PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

LEARNING MODULE 03:

Climb and Drift
Performance

AE 321 – AERODYNAMICS II

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
Rate of Climb 5 5
Gliding Flight 1 10
Absolute and Service Ceiling 1 13
Time to Climb 1 15
Introduction to Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy Method) 20
Sample Problems 28
Plate No. 1 32

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd Edition) [E-book].
1
McGraw-Hill Book Company
Jones, B. (1939). Elements of Practical Aerodynamics (2nd Edition) [E-
2
book]. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics [E-book]. Pitman Publishing Limited. 3
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th Edition)
4
[E-book]. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Figures and Tables No.

Figures 3.1-3.15 are taken from the reference above. 1
Note that tables presented are made for organizing purposes only.

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Materials Time (min)
Modules
Rate of Climb 30
Gliding Flight 20
Absolute and Service Ceiling 20
Time to Climb 40
Introduction to Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy
50
Method)

References
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd
158.8
Edition) [E-book]. McGraw-Hill Book Company

Activities Time (min)

Sample Problems 70
Plate No. 1 120
Quiz No. 1 120
TOTAL 628.8 min (10.48 hrs)

HONESTY CLAUSE
As members of the academic community, students are expected to recognize and
uphold standards of intellectual and academic integrity. The institution assumes as a
basic and minimum standard of conduct in academic matters that students be honest
at all times and that they submit for credit only the products of their own efforts.

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 PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Program Learning Outcomes (PLO)
Course Learning Outcomes (CLO)
PLO 1: Apply knowledge of Module Learning Outcomes (MLO)
mathematics, physical CLO 1: Valuing the study of Topic Learning
sciences, engineering subsonic aerodynamics and Outcomes (TLO)
MLO 1: Explain the steady,
sciences to the practice of its application on the aviation unaccelerated rate of climb TLO 1: Discuss the
aeronautical engineering. industry through concept of rate of climb
of an aircraft through a force
PLO 4: Function in multi- aerodynamic computations using force diagrams.
diagram. TLO 2: Derive working
disciplinary and multi-cultural on aircraft performance. MLO 2: Formulate equation equations for rate of climb
teams CLO 3: Quantify using force diagrams.
for steady unaccelerated
PLO 5: Identify, formulate, aerodynamic forces along TLO 3: Discuss the
rate of climb using equations effect of power excess in
and solve aeronautical flight using aerodynamic of motion. rate of climb through
engineering problems. equations derived from aerodynamic data and
MLO 3: Solve problems
PLO 8: Understand the Newton’s Second Law of formula.
involving steady, TLO 4: Compute
impact of aeronautical Motion. unaccelerated rate of climb problems involving rate of
engineering solutions in CLO 4: Utilize knowledge in climb using working
using the derived working
global, economic, airplane performance by equations derived for
equations. steady, unaccelerated rate
environmental, and societal applying theories and MLO 4: Explain the steady, of climb.
context principles of flight in solving TLO 5: Discuss the
unaccelerated gliding flight
PLO 9: Recognize the need problems. concept of gliding flight
of an aircraft through a force using force diagrams.
for, and engage in life-long CLO 5: Display analytical diagram. TLO 6: Derive working
learning skills by performing equations for gliding flight
MLO 5: Formulate equation
PLO 11: Use techniques, computations in flight using force diagrams.
for steady, unaccelerated TLO 7: Compute
skills, and modern performance problems. gliding flight using equations problems involving gliding
engineering tools necessary CLO 9: Display professional flight using working
of motion.
for aeronautical engineering commitment to ethical equations derived for
MLO 6: Solve for gliding steady, unaccelerated
practice practice by showing sense of velocity, gliding angle, range gliding flight.
PLO 12: Knowledge and responsibility in complying TLO 8: Differentiate
and rate of descent through
understanding of and compiling academic absolute and service ceiling
problems sets and/or of an aircraft through their
engineering and requirement. module activities. definition and specific rate
management principles as a of climb.
MLO 7: Explain absolute
member and leader in a TLO 9: Derive working
ceilings and service ceilings equations for determining
team, to manage projects
through their definitions and time to climb using the
and in multidisciplinary equation of rate of climb.
specific property.
environments. TLO 10: Derive working
MLO 8: Formulate working equations for determining
PLO 13: Apply acquired
equations for time to climb absolute ceiling using time
aeronautical engineering to climb equation.
using the rate of climb
knowledge and skills for TLO 11: Explain the rate
equation. of climb using the energy
national development.
MLO 9: Explain the rate of method through
climb using the energy discussions and
computations presented in
method concept the module.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

CONTENT
I. Rate of Climb
A. Equations of Motion
Consider an aircraft right after takeoff. As the nose rotates upward and
the aircraft climbs to its cruising altitude in no time. If we focus on the
aircraft while it is climbing steadily as shown on the figure below, we
have:

Figure 3.1 Flight Diagram of an Airplane in Climb

The velocity along the flight path and the flight path itself is inclined at
an angle ϴ to the horizontal. Lift and drag are perpendicular and
parallel to the flight path (and 𝑉∞ ), respectively. The weight is
perpendicular to the horizontal pointing to the ground. Looking at
closely in the free body diagram, we have the equations of motion by
summation of forces parallel and perpendicular:

Summation of Forces
Parallel Direction 𝑇 = 𝐷 + 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Perpendicular Direction 𝐿 = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

