UNIT 1

History back ground, exhaust gas pollutants, vehicle population assessment in metropolitan cities and
contribution to pollution, effect on human health and environment, global warming, acid rain, type of
emission exhaust & non exhaust emission, transient operational effect on pollution

Historical Overview: Engine and Vehicle Emission Control

Year Event and milestone

1965 The first vehicle exhaust emissions standards were set in California, USA
1970 Vehicle emission standards set in European countries
1981 Three-way catalytic converters and closed-loop feedback air-fuel ratio
control for simultaneous conversion of CO, HC and NOx introduced on
production cars
1992 Euro 1 emission standards needing catalytic emission control on gasoline
vehicles implemented in Europe
1994 Catalytic emission control for engines under lean mixture operation
introduced
1994 US Tier -1 standards needing reduction in CO by nearly 96%, HC by
97.5% and NOx by 90%
2004 US Tier -2 standards needing reduction in CO by nearly 98 %, HC by
99%
and NOx by 95%

Principal Engine Emissions

SI Engines CO, HC and NOx

CI Engines CO, HC, NOx and PM
CO = Carbon monoxide, HC = Unburned hydrocarbons, NOx = Nitrogen oxides mainly mixture
of NO and NO2 , PM = Particulate matter
Other engine emissions include aldehydes such as formaldehyde and acetaldehyde primarily
from the alcohol fuelled engines, benzene and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).

FIGURE 1:Emission sources in a gasoline fuelled car

Emissions and Pollutants
Engine emissions undergo chemical reactions in atmosphere known largely as ‘photochemical’
reactions and give rise to other chemical species which are hazardous to health and environment.
Linkage of engine emissions and air pollutants is shown in Fig

Health Effects of Air Pollutants

The effect of pollutants on human health depends on pollutant concentration in the ambient air
and theduration to which the human beings are exposed. Adverse health effects of different
pollutants onhuman health are given in Table for short term and long term exposures. Carbon
monoxide oninhalation is known to combine with hemoglobin at a rate 200 to 240 times faster
than oxygen thusreducing oxygen supply to body tissues and results in CO intoxication. Nitrogen
oxides get dissolved inmucous forming nitrous and nitric acids causing irritation of nose throat
and respiratory tract. Long termexposure causes nitrogen oxides to combine with hemoglobin
and destruction of red blood cells. Longterm exposure resulting in more than 10% of hemoglobin
to combine with nitrogen oxides causesbluish coloration of skin, lips fingers etc

Pollutants Short-term health Long-term health effects

effects
Carbon Headache, shortness of Effects on brain and central nervous system,
monoxide breath, nausea, vomiting, cardiac and pulmonary
dizziness, impaired judgment, functional changes, loss of consciousness and
lack of motor coordination death
Nitrogen Soreness, coughing, chest Development of cyanosis especially at lips,
dioxide discomfort, eye irritation fingers and toes, adverse changes in cell
structure of lung wall
Oxidants Difficulty in breathing, chest Impaired lung function, increased
tightness, eye irritation susceptibility to respiratory function
Ozone Similar to those of NO2 but at Development of emphysema, pulmonary
a lower concentration edema
Sulfates Increased asthma attacks Reduced lung function when oxidants are
present
TSP/Respirable Increased susceptibility to Many constituents especially poly-organic
suspended other pollutants matter are toxic and carcinogenic, contribute
particulate to silicosis, brown lung
Effect of Pollutants on Environment:

a. Unburned Hydro Carbons ( UBHC ):

The major sources of UBHC in an automobile are the engine exhaust, evaporative losses from
fuel system blow by loss and scavenging incase of 2-stroke petrol engines. Unburned or partially
burned hydrocarbons in gaseous form combine with oxides of nitrogen in the presence of
sunlightto formphotochemicalsmog

The products of photochemical smog cause watering and burning of the eyes and affect the
respiratory system, especially when the respiratory system is marginal for other reasons. Some of
the high molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons have been shown to be carcinogenic in
animals. Some of the unburned hydrocarbons also serve as particulate matter in atmosphere.
b. Carbon monoxide:

Carbon monoxide is formed during combustion in engine only when there is insufficient supply
of air. The main source is the engine exhaust. The toxicity of carbon monoxide is well known.
The hemoglobin the human blood which carries oxygen to various parts of the body has great
affinity towards carbon monoxide than for oxygen. When a human is exposed to an atmosphere
containing carbon monoxide, the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is reduced and results in
the formation of carboxyhemoglobin. Due to this the human is subjected to various ill effects and
ultimately leads to death.
The toxic effects of carbon monoxide are dependent both on time and concentrationas
shown in thediagram.

c. Oxides of Nitrogen( NOx ) :

Oxidesofnitrogen(NO, NO2, N2O2etc)areformedathighercombustion temperaturepresent

inengines and theengineexhaust is themajorsource.
 Like carbonmonoxide, oxides of nitrogen also tend to settle on the hemoglobinin
lood.Theirmost undesirableeffectistheirtendencytojoinwithmoistureinthelungsto form
dilutenitricacid.Becausetheamountsformedare minuteand dilute, their effectis verysmallbutover
along periodoftime can becumulativelyundesirable,especially whenthe respiratoryproblemsfor
other reasons arefound.

