UNIT IV – A/D AND D/CONVERTERS

1. List the broad classification of ADCs.

1. Direct type ADC.
2. Integrating type ADC.
2. List out the direct type ADCs.

1. Flash (comparator) type converter

2. Counter type converter
3. Tracking or servo converter
4. Successive approximation type converter

3. List out some integrating type converters.

1. Charge balancing ADC
2. Dual slope ADC

4. What is integrating type converter?

An ADC converter that perform conversion in an indirect manner by first changing the
analog I/P signal to a linear function of time or frequency and then to a digital code is
known as integrating type A/D converter.

5. Explain in brief the principle of operation of successive Approximation ADC.

The circuit of successive approximation ADC consists of a successive approximation
register (SAR), to find the required value of each bit by trial & error. With the arrival of
START command, SAR sets the MSB bit to 1. The O/P is converted into an analog signal
& it is compared with I/P signal. This O/P is low or High. This process continues until all
bits are checked.

6. What are the main advantages of integrating type ADCs?

i. The integrating type of ADC’s doing not need a sample/Hold circuit at the input.
ii. It is possible to transmit frequency even in noisy environment or in an isolated form.

7. Where is the successive approximation type ADC’s used?

The Successive approximation ADCs are used in applications such as data loggers &
instrumentation where conversion speed is important.

8. What is the main drawback of a dual-slop ADC?

The dual slope ADC has long conversion time. This is the main drawback of dual slope
ADC.

9. State the advantages of dual slope ADC:

It provides excellent noise rejection of ac signals whose periods are integral multiples of
the integration time T.

10. Define conversion time.

It is defined as the total time required converting an analog signal into its digital output. It
depends on the conversion technique used & the propagation delay of circuit
components. The conversion time of a successive approximation type ADC is given by
T(n+1)
Where T---clock period; Tc---conversion time ; n----no. of bits

11. Define resolution of a data converter.

The resolution of a converter is the smallest change in voltage which may be produced at
the output or input of the converter.
Resolution (in volts)= VFS/2n-1=1 LSB increment. The resolution of an ADC is
defined as the smallest change in analog input for a one bit change at the output.

12. Define accuracy of converter.

Absolute accuracy:
It is the maximum deviation between the actual converter output & the ideal
converter output.
Relative accuracy:
It is the maximum deviation after gain & offset errors have been removed. The accuracy
of a converter is also specified in form of LSB increments or % of full scale voltage.

13. What is settling time?

It represents the time it takes for the output to settle within a specified band ±½LSB of its
final value following a code change at the input (usually a full scale change). It depends
upon the switching time of the logic circuitry due to internal parasitic capacitance &
inductances. Settling time ranges from 100ns. 10μs depending on word length & type
circuit used.

14. Explain in brief stability of a converter:

The performance of converter changes with temperature age & power supply variation.
So all the relevant parameters such as offset, gain, linearity error & monotonicity must be
specified over the full temperature & power supply ranges to have better stability
performances.

15. What is meant by linearity?

The linearity of an ADC/DAC is an important measure of its accuracy & tells us how
close the converter output is to its ideal transfer characteristics. The linearity error is
usually expressed as a fraction of LSB increment or percentage of full-scale voltage. A
good converter exhibits a linearity error of less than ±½LSB.

16. What is monotonic DAC?

A monotonic DAC is one whose analog output increases for an increase in digital input.

17. What is multiplying DAC?

A digital to analog converter which uses a varying reference voltage VR is called a
multiplying DAC(MDAC). If the reference voltage of a DAC, VR is a sine wave give by
V(t)=Vin &RV IW
Then, Vo(t)=Vom&RV IW º)

18. What is a sample and hold circuit? Where it is used?

A sample and hold circuit is one which samples an input signal and holds on to its last
sampled value until the input is sampled again. This circuit is mainly used in digital
interfacing, analog to digital systems, and pulse code modulation systems.

19.Define sample period and hold period.

The time during which the voltage across the capacitor in sample and hold circuit is equal
to the input voltage is called sample period.The time period during which the voltage
across the capacitor is held constant is called hold period.

20.What is meant by delta modulation?

Delta modulation is a technique capable of performing analog signal quantisation with
smaller bandwidth requirements. Here, the binary output representing the most recent
sampled amplitude will be determined on the basis of previous sampled amplitude levels.
 UNIT V – SPECIAL FUNCTION ICs
1. Mention some applications of 555 timer:
*Oscillator
*pulse generator
*ramp and square wave generator
*mono-shot multivibrator
*burglar alarm
*traffic light control.

2. List the applications of 555 timer in monostable mode of operation:

*missing pulse detector
*Linear ramp generator
*Frequency divider
*Pulse width modulation.

3. List the applications of 555 timer in Astable mode of operation:

*FSK generator
*Pulse-position modulator

4. What is a voltage regulator?

A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable dc voltage
independent of the load current, temperature, and ac line voltage variations.

5. Give the classification of voltage regulators:

*Series / Linear regulators
*Switching regulators.

6. What is a linear voltage regulator?

Series or linear regulator uses a power transistor connected in series between the
unregulated dc input and the load and it conducts in the linear region .The output voltage
is controlled by the continous voltage drop taking place across the series pass transistor.

7. What is a switching regulator?

Switching regulators are those which operate the power transistor as a high
frequency on/off switch, so that the power transistor does not conduct current
continuously. This gives improved efficiency over series regulators.

8. What are the advantages of IC voltage regulators?

*low cost
*high reliability
*reduction in size
*excellent performance

9. Give some examples of monolithic IC voltage regulators:

78XX series fixed output, positive voltage regulators
79XX series fixed output, negative voltage regulators
723 general purpose regulators.

10. What is the purpose of having input and output capacitors in three terminal IC
regulators?
A capacitor connected between the input terminal and ground cancels the inductive
effects due to long distribution leads. The output capacitor improves the transient
response.

11. Define line regulation.

Line regulation is defined as the percentage change in the output voltage for a change in
the input voltage. It is expressed in millivolts or as a percentage of the output voltage.

12. Define load regulation.

Load regulation is defined as the change in output voltage for a change in load current. It
is expressed in millivolts or as a percentage of the output voltage.

13. What is meant by current limiting?

Current limiting refers to the ability of a regulator to prevent the load current from
increasing above a preset value.

14. Give the drawbacks of linear regulators:

*The input step down transformer is bulky and expensive because of low line
frequency.
*Because of low line frequency, large values of filter capacitors are required to decrease
the ripple.
*Efficiency is reduced due to the continous power dissipation by the transistor as it
operates in the linear region.

15. What is the advantage of switching regulators?

*Greater efficiency is achieved as the power transistor is made to operate as low
impedance switch. Power transmitted across the transistor is in discrete pulses rather than
as a steady current flow.
*By using suitable switching loss reduction technique, the switching frequency can be
increased so as to reduce the size and weight of the inductors and capacitors.

16. What is an opto-coupler IC? Give examples.

Opto-coupler IC is a combined package of a photo-emitting device and a photo-sensing
device. Examples for opto-coupler circuit : LED and a photo diode, LED and photo
transistor, LED and Darlington. Examples for opto-coupler IC : MCT 2F , MCT 2E .

17. Mention the advantages of opto-couplers:

*Better isolation between the two stages.
*Impedance problem between the stages is eliminated.
*Wide frequency response.
*Easily interfaced with digital circuit.
*Compact and light weight.
*Problems such as noise, transients, contact bounce,.. are eliminated.

18. What is an isolation amplifier?

An isolation amplifier is an amplifier that offers electrical isolation between its input and
output terminals.

19. What is the need for a tuned amplifier?

In radio or TV receivers, it is necessary to select a particular channel among all other
available channels. Hence some sorts of frequency selective circuit is needed that will
allow us to amplify the frequency band required and reject all the other unwanted signals
and this function is provided by a tuned amplifier.

20. Give the classification of tuned amplifier:

(i) Small signal tuned amplifier
*Single tuned
*Double tuned
*Stagger tuned
(ii) Large signal tuned amplifier.