Python Cheat Sheet - Keywords 

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Keyword  Description  Code example 

False​, ​True  Data values from the data type Boolean  False​ == (​1 ​> ​2​), ​True​ == (​2 ​> ​1​)

and​, ​or​, ​not  Logical operators:  x, y = ​True​, ​False

(x ​and​ y)​ → both x and y must be True  (x ​or​ y) == ​True​ ​# True
(x ​or​ y)​ → either x or y must be True  (x ​and​ y) == ​False​ ​ True
#
(​not​ x)​ → x must be false  (​not​ y) == ​True​ ​ True
#

break  Ends loop prematurely  while​(​True​):

​break​ ​# no infinite loop
print(​"hello world"​)

c​ontinue  Finishes current loop iteration  while​(​True​):

​continue
print(​"43"​) ​# dead code

class Defines a new class → a real-world concept   class​ ​Beer​:

(object oriented programming)  ​def​ ​__init__​(self)​:
  self.content = ​1.0
def  Defines a new function or class method. For latter,  ​def​ ​drink​(self)​:
first parameter (“self”) points to the class object.  self.content = ​0.0
When calling class method, first parameter is implicit. 
becks = Beer() ​# constructor - create class
becks.drink() ​# beer empty: b.content == 0

if​, ​elif​, ​else  Conditional program execution: program starts with  x = int(input(​"your value: "​))
“if” branch, tries the “elif” branches, and finishes with  if​ x > ​3​: print(​"Big"​)
“else” branch (until one branch evaluates to True).  elif​ x == ​3​: print(​"Medium"​)
else​: print(​"Small"​)

for​, ​while  # For loop declaration # While loop - same semantics

for​ i ​in​ [​0​,​1​,​2​]: j = ​0
print(i)  while​ j < ​3​:
print(j)
j = j + ​1

in  Checks whether element is in sequence  42​ ​in​ [​2​, ​39​, ​42​] ​# True

is  Checks whether both elements point to the same  y = x = 3

object  x​ ​is​ ​y​ ​# True
[​3​] ​is​ [​3​] ​# False

None  Empty value constant  ​ ​()​:

def​ f
x = ​2
f() ​is​ ​None​ ​# True

lambda  Function with no name (anonymous function)  (lambda​ x: x + ​3)(3)​ ​# returns 6

return  Terminates execution of the function and passes the  def​ ​incrementor​(x)​:
flow of execution to the caller. An optional value after  ​return​ x + ​1
the return keyword specifies the function result.  incrementor(​4​) ​# returns 5
 Python Cheat Sheet - Basic Data Types 
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  Description  Example 

Boolean  The Boolean data type is a truth value, either  ## 1. Boolean Operations
True​ ​or F​ alse​.  x, y = ​True​, ​False
  print(x ​and​ ​not​ y) ​# True
The Boolean operators ordered by priority:  print(​not​ x ​and​ y ​or​ x) ​# True
not​ x​ ​ → “if x is False, then x, else y” 
x ​and​ y​ → “if x is False, then x, else y”  ## 2. If condition evaluates to False
x ​or​ y​ ​ → “if x is False, then y, else x”  if​ ​None​ ​or​ ​0​ ​or​ ​0.0​ ​or​ ​''​ ​or​ [] ​or​ {} ​or​ set():
  ​# None, 0, 0.0, empty strings, or empty
These comparison operators evaluate to ​True​:  ​# container types are evaluated to False
1​ < ​2​ ​and​ ​0​ <= ​1​ ​and​ ​3​ > ​2​ ​and​ ​2​ >=​2​ ​and
print(​"Dead code"​) ​# Not reached
1​ == ​1​ ​and​ ​1​ != ​0​ ​# True 

Integer,  An integer is a positive or negative number  ## 3. Arithmetic Operations

Float  without floating point (e.g. ​3​). A float is a  x, y = ​3​, ​2
positive or negative number with floating point  print(x + y) ​# = 5
precision (e.g.​ ​3.14159265359​).  print(x - y) ​# = 1
  print(x * y) ​# = 6
The ‘​//​’ operator performs integer division.  print(x / y) ​# = 1.5
The result is an integer value that is rounded  print(x // y) ​# = 1
towards the smaller integer number   print(x % y) ​# = 1s
(e.g. 3​ ​ // ​2​ == ​1​).  print(-x) ​# = -3
  print(abs(-x)) ​# = 3
print(int(​3.9​)) ​# = 3
print(float(​3​)) ​# = 3.0
print(x ** y) ​# = 9

String  Python Strings are sequences of characters.   ## 4. Indexing and Slicing

  s = ​"The youngest pope was 11 years old"
The four main ways to create strings are the  print(s[​0​]) ​# 'T'
following.  print(s[​1​:​3​]) ​# 'he'
  print(s[​-3​:​-1​]) ​# 'ol'
1. Single quotes  print(s[​-3​:]) ​# 'old'
'Yes' x = s.split() ​# creates string array of words
2. Double quotes  print(x[​-3​] + ​" "​ + x[​-1​] + ​" "​ + x[​2​] + ​"s"​)
"Yes"
# '11 old popes'
3. Triple quotes (multi-line) 
"""Yes
## 5. Most Important String Methods
We Can"""
y = ​" This is lazy\t\n "
4. String method 
print(y.strip()) ​# Remove Whitespace: 'This is lazy'
str(​5​) == ​'5'​ ​# True 
print(​"DrDre"​.lower()) ​# Lowercase: 'drdre'
5. Concatenation 
print(​"attention"​.upper()) ​# Uppercase: 'ATTENTION'
"Ma"​ + ​"hatma"​ ​# 'Mahatma' 
print(​"smartphone"​.startswith(​"smart"​)) ​# True
  print(​"smartphone"​.endswith(​"phone"​)) ​# True
print(​"another"​.find(​"other"​)) ​# Match index: 2
These are whitespace characters in strings. 
print(​"cheat"​.replace(​"ch"​, ​"m"​)) ​# 'meat'
● Newline \​ n print(​','​.join([​"F"​, ​"B"​, ​"I"​])) ​# 'F,B,I'
● Space ​ s
\ print(len(​"Rumpelstiltskin"​)) ​# String length: 15
● Tab ​ t
\ print(​"ear"​ ​in​ ​"earth"​) ​# Contains: True
 Python Cheat Sheet - Complex Data Types 
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  Description  Example 

List  A container data type that stores a  l = [​1​, ​2​, ​2​]

sequence of elements. Unlike strings, lists  print(len(l)) ​# 3
are mutable: modification possible. 

Adding  Add elements to a list with (i) append, (ii)  [​1​, 2

​ ​, 2 ​ ​].append(​4​) ​# [1, 2, 2, 4]
elements  insert, or (iii) list concatenation.  [​1​, 2​ ​, 4 ​ ​].insert(​2​,​2​) ​# [1, 2, 2, 4]
The append operation is very fast.  [​1​, 2 ​ ​, 2 ​ ​] + [​4​] # [1, 2, 2, 4]

Removal  Removing an element can be slower.  [​1​, ​2​, ​2​, ​4​].remove(​1​) ​# [2, 2, 4]

Reversing  This reverses the order of list elements.  [​1​, ​2​, ​3​].reverse() ​# [3, 2, 1]

Sorting  Sorts a list. The computational complexity  [​2​, ​4​, ​2​].sort() ​# [2, 2, 4]
of sorting is O(n log n) for n list elements. 

Indexing  Finds the first occurence of an element in  [​2​, 2

​ ​, 4​ ​].index(​2​) ​# index of element 4 is "0"
the list & returns its index. Can be slow as  [​2​, 2​ ​, 4​ ​].index(​2​,​1​) ​# index of element 2 after pos 1 is "1"
the whole list is traversed. 

Stack  Python lists can be used intuitively as stack  stack = [3]

via the two list operations append() and  ​ [3, 42]
stack.append(​42​) #
pop().  stack.pop() ​# 42 (stack: [3])
stack.pop() ​# 3 (stack: []​)

Set  A set is an unordered collection of  basket = {​'apple'​, ​'eggs'​, ​'banana'​, ​'orange'​}
elements. Each can exist only once.  same = set([​'apple'​, ​'eggs'​, ​'banana'​, ​'orange']​)

Dictionary  The dictionary is a useful data structure for  calories = {​'apple'​ : ​52​, ​'banana'​ : ​89​, ​'choco'​ : ​546​}
storing (key, value) pairs.  

Reading and  Read and write elements by specifying the  print(calories[​'apple'​] < calories[​'choco'​]) ​# True
writing  key within the brackets. Use the keys() and  calories[​'cappu'​] = ​74
elements  values() functions to access all keys and  print(calories[​'banana'​] < calories[​'cappu'​]) ​# False
values of the dictionary.  print(​'apple'​ ​in​ calories.keys()) ​# True
print(​52​ ​in​ calories.values()) ​# True

Dictionary  You can loop over the (key, value) pairs of  for k, v in calories.items():
Looping  a dictionary with the items() method.  print(k) if v > 500 else None​ ​# 'chocolate'

Membership  Check with the ‘in’ keyword whether the  basket = {​'apple'​, ​'eggs'​, ​'banana'​, ​'orange'​}
operator  set, list, or dictionary contains an element.  print(​'eggs'​ ​in​ basket} ​# True
Set containment is faster than list  print(​'mushroom'​ ​in​ basket} ​# False
containment. 

List and Set  List comprehension is the concise Python  # List comprehension
Comprehens way to create lists. Use brackets plus an  l = [(​'Hi '​ + x) ​for​ x ​in​ [​'Alice'​, ​'Bob'​, ​'Pete'​]]
ion  expression, followed by a for clause. Close  print(l) ​# ['Hi Alice', 'Hi Bob', 'Hi Pete']
with zero or more for or if clauses.   l2 = [x * y ​for​ x ​in​ range(​3​) ​for​ y ​in​ range(​3​) ​if​ x>y]
  print(l2) ​# [0, 0, 2]
Set comprehension is similar to list  # Set comprehension
comprehension.  squares = { x**​2​ ​for​ x ​in​ [​0​,​2​,​4​] ​if​ x < ​4​ } ​# {0, 4}
 Python Cheat Sheet - Classes 
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  Description  Example 

Classes  A class encapsulates data and functionality - data as  class​ ​Dog​:
attributes, and functionality as methods. It is a blueprint  """ Blueprint of a dog """
to create concrete instances in the memory.  
# class variable shared by all instances
species = [​"canis lupus"​]

def​ ​__init__​(self, name, color)​:

self.name = name
self.state = ​"sleeping"
self.color = color

def​ ​command​(self, x)​:

if​ x == self.name:
self.bark(​2​)
elif​ x == ​"sit"​:
Instance  You are an instance of the class human. An instance is a  self.state = ​"sit"
concrete implementation of a class: all attributes of an  else​:
instance have a fixed value. Your hair is blond, brown, or  self.state = ​"wag tail"
black - but never unspecified. 
  def​ ​bark​(self, freq)​:
Each instance has its own attributes independent of  for​ i ​in​ range(freq):
other instances. Yet, class variables are different. These  print(​"["​ + self.name
are data values associated with the class, not the  + ​"]: Woof!"​)
instances. Hence, all instance share the same class 
variable ​species ​in the example. 
​ black"​)
bello = Dog(​"bello"​, "
Self  The first argument when defining any method is always  alice = Dog(​"alice"​, "​ white"​)
the ​self ​argument. This argument specifies the 
​ black
print(bello.color) #
instance on which you call the method. 
  print(alice.color) #​ white
self ​gives the Python interpreter the information about 
the concrete instance. To ​define ​a method, you use s ​ elf bello.bark(​1​) ​# [bello]: Woof!
to modify the instance attributes. But to ​call ​an instance 
method, you do not need to specify ​self​.  alice.command(​"sit"​)
print(​"[alice]: "​ + alice.state)
Creation  You can create classes “on the fly” and use them as  # [alice]: sit
logical units to store complex data types. 
  bello.command(​"no"​)
class​ ​Employee()​: print(​"[bello]: "​ + bello.state)
pass # [bello]: wag tail
employee = Employee()
employee.salary = ​122000 alice.command(​"alice"​)
employee.firstname = ​"alice" # [alice]: Woof!
employee.lastname = ​"wonderland" # [alice]: Woof!

print(employee.firstname + ​" " bello.species += [​"wulf"​]

+ employee.lastname + ​" " print(len(bello.species)
+ str(employee.salary) + ​"$"​) == len(alice.species)) ​# True (!)
# alice wonderland 122000$ 
 Python Cheat Sheet - Functions and Tricks 
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    Description  Example  Result 

A map(func, iter)  Executes the function on all elements of  list(map(​lambda​ x: x[​0​], [​'red'​, [​'r'​, ​'g'​, ​'b'​]
D the iterable  'green'​, ​'blue'​]))
V
A map(func, i1, ..., Executes the function on all k elements of  list(map(​lambda​ x, y: str(x) + ​' '​ + [​'0 apples'​, ​'2
ik)  the k iterables  y + ​'s'​ , [​0​, ​2​, ​2​], [​'apple'​, oranges'​, ​'2
N
C 'orange'​, ​'banana'​])) bananas'​]
E
string.join(iter)  Concatenates iterable elements  ' marries '​.join(list([​'Alice'​, 'Alice marries Bob'
D separated by ​string  'Bob'​]))

F filter(func, Filters out elements in iterable for which  list(filter(​lambda​ x: ​True​ ​if​ x>​17 [​18​]
U iterable)  function returns False (or 0)  else​ ​False​, [​1​, ​15​, ​17​, ​18​]))
N
C string.strip()  Removes leading and trailing  print(​" \n \t 42 \t "​.strip()) 42
T whitespaces of string 
I
O sorted(iter)  Sorts iterable in ascending order  sorted([​8​, ​3​, ​2​, ​42​, ​5​]) [​2​, ​3​, ​5​, ​8​, ​42​]
N
sorted(iter, Sorts according to the key function in  sorted([​8​, ​3​, 2 ​ ​, ​42​, ​5​], key=​lambda [​42​, ​2​, ​3​, ​5​, ​8​]
S
key=key)  ascending order  x: ​0​ ​if​ x==​42​ e​ lse​ x)

help(func)  Returns documentation of func  help(str.upper()) '... to uppercase.'

zip(i1, i2, ...)  Groups the i-th elements of iterators i1, i2,  list(zip([​'Alice'​, ​'Anna'​], [​'Bob'​, [(​'Alice'​, ​'Bob'​),
… together  'Jon'​, ​'Frank'​])) (​'Anna'​, ​'Jon'​)]

Unzip  Equal to: 1) unpack the zipped list, 2) zip  list(zip(*[(​'Alice'​, ​'Bob'​), [(​'Alice'​, ​'Anna'​),
the result  (​'Anna'​, ​'Jon'​)] (​'Bob'​, ​'Jon'​)]

enumerate(iter)  Assigns a counter value to each element  list(enumerate([​'Alice'​, ​'Bob'​, [(​0​, ​'Alice'​), (​1​,
of the iterable  'Jon'​])) 'Bob'​), (​2​, ​'Jon'​)]

T python -m http.server  Share files between PC and phone? Run command in PC’s shell. <P> is any port number 0–65535. Type < IP address of 
R <P>  PC>:<P> in the phone’s browser. You can now browse the files in the PC directory. 
I
C Read comic  import​ antigravity Open the comic series xkcd in your web browser
K
S 
Zen of Python  import​ this  '...Beautiful is better than ugly. Explicit is ...'

Swapping numbers  Swapping variables is a breeze in Python.  a, b = ​'Jane'​, ​'Alice' a = ​'Alice'

No offense, Java!  a, b = b, a b = '​ Jane'

Unpacking arguments  Use a sequence as function arguments  def​ ​f​(x, y, z)​:​ return​ x + y * z
via asterisk operator *. Use a dictionary  f(*[​1​, ​3​, ​4​]) 13
(key, value) via double asterisk operator **  f(**{​'z'​ : ​4​, ​'x'​ : ​1​, ​'y'​ : 3
​ ​}) 13

Extended Unpacking  Use unpacking for multiple assignment  a, *b = [​1​, ​2​, ​3​, ​4​, ​5​] a = ​1
feature in Python  b = [​2​, ​3​, ​4, 5​]

Merge two dictionaries  Use unpacking to merge two dictionaries  x={​'Alice'​ : ​18​} z = {​'Alice'​: ​18​,
into a single one  y={​'Bob'​ : ​27​, ​'Ann'​ : ​22​} 'Bob'​: ​27​, ​'Ann'​: ​22​}
z = {**x,**y}
 Python Cheat Sheet: 14 Interview Questions 
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*FREE* Python Email Course @ ​http://bit.ly/free-python-course 
Question Code Question Code