The equations above show that the thrust does not only overcome the
effects of drag for steady and level climb but it also need to overcome
an additional component of lift. On the other hand, the lift on the aircraft
in a steady level climb is less than the weight.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

Multiplying the summation of forces parallel to the flight path by 𝑉∞ :

𝑇𝑉∞ = 𝐷𝑉∞ + 𝑊𝑉∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑇𝑉∞ − 𝐷𝑉∞
= 𝑉∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑊
From the right hand side of the equation, it corresponds to the vertical
component of the flight velocity. This vertical velocity is called the rate
of climb.
𝑅/𝐶 = 𝑉∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

On the left hand side of the equation, we have 𝑇𝑉∞ = 𝑃𝐴 and the 𝐷𝑉∞ =
𝑃𝑅 which is represented by the Power available curves and the power
required curves. However, for climbing flight, 𝐷𝑉∞ is no longer precisely
the power required assumed for steady level flight because as shown
by the equations of motion, the thrust supports not only the drag but
also the component of lift where power must be applied to overcome
these forces. Nevertheless, for small climb angles 𝜃 < 20⁰, it is
reasonable to neglect this fact and to assume that the term 𝐷𝑉∞ is the
power required from steady level flight. From these assumptions, we
now have:
𝑇𝑉∞ − 𝐷𝑉∞ = 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝑅 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑅/𝐶 =
𝑊
𝑃𝐸
𝑅/𝐶 =
𝑊

The equations above hold true for both propeller-driven and jet driven
airplanes. Power excess is illustrated by the figures below for propeller-
driven and jet driven aircrafts respectively.

Figure 3.2 Power Excess for Propeller and Jet Driven Aircraft

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

Note that the PR curve shown above are taken, for convenience, as
those values for steady level flight. Thus, in conjunction with these
curves, the rate of climb equation in terms of power excess is an
approximation to the rate of climb which is good only for small values of
ϴ. To be more specific, the power required vs velocity for climbing
flight is smaller compared to the same curve taken for level flight simply
because drag (D) is smaller for climbing flight than for level flight at the
same velocity.

To prove the point made in the statement above, consider an aircraft

with the following conditions:
Given:
𝑊 = 5000 𝑙𝑏
𝑆 = 100 𝑓𝑡 2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 0.015
𝑒 = 0.6
𝐴𝑅 = 6
𝑉∞ = 500 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 @ 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑆𝑒𝑎 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐶)

If the airplane is assumed to be in level flight, we have:

𝐿 𝑊
𝐶𝐿 = = = 0.168
𝑞∞ 𝑆 1 2
2 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + = 0.015 + 0.0025 = 0.0175
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

If the airplane is assumed to be in a climb at 30⁰:

𝐿 = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳

𝐿 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳
𝐶𝐿 = = = 0.145
𝑞∞ 𝑆 1 2𝑆
𝜌 𝑉
2 ∞ ∞
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + = 0.015 + 0.0019 = 0.0169
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

The values for total drag coefficient (CD) for level flight is indeed greater
than for the climbing flight. In addition to this, since L is smaller for
climbing flight, a smaller CL would yield a small induced drag as
compared to level flight conditions. Consequently, the total drag for
climbing flight is smaller than that for level flight at the same velocity.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

Referring again, to the figure above, we can see that the power excess
is different at different values of velocity. The maximum values of
power excess for both graphs is dictated by the value of velocity and at
this point we have:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅/𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑊 𝑊

The figure 3.3 below shows, that at maximum power available for an
aircraft, the maximum power excess yields the maximum rate of climb
that can be generated by an aircraft at that altitude. A conventional
graphical method of determining maximum rate of climb is by graphing
R/C vs 𝑉∞ where a horizontal tangent defines the point of maximum
rate of climb as shown in letter (b).

Figure 3.3 Maximum R/C and Maximum Excess Power

Another useful construction is the hodograph diagram, which is a plot

of the airplane’s vertical velocity 𝑉𝑣 versus it horizontal velocity 𝑉ℎ .
Recall that the rate of climb is the vertical velocity of the aircraft, thus a
horizontal tangent to the hodograph defines the point of maximum R/C.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

In addition to that, any line from the origin and intersecting the graph
has the slope 𝑉𝑣 /𝑉ℎ , which is the angle of climb with respect to the
horizontal axis. In addition to that, the length of the line is equal to 𝑉∞
(resultant). As this line is rotated counter clockwise from the reference
horizontal axis, the value of R/C first increases, then goes to a
maximum and then decreases, finally the line becomes tangent to the
graph which gives the maximum climb angle (or the best climb angle)
for which the airplane can maintain steady flight (shown as 𝛳𝑚𝑎𝑥 ). Note
that the maximum R/C does not occur at 𝛳𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

Climb angle is given by:

𝑅/𝐶
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑉∞

Figure 3.4 Hodograph for Best Climb angle and Maximum R/C

For modern aircrafts, large excess power and high thrust available
allow climbing flight at any angle. An example is the high-performance
military aircrafts which can accelerate to supersonic speeds flying
straight up. For those large climb angles, the previous analysis made in
this module is not valid.