e. Particulates:

Particulatemattercomesfrom hydrocarbons,leadadditivesandsulphurdioxide. If lead is usedwith

the fuelto controlcombustionalmost70% of theleadis airborne withthe exhaust gasses. In
that30%ofthe particulatesrapidlysettletothe ground whileremaining remainsintheatmosphere.Lead
is wellknown toxiccompound

Engine emissions
Vehicles without emission control have three sources of emissions

Exhaust emissions : Almost all of 100% of NOx and CO, and 60% of HC
are emitted through the engine exhaust or vehicle
tailpipe
Crankcase emissions: About 20% of HC are emitted via crankcase blow by
gases
Evaporative Emissions: Fuel evaporation from tank, fuel system, carburettor
and permeation through fuel lines constitute another
20% of total HC
Exhaust Emission Concentrations

SI Engine (Gasoline fuelled)

Depending upon engine operating conditions without catalytic control engine out emissions
range :

CO 0.2 to 5% by volume (v/v)

HC 300 to 6000 ppmc1*, v/v
NOx 50 to 2000 ppm, v/v
*ppmc1= parts per million as methane measured by Flame Ionization Analyzer/Detector(FIA or
FID)

CO emissions are high under engine idling and full load operation when engine is operating on
fuel richmixtures. HC emissions are high under idling, during engine warm-up and light load
operation, acceleration and deceleration. NOx are maximum under full engine load conditions.
CI (Diesel) Engines
Diesel engines usually operate with more than 30% excess air band the emissions are
accordinglyinfluenced.

CO 0.03 to 0.1 %, v/v

HC 20 to 500 ppmc1
NOx 100 -2000 ppm
PM 0.02 to 0.2 g/m3 (0.2 to 0.5% of fuel
consumption bymass)

Global warming:
 Global warming is defined as the increase of the average temperature on Earth.
 As the Earth is getting hotter, disasters like hurricanes, droughts and floods are getting
more frequent. Over the last 100 years, the average air temperature near the Earth’s
surface has risen by a little less than 1 degree Celsius or 1.3 degrees Fahrenheit.
 Deforestation increases the severity of global warming. The ocean is a huge carbon sink,
holding about 50 times as much carbon as the atmosphere. The oceans are no longer able
to store carbon as they have in the past.
 Burning fossil fuels such as natural gas, coal, oil and gasoline raises the level of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere, and carbon dioxide is a major contributor to the greenhouse
effect and global warming.
 The climate change would increase the number of people suffering from death, disease
and injury from heatwaves, floods, storms and droughts. Floods are low-probability,
high-impact events that can overwhelm physical infrastructure and human communities.
Major storm and flood disasters have occurred in the last two decades. One can help to
reduce the demand for fossil fuels, which in turn reduces global warming, by using
energy more wisely.

TRANSIENT OPERATIONAL EFFECT ON POLLUTION:

Motor vehicles are an important source of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, volatile organic
compounds, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter. A key gap in our understanding of these
emissions is the effect of changes in vehicle speed and engine load on average emission rates for
the on-road vehicle fleet. Engine load and vehicle speed are closely linked to fuel consumption
and pollutant emission rates. Factors that affect engine load directly include wind resistance, tire-
roadway friction, vehicle acceleration, roadway grade, engine friction, and use of accessories
such as air conditioning. These sources of engine load are in turn determined by a combination
of vehicle attributes (e.g., engine displacement, vehicle mass, transmission efficiency) and
vehicle operating conditions. Operating conditions such as vehicle speed and acceleration are
affected by traffic congestion, driver mentality, traffic signals, posted speed limits, etc. Improved
understanding of the link between operating conditions and emissions will help in the assessment
of interventions such as adding lanes to highways, traffic signal synchronization, traffic calming
measures, on-ramp metering, and changing/enforcing posted speed limit.
Under high-load conditions, some engines are commanded to operate fuel-rich . This maximizes
engine torque, reduces knock, and protects the catalytic converter from excessive temperatures.
While operating fuel-rich, emissions of CO and VOC increase dramatically. Remote sensing
studies also show that exhaust HC concentrations are high under coasting or braking conditions ,
although fuel throughput is low under light-load operating conditions.
Roadway tunnels enable measurement of emissions from large numbers of on-road vehicles.
These investigations take advantage of the fact that emissions from motor vehicles inside tunnels
can be isolated from other sources. Unlike remote sensing, which measures emissions of
individual vehicles as they drive by a roadside sensor, tunnel studies provide fleet-average
emission results. A previous tunnel study that addressed the effect of roadway grade and,
consequently, engine load on exhaust emissions was performed by Pierson et al. That study
found that driving uphill on a 3.8% grade roughly doubled CO and NOx emission factors
expressed per unit distance traveled and increased the VOC emission factor by 50% as compared
to downhill driving on a 0.6-3.8% grade in the Fort McHenry Tunnel. When normalized to fuel
consumed rather than distance traveled, emission rates of CO, VOC, and NOx for uphill and
downhill driving were all the same within experimentaluncertainty. More recently, emissions
were shown to depend on driving conditions in a Swedish tunnel that includes both uphill and
downhill sections, with emission factors in grams per kilometer increasing by a factor of up to 10
during congested driving periods compared to smooth driving conditions (17). The goal of the
present research is to measure on-road vehicle emissions of CO, CO2, NOx, and NMHC as
functions of both vehicle speed and specific power. These parameters were chosen as the closest
observable on-road analogues to engine speed and mean effective pressure used in engine
dynamometer studies to define operating conditions. Specific power (SP) is the power required at
the tire-roadway interface divided by vehicle mass. SP is closely related to road load (23) and
total tractive power (8). Jimenez-Palacios (6) has shown that CO, VOC, and NOx emissions are
better correlated with SP than with other common single parameters such as speed, acceleration,
or power. In this work, we report hightime resolution measurements of CO, CO2, and NOx
emissions inside a highway tunnel. In most other tunnel studies, only 1-h average or longer
integrated results are reported, which greatly reduces the ability to capture effects of changes in
driving conditions on emissions

