting completely un-

757
34 Historia Cyclometrica

determined magnitudes? If they add or subtract equals, if they divide or multiply

by equals, if they invert, permute and at last increase or decrease by arbitrary
degrees of proportion, they will not advance one inch in their research, but will
make the mistake that logicians call BEGGING THE QUESTION, and Diophan-
tines [call] NON-QUANTITIES. Or they delude themselves by false calculations,
though they could have foreseen it if any light from the true analytic doctrine had
enlightened them. Others, however, who are terrified by these ONE-EDGED dou-
ble bladed weapons and already are lamenting that Archimedes is wounded by
them, are quite unfit for war. But Archimedes lives, nor do THE FALSE WRITINGS
ABOUT THE TRUTH, THE FALSE RECKONINGS, the Non-proofs, the magnificent
words, shock him. But in order that they may live more secure, I bring them
"Shields decorated with clouds and weapons untouched by slaughter," but HARD
TO AXE, wherewith they can fortify themselves to begin with, ready to reinforce
them with means FOR WAR if the enemies' impudence be too fierce.
Proposition 1. The circumference of a dodecagon inscribed in a circle has a
ratio to the diameter (that is) less than triple plus one-eighth.
With centre A and an arbitrary radius AB let the circle BCD be described,
in which let BC be taken as arc of the hexagon [i.e., an arc equal to 1/6 of the
circumference], which is bisected at D, and let DB be subtended. Thus DB is
the side of the dodecagon; and if it be extended twelve times to E, DE will be
equal to the circumference of the dodecagon inscribed in the circle BDC. Let
the diameter DF be drawn. I say that DE to DF has a ratio less than triple plus
one-eighth.
For, let BC and BA be joined, and let the diameter DF intersect BC at G.
Therefore it will bisect it at right angles. And let the triangle DER be constructed
similar to the triangle DBG.
Since the line BC is subtended under an arc of the hexagon, BA or DA is
equal to BC. Therefore, if AC or BC are composed of eight (equal) parts, BG is
four of the same (parts). So the square on AG is [64 - 16] = 48, and so AG is
greater than 6 12/13 [since 48 = 7(7 - 1/7), and the arithmetic mean of the two
factors is 7 - 1/14. Since the geometric mean of the two factors (which is the
square root of their product) is less than the arithmetic mean v'48 < 6 13/14.
A good guess therefore is that v'48 > 6 12/13, which is easily verified.]
Therefore DG is less than 1 1/13. And since DE is composed of twelve times
DB, ER will also be twelve times

END OF PAGE 437

BG, and DR twelve times DG. Therefore ER is 48 of the same parts. And DR
will be less than 13, namely less than 12 12/13. The square on the side 48 is
2304, and on 13 it is 169. Those two squares added make 2473, not quite 2500,

758
 Book VIII, Chapter XVIII. 35

the square on the side 50. Therefore the line DE, whose square is equal to the
sum of the squares on ER and DR, is less than 50. And the ratio of 50 to 16 is
triple and one-eighth exactly. Therefore the ratio of DE to DF is less than triple
and one-eighth. Which was to be proved.
Arithmetic is absolutely as much science as geometry [isJ. Rational magni-
tudes are conveniently designated by rational numbers, and irrational [magni-
tudesJ by irrational [numbersJ. If someone measures magnitudes with numbers
and by his calculation get them different from what they really are, it is not the
reckoning's fault but the reckoner's.
Rather, says Proclus, ARITHMETIC IS MORE EXACT THAN GEOMETRY. To
an accurate calculator, if the diameter is set to one unit, the circumference of
the inscribed dodecagon will be the side of the binomial [i.e., square root of the
differenceJ 72 - v'3888. Whoever declares any other result, will be mistaken,
either the geometer in his measurements or the calculator in his numbers.
That the ratio of the circumference of the circle to its diameter is greater than
triple and one-eighth as well as less than triple and one-seventh has not been
doubted up till now by the school of mathematicians, for Archimedes proved
that convincingly. So one should not, by a false calculation, have induced a
MANIFEST ABSURDITY, that a straight line is longer than the circular arc ter-
minating at the same endpoints, since Archimedes assumes the contrary FROM
THE COMMON NOTION and Eutocius demonstrates the same, defining generally
that OF ALL LINES HAVING THE SAME EXTREMITIES, THE STRAIGHT LINE IS
THE SHORTEST.

Proposition 2. If the half diameter of the circle be divided by the quadratrix,

the part from the centre to the quadratrix is greater than the mean proportional
between the half diameter and two fifths of the half diameter.
Let ABC be a quadrant of a circle, and BD the quadratrix; let AE be taken
equal to two fifths of the half diameter AB or AC; and let AF be made the mean
proportional of AE, AC. I say that AD is greater than AF. For, from what was
proved by Pappus about the quadratrix, the half diameter AB or

END OF PAGE 438

AC is the mean proportional of the arc BC and AD. Let AB be 7 parts; then
the arc BC, which is a quarter of the perimeter, will be less than 11, for the
diameter is 14, and the perimeter is less than 44. But then, let AB be 35 parts;
then the arc BC will be less than 55. But the [area] contained by AD and [the
arcJ BC is equal to the square on AB. Therefore AD is greater than 22 [+J 3/11.
And of those units of which AB, that is AC, is 35, AE is 14, but AF is less than
22 [+J 3/22. [See bracketed explanation of a similar claim near end of p. 437.J
Therefore AD is greater than AF. Which was to be proved.

759
36 Historia Cyclometrica

Therefore, if from the diameter AB be subtracted the line AG equal to AF,

and if the parallelogram GHDA be completed, it will be an oblong rectangle, not
a square. And when the square BC is completed, the diagonal BK will not go
through H, but through some point I further from D. It was important to notice
this to avoid a false diagram.
Proposition 3. The square on the circumference of the circle is less than ten
times the square on the diameter.
Let the diameter be 7, the square on the diameter will be 49, and ten times
that 490. But the circumference of the circle will be less than 22, and conse-
quently its square less than 484. The Arabs' opinion that "the square on the
circumference of the circle is equal to ten times the square on the diameter"
has since long been rejected. He is not to be tolerated who CONTRADICTORILY
proposes what Archimedes proves to be unprovable.
Proposition 4. The circle has a greater ratio to the hexagon inscribed in it than
six to five.
Let the hexagon BCDEFG be inscribed in the circle with centre A. I say
that the circle with centre A has a greater ratio to the hexagon BCDEFG than
six to five. When AB, AC BC are joined, let the perpendicular AZ fall on BC.
Then, since in triangle ABC the legs AB, AC are equal, the base is bisected in
Z, and BZ and ZC are equal. But the triangle ABC is equilateral, for its legs
are both half diameters, and the base - since it is the side of the hexagon -
is also equal to the half diameter. Now, if the half diameter BA or AC be set to
30 [units], BZ or ZC becomes 15, and AZ becomes less than 26, whose square
is 676. But the difference between the squares [on] AB, AZ is only 675. Further,
the rectangle contained by BZ, ZA is equal to the triangle BAC. So, let 15 be
multiplied by 26, they become 390. Therefore, of such units of which the square
[on] AB is 900, of the same [units] the triangle ABC will be less than 390, or -
if all be divided by 30 - if the square AB is 30, the triangle ABC will be less
than 13. Let AD, AE, AF, AG be joined; the hexagon BCDEFG consists of six
triangles equal to BAC. Therefore, of such [units] of which the square [on] AB
becomes 30, of the same [units] the hexagon will be less than 78. Or, of such
units of which the square [on] AB becomes five, of the same [units] the hexagon
will be less than thirteen.

END OF PAGE 439

But as the perimeter of the circle is to the diameter, so is the rectangle made
by the perimeter of the circle and a quarter of the diameter to the area made
by the diameter and a quarter of the diameter. But the rectangle made by the
perimeter of the circle and a quarter of the diameter is equal to the circle. And
the area made by the diameter and a quarter of the diameter is the square on

760
 Book VIII, Chapter XVIII. 37

the half diameter. Therefore, as the perimeter is to the diameter, so is the circle
to the square on the half diameter. Now, of such units as the diameter is 1, the
perimeter is greater than 3[+]10/71, and so evidently greater than 3[+]10/8 or
3[+]1/8. And of such units as the square on the diameter is 5 (as above) the circle
is greater than 15[+]5/8. But the hexagon was less than 13 of the same units.
Therefore the circle will have to the hexagon inscribed in it a greater ratio than
15[+]5/8 to 13, that is, as 125 to 104, or as [750 to 624, that is] 6 to 4[+]124/125,
and so evidently greater than six to five. Which was to be proved.
Therefore, those who set the circle equal to the hexagon and a fifth part
of the hexagon do not square it PROPERLY, since it is greater according to the
limits set by Archimedes FROM HIS OWN PRINCIPLES. Our schools are Platonic:
Oh splendid professors; therefore, do not fight against the geometric principles.
And just as these AXE-SWINGERS have truncated the circle, they may now -
as a kind of compensation for the damage done -themselves be shortened at
the pointed end of their swallow tail.
Proposition 5. Thirty-six segments of the hexagon are greater than the circle.
For, since the circle has a greater ratio to the hexagon inscribed in it than
six to five, or as 1 to 5/6, therefore the difference between the circle and the
hexagon will be greater than one-sixth of the circle. But the circle differs from
the hexagon by six segments of the hexagon. Thus six segments of the hexagon
are greater than one-sixth of the circle, and so thirty-six segments will be greater
than one, that is: the circle. What was to be proved.
Proposition 6. Any segment of the circle is greater than the sixth of the similar
segment similarly drawn in a circle whose radius is equal to the base of the
segment set out.
In the circle BDC described around the centre A let a cord be subtended
under an arbitrary arc BD, and let a straight line BE touch the circle, and with
B as centre and BD as radius let another circle DEF be drawn.
Then the arc ED will be similar to half of the arc BD. And then, let the arc
DF be taken double of DE, and let BF and AD be joined. Thus the sectors BAD
and FBD will be similar. I say that the segment of the circle BDC contained by
the line BD and the arc under which it is suspended, is greater than one-sixth
of the sector FBD.