Going back to figure 3.2, notice that a difference in low speed rate of
climb performance can be seen between the two types. For a piston
engine-propeller combination, large excess power is available at low
values of velocity just above the stall. Thus, for an airplane on its
landing approach, this gives a comfortable margin of safety in case the
aircraft needed to climb (balked landings). On the contrary, the power
excess available for jets at low velocities, as shown in letter (b), is low
which corresponds to a reduced rate of climb ability as compared to the
piston engine-propeller combination.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

II. Gliding Flight

A. Equations of Motion
Asdfas
Consider an aircraft in a power-off glide, as shown in the figure 3.5
below. The forces acting on the aircraft are lift, drag and weight, but
remember that we considered an aircraft to be in a power-off glide so
that the thrust is zero. The glide path makes an angle 𝜃 below the
horizontal reference axis. For a steady, unaccelerated glide, the sum of
the forces must be equal to zero.

Figure 3.5 Force Diagram for Gliding Flight

From the summation of forces parallel and perpendicular, we have:

Summation of Forces
Parallel Direction 𝐷 = 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Perpendicular Direction 𝐿 = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

The glide angle can be calculated by dividing the equations above:

𝐷 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=
𝐿 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐷 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = =
𝐿 𝐿/𝐷

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

The equation for glide angle shows that it is a function of the lift to drag
ratio. The higher the lift to drag ratio, the shallower the glide angle.
Thus, the smallest glide angle (𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) occurs at ((𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥 which means
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 and corresponds to the maximum range for the glide as
shown below.

𝐷 1
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = arctan( ) = arctan( )
𝐿 (𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥

Figure 3.6 Glide Angle and its Range

B. Gliding Velocity
From the equations of motion for gliding flight, we know that:
𝐿 = 𝑞𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1
𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2
2𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉2 =
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉𝑔 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
C. Gliding Range
Referring to figure 3.6, we have the following relations:
ℎ 𝐷
tan 𝜃 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 tan 𝜃 =
𝑅 𝐿
ℎ
tan 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
1
tan 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
(𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

Equating:
ℎ 1
=
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥

D. Rate of Descent
Referring to figure 3.6 in terms of velocity, we have the following
relations:

Vg
RD
𝜃

Range

𝑅𝐷
sin 𝜃 =
𝑉𝑔
𝑅𝐷 = 𝑉𝑔 sin 𝜃
2𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉𝑔 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝐷 𝐶𝐷 sin 𝜃
tan 𝜃 = = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 tan 𝜃 =
𝐿 𝐶𝐿 cos 𝜃
𝐶𝐷
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 ∗
𝐶𝐿
Substituting to RD, we have:
𝑅𝐷 = 𝑉𝑔 sin 𝜃
2𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐶𝐷
𝑅𝐷 = √ cos 𝜃 ∗
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿

2𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝐶𝐷2
𝑅𝐷 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿3
For minimum rate of descent:
2𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃
𝑅𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
√ 𝐶3
𝜌𝑆 ( 𝐿2 )
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where: 3𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

III. Absolute and Service Ceilings

For the sake of discussion, consider a propeller driven aircraft which
shows qualitatively the same result for jets. The power available and
power required are given by the graph in figure 3.7 shown below. Notice
that with an increase in altitude, there is a decrease in power excess. This
can be proven by graphing power available and power required curves for
different altitudes and comparing it at sea level values of power excess.

Figure 3.7 Comparison of Power Excess

The result of the reduction in power excess as altitude increases is that,

the maximum rate of climb decreases as shown in the figure 3.8 below
where the altitude vs R/C max is plotted.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

Figure 3.8 Altitude vs. Maximum R/C

As the aircraft climb at a higher altitude, there will come a point at some
altitude where the power available and power required curves become
tangent with each other as shown by figure 3.9 below. This results in a
zero power excess and this is the only velocity where level and steady
flight is possible. Since the power excess is zero, this denote that the rate
of climb is also zero which means that beyond this altitude the aircraft can
no longer climb at a higher altitude. The altitude where the maximum rate
of climb is zero is defined as the absolute ceiling. Another useful
quantity, is the service ceiling, which is defined as the altitude
corresponding to a max rate of climb of 100 ft/min. The service ceiling
represents the practical upper limit of steady level flight.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

Figure 3.9 Graphical Representation of Zero Rate of Climb

Remember that the rate of climb at service ceiling for:

100 ft./min
Propeller Driven Aircraft

Jet Driven Aircraft 500 ft./min

IV. Time to Climb

In aircraft performance, the time to climb of an aircraft to its design altitude
is an important design consideration. For instance, a commercial airplane
should rapidly climb to its designate altitude in order to avoid inclement
weather, passenger discomfort and traffic avoidance. The time it takes to
climb after takeoff is crucial primarily because passenger safety should
always be prioritized. On another note, say, a fighter aircraft need to
launch from an aircraft carrier and climb as fast as it could to intercept an
invading enemy. The time it took from its takeoff until reaching the desired
altitude is of great importance.

From the definition of rate of climb, it is the vertical velocity component of

an aircraft in climb. Velocity is simply the rate of change of distance where
the distance is the altitude for this case. We have the following equations:

𝑑ℎ
𝑅/𝐶 =
𝑑𝑡

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑅/𝐶

The equations above show that dt is a small increment in time required to

climb a small increment of altitude (dh). From integral calculus we have:
𝑡 ℎ2
𝑑ℎ
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
0 ℎ1 𝑅/𝐶
ℎ2
𝑑ℎ
𝑡 =∫
ℎ1 𝑅/𝐶
The equation above shows the time to climb from a lower altitude h 1 to a
higher altitude h2.

In order for the equation for time to climb to be useful, we should find a
rate of climb equation (R/C equation) in terms of the variable which is
height, h for this case.

From the similar triangles and definition of absolute and service ceilings,
we have:

Absolute Ceiling

h
Altitude

RCh RCO

Rate of Climb

Since the variation of rate of climb to altitude is linear, then from the graph
of altitude versus rate of climb, we can obtain a rate of climb equation
using similar triangle relationships.

From the figure, we can see the absolute ceiling where we defined that the
rate of climb is zero. Remember that rate of climb at sea level is
designated as (𝑅𝐶𝑜 ). Now, if we consider another altitude (h) anywhere

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

from sea level to the absolute ceiling (except service ceiling), then a
corresponding rate of climb (RCh) at that altitude will be given.
From similar triangles, we have:
𝐴𝐶
𝐵𝑖𝑔 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
𝑅𝐶𝑜
ℎ
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
𝑅𝐶𝑜 − 𝑅𝐶ℎ
Equating both triangles, we have:
𝐴𝐶 ℎ
=
𝑅𝐶𝑜 𝑅𝐶𝑜 − 𝑅𝐶ℎ
Notice that, a variable h is now visible in the equation and the 𝑅𝐶ℎ is the
rate of climb equation we are looking for. Therefore, solving for 𝑅𝐶ℎ :
𝐴𝐶 (𝑅𝐶𝑜 − 𝑅𝐶ℎ ) = ℎ(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )
𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝐶𝑜 − 𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝐶ℎ = ℎ(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )
𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝐶ℎ = 𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝐶𝑜 − ℎ(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )
𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝐶𝑜 − ℎ(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )
𝑅𝐶ℎ =
𝐴𝐶
(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )ℎ
𝑅𝐶ℎ = 𝑅𝐶𝑜 −
𝐴𝐶

Substituting from the time to climb, we have:

ℎ2 ℎ2
𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ
𝑡 =∫ = ∫
ℎ1 𝑅/𝐶 ℎ1 𝑅𝐶ℎ

ℎ2
𝑑ℎ
𝑡 =∫
ℎ1
(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )ℎ
𝑅𝐶𝑜 − 𝐴𝐶

The equation for time to climb is now useful for any two altitudes.
Remember that the triangle similarity can also be used for service ceiling
and yield the equation:
𝐴𝐶 𝑆𝐶
=
𝑅𝐶𝑜 𝑅𝐶𝑜 − 𝑅𝐶𝑆𝐶
Where:
𝑅𝐶𝑆𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 100 𝑓𝑡./𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝐶𝑆𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐽𝑒𝑡 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 500 𝑓𝑡./𝑚𝑖𝑛

Further solving for time to climb may be done by the following analysis,
Let:
𝐴𝐶 = 𝐻
ℎ1 = 0

17 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )ℎ
𝑅𝐶ℎ = 𝑅𝐶𝑜 −
𝐴𝐶
(𝑅𝐶𝑜 )ℎ
𝑅𝐶ℎ = 𝑅𝐶𝑜 −
𝐻
ℎ
𝑅𝐶ℎ = 𝑅𝐶𝑜 (1 − )
𝐻
𝐻−ℎ
𝑅𝐶ℎ = 𝑅𝐶𝑜 ( )
𝐻
ℎ2 ℎ2
𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ
𝑡 =∫ = ∫
ℎ1 𝑅/𝐶 ℎ1 𝑅𝐶ℎ
ℎ2
𝑑ℎ
𝑡 = ∫
𝐻−ℎ
0 𝑅𝐶𝑜 ( 𝐻 )
ℎ2
𝐻 𝑑ℎ
𝑡 = ∫
𝑅𝐶𝑜 0 𝐻 − ℎ
𝐻
𝑡 = [ln 𝐻 − ln(𝐻 − ℎ)]
𝑅𝐶𝑜
𝐻 𝐻
𝑡 = ln
𝑅𝐶𝑜 (𝐻 − ℎ)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝑡 = ln
𝑅𝐶𝑜 (𝐴𝐶 − ℎ)
For time in minutes:
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝑡 = 2.303 log10
𝑅𝐶𝑜 (𝐴𝐶 − ℎ)
Where:
𝑅𝐶𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡./𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝐶 (𝑜𝑟 𝐻) 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡.

Finding Absolute Ceiling by time to climb formula

Since the time to climbs is a function of ceiling, it is possible to use this
relation to find the ceiling of an airplane by noting the altitudes attained at
twice the time in a continuous climb. Thus, if the time it takes from 0 to h1
is twice the time to climb from 0 to h2. Note that h1 and h2 are any altitude
in the atmosphere below the absolute ceiling (AC).
𝐻 𝐻
𝑡 = ln
𝑅𝐶𝑜 (𝐻 − ℎ)
𝐻 𝐻
𝑡1 = ln
𝑅𝐶𝑜 (𝐻 − ℎ1 )
𝐻 𝐻
𝑡2 = ln
𝑅𝐶𝑜 (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
Dividing, t2 by t1:

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

𝐻 𝐻
𝑡2 ln (
𝑅𝐶𝑜 𝐻 − ℎ2 )
=
𝑡1 𝐻 𝐻
𝑅𝐶𝑜 ln (𝐻 − ℎ1 )
𝐻
𝑡2 ln (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
=
𝑡1 ln 𝐻
(𝐻 − ℎ1 )
𝑡2 𝐻 𝐻
(ln ) = ln
𝑡1 (𝐻 − ℎ1 ) (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
𝑡2 /𝑡1
𝐻 𝐻
ln [ ] = ln
(𝐻 − ℎ1 ) (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
From the assumption that t2 = 2t1:
2
𝐻 𝐻
ln [ ] = ln
(𝐻 − ℎ1 ) (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
2
𝐻 𝐻
[ ] =
(𝐻 − ℎ1 ) (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
𝐻2 𝐻
2
=
(𝐻 − ℎ1 ) (𝐻 − ℎ2 )
𝐻2 (𝐻 − ℎ2 ) = 𝐻 (𝐻 − ℎ1 )2
𝐻 (𝐻 − ℎ2 ) = (𝐻 − ℎ1 )2
(𝐻2 − 𝐻ℎ2 ) = 𝐻2 − 2𝐻ℎ1 + ℎ12
𝐻2 − 𝐻ℎ2 = 𝐻2 − 2𝐻ℎ1 + ℎ12
−𝐻ℎ2 = −2𝐻ℎ1 + ℎ12
2𝐻ℎ1 − 𝐻ℎ2 = ℎ12
𝐻(2ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) = ℎ12
ℎ12
𝐻=
(2ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
ℎ12
𝐴𝐶 =
(2ℎ1 − ℎ2 )

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

V. Introduction to Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy Method)

Modern fighter aircrafts are capable of highly accelerated rate of climb.
This goes beyond the considerations we have made for unaccelerated rate
of climb in the previous sections. In this section, we will introduce a
method dealing with the energy of an airplane which is entirely different
from the forces acting on the airplane that we have considered before.

Consider an aircraft of mass m in flight at some altitude h and with some

velocity V. Due to its altitude, the airplane inherently has a potential
energy, PE, which is equal to the product of its mass, altitude, and
gravitational acceleration (mgh). Due to its velocity, the airplane has
kinetic energy, KE, equal to (1/2)𝑚𝑉 2 . Therefore, the total energy of the
airplane is the sum of its energies.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸

1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝑚𝑉 2
2
The energy per unit weight of the airplane is obtained by dividing, W = mg
which yields the specific energy, denoted by He as:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸

=
𝑊 𝑊
1 2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑚𝑔ℎ 2 𝑚𝑉
= +
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
1 2
𝑚𝑔ℎ 2 𝑚𝑉
𝐻𝑒 = +
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
𝑉2
𝐻𝑒 = ℎ +
2𝑔
Note that by dimensional analysis, we have:
𝑁𝑚
𝐻𝑒 = =𝑚
𝑁
Therefore, the specific energy is given in terms of height, which is why it is
also called the energy height of the aircraft. The energy height, H e of the
aircraft is the sum of its potential and kinetic energies per unit weight.

20 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

Figure 3.10 Energy Height Contours

The figure above shows contours of constant energy height, He which is

simply an Altitude-Mach number map where the dashed lines represent
the lines of constant energy height.

Example:
Consider airplane A and airplane B flying at 30,000 ft. and 10,000 ft.
respectively. If airplane A is flying at M = 0.81 and airplane B is flying at M
= 1.3, then by calculation both aircrafts have the same energy height, H e of
40,000 ft.
Solution:
For 30,000 ft:
𝑅
𝑇30𝑘 = 519 𝑅 − (0.003566 ∗ 30000 𝑓𝑡)
𝑓𝑡
𝑇30𝑘 = 519 𝑅 − 106.98 𝑅
𝑇30𝑘 = 412.02 𝑅
𝑎 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑡
𝑎 = √1.4 ∗ 1716 ∗ 412.02 𝑅
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑅
𝑎 = 994.91 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑉 = 𝑀𝑎

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑉 = 0.81 ∗ 994.91 = 805.55
𝑠 𝑠
𝑉2
𝐻𝑒𝐴 = ℎ +
2𝑔
𝑓𝑡
(805.55 𝑠 )2
𝐻𝑒𝐴 = 30,000 +
2(32.2)
𝐻𝑒𝐴 = 400076.2547 𝑓𝑡 ≈ 40000 𝑓𝑡

For 10,000 ft:

𝑅
𝑇30𝑘 = 519 𝑅 − (0.003566 ∗ 10000 𝑓𝑡)
𝑓𝑡
𝑇30𝑘 = 519 𝑅 − 35.66 𝑅
𝑇30𝑘 = 483.34 𝑅
𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑡
𝑎 = √1.4 ∗ 1716 ∗ 483.34 𝑅
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑅
𝑎 = 1077.58 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑉 = 𝑀𝑎
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑉 = 1.3 ∗ 1077.58 = 1400.85
𝑠 𝑠
2
𝑉
𝐻𝑒𝐵 = ℎ +
2𝑔
𝑓𝑡
(1400.85 𝑠 )2
𝐻𝑒𝐵 = 40000 +
2(32.2)
𝐻𝑒𝐵 = 40471.75305 𝑓𝑡 ≈ 40000 𝑓𝑡

As shown by our computation, the energy height for airplane A and B are
both 40000 ft. However, airplane A has more potential energy than kinetic
energy while airplane B has more kinetic energy than potential energy. If
both airplanes maintain their same states of total energy, then both are
capable of zooming to an altitude of 40,000 ft. at zero velocity
(represented by point C) simply by trading all their kinetic energy for
potential energy.

Consider another airplane, D, flying at an altitude of 50,000 ft at M = 1.85

which gives us an energy height of 100,000 ft and is indeed capable of
zooming to 100000 ft by trading its kinetic energy for potential energy.
Since airplane D is in a much higher energy state (100000 ft), compared to
airplane A and B (40000 ft), it has much greater capability for speed and
altitude performance. In air combat, having high H e, everything else being
equal, is favorable compared to aircrafts with smaller H e.

22 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

How does an airplane change its energy state? How could airplane A and
B increase their energy height equal to that of airplane D? Let us try to
quantify.

Recall that from the rate of climb free body diagram and applying Newton’s
Second Law of motion:

𝑑𝑉
𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑊
𝑚=
𝑔
𝑊 𝑑𝑉
𝑇 − 𝐷 = 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 +
𝑔 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝑉
𝑇 − 𝐷 = 𝑊 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + )
𝑔 𝑑𝑡
𝑇−𝐷 1 𝑑𝑉
= (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + )
𝑊 𝑔 𝑑𝑡

Multiplying both sides by V, we have:

𝑇−𝐷 1 𝑑𝑉
∗ 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + )
𝑊 𝑔 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑉 − 𝐷𝑉 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
= (𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + ) 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑅/𝐶 = 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑊 𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Recall that from power excess:
𝑇𝑉 − 𝐷𝑉 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
= = 𝑃𝑠
𝑊 𝑊
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
Therefore, specific power excess:
𝑑ℎ 𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑃𝑠 = ( + )
𝑑𝑡 𝑔 𝑑𝑡
The equation for specific power excess states that an airplane with excess
power can use this excess for rate of climb (dh/dt) or to accelerate along
its flight path (dV/dt) or for a combination of both.

Example:
Consider an airplane in level flight at a velocity of 800 ft/s. Assume the
pilot pushes the throttle all the way forward, an excess power is generated
in the amount Ps = 300 ft/s. The equation for Ps illustrates that the pilot can
choose to use all this excess power to obtain a maximum unaccelerated
rate of climb of 300 ft/s (dV/dt = 0 and Ps = dh/dt = R/C). In this case the
velocity along the flight path stays at 800 ft/s.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

Alternatively, the pilot can choose to maintain level flight (that is dh/dt = 0)
and to use all the excess power to accelerate at the rate of dV/dt where:
𝑑𝑉 𝑔𝑃𝑠 32.2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 (300 𝑓𝑡/𝑠)
= = = 12.1 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑉 800 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
On the other hand, some combination could be achieved by, such that the
rate of climb dh/dt =100 ft/s along with an acceleration along the flight path
of dV/dt = 8.1 ft/s2.

𝑑ℎ 𝑉 𝑑𝑉
Note that 𝑃𝑠 = ( 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑔 𝑑𝑡 ) is a generalization of R/C equation given for
steady climb where as in this section, we are treating a more general case
of climb with a finite acceleration.

Returning to the energy height, we can derive and express it in terms of dt:

𝑉2
𝐻𝑒 = ℎ +
2𝑔
𝑉𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝐻𝑒 = 𝑑ℎ +
𝑔

Multiplying both sides by 1/dt:

𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝐻𝑒 ∗ = 𝑑ℎ +
𝑑𝑡 𝑔
𝑑𝐻𝑒 𝑑ℎ 𝑉𝑑𝑉
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑔𝑑𝑡
The differential form of energy height as shown above is identical to P S (in
ft/s):
𝑑𝐻𝑒 𝑑ℎ 𝑉𝑑𝑉
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑔𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ 𝑉𝑑𝑉
𝑃𝑠 = +
𝑑𝑡 𝑔𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐻𝑒
𝑃𝑠 =
𝑑𝑡
Therefore, the time rate of change of energy height is equal to the specific
excess power. This answers the questions made above. An airplane can
increase its energy state simply by the application of excess power. In
other words, airplane A and B can reach the high energy state of airplane
D if they have enough excess power to do so.

This immediately leads to the next question. How can we ascertain

whether or not a given airplane have enough PS to reach a certain energy
height?

24 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

To address this question, recall that power excess is the difference

between power available and power required. For a given altitude, h, the
excess power (PS) can be plotted versus velocity or Mach number. For a
subsonic airplane below the drag divergence Mach number, the resulting
curve will resemble the sketch shown below:

Figure 3.11 Excess Power vs. Mach Number

At a given h1, Ps will be an inverted U shaped curve which is essentially

the same for rate of climb vs velocity graph shown in the previous section.
As the altitude increases to h2 and h3 respectively, Ps is getting smaller.
Note that power excess decreases with increase in altitude as shown in
the previous sections. Hence, the graph above is simply a plot of P s vs
Mach number with altitude as a parameter. This graph can be cross
plotted as an Altitude-Mach number map using Ps as a parameter as
shown below:

25 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

Figure 3.12 Altitude vs. Mach Number with Excess Power as a Parameter

An entire series of Ps contours can be generated in the Altitude-Mach

number map. For a supersonic airplane, the Ps vs Mach curves at different
altitudes will appear as an inverted U-shaped curve but with a “dent”
around M=1 due to the large increase in drag in the transonic flight regime
as shown below in letter (a) and in turn can be cross plotted on the
Altitude-Mach number map as shown in letter (b).

Figure 3.13 Excess Power vs. Mach Number for Supersonic Flows

26 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

Figure 3.14 Altitude vs. Mach Number with Excess Power as a Parameterfor
Supersonic Flows

Overlaying all the Ps contours and specific energy states on an Altitude-

Mach number map. We will have the following curve:

Figure 3.15 Altitude vs. Mach Number with PS contours and He

27 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

In the figure above, note that Ps contours always correspond to a given

airplane at a given load factor, whereas H e lines are universal fundamental
physical curves that have nothing to do with any given airplane. This figure
clearly establishes what energy states are obtainable by a given airplane.
The regime of sustained flight lies inside the envelope formed by the P s =
0 contour. Hence, all the values of He inside this envelope are obtainable
by the airplane. A comparison of this figure for different airplanes will
clearly show what regions of altitude and Mach number an airplane has
maneuver advantages over another.

In addition to this, the figure also represents the proper flight path to
achieve minimum time to climb. First consider two energy heights, H e1 and
He2 where He2 > He1. The time to move between these energy states can
be obtained from:
𝑑𝐻𝑒
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑃𝑠
Integrating:
𝑡2 𝐻𝑒 2
𝑑𝐻𝑒
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
𝑡1 𝐻𝑒 𝑃𝑠
1
𝐻𝑒 2
𝑑𝐻𝑒
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = ∫
𝐻𝑒 1 𝑃𝑠
The equation above shows that the time to climb will be a minimum when
PS is maximum. Maximum Ps is tangent to the H e curve as shown by
points A to I in the graph. The heavy curve through these points illustrates
the variation of altitude and Mach number along the flight path for
minimum time to climb. The line segment between D and D’ represents a
constant energy dive to accelerate through the drag divergence region
near Mach 1.

VI. Sample Problems

1. A light, single-engine, propeller driven airplane has the given
specifications listed below, at SSLC conditions:
b = 35.8 ft.
S = 174 ft.2
W = 2950 lbs
Fuel Capacity = 65 gal. of aviation gas
c = 0.45 lb/HP-hr
CDo = 0.025
e = 0.8
ⴄ = 0.8

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

Find, the PR, PA, R/C @ Sea Level, Climb Angle, R/Cmax if the aircraft is
flying 150 ft/s and the engine is rated at 230 HP.
Solution:
1
𝐿 = 𝑊 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2
2𝑊 2 ∗ 2950
𝐶𝐿 = = = 0.63
𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 0.002377 ∗ 1502 ∗ 174
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 +
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
2
𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 +
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
(0.63)2
𝐶𝐷 = 0.025 + = 0.047
(35.8)2
𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ 174

2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷2
𝑃𝑅 = √
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿3

2(2950)3 (0.047)2 𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑡

𝑃𝑅 = √ 3
= 33116.61
0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ (0.63) 𝑠
𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑡 1 𝐻𝑃
𝑃𝑅 = 33116.61 ∗ = 60.21 𝐻𝑃
𝑠 𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏
550 𝑠

𝑃𝐴 = ⴄ𝑃
𝑃𝐴 = 0.8 ∗ 230 = 184 𝐻𝑃

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑅/𝐶 =
𝑊
33000 𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏/𝑚𝑖𝑛
(184 𝐻𝑃 − 60.21 𝐻𝑃) ∗
𝑅/𝐶 = 1 𝐻𝑃
2950
𝑅/𝐶 = 1384.77𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑅/𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑊 𝑊

4 2𝑊 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑊 √
3 𝜌∞ 𝑆 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3

29 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

2 3
√3 ∗ 0.025 ∗ (𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ (35.8) )
4 2 ∗ 2950 174
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∗ 2950 ∗
3 0.002377 ∗ 174 (35.8)2 3
(𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ 174 )
√
𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑡 1 𝐻𝑃
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 27546.75 ∗ = 50.085 𝐻𝑃
𝑠 𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏
550
𝑠
33000 𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏/𝑚𝑖𝑛
(184 𝐻𝑃 − 50.085 𝐻𝑃) ∗
𝑅/𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 𝐻𝑃
2950

𝑅/𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1498.03 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑅/𝐶 = 𝑉 sin 𝜃
𝑅/𝐶
𝜃 = sin−1 ( )
𝑉
1384.77𝑓𝑡 1𝑚𝑖𝑛
∗ 60 𝑠
𝜃 = sin−1 ( 𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
150
𝜃 = 8.85⁰
2. An airplane takes, 7 min, 30 sec to reach 8000 ft altitude. In that same
interval, (i.e. 15 min from sea level) it reaches 13600 ft. altitude. What
is the absolute ceiling?
Solution:

ℎ12
𝐴𝐶 =
(2ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
(8000)^2
𝐴𝐶 = = 26666.67 𝑓𝑡.
((2 ∗ 8000) − 13600)
3. For a rate of climb equation given as RC=850-1/12 h (ft./min). find:
a. Time to climb from sea level to 300 ft.
b. Time to climb from sea level to 600 ft.

Solution:
ℎ2
𝑑ℎ
𝑡 =∫
ℎ1 𝑅/𝐶
300
𝑑ℎ
𝑡 =∫
1
0 (850 − 12 ℎ)

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

Let:
1
𝑢 = 850 − ℎ
12
1
𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑑ℎ
12
𝑑ℎ = −12𝑑𝑢
300
−12𝑑𝑢
𝑡 =∫
0 𝑢

𝑡 = −12 ln 𝑢 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 − 300

1
𝑡 = −12 ln(850 − ℎ) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 − 300
12
1 1
𝑡 = −12 ln(850 − 300) + 12 ln(850 − 0)
12 12
𝑡 = −80.58 + 80.94 = 0.36 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 21.6 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
4. From problem #1. Calculate the minimum glide angle at maximum
gliding range if gliding starts at 10000 ft.
Solution:
1
tan 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
(𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 =
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐿 = √𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐷 = 2𝐶𝐷𝑜
1
tan 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
√𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅/2𝐶𝐷𝑜
2𝐶𝐷𝑜
tan 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
√𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
2 ∗ 0.025
tan 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2
√0.025 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ (35.8)
174
2 ∗ 0.025
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = tan−1 ( ) = 4.20⁰
( 35.8 ) 2
√0.025 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗
174

𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝐿/𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥

√𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10000( )
2𝐶𝐷𝑜

31 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

2
√0.025 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ (35.8)
174
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10000(
2 ∗ 0.025
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 136059.33 𝑓𝑡

VII. Plate No. 1 – Midterm

1. For an airplane weighing 4000 lb, the excess horsepower at sea level
is 60 hp; at 10000 ft altitude there is an excess power of 17 hp. What is
its service ceiling?
2. At sea level an airplane’s rate of climb is 1000 ft. per min. Its absolute
ceiling is 15000 ft. How long will it take to climb to 7000 ft altitude?
3. An airplane takes, 7 min, 30 sec to reach 8000 ft altitude. In that same
interval, (i.e. 15 min from sea level) it reaches 13600 ft. altitude. What
is the ceiling?
4. An airplane weighs 4600 lbs; its rate of climb at sea level is 1100
ft./min; its absolute ceiling is 14,000 ft. What is its service ceiling?
5. The service ceiling of an airplane is 15,000 ft. Its rate of climb at sea
level is 890 ft./min, what is the absolute ceiling?
6. An airplane weighs 4,200 lbs. What is the excess horsepower at its
service ceiling?
7. At sea level, an airplane weighing 5200 lbs has 135 excess
horsepower. Its absolute ceiling is 19,000 ft.
a. How long will it take to climb from sea level to 7000 ft?
b. How long will it take to climb from sea level to 8000 ft?
8. A Beechcraft airplane has a service ceiling of 18000 ft. Its rate of climb
at sea level is 1200 ft. per min. How long will it take to climb from sea
level to 10,000 ft. altitude?
9. A Waco airplane, whose service ceiling is 14000 ft., climbs 950 ft. per
min at sea level. How long will it require to climb from sea level to 8000
ft?
10. A Luscombe Trainer climbs 900 ft. per min at sea level. How long does
it take to climb to its service ceiling which is 15,000 ft?
11. An airplane climbs in 9 min from sea level to 7640 ft altitude; continuing
the climb, 9 min later the altitude is 13600 ft. What is the ceiling?
12. An airplane climbs in a certain time to 9500 ft altitude; in double that
time counted from sea level the airplane reaches 15200 ft altitude.
What is the ceiling?
13. An airplane with a ceiling of 19000 ft can climb to12450 ft in 20
minutes. What height will it have reached in 10 minutes?
14. The maximum lift to drag ratio of the World War I Sopwith Camel was
7.7. If the aircraft is in flight at 5000 ft. when the engine fails, how far
can it glide in terms of distance measured along the ground?
15. For the Sopwith Camel in problem #14, calculate the equilibrium glide
velocity at 3000 ft., corresponding to the minimum glide angle. The

32 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 3: Climb and Drift Performance

aspect ratio of the airplane is 4.11, the Oswald efficiency factor is 0.7,
the weight is 1400 lb, and the wing area is 231 ft. 2.
16. Consider an airplane in level flight at a velocity of 1000 ft/s. Assume
the pilot pushes the throttle all the way forward, an excess power is
generated in the amount Ps = 250 ft/s. Find:
a. The rate of climb assuming the pilot gave up linear acceleration in
the flight direction.
b. The acceleration assuming the pilot gave up climb.
VIII. Quiz No. 1 – Midterm
1. The absolute ceiling of an airplane is 18400 ft. The rate of climb at sea
level is 1070 ft. per min. What is the rate of climb at 12000 ft. altitude?
2. The service ceiling of an airplane is 21300 ft. The rate of climb at sea
level is 950 ft. per min. What is the rate of climb at 13,000 ft. altitude?
3. A Piper Cub, whose absolute ceiling is 14200 ft, climbs 650 ft./min at
sea level. How long will it require to climb from sea level to its service
ceiling?
4. An airplane with a ceiling of 26000 ft climbs to a height of 5000 ft in a
certain time. What height will it attain in twice that time?
5. An airplane climbs to a certain time to 2200 ft; in twice that time it
climbs to 3800 ft. What is the ceiling?
6. Consider a Gulfstream IV twin turbofan executive transport. Calculate
the thrust required curve at an altitude of 30,000 ft flying at 500 ft/s,
assuming a weight of 73,000 lbs. Other pertinent data are given as:
S = 950 ft.2
AR = 5.92
CDo = 0.015
K = 0.08
𝐶𝐷 = 0.015 + 0.08𝐶𝐿2
Find the minimum glide angle, maximum range covered over the
ground, and the gliding velocity at 30,000 ft.
7. Consider an airplane with a parasite drag coefficient of 0.025, an
aspect ratio of 6.72, and an Oswald efficiency factor of 0.9. Calculate
the value of (L/D)max.
8. Consider an airplane in level flight at a velocity of 900 ft/s. Assume the
pilot pushes the throttle all the way forward, an excess power is
generated in the amount Ps = 275 ft/s. Find:
c. The rate of climb assuming the pilot gave up linear acceleration in
the flight direction.
d. The acceleration assuming the pilot gave up climb.

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