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Optimal design of trapezoidal lined channel with least cost: Semi-theoretical

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DOI: 10.4314/wsa.v41i4.07

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 Optimal design of trapezoidal lined channel with least cost: Semi-
theoretical approach powered by genetic programming

FA Tofiq1 and A Guven1*

Civil Engineering Department, University of Gaziantep, Üniversite Bulvarı, 27310, Gaziantep-Turkey
1

ABSTRACT
In this paper the effects of the aspect ratio (width to depth ratio, b/d) on the cost of a trapezoidal concrete-lined channel
(either power channel or irrigation channel) are analysed. The recommended b/d ratios given in the literature and their
limitations are also discussed. Efforts are made to derive an equation for determining the optimal depth of the water from
known parameters such as discharge, velocity and bed slope for concrete-lined channels. An equation for finding the
minimum possible discharge within a specific velocity and bed slope is developed based on a semi-theoretical approach.
The same approach is followed to obtain another formula for finding the maximum possible velocity for a specific discharge
and bed slope. The obtained equations eliminate the iteration process commonly involved in finding the dimensions of a
trapezoidal channel. A relation is developed for finding the aspect ratio in response to a given discharge and bed slope by
using linear genetic programming techniques. The results show that the proposed model can be successfully applied in the
design of lined channels as an alternative to existing methods.

Keywords: lined channel, power channel, irrigation, design, genetic programming

INTRODUCTION The following steps summarize the recommended proce-

dure for determining the proportions of a lined channel section
In developing countries suffering from water scarcity, the con- (Chow, 1959; French, 1986):
servation of water is vital, as demand for this natural resource • (Step 1) Estimate Manning’s coefficient (n) and determine
continues to rise rapidly, and, simultaneously, new sources of longitudinal slope (S)
supply become harder to find. In arid regions, water losses from • (Step 2) Compute the section factor:
unlined small field channels are usually high due to seepage
nQ
and evaporation from open surfaces. These losses are often ​ ​  =  ___
A​R2/3 ​  __ ​ (1)
​ S ​ 
√
neglected by many project planners and engineers (Moghazi
and Ismaeli, 1996). In developing countries, many sections where: A is the cross-sectional area (m2), R is the hydraulic
within the length of open channels are unlined, which causes radius (m), Q is the discharge (m3/s), S is the bed slope, and n
considerable water loss (Arshad et al., 2009). The rate of water is the Manning’s roughness coefficient (s/m1/3). Solve Eq. 1 for
loss depends on soil characteristics within the region of the a given depth. In this step, width and side slope for trapezoi-
project as well as on hydraulic parameters (wetted perimeter dal sections may be assumed based on the type of the soil and
and hydraulic radius) and discharge parameters (velocity and topography, in order to find water depth.
cross-section). The benefits of lining irrigation channels with • (Step 3) Check minimum and maximum permissible velocities
the aim to reduce these losses cannot be ignored. Channel lin- • (Step 4) Estimate free board value
ing plays an increasing role in preventing water loss and thus
improving irrigation facilities (Monadjemi, 1994). A number of Eq. 1 can be rearranged to be Eq. 2 and Eq. 3 as derived by
research studies have been undertaken toward optimal design Trout (1982)
of canal cross-sections and water saving in irrigation systems
​A5/3 (​​  bd + z​
d2​ ​  )5/3
​  ​ ​ = ​  ______________ nQ
​​ ​  ​  = ​ ___
(Ghazaw et al., 2000; Swamee et al., 2000; Swamee et al., 2002; A​R​2/3​  = ​ ____   
   _____ __ ​  (2)
​ ​ [​​  b + 2d​√ 1 + ​z2​ ​ ​  
​P2/3 ]2/3
​​ ​ √ ​ S ​ 
Ghazaw et al., 2011).

