Induction Motors

Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Edited by Raul Igmar Gregor Recalde

 Induction Motors: Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Edited by Raul Igmar Gregor Recalde

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 Contents

Preface
Chapter 1 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems
by Yu Zou

Chapter 2 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction

Generators by Using the Computer and Driver
by Fevzi Kentli

Chapter 3 Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic

Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique
by Rudolf Ribeiro Riehl, Fernando de Souza Campos, Alceu
Ferreira Alves and Ernesto Ruppert Filho

Chapter 4 Health Condition Monitoring of Induction Motors

by Wilson Wang and Derek Dezhi Li

Chapter 5 Failure Diagnosis of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with

Broken Rotor Bars and End Rings
by Takeo Ishikawa

Chapter 6 Fuzzy Direct Torque-controlled Induction Motor Drives for

Traction with Neural Compensation of Stator Resistance
by Mohammad Ali Sandidzadeh, Amir Ebrahimi and Amir Heydari

Chapter 7 Development of Fuzzy Applications for High Performance

Induction Motor Drive
by Ali Saghafinia and Atefeh Amindoust

Chapter 8 A Robust Induction Motor Control using Sliding Mode Rotor

Flux and Load Torque Observers
by Oscar Barambones, Patxi Alkorta, Jose M. Gonzalez de Duran
and Jose A. Cortajarena
VI Contents

Chapter 9 An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven

Variable Speed Drives
by Nordin Saad, Muawia A. Magzoub, Rosdiazli Ibrahim and
Muhammad Irfan

Chapter 10 DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors

by Rafael Rodríguez-Ponce, Fortino Mendoza-Mondragón,
Moisés Martínez-Hernández and Marcelino Gutiérrez-Villalobos

Chapter 11 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect

Matrix Converter
by Javier Riedemann, Rubén Peña and Ramón Blasco-Giménez

Chapter 12 Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor

Drives
by Hugo Guzman, Ignacio Gonzalez, Federico Barrero and
Mario Durán

Chapter 13 Reduced-order Observer Analysis in MBPC Techniques

Applied to the Six-phase Induction Motor Drives
by Raúl Gregor, Jorge Rodas, Derlis Gregor and Federico
Barrero
Preface

AC motors play a major role in modern industrial applications.

Squirrel-cage induction motors (SCIMs) are probably the most
frequently used when compared to other AC motors because of
their low cost, ruggedness, and low maintenance.

The material presented in this book is organized into four

sections, covering the applications and structural properties of
induction motors (IMs), fault detection and diagnostics, control
strategies, and the more recently developed topology based on
the multiphase (more than three phases) induction motors.

This material should be of specific interest to engineers and

researchers who are engaged in the modeling, design, and
implementation of control algorithms applied to induction motors
and, more generally, to readers broadly interested in nonlinear
control, health condition monitoring, and fault diagnosis.
 Chapter 1

Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems

Yu Zou

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60958

Abstract

Wind power is the fastest growing renewable energy and is promising as the number
one source of clean energy in the near future. Among various generators used to
convert wind energy, the induction generator has attracted more attention due to its
lower cost, lower requirement of maintenance, variable speed, higher energy capture
efficiency, and improved power quality [1-2]. Generally, there are two types of
induction generators widely used in wind power systems – Squirrel-Cage Induction
Generator (SCIG) and Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG). The straightforward
power conversion technique using SCIG is widely accepted in fixed-speed applica‐
tions with less emphasis on the high efficiency and control of power flow. However,
such direct connection with grid would allow the speed to vary in a very narrow range
and thus limit the wind turbine utilization and power output. Another major problem
with SCIG wind system is the source of reactive power; that is, an external reactive
power compensator is required to hold distribution line voltage and prevent whole
system from overload. On the other hand, the DFIG with variable-speed ability has
higher energy capture efficiency and improved power quality, and thus dominates
the large-scale power conversion applications. With the advent of power electronics
techniques, a back-to-back converter, which consists of two bidirectional converters
and a dc-link, acts as an optimal operation tracking interface between DFIG and loads
[3-5]. Field orientation control (FOC) is applied to both rotor- and stator-side
converters to achieve desirable control on voltage and power [6,7].

In this chapter, a brief introduction of wind power system is presented first, which is
followed by introduction of SCIG and DFIG from aspects of modeling and control.
The basic FOC algorithm is derived based on DFIG model in dq reference frame. At
last, the power generation efficiency is considered through different Maximum Power
Point Tracking (MPPT) methods that have attracted a lot of attention in the variable-
4 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

speed operation systems. A comparative analysis involving advantage and disad‐

vantage of the methods is conducted.

Keywords: wind power systems, SCIG, DFIG, back-to-back converter, FOC, MPPT

1. Introduction

The core component of a modern induction generator wind power system is the turbine
nacelle, which generally accommodates the mechanisms, generator, power electronics, and
control cabinet. The mechanisms, including yaw systems, shaft, and gear box, etc., facilitate
necessary mechanical support to various dynamic behavior of the turbine. The generator is
dedicated to the conversion between mechanical energy, which is captured by turbine rotor,
and electrical energy. The generated electrical energy then needs to be regulated and condi‐
tioned to be connected to the power grid for use. In this section, the wind power system layout
and classification are introduced first, which is followed by the outlining of the feasible power
electronic converter interface between generators and loads. Lastly, the control scheme is
briefly addressed and discussed in detail in section 2.

1.1. Overview of wind power systems

Figure 1 shows the general layout of a wind turbine nacelle. The generator is either driven (in
generation mode) or propelling (in motoring mode) the turbine blades through a shaft. The
gearbox can be used to facilitate the speed difference between turbine and generator. The blade
stall and pitch mechanisms are also involved to limit the power as well as the turbine plane
yawing and tilting. By these means, the blade effective aerofoil cross section and thus the
interface with wind pressure can be controlled. The performance coefficients responding to
different yaw angle and pitch angle show significant variations [1-3]. In addition, as the most
dynamically efficient choice, three blades connected through a hub with flanges is the
commonly used topology in the front of the nacelle. The flanges are designed to enable the
pitch angle adjustment. In most of the variable-speed wind systems, the high-efficiency
operation always relies on the wind speed information. As a result, the anemometer can be
used as one of the solutions. The basic function of the tower is to reach a higher position in
order to obtain more airstream and wind speed. The tower can be constructed in either soft or
stiff ways. A stiff tower has a natural frequency which lies above the blade passing frequency.
Soft towers are lighter and cheaper but have to withstand more movement, and thus suffer
from higher stress levels [2].

There are a number of classifications that group the wind power systems into different
categories. According to the loads, grid integrated system and islanded system are employed
to feed power grid and isolated load, respectively. According to the generators used, popular
options are SCIG wind system, DFIG wind system, and Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Generator (PMSG) wind system. Other alternative generator systems are also mentioned in
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 5
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60958

Figure 1. Wind power system nacelle [8]

the literature, such as brushless DFIGs (BDFIG) system [5,6], direct-drive synchronous
generator (DDSG) system [7,9], switched reluctance generator (SRG) system [10], multiple-
stage geared SCIG system [10], and radial/axial/transversal-flux PM generator systems
[7,12-14]. These solutions generally require relatively complex operation principle and
equipment assembly. According to the presence of the gear box, there are multistage gear box
wind system, single-stage gear box wind system, and direct drive wind system (without gear
box) in where the Synchronous Generator (SG) qualifies the system to have a simpler and more
reliable drive train. However, the lower generator speed, and thus larger torque, requires more
poles, larger diameter, and volume, and hence higher cost.