END OF PAGE 440

For, let a spiral line whose origin is B be drawn, crossing [the circle] at D so
that BD is the same part of the first revolution BEZ [the point Z is not labeled
in the diagram] as the angle EBD is offour right angles. Thus the area contained
by the straight line BD and the spiral is the third part of the sector EBD, for

761
38 Historia Cyclometrica

that has Pappus proved after Archimedes in proposition xxii in Book IV of the
Mathematical Collection. Therefore the [sector] FBD will be six times the same
area, for the sector FBD is double of EBD by construction. The spiral does not
coincide with the circle, for that would be absurd, nor does the spiral in its
course get out of the circle before reaching point D. For, let the angle EBD be
divided arbitrarily by the straight line BGH, which intercepts the spiral in G
and the circumference in H. Then the line BD will be to the line BG as the angle
EBD to the angle EBG; that is, as the arc BD to the arc BH, according to the
conditions of spirals. But the ratio of the arc BD to the arc BH is greater than
the ratio of the cord BD to the cord BH. For greater arcs have to lesser arcs a
greater ratio than the straight lines to the straight lines that subtend those same
arcs. Therefore the line BH is greater than BG, and the same will happen to any
straight lines that divide the angle EBD. Therefore the spiral will proceed under
the arc BD and will leave some area between itself and the arc. By that area
the segment of the circle contained between the line BD and the circumference
exceeds the area which is enclosed between the same line and the spiral, and
which is proved equal to one-sixth of the sector FBD. Therefore that segment
will be greater than one-sixth of the sector FBD. Which was to be proved.
Corollary. Andfrom this it is also obvious that thirty-six segments of the hexagon
are greater than the circle.
For when BD happens to be a segment of the hexagon, the sectors FBD and
BAD will be equal since their circles' half diameters BD [and] AD will be equal.
Thus six segments of the hexagon will be greater than the sector BAD, and
therefore thirty-six segments greater than six sectors, that is, the whole circle.
It is possible to propose a no less general theorem to be proved by parabolas, or
rather by the same geometrical methods through which the parabola is squared:
Any segment of the circle is greater than four-thirds of the isosceles triangle
inscribed in the segment with the same base. By that, it will soon appear that
the ratio of thirty-six segments of the hexagon to the circle is greater than 48
to 47. But to an even more accurate calculator only thirty-four segments and an
area little greater than two-thirds but less than three-quarters of a segment can
be found to complete the circle. It is possible in this way to make known to the
eyes that the excess is greater than one-third of a twelfth.
Proposition 7. In a given circle to cut off the thirty-sixth part of the circle itself
from a segment of the hexagon.
Let a circle be given with centre A, diameter BC and a segment of the
hexagon BD. It is required, in the given circle BDC from the segment of the
hexagon contained by the cord BD and the arc under which it is suspended,
to cut off the thirty-sixth part of the circle itself. Let the straight line BE be
tangent to the circle, and let a spiral line be described, with origin B and passage

762
 Book VIII, Chapter XVIII. 39

through D, so that BD is the same part of the first revolution BEZ as the angle
EBD is of four right angles, and with centre B and radius BD let the circle DE
be described. Then the third part of the sector EBD is the area contained by
the line BD and the spiral. But BD is equal to the half diameter BA, for BD is
the side of the hexagon by hypothesis, and the angle EBD is one-third of a right
angle because the size of arc BD is two-thirds of a right angle. Thus the sector
EBD is a twelfth of the circle, and consequently the spiral area BD is a third of
the twelfth, that is a thirty-sixth part of the circle. The spiral will pass through
the segment and will not meet the circle, (nor will it cut off a circular area

END OF PAGE 441

on its way from B) until it reaches the point D, as has been proved. Thus, in the
given circle BDC the thirty-sixth part of the circle itself has been cut off from
the hexagon's segment BD. Which was to be done.
And by this sevenfold shield let the blade of the soft and blunt axe have been
weakened enough.
If some should want a sketch of THE FIGHT OF THE AXE itself, lest they miss
it let them study it in a few short pages.

ANALYSIS OF THE CIRCLE, according to the AXE-SWINGERS.

1. The circle consists of six scalpels of the hexagon.

2. The scalpel of the hexagon consists of [i.e., is equal to] the segment of the
hexagon and the triangle of the hexagon, or the (so-called) "major."

3. The triangle of the hexagon consists of a segment of the hexagon and a

hatchet.

4. The hatchet consists of two segments of the hexagon and the complement
of the hatchet.

5. The complement of the hatchet consists of one segment of the hexagon and
the remainder of a segment.

6. But on the other hand, the complement of the hatchet consists of the minor
triangle and the remainder of the minor triangle. The minor triangle is [by
definition] the fifth part of the hexagon, the so-called "major."

763
40 Historia Cyclometrica

END OF PAGE 442

TWO TRUE LEMMAS, First: Ten minor triangles are equal to six segments
of the hexagon and two complements of the hatchet. For, since ["Quorum" in text
should be "Quoniam," a common misreading] the hexagon's triangle consists of
a segment and a hatchet, and the hatchet of two segments and a complement,
therefore two triangles of the hexagon consist of six segments and two comple-
ments. But two triangles of the hexagon, or the major, are equal to ten minor
[triangles] (by definition). Therefore ten minor triangles will be equal to six seg-
ments and two complements. What was to be proved.
Second: Forty minor triangles are equal to the triangle and two complements of
the hatchet.
For, since the circle equals six scalpels of the hexagon, but six scalpels are
equal to six triangles of the hexagon and six segments, and further six triangles
of the hexagon make thirty minor triangles, therefore the circle equals thirty
minor triangles and six segments. Let two complements of the hatchet be added
to both sides.
Thus the circle plus two complements of the hatchet will be equal to thirty
minor triangles and six segments and two complements. But six segments and
two complements make ten minor triangles, according to the previous lemma.
Therefore forty minor triangles are equal to six segments of the hexagon and two
complements of the hatchet. Which was to be proven.
FALLACY: I say that the minor triangle is equal to its remainder. By way
of proof: Since the circle plus two complements of the hatchet (the latter being
equal to two minor triangles plus two remainders of the minor triangle) is equal to
thirty-six minor triangles and another four, let from both sides [of the equation]
be taken away two minor triangles.
When from this side they are subtracted from two complements, two remain-
ders of the [minor] triangle are left. When from that side they are subtracted
from four triangles, two triangles are left. Therefore two remainders equal two
triangles.
Refutation of the FAULTINESS OF LOGIC. Equals must be subtracted from
equal wholes, not from equal parts, to make the remainders equal. To subtract
something from a part of equals is to assume that the remainder[s] of the whole[s]
are equal, as here the circle is set equal to thirty-six minor triangles. But that
is flatly denied and totally false. To grant oneself what should be proved looks
as if one wants to show how to make an error.
FOR ANOTHER FALLACY, TWO TRUE LEMMAS. First: Twenty-
four quarters of the hexagon's triangle plus six segments are equal to twenty-four
segments and six complements of the hatchet.

764
 Book VIII, Chapter XVIII. 41

For, since the triangle of the hexagon consists of three segments and a comple-
ment of the hatchet, but the circle is composed of six triangles and six segments,
therefore twenty-four segments and six complements are equal to the circle.
And since four quarters make one whole, also twenty-four quarters of the
hexagon's triangle plus six segments are equal to the circle. But things that are
equal to one [and the same] are equal to one another. Therefore twenty-four
quarters of the hexagon's triangle plus six segments are equal to twenty-four
segments and six complements of the hatchet. Which was to be proved.

END OF PAGE 443

Second. If there are three unequal magnitudes, of which the middle taken twenty-
four times and added to the least taken six times produces the same magnitude as
the least taken twenty-four times and added to the greatest taken six times, then
the difference between four times the middle and thrice the least will be equal
to the greatest. For, let B be the least, D the middle, A the greatest one. By
hypothesis, then, 6 B plus 24 D = 6 A plus 24 B. Let 24 B be subtracted from
both sides. Then 24 D minus 18 B = 6 A. If all be divided by 6, 4 D minus 3 B
= A. That is exactly what was stated.
UNPROVED THEOREM. There are three unequal plane figures that are commen-
surable between them; the smallest is the segment of the hexagon; the middle is
a quarter of the triangle of the hexagon; the greatest is the complement of the
hatchet of the hexagon. Inequality and the degree of inequality could be proved,
but nobody will ever prove commensurability and incommensurability unless he
first has compared the hexagon's triangle or another rectilineal figure with the
circle. But that comparison is unknown hitherto, and IF IT IS FEASIBLE, IT IS
IN THE LAP OF THE GODS.
PSEUDO-PORISM. Such parts of which a quarter of the hexagon's triangle will
be five, of the same parts the segment must necessarily be four.
BY WAY OF PROOF. For, let B be a segment of the hexagon, and D a quarter
of the hexagon's triangle, and Z the complement ofthe hatchet. Now, since there
are three unequal magnitudes, of which B is the least, D the middle, and Z the
greatest, [therefore] they will have to one another [a ratio] as a number to a
number. Suppose that D is five parts, and that B is three or four parts, and no
more. Let it be, if it is possible, three parts; according to the first and second
lemma, Z will be eleven. So the complement will consist of two segments and a
twelfth of a segment, but that contradicts our senses. Therefore B is four.
Refutation of the FAULTINESS OF LOGIC. If the magnitude D is five parts, it
can be proved that B is greater than three parts. But will B therefore be four,
even admitted-what is unknown-that B is to D as a number to a number?
That conclusion is totally invalid. For, what if B is said to be four parts plus

765
42 Historia Cyclometrica

some rational fraction? Is not four and a half to five as a number to a number,
that is, as 9 to 10? Nobody but an NON-LOGICIAN OR NON-GEOMETER will
deny that. In fact, if D is set to 11 parts, B becomes a bit greater than 9, and Z
a little less than 17, according to Archimedes' limits. However, from these two
FALLACIES were spread the other AXE-FIGHTERS' ERRORS CONCERNING THE
AREA OF THE CIRCLE AND THE SURFACE OF THE SPHERE.

END OF THE FIGHT AGAINST THE AXE-SWINGERS.

END OF PAGE 444

The second FIGHT AGAINST THE AXE-SWINGERS. An outline, FROM THE

ADDENDUM.
In a circle with centre A let an arc of the hexagon BCD be taken, and let
AB, AD, BD be joined. Further, from AB let a line segment be cut off whose
square is to the square on AB as one to five. Let it be BE, and through E let a
parallel to AD be drawn, intersecting BD in F. Then the triangle BEF will be
equiangular with BAD and one-fifth of it.
Lemma 1. True. Thirty-seven triangles BEF are greater than the circle BCD.
For, in the comments to the Canon Mathematicus, the circle is shown to have
a ratio to the square on the half diameter that is very close to 31,415,926,536
to 10,000,000,000. If, therefore, the side AB, that is the half diameter, is set to
100,000, the height of the equilateral triangle ABD is 86, 602[+J54, 038/100, 000.
Therefore:
The triangle ABD becomes 4,330,127,019. The triangle BEF becomes
866,025,404. Thirty-seven triangles BEF 32,042,939,948 [the circleJ 31,415,926,536
[the trianglesJ exceed the circle by 617,013,412.
Lemma 2. True. The circle BCD is not greater than thirty-six segments BCDF.
Even more, the circle BCD is far less than thirty-six segments BCDF. For
the sector BAD is the sixth part of the whole circle. Therefore
The circle is 31,415,926,536. The sector BAD is 5,235,987,756. Let the triangle
ABD be subtracted from it 4,330,127,019. There remains the hexagon sector or
the mixtiline space BCDF 905,860,737. But three dozens of such segments are
32,610,986,532 exceeding the circle by 1,195,059,996.

END OF PAGE 445

PSEUDO-PORISM. Consequently thirty-seven triangles BEF are greater than

thirty-six segments BCDF. Refutation of the false conclusion. In grammar, to
give to the ships the south winds, and to give the ships to the south winds,

766
 Huygens, Problem IV, Proposition XX 43

mean the same thing. But in geometry, it is one thing to assume that the circle
BCD is not greater than thirty-six segments BCDF and another to assume that
thirty-six segments are not greater than the circle BCD. The first is true, the
second is false. Then, when I argue in this way:
Thirty-seven triangles are greater than the circle, but thirty-six segments
are not greater than the circle, therefore thirty-seven triangles are greater than
thirty-six segments,
I conclude syllogistically, but wrongly, because the assumption is false. But
I sin against the laws of logic when I establish the syllogism in this formula:
The circle is smaller than thirty-seven triangles. The circle is not greater than
thirty-six segments. Therefore thirty-seven triangles are greater than thirty-six
segments.
But this is AN ERROR OF THE EYES, not of the INTELLECT. For, when at
the beginning the Circle-measurers had proposed that the circle is not greater
than thirty-six segments of the hexagon, they read it in the light of subsequent
events as "not less than," and thus extracted the false corollary.

END

3.3 Christian Huygens.

Problem IV, Proposition XX
Determining the Magnitude of the Circle
To find the ratio between the circumference and the diameter; and, given chords
in a given circle, to find the lengths of the arcs that they sub tend.
Consider a circle of center D, with CB as a diameter, and let AB be an arc
one-sixth of the circumference, for which we draw the chord AB and the sine
AM. If we suppose then that the half-diameter DB is 100,000 parts, the chord
BA will contain the same number. But AM will be made of 86,603 parts and not
one less (which means that if we should take away one part or one unit of the
86,603 we would have less than what it should be), since it is half of the side of
the equilateral triangle inscribed in the circle.
From there, the excess of AB over AM becomes 13,397, less than the true
value. One third of it is 4,465~, which, added to the 100,000 of AB, gives
104,465~, which is less than arc AB. And this is a first lower limit; in the fol-
lowing, we will find another one, closer to the real value. But first we must also
find an upper limit, according to the same theorem.
Then a fourth proportional is to be found for three numbers. The first equals
the double parts of AB and the triple of AM. It will then be 459,809, less than

767
44 Historia Cyclometrica

the real value (since we also have to make sure that this number here is less; and
in the same way with the other, as we shall specify) the second is equal to the
quadruple of AB and AM, which is 486,603, more than the real value. And the
third is one-third of the excess of AB over AM, 4,466, more than the real value
which, added to AB or 100,000 gives 104,727, larger than the number of parts
that arc AB, a sixth of the periphery, contains [according to the above]. Then
we already found the length of arc AB within an upper and lower limit, of which
two the last is far closer to the real value because the number 104,719 is closer
to the real value.
But through these two, we will obtain another lower limit, more exact than
the first one, using the following precept, which results from a more precise
examination of the center of gravity.

END OF PAGE 384

Add four-thirds of the difference of the above limits to the double of the chord
and the triple of the sine, and the same ratio as between the line made this way
and three and one-third, or 1~ times the sum of the sine and the chord, also
exists between the excess of the chord over the sine and another line. This last
one added to the sine will be a line smaller than the arc.
The lower limit was 104,465~; the upper one is 104,727; their difference is
261~. Again we need to find a fourth proportional to three numbers. The first
one is the double of the parts of AB increased by the triple of AM and by
four-thirds of the difference of the limits. We find 460,158, larger than the real
value. The second is the 1~ of AB and AM taken together, 622,008, smaller than
the real value. Last the third is the excess of AB over AM, 13,397, smaller
than the real value. The fourth proportional to these numbers is 18,109,
smaller than the real value.
Then if we add this to the number of parts of AM, 86,602~, less than the
real value, we get 104, 711~, less than arc AB. Thus the sextuple of these parts,
628,269, will be less than the whole circumference. But because 104,727 of these
parts were found larger than arc AB, their sextuple will be larger than the
circumference. Thus the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is smaller
than that of 628,362 to 200,000 and larger than that of 628,268 to 200,000,
or smaller than that of 314,181 [to 100,000] and larger than that of 314,135
to 100,000. From that, the ratio is certainly smaller than 3~ and larger than
3~~. From there also is refuted Longomontanus's mistake, who wrote that the
periphery is larger than 314,185 parts, when the radius contains 100,000.
Let us suppose that arc AB is ~ of the circumference; then AM, half of the
side of the square inscribed in the circle, will measure 7,071,068 parts, and not
one less, of which the radius DB measures 10,000,000. On the other hand, AB,

768
 Huygens, Problem IV, Proposition XX 45

side of the octagon, measures 7,653,668 parts and not one more. Through this
data, we will find, in the same manner as above, as first lower limit of the length
of arc AB 7,847,868. Then as upper limit 7,854,066. And from these two, again,
a more precise lower limit 7,853,885. This results in the ratio of the periphery
to the diameter being less than 31,416~, and more than 31,415, to 10,000.
And since the difference between the upper limit 7,854,066 and the real length
of the arc

END OF PAGE 385

is less than 85 parts (indeed, arc AB, according to what we proved above is larger
than 7,853,981), and since 85 parts are less than two seconds, which is 1 29~ 000
of the circumference, because the whole circumference has more than 60,000,000
parts, it is obvious that, if we try to find the angles of a right triangle using
the given sides, the same way as we did for the upper limit above, the error can
never be more than two seconds; even if the sides of the right angle are equal,
as they were here in triangle DAM.
But if the ratio of side DM to MA is such that the angle ADM does not
exceed a quarter of a right angle, the error will not be more than a third scruple.
For, taking arc AB equal to 110 of the circumference, AM will be half of the
side of the equilateral octagon inscribed in the circle, and equal to 382,683,433
parts and not more; but, AB will be the side of the sixteen-gon and then will
contain 390,180,644 parts, and not one more, with the radius DB containing
1,000,000,000 parts. In this way is found a first lower limit, of the length of
arc AB, of 392,679,714 parts. And the upper limit is 392,699,148. And from
there again a lower limit of 392,699,010. But, what was proved above results in
arc AB, 110 of the circumference, being larger than 392,699,081 parts, which the
upper limit exceeds by 67 parts. But these are less than a third scruple, which
is 77 tlo 000 of the whole circumference, since the circumference is larger than
6,000,000,000.
Then, out of these new limits just found, the ratio of the circumference to the
diameter will come smaller than 314,593~ to 1,000,000 but larger than 314,592
to 1,000,000.
And if we take an arc AB equal to lo of the circumference, which is
six parts of the total 360, AM will be half of the side of the (inscribed)
30-gon, made of 10,452,846,326,766 parts, and not one less, when the ra-
dius has 100,000,000,000,000. And AB is the side of the (inscribed) 60-gon,
10,467,191,248,588 parts and not one more. Through this data is found arc
AB, according to the first lower limit, 10,471,972,889,195. Then the upper limit
10,471,975,512,584. And from there the other lower limit, 10,471,975,511,302.
This results in the ratio of the periphery to the diameter being less than

769
46 Historia Cyclometrica

END OF PAGE 386

31,415,926,538 to 10,000,000,000, but larger than 31,415,926,533 to

10,000,000,000.
If we had to find these limits through adding the sides of the inscribed and
circumscribed polygons, we would have to go up to 400,000 sides. Because with
the 60 angles inscribed and circumscribed polygons, we only prove that the ratio
of the periphery to the diameter is less than 3,145 to 1,000, and larger than
3,140. Thus, the number of exact digits through this calculation seems to be
three times higher, and even more. But if someone tries it, he will see that the
same always happens with the following polygons [as well]; we know why but it
would take a long explanation.
On the other hand, I believe it is clear enough how, for any other inscribed
polygons, it is possible to find, through the above methods, the length of the
arcs subtended. Because, if they are larger than the side of the inscribed square,
we will have to find the length of the remaining arc on the half circumference,
the chord of which is then also given. But we must also know how to find the
chords of the half-arcs, when the chord of the full arc is given. And this way,
if we want to use bisections, we will be able to find without any difficulty for
any chord the length of its are, as close as we want. This is useful for examining
tables of sines, and even for their composition; because, knowing the chord of a
given are, we can determine with sufficient accuracy the length of the arc that
is slightly larger or smaller.

770
4

Demotica Cyclometrica

4.1 Irving Kaplansky's "A Song about Pi"

The distinguished mathematician Irving Kaplansky (1917- ) is also a fine mu-
sician, whose daughter Lucy is an accomplished folk singer. In February 1973,
Kaplansky composed a popular "A Song about Pi" of Type 2 in the sense he
describes in more detail in More Mathematical People [1, pp.121-122]. He found
that out of 100 popular songs he surveyed, 70 were of Type 1 (a simple "AABA"
refrain), 20 were of the more complex Type 2, and ten were irregular. Half of
the songs in Woody Allen films are of Type 2.
Kaplansky wrote the Pi song to illustrate the superiority of Type 2: "the idea
being that you could take such unpromising material as the first fourteen digits
of pi and make a passable song out of it if you used Type 2." We reproduce his
score here in Figures 4.1 to 4.5.

4.2 Ludolph van Ceulen's Tombstone

Ludolph van Ceulen (1540-1610) was the last to compute 7r seriously using
Archimedes' method. He computed 39 digits with 35 correct in 1610 (published
posthumously in 1615). He was sufficiently proud of this accomplishment that he
had the number inscribed on his tombstone in Leiden. The tombstone vanished
long ago although the number was and is still called Ludolph's number in parts of
Europe. The tombstone was redesigned and rebuilt from surviving descriptions
and sculpted by Cornelia Bakkum as reconsecrated July 5, 2000. (See also Ref.
[8] for a mathematical paper written for the occasion.)