(  )
Since the lining will add extra cost to the project, the _____
expenditure on a lining project should be justified when the
[​​  (b/d) + 2​
d = ​ ________________
     
]​​ ​ ​  nQ
√ 1 + ​z2​ ​ ​  
1/4
 ​​​ ___
3/8
__ ​  ​​ ​ (3)
resultant annual benefit exceeds the annual cost, including ​​[ ​( b/d )​  +  z ]5/8
​​ ​ ​√ S ​ 
interest on capital investment. Adopting a lining project instead where: d is the depth of water (m), b is the bed width of the
of continuing to use an existing unlined irrigation system has channel (m) and z is side slope. In order to solve Eq. 3, aspect
several advantages, such as reduction in the land occupied by ratio (b/d) should be assumed.
the channel, saving in cost of earth works and auxiliary works, According to Subramanya (1986), the relationship between
and other positive effects (Ghumman et al., 2012). For a lin- width and depth varies widely depending on the design prac-
ing project the savings from the previously mentioned benefits tice. If the hydraulically most-efficient channel section is
should be equal to or greater than the additional cost of lin- adopted, z = 1/√3, b = 2d/√3, b/d = 1.1547. If any other values of
ing. Hence, optimal design of a lined channel is of immense z are used the ratio would be as follows:
importance.
_____
​  b ​   = 2​( ​√ 1 + ​z2​ ​ ​  −  z )​ 
__ (4)
d
* To whom all correspondence should be addressed.
☎ +903172429, E-mail: [email protected] in which the aspect ratio depends totally on side slope z (Guo
Received 22 October 2014; accepted in revised form 4 June 2015 and Hughes, 1984).

http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v41i4.07
Available on website http://www.wrc.org.za
ISSN 1816-7950 (On-line) = Water SA Vol. 41 No. 4 July 2015
Published under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence 483
 The Central Water Commission (CWC), which is a tech- optimum cross-section is as follows: (French, 1986; Trout, 1982)
nical organization in the field of water resources under the 2​K​1​
Ministry of Water Resources of the Government of India, ​  b ​   = ​ ____________________
__   
   1/2 ​ (10)
recommend that the aspect ratio be considered as a function of 2 2 [ 
d  − ​K​ ​  + ​​ ​K​  2​ + 20​
​ 
E (  ) ]
​  B ​   ​​K1​ ​  ​​ ​
__
discharge, as given in Table 1 (Subramanya, 1986). where:
As mentioned by Chow (1959), United States Bureau of
[  (  ) ]
_____
Reclamation (USBR) proportioned channel section by empiri- ​K​1​ = 20(​z​2​ + 1) − ​ 1 + 4​ __ ​  B ​   ​  ​4z​√ ​z​2​  +  1 ​  (11)
cal rules E

(  (  )
_____

d = 0.5​√ A ​ 
__
(5)
B
E )
​K​2​ = ​ 1 − ​   ​   ​6​√ ​z​ ​ + 1 ​  − 10z​ __
__ 2
​  B ​   ​
E
(12)

In these formulas B is the cost of base lining material for a

For a trapezoidal channel this can be expressed as follows (i.e. specified thickness per unit area; E is the cost of side lining
b/d as a function of side slope). material for a specified thickness per unit area. The aspect
ratio in Eq. 10 depends on the cost of lining for the sides and
​  b ​  = 4 − z
__ (6) bed of the channel as well as the side slope. In these formulae,
d
the excavation cost is not taken into consideration, unlike the
According to Chow (1959), Indian engineers have also propor- case presented in this research. Minimum cost design of lined
tioned channel sections by another empirical rule: channels involves minimization of the sum of depth-dependant
__ excavation cost and cost of lining (Swamee et al., 2000).
​  A ​ ​  
d = ​ __
√3
(7) In this study, an attempt is made to develop a relation-
ship between the aspect ratio and other factors, such as the
For trapezoidal sections this can be expressed as follows (i.e. discharge, bed slope, and velocity. In this approach, a semi-
b/d as a function of side slope): theoretical approach is followed. This approach determines the
optimal aspect ratio in lined trapezoidal channels based on
​  b ​  = 3 − z(8)
__ maximum permissible velocity, minimum discharge criteria,
d using linear genetic programming techniques. The results
A similar cross-sectional function to Eq. 4 was adapted by from application of the proposed formulae, when compared
Blackler and Guo (2009) and the following aspect ratio was to the results arising from the use of the conventional formu-
introduced taking into consideration the cost factor: lae commonly reported on in the literature, reveals that the
proposed method can be successfully applied in the design of
_____
​  b ​   = 2​( 1 − C )​​( ​√ 1 + ​z2​ ​ ​  −  z )​
__ (9) lined irrigation channels as a superior alternative to conven-
d tional options.
where: C is the cost factor determined by channel lining cost
to land cost ratio. This equation is not applicable in the case of METHODOLOGY
having a ratio of 1 or more.
Trout (1982) noticed that the open channel cost optimi- Analysis of relation between b/d ratio and the cost of channel
zation problem is analogous to the classic microeconomic
problem of minimizing production costs through input sub- For analysing the effect of the aspect ratio (b/d) on the cost of
stitution. In this case, the output of the system is the hydraulic the cross-section, 12 cross-sections have been designed by usk-
capacity, whereas the inputs are the variables which define the ing the assumptions given in Table 2.
channel geometry and the production function is the equa- The continuity equation and Eq. 3 were used to find the
tion for the section factor. Based on this the aspect ratio for the dimensions of the channel cross-section. The cost per unit