The most promising classifications in induction generator wind systems are fixed-speed,
limited-variable-speed, and variable-speed wind systems, according to the operations of
induction generator speed. Comparisons between these wind power systems have been
intensively conducted, based on different speed variation levels [12,15-19]. A summary of their
advantages and disadvantages is presented in Table 1. The fixed-speed concept has been
successfully applied in SCIG wind systems. The drive train applies multiple-stage gearbox and
a SCIG is directly connected to the grid via a transformer. To support the grid, external reactive
power compensation and soft starter are necessary [5,6]. The limited variable-speed system is
an improved version of the SCIG type but it uses a wound rotor induction generator instead,
which allows the stator to be connected to the grid, and the rotor to have a variable resistance
controlled by a power converter. Through the control of rotor resistance, the slip of the
6 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

generator is varied. The variable-speed system is a concept commonly used in large power
rating applications (>1.5 MW). Different combinations among DFIG, SCIG, partial or full
converters would lead to variable-speed operation systems. The control system maintains the
optimal generator speed, thus the optimal output power, through controlling the generator
currents and voltages. Due to the high efficiency and capability of Faults Ride Through (FRT),
this type of wind power system dominates the high-capacity power market nowadays.

Advantages Disadvantages

Fixed-speed a. Simple construction and robust a. Not optimal operation, thus low efficiency
system b. Low cost and maintenance b. Easy power fluctuation caused by wind speed
c. Easy control and tower pressure
c. External reactive power compensation is
needed
d. Weak capability of FRT

Limited-speed a. Limited speed variation is implemented a. Speed variation range depends on the size of
system b. The slip ring may be replaced by optical the variable rotor resistance (<10%)
coupling b. The controlled rotor power must be dissipated
by heat in the resistor
c. Still need reactive power compensation and
cannot support the grid alone

Variable-speed a. Large range of speed variation a. Relatively complicated control system

system b. Appropriate control enables optimal operation b. Higher converters and control costs
for maximum power extraction c. May need a multistage gearbox and slip ring in
c. No external power compensation is needed and DFIG system
is able to support the grid d. May need expensive PM material and large
d. High FRT capability diameter design in direct drive
e. Suitable and commonly used for large-scale
wind farms

Table 1. Comparison among different wind power systems

1.2. Power electronics interface topologies in wind power systems

Power electronics is the key element enabling the regulation and conditioning of the power,
voltage, and frequency with high efficiency and flexibility. In addition, more involvement of
distributed power systems nowadays emphasizes the crucial role of power electronics
interface among energy generation, storage, and transmission.

Due to the developments in semiconductor switches and microprocessors, many power

electronics techniques have been developed during the past decades [20,21]. Besides the diode
converters, line-commutated thyristor converters and self-commutated IGBT/MOSFET
converters are found applicable to wind power systems. The line-commutated converters are
generally used in high-power applications but they are incapable of controlling the reactive
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 7
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60958

power. The self-commutated converters are able to transfer and control power bidirectionally
because of the capability of controllable switch turning-off. Nowadays, wind power systems,
especially the variable-speed wind power system, primarily rely on the converters that
implement full power control. Different converter topologies and combinations have been
successfully employed in this field, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Commonly used power electronics converter topologies for wind power system ((a) diode and line-commu‐
tated converter, combined with reactive power compensation; (b) diode and PWM VSI converter; (c) diode and DC/DC
chopper and PWM VSI converter; (d) back-to-back PWM VSI converter; (e) matrix converter)

Due to the employment of diode rectifier, the topology in Figure 2(a) is uncontrolled and a
thyristor inverter is used to regulate the generator speed through dc-link voltage to obtain
firing angle commands. Obviously, this scheme is simple for control and costs less than self-
commutated converter. More importantly, it is suitable for high power rating applications.
However, the weakness is that extra reactive power compensation is required, which contains
a voltage source converter (VSC). The grid voltage may be regulated to obtain reference current
for the compensator and the control signal comes from the regulation of the compensator
current [22,23]. To remove the compensator, a self-commutated converter could be used to
take the place of thyristor inverter, as shown in Figure 2(b). Again, the regulation of dc-link
voltage can provide current reference, which is controlled to generate control signals for the
PWM inverter [24]. Two self-commutated converters connected through a dc-link, as shown
in Figure 2(d), enable bidirectional power flow, which is the key to ensuring high efficiency in
motoring operation of generator. The FOC is applied on both sides of converters based on dq
reference frame [23,25]. The grid-side converter keeps a constant dc-link voltage, while the
8 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

generator-side converter is responsible for both active and reactive power control [23]. In the
generator-side converter control, the d-axis current could be set at zero to maximize the torque,
while the q-axis current is derived from power regulation [26,27]. An alternative topology of
Figure 2(d) is shown in Figure 2(c), where the generator-side self-commutated converter is
replaced by a diode rectifier connected to an intermediate chopper [28]. This configuration is
impossible for bidirectional power flow caused by the diode rectifier. But it can achieve a
similar wide range of speed variation as two self-commutated converters. The grid-side
converter controls the dc-link voltage for d-axis current reference and controls the reactive
power for q-axis current reference. The active power regulation and thus the speed control are
carried out to generate reference dc-link current. The duty cycle of chopper switch can be
obtained using current regulation. The converter configurations discussed are actually
multistage implementation of AC conversion. An intermediate DC stage is needed to assist
conversion and associated control. In recent years, such procedure has been investigated by a
single-stage converter, the matrix converter, which performs the energy transformation
without help from a bulky storage stage. The controllable switches are arranged in such a way
that any input phase may be connected to any output phase at any time. The matrix converter
may be applied to the DFIG system, like the topology in Figure 2(e) [29,30]. According to the
stator flux FOC, the reactive and active power can be regulated by d- and q-axis current,
respectively [30]. An alternative control strategy is by regulating the rotor winding voltage to
control the power factor (PF) and applying the double space vector PWM technique [29]. It is
worth noting that the SCIG system has high starting currents. One effective way to limit the
starting current is by using the soft-starter that applies thyristors to limit the RMS starter
current below rated current. The starter is shorted after the full load is reached. The torque
peak can be decreased as well, which reduces the gearbox pressure [9,10].

The high-efficiency energy conversion and full control of power exclusively rely on the power
electronic converter and the control scheme applied on. Consequently, the broadly accepted
total wind power system topologies subject to above power electronics are reviewed as follows.
Since the high-efficiency variable speed systems are the primary focus, Figure 3 summarizes
the feasible variable-speed system topologies, for induction generator systems as well as
synchronous generator systems for systematized purpose. Due to the low demand on the
converter power rating of approximately 30% of the total power rating, the DFIG with partial
converter, shown in Figure 3(a), is a widespread topology for wind power systems. Also, due
to the presence of a rotor-side converter, the rotor power is fed back to the grid without
dissipation in the resistor. Instead of a partial converter, PMSG or SCIG can be connected to a
full rating converter, as shown Figure 3(b). This topology has better grid FRT ability because
the generator-side is totally independent of the grid-side. However, the converter rating and
loss are high. Figure 3(c) shows the direct drive system, which is aimed at removing the gearbox
and associated loss [16]. The generator rotor is connected to the turbine shaft directly and runs
at the same very slow speed. Therefore, a high torque and a large machine radius are required
to transfer the same amount of power. Fewer components enable less loss and thus more
reliable performance in this type of system. To compromise between machine size and
spinning speed, the single-stage gearbox, shown in Figure 3(d), is applied [15]. Figure 3(e)
shows the electrically excited synchronous generator (EESG) system, which has a rotor-side
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 9
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60958

converter to provide DC excitation while the stator is connected to a full converter like the case
in Figure 3(c). Although there is an increase in cost due to the extra winding for excitation and
it also requires more maintenance, the EESG could minimize the loss through controlling the
flux via rotor converter [7,11,12].