47

771
48 Demotica Cyclometrica

A sotVC~ 1480tJr PI

M~ ~ ~ k-t"- ...~
(vJ~ cvn ~ ~ .A./..(
~WJ..o~
~ ;-<- :t. 1 ~)

Figure 4.1: Kaplansky's "A Song about Pi," page 1

772
 Some Amus ing Addit ions 49

Figure 4.2: "A Song about Pi," page 2

773
 50 Demo tica Cyclo metri ca
....
(3 )

C; y q --r
k
.......
5 3 ... I

... ~ •
11
:#- .
~10~ ,~ f", /'Vtd a 44r'""" 14 'IML .w 11
i'\ .1
p-' }-£~:
,_. :!~j '~f f-
r-'
7- l~; J-l~ 'i r1
1ft f ~
n I I .iLl
r~I"~G+-" "-- ~-
-
·t
~
II
\ --I- ,-; "-,-.
"

..-J

• n.

ud. ~ ~ M-fvt '--'" j

I!
~.
~(Nr\ ~~~w~

r~~ -"h :r~~ I ~" "n ~~, -" "--~t- ~-, f

f-=-
., if+
~ I\: '{

*. -T-,b-t ~ ~
,c ' -~--ff ~ -l-::~
----.
I I
"'""
~ -.; {I

--e- • -t
. ~' _ _ L.o_

n
""
~ ~ .~) ~ oo--~-to-
~ ' '1-

~~(t~
-
Bd-
~ ,... ~ 'L' .". I'
t=. --t~ ~~~=~ 1f~ ""...... ·1~ >--
.- ~-;--
...
I~
~ It. -_ --
,-
"'--"
v
~!J v'-' V' "-.... r----.r - r"
~ , h I :f:_ ~ tI,b~,
f'J

-+ - .-
i t
~' - -_. ..
.- - ::. - - -,~"-., - -- ~--=--=- -"--=- -=-' ~

Figure 4.3: "A Song about Pi," page 3

774
 Some Amusing Additions 51

J )

Figure 4.4: "A Song about Pi," page 4

775
52 Demo tica Cyclo metri ca
--------~~~--~~

Figure 4.5: "A Song about Pi," page 5

776
 Some Amusing Additions 53

Figure 4.6: Ludolph's rebuilt tombstone.

777
References
[1] Donald J. Albers, Gerald L. Alexanderson, and Constance Reid (Editors). More
Mathematical People: Contemporary Conversations. Academic Press, New York,
1997.
[2] Jorg Arndt and Christoph Haenel. Pi Unleashed. Springer-Verlag, New York,
2001.
[3] David H. Bailey, Peter B. Borwein, and Simon Plouffe. On the rapid
computation of various polylogarithmic constants. Mathematics of
Computation, 66:903-913, 1997.
[4] David H. Bailey and Richard E. Crandall. On the random character of
fundamental constant expansions. Experimental Mathematics, 10:175-190, 200l.
[5] David H. Bailey and Richard E. Crandall. Random generators and normal
numbers. Experimental Mathematics, 11:527-546, 2003.
[6] Petr Beckmann. A History of Pi. St. Martin's Press, New York, 1971.
[7] L. Berggren, J.M. Borwein, and P.B. Borwein. Pi: a Source Book, (2nd ed.).
Springer-Verlag, New York, 2000.
[8] Frits Beukers. A rational approach to pi. Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde,
5:372-379, 2000.
[9] Patrick Billingsley. Probability and Measure. John Wiley, New York, 1986.
[10] David Blatner. The Joy of Pi. Walker and Co., New York, 1997.
[11] Jonathan M. Borwein and David H. Bailey. Mathematics by Experiment:
Plausible Reasoning in the 21st Century. 2003.
[12] Jonathan M. Borwein, David Horwein, and William F. Galway. Finding and
excluding single digit Machin-type formulae. Canadian Journal of Mathematics,
in press, 2004. http://www.cecm.sfu.ca/preprints/2002pp.html.
[13] Jonathan M. Borwein and Peter B. Borwein. Pi and the AGM: A Study in
Analytic Number Theory and Computational Complexity. eMS Series of
Monographs and Advanced Books in Mathematics, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1987.

55

779
56 References

[14] C.S. Calude, M.J. Dineen, and C.-K. Shu. Computing a glimpse of randomness.
Experimental Mathematics, in press, 2004.

[15] Joel L. Kraemer (editor). Perspectives on Maimonides: Philosophical and

Historical Studies. Oxford University Press, New York, 1991.
[16] Stephen Finch. Mathematical Constants. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 2003.

[17] Arend Heyting. Intuitionism: An Introduction. North-Holland, Amsterdam,

1956.

[18] Y. Kanada, Y. Ushiro, and H. Kuroda. The computation of 7r to

1,241,100,000,000 decimal digits. To appear, 2004.

[19] Donald E. Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, volume 2.

Addison-Wesley, New York, 1998.

[20] L. Kuipers and H. Niederreiter. Uniform Distribution of Sequences. Wiley

Interscience, New York, 1974.

[21] Brian M. Metzger and Roland E. Murphy. The New Oxford Annotated Bible
(New Revised Standard Edition). Oxford University Press, New York, 1970.

[22] Roger Penrose. The Emperor's New Mind. American Philological Association,
New York, 1989.

[23] K. Roth. Rational approximations to algebraic numbers. Mathematika, 2:1-20,

1955.

780
Index

A number(s), 190,249,254,306,310,316,
317,359-360,368,440,465,558,
612,628,631,649
Abel, 258,269, 520, 521, 524,534, 545
period relations, 597
theorem on the lemniscate, 524
ALGOL algorithms, 413,428,429
abelian
algorithm, 17,92-93, 178,414,424,425,
algebraic integer, 466-467
428,429,430,465,467,481,482,
functions, 631
489,504,537,539,546,551,557,
periods, 601
558,563,564,565,576,588,595,
varieties, 597, 602
663,664,666,670
abscissa, 259
algebraic, 634, 637
acceleration, 412-413
exponentiation, 671
of convergence, 442
fast Fourier transform, 567
Adair, 662
for T(, 623-624, 625, 667, 688
Adamchik, 665
quadratically converging, 594, 688
Adams, 350
exponentially converging, 537, 539, 545,
Agnew, 282
546-54~ 551,55~56~564
Abmes Papyrus. See Egypt: Ahmes Papyrus
fast operational complexity, 600
and Rhind Papyrus
iterative, 593, 594
algebraic, 224
for algebraic functions, 539
algorithm, 634
for binary digits of T( , 665
approximation, 607, 625
for computing an, 462
equation(s), 173,241,243,303,599,634
for elementary functions, 539
expressions, 591
for high-precision computation of Euler's
function(s), 249, 250, 540
constant, 448
geometry, 600
for the AGM, 486,514,529
identity, 607
for the construction of arctangent relations
independence, 602 274 '
problem, 598
multi-precision multiplication, 579
manipulation software (MACSYMA), 623,
quadratic, 628
636 quartically convergent, 562, (for IjT(), 564,
multiples of 1jT(, 610, 611
688
multiples of T(, 612
Ramanujan type. See Rarnanujan
non-trivial relations, 603
782 Index

algorithm (continued) of a hyperbola, 111, 292

to compute individual base-b digits of of a polygon, 8, 21, 28, 31-33
certain constants (Bailey, Borwein, of a round field, 2
Plouffe),669 of a sector, 95
used in Kanada's 200 million decimal place of as quare, 232, 237-239, 282, 302, 304
calculations of JT, 577-581 of a square circumscribing a circle, 21,
Alhazen, 103 27
analytic of a zone of a circle, 98
expressions for JT, 319 of an inscribed and circumscribed polygon,
functions, 670 319,537
methods, 68 of an inscribed and circumscribed
Anaxagoras, 283, 458 quadrilateral, 97
Ang Tian-Se, 20 of an inscribed dodecagon, 21
Anthoniszoon, (Ahthonisz) (Peter Metius), of an octagon, 403
24,286,404 of equilateral polygons, 563
Antiphon,22,53,283,286,591,678,754 of particular curve lines or planes, 108
method of exhaustion, 284 of the surface of a sphere, 94
Antu, Ming, 30 under a curve, 92
Apastamba, 677 Aristophanes, 283
Apery, 434 The Birds, 283, 679
formulas, 434 arithmetic, 759
proof of the irrationality of ~(3), 439-447, arithmetic geometric mean (AGM), 259, 269,
456 374,414,418-422,424,427,428,
apotome, 755-757 429,430,481-536,537-552,553,
of a side, 754 558,576,577
Arab, 103, 106-107,289,760 calculation of JT, 726, 727
Arabia, 288 algorithm. See algorithm: for the AGM
Arabic, 36 iteration, 544, 546, 549-551, 637
Archibald,322 for computing elliptic integrals, 546
Archimedes, 9,15-17,22,40,51,53,58,59, of complex numbers, 489-525
61,129,130,284-285,288,259,292, of real numbers, 482-489
537,563,590,591,678,754, arithmetic triangle groups, 608
758-762, 766 Arhybhata, 286, 288, 679,680
Archimedes' method, 771 Aryabha!iya, 679
Measurement of the Circle, 284, 590, 591, Askey, 414, 599
678 asymptotic, 540, 542
method for approximating JT, 15, 22-24, diophantine approximations to e, 368
42,288,292,293,537,559,563,590, expansions, 449, 452, 453, 642--M8
624,680 formula, 467, 534, 554
Plinthides and Cylinders, 678 for the arc length of the ellipse, 530
rate of convergence for his sequences, 16 foran, 475
value for JT, 286 series, 451,452, 468
Arcsl relations, 415 Athenaeum, 299
arctan, 275 Atkin, 464
expansions, 631 Arefeuillian factors, 673
relations, 274, 321 automorphic functions, 600, 605, 611, 613,
series, 92-107 614,615,616
arctangent formulas, 557-558, 576 auxiliary circles, 259
area, 110 Axe-swingers, 763, 766
of a circle, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 20-23, 26, 31-33,
et passim B
of a cubic parabola, 69
of a dodecagon, 33
of a general sector of an ellipse, circle, or Babylonian, 282, 539, 624, 677
hyperbola, 97 calculation of the circumference of a circle,
21
Index 783

Baddeley, 298 exponent, 424

Mechanical Quadrature of the Circle, fraction, 424
297 function, 669
Bai Shangshu, 27 machine, 327
Bailey, D. R., 578, 579, 580, 594, 628 operator, 669
Bailey, W. N., 414 radix, 492
Baker, 625 representation, 424
Ballantine, 321 results, 580
Banii Miisa, 680 scheme for exponentiation, 669, 670
Barrow, 90, 93, 292, 293 splitting, 425, 539, 551
Baudhayana, 286, 677 value of 1/Jr, 328
Baxter, 588 binomial
BBP sequence, 748 coefficients, 375
BBP-type formulas, 733 expansions, 16,99
normal numbers, 746-750 series, 413
Beckruann, 24, 563 side of, 759
Bellard, Fabrice, 736 square root, 757
Benson, 300 theorem, 98-99, 260,412
Berlin Academy, 141, 261 al-BIriini,680
Berndt, 588, 595, 599, 625, 635, 636, 648 Mas 'adz Canon, 680
Bernoulli, Jacob, 260, 487,516 India, 680
paper on the isochrona paracentrica, bisections, 770
517-518 "bit-burst" method of evaluation, 599
study of elastic rods, 482, 516-517 bit complexity. See boolean: complexity
Bernoulli, Johann, 517 Bochner, 630
paper on the isochrona paracentrica, Boethius, 286
517-518 Consolations of Philosophy, 286
Bernoulli numbers, 350, 353, 354, 440, 448, Bomberi, 447
643,648 Boole Summation Formula, 644, 645, 648
Bertrand's law, 389 boolean (bit)
Bessel functions, 448-449, 451 complexity, 599,628,629,631,664,670
Beta function, 413 operations, 599
Beukers, 446, 447, 650 Borchardt, 425
proof of the irrationality of ~(2) and ~(3), algorithm, 538
456 Borel,557
Beyer, 452 Borel-Cantelli lemma, 750
B6zivin, 649 Borodin, 568
B6zivin-Robba criterion, 649 Borwein and Borwein, 564
Bhaskara (Bhliskara Acharya), 288, 681 product expansions for Jr (quadratic, cubic,
Lilavati, 50, 681 quadruple and septet), 576
commentary on this work, 50 quadratically convergent algorithm for Jr ,
Biblical value of Jr, 402,458, 460-461, 677 569,578
I Kings 7:23, 256, 282, 458, 460, 626, quartically convergent algorithm for 1I Jr ,
677 562,563,568,576,577,578
II Chronicles 4:2, 402, 458, 677 sequence for 1/Jr, 591
Masoretic text, 460-461 Borwein, Peter, 727
numerological interpretations, 461 Bouelles, 290
biholomorphic, 476, 502 In hoc opere. .. Liber de quadratura
maps, 501 Circuli . .. , 290
biholomorphism, 502, 513 Bouyer, 592, 627
bijection, 502, 510 Bowman, 545
binary Brahe, 290
computer, 350 Brahmagupta, 286, 679
digits, 640, 663, 670, 672 Brent, 448, 452,454,463, 537,545, 555,
of Jr, 665, 683 556,557,563,576,594,628,726
784 Index

Brent (continued) CDC

algorithm for evaluating eX, 553 6600,407
algorithms for the elementary functions, 7600,592,627
546 center of gravity, 768
trigonometric algorithm, 550 Chaitin's constant, 741
use of an exponentially converging formula Ch'ang Hong, 285
for 7T, 546 Champernowne, 527
Brent-Salamin algorithm, 558, 559, 577 number, 746
Briggs, 99 Chang Tsang, 284-285, 286
Brounker, 80, 293 Chartres, 401
continued fraction for 7T, 80, 106, 293 Chase, 301-302
infinite continued fraction for 7T /4, 319 Approximate Quadrature of the Circle,
Brouwer, 408-409, 721' 301-302
Bryson of Heraclea, 283, 591, 678 Chebyshev, 417
de Buffon, Count (Comte), 296, 400 coefficients, 15
Essai d'arithmetique morale, 400 Chen Jinmo, 30
Needle Problem, 296, 400-401 Chengtian,29
Buhler, 673 China, 20, 285-286
Burroughs 220, 352 circle measurements in, 20
Buteo, 290 word-numeral decimal system in, 23
Butler, 305 Chinese, 26,282,284,286,291,295, 320,
butterfly operation, 580 404
al-BuzjiinI, 680 calendrical system, 29
historians of mathematics, 28
C method for computing square roots, 23
method of solving numerical higher
equations, 293
calculus, 92-93, 101, 113,266,294,319, Remainder Theorem, 474, 495, 496, 579
591,627 Chiu-chang Suan-shu (Arithmetic in Nine
differential, 113 Sections), 284
elementary, 276 Chronicles, 726
fundamental theorem, 97 4:2,753
modern, 283 chronology
Callet,298 of the calculation of 7T by infinite series,
his Tables, 298 406
Camp, 321 of 7T, 282, 656
Campanus, 289 Chu Hung, 320
quadrature of his circle, 289 Chudnovsky and Chudnovsky, 625, 688
Canon Mathematicus, 766 David, 726, 730
Cantor, 3 Gregory, 726, 730
Carlson, 414, 416, 425 circle-squarers, 283, 285, 2%, 301
sequences, 414 disease (morbus cyclometricus), 301,
Carr 410-411
Synopsis of Elementary results in Pure circumference, 7, 8, 12, 14,20-21,23,31,
Mathematics, 589 35, et passim
Carrick, 301 classical numbers, 368
The Secret of the Circle, Its Area Clausen, 158,298-299,320,321,638
Ascertained, 301 Astronomische Nachrichten, 158
Carter, 655 identity, 608,610, 611.638
Cartesian x-y plane, 591 Clavius, 291
Catalan's constant, 630, 668, 741 CM-varieties, 597, 598
Cauchy Cohen, 434, 439, 441, 443, 444, 447
integral formula, 547 Collins, 87,97-100 .
sequence, 492 commutative diagram, 502
de Causans, 295 compass, 284, 297
Cavalieri, 68, 93, 97
Index 785

complementary Dedekind's Ll-function, 616

integrals, 631 Deligne, 597
modulus, 631 Descartes, 68, 261
complex diFagnano, 260-263, 266,269,415,416,
multiplications, 597, 600--617, 630 417,519,546
for elliptic curves and Abelian varieties, his problem of dividing the lemniscate into
600 equal parts, 523
numbers, 306,310,312,372,373,481, Opere matematiche, 260
580,630,633 Produzioni matematiche, 261, 416
Comtet,446 theorem, 519
congruence, 464, 466, 470, 471,473,479 diameter, 3, 5, 8, 12,21,27,31-33, et passim
modulo 3 for an, 475 of a round field, 2
properties, 478 of a sphere, 27
subgroup, 500, 506,600,604,615 Dicks, 458
r(2),497 dihedral quartic fields, 462
ro(2), 468, 473 Dinostratus, 283-284
congruent, 260, 471, 479 Diophantine
conjugate scale, 540 analysis, 321
constrained writing, 659-662 approximation, 597, 602, 608
continued fraction(s), 133, 146, 166,309, nontrivial measures, 609
368,440,446,448,453,504,507, problem, 598
528,595,628 to n, 597
decompositions, 507 geometry, 600
expansion, 602, 609 Diophantines, 758
for y and G, 454 Dirichlet
for n, 538, 626 class number formula, 615
theory of, 139, 162, 173,309-310 series, 318
convergent dodecagon, 21-22, 31-32, 58,59, 758, 759
fractions, 174 Drach,300
series, 615,616,617 Duarte, 322
forn, 462 Dulaurens, 88
convolution dynamical problems, 265. See also Landen
operations, 577 Dyson, 588
product, 579, 580, 583
theorem, 566-567, 630 E
Conway, 444
Crandall, Richard, 746
Cray,584 e, 166, 173,202,203,222,265,277,278,
-2,562,564,565,567,568,571,594, 279,280,305,322,323,328,368,
628 369,424,425,440,441,551,562,
cubic equation, roots, 243 631,673. See also irrationality: of e,
cubits, 753 normality: of e, transcendence: of e
cubo-cubum on, 755 E-functions,599
Cusanus, (de Cusa), 289, 290 eccentricity, 256-257, 260, 268, 270
cycloid, 290 Egypt, 3, 677
curtate, 259 Abmes Papyrus or Rhind Papyrus, 21, 282,
cyclotomy, 466 402,677
pyramids, 282
Egyptian(s), 626, 677
D approximation, 6
construction, 3
d' Alembert, 265 estimation, 402
Dahse, Z., 370, 406 formula for squaring a circle, 403
Dase, A., 158, 298 Eisenstein series, 476, 523
Dase, J., 538, 592 associated with the lattice of periods, 606
decagon, 590 nonholomorphic, 605-606
786 Index

elementary series for lin, 254-256

constants, 562, 564 series, 271,274, 319, 320, 321, 596
functions, 424-432, 537-552, 563, 600 summation, 643, 644
number theory, 568 transform, 413
ellipse, 73, 258,259, 266-268, 530, 631 Euler's constant, 741
elliptic computation of, 350-356
arc, 259, 265, 267, 519 Euler-Maclaurin expansion, 448
cUfve, 524, 597, 600, 603 Euler-Maclaurin summation, 648
functions, 259, 270,297,416,417,475, Eutocius, 759
524,531,532,538,539,545,553, Ewald on crystal structure, 416
601,632 exhaustion
integral, 259, 267, 414, 416, 418, 419, 424, method of, 284, 292
425,426-427,432,481,486,513, principle of, 21
519,520,521,540,541,545,546, exponential(s),372-399
553,554,558,562,563,594,604, algorithms, 544
611,631,632,741 convergence, 539, 547,548,550,551
classical theory of, 484 functions, 141, 162, 163,203,224
decimal expansion, 741 exponentially converging formula for n, 546
of the first and second kind, 605
transformation theory for, 623, 628 F
modular functions, 468
period relations, 607
Emerson, 458-459 fallacy, 764, 765
endomorphisms, nontrivial, 601, 603 Fang Yizhi, 30
Eniac or ENIAC, 278, 279, 305, 322, 323, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), see Fourier
326,407,408,592,725,731 Feigenbaum's constant, 741
computation of 2037 digits of n, 557, 592, Fel'dman, 317, 359
627 inequality, 317
determination of n and e to more than Felton, 321, 326, 407, 592
2000 decimal places, 277 Ferguson, D. F., 321, 322, 406-407, 592,
photograph of, 731 627,655
equidistributed sequence, 748 -Forcade algorithm, 626
ETA systems, 584 Ferguson, H., 665
Euclid, 38, 131, 132, 139, 140,284,288 Fermat, 68, 97
Elements, 93, 283, 289, 678 Property, 465, 466
Euclidean Ferranti Computer Centre, 321
algorithm, 492, 568 Fibonnaci. See Pisano
norm, 673 Fine, (Orontius Finaeus), 290
solution, 404 finite attractor, 748
Euclideans,754 Finkel, 422
Eudoxus of Cnidus, 284 floating-point
Euler, 141,261,265-266,296-297,320, addition and multiplication, 425, 432
412,439,447,456,487,519,520, arithmetic, 669-671
521,528,590,604 computation, 424
addition theory, 522 division, 426, 432
asymptotic formula for the arc length of the double precision-
ellipse, 530 array, 580
constant, 350,425,445,448-455,631, 741 numbers, 580
continued fraction, 452 operations, 584, 630
elastic curve, 518-519, 522 numbers, 424, 425, 431, 432, 565, 580, 629
formula for n 12, 655 reciprocals and square roots, 425-426
function, 645 real arithmetic operations, 580
lntroductio in ana lysin infinitorum, 596 real FFT, 582, 584, 627
numbers, 642-648 Fortran (FORTRAN), 551, 580, 671
polynomials, 645 77,584
compiler, 564
Index 787

numerical library, 582 De origine proprietatibusque generalibus

programs, 577, 581 numerorum mediorum
Fourier arithmetico-geometricorum, 483
analysis, 566, 630 diary, 482, 487, 488-489, 494, 515, 522,
coefficients, 478, 479 526,528,529,532
discrete-transform, 579, 580, 630 Disquisitions Arithmeticae, 506, 524,
expansion, 530 534
of P(r/» and Q(r/», 525 formula for n, 327, 554, 558
ofsl r/>, 525 hypergeometric function integrals, 601
fast-transform (FFf), 566, 567, 568, 576, inverting lemniscate integrals, 516,
577,580,581,582,593,595,625, 522-527
629,664,670,725 method for the calculation of elliptic
fast-transform algorithm, 567, 630 integrals, 418, 422, 576
inverse fast-transform (FFS), 577,580, notebooks, 490
581,582,583,584 secular perturbations, 482, 487
normal fast-transform (FFA), 577, 580, transformation, 485
581,582,583,584 Gauss-Brent-Salamin algorithm, 594, 595
transform, 579, 580 Gauss-Chebyshev quadrature, 415
transformed data, 583 Gauss-Kusrnin theorem, 454
fourth proportional, 767, 768 Gauss-Legendre algorithm, 577-578
France, 290,291, 295, 296, 297, 298 Gauss-Salamin algorithm, 454, 549
French, 297, 298, 302,400,406 Gaussian
Academy of Sciences, 296, 297 algorithm, 416
Fricke, 614 field, 307,310, 312, 397
Frisby, 321 functions, 269
Fritz, 278 imaginary field, 316
Frontius, 285 integer, 397
Fuchsian de Gelder, 299,404
groups, 597, 598 Gelfond-Schneider theorem, 625
linear differential equations, 616 Genuys, 323, 326,407, 592
fundamental geometric
domrun, 501-502, 506, 507 pictures, 507
region, 633 series, 141,413,456
geometrical
G constructions for n, 252, 302
methods, 88, 320
period, 319
G-functions, 598, 599 series, 435
Galois geometry, 759, 767
-stable, 650 Geppert, 512, 533-534
group, 635 Germany, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 296, 297,
Gambioli,260-261 298,299,302,322,405
gamma functions, 265 Goldscheider's evaluation of 1;(2) using
Gassendi, 261 double integrals, 457
Gauss, 268, 269, 274, 298, 321,415,416, Goodwin, 230, 231, 233-234, 236-239, 409
417,418,422,427,482,483,484, duplication of the cube, 238-239, 410
486,487,488,490,496,497,505, quadrature of the circle, 410
506,507,514,515,516,517,518, trisection of the angle, 238-239, 410
519,537,541,545,546,553,558, Gospe~562,585,608,625,628,639, 725,
594,628 728
arctangent relation, 559, (for n), 576 Gould, 302
arithmetic-geometric mean calculation, gravitating ellipsoids, 269
414,481,540 Greece, 678
chronology of his work on the AGM and Greek, 156, 284
theta functions, 516, 527-534 method, 290, 293
collected works, 504
788 Index

Greek (continued) inscribed in a circle, 21-22, 30-31

science, 679 Heyting, Arend, 727
tradition, 104 Hilbert class field, 603, 607, 612
Greenblatt, 236 Hilbert, 589, 649, 650
Greenwood, 323 Hindu, 282, 286, 288-289, 677,680
Gregory, 68, 87,97-102, 107,292,293-294 Hippias of Elias, 283-284
correspondence with John Collins, 87-90 Hippocrates of Chios, 283, 678
Exercitations Geometricae, 98 Hitachi
Geometriae Pars Universalis, 97-98 S-81O computer, 562, 628. See also
Optica Promota, 97 Japanese: supercomputer
photometric method, 293 S-820 supercomputer, 628
power series for arctan x, 319, 563 HITAC S-820 model 80 supercomputer, 576,
series formula for n/4, 92-93, 293, 591, 577,582
592 (inverse-tangent series) Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, 729
series, 271, 274-275, 277,294, 320,321, Hobbes, 293
323,406,542,627,646,682 Hobson, 302, 319
telescope, 293 Holloway, 640
Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura, holomorphic, 494, 500, 502, 505, 513
97 homographic
Gregory-Newton interpolation formula, 99 relation, 262
Grienberger, 292 transformation, 262
Grosvenor, (Rev.), 300 Hughes, 304
Guibas,422 The Diameter of a Circle Equal in Area to
Guillard, 627 any Given Square, 304
Guilloud, 407, 592 Hutton, 296, 320
Guldinus, 93 formula, 321
Huygens, 93,96, 291, 292, 293, 559, 707,
H 767
hyperbola, 90, 267, 519
hyperbolic, 89, 110
Hales, 665 functions, 146
Hallerberg, 236-239 inverse, 538
Halley, 294-320 hypergeometric
Hamilton, 300 differential equation, 488
hard-hexagon model, 588 equation, 614
Hard~589,600,634,639 calculation of n, 735
Harley, 665, 673 function identities, 597, 608
harmonic and geometric means, 15,515,554 functions, 446, 597, 604, 608, 611, 616,
hatchet, 757, 764 638
Hauff, 278 integrals, 601
Hauptrnodul, 467, 479 polynomials. See polynomials:
Hayashi, 682 hypergeometric
Hebrews, 282, 402, 626 representation of simple algebraic
Heisel, 305 multiples of l/n (rapidly convergent),
Hellenistic, 680 607-608
Hermite, 146, 194, 198,222,372,413,613 series, 413, 447, 597
approximation of exponentials and substitution, 638
logarithms, 372-399
polynomials Ak(Z), 372
Sur lafunction exponentielle, 372 I
Hermite-Lindemann theorem, 440
Heron (Hero) of Alexandria, 285, 288, 678 IBM
Metrica, 678 704,323,326,407,592
Hesse, 296 7090,326-329,351,354,407,538,563,
hexagon, 58, 60,61,62,63,64,65,66,292, 592,627
591, 761-765, 767 card, 278
Index 789

Computer Algebra Group, 599 J

SCRATCHPAD System, 599
RS6000/590, 671 Jacobi, 258, 261, 269, 521, 534, 545
IEEE Fundamenta novatheoriae functionum
64-bit floating point numbers, 671 ellipticorum, 484
arithmetic standard, 670 identity, 471
Illiac IV computer, 422 Jacobian
indefinite integral, 98, 174 functions, 269,415,416,482,494
indeterminate equations, 286 particular algebraic curves, 601
India, 101-102, 107,270,286,288,588, theta functions, 632
589,592,679 Japan, 294, 559
Indian, 24, 107,286,589,600,679,681 Japanese, 291, 293, 320
Indiana state legislature (house bill Hitachi supercomputer, 559. See also
no. 246), 231-235, 236,238-239, Hitachi
409-410 supercomputers, 580, 581, 584
infinite Jeenel, 326, 407
continued fractions, 141, 319 Jia liang hu, 26, 28-29
products, 141,319,428,529 Jiu Zhang Suanshu (Nine chapters of the
sequence, 588 mathematical art), 20, 23, 27-28
series, 92, 93, 96, 106, 107, 110, 112-127, Jiu zhang suanshu xichau tu shuo (Detailed
141,157,290,319,567,594,595, diagrammatic explanations of the "Jiu
644,686--689 zhang suanshu"), 28
infinitely many sides, 756 Johnson, 464
Institute of Pi Research, 458-459 Jones, P. S., 323
integer relation algorithm, 735 Jones, W., 108, 295, 590
calculation of rr, 735 Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos (A New
integration Introduction to the Mathematics), 108
by parts, 95 Joy of Pi, 729
term by term, 96, 98, 260, 412, 413, 456 Jyesthadeva, 101-104. See also Nilakantha:
invariant(s), 602, 603, 605, 607, 637 Yuktibhasa
inverse-tangent
function, 592 K
series, 592
irrational, 173-174, 206, 759 al-Kashi,24, 106,289,680,681,682
numbers, 15, 130, 140, 142, 146, 190, 368, Treatise on the Circumference of the Circle,
382,439-440,602,658 681
square roots, 23 Kaiyuan zhanjing (Kaiyuan treatise on
rr,276 astrology), 27
irrationality, 610, 639 Kanada, 537, 559, 562, 563, 567, 594, 595,
criterion, 443 628,629,639,727-730
degree, 440, 446 frequency of digits of rr, 742
estimate, 625 Kaplansky, Irving, 771
measure for rr2, 444 Katyayana, 677
of algebraic multiples of rr, 598 Kaye, 679-680
oft(2),434-438,445,446,447,456 Kenko,107
of t(2n + 1),441 Kepler, 290
oft(3), 434-438, 439-447, 448,456 Astronomia nova, 259
of e, 173. See also Lambert: proof of the theorem, 259
irrationality of e Khinchin, 368
of Euler's constant, 448 Khintchine's constant, 741
of powers of rr, 440 al-KhawrizrnI, (Alchwarizmi, Alkarism),
of rr, 194,297,306,407,557,625 288,679,680
ofrr2, 194,297,407 Algebra, 679, 80
irreducible equation, 310, 317 King, 545,546, 549
Ivory, 269 Kings 1
7:23,753
790 Index

Klein, 631, 655 relations, 427,545,607,631

his absolute invariant, 636 treatise on elliptic integrals, 520
Klingenstiema,321 legislation of n, 236, 409-410. See also
arctangent formula for n, 576 Indiana
Knuth, 350, 352, 353,665,668,669 Lehmer, 271-272, 274, 320, 321,415,416
Kochansky, 293 Leibniz, 92-93, 101-103, 105, 107, 156,
An approximate geometrical construction 261,293,294,319,517,519
forpi,294 series formula for n /4, 92-97, 294, 592
Kronecker, 605, 635 (inverse tangent series)
limit formula, 614, 616 transmutation formula, 95
sign, 623 lemmas, 764
Kummer, 638 lemniscate, 261-262, 265, 269, 481, 486, 609
Kusuba, 682 arclength,486-487,526
constants, 412-417, 468, 502
L functions, 415
history of, 516-521
of Bemoulli, 412
L'Hopital's Rule, 368 quadrant of, 264
LaComme, 298 quinquesection of the quadrantal arc of,
Lagrange, 141,427,481,486,520,521 264
remainder term, 645 trigonometry,415
Lam Lay-Yong, 20 lemniscatic functions, 522, 529
Lambert, 129, 141, 146, 166, 178,596 Lenstra, 439
introduction of hyperbolic function, 141 Lenzer,304
perspective, 141 Lewin, 446, 447
projection in cartography, 141 trilogarithms formula, 446
proof of the irrationality of e, 141, 166 LiChunfeng, 24-25,30
proof of the irrationality of n, 141, 319, LiHuang,28
407,569,596,625 limerick for n, 656
series, 469 Lindemann, 108, 146,207,213,224,302
Landen, 264-267, 412,418 proof of transcendence of n, 319, 407, 625
Mathematical Lucubrations, 264-265 Lindemann-Weierstrauss Theorem, 649--653
transformation, 267-269,419,424,427, linear
429,430,546,553 forms, 615
Lang, 368 independence, 602
de Lagny, 320, 395,406 Liouville, 173, 372
Laurent series, 477 number, 625
law Lipschitz continuous, 426
of cosines, 491, 492 Littlewood, 589, 595, 634
of refraction, 292 Liu Hsiao, 285
Lazzerini, 296, 400 Liu Hui, 22, 285-286
Legendre,263,266-267,270,297,419,521, commentary on problem 32, 21
540,544,546,558 method for evaluating n, 20-30, 31-33
-type polynomial, 436 principle of exhaustion, 21
Elements de geometrie, 297 Liu Xin, 26-27
proofs of the irrationality ofn and n 2, In 2, computation of, 350-354, 357-358
297,407 logarithmic
formula, 549, 636 derivative, 476
his form of the arithmetic geometric mean differentiation, 469
iteration, 636 function, 97
identity, 603 space, 664
investigation of the lemniscate case, 604 logarithm(s), 88, 129,224,244,372-399,
method for computing elliptic integrals, 597,614,615
267-268,418,422,576 decadic, 308
notation, 604 of algebraic numbers, 306, 612
polynomial, 447
Index 791

of certain rational numbers, 359 mensuration, 285

of surds, 249 Mercator, 96-97
logic, 764, 767 meromorphic, 632, 633
logicians, 758 Merrill, 304-305
Loney, 321 Metius, 129, 130
Plane Trigonometry, 588 Metropolis, 277, 627
Longomontanus, 768 Middle Ages, 289
Luckey, 681 Mingda,30
Ludolph's number. See van Cuelen mnemonic, 302, 304, 405, 560-561,
659-662
M modular
curves, 597
equations, 241-257,269,590,591,600,
MacFarlane, 239 612,623,634,635,636,637
Machin, 108,295,321,406,557,563,592 endecadic, 636
-like arctan expansions, 627 form, 476, 478,479, 616
computation of 100 digits of pi, 592, 627 of weight one, 497-507
formula, 151, 158, 160,322,323,326,406, meromorphic, 479, 513
407,538,576,591,592,627,638,667 forms, theory of, 476, 506
-type BBP formula, 738 function, 475, 476, 478, 490, 494, 512,
machine computation, 271 514,533,590,605,608,611,632,
Maclaurin, 260 633
formula, 265-266, 269 theory, 625
series, 16 group, 464, 633
Made1ung's constant, 741 identities, 625
Madhava,45,101-102,682 invariant, 610, 613
magic squares, 286 quantities, 637
magnitude, 756, 758, 759 transformations, 610, 611
Mahavira, 288 moduli (singular), 241, 268, 600, 601, 604,
Manava,677 611,612,639
Mahler, 306, 359, 360, 362, 366, 372, 373, modulus
395,399 of the Common system of Logarithms, 155
his paper, On the approximation of signs, 436
logarithms of algebraic numbers, 306 mondromy groups, 598-599
proof that nis not a Liouville number, 625 Montucla, 295
Maimonedes, The "true perplexity," 753 Histoire des rechurches sur La quadrature
Malacame, 297 du cercle ... , 295
Solution Geometrique, 297 Mordell, 607
Malebranche, 261 Morduchai-Boltowskoj, 359
La recherche de la verite, 261 Moreno, 588
Malthulon, 295 De Morgan, 296, 299, 301, 323, 557, 655
mantissa, 565, 568 Budget of Paradoxes, 301
bits, 580 Morris, 321
Maple, 625, 665 Mul,lmmad ibn Musa al-KhwarizmI, 679
Markoff, A. A., 413, 417 Muller. See Regiomontanus
processes, 417 multi-precision numbers, 565
Markoff, W. A., 417 multiple linear factors, 311
Markushevich, 415, 533 multiplication pyramid, 567, 568, 630
Mascheroni, 297 Munro, 568
Mathematica, 665, 666
Mathematical Tripos, 485
Matsunga (Matsunga Ryohitsu), 295 N
McAllister, 278
mean-value theorem, 366, 374, 386 Napier's logarithm, 150, 155, 292
Menaechmus,447 NASA Ames Research Center, 562, 564,
Mendes-France, 447 594,672
792 Index

NEC SX-2, 594, 628 p

needle problem. See de Buffon, C. and
Lazzerini
Nesterenko, 650 p-adic
Neugebauer, 3 analysis, 650
Neumann, B. H., 376 convergence of Pade approximants, 598
Newman, D. J., 537, 539, 545 digits, 465-466
method for computing 7( and log, 537 numbers, 462, 465-467
New York Tribune, 302 Padeapproximation,598,609
Newton, 88, 89,93,96-99, 101, 105, 107, schemes, 609
108,156,260-261,299,591,626 Pappus, 759, 762
inversions, 550, 551 parabola, 69-70, 270, 754, 762
iteration, 426, 555, 565, 578-579, 583 parallelogram, 60, 69-70, 73
method, 89, 422, 429, 430, 539, 540, 544, parity, 464, 469,498
546,550,558,628 Parker, 299
power series for arcsin x, 320 Pascal, 93-94, 259
series, 160 triangle, 648
Nicholson, 323, 326, 407 Paulisasiddhiinta, 680
Nicoli,295 Peano,270
Nicomedean line, 302 Pedersen, 322
~akaQtha,50, 101-102, 106,682
Pegasus computer, 321, 326, 407
Aryabhatiya-bhasya, 101, 106 Pell,97
series formula for 7(/4, 92-93, 102 Penrose, Roger, 727
Tantrasangraha, 101-105 Percival, Colin, 737
Tangrasanraha-vakhya, a commentary on Perec, 659, 62
his book, 10 1-102 perimeter
Yuktibhasa, a commentary on his book, circle, 237-239, 259
101, 104, 106 ellipse, 256, 257, 259, 270, 594
Niven, 324 hexagon, 31
nonholomorphic, 607 inscribed polygon, 286, 678
Nonius, (Pedro Nunes), 290 inscribed regular hexagon, 402
nonlinear equations, 426, 430 inscribed and circumscribed regular
NORC, 322, 326, 407 polygons, 15,23,285-286,291,319,
approximation, 324 591,681
normal number, 741 polygon, 8, 12, 14,288,591
absolutely normal, 741 square, 230,232,237-239, 300
normality (normalcy) period, 604,605
of -./2,324 relations, 603
of e, 324 periodic functions, 259
of 7(, 324,407-408,409, 557-559, permutations, 286
626 perpetual motion, 295
North, 642 Peuerbach, 284
number theory, 600 Pfaff,627
numbers, rational, 759 Phillips, 15
numerical stability, 15 philosophy of mathematics, 284, 408-409
7(
computation of, 725
o continued fraction, 726
Pi Unleashed, 729
octagon, 3,55,403, 756 Pi Yancong, 30
Oldenburg, 96 Picard theorem, 634
Orr, 302 Pisano, (Leonardo of Pisa), 288-289
mnemonic for 7( , 405 plano-planum, 755
orthogonal functions, 447 plano-solidum, 755
Otto, (Valentin Otho), 290, 404 Plato, 283-284
Oughtred, 292 Platonic, 761
Index 793

Poe, 659-662 Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus), 285, 288,

P6lya-Bertrandias criterion, 650 678
polygon, 28,30, 53,54, 55,283,289,290, Syntaxis 285, (= Almagest), 678
291,292,300,591,627,754 "purely period relations," 603
circumscribed, 8, II, 22, 283-284, 291, puzzle, 654-655
590 Pythagorean theorem, 591
inscribed, 7,14,22,30-32,283-284,293
inscribed and circumscribed, 85, 405, 537, Q
559,590,591,681
with infinitely many sides, 757 Q-linear Machin-type BBP formula, 738
polylogarithmic quadrant, 230, 232,236-237, 264
constants, 663-674 of a circle, 73
ladders, 663, 667 of an ellipse, 260
polynomial(s), 100, 163, 164,165,167,174, of the circumference, 409
175, 176, 181, 182, 183, 185, 187, quinquesection of, 264
306,307,311,362,372,373,374, quadratic, 553
375,443,476,478,540,625,634, conjugate, 541
651,652,653 convergence, 539,545,558,578
cyclotomic, 672, 673 to Jf, 562, 563
equation, 407 equations, 264, 286, 637
hypergeometric, 445 field, 616
in log, 360 form,468,498,506,514,615
irreducible, 311 formula, 511
quadratic, 370 functions
real,310 integrals of, 591
symmetric, 312 methods for computing Jf, 537
time, 664 number, 297, 603
with integer coefficients, 669, 670 relation, 607
with rational coefficients, 310 surds,242-244,254,462,463
Pomerance, 673 logarithms of, 249
Pope, 295 quadrati x, 283-284
power(s) quadrato-cubum, 755
ofJf,114 quadrato-quadratum, 755
series,318,412,413,452,463,468,474, quadrature, 259, 289, 290, 291, 293, 296,
477,485,487,488,494,522,530, 297,301,302
598,609,612,616,643,652 formulas, 415
prime of the circle, 3, 92-94, 102, 129, 130, 141,
modulus field, 568 146,230,232,237-238,274,
modulus transform multi-precision 282-284,290,304
technique, 562, 567 of the hyperbola, 96, 292
numbers, 389, 630 of the parabola, 284
primality, 465 quasiperiod, 598, 604, 605
primitive prime factor, 738 relations, 603, 606
probability, 296, 655 quatemion algebra, 597
geometrical,400-401 Quercu, 291
method for computing Jf, 400 quintic equation, 243
theory of, 301
Proclus, 759 R
proper power, 738
pseudo-random Rabinowitz-Wagon "spigot" algorithm for n,
number generator, 562 664
sequences, 570 radical( s), 251
PSLQ quantity, 146
calculation of n, 735 radius, 7-8, 31-32, 73, 83, 84, 90, et passim
integer relation algorithm, 673 of a hydrogen atom, 655
of convergence, 318,467
794 Index

radix, 565, 567, 579-580, 629 theory of positive definite quadratic forms,
Rajagopal, 101 506-516
Ramachandra Rao, 589 Regiomontanus (Johann MUller), 289
Ramanujan, 270, 303, 588-595, 596, Reitwiesner, 322, 326, 627
623-635,634-636,639,640 Rhaeticus, 404
-like representations of lin, 598 Rhind papyrus. See Egypt: Ahmes Papyrus
-type algorithms, 595 or Rhind Papyrus
approximations to n, 608-609, 612, 617 Richter, 299, 322
calculation of n, 725, 726 Riemann, 449
elliptic and modular functions, 634 function, 440
Modular Equations and Approximations matrix, 602
to n, 590, 600, 623 surface, 531, 598, 599
nonholomorphic function, 610 zeta function, normality of, 741
"Notebooks," 588, 589, 590, 594, 595, 600, Robba,649
635 Roth's theorem, 751
original quadratic period-quasiperiod Royal Society, 589,596
relations for elliptic curves with ruler, 284, 297, 524
complex multiplication, 597 Rutherford, 150, 157-159,298,299,320,
period relations, 600-617 321,406
quadratic period relations, 610 Ryohitsu, 320
quintic modular equation, 635, 637
series for lin, 254-256, 328, 591, 615, s
637,639,688,689
Ramaswami Aiyar, 589
random, 557, 562 Sagan
randomness of n, 569, 588 Contact, 626
ratio Salarnin, 425, 537,545, 555, 557,563,576,
ad infinitum, 756 594,628,726
irrational, 754 algorithm for calculating n, 537, 539, 553,
rational, 754 556
rational, 206 use of an exponentially converging formula
approximations of n, 395 for n, 546
coefficients, 243 Salamin-Brent algorithm, 726
constant, 311 scalar mode, 564, 569
field, 310-311, 312,316,317 scalpel, 763, 764
number, 15,59,117,129,131,142,146, Scaliger, 290, 291
241,251,254,257,306,310, Schellbach,321
359-361,369,372,434,439,440, Schlesinger, 533
610,759 Schmidt, 368
real numbers, 306, 310, 314, 362, 386,425, Schneider, 412
557,630 Schonhage-Strassen, 593, 628
rectangle, 73, 94, 297 algorithm, 579
circumscribed, 238 bound on M(n), 424
infinitesimal, 94 discrete FFT algorithm, 580
rectification fast Fourier transform algorithm, 422, 580
of an arc of a circle, 103 fast multiplication algorithm, 451
of parabolas of higher order, 262 method,424
of the circle, 230, 232, 237-238 multiplication, 629, 670
of the lemniscate, 262 Schottkey-type
recurrence uniformization, 598
cubic, 466 Schumacher, 158
formula, 15, 469, 473 Schwarz theory, 614
relation, 15-17, 179,581,647 scruple, 769
reduction secant method, 426,430-431
algorithm, 507 Seiko,293
Kongenki, 293
Index 795

septic equation, roots, 243 Theoremata Mathematica, 292

series. See infinite series Stark, 615
de Serres, 295 statistical
SGI Power Challenge (R8000), 671 analysis of 200,000,000 decimals of 7r ,
Shanks and Wrench computation of 100,000 583-584,586
decimals of 7r, 558, 592, 627 five-digit sum test, 583
Shanks, D., 407,592,627 frequency test, 583, 586
Shanks, w., 299, 301, 305, 321, 322, 323, gap test, 583
406,408,538,592,627,655 Poker hand test, 583
Controbutions to Mathematics Comprising serial tests, 583
chiefly the Rectification of the Circle analysis of the first ten million digits of 7r ,
to 607 Places of Decimals, 147-161, 559
322,323,324,592 analysis of 7r, 562, 569
error in his approximation, 321, 322, 592 information on the normalcy of 7r, 408
his first published approximation, 321 measure of the randomness of distribution
Shanlan,30 of the digits in the decimal
Sharp,294,320,406 representation
Shimura, 597 of e, 277, 279
curves, 597 of 7r, 277, 79, 323
Shu Ii jing yun (Collected basic principles of mechanics, 588
mathematics),30 poker test, 559, 583
Siddhiintikli, 286 runs test, 570
Siegel, 300, 261, 607, 616 standard X2 test, 324,454,570
Simonyi, 422 study of the distribution of the decimal
sines, tables of, 770 digits of 7r and e, 323
sixteen-gon, 756, 757 Stifel,290
Sloane Stirling,413,417,527
Handbook of Integer Sequences, 643 approximation, 450, 519
Smeur, A., 677 approximation for n!, 412
Smith, J., 299-300, 301 formula, 473
Smith, L. B., 322 elastic curve, 522
Snellius, (Snell), 291, 292 StOrmer, 274, 321, 326
Cyclometricus, 293 arctangent formula for 7r, 576
theorems, 293 Stothers, 464
Socrates, 283 STRETCH computer, 407
"solid made of," 755 Sui shu (Standard history of the Sui
solido-solidum, 755 Dynasty),24-27,29
Solomon, 753 Sulba SUtras, 677
Song shu (Standard History of Liu Song superstring theory, 588
Dynasty),27 Susa texts, 677
Specht, 297-298 Sweeney, 448, 452
spiral, 762 his method, 425, 464
Spring,589 syllogism, 767
square, 5, 7,32,38,103,232,237-238,240, symbol manipUlation package (MACSYMA,
252,283-285,295,298,299,302, MAPLE, REDUCE), 625
403,456,470 Symbolics (SYMBOLICS Corporation)
circumscribed, 8, 300 Workstation, 562, 599
inscribed in a circle, 22, 300 symmetry, 75
the lune, 283 of the B-function, 75
SrIndhara, 288
Srivastava, 414 T
St. Andrew's University, 97-98, 294
St. Vincent, G., 292
Opus geometricum quadraturae circuli et Takebe, 294
sectionum coni, 292 Talmud, 282-283
Tamura,537,559,562,563,567,577
796 Index

tangent numbers, 643, 644, 645 u

Tannery, 678
Taylor, 99 Uhler, 322, 351
expansion, 477 Ulugh Beg, 681
of arctan or arcsin, 538 Univac 1100/42, 454
formula, 645 USA, 300, 302, 304, 305
series, 93, 99-100, 327,425,451,647, Ushiro, 559, 580
650
Tetragonismus, 289 v
Circuli quadratura per Campanum,
Archimeden Syracusanum, 289 van Cuelen, 24, 51, 129,290,291,292,405,
Thacher, 425 538,591,627,771
Theta a theorem of his discovery, 291
functions, 490, 494, 500, 514, 524, 526, his tombstone, 51-52, 291,405
527,529,531,532,533,631-634, Ludolphian number, 291, 405, 591
635 post-humous arithmetic, 591
and the AGM, 527, 528 van der Eycke, 290-291
formulas associated with them, 494-495 van Roomen, (Adrianus Romanus), 24, 291
theory of, 512 Varma, 50
series, 416 de Vausenville, 297
thirty-two-gon, 756 vector mode, 564, 569
Thomson, 157 Vega, 297, 320
Thue-Siegel-Roth theorem, 440 Viete, (Vieta), 24, 58, 290, 291, 690, 694,
Torricelli, 97 754, 757
transcendence, 129,224,602,610 infinite series for 21n, 290
~(2), 434 Vitruvius (Marcus Vitruvius Pollio), 285
e, 194, 198,372 Vogel, 3
n,108,217,319,407,549,557,625,631, volume
649 ofacube,27
transcendental, 601, 664 of a sphere, 27, 679
functions, 97,530, 534, 540, 551, 557, von David, 512
558,559 von Luttich, 288
numbers, 372,412,440,465,602,625, von Neumann, 277, 323, 592, 627, 725
631,663 von Strassnitzky, 320
quantity, 131, 146 von Vega, (Baron), 320
transmutation, 94 von Zach, 297
formula, 94
trapezium, 755 w
triangle, 7,8,12,32,60,63,64,65,103,
111 Wagner, 28
characteristic, 94 Waldo, 231, 236
equilateral, 295 Wallis, 68, 96, 292-293, 309
groups, 597,611,616 Arithmetica infinitorum, 68, 78-80, 293
right-angled, 7, 31, 591 computation of n by interpolations, 68-77
orthogonal side, 31 formula, 412
triangular infinite product for n, 68, 265
groups, 597 infinite product for nl2, 292, 319, 591
system of equations, 474 result which gives the continued fraction
trigonometric expansion for4ln, 80
analog, 415 Tracts, 259
functions, 107, 141, 146,544,581,591 Wang Fan, 27-28, 285
inverse, 538, 591 Wang Mang, 32
Tsu Ch'ung-chih, 286 Wang Xiaotong, 29
rational approximation of n, 404 Washington, 466, 472
Turing machine, 424 Waterman, 452
Watson, 415,449,485, 546, 595,624,639
Index 797

his article The Marquis [Fagnano] and x

the Land Agent [Landen], 546
his series of Singular Moduli papers, Xing Yunlu, 30
600
Weber, 244-245, 640 y
Weierstrass
-like notation, 603 Yano,682
equation, 603,604 Yoshino, 559
Weil, 605, 607
Whewell,299-300 z
Whipple, 414
Whittaker, 485 Z-linear Machine type BBP arctangent
conjecture, 598 formula, 738
Wieferich primes, 671 Zagier, 432,444,462,464,467,468
Wilson, B. N., 595 Zeng Jihong, 30
Wilson, J. A., 447 ~(2), evaluation of, 456-457
Wirsing, 360, 366 ~(3),439-447,456,631
Wo,286 Zhang Heng, 27
world record for the number of digits of pi, Zhao Youqin, 30
594,683 Zhu Zaiyu, 28, 30
Wren, 259 Zu Chongzhi
Wrench (Jr.), 32,350,406-407,416,592, mathematical text, Zhui Shu (Method of
627 mathematical composition), 24, 29
computation of 100,000 digits of Jr . See values for Jr, 20--21, 24--26, 28-30
Shanks and Wrench ZuGeng,27