TABLE 1
Recommended aspect ratio (b/d) for different discharges (CWC)
Q (m3/s) 0.3 3 14 28 140 285
b/d 2 4 6 7.5 14 18

TABLE 2
Assumed values of channel design parameters
Item Description and assumptions
Discharge 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 m3/s
Aspect ratio (b/d) 0.1 up to 1.8 with increasing interval of 0.1
Manning’s coefficient (concrete) 0.017 (Chin, 2006)
Bed slope 0.002 and 0.001
Side slope (z) 1.5 H:1.0 V (i.e. z=1.5)
Free board 0.6 m for Q less than 10 m3/s and 0.75 m for Q more than 10 m3/s (IS 10430:2000)
Cost of excavation US$ 10 per cubic meter of cut and/or fill (cost in Iraq – 2012)
Cost of lining US$ 250 per cubic meter of concrete (cost in Iraq – 2012)

http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v41i4.07
Available on website http://www.wrc.org.za
ISSN 1816-7950 (On-line) = Water SA Vol. 41 No. 4 July 2015
Published under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence 484
length for lining and excavation of the channel is considered for considered (i.e. same discharge, bed slope and side slope) to
purposes of comparison to depend on the determined cross- evaluate the recommended aspect ratio value according to
sections and unit prices given in Table 2. formulae given by other researchers (Table 3). It has been
Plots of the unit cost of the channel against b/d ratio in noted that the aspect ratio is variable in most of the cases.
Fig. 1a–f reveal that the minimum cost corresponds to a b/d This difference is noticed even when only one factor is taken
ratio of about 0.40. It can be also noted from the curves that into consideration, i.e., the side slope. Furthermore, similar
the cost increases when the aspect ratio b/d increases. Another differences have been noted in the CWC recommendations,
factor which plays an important role in the increase in cost is where the discharge Q is taken into consideration, and also in
the bed slope, as can be observed from the curves in Fig. 1a–f. the case of Trout (1082) and Blackler and Guo (2009) where
The same conditions applied to the variables were the cost ratio is considered.

Figure 1
Figure 1
Cost of channel
Cost vsvsb/d
of channel for(a)(a)
b/d for Q =Q5 m
= 35/s;m
(b)3/s; (b)mQ
Q = 10 3
/s;=(c)10
Q =m15/s; (c) Q = 15 m3/s;
3 m3/s; (d) Q = 20 m3/s; (e) Q(d) Qm=3/s; (f) Q = 30 m3/s
= 25

20 m3/s; (e) Q = 25 m3/s; (f) Q = 30 m3/s

TABLE 3
Recommended b/d ratio according to other authors
Research (Eq.#) b/d ratio
Guo and Hughes (Eq. 4) 0.605
CWC (Table 1) 4–8
USBR (Eq. 6) 2.5
Indian Engineers (Eq. 8) 1.5
Trout (1982) (Eq. 10) 0.606

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 Aspect ratio (b/d) and/or depth (d) as a function of Q, V, and S velocity for concrete lining of 2.7, recommended by IS 10430
(2000), was approximatedto 3 m/s. 225 channel cross-sections
In order to study the relationship between the aspect ratio (b/d) were used to develop the relations, based on the previously
and water depth, along with other variables, such as discharge, mentioned assumptions. In order to get the value of d and b/d
velocity and bed slope of open channels, an Excel spreadsheet was for each of the previously mentioned cases, an Excel spread-
developed for determining the dimensions of the cross-section sheet was developed to solve Eq. 2 along with the continuity
corresponding to a known series of the other variables. In other equation, in an iterative manner.
words, a series of different channel cross-sections was designed From the relation between aspect ratio and discharge for
after fixing the discharge, velocity, bed slope, and side slope values. different cases, it could be noted that the line in some cases
The following procedures and assumptions have been adopted intersects with the X-axis, Q (Fig. 2). This means that in this
in this study: specific case we cannot obtain the targeted values of velocity
• The flow in the channels is assumed to be steady and uniform. and bed slope. Accordingly, an envelope curve is developed to
• Continuity and Manning’s equations are used as a base for show the limitation of minimum possible discharges in each
the calculations. case by taking the intersection point of each individual case,
• The channels are assumed to be concrete lined. as shown in Fig. 3. The envelope curve shown in Fig. 3 can be
• The Manning roughness coefficient value for concrete is represented by an equation by making multiple regressions for
taken as 0.017 (Table 4). the data. Thus the expression will be as follows:
• The cross-section of the channel is assumed to be
trapezoidal. ​V​  ​​ 
4.02
​Q​ min ​ = 2.48 × 1​0​−5​​ ____ (13)
​S1.48
​ ​
• The side slope is fixed at 1.5H: 1.0V, taking into consideration
the USBR recommendation in this regard (Chow, 1959). with correlation coefficient R = 0.998.
Efforts were made to develop a formula that combines
In addition to the above assumptions, 6 different bed slopes are the relationships between the aspect ratio b/d, Q, V, and S.
assumed for each case. These are: 0.002, 0.001, 0.0005, 0.00025, However, the formula found for this objective showed a poor
0.0002, and 0.00015. Discharges are assumed to be within the correlation of R = 0.6 compared to the results for other mod-
range 0 < Q ≤ 50 m3/s with an incremental interval of 5 m3/s. els. As an alternate choice, we find a correlation between d, Q,
This discharge range was assumed based on the range of small V, and S. In order to obtain this correlation, an expression is
hydropower channel discharges. targeted as a multiple regression formula for the data using an
Various velocities are assumed to take the following val- Excel spreadsheet and Neural Power software, which is a gen-
ues of 1, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.5 and 3.0 m/s, as applicable. The eral, integrated, and powerful artificial neural network (ANN)
minimum permissible velocity introduced by Chow (1959) program. The results of this work were as follows:
was approximated it to 1 m/s, and the maximum permissible
​V​ ​   ​ 
d = 1.21 × 1​0​−3​​ _________
1.858
(14)
​Q0.1116
​ ​​S0.884
​ ​
with correlation coefficient R = 0.99.

Figure 2 Figure 3
Figure 2 Figure 3
Discharge and b/d when S = 0.001, z = 1.5, n = 0.017 and for different Minimum
Minimum possible
possible discharge for discharge for and
specific bed slope specific bed slope and velocity
velocity
Discharge and b/d when S=0.001, z=1.5, n=0.017 and for different velocities
velocities

TABLE 4
Manning roughness coefficients in rigid-boundary for open channels (Chin, 2006)
Minimum Normal
Type Characteristics Maximum n
n n
Finished with gravel on
0.015 0.017 0.020
Concrete bottom
Unfinished 0.014 0.017 0.020

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3
 In Eq. 14, the only difficulty may be the assumption of the • Step (ii): Pick 4 programs randomly (tournament selection)
value of velocity. For this purpose, in all of the cases the cor- out of the population programs. Compare these 4 programs
responding section for maximum velocity for each discharge based on fitness function and pick 2 winners.
(which corresponds to the smallest cross-section) and within • Step (iii): Apply the search operators (mutation and cross-
a specific bed slope has been extracted from the main data over) to the winners and produce two ‘offspring’ as follows:
(design of sections). Consequently, through a multiple regres- -- Cross-over the 2 winners with cross-over frequency
sion analysis, the following equation is derived: -- Mutate each winner program with mutation frequency
• Step (iv): Replace 2 losers in the tournament with the win-
​V​ max ​ = 12.63​Q0.24
​ ​​S0.36
​ ​ (15) ner offspring generated in step (iii).
• Step (v): Repeat from step (ii) to step (iv) until the run is
with correlation coefficient R = 0.98. terminated (goal is reached).
• Step (vi): Finally, convert the best program of the well-
To get the optimal depth (Eq. 16) based on the maximum pos- trained LGP into a functional representation by successive
sible velocity, Eq. 15 is substituted into Eq. 14: replacements of v[i] starting with the last effective instruc-
tion (optimizing and simplifying the best program).
​Q0.334
​ ​
​d​opt​  =  0.135​ _____  ​  (16)
​S​0.215​ Further information on the LGP technique can be acquired
where: dopt is the optimal depth of water. The bed width can be from Brameier (2004) and Oltean and Grosan (2003). A limited
obtained from the continuity equation. number of LGP applications in water engineering have been
recorded by Guven (2009), Guven and Kisi (2011), and Traore
Linear genetic programming for obtaining b/d as a and Guven (2011).
function of Q and S In this section LGP is used to model the relation between
the aspect ratio, Q and S. The velocity is assumed to be the
Linear genetic programming (LGP) is an extension of conven- maximum probable value obtained from Eq. 15. Another group
tional genetic programming, first introduced by Brameier and of cross-sections was designed for the same range of discharges
Banzhaf (2001). The term ‘linear’ refers to the representation (0 < Q ≤ 50 m3/s) and with the same six different bed slopes,
of the computer programs, but a LGP chromosome (program) by fixing the side slope at z = 1.5, and Manning coefficient at
contains highly non-linear functions. The most significant n=0.017, obtained from Table 4. The total number of newly
strength of LGP is that it evolves computer programs very designed cross-sections was 60.
quickly by running directly on the computer processor in a Out of the total number of 60 input-output sets (Q, S, b/d),
low-level language (like C or C++) (Oltean and Grosan, 2003). 40 sets (66%) were used in training and the remaining 20 (33%)
An excerpt from a LGP program can be, for example: were reserved for validation purposes. The function set of a
r[0] +  = 0.94 LGP system is composed of arithmetic operators (+, - , /, *) and
r[0]/ = v[1] functions (ex, xa, cos, sin, tan, log, sqrt). In this study, after
r[1] +  = r[0] several runs, the functional set and operational parameters
r[0]* = r[1] given in Table 5 were found to give the best results. The fitness
r[0] +  = v[2] of LGP individuals is computed by using the mean square error
(MSE). The maximum size of LGP programs was limited to 64
where: v[i] represents the input variables, r[1] is the temporary instructions per program. These configurations were evaluated
computation variable, the output of which is the value remain- for each corresponding LGP model and were experienced as
ing in r[0] after the program executes. sufficient. After the MSE between the predicted and observed
A brief algorithm for the LGP technique can be given as values for the training stage of each LGP program reached an
follows (Brameier, 2004): unchanged minimum (generally lower than 0.5), the training
• Step (i): Initialize a population of candidate programs ran- of LGP was stopped. Each trained LGP program was converted
domly (size of population and program is pre-set). into a simplified functional form as shown in Eq. 17:

TABLE 5
Parameters of the LGP model
Description of parameter Setting of parameter
Function set +, -, *, /, √, power
Population size 250
Mutation frequency % 95
Crossover frequency % 50
Number of replication 10
Block mutation rate % 30
Instruction mutation rate % 30
Instruction data mutation rate % 40
Homologous crossover % 95
Program size initial 16, maximum 64

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 ​ ​  +  2.66​​( QS )1/4
b/d = 0.669​Q1/8 ​​ ​ (17) per unit length has been calculated for both cases (existing and
new design) based on the same unit price mentioned in Table 2.
with correlation coefficient R = 0.990 and MSE = 0.001 Table 7 shows a comparison between the total cost in both cases
(Fig. 4). Eq. 17 looks like a simple regression equation (existing and proposed design). It can be noted from Fig. 5 that
although it is the final simplified representation of the pre- in almost all cases the proposed design cost is less than the
mentioned complex LGP modelling. Also the Nash-Sutcliffe existing one. Nevertheless the equation is applicable to cases
model efficiency applied to Eq. 17 and the obtained effi- where the discharges exceed the discharge range used in deriv-
ciency coefficient of 0.989 revealed a near-perfect match of ing the new equations (i.e. 0 < Q ≤ 50 m3/s).
modelled data (Nash and Sutcliffe, 1970).
CONCLUSION
Application in case study
This study presented a semi-theoretical approach coupled
In order to evaluate the application of the new equation (Eqs 16 with the linear genetic programming (LGP) technique,
and 17), the properties of 10 existing channels were obtained which predicts the optimal depth and the aspect ratio b/d of
(Table 6). The existing channels have been redesigned using
Eqs 16 and 17 (Table 6). The total cost of lining and excavation

Figure 4 Figure 4 Figure 5

Comparison between original and calculated (b/d) from Eq. 17 Cost comparison between the existing design and the proposed design
Comparison between original and calculated (b/d) from Eq. 17
of the channels

TABLE 6
Properties of existing channels used as case studies and dimension for proposed design
Existing
Proposed design
channel
Region z dimension*
No. Name of channel Q (m /s)
3
S dimension
(country) (H/V)
b
d (m) b/d d (m) b (m)
(m)
1 Yakacık HPP Hatay (Turkey) 5.30 0.00020 1.5 1.60 2.00 1.3 1.47 1.91
Ceyhan Basin
2 Kozak HPP 15.00 0.00050 1.5 2.50 1.90 1.72 1.71 2.94
(Turkey)
3 Manniaru Canal Tamilnadu (India) 43.20 0.00014 1.5 30.48 1.52 1.81 3.20 5.79
4 Bhakra Canal Haryana (India) 192.00 0.00017 1.5 12.30 5.40 2.42 5.05 12.22
Uttar Pradesh
5 Yamuna Power Canal 198.00 0.00017 1.5 10.98 5.71 2.44 5.11 12.47
(India)
6 Mahi Right Bank Canal Gujarat (India) 198.10 0.00007 1.5 16.46 6.23 2.21 6.18 13.66
Satluj Yamuna Link
7 Punjab (India) 212.00 0.00011 1.5 14.02 5.99 2.35 5.74 13.49
Canal
Uttar Pradesh
8 Lower Ganga Canal 4 213.00 0.00008 1.5 51.45 3.36 2.27 6.15 13.96
(India)
9 Westren Kosl Canal Bihar (India) 236.70 0.00009 1.5 35.06 4.33 2.34 6.21 14.53
Sunder Nagar Hydel
10 Himachal (India) 240.69 0.00021 1.5 9.45 6.26 2.59 5.21 13.49
Canal
* Note: (b/d) from Eq. 17 and (d) from Eq. 16.

http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v41i4.07
Available on website http://www.wrc.org.za
ISSN 1816-7950 (On-line) = Water SA Vol. 41 No. 4 July 2015
Published under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence 488
 TABLE 7
Total cost of lining and excavation (USD /unit length)
# Name of channel Existing design cost (USD/m) Proposed design cost (USD/m)
1 Yakacık HPP 312.25 240.74
2 Kozak HPP 335.45 321.78
3 Manniaru Canal 1 398.65 772.07
4 Bhakra Canal 1 895.85 1 760.35
5 Yamuna Power Canal 1 904.70 1 801.26
6 Mahi Right Bank Canal 2 580.70 2 315.63
7 Satluj Yamuna Link Canal 2 268.50 2 123.19
8 Lower Ganga Canal 3 483.75 2 329.23
9 Westren Kosl Canal 3 066.05 2 403.78
10 Sunder Nagar Hydel Canal 1 979.90 1 916.86

concrete-lined channels, provided that the discharge Q and the genetic programming and neural networks in medical data mining.
bed slope S are known. The side slope and Manning coefficient IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput. 5 (1) 17–26.
were assumed as z = 1.5 and n = 0.017, respectively. CHIN DA (2006) Water Resources Engineering. Pearson Education
Inc., New Jersey.
The proposed model automatically designs the most eco-
CHOW VT (1959) Open Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, New York.
nomical trapezoidal cross-section for a concrete lined channel FRENCH RH (1986) Open Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, Singapore.
under maximum permissible velocity. Equation 15 gives the GHAZAW YM (2011) Design and analysis of a canal section for mini-
maximum permissible velocity which is thereafter used in Eq. mum water loss. Alexandria Eng. J. 50 (4) 337–344.
14 to get the optimal depth of flow (Eq. 16). The bed width b is GHAZAW Y, SALEM AAS and KHAIRy O (2000) Minimum-cost
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