Check if list l = [​3​, ​3​, ​4​, ​5​, ​2​, ​111​, ​5​] Get missing def​​ g​ et_missing_number​​(lst):
contains print(​111​ ​in​​ l) ​# True  number in ​return​​ set(range(lst[len(lst)​-1​])[​1:
​ ]) - set(l)
integer x [1...100] l = list(range(​1​,​100​))
l.remove(​50​)
print(get_missing_number(l)) ​# 50 

Find duplicate def​​ ​find_duplicates​​(elements): Compute def​​ i ​ ntersect​​(lst1, lst2):

number in duplicates, seen = set(), set() the res, lst2_copy = [], lst2[:]
integer list ​for​​ element ​in​​ elements: intersection ​for​​ el ​in​​ lst1:
​if​​ element ​in​​ seen: of two lists ​if​​ el ​in​​ lst2_copy:
duplicates.add(element) res.append(el)
seen.add(element) lst2_copy.remove(el)
​return​​ list(duplicates)  ​return​​ res

Check if two def​​ i​ s_anagram​​(s1, s2): Find max l = [​4​, ​3​, ​6​, 3
​ ​, ​4,
​ ​888​, ​1,
​ ​-11​, ​22​, ​3]
​
strings are ​return​​ set(s1) == set(s2) and min in print(max(l)) # ​ 888
anagrams print(is_anagram(​"elvis"​, ​"lives"​)) ​# True unsorted list print(min(l)) # ​ -11 

Remove all lst = list(range(​10​)) + list(range(​10​)) Reverse def​​ ​reverse​​(string):

duplicates from lst = list(set(lst)) string using ​if​​ len(string)<=​1​: r
​ eturn​​ string
list print(lst) recursion ​return​​ reverse(string[​1​:])+string[​0​]
# [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]  print(reverse(​"hello"​)) ​# olleh

Find pairs of def​​ ​find_pairs​​(l, x): Compute a, b = ​0​, ​1

integers in list pairs = [] the first n n = ​10
so that their ​for​​ (i, el_1) ​in​​ enumerate(l): Fibonacci for​​ i ​in​​ range(n):
sum is equal to ​for​​ (j, el_2) ​in​​ enumerate(l[i+​1​:]): numbers print(b)
integer x ​if​​ el_1 + el_2 == x: a, b = b, a+b
pairs.append((el_1, el_2)) # 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ...
​return​​ pairs 

Check if a def​​ ​is_palindrome​​(phrase): Sort list with def​​ ​qsort​​(L):

string is a ​return​​ phrase == phrase[::​-1​] Quicksort ​if​​ L == []: ​return​​ []
palindrome print(is_palindrome(​"anna"​)) ​# True algorithm ​return​​ qsort([x ​for​​ x ​in​​ L[​1​:] ​if​​ x< L[​0​]]) + L[​0​:1
​ ​] +
qsort([x ​for​​ x ​in​​ L[​1​:] ​if​​ x>=L[​0​]])
lst = [​44​, ​33​, 2 ​ 2​, 5
​ ​, ​77​, ​55​, ​999​]
print(qsort(lst))
# [5, 22, 33, 44, 55, 77, 999] 

Use list as # as a list ... Find all def​​ ​get_permutations​​(w):

stack, array, l = [3, 4] permutation ​if​​ len(w)<=​1​:
and queue l += [​5​, ​6​] ​# l = [3, 4, 5, 6] s of string ​return​​ set(w)
smaller = get_permutations(w[​1: ​ ])
# ... as a stack ... perms = set()
l.append(​10​) ​# l = [4, 5, 6, 10] ​for​​ x ​in​​ smaller:
l.pop() ​# l = [4, 5, 6] ​for​​ pos ​in​​ range(​0,
​ len(x)+​1​):
perm = x[:pos] + w[​0​] + x[pos:]
# ... and as a queue perms.add(perm)
l.insert(​0​, ​5​) ​# l = [5, 4, 5, 6] ​return​​ perms
l.pop() ​# l = [5, 4, 5]  print(get_permutations(​"nan"​))
# {'nna', 'ann', 'nan'}
 Python Cheat Sheet: NumPy 
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Name  Description  Example 

a.shape  The shape attribute of NumPy array a keeps a tuple of  a = np.array([[​1​,​2​],[​1​,​1​],[​0​,​0​]])
integers. Each integer describes the number of elements of  print(np.shape(a)) ​# (3, 2) 
the axis. 

a.ndim  The ndim attribute is equal to the length of the shape tuple.  print(np.ndim(a)) ​# 2

*  The asterisk (star) operator performs the Hadamard product,  a = np.array([[​2​, 0

​ ​], [​0​, ​2​]])
i.e., multiplies two matrices with equal shape element-wise.  b = np.array([[​1​, 1​ ​], [​1​, ​1​]])
print(a*b) ​# [[2 0] [0 2]]

np.matmul(a,b), a@b  The standard matrix multiplication operator. Equivalent to the  print(np.matmul(a,b))
@ operator.  # [[2 2] [2 2]]

np.arange([start, ]stop, Creates a new 1D numpy array with evenly spaced values  print(np.arange(​0​,​10​,​2​))
[step, ])  # [0 2 4 6 8]

np.linspace(start, stop, Creates a new 1D numpy array with evenly spread elements  print(np.linspace(​0​,​10​,​3​))
num=​50​)  within the given interval  # [ 0. 5. 10.]

np.average(a)  Averages over all the values in the numpy array  a = np.array([[​2​, ​0​], [​0​, ​2​]])
print(np.average(a)) ​# 1.0