Emission Factors for CO and NOx:

Increases in CO2, CO, and NOx concentrations between tunnel entrance and exit varied
depending on pollutant, traffic direction, and traffic volume. For downhill driving, typical
increases in concentration were 100-150 ppm for CO2, 2-3 ppm for CO, and 90-130 ppb for
NOx. For uphill driving where more fuel is being burned, concentrations from entrance to exit
typically increased by 200-600 ppm for CO2, 10-15 ppm for CO, and 400-1100 ppb for NOx.
Average emissions of vehicles traveling through the tunnel were determined by carbon balance
using known gasoline properties.. For downhill driving conditions during morning hours,
average CO emission factors were between 16 and 34 g L-1, with greater variability at a given
time of day as compared to uphill measurements. Variability results in part from a lower signal-
to-noise ratio for downhill driving. Also note that downhill emissions were sampled on 5 d as
compared to 9 d for uphill driving. Uphill driving conditions observed during afternoon and
evening hours had average CO emission factors between 27 and 75 g L-1 with low emission
factors between 4:00 and 6:30 p.m. and higher emission factors both before and after this peak
traffic period. While the CO emission factor (normalized to fuel consumption) for downhill
driving was not significantly different from the uphill measurements from 4 to 6:30 p.m., CO
emission factors during off-peak hours in the early afternoon and evening increased by a factor
of 2. Downhill driving in the morning ranged from 1.1 to 3.3 g L-1. A trend of decreasing NOx
emission factors over the first half of the morning may be present. For uphill driving, NOx
emission factors typically ranged between 3.8 and 5.3 g L-1. NOx emissions for downhill driving
were lower than for uphill driving during the 4-6:30 p.m. peak period. In the afternoon, NOx
emission factors were high before rush hour, reached a minimum during the 4-6:30 p.m. period,
and were at a maximum at the end of the day. While both CO and NOx emission factors showed
this pattern, CO emission factors varied more than NOx over the course of the afternoon and
evening
Emission Factor Dependence on Vehicle Speed.
Motor vehicle emissions are known to depend on engine load, with distance-based emission
factors showing greater variability than fuel-based factors (16). The change in engine load from
downhill to uphill driving will contribute to differences between morning and afternoon emission
factors. Additional engine load effects may be caused by changes in vehicle speed shown in
Figure 3. For downhill driving, speeds were typically 80-100 km h-1, with a minimum occurring
between 7 and 9 a.m. when traffic volume was highest. For uphill driving in the afternoon,
average speeds were typically 60- 90 km h-1. Minimum vehicle speeds occurred when traffic
volume was greatest, from 4:00 to 6:30 p.m. During this period gradual acceleration occurs
inside the tunnel, whereas at off-peak hours vehicles enter and exit the tunnel at the same speed.
In comparing vehicle speeds shown in Figure 3 with CO and NOx emissions shown in Figures 1
and 2, a correlation is apparent, particularly in the afternoon. To show the relationship more
clearly, Figures 4 and 5 present emissions behavior as a function of average driving speed of the
fleet through the tunnel. As shown in Figure 4, the CO emission factor depends strongly on
speed for uphill driving and is independent of speed for downhill driving. The NOx emission
factor (Figure 5) also varies with vehicle speed for uphill driving, although less strongly than CO
emissions.

Emission Factor Dependence on Specific Power:

CO and NOx emission factors are presented here as a function of a single engine load parameter:
SP. SP is the sum of external forces opposing vehicle motion multiplied by vehicle speed and
divided by vehicle mass. In the same way that mean effective pressure is more useful than torque
when discussing engines of varying size, SP is more useful than power when comparing vehicles
of different size because engine power typically scales with vehicle mass