The Torah: A Quick Overview of the Pentateuch

The first five books of the Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
and Deuteronomy form one unified group, which goes by several names. You’ve
likely heard them called:
 The Torah, which comes from the Hebrew word for “law”

 The Pentateuch, which comes from a means “five-book work,” or “five-fold

book”
 The Books of Moses (also “the Book of Moses,” or simply “Moses”), who’s

traditionally credited as the primary source of these books

 The Law of Moses, a blend of the first and third names
Each of these books has their own structure and story to tell, but right now we’re
going to zoom out to look at the whole work of the Torah.
What does “Torah” mean?
The Hebrew word torah means “law,” or “regulations.” And if you’re at all
familiar with these books, that’s almost all the explanation you need. This is where
the prophet Moses introduces the people of Israel to the Ten Commandments,
along with a host of other “thou shalts” and “thou shalt nots.” If you’re reading the
Bible in English, you won’t find the word “Torah” used—instead, you’ll mostly
just see the phrase, “the law.”
But this isn’t the kind of law that we’re used to thinking of today. When the writers
of the Bible mention “the law,” they’re usually referring to one of two things:
1. The partnership between God and Israel
Humans make modern laws to maintain social order. But the Torah isn’t about
legislation; it’s about allegiance. The second book of the Torah, Exodus, tells the
story of how God made a pact between the nation of Israel and himself: he would
be their god, and they would be his people. This type of pact was known in those
days as a covenant, which was a common kind of agreement in the ancient Near
East.
A covenant is similar to a contract or a treaty. In ancient times, some kingdoms
would become powerful enough to exert their authority beyond their own borders.
These kings would come across smaller, lesser nations or city-states and strike up
alliances with them. The lesser kings, called vassals, would swear allegiance to the
greater king, called the suzerain. The vassals would maintain their own national
identity and a degree of autonomy, and would depend on the economic
opportunities and military protection provided by the suzerain. The mighty
suzerain got tribute and taxes from the vassal—not to mention the bragging rights
of another kingdom under their authority.
These covenants usually included rules for the vassal to follow. If the vassal kept
the rules, then they could enjoy being in the suzerain’s good graces. If the vassal
broke the rules—and especially if the vassal betrayed the suzerain and helped the
suzerain’s enemies—they would be punished and cursed.
In a similar fashion, God himself assumes the role of the suzerain in the Torah. He
rescues the nation of Israel from Egypt, and offers to partner with them in a
covenant. If Israel keeps God’s rules (his law), they will enjoy his guidance and
protection in a land of their own. If they don’t, God will remove his protection, and
Israel won’t be able to keep their land. Israel agrees to these terms, and the
covenant of the law is enacted.
When Moses went and told the people all the LORD’s words and laws, they
responded with one voice, “Everything the LORD has said we will do.” Moses
then wrote down everything the LORD had said. (Exodus 24:3–4)
That covenant agreement is known throughout the rest of the Bible as “the law.”
2. The specific terms of that covenant
These are the decrees, the laws and the regulations that the Lord established at
Mount Sinai between himself and the Israelites through Moses. (Leviticus 26:46)
“The law” can refer to the covenant in general, but you’ll also find references to
“laws” within the law. These are the “thou shalts” and the “thou shalt nots.”
They’re the rituals for observing feasts and offering sacrifices. They’re the rules
about food, sex, clothing, and justice. They’re the directions for setting up an
acceptable place of worship.
You’ll find these throughout the last half of Exodus, and Leviticus is almost
entirely these lists of regulations. They’re interspersed throughout Numbers, and
Deuteronomy groups them in the middle. There are hundreds of individual laws,
but they all boil down to two overarching principles:
 Love and devotion for God. Israelites couldn’t worship other deities, and

because God’s temple was in their midst, the people maintained a degree of
ritualistic purity.
 Love and respect for other humans. Israelites were expected to show

generosity toward marginalized people, execute justice for both the rich and
the poor, and not bring shame on each other.
The specific reasons why certain laws exist can be nebulous. Scholars have made
all kinds of arguments for why the ancient Jews believed pork and mixed fabrics
were off-limits. The important thing to remember is that they believed that these
practices separated them from the surrounding nations of the ancient Near East and
reflected how their God is separate from the gods of the other nations.
3. The part of Scripture that records that covenant
Not only does “the law” refer to the stipulations of the covenant and the covenant
itself, but it’s also used to refer to the work of the Bible that tells the story of the
covenant. While the first five books of the Bible were individual scrolls
themselves, they still constitute one general work—which the Jews and Christians
call “the Torah.”
Summary of the Pentateuch
The Torah is a five-book work, each book serving its purpose to make the whole.
Here’s the primary contents of each book, and how each contributes to the overall
work of the Law of Moses.
The book of Genesis is the first book of the Bible, and opens with one of the most
famous first sentences of any literary work: “In the beginning, God created the
heavens and the earth.” It’s where we find the famous stories of Adam and Eve,
Cain and Abel, Noah and the ark, Abraham and Isaac, and a well-dressed dreamer
named Joseph.
On its own, the book of Genesis reads like a string of epic stories: a semi-tragic
saga of a world that just keeps going wrong, despite its Creator’s intentions. But
Genesis isn’t a stand-alone book. It’s the first installment in the five-part Torah (or
Pentateuch), which is the foundational work of the Old Testament. The Torah is
Israel’s origin story: it’s the history of how the nation of Israel got its population,
its land, and its religion.
Important characters in Genesis
Genesis is the second-longest book of the Bible (after Jeremiah). That means there
are a lot of characters in Genesis, these four characters are the most important ones
to know about:
God (Yahweh)—the creator of heaven and earth, including the humans Adam and
Eve. God makes all things “very good,” but when both humans and divine beings
rebel against God, the world slips back into chaos. The humans rebel against God,
bringing a curse on the world and growing so violent that God destroys everyone
but Noah and his family. God is still at work to bring the world back to “very
good” status again—and chooses to begin this work through a man God names
Abraham.
Abraham (formerly Abram)—a Mesopotamian whom God chooses as the
patriarch of a special nation. Abraham journeys through the land of Canaan, which
God promises to give to Abraham’s descendants. God makes a covenant (a special
binding agreement) with Abraham—which is where Israel’s story as a nation truly
begins.
Jacob/Israel—Abraham’s grandson. Jacob tricks his father and brother, finagling
his way into receiving a special blessing. He has twelve sons, which the twelve
tribes of Israel trace their lineage back to.
Joseph—Jacob’s favorite son, who has prophetic dreams of greatness. He is also
able to interpret other people’s dreams. His brothers sell him into slavery, but
through his God-given wisdom, he ascends to the position of second-in-command
over all Egypt.
Key themes in Genesis
The book of Genesis is full of stories we know from Sunday school, like Adam and
Eve, Noah’s Ark, and Jacob’s Ladder. But the story of Genesis is really all about
setting the stage for the rest of the Pentateuch: it’s the long, long prologue to
Israel’s beginnings as a nation. Specifically, it’s the story of the promises God
made to humans—promises that God begins to carry out through the rest of the
Bible.
In fact, if the main thrust of Genesis were summed up in one verse, it would be
these words that God said to Abraham:
I will establish my covenant as an everlasting covenant between me and you and
your descendants after you for the generations to come, to be your God and the
God of your descendants after you. (Gn 17:7, NIV)
Let’s take a quick tour of Genesis’ foundational themes:
Covenant
A covenant is a solemn; binding agreement that makes two or more parties one
(you can get a more in-depth definition here). Covenants usually involve promises,
conditions, blessings for keeping the covenant, and curses for breaking it. Genesis
has a lot of these agreements, including God’s covenant with the post-flood world
(Genesis 9:1–17) and his covenants with Abraham (Genesis 15, 17).
Covenant is what moves the story forward in Genesis. God promises the childless
Abraham that he will be the father of nations, that his descendants will have a land,
and that the world will be blessed through them. For 38 of Genesis’ 50 chapters,
the story follows Abraham’s family as God begins fulfilling the first part of that
promise: Abraham has eight children, who have children of their own, and so on
and so forth. The next four books tell the story of how these descendants become a
nation and make their move toward claiming their promised land.
As you read or study the book of Genesis, pay special attention to any mentions of
“covenant,” “promise,” and “swear”—especially when God’s the one talking.
Blessing
In the twelfth chapter, God promises to bless Abraham, bless his allies, curse his
enemies, and eventually, bless the world through him (12:1–3). This kicks the rest
of the book, the rest of the Torah, and indeed the rest of the Bible into gear. From
this point on, God has a special relationship with Abraham and his family. The rest
of Genesis watches this promise unfold—and it involves a lot of people getting
blessed.
The narrative of blessings is especially important when we get about halfway
through the book, when Jacob “inherits” (i.e., tricks his dad into giving him) the
blessing that God had given to Abraham and Isaac. This blessing was originally
intended for Jacob’s older brother Esau. But before another Cain and Abel
situation takes place, Jacob escapes to a distant land, where he starts a new life.
When Jacob returns, he wrestles with God—who blesses him.
As you read and study Genesis, keep an eye on who blesses whom, and what
happens when people are blessed.
Records and genealogies
A key repeated phrase in Genesis is, “this is the account of …,” or “these are the
records of…,” followed by either a bunch of names or a bunch of stories. In fact,
this is pretty much all of Genesis. The second chapter opens with the account of
the “heavens and the earth,” (2:4). Then the book of Genesis swings us through a
long series of sub-accounts:
 Adam’s family line (5:1)

 Noah’s family line (6:9)

 The nations that stemmed from Noah’s sons (10:1)

 Abraham’s family (11:27)

 Ishmael’s family (25:12)

 Isaac’s family (25:19)

 Esau’s family (36:1)

 And finally, Jacob’s family (37:2)

As you read through Genesis, pay attention to these lines—they signal that the
focus of the book is shifting from one family to another. Genesis is a collection of
origin stories—these genealogies feel trivial to modern readers, but they give us a
good idea of how the ancient Israelites thought about the countries surrounding
them.
For example, the nations of Israel and Edom don’t tend to get along in Scripture.
(There’s an entire book of the Bible about how Edom did Israel dirty.) Genesis
frames this rivalry: they’ve been getting each other’s goats since Jacob stole Esau’s
blessing!
Promised Land
One more important theme in Genesis: the land of Canaan. God promises that
Abraham’s descendants will possess that land in chapter 15, but this promise is not
fulfilled until the book of Joshua. Abraham wanders through Canaan, Isaac settles
there, and Jacob eventually settles here, too. However, at the end of the book, the
budding nation of Israel is dwelling as guests in Egypt. The next four books of the
Torah tell us how they make their way back to Canaan.
As you read and study Genesis, don’t just pay attention to what is happening—pay
attention to where it’s happening.
Zooming out: Genesis in context
Genesis is the first book of the Bible, but more importantly, it’s the first book of
the Torah, the law of Moses. Genesis told the ancient Israelites that God had
befriended their ancestors, promised them a land, and had a plan to bless the world
through them. But the story of Genesis is really just the grand prologue to Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Together, these five books tell the story of
how Israel became God’s special nation.
Genesis ends with Israel in Egypt as special guests. But Exodus begins with Israel
being enslaved by their hosts. Through the rest of the Torah, God rescues Israel
from Egypt, declares them to be his people, and leads them through the wilderness
to their promised land. Genesis explains how Israel came to be in Egypt in the first
place, and why, of all the places on earth, God lead the nation of Israel to that
patch of land between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea.
If we look beyond the Torah (and we should!), the stories in Genesis set the
backdrop for vital theological principles in the rest of the Bible. In Genesis, we see
that God has authority over the world. We see that humans and other creatures
(like the serpent and the Nephilim) are in rebellion against God’s order. We see the
hints of God’s plan to redeem his creation back to himself.
Genesis also introduces Abraham, the ancestor of Israel through whom the whole
world will be blessed. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are the three chief patriarchs of
the nation Israel (which gets its name from Jacob). Jacob’s sons and grandsons
have their own families, which eventually become the 12 tribes of Israel.
Abraham believes God’s promises to him, and Abraham’s faith is reckoned to be
righteousness (Gn 15:6)—that is, it satisfies God. The concept of righteousness by
faith is repeated in the New Testament (Ro 10:10), and Paul states that all who
share Abraham’s faith are the spiritual children on Abraham (Ga 3:6–9).
Genesis sets forth several biblical themes that weave across the rest of the Bible:
 God’s authority. God is the maker of all things, and He is sovereign over

nature and humanity. We see His creative work in the first two chapters of
Genesis, but we also see His sovereignty in choosing Abraham, blessing the
Hebrews, and protecting Egypt from famine.
 Man’s rebellion. Adam and Eve disobeyed God in Eden, but that’s only the

beginning. Cain presents an unacceptable sacrifice, the world becomes violent

in the days of Noah, people construct the tower of Babel, and so on and so
forth.
 God’s judgment. God evicts Adam and Eve, He sends a flood to destroy the
earth, and He rains fire on Sodom and Gomorrah (Gn 19). God is holy, and sin
must be punished.
 God’s preservation of life. God promises a descendant to Eve (Gn 3:15), He

saves Noah’s family in an ark, He delivers Jacob from Esau’s wrath, and He
allows Egypt to survive a harsh famine through Joseph’s wisdom.
 Blood sacrifice. God skins animals to cover Adam and Eve after they sin (Gn

3:21), and He provides a ram for Abraham to take Isaac’s place (Gn 22). The
blood sacrifice motif becomes far more prominent in the book of Leviticus.
It’s a grand book with many of the Bible’s most well-known stories, but it’s only
the beginning.
Overview of Genesis’s story and structure
Genesis can generally be broken into two large movements, each one the beginning
of a bigger story. The first is the story of God’s relationship with the world. The
second is the origin story of God’s relationship with Israel.

Movement 1: God and humanity

(Genesis 1–11)
Genesis opens with God creating the heavens and the earth, the stars, the plants,
the animals, and humans: Adam and Eve. God places Adam and Eve in the
Garden of Eden, but they rebel against God, introducing a curse of sin and death to
the world.
Adam and Eve have children (including Cain and Abel), and those children have
children. Eventually the world becomes so violent that God sends a great flood to
destroy the world, but He spares the only righteous man, Noah. Noah builds his
famous ark to escape the floodwaters with his family (and many animals). After
the waters recede, God promises to never again destroy the earth with a flood.
This movement culminates with the strange story of the Tower of Babel. The
people of earth come together to make a great city and a name for themselves. At
this time, God and the divine beings with him scatter the people of earth by
confusing their languages and setting up different nations (Genesis
11, Deuteronomy 32:8).
Movement 2: God and Israel
Act 1: Abraham & Isaac
(Genesis 12–24)
Hundreds of years later, God calls Noah’s descendant, Abram, to leave his family
and journey to the land of Canaan. God promises to bless Abram with many
descendants, and to bless all the nations of the world through him. Abram believes
God’s promise, even though he is old and childless. God considers him to be
righteous, and changes his name from Abram to Abraham. Later, Abraham has a
son, Isaac.
Act 2: Isaac
(Genesis 25–27)
Isaac dwells in the land of Canaan and has twin sons: Jacob and Esau.
Jacob grows up, tricks Esau into giving away his blessing, and Esau’s not too
happy about this. So …
Act 3: Jacob/Israel
(Genesis 28–36)
Jacob then leaves town to live with his uncle. He marries, has 13 children, and
lives with his uncle for 20 years before God calls him back to Canaan. As Jacob
returns to the land of Abraham and Isaac, his name is changed to Israel (35:9–12).
Act 4: Joseph
(Genesis 37–50)
Of Jacob’s 12 sons and one daughter, Joseph is his favorite. Joseph’s brothers sell
him into slavery, and he becomes a prisoner in Egypt. His God-given ability to
interpret dreams becomes valuable to the Pharaoh, however, and so Joseph is
released from prison and made second in command of all Egypt. Joseph warns
Pharaoh that a terrible famine is coming, and stockpiles food for the coming years.
Joseph’s predictions are correct: the famine reaches Canaan, and his brothers come
to Egypt to buy food. The brothers reconcile, and Joseph provides for all the
children of Israel to move to Egypt until the famine is over. The book of Genesis
ends with the death of Joseph, whose last prediction is that God will bring the
children of Israel back to the Promised Land. God begins fulfilling this in the next
movement of the story: the book of Exodus.
Who wrote the book of Genesis?
Genesis is a carefully and intentionally crafted account of Israel’s origin
story. Moses is traditionally credited as the human author of the Old-Testament
book of Genesis. This is because Genesis is part of the Torah, which is known as
the Law of Moses.
The book of Exodus is the story of God rescuing the children of Israel from Egypt
and forging a special relationship with them. Exodus is the second book of
the Pentateuch (the five books of Moses), and it’s where we find the stories of the
Ten Plagues, the first Passover, the parting of the Red Sea, and the Ten
Commandments.
The book gets its name from the nation of Israel’s mass emigration from Egypt, but
that’s only the first part of the story. This book follows Israel out of Egypt into the
desert, where the nation is specifically aligned with God (as opposed to the idols of
Egypt and the surrounding nations). This is the book in which God first lays out his
expectations for the people of Israel—we know these expectations as the 10
Commandments. Most of the Old Testament is about how Israel meets (or fails to
meet) these expectations. So if you want to understand any other book of the Old
Testament, you’ll need a basic understanding of what happens in Exodus.
Important characters in Exodus
Exodus has a tight cast of important characters to keep an eye on.
God (Yahweh)—the creator of heaven and earth and the divine being who chooses
the nation of Israel to represent him on earth. God goes to war against the gods of
Egypt, frees Israel from their tyranny, and then makes a pact with the new nation.
While the rest of the nations serve lesser gods, Yahweh selects the descendants of
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as the people group that will serve him and him alone.
Moses—the greatest of the Old Testament prophets who serves as a go-between
for God and the other humans in the book of Exodus. Moses negotiates with
Pharaoh for Israel’s freedom, passes God’s laws on to the people of Israel, and
even pleads for mercy on Israel’s behalf when they anger God.
Aaron—Moses’ brother and right hand. Aaron assists Moses as a spokesperson,
and eventually is made the high priest of the nation of Israel.
Pharaoh—the chief antagonist in the Exodus story. Pharaoh enslaves the nation of
Israel, commits genocide, and is generally a huge jerk. Pharaoh is worshiped as
part of the Egyptian pantheon: a lesser god laying an illegitimate claim to God’s
people. God defeats Pharaoh and the gods of Egypt by sending a series of ten
devastating plagues, and finally destroying Pharaoh’s army in the Red Sea.
Key themes in Exodus
Exodus is all about God making Israel his own. God rescues the descendants of
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (whom he made some important promises to back
in Genesis). Then, he gives them his expectations—a list of do’s and don’ts.
Finally, God sets up camp in the midst of the new nation: they are his people, and
he is their God.
When God gives Israel the Ten Commandments, he frames them by stating his
relationship to the Hebrews. This verse sums up the themes of Exodus nicely:
“I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the
house of slavery.” (Ex 20:2)
Let’s take a quick spin through some of Exodus’ themes.
Redemption
It’s hard to miss this one! The entire book is about God hearing Israel’s cries for
help, rescuing them from their oppressors, and making them his own.
Covenant
Like the rest of the Torah, covenant is a big theme here. God makes a solemn,
binding agreement with the people of Israel, establishing himself as their god and
them as his people. This relationship comes with certain expectations, with benefits
for the Israelites if they uphold their end of the agreement, and consequences if
they do not.
God’s presence
Toward the beginning of the book, the cries of Israel rise up to God, who hears
them and remembers his promises to Abraham back in Genesis. In the middle of
the book, God meets Israel in the wilderness: he is high atop a mountain, and they
are on the plain below. God is closer to the people, but still a ways off. However,
by the end of the book, God is dwelling in the middle of Israel’s camp in the
wilderness. Moses believes that it is God’s presence among the people that sets
Israel apart from every other nation in the world (Exod 33:16).
Law
This is related to the theme of covenant—specifically, the expectations God has for
the people of Israel. From chapter 20 onward, we start seeing more and more
directives for the people on how to live as the people of God.
Zooming out: Exodus in context
Exodus is where the story of the Bible really starts picking up. God has already
made his promises to Abraham: his descendants would be a mighty people, they
would possess the land of Canaan, and through them the whole earth will be
blessed by God. While in Genesis we see God working through a family, in
Exodus we see God working with an entire nation.
Exodus is a starburst of Old and New Testament theology. God is faithful, and
keeps His promise to Abraham (Gn 15:13–21) by judging the Egyptians and
liberating Israel. The Lord also gives Israel the first iteration of the Law, and
begins to dwell among His people in the tabernacle. God’s liberation of Israel from
slavery foreshadows His work to redeem the nations (Ro 6:17–18), just as His
judgment on His people serves as an example for Christians now (1 Co 10:6–13).
Exodus is also where God reveals His memorial name: YHWH, or LORD (Ex
3:14; 6:3).

An overview of Exodus’ story and structure

Act 1: Prologue
(Exodus 1–2)
Exodus picks up where Genesis leaves off: the young nation of Israel is in Egypt
(they were invited by Joseph, the one with the famous coat). A new Pharaoh
notices the Israelites multiplying, and enslaves them. Afraid of an uprising, he
orders that all Hebrew sons should be cast into the Nile at birth.
But one baby boy escapes this fate: the Hebrew Moses grows up in Pharaoh’s
household. When adult Moses kills an abusive Egyptian slave driver, he flees the
country.
Act 2: God saves Israel
(Exodus 3–19)
Forty years later, God appears to Moses as a burning bush and sends him to deliver
Israel from the hand of Pharaoh.
Moses, with the help of his brother Aaron, confronts Pharaoh on God’s behalf:
“Let My people go” (Ex 5:1). Pharaoh refuses and so God sends those famous 10
plagues upon the Egyptians. When the last plague kills Pharaoh’s son, he finally
allows Israel to leave.
The Israelites celebrate the first-ever Passover, and then set out into the wilderness.
Pharaoh changes his mind and sends his army to recapture them. God saves Israel
miraculously by parting the Red Sea and allowing Israel to escape their would-be
captors—and then uses the sea to wash away Pharaoh’s army. The Israelites leave
Egypt and make their way to the foot of Mount Sinai in the wilderness. God
descends on the top of the mountain, and then, something amazing happens.
Act 3: God makes a covenant with Israel
(Exodus 20–40)
The Israelites leave Egypt and make their way to Mount Sinai, where God gives
His laws to Moses. God makes a covenant with the nation of Israel and the
generations to come: because He rescued them from Egypt, Israel is to observe His
rules. God speaks the Ten Commandments directly to the whole nation of Israel,
and He relays specific ordinances to Moses on the mountain. And the people agree
to it!
After this, God makes plans for a place of worship. He’s going to come down from
the mountaintop and dwell in the midst of the people of Israel—but in order for
this to happen; the people need to prepare a portable tabernacle for him. God gives
Moses the plans for the tabernacle, the sacred furniture, and the garments for the
priests.
But already things aren’t going as planned. While God is giving Moses laws for the
people, the people start worshiping a golden calf … not cool. Moses pleads with
God on Israel’s behalf, and the nation is given another go at keeping God’s
commands.
And so Israel builds the tabernacle: a holy tent. The book of Exodus ends with the
glory of the LORD filling the tabernacle. God is now dwelling among His chosen
people, Israel. However, now there’s another problem: how will the people live in
the presence of such a holy and powerful being?
That’s what the next book, Leviticus is all about.
Who wrote Exodus?
The whole Torah is a carefully, intentionally edited work. Moses is traditionally
credited as the human author of the Old-Testament book of Exodus. This is
because Exodus is part of the Torah, which is known as the Law of Moses. That
doesn’t necessarily mean Moses penned every single word of this book—but since
Moses is the main human character in these books, and since Moses is the one
receiving directives from God, the books are usually attributed to him.
Leviticus is known as a book of rules (which it is). But specifically, it’s a book of
rules that the ancient Israelites believed they had to follow in order to be close to
their God. That’s why it’s a vital piece of the Torah, the foundation of the rest of
Scripture.
We could sum up the book of Leviticus with God’s repeated command: “Be holy,
as I am holy.”
Important characters in Leviticus
God (Yahweh)—This isn’t a cop-out. This whole book is about how the nation of
Israel needs to live in order to survive living in the presence of such a powerful,
holy being.
Moses—He led the Israelites from Egypt to Sinai. At this point in the story, Moses
has already passed along many, many laws to the people of Israel on God’s behalf.
In Leviticus, Moses continues to list the ways Israel can stay pure enough to live
alongside their God.
Aaron—Moses’ older brother and the high priest of Israel, Aaron is a character to
keep an eye on throughout the Pentateuch. Leviticus’s narrative elements have a lot
to do with Aaron. In this book, Aaron is consecrated as the high priest, but this is
also the book in which God kills Aaron’s sons.
Key themes in Leviticus
I like to find a passage in each book of the Bible that sums up what that book is all
about. Moses makes it easy for me:
“Thus you are to be holy to Me, for I the LORD am holy; and I have set you apart
from the peoples to be Mine.” (Le 20:26)
Holiness
“Holy” means “set apart”—but it’s a lot more involved than just being special.
God is holy: far greater in love, goodness, power, and justice than humans. Until
this point in the Bible, God has been a long way off from the people of earth.
Although God has communicated with humans and in some cases even appeared to
them privately (think Abraham’s visitors in Genesis 18), he has yet to publicly
manifest his presence on earth since the garden of Eden.
But all this has changed. God has made Israel his people: a people that now
represent him on earth. He has now established his presence in the tabernacle, a
portable holy place where God can dwell in the midst of his new nation.
But if people are going to live in the presence of God, some things will need to
change. Because God is so “other” from the world, the people associated with him
must become “others” too. God is holy, and his people need to be holy as well.
Cleanliness and uncleanliness
One way that the ancients understood holiness was in terms of whether something
was “clean” or “unclean.” This isn’t the same as “good” or “bad.” It’s a sense
of purity. Is something aligned with the god we are approaching? Or is it
unaligned?
This wasn’t specific to the people of Israel. People of most religions (past and
present) have an understanding that there are ways that are appropriate and
inappropriate when it comes to interacting with the divine. Those who work and
live closest to a divine being are expected to abide by more stringent rules. The
rules vary from religion to religion. We even see this within Christianity today:
some faith traditions prefer married church leaders, others prefer celibate leaders.
This is a core theme to the book of Leviticus. When someone is operating in
alignment with God’s purity laws, they are “clean.” When someone is out of
bounds, they are “unclean.” The book of Leviticus has a lot to say about how to
stay clean and how to become clean again.
An important thing to note: throughout the Pentateuch, Moses assumes that
everyone will be unclean at some point. After all, everybody poops (Dt 23:12–14).
The point is to live in a manner that respects the presence of God.

Zooming out: Leviticus in context

Leviticus is right in the middle of the Torah, the first five books of the Bible. It has
a reputation for being boring, harsh, and unpopular. (But it’s not the least-popular
book of the Bible.)
In Genesis, we saw Israel’s origin story. At the tower of Babel, God and the other
divine beings scattered the families of the world into nations with their own
languages. A few generations later, God chooses Abraham as the patriarch of his
own special nation.
In Exodus, Abraham’s descendants have multiplied, becoming a mighty people
group cohabitating with the Egyptians. The Pharaoh enslaves the people for a few
centuries until God rescues them. After a dramatic exit from Egypt, God makes a
special agreement with Israel, making them his people and himself their only God.
The people then build a tabernacle, and the Creator of the world begins dwelling
among his people.
That’s why Leviticus is so important. It’s a new normal: Yahweh is publicly living
with humans. This hasn’t happened since the Garden of Eden, when God would
visit with Adam and Eve. Last time God shared a place with humans, the humans
(with help from an evil serpent) messed it up. How can they get it right this time?
Not a lot of story happens in Leviticus. The people stay camped at Mount Sinai
throughout the book. It’s not until the book of numbers that they resume their
journey to the promised land—and that journey isn’t completed until the book
of Joshua.
Leviticus’ role in the Bible
Leviticus is about holiness (being set apart, separate)—both God’s holiness and the
holiness He expects of His people.
Whereas Exodus displays God’s holiness on a cosmic scale (sending plagues on
Egypt, parting the Red Sea, etc.), Leviticus shows us the holiness of God in fine
detail. God spells out His expectations for His priests and people so that the
congregation can appropriately worship and dwell with Him.
The call to holiness in Leviticus resounds throughout Scripture, both the Old and
New Testaments. Parts of the Levitical law are fulfilled in Jesus Christ, such as
distinctions between clean and unclean foods (Mark 7:18–19), but the call to
holiness still stands—Peter even cites Leviticus when he encourages us to be holy
in all our behavior (1 Peter 1:15–16).
Quick outline of Leviticus
1. The Holy Priests
1. How to give offerings (Leviticus 1–7)
2. Aaron and sons ordained (Leviticus 8–10)
3. Cleanliness laws for the congregation (Leviticus 11–15)
2. The Holy Place (Leviticus 16)
3. The Holy People (Leviticus 17–27)
Who wrote Leviticus?
The whole Torah is a carefully, intentionally edited work. Moses is traditionally
credited as the human author of the Old-Testament book of Leviticus. This is
because Leviticus is part of the Torah, which is known as the Law of Moses.
That doesn’t necessarily mean Moses penned every single word of this book.
However, Moses is the main human character in these books, and since Moses is
the one receiving directives from God, the books are usually attributed to him.
You’ve heard that the children of Israel wandered in the wilderness for 40
years, right? The book of Numbers tells that story.
Numbers follows Moses and Israel’s journey from the foot of Mount Sinai (which
is where Leviticus ends) to the edge of the promised land of Canaan. If this were a
regular road trip of the time, the journey would only take about two weeks.
So why does it take 40 years? When the people get about halfway there, Moses
sends a few spies into the land to scout it out for the upcoming invasion. (The
current inhabitants probably aren’t going to welcome them with open arms.) Most
of the spies come back in a panic, claiming that the Canaanites are far too powerful
for Israel to overcome. This leads to a revolt, with the people refusing to take the
land. God gives them their wish, decreeing that the whole generation will die in the
wilderness, and the land will be taken by their children.
It’s a vital part of the Torah, Israel’s five-part origin story and the foundation of the
Bible.
Important characters in Numbers
God (Yahweh)—the creator of heaven and earth, who chose Israel as his special
nation and dwells in their midst.
Moses—the prophet and human leader of the nation of Israel. He’s the chief
spokesperson for God to his people, and vice versa.
Aaron—Moses’ brother, and the high priest of Israel.
Eleazar—Aaron’s son, who takes his place when Aaron dies.
Balaam—A diviner for hire from far away. He is hired by Israel’s enemies to
curse God’s people.
Joshua—Moses’ aide who spies on the people of Canaan. God selects him to be
Moses’ successor.
Key themes: what is Numbers about?
There are a lot of weird happenings along the Israelites’ journey—including that
episode with the talking donkey. But the main focus of the book is Israel’s repeated
rebellion and God’s repeated mercy and discipline on his people. If we had to
choose just one verse to sum up the key themes in this book, it would be Numbers
14:11:
“The LORD said to Moses, “How long will this people spurn Me? And how long
will they not believe in Me, despite all the signs which I have performed in their
midst?”
Human rebellion
The Israelites rebel against God and Moses several times in the book of Numbers.
They complain about food. They complain about water. They complain that they’ll
be crushed by their enemies. They complain about Moses (and even make a few
death threats).
Divine punishment
When the people complain, God hears them—and it doesn’t go well. The book of
Numbers has stories of God killing rebellious Israelites with fire, plague, and
snakes. Sometimes Moses calls to God for help when the people turn on him—
sometimes God punishes them directly.
Divine provision
But even though the people prove to be rebellious, God extends mercy to them.
Rather than killing off the whole nation in the wilderness, he waits for the
rebellious generation to die and preserves the younger people. He continues to
provide manna, that mysterious bread from heaven. He even prevents Balaam, the
pagan prophet, from cursing the people.
More laws
This is still the Torah, after all. The book of Numbers is a string of episodes from
Israel’s journey. And the author punctuates many of these episodes with a new set
of laws given to the people. Numbers doesn’t have the big, bulky sets of laws we
see in the latter half of Exodus, Leviticus, and almost the whole of Deuteronomy—
but there’s still plenty of rules in here.
Moses’ leadership
Moses deals with the pressures of leading a new nation, at one point asking God
why he has to bear the burden of leading them to Canaan. He feels like an
unappreciated nanny forced to carry more than 600,000 squalling brats across the
wilderness. Moses tells God early in the book, “I cannot carry all these people by
myself; the burden is too heavy for me. If this is how you are going to treat me,
please go ahead and kill me” (Nu 11:14–15).
Time and time again, God makes it clear to the people that Moses is his chosen
prophet, and Aaron is his chosen priest. However, due to an episode of Moses’
disobedience, he is not permitted to enter Canaan, either.
God’s covenant with Abraham
Back in Genesis, God made a pact with Abraham, saying that one day, his
descendants would inherit the land of Canaan, and through those people all the
nations of the world would be blessed. Furthermore, God promises to bless those
who bless Abraham and curse those who curse Abraham. The name “Abraham”
only shows up once in the book of Numbers, but if you look closely, you’ll see that
God is at work fulfilling his promises to Abraham throughout the book of
Numbers.
As you read and study Numbers, you need to keep an eye on what the book says
about the land of Canaan, what happens when someone tries to curse the people
God chooses, and any hints of a king coming from Israel.
Zooming out: Numbers in context
Numbers isn’t a standalone book. Numbers is the fourth book of the Pentateuch—
Israel’s five-movement origin story. Reading Numbers without at least
familiarizing yourself with the previous three books (Genesis, Exodus, and
Leviticus) is kind of like tuning in to the fourth season of a TV series—you’re not
going to know what’s going on if you didn’t see what happened beforehand.
In Genesis, God makes promises to Abraham, the patriarch of Israel. God
specifically promises that his descendants will be given the land of Canaan, that
the nations would be blessed through him, and that God will bless those who bless
Abraham and curse those who curse Abraham. Abraham’s family grows, and the
book ends with about 70 of his descendants as refugees in Egypt.
At the start of Exodus, the nation of Israel has grown—but they’ve been enslaved
by their Egyptian overlords. God sends his people a prophet, Moses, who speaks
on God’s behalf to both Israel and Pharaoh. God frees Israel, and leads them to a
mountain in the wilderness (Mount Sinai), where he makes a special agreement
with them. They promise to follow his commands, and he promises to dwell among
them, giving them his blessing and protection. The book of Leviticus focuses on
how nations of mortals can cohabitate with the God of heaven.
Numbers picks up the story right as the Israelites have been at Sinai for a year.
Overview of Numbers’ story and structure
Act 1: Preparing to leave Sinai
(Nu 1:1–10:10)
The book opens with Moses taking a census of the people in Israel. (That’s why we
call the book “Numbers.”) Israel has been camping in the wilderness for a year
now, and it’s time for them to be on the move. Moses gives the nation orders for
how the twelve tribes should position themselves as they camp and as they move
through the wilderness—with the tabernacle of God being at the center of the
camp. A good deal of new laws, rituals, and sacrifices that take place here.
Interlude: From Sinai to Paran
(Nu 10:11–12:16)
This isn’t a very pleasant journey. The people complain against God and Moses—
and God sends fire and a plague. Moses’ brother Aaron and sister Miriam speak
out against him, and Miriam is temporarily afflicted with leprosy.
It’s really not great.
Act 2: Israel Rejects the Land
(Nu 13–19)
When the Israelites get about halfway to Canaan, Moses sends twelve spies into
the land to scope it out. Two of them, Joshua and Caleb, tell the people that the
land is good, and God will give it to them. The other 10, however, have no
confidence that they can take the land—they believe the forces protecting Canaan
outmatch Israel.
The nation isn’t very happy to hear this, so they turn on Moses. They refuse to take
the land, and so God says, “OK. You will die in the wilderness and I’ll give it to
your children.”
Interlude: from Paran to Moab
(Nu 20–21)
Things get a little worse before they get better on this trip. Moses disobeys God in
front of the people, and he too is prohibited from entering the Promised Land.
Aaron dies, and his son takes his place. Israel defeats several enemies along the
way. They end up just across the Jordan River from Canaan, in the plains of Moab.
Act 3: Israel settles across from Canaan
(Nu 22–36)
Israel makes camp just across the Jordan River from Jericho (yes, that Jericho).
They’re a force to be reckoned with—they’ve defeated some armies and a few of
the tribes begin settling the east side of the Jordan permanently.
As you can imagine, the surrounding nations are freaked out. They hire a jerk
named Balaam to curse Israel, which doesn’t work out. (Remember God’s promise
to Abraham in Genesis?) Then Balaam gets a different nation to send in their
daughters to seduce the Israelites and get them to worship other gods. That doesn’t
end well for Israel at first (yet another plague). But it’s an even worse deal for the
other nation—five of their rulers and Balaam are killed.
There’s yet another census. Joshua is named Moses’ successor. And generally
speaking, the whole nation is made ready for the next chapter: entering the
Promised Land.
But not just yet. Moses has a very important message for them—but that’s covered
next in Deuteronomy.
Numbers’ role in the Bible
Numbers shows us how a holy God dwells with His people. Israel rebels against
God, and even Moses disobeys Him, but God is faithful to bring this nation to the
Promised Land. God keeps His promises: the promises He made to Abraham
in Genesis along with His promises to bless and punish Israel.
Although few of us are in the nation of Israel’s position today, the stories in
Numbers still serve as good examples to us. Paul teaches that the events in
Numbers are recorded for our instruction, that we may endure and escape
temptation (1 Co 10:11–13).
Finally: Israel is just across the Jordan River from the promised land of
Canaan. Moses has led the young nation out of Egypt and on a 40-year journey
through the wilderness, and they have just defeated several enemies before setting
up camp here. Three of the 12 tribes are already settling the land east of the Jordan,
and the whole nation is almost ready to enter the land God promised to their
ancestor Abraham (back in the book of Genesis).

Forty years earlier, God had rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt. In the
wilderness, the people agreed to form a special agreement (a covenant) with their
God: he would give them the land of Canaan and protect them as their God, and in
return they would keep his laws. However, the people of Israel violated God’s laws
almost as soon as he gave them. That generation forfeited the promised land
(which you can read about in Numbers), and now a new generation is about to
make the journey into the land instead.
Before they do, Moses rallies the people to remind them of God’s law—and why
they should obey Him. This is how the book of Deuteronomy gets its name: it’s the
“second giving” of God’s law.
Theme verses of Deuteronomy
I call heaven and earth to witness against you today, that I have set before you life
and death, the blessing and the curse.
So choose life in order that you may live, you and your descendants, by loving the
LORD your God, by obeying His voice, and by holding fast to Him; for this is
your life and the length of your days, that you may live in the land which the
LORD swore to your fathers, to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, to give them.
(Dt 30:19–20)
Deuteronomy’s role in the Bible
Deuteronomy reviews the Torah and foreshadows the rest of the Old Testament‘s
story. In Deuteronomy, Moses reminds the people of God’s actions in the past:
 His promises to Abraham in Genesis

 His faithfulness in rescuing Israel in Exodus

 His holiness in Leviticus

 His punishment on the disobedient in Numbers

Moses also gives directions, blessings, and warnings, for the children of Israel in
the future:
 The appointment of Joshua as the new leader

 God’s expectations of kings—which take effect when Saul becomes king in 1

Samuel
 Prosperity for obeying God—which happens during David‘s and Solomon‘s

reigns (1 Kgs 8:56; 10:14–29)

 Exile for disobedience—which happens when the tribes are conquered by

Assyria and Babylon (2 Kgs 17:6–23; 25:1–26)

 God’s promise to restore Israel—which happens when Cyrus allows the Jews

to return from Babylon in Ezra.

Deuteronomy is primarily the retelling of Mosaic Law, but its text is still important
today.
When asked what the greatest commandment is, Jesus cites Deuteronomy 6:5:
“You shall love the LORD your God with all your heart, and with all your soul,
and with your entire mind, and with all your strength” (Mk 12:30). Jesus quotes
Deuteronomy three times when the devil tempts Him in the wilderness (Mt 4:1–
11).
Deuteronomy focuses on loving God and keeping His commandments (Dt 11:1),
which is exactly what Christ expects of us (Jn 14:15).
Quick outline of Deuteronomy
1. Recap of Israel’s journey from Egypt (Dt 1–3)
2. Recap of Israel’s relationship with God (Dt 4–10)
3. How to love God and keep His commandments (Dt 11–26)
4. Blessings, curses, and restoration (Dt 27–30)
5. The death of Moses (Dt 31–34)