<slice> = <val>  Replace the <slice> as selected by the slicing operator with  a = np.array([​0​, ​1​, ​0​, 0
​ ​, ​0​])
the value <val>.  a[::​2​] = ​2
print(a) ​ [2 1 2 0 2]
#

np.var(a)  Calculates the variance of a numpy array.  a = np.array([​2​, ​6​])

print(np.var(a)) ​# 4.0

np.std(a)  Calculates the standard deviation of a numpy array  print(np.std(a)) ​# 2.0

np.diff(a)  Calculates the difference between subsequent values in  fibs = np.array([​0​, 1
​ ​, ​1​, ​2​, ​3​, ​5​])
NumPy array a  print(np.diff(fibs, n=​1​))
# [1 0 1 1 2]

np.cumsum(a)  Calculates the cumulative sum of the elements in NumPy  print(np.cumsum(np.arange(​5​)))

array a.  # [ 0 1 3 6 10]

np.sort(a)  Creates a new NumPy array with the values from a  a = np.array([​10​,​3​,​7​,​1​,​0​])
(ascending).  print(np.sort(a))
# [ 0 1 3 7 10]

np.argsort(a)  Returns the indices of a NumPy array so that the indexed  a = np.array([​10​,​3​,​7​,​1​,​0​])
values would be sorted.   print(np.argsort(a))
# [4 3 1 2 0]

np.max(a)  Returns the maximal value of NumPy array a.  a = np.array([​10​,​3​,​7​,​1​,​0​])

print(np.max(a)) ​# 10

np.argmax(a)  Returns the index of the element with maximal value in the  a = np.array([​10​,​3​,​7​,​1​,​0​])
NumPy array a.  print(np.argmax(a)) ​# 0

np.nonzero(a)  Returns the indices of the nonzero elements in NumPy array  a = np.array([​10​,​3​,​7​,​1​,​0​])
a.  print(np.nonzero(a)) ​# [0 1 2 3]
 Python Cheat Sheet: Object Orientation Terms 
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  Description  Example 

Class  A blueprint to create ​objects​. It defines the data (​attributes​) and functionality  ​ og​:
class​ D
(​methods​) of the objects. You can access both attributes and methods via 
the dot notation.  ​# class attribute
is_hairy = ​True
Object  A piece of encapsulated data with functionality in your Python program that 
(=instance)  is built according to a ​class ​definition. Often, an object corresponds to a  ​# constructor
​def​ ​__init__​(self, name):
thing in the real world. An example is the object "Obama" that is created 
​# instance attribute
according to the class definition "Person". An object consists of an arbitrary 
self.name = name
number of ​attributes ​and ​methods​, ​encapsulated ​within a single unit. 
​# method
Instantiation  The process of creating an ​object​ of a ​class​. This is done with the 
​def​ ​bark​(self):
constructor method __init__(self, …).   print(​"Wuff"​)

Method  A subset of the overall functionality of an ​object​. The method is defined 

similarly to a function (using the keyword "def") in the ​class​ definition. An  bello = Dog(​"bello"​)
object can have an arbitrary number of methods.  paris = Dog(​"paris"​)

Self  The first argument when defining any method is always the ​self ​argument.  print(bello.name)
"bello"
This argument specifies the ​instance ​on which you call the ​method​. 
 
self ​gives the Python interpreter the information about the concrete  print(paris.name)
"paris"
instance. To ​define ​a method, you use ​self t​ o modify the instance 
​ n instance method, you do not need to specify ​self​. 
attributes. But to ​call a
​ at​:
class​ C
Encapsulation  Binding together data and functionality that manipulates the data. 
​# method overloading
Attribute  A variable defined for a class (​class attribute​) or for an object (​instance attribute​). You  ​def​ ​miau​(self, times=​1​):
use attributes to package data into enclosed units (class or instance).  print(​"miau "​ * times)

Class  (=class variable, static variable, static attribute) ​A variable that is created  fifi = Cat()
attribute   statically in the ​class​ definition and that is shared by all class ​objects​. 
fifi.miau()
Instance  A variable that holds data that belongs only to a single instance. Other instances do  "miau "
attribute  not share this variable (in contrast to ​class attributes​). In most cases, you create an 
(=instance  instance attribute x in the constructor when creating the instance itself using the self  fifi.miau(​5​)
variable)  "miau miau miau miau miau "
keywords (e.g. self.x = <val>).  
  # Dynamic attribute
fifi.likes = ​"mice"
Dynamic  An ​instance attribute​ that is defined dynamically during the execution of the program  print(fifi.likes)
attribute  and that is not defined within any ​method​. For example, you can simply add a new  "mice"
attribute​ ​neew​ to any ​object​ o by calling ​o.neew = <val>​. 
# Inheritance
Method  You may want to define a method in a way so that there are multiple options  ​ ersian_Cat​(Cat):
class​ P
overloading  to call it. For example for class X, you define a ​method​ f(...) that can be called  classification = ​"Persian"
in three ways: f(a), f(a,b), or f(a,b,c). To this end, you can define the method 
mimi = Persian_Cat()
with default parameters (e.g. f(a, b=None, c=None). 
print(mimi.miau(​3​))
"miau miau miau "
Inheritance  Class​ A can inherit certain characteristics (like ​attributes​ or ​methods​) from class B. 
For example, the class "Dog" may inherit the attribute "number_of_legs" from the 
class "Animal". In this case, you would define the inherited class "Dog" as follows:  print(mimi.classification)
"class Dog(Animal): ..." 
 [Test Sheet] Help Alice Find Her Coding Dad!
+ BONUS

Solve puzzle 332! Solve puzzle 93!

Solve puzzle 137!

Solve puzzle 441!

+ BONUS
Solve puzzle 369!

Solve puzzle 377!

+ BONUS

Solve puzzle 366!

„Continuous Improvement in Your Coffee Break Python!“

 [Cheat Sheet] 6 Pillar Machine Learning Algorithms
Complete Course: https://academy.finxter.com/

Linear Regression K-Means Clustering

https://blog.finxter.com/logistic-regression-in-one-line-python/ https://blog.finxter.com/tutorial-how-to-run-k-means-
clustering-in-1-line-of-python/

K Nearest Neighbors Support Vector Machine

https://blog.finxter.com/k-nearest-neighbors-as-a-
python-one-liner/
Classification
https://blog.finxter.com/support-vector-machines-python/

Support vector

A: 50𝑚2 , $34,000
Logic skills

B: 55𝑚2 , $33,500
House Price ($)

C: 45𝑚2 , $32,000
A
B
$99,500
D‘: 52𝑚2 ,
3 Decision
C 3NN
≈ (52𝑚2 , $33,167)
boundary
Computer Scientist
D: (52𝑚2 , ? ) Artist
House Size (square meter)
Creativity skills

Decision Tree Classification Multilayer Perceptron

https://blog.finxter.com/decision-tree-learning-in-one-line-python/
https://blog.finxter.com/tutorial-how-to-create-your-first-neural-
network-in-1-line-of-python-code/

Like maths?
N
Y

„Study Like language?

computer
Y N
science!“

„Study Like painting?

linguistics!“
Y N

„Study art!“
„Study history!“

„Continuous Improvement in Your Coffee Break Python!“

The Simple Git Cheat Sheet – A Helpful Illustrated Guide
The Centralized Git Workflow

• Every coder has own copy of project

• Independence of workflow Git Master Branch
• No advanced branching and merging needed

Remote Repository:
Master Branch

Alice Bob
git init

Clone Create new repository

git clone alice@host:/path/repos

Clone repository
Clone
git add main.py </> git clone bob@host:/path/repos
Add file „main.py“ to project

git commit –m “new file” „new file“

Commit change and add message

„new file“ to the master branch

git push origin master

Send master branch to remote

repository Push
</>

„new file“

Pull
git pull </>

Update local repository

with master branch „new file“

git add * </> </>

Add all changes to master

git rm main.py </>

Remove file „main.py“ from
master branch

git commit –m “add 2, rem 1” „add 2,

rem 1“
Commit change and add
message to the master

git push origin master

</> </> Send master branch to
Push remote repository

„A Puzzle A Day </>

to Learn, Code,
and Play!“ „add 2, rem 1“
 [Machine Learning Cheat Sheet] Support Vector Machines
Based on Article: https://blog.finxter.com/support-vector-machines-python/

Main idea: Maximize width of separator zone → increases „margin of safety“ for classification

Machine Learning Classification Support Vector Machine Classification

Computer Scientist Support vectors

Artist

Logic skills
Logic skills

Decision boundary
Decision
boundaries

Creativity skills Creativity skills

What are basic SVM properties? What‘s the explanation of the code example?
Support Vector Machines Explanation: A Study Recommendation System with SVM
Alternatives: SVM, support-vector networks
Learning: Classification, Regression • NumPy array holds labeled training data (one row per user and one
Advantages: Robust for high-dimensional space column per feature).
Memory efficient (only uses support vectors)
Flexible and customizable • Features: skill level in maths, language, and creativity.
Disadvantages: Danger of overfitting in high-dimensional space
No classification probabilities like Decision trees • Labels: last column is recommended study field.
Boundary: Linear and Non-linear
• 3D data → SVM separates data using 2D planes (the linear separator)
rather than 1D lines.

What‘s the most basic Python code example? • One-liner:

## Dependencies 1. Create model using constructor of scikit-learn’s svm.SVC class

from sklearn import svm (SVC = support vector classification).
import numpy as np
2. Call fit function to perform training based on labeled training
data.
## Data: student scores in (math, language, creativity)
## --> study field • Results: call predict function on new observations
X = np.array([[9, 5, 6, "computer science"],
[10, 1, 2, "computer science"], • student_0 (skills maths=3, language=3, and creativity=6) →
[1, 8, 1, "literature"], SVM predicts “art”
[4, 9, 3, "literature"],
[0, 1, 10, "art"], • student_1 (maths=8, language=1, and creativity=1) → SVM
[5, 7, 9, "art"]]) predicts “computer science”

• Final output of one-liner:

## One-liner
svm = svm.SVC().fit(X[:,:-1], X[:,-1]) ## Result & puzzle
student_0 = svm.predict([[3, 3, 6]])
print(student_0)
## Result & puzzle # ['art']
student_0 = svm.predict([[3, 3, 6]])
student_1 = svm.predict([[8, 1, 1]])
print(student_0)
print(student_1)
## ['computer science']
student_1 = svm.predict([[8, 1, 1]])
print(student_1)

„A Puzzle A Day to Learn, Code, and Play!“

 Python Cheat Sheet: List Methods 
“​A puzzle a day to learn, code, and play​” → Visit ​finxter.com 

Method Description Example

lst.append(x) Appends element ​x​ to the list ​lst​. >>> l = []

>>> l.append(42)
>>> l.append(21)
[42, 21]

lst.clear() Removes all elements from the list >>> lst = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
lst–which becomes empty. >>> lst.clear()
[]

lst.copy() Returns a copy of the list ​lst​. Copies only >>> lst = [1, 2, 3]
the list, not the elements in the list (shallow >>> lst.copy()
[1, 2, 3]
copy).

lst.count(x) Counts the number of occurrences of >>> lst = [1, 2, 42, 2, 1, 42, 42]
element ​x​ in the list ​lst​. >>> lst.count(42)
3
>>> lst.count(2)
2

lst.extend(iter) Adds all elements of an iterable ​iter ​(e.g. >>> lst = [1, 2, 3]
another list) to the list ​lst​. >>> lst.extend([4, 5, 6])
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

lst.index(x) Returns the position (index) of the first >>> lst = ["Alice", 42, "Bob", 99]
occurrence of value ​x​ in the list ​lst​. >>> lst.index("Alice")
0
>>> lst.index(99, 1, 3)
ValueError: 99 is not in list

lst.insert(i, x) Inserts element ​x​ at position (index) i

​ ​ in >>> lst = [1, 2, 3, 4]
the list ​lst​. >>> lst.insert(3, 99)
[1, 2, 3, 99, 4]

lst.pop() Removes and returns the final element of >>> lst = [1, 2, 3]
the list ​lst​. >>> lst.pop()
3
>>> lst
[1, 2]

lst.remove(x) Removes and returns the first occurrence >>> lst = [1, 2, 99, 4, 99]
of element ​x​ in the list ​lst​. >>> lst.remove(99)
>>> lst
[1, 2, 4, 99]

lst.reverse() Reverses the order of elements in the list >>> lst = [1, 2, 3, 4]
lst​. >>> lst.reverse()
>>> lst
[4, 3, 2, 1]

lst.sort() Sorts the elements in the list ​lst​ in >>> lst = [88, 12, 42, 11, 2]
ascending order. >>> lst.sort()
# [2, 11, 12, 42, 88]
>>> lst.sort(key=lambda x: str(x)[0])
# [11, 12, 2, 42, 88]
 The Ultimate Python Cheat Sheet
Keywords Basic Data Structures
Keyword Description Code Examples Type Description Code Examples

Boolean The Boolean data type is ## Evaluates to True:

False, Boolean data type False == (1 > 2)
either True or False. 1<2 and 0<=1 and 3>2 and 2>=2 and 1==1
True True == (2 > 1)
Boolean operators are and 1!=0
ordered by priority:
Logical operators ## Evaluates to False:
not → and → or
and, → Both are true True and True # True bool(None or 0 or 0.0 or '' or [] or
or, → Either is true True or False # True {} or set())
not → Flips Boolean not False # True
Rule: None, 0, 0.0, empty strings, or empty container
1, 2, 3 types evaluate to False
break Ends loop prematurely while True:
break # finite loop Integer, An integer is a positive or ## Arithmetic Operations
Float negative number without x, y = 3, 2
continue Finishes current loop iteration while True: decimal point such as 3. print(x + y) # = 5
continue print(x - y) # = 1
print("42") # dead code A float is a positive or print(x * y) # = 6
negative number with print(x / y) # = 1.5
class Defines new class class Coffee: floating point precision print(x // y) # = 1
# Define your class such as 3.1415926. print(x % y) # = 1
print(-x) # = -3
def Defines a new function or class def say_hi(): Integer division rounds print(abs(-x)) # = 3
method. print('hi') toward the smaller integer print(int(3.9)) # = 3
(example: 3//2==1). print(float(3)) # = 3.0
if, Conditional execution: x = int(input("ur val:")) print(x ** y) # = 9
elif, - “if” condition == True? if x > 3: print("Big")
else - "elif" condition == True? elif x == 3: print("3") String Python Strings are ## Indexing and Slicing
- Fallback: else branch else: print("Small") sequences of characters. s = "The youngest pope was 11 years"
s[0] # 'T'
String Creation Methods: s[1:3] # 'he' Slice [::2]
for, # For loop # While loop does same
while for i in [0,1,2]: j = 0 1. Single quotes s[-3:-1] # 'ar'
print(i) while j < 3: >>> 'Yes' s[-3:] # 'ars' 1 2 3 4
print(j); j = j + 1 2. Double quotes
>>> "Yes" x = s.split() 0 1 2 3
in Sequence membership 42 in [2, 39, 42] # True 3. Triple quotes (multi-line) x[-2] + " " + x[2] + "s" # '11 popes'
>>> """Yes
is Same object memory location y = x = 3 We Can""" ## String Methods
x is y # True 4. String method y = " Hello world\t\n "
[3] is [3] # False >>> str(5) == '5' y.strip() # Remove Whitespace
True "HI".lower() # Lowercase: 'hi'
None Empty value constant print() is None # True 5. Concatenation "hi".upper() # Uppercase: 'HI'
>>> "Ma" + "hatma" "hello".startswith("he") # True
lambda Anonymous function (lambda x: x+3)(3) # 6 'Mahatma' "hello".endswith("lo") # True
"hello".find("ll") # Match at 2
return Terminates function. Optional def increment(x): Whitespace chars: "cheat".replace("ch", "m") # 'meat'
return value defines function return x + 1 Newline \n, ''.join(["F", "B", "I"]) # 'FBI'
result. increment(4) # returns 5 Space \s, len("hello world") # Length: 15
Tab \t "ear" in "earth" # True

Complex Data Structures

Type Description Example Type Description Example

List Stores a sequence of l = [1, 2, 2] Dictionary Useful data structure for cal = {'apple' : 52, 'banana' : 89,
elements. Unlike strings, you print(len(l)) # 3 storing (key, value) pairs 'choco' : 546} # calories
can modify list objects (they're
Reading Read and write elements by print(cal['apple'] < cal['choco'])
mutable).
and specifying the key within the # True
Adding Add elements to a list with (i) [1, 2].append(4) # [1, 2, 4] writing brackets. Use the keys() cal['cappu'] = 74
elements append, (ii) insert, or (iii) list [1, 4].insert(1,9) # [1, 9, 4] elements and values() functions to print(cal['banana'] < cal['cappu'])
concatenation. [1, 2] + [4] # [1, 2, 4] access all keys and values of # False
the dictionary
print('apple' in cal.keys()) # True
Removal Slow for lists [1, 2, 2, 4].remove(1) # [2, 2, 4]
print(52 in cal.values()) # True
Reversing Reverses list order [1, 2, 3].reverse() # [3, 2, 1]
Dictionary You can access the (key, for k, v in cal.items():
Sorting Sorts list using fast Timsort [2, 4, 2].sort() # [2, 2, 4] Iteration value) pairs of a dictionary print(k) if v > 500 else ''
with the items() method. # 'choco'
Indexing Finds the first occurrence of [2, 2, 4].index(2)
an element & returns index. # index of item 2 is 0 Member- Check with the in keyword if basket = {'apple', 'eggs',
Slow worst case for whole list [2, 2, 4].index(2,1) ship set, list, or dictionary contains 'banana', 'orange'}
traversal. # index of item 2 after pos 1 is 1 operator an element. Set membership print('eggs' in basket) # True
is faster than list membership. print('mushroom' in basket) # False
Stack Use Python lists via the list stack = [3]
operations append() and pop() stack.append(42) # [3, 42] List & set List comprehension is the l = ['hi ' + x for x in ['Alice',
stack.pop() # 42 (stack: [3]) comprehe concise Python way to create 'Bob', 'Pete']]
stack.pop() # 3 (stack: []) nsion lists. Use brackets plus an # ['Hi Alice', 'Hi Bob', 'Hi Pete']
expression, followed by a for
Set An unordered collection of basket = {'apple', 'eggs', clause. Close with zero or l2 = [x * y for x in range(3) for y
unique elements (at-most- 'banana', 'orange'} more for or if clauses. in range(3) if x>y] # [0, 0, 2]
once) → fast membership O(1) same = set(['apple', 'eggs', Set comprehension works
squares = { x**2 for x in [0,2,4]
'banana', 'orange']) similar to list comprehension.
if x < 4 } # {0, 4}

Subscribe to the 11x FREE Python Cheat Sheet Course:

https://blog.finxter.com/python-cheat-sheets/
 Book:
Complexity appears in Project Lifecycle Cyclomatic Complexity Runtime Complexity
Complexity
• Project Lifecycle
“A whole, made up • Code Development
of parts—difficult to • Algorithmic Theory
analyze, understand, • Processes
or explain". • Social Networks
• Learning & Your Daily Life

→ Complexity reduces productivity and focus. It’ll consume your precious time. Keep it simple!

80/20 Principle Pareto Tips Minimum Viable

1. Figure out your success metrics.
Majority of effects come 2. Figure out your big goals in life. Product (MVP)
from the minority of causes. 3. Look for ways to achieve the same A minimum viable
things with fewer resources. product in the
4. Reflect on your own successes software sense is code
5. Reflect on your own failures that is stripped from
6. Read more books in your industry. all features to focus on
7. Spend much of your time the core functionality.
improving and tweaking existing How to MVP?
products • Formulate
8. Smile. hypothesis
9. Don't do things that reduce value • Omit needless
Maximize Success Metric: features
#lines of code written • Split test to validate
each new feature
Clean Code Principles Unix Philosophy • Focus on product-
1. You Ain't Going to Need It 1. Simple’s Better Than market fit
2. The Principle of Least Surprise Complex • Seek high-value and
3. Don't Repeat Yourself 2. Small is Beautiful (Again) low-cost features
4. Code For People Not Machines 3. Make Each Program Do One Performance Tuning 101
5. Stand on the Shoulders of Giants Thing Well Premature Optimization
1. Measure, then improve
6. Use the Right Names 4. Build a Prototype First "Programmers waste enormous 2. Focus on the slow 20%
7. Single-Responsibility Principle 5. Portability Over Efficiency amounts of time thinking about […] 3. Algorithmic optimization
8. Use Comments 6. Store Data in Flat Text Files the speed of noncritical parts of their wins
9. Avoid Unnecessary Comments 7. Use Software Leverage programs. We should forget about 4. All hail to the cache
10. Be Consistent 8. Avoid Captive User small efficiencies, say about 97 % of 5. Solve an easier problem
11. Test Interfaces the time: premature optimization is version
12. Think in Big Pictures 9. Program = Filter the root of all evil." – Donald Knuth 6. Know when to stop
13. Only Talk to Your Friends 10. Worse is Better
14. Refactor 11. Clean > Clever Code “… the source code of ultimate human performance" – Kotler
15. Don’t Overengineer 12. Design Connected Programs Flow
Flow Tips for Coders
16. Don’t Overuse Indentation 13. Make Your Code Robust
1. Always work on an explicit
17. Small is Beautiful 14. Repair What You Can — But
practical code project
18. Use Metrics Fail Early and Noisily
2. Work on fun projects that
19. Boy Scout Rule: Leave Camp 15. Write Programs to Write
fulfill your purpose
Cleaner Than You Found It Programs
3. Perform from your
strengths
Less Is More in Design How to Simplify Design? 4. Big chunks of coding time
1. Use whitespace 5. Reduce distractions:
2. Remove design elements smartphone + social
3. Remove features How to Achieve Flow? (1) clear 6. Sleep a lot, eat healthily,
4. Reduce variation of fonts, read quality books, and
font types, colors goals, (2) immediate feedback, and
exercise → garbage in,
5. Be consistent across UIs (3) balance opportunity & capacity. garbage out!

Focus 3-Step Approach of

Efficient Software Creation
You can take raw resources and 1. Plan your code
move them from a state of high 2. Apply focused effort
entropy into a state of low entropy— to make it real.
using focused effort towards the 3. Seek feedback
attainment of a greater plan.
Figure: Same effort, different result.
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