Figure 3. Commonly used wind power system topologies ((a) DFIG with partial/matrix converter; (b) PMSG/SCIG
with full converter; (c) direct drive; (d) PMSG with full converter and less stage gearbox; (e) EESG direct drive)

1.3. Generator control schemes in wind power systems

SCIG and DFIG are used almost exclusively in the energy conversion stage of the induction
generator wind power system. The most commonly used system topologies are SCIG directly
connected into the power grid and DFIG fed by back-to-back converter (Figure 3(a) and Figure
3(d)). The first topology implies a constant frequency and voltage of the SCIG that establishes
a fixed-speed operation. In such system, the SCIG relies on the grid (or capacitor bank) to
provide reactive power which is necessary to build electromagnetic excitation for rotary field.
The generating mode of SCIG is triggered by driven torque which acts opposite to the generator
speed within the super-synchronous speed operation region. Due to the absence of the power
electronics interface, such system can only serve the grid support applications, wherein just
limited control (pitch angle control) can be applied.

The DFIG system, on the other hand, enables the flexible and efficient operations with FOC
applied on the rotor-winding-side power electronics interface. The FOC is an instantaneous
control that effectively manipulates the position-dependent variables, such as torque and
power, in induction generator wind power systems. By aligning a particular space variable
10 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

with d-axis, stator currents could be decoupled into flux component and torque component in
dq rotating frame. The currents can be thus controlled separately like in DC motor drive. To
implement the control in hardware, PWM technique is generally employed based on Space
Vector Modulation (SVM). The SVM is based on space reference voltage vector and associated
switching logics. Any space vector can be comprised of vector sum of two adjacent voltage
vectors, and the duty cycles of three-phase voltages are calculated based on the dwelling time
of two voltage vectors. This is the method widely used in standard industry applications.

The following section examines the detailed modeling and control strategies of both systems.

2. Model and control of induction generator in wind power systems

2.1. Model of wind power and wind turbine

As a typical kinetic energy, wind energy is extracted through wind turbine blades and then
transferred by the gearbox and rotor hub to mechanical energy in shaft. The shaft drives the
generator to convert the mechanical energy to electrical energy. According to Newton’s law,
the kinetic energy for the wind with particular wind speed Vw is described as:

1
Ek = mVw 2 (1)
2

where m represents the mass of the wind, and its power can be written as:

¶Ek 1 ¶m 2 1 1
Pw = = Vw = ( r AVw ) Vw 2 = r AVw 3 (2)
¶t 2 ¶t 2 2

where ρ and A are the air density and turbine rotor swipe area, respectively. The extracted
mechanical power can thus be expressed as:

1
Pm = C p ( l , b ) Pw = C p ( l , b ) r AVw 3 (3)
2

where Pm is the mechanical output power in watt, which depends on performance coefficient
Cp(λ, β), Cp depends on tip speed ratio λ and blade pitch angle β, and determines how much
of the wind kinetic energy can be captured by the wind turbine system. A nonlinear model
describes Cp(λ, β) as [3]:

( )
C p ( l , b ) = c1 c 2 - c 3 b - c 4 b 2 - c 5 e - c6 (4)
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 11
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60958

where, c1=0.5, c2=116/λi, c3=0.4, c4=0, c5=5, c6=21/λi and

1 0.035
li = - 3 (5)
l + 0.08 b b + 1

With the dependence on the λ and β, maximum value of Cp could be reached and maintained
through controlling the pitch angle and generator speed at particular wind speed. A group of
typical Cp – λ curves for different β is shown in Figure 4 and there is always a maximum value
for Cp at one particular wind speed. Correspondingly, the output power is determined by
different Cp and also the generator speed at different wind speed, as shown in Figure 5, where
there is always one maximum power value for each wind speed, which is the goal of the MPPT
control.

Figure 4. Cp versus λ curve for a wind turbine (β is the pitch angle) [23]

2.2. Model and control of SCIG

As a fixed-speed wind power system, SCIG is directly connected to the grid through trans‐
former and thus operates at almost constant speed without controlling from power electronics
interface. It was commonly used in Denmark during 1980s and 1990s and thus is also called
“Danish Concept” system. The robust and simple configuration qualifies such system for many
applications where the cost is a higher priority concern than efficiency. Figure 6 shows the
schematics of entire SCIG wind system including the wind turbine, pitch control, and reactive
12 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 5. Power versus generator speed curve for wind turbine [31]

power compensator. The entire system includes three stages for delivering the energy from
wind turbine to the power grid. The first one is wind farm stage which handles with low-
voltage Vwt; the second is distribution stage which has medium-voltage Vdis; the third is grid
transmission stage which has high-voltage Vgrid. The three-phase transformers take care of the
interface between two stages [10]. The nominal power is considered as active power reference
to regulate the pitch angle, while the distribution line-to-line voltage and phase current are
monitored to favor the reactive power compensation for distribution line. This fairly straight‐
forward technique was firstly used since it is simple, with rugged construction, has reliable
operation and is low cost. However, the fixed-speed nature and potential voltage instability
problem severely limit the operations of SCIG wind system [1,3].

It is clear from Figure 5 that at a particular wind speed, the output active power is also a fixed
value in the case of fixed generator speed. Thus, the output power is exclusively wind speed
dependent until the nominal power is reached. The wind speed at nominal power is called
nominal wind speed. Beyond this wind speed, the pitch angle system will prevent the output
power from exceeding the nominal value. The pitch angle is determined by an open-loop
control of regulated output active power and, as shown in Figure 7. Due to the huge size of
blade and thus the huge inertia, pitch angle has to change at a slow rate and within a reasonable
range. It is also worth noting that without reactive power source, the SCIG system tends to a
voltage droop in distribution line which will cause overload problem.

Simulation in [23] illustrates the operation of a 0.855MW SCIG system. From Figure 8, the initial
generator speed is set at slip s = -0.01 p.u. with respect to synchronous speed and then response
to the wind speed input disturbance. Since the power is lower than the nominal value (0.855
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 13
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60958

Figure 6. SCIG wind power system configuration

Figure 7. Pitch angle control

MW) before t = 10 s, pitch angle control is not online. Since that moment, the wind speed
increases and so do the generator speed and power until the wind speed exceeds the nominal
value (11 m/s) at where the pitch control is triggered to block the further increase of output
power. In this way, the output power persists at nominal value thereafter.

It is noted that the generator speed can only vary in very small range around 1 p.u. and thus
it is impossible to attain the optimal output power. Also, without independent control ability,
SCIG system consumes reactive power of 0.41 Mvar at the steady state, which will lead to line
voltage droop. To provide necessary reactive power, a Static Synchronous Compensator
(STATCOM) is applied in distribution line. As in Figure 9, distribution line voltage can drop
by approximately 0.055 p.u. in SCIG system without STATCOM, which will be a potential
induction of overload in system. In contrast, SCIG system with STATCOM can hold distribu‐
tion voltage at 0.99 p.u., which is favorable to grid system stability. The compensated reactive
power from STATCOM is shown in Figure 10 and is equal to 0.3 Mvar at the steady state.
Although STACOM provides impressive help to a constant distribution line voltage, DFIG
wind system presents more attractive attributes.
14 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 8. Pitch angle control for SCIG system [23]

Figure 9. Grid voltages comparison between SCIG w/o. STACOM, SCIG w. STACOM and DFIG [23]
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 15
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60958

Figure 10. Compensated reactive power from STATCOM [23]

2.3. Model and control of DFIG

Traditionally, the dynamic slip control is employed to fulfill the variable-speed operation in
induction generator wind system, in which the rotor windings are connected with variable
resistor and control the slip by varied resistance [3,11]. This type of system attains limited
variations of generator speed but external reactive power source is still necessary. In order to
completely remove the reactive power compensation and control both active and reactive
power independently, DFIG wind power system is one of most popular methods in wind
energy applications [1,3,7]. The DFIG wind power system with associated back-to-back
converter is a typical variable speed system as shown in Figure 11, which complies with the
topologies in Figures 3(a) and 2(d). The generator stator windings are connected directly to
grid (with fixed voltage and frequency of grid) while the rotor windings are fed by an AC/DC/
AC IGBT-based PWM converter (back-to-back converter with capacitor dc-link), at variable
frequency through slip rings and brushes. Although such system needs the gearbox and slip
rings to function, many advantages enable DFIG system to dominate most wind market
nowadays. It facilitates variation of a wide speed range (±30% around synchronous speed),
the lower rating requirement on power converters (30% of generator power), and thus lower
cost. Also, it has high efficiency induced by bidirectional power flow, and the ability to perform
reactive power compensation and smooth grid integration. In this configuration, the back-to-
16 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

back converter consists of two parts: the stator/grid-side converter and the rotor-side converter.
Both are voltage source converters while a capacitor bank between two converters acts as a dc
voltage interface.
In this section, the modeling of DFIG is introduced first and followed by the consequent FOC
algorithm which is divided into two parts: stator-side converter control and rotor-side
converter control. The SVM method and islanded operation control are also addressed.

Figure 11. DFIG wind power system configuration

2.3.1. dq model of DFIG

The modeling is conducted under the dq reference frame. The equivalent circuits of DFIG in
the dq reference frame are depicted in Figure 12(a, b) and the relationships between voltage V,
current I, flux Ψ, and torque Te can be derived by writing KVL equations. For stator-side, the
d- and q-axis voltage components are given as:

dI ds dI
Vds = Rs I ds - ws Y qs + ( Lls + Lm ) + Lm dr a
dt dt
(6)
dI qs dI qr
Vqs = Rs I qs + ws Y ds + ( Lls + Lm ) + Lm b
dt dt

And similarly, the d- and q-axis voltage components in rotor-side are given as:
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 17
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60958

dI dr dI
Vdr = Rr I dr - sws Y qr + ( Llr + Lm ) + Lm ds a
dt dt
(7)
dI qr dI qs
Vqr = Rr I qr + sws Y dr + ( Llr + Lm ) + Lm b
dt dt

Because the flux linkage along d- and q-axis follow:

Y ds = Ls I ds + Lm I dr a
(8)
Y qs = Ls I qs + Lm I qr b

Y dr = Lr I dr + Lm I ds a
(9)
Y qr = Lr I qr + Lm I qs b

The reorganized DFIG stator voltages in d- and q-axis, respectively, are presented as:

dY ds
Vds = Rs I ds - ws Y qs + a
dt
(10)
dY qs
Vqs = Rs I qs + ws Y ds + b
dt

And the DFIG rotor voltages in d- and q-axis, respectively, are presented as:

dY dr
Vdr = Rr I dr - sws Y qr + a
dt
(11)
dY qr
Vqr = Rr I qr + sws Y dr + b
dt

The generator electromagnetic torque is correspondingly given as:

3
Te = (
n Y I - Y qs I ds
2 p ds qs
) (12)

where Ls=Lls+Lm; Lr=Llr+Lm; and sωs = ωs – ωr represents the difference between synchronous
speed and generator speed; subscripts r, s, m, d, q denote the rotor, stator, magnitizing, d-axis
and q-axis components, respectively; Te is electromagnetic torque; Lm and np are generator
mutual inductance and the number of pole pairs, respectively.
18 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 12. Equivalent circuit of DFIG ((a) d-axis; (b) q-axis)

2.3.2. Control of rotor-side converter

The control of DFIG modeled above is applied on back-to-back converter and is therefore also
divided into rotor-side control and stator-side control.

First, the rotor-side converter is studied. To d-axis, the rotor flux linkage Ψqr in Equation (7a)
is substituted by Equation (9b), resulting in:

) ( dt )
d LI +L I
(
Vdr = Rr I dr - sws Lr I qr + Lm I qs +
r dr m ds
(13)

By substituting the Ids by Ψds in Equation (8a), the Equation (13) can be expressed as:

dI dr Lm d ( Y ds - Lm I dr )
Vdr = Rr I dr - sws Lr I qr - sws Lm I qs + Lr + (14)
dt Ls dt

Because it is directly connected to the grid, the stator voltage shares constant magnitude and
frequency of grid voltage. One could make the d-axis align with stator voltage vector, and it
is true that Vs=Vds and Vqs=0, thus Ψs=Ψqs and Ψds=0, which are stator voltage-oriented vector
control scheme, as depicted in Figure 13. Therefore, Equation (14) can be organized as:
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 19
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æ L 2öd
Vdr = [ Rr + ç Lr - m ÷ ùû I dr - sws éë Lr I qr + Lm I qs ] (15)
ç Ls ÷ø dt
è

Equation (15) implies that the d-axis rotor voltage consists of two voltage components Vdr1 and
Vdr2:

æ L 2öd
Vdr 1 = [ Rr + ç Lr - m ÷ ]I dr a
ç Ls ÷ø dt
è (16)
Vdr 2 = - sws éë Lr I qr + Lm I qs ùû b

Figure 13. Stator voltage FOC reference frame

The Vdr1 is called current regulation part and depicted by Figure 14, where σ = Lr - Lm2/Ls. Due
to the linear relationship between Vdr1 and Idr, the PI controller is employed. Besides, Vdr2 is the
cross-coupling part and requires feedforward compensation for a complete control. Eventu‐
ally, the rotor-side converter voltage in d-axis is derived as:
20 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Vdrc = Vdr = Vdr 1 + Vdr 2 (17)

where subscript rc denotes the rotor-side converter. After the conversion of dq-abc, the rotor-
side converter voltage Vabc_rc can be obtained, which is used to generate PWM control signals
for rotor-side converter.

Figure 14. Current regulation part of d-axis rotor-side converter voltage

If only steady-state is considered, the derivative parts in Equation (10) are neglected and one
can obtain stator flux as:

Vqs - Rs I qs
Y ds = a
ws
Y qs = ( Vds - Rs I ds ) / ( -ws ) b (18)
2
Y s = Ψ ds + Ψ qs2 c

According to Equations (8), (10), and (12), the rotor-side converter reference current is derived
as:

2 LsTe
I dr _ ref = - (19)
3np Lm Y s

where

Pe _ ref = Popt - Ploss = Tewr a

(20)
Ploss = R I + R I + R I + Fwr2 b
2
s s
2
r r
2
c sc

where Isc, Rc, and F are stator-side converter current, choke resistance, and friction factor,
respectively. Popt, Pe_ref, and Ploss are desired optimal output active power, reference active
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 21
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power, and system power loss, respectively. Combining Equations (8), (10), and (11), the active
power is used as command inputs to determine current references Idr_ref.
Similarly, the q-axis rotor-side converter voltage consists of current regulation and cross-
coupling parts too:

æ L 2öd
Vqr 1 = [ Rr + ç Lr - m ÷ ]I qr a
ç Ls ÷ø dt
è
(21)
é L dY s ù
Vqr 2 = sws ê Lr I dr + Lm I ds + m úb
ë Ls dt û

Vqrc = Vqr = Vqr 1 + Vqr 2 (22)

where the derivative of stator flux in Equation (21b) is considered as zero at steady-state. Also,
the current regulation part is illustrated in Figure 15. If the stator-side converter’s reactive
power is controlled to be zero, the output reactive power is stator reactive output power. Then,
one has:

1
Qo = Qs + Qsc = Qs = = - Vds I qs = - Vds
Ls
(
Y s - Lm I qr ) (23)

Thus, the regulation of reactive power can lead to Iqr_ref.

Figure 15. Current regulation part of q-axis rotor-side converter voltage

Involving the deviations of rotor voltage and reference currents in both d- and q-axis, Figure
16 exhibits the total control scheme for rotor-side converter, where the Popt is obtained from
MPPT.

2.3.3. Control of stator-side converter

The stator-side converter is controlled based on relationship between voltage, flux, and current
of stator and choke, which is modeled by a cross-coupling model, as described in Figure 17. It
22 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 16. Total rotor-side converter control scheme

is seen that the grid (stator) voltage is equal to the sum of stator-side converter voltage and
choke occupied voltage. By KVL:

dI dsc
Vds = Rc I dsc - ws Y qsc + Lc + Vdsc a
dt
(24)
dI qsc
Vqs = Rc I qsc + ws Y dsc + Lc + Vqsc b
dt

The flux linkage follows:

Y dsc = Lc I dsc a
(25)
Y qsc = Lc I qsc b

Thus, the reorganized stator-side converter voltage in d- and q-axis, respectively, are presented
as:

dI dsc
Vdsc = Vds - Rc I dsc + ws Lc I qsc - Lc a
dt
(26)
dI qsc
Vqsc = Vqs - Rc I qsc - ws Lc I dsc - Lc b
dt

where the subscripts sc and ch denote the variables of stator-side converter and choke,
respectively. Lc and Rc are the inductance and resistance of the choke.

Based on the model in Equation (26a, b), the current regulation part of choke voltage in d- and
q-axis are described as (27a, b) and Figure 18(a, b).
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 23
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Figure 17. Equivalent circuit of stator-side converter choke [23]

æ dö
Vdch1 = ç Rc + Lc ÷ I dsc a
è dt ø
(27)
æ dö
Vqch1 = ç Rc + Lc ÷ I qsc b
è dt ø

Figure 18. Current regulation part of choke voltage ((a) d-axis; (b) q-axis)

The cross-coupling part of choke voltage Vdch2 and Vqch2 are expressed as (28a, b) and the total
stator-side converter voltage is derived as (29a, b).
24 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Vdch 2 = -ws Lc I qsc a

(28)
Vqch 2 = ws Lc I dsc b

Vdsc = Vds - Vdch1 - Vdch 2 a

(29)
Vqsc = Vqs - Vqch1 - Vqch 2 b

The current reference Iqsc_ref is generally set at zero for zero reactive power output from stator-
side converter while Idsc_ref is determined by the regulation of dc-link voltage Vdc. The stator-
side converter voltage control is depicted in Figure 19.

Figure 19. Total stator-side converter control scheme [23]

With both rotor- and stator-side converter controls, the simulation results [23] in Figure 20
present a stable and controllable dynamic response to a gusty wind speed. Also, an FRT
capability is verified by a voltage droop happening within a constant wind speed. Figure 21
shows twice oscillations at two dynamic moments and the control system effectively recovers
the system-regulated outputs in short amount of time.

2.3.4. Space Vector Modulation (SVM)

The purpose of both rotor- and stator-side converter controls is to obtain the reference voltages
which are expected to be produced by the converter. The next step is obviously to generate the
corresponding PWM gate signals for the converter. To a 2-level three-phase voltage source
inverter, there are six switches of three legs in inverter controlling the phase voltage and thus
the current of induction generator. By defining the “ON” and "OFF" states of upper switch by
“1” and “0,” respectively, for one leg, there exist up to eight different states for inverter outputs.
They are summarized in Table 2 as well as the resulted phase voltage in abc and αβ frames.
Eight inverter output voltages can be considered as eight voltage vectors [0, 0, 0] through [1,
1, 1] that are illustrated in Figure 22.
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 25
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Figure 20. Gusty wind responses ((a) DC-link voltage Vdc; (b) generator speed ωr; (c) active power P; (d) reactive power
Q; (e) wind speed Vw)

Figure 21. Dynamic responses to grid voltage droop ((a) DC-link voltage Vdc; (b) generator speed ωr; (c) active power P;
(d) reactive power Q; (e) grid voltage Vgrid)
26 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 22. Eight inverter voltage space vectors

L1 L2 L3 Van Vbn Vcn Vα Vβ

1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 2V dc/3 -V dc/3 -V dc/3 √(2/3)V dc 0

1 1 0 Vdc/3 Vdc/3 -2V dc/3 √(1/6)V dc √(1/2)V dc

0 1 0 - V dc/3 2V dc/3 - V dc/3 -√(1/6)V dc √(1/2)V dc

0 1 1 -2V dc/3 Vdc/3 Vdc/3 -√(2/3)V dc 0

0 0 1 - V dc/3 - V dc/3 2V dc/3 -√(1/6)V dc -√(1/2)V dc

1 0 1 Vdc/3 -2V dc/3 Vdc/3 √(1/6)V dc -√(1/2)V dc

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 2. Space vector states (L1–L3 represent inverter leg1–leg3)

Once the reference space vector voltage in αβ frame is achieved by current regulation, the
magnitude and angle of the voltage are used to implement the SVM. With constant PWM
frequency, a space vector is always realized by a vector sum of two adjacent vectors in Table
2. Taking the space vector voltage (0 to 60 degree section) in Figure 23 as an example, it is equal
to the vector sum of V1 and V2 with magnitudes of dx and dy, respectively, which are the duty
cycles of two vectors [32]:
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 27
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dx =
Vsp (
sin 60° - g )a
2 sin 60°
V
3 dc
Vsp sin g (30)
dy = b
2 sin 60°
V
3 dc
dz = 1 - dx - d y c

where dz denotes the duty cycle of zero vector. Generally, the zero vectors [0, 0, 0] or [1, 1, 1]
contribute the remaining PWM period after dx and dy. The space vector voltages located in
other sections can follow the same procedure to obtain the duty cycles of dx, dy, and dz. Then,
the Minimum-Loss Space Vector PWM (MLSVPWM) technique is applied to determine the
sequence of vectors [32]. The PWM signals are eventually obtained based on computed duty
cycles and sequence of vectors. Figures 24 and 25 show the simulation and experimental three-
phase duty ratios for inverter phase A, B, and C, where no switching action happens if 0 or 1
duty cycle is the case. It is seen that there is always one phase being absent of switching at any
moment, which minimizes the switching loss of the semiconductor switches. Also, the
experimental results reveal the sinusoidal nature of the line voltage duty ratio that is expected
for sinusoidal fundamental line voltage output of inverter. With this PWM SVM technique,
the rotor- and stator-side converters are controlled by previously derived FOC.

Figure 23. Duty cycles of vectors for reference space vector voltage
28 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 24. Three-phase duty cycles using MLSVPWM (simulation results [33])

Figure 25. Phase duty cycles and phase-to-phase duty cycle using MLSVPWM (experiment results [33])

2.3.5. Islanded operation

Compared to the grid integration DFIG wind system, the isolated DFIG wind system
operating at regulated voltage (magnitude and frequency) is also found applicable and
valuable to some independent power subgrid or distributed power systems. One of the
application examples – DFIG-Synchronous machine system configuration – is shown in
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 29
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Figure 26. Modified FOC for power generation in Figure 27 is used and the line voltage
magnitude and frequency are stabilized by extra variable load and synchronous machine.
The line frequency is held by compensating the resistive load, while the line voltage is held
by feeding controlled field voltage of synchronous machine. The proposed controller scheme
in [34] is employed for synchronous machine field voltage controller. As shown in Figure
28(a, b), the line frequency is regulated at 60Hz with limited error while the line voltage
is regulated at 1 p.u. The constant frequency and magnitude in transmission line voltage
is the basic requirement for a controllable power delivery. Based on the regulations of
frequency and line voltage, the active power and reactive power are also under control‐
led respectively [25]. The dc-link voltage is kept at nominal value, while the generator speed
is controlled at optimal 0.95 p.u., as shown in Figure 29.

Figure 26. Islanded DFIG-Synchronous machine wind power system

Figure 27. DFIG-Synchronous machine system control scheme

30 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 28. Line voltage and frequency in islanded DFIG system ((a) line frequency; (b) line voltage)

Figure 29. Simulation results for islanded operation ((a) dc-link voltage Vdc; (b) generator speed ωr; (c) active power P;
(d) reactive power Q; (e) wind speed Vw)
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 31
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2.4. Grid synchronization

The key to performing FOC is to follow the position angle of the d-axis component so that the
output can be synchronized with dq frame, especially in the grid integration operation mode.
In order to operate in this mode, the induction generator voltage must be synchronized with
the grid voltage by applying the Phase Lock Loop (PLL) technique. The technique takes the
grid signal as input and keeps track of the position angle of the grid voltage for FOC as well
as reproducing the grid voltage frequency as output, in a real-time manner. To introduce the
algorithm, assume an estimated grid voltage angle (accurate grid voltage angle of θ); the
resulting grid voltages in dq frame are written as:

Vd = Va cos qˆ + Vb sin qˆ a
(31)
Vq = - Va sin qˆ + Vb cos qˆb

where

Va = Vm cos q a
(32)
Vb = Vm sin q b

and Vm denotes the magnitude of the voltage space vector. By substituting Vα and Vβ in (31a,
b) by (32a, b), the Vd and Vq can be organized as:

(
Vd = Vm cos q - qˆ a ) (33)
Vq = Vm sin(q - qˆ ) b

It is seen that if is equal to θ, Vd is equal to Vm, and Vq is equal to 0. Therefore, the accurate
grid voltage angle θ can be obtained by regulating the grid voltage Vq to zero. Assuming there
is an error δ between and θ that δ = θ - , due to the small value of δ, it is true that Vq ≅ Vmδ
and the PLL system in s-domain can be described as Figure 30, where (s) denotes the estimated
grid voltage angular frequency and Kc(s) is a PI controller. After removing the unknown
accurate θ, the PLL scheme is essentially a regulation of Vq in Figure 31, where the measured
Vq goes through a 1st-order low-pass filter whose cutoff frequency is ωc. In this way, the noise
is effectively eliminated.
The introduced PLL algorithm is simulated and shown in Figure 32, as well as zoom-in image
in Figure 33 [33], where 0 radian grid voltage position coincides with the zero-crossing of phase
voltage Van and the frequency can be detected to be 60Hz after short transient (the initial grid
frequency is assumed as 55Hz). These results indicate a successful “locking” of grid frequency
and position angle, with which the FOC (Figures 16 and 19) are conducted on back-to-back
converter in a real-time manner and can thus continuously “match” the generated voltage with
the grid voltage.
32 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 30. PLL scheme for grid voltage angle estimation

Figure 31. PLL scheme with regulation of Vq

Figure 32. PLL results of grid voltage angle and frequency for grid integration operation ((a) phase A voltage Van; (b)
grid voltage angular position; (c) grid voltage frequency)
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 33
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Figure 33. Zoom-in image of Figure 32

3. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Efficiency always plays an important role in induction generator wind systems. While the SCIG
system loses precise control of power due to the fixed-speed operation, to achieve high
efficiency in wind power conversion systems, the MPPT in variable-speed DFIG system has
been intensively investigated. Basically, the studied techniques in MPPT include three
strategies: (1) the methods relying on wind speed, (2) the methods relying on output power
measurement and calculation, and (3) the methods relying on reference power curve.

3.1. Pitch angle control of induction generator wind systems

An overall picture of induction generator wind system operation versus wind speed is
depicted in Figure 34, where the output power must be “truncated” after reaching certain level.
Pitch angle control, as investigated in section 2.2, is used not only in SCIG system but also in
DFIG system for this purpose. It is seen that the capability of pitch angle control in response
to the increase of wind speed, on limiting the power output, is primarily dependent on turbine
blade physical structure. Therefore, the system needs to be shut down by brake system in the
case of wind speed cutoff. Figure 34 also emphasizes the augmented power output of MPPT
operation over fixed-speed operation and this inspires the investigation of advanced variable-
34 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

speed wind systems, where the induction generator speed can always be controlled in a large
range to capture desired output power by combining the previously discussed FOC with
MPPT strategies.

Figure 34. Wind power system operations

3.2. MPPT methods for DFIG wind systems

3.2.1. Wind speed based method

Most DFIG wind power systems are dependent of wind speed measurement [2,4]. In these
systems, anemometers are applied to measure the wind speed and thus the systems suffer
from additional cost of sensors and complexity. In order to solve this problem, wind speed
estimation methods have been reported [25, 35-36]. Relying on the complex algorithms, the
accurate wind speed can be captured for controlling the optimal tip speed ratio so that the
MPPT can be performed accordingly, as shown in Figure 35. However, the wind speed
information and associated efforts on software/hardware are still necessary and significant.
To eliminate the dependence on wind speed, some sensorless control strategies have been
developed [31,37-38]. These methods are in test for small-scale stand-alone systems and the
complicated estimation algorithms remain, which will result in weakening of accuracy and
control speed in real operating environment where the wind speed changes rapidly.

3.2.2. Power variation rate based method

Tracking the maximum power can also be accomplished through measuring the output power
directly [39-42]. The idea of this method is through checking the variation rate of the output
power with respect to that of generator speed (dP/dω), the power operation point location can
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 35
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60958

Figure 35. Estimated wind speed and real measured wind speed [35]

be determined and be accordingly controlled thereafter. Theoretically, the maximum power

operating point can be reached when dP/dω = 0, as shown in Figure 36. A flowchart of the
algorithm is shown in Figure 37, where the operation point (ωm (k), P(k)) is measured and
compared with (ωm(k-1), P(k-1)) under wind speed Vw(i), where i is the index of wind speed;
k is given as the test step index under particular wind speed Vw(i). Among all the tested points,
only one point holds the truth that dP/dω = 0 and it is the optimal operation point (ωmopt(i),
Popt(i)) that will be returned and saved. This procedure is required in a means of real-time for
different wind speed (i=1,2,...,). According to the information from the optimal points, either
the generator speed or the duty cycle of converter can be tuned.

Figure 36. MPPT based on output power varying rate [41]

3.2.3. Reference power curve based method

Besides the above strategies, MPPT can be carried out by means of tracking the reference
(optimal) power curve, which is the fitting curve going through all the maximum power points
of all wind speeds [43-45]. A generalized reference power curve is given as:
36 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 37. Flow chart of power variation rate testing algorithm

Pe = bkwmk + bk -1wmk -1 + ... + b1wm + b0 (34)

To determine the optimal degree of the polynomial, comparison is conducted for a 2.678 MW
DFIG wind system [33]. Under a particular wind speed, four reference curves lead to four
different operation points and the 3rd-order polynomial in Equation (35) leads to the most
accurate reference curve along optimal operation points, as shown in Figure 38.

Pe = b3wm3 + b2wm2 + b1wm + b0 (35)

 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 37
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60958

Figure 38. Comparison of reference power curve fittings

This method has been widely used due to its simple concept and absence of extra wind
measurement costs. The optimal reference power curve is constructed according to the
experimental tests and programmed in a microcontroller memory, to be used as a lookup
table. The algorithm diagram is illustrated in Figure 39. Either the generator speed is
measured to obtain power reference for power regulation, or the wind speed is measured
to obtain generator speed reference for generator speed regulation. The former method
produces more accurate output power, while the latter has faster control speed [25]. Some
research works simply apply a cube function of generator speed as reference power or a
square function of generator speed as reference torque. Despite these feasible solutions, the
accurate maximum power and corresponding optimal generator speed are undervalued.
Such approximation will obviously lead to harmed power generation efficiency. More
importantly, analysis is necessary to verify the stability of the method in terms of vary‐
ing wind speed and output power.

An evolved solution was proposed in [47] to effectively minimize the drawback of the above
method. The real-time tuning of reference power curve coefficients is conducted and
followed by updating the reference power curve. First, instead of disturbing output power
directly, the most significant coefficient is incrementally disturbed by constant. This change
of reference power curve induces the variation of the output power, which is measured
and compared with previous step power. When the difference in output power between
two consecutive steps approaches a small enough value, the disturbed coefficient is returned
to update the reference power curve. The resulting reference power curve is the accurate
optimal reference power curve. Due to the existence of reference power curve, such tuning
38 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 39. MPPT based on reference power curve [46]

calculation does not need to be conducted continuously with high frequency. In addition,
without disturbing output power directly, this method can conduct updating and perturba‐
tion faster. Moreover, any deviation of system model will not give rise to deviation of
optimal power generation because of the real-time tuning. Thus, the method is robust. As
depicted in Figure 40, power variation is checked to capture the optimal coefficient and the
reference power curve is updated accordingly to lead the system running in MPPT mode.
The whole procedure is described in the simulation results in Figures 41 and 42, where the
perturbation of coefficient b3, the generator speed, and generated power halt after reach‐
ing the optimal values. No more perturbation and updating are needed, thus saving the
calculation cost. Despite the oscillations at each b3 perturbation step, the dc-link voltage
and the reactive power remain at desired values while the output power and generator
speed are updated, step by step, toward the optimal values. The generator speed and output
power are generally measured with much higher frequency than that of perturbation. It is
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 39
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60958

also worth noting that the bandwidth of b3 updating must ensure that both generator speed
and output power are able to reach their steady-states.

Figure 40. Novel MPPT algorithm proposed in [47]

40 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 41. DFIG system operation applying the novel MPPT (simulation results)

Figure 42. DFIG speed variation induced by the novel MPPT (experiment result)
 Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems 41
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60958

4. Conclusion

Wind power systems have been widely studied and applied for years. By virtue of many
advantages, induction generators are found to be suitable in this area. This chapter introduced
and studied two popular types of induction generators – SCIG and DFIG. An overview of the
generators, power electronics, and control strategies was presented first, followed by detailed
modeling of entire wind system. Most importantly, the control algorithms were illustrated,
ranging from FOC, SVM, PLL, to MPPT. Especially, different MPPT strategies were investi‐
gated and compared.

Acknowledgements

The contents of this chapter are the result of work at the Power Electronics Research Lab at the
University of Akron, where my research was funded by Dr. Yilmaz Sozer; and work at the
Renewable Energy Lab at Saginaw Valley State University, where my research was funded by
the Faculty Research Grant.

I highly appreciate Dr. Yilmaz Sozer and Dr. Malik Elbuluk at the University of Akron for
supervising my research work as well as guiding my progress in a peaceful and productive
direction. I highly appreciate the support from Saginaw Valley State University that granted
my start-up lab platform for long-term research commitment.

I am also very grateful to my wife, parents, and mother-in-law for their support. They
established the foundation on which rests every success of my career.

Author details

Yu Zou*

Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

Saginaw Valley State University, Michigan, USA

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 Chapter 2

Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor

Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver

Fevzi Kentli

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61130

Abstract

In this chapter, a power control system for a wound rotor induction generator has
been explained. This power control system has realized a control method using a
rotating reference frame fixed on the air-gap flux of the generator. Application of such
a system allows control of the active and reactive power of generators independently
and stably. So, a two-step process is presented here. The first step is to acquire the
complex power expression (and thus the active and reactive power expressions) for
an induction machine in space vector notation and in two-axes system. Then, a
computer aided circuit is given to realize the power and current control by analyzing
them. Also, the results of an experiment given in literature are shown to be able to
compare the results.

Keywords: Doubly-fed wound rotor, Induction generator, Active and reactive pow‐
er control

1. Introduction

Energy is defined as the capacity of a body to do mechanical work. Energy is preserved in

earth in many different forms, such as solid (coal), liquid (petroleum), and gas (natural gas).
Also, several resources are available such as solar, wind, wave, geothermal, and nuclear
energy. On the other hand, energy cannot be found in nature in electrical form. However,
electric energy has many advantages: easy to transmit at long distances and complying with
customer’s needs through adequate control.
48 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

More than 30% of energy is converted into electrical energy before usage by the help of electric
generators that convert mechanical energy into electric energy [1]. There are two kinds of
electric generators: synchronous generators and induction generators. Generally, synchronous
generators are generally used in big power plants to produce electricity. On the other hand,
induction generators are used in utilizing nonstable small energy resources such as uncon‐
trollable and automatically load-regulated small running water and wind turbines (plants) [2,
3]. Wind turbines have become much more popular due to the increasing demand for clean
energy. Due to expensive production and maintenance costs, multiwatt turbines/wind farms
are preferred. Configurations of generators and their controllers differ. Squirrel cage genera‐
tors, wound rotor generators, permanent magnet generators, DC generators, and variable
reluctance generators are operated in these systems. But nowadays a kind of wound rotor,
doubly-fed induction generator, has begun to be used more [4].
Both, the synchronous generator with rotating DC magnetic field and the induction generator,
have similar fixed stator winding arrangement, which, when energized by a rotating magnetic
field, produces a three-phase (or single phase) voltage output. However, the rotors of the two
machines are quite different, with the rotor of an induction generator typically consisting of
one of two types of arrangements: “squirrel cage” or a “wound rotor.” Also, unlike the
synchronous generator that has to be “synchronized” with the electrical grid before it can
generate power, induction generator can be connected directly to the utility grid and driven
directly by the turbines rotor blades at variable wind or running water speeds. Induction motor
is an economical and reliable choice as generator in many wind and running water power
turbines where its rotational speed, performance, and efficiency can be increased by coupling
a mechanical gearbox.
Being cheap, reliable, and readily available in a wide power range from fractional horse power
to multi-megawatt capacities leads squirrel cage induction motor type machines to be used in
both domestic and commercial renewable energy/running water power applications. The
features that make this motor desirable make also the induction generator desirable over other
types of generators. Generally, induction generators are constructed based on the squirrel cage
induction motor type.
However, the induction generator may provide the necessary power directly to the mains
utility grid, but it also needs reactive power to its supply which is provided by the utility grid.
Stand-alone (off-grid) operation of the induction generator is also possible but the disadvant‐
age here is that the generator requires additional capacitors connected to its windings for self-
excitation.
Three-phase induction machines are very well-suited for wind power and even hydroelectric
(running water) generation. Induction machines, when functioning as generators, have a fixed
stator and a rotational rotor, the same as that for the synchronous generator. However,
excitation (creation of a magnetic field) of the rotor is performed differently and typical designs
of the rotors are the squirrel-cage structure where conducting bars are embedded within the
rotors’ body and connected together at their ends by shorting rings and the wound (slip-ring)
rotor structure that carries a normal 3-ph winding, connected in star or delta and terminated
on three slip-rings, which are short- circuited when the machine is in normal operation.
 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 49
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61130

Induction machines are also known as asynchronous machines, that is, they rotate below
synchronous speed when used as a motor and above its synchronous speed by some prime
mover when used as a generator. The prime mover may be a turbine, an engine, a windmill,
or anything that is capable of supplying the torque and speed needed to drive the motor into
the overspeed condition. So when rotated faster than its normal operating or no-load speed,
induction generator produces AC electricity. In this position, the speed is hypersynchronous,
the slip is negative (and usually small), the rotor e.m.f.s and currents have such direction as to
demand active power output from the stator terminals. But magnetization is still dependent
on the stator winding accepting reactive power for this purpose from the electrical source, so
that the induction generator can only operate when connected to a live and synchronous AC
system. If a lagging reactive power input is equated with a leading reactive power output, then
the generator can be described as operating with a lending power factor. The torque acts in a
direction opposite to that of the rotating field, requiring a mechanical drive at the shaft. Because
an induction generator synchronizes directly with the main utility grid– that is, produces
electricity at the same frequency and voltage – no rectifiers or inverters are required. A major
advantage of the induction generator is frequency regulation. The output frequency and volts
are regulated by the power system in the induction generators and are independent of speed
variations. The self-regulation effect minimizes control system complexity. But the perform‐
ance characteristics as a generator will vary slightly from those as a motor. In general, the slip
rpm and power factor will be lower and the efficiency will be higher. The differences may be
so insignificant as to be undetectable by normal field measuring methods. On the other hand,
alongside advantages mentioned above of the squirrel-cage and wound rotor induction
generators whose rotor windings are short- circuited, there are some disadvantages [2, 3]. For
example, the active and reactive power of generators cannot be controlled independently and
stably. A computer and a cycloconverter in rotor circuit are needed to accomplish this task.

In recent years, there has been an increased attention toward wind power generation. Con‐
ventionally, grid-connected cage rotor induction machines are used as wind generators at
medium power level. When connected to the constant frequency network, the induction
generator runs at near-synchronous speed drawing the magnetizing current from the mains,
thereby resulting in constant-speed constant-frequency (CSCF) operation. However, the
power capture due to fluctuating wind speed can be substantially improved if there is
flexibility in varying the shaft speed. In such variable-speed constant-frequency (VSCF)
application, rotor-side control of grid-connected wound rotor induction machine is an
attractive solution [5]. A doubly-fed wound rotor induction generator can produce constant
stator frequency even though rotor speed varies. This system can be controlled by a small-
capacity converter compared with the generator capacity, when the control range speed is
narrow. Because of these features, this system is currently considered to be adaptable to power
systems for hydroelectric and wind-mill-type power plants [6-8].

When adapted to the power system, it is important to examine the effects of this system
on the power system. In the system under consideration, the stator is directly connected to
the three-phase grid and the rotor of the doubly-fed induction machine is excited by three-
phase low-frequency AC currents, which are supplied via slip-rings by either a cycloconvert‐
50 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

er or a voltage–fed PWM rectifier-inverter. The AC excitation on the basis of a rotor-

position feedback loop makes it possible to achieve stable variable-speed operation.
Adjusting the rotor speed makes the induction machine either release the electric power to
the utility grid or absorb it from the utility grid [9]. The concept of power control was
applied to reactive power compensator applications some 20 years ago, but the applica‐
tion to electrical machine control is new [10].

To control induction generator, several methods are used: electrically [vector control [11],
active and reactive power control [12], direct torque control [13], direct power control [14],
variable structure or sliding mode control [15], passivity control [16]], and mechanical (pitch,
stall, and active stall control [17], yaw control [18], flywheel storage [9]). More information can
be found in [19].

In literature, two kinds of approach are proposed for independent control of active and reactive
powers. One of them is stator flux oriented vector control with rotor position sensors. The other
is position sensorless vector control method. The control with rotor position sensors is the
conventional approach and the performance of the system depends on the accuracy of
computation of the stator flux and the accuracy of the rotor position information derived from
the position encoder. Alignment of the position sensor is, moreover, difficult in a doubly-fed
wound rotor machine [5].

Position sensorless vector control methods have been proposed by several research groups in
the recent past [20-23]. A dynamic torque angle controller is proposed. This method uses
integration of the PWM rotor voltage to compute the rotor flux; hence, satisfactory perform‐
ance can not be achieved at or near synchronous speed. Most of the other methods proposed
make use of the measured rotor current and use coordinate transformations for estimating the
rotor position [21-23]. Varying degree of dependence on machine parameters is observed in
all these strategies.

Alternative approaches to field-oriented control such as direct self control (DSC) and direct
torque control (DTC) have been proposed for cage rotor induction machines. In these strat‐
egies, two hysteresis controllers, namely a torque controller and a flux controller, are used to
determine the instantaneous switching state for the inverter. These methods of control are
computationally very simple and do not require rotor position information. However, the
application of such techniques to the control of wound rotor induction machine has not been
considered so far. A recently developed algorithm for independent control of active and
reactive powers with high dynamic response in case of a wound rotor induction machine is
direct power control. In direct power control, the directly controlled quantities are the stator
active and reactive powers. The proposed algorithm as direct power control also differs from
DTC in that it does not use integration of PWM voltages. Hence, it can work stably even at
zero rotor frequency. The method is inherently position sensorless and does not depend on
machine parameters like stator/rotor resistance. It can be applied to VSCF applications like
wind power generation as well as high-power drives [5].

Little literature has been published on control strategy and dynamic performance of doubly-
fed induction machines [22; 24-27]. Leonhard (1985) describes a control strategy for an
 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 51
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61130

adjustable-speed doubly-fed induction machine intended for independent control of the active
and reactive power. The control strategy provides two kinds of current controllers: inner
feedback loops of the rotor currents on the d-q coordinates and outer feedback loops of the
stator currents on the M-T coordinates. However, it is not clarified theoretically why the control
strategy requires the two kinds of current controllers.

This chapter describes the power control characteristics on the rotating reference frame fixed
on the air-gap flux of a doubly-fed wound rotor induction generator and proposes a new
approach to control with rotor position sensor. The proposed approach is the enhanced version
of a previous study [28]. Thus, in this chapter, a new power control system that has been
developed by using the computer and driver for a wound rotor induction generator takes
place. This system is a new theoretical approach and this power control system has applied a
control method using a rotating reference frame fixed on the air-gap flux of the generator. By
using this control system, the active and reactive power of generator can be controlled
independently and stably. Therefore, to achieve this purpose, firstly the complex power
expression (and thus the active and reactive power expressions) for an induction machine in
space vector notation and in two-axis system has been gotten. Then, power and current control,
which are fundamental subjects, have been analyzed and as a result a computer- and driver-
aided circuit is given to achieve the power and current control.

2. Analysis of the control system

For the stable control of the active and reactive power, it is necessary to independently control
them. As known, the active power control is the control of torque produced by the machine
and the reactive power control is the control of flux. The stator active and reactive power of
doubly-fed wound rotor induction generator is controlled by regulating the current and
voltage of the rotor windings. Therefore, to achieve independent control, the current and
voltage of the rotor windings must be divided into components related to stator active and
reactive power. It is well-known that an induction machine can be modeled as a voltage behind
a total leakage inductance. Therefore, after a three-phase to two-phase power variant trans‐
formation, the induction machine model becomes that of Fig. 1 [10].

Approximate vector diagram of an induction machine is shown in Fig. 2. In this section, the
analysis of the doubly-fed wound rotor induction generator on the rotating frame fixed on the
air-gap flux (M-T frame) is carried out.

The M-axis is fixed in the air-gap flux and the T-axis is fixed in the quadrature with the M-axis.
The relations of stator α1-β1 axis, rotor α2-β2 axis, and M-T axis are shown in Fig. 3.

2.1. Complex power expression

Assuming that the voltage vector is used as the reference for the determination of lagging and
leading, we can write the complex stator power expression for a machine in space vector
notation as:
52 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 1. Two-phase representation of a three-phase induction machine (→generating; ⇢ motoring)

Figure 2. Approximate vector diagram of an induction machine

S1 = I1 .U1* (1)

which can be written in two-phase stationary frame variables as:

*
S1 = éë I M 1,T 1 ùû éëU M 1,T 1 ùû (2)

where
 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 53
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61130

Figure 3. Vector diagram of M-T frame

*
é I M 1,T 1 ù = I M 1 + jIT 1 ; éU M 1,T 1 ù = U M 1 - jUT 1
ë û ë û

Expanding Equation (2) we get the expressions for the stator active and reactive power as
defined in [29]:

S1 = U M 1I M 1 + UT 1IT 1 + j (U M 1IT 1 - UT 1I M 1 ) (3)

Therefore,

P1 = U M 1I M 1 + UT 1IT 1 (4)

Q1 = U M 1IT 1 - UT 1I M 1 (5)

where P 1 is the stator active power, and Q1 is the stator reactive power, IM1 and I T1 are the M
and T axis stator currents, and UM1 and UT1 are the M and T axis stator voltages.

2.2. Power control

In this section, the relationship between stator power and rotor current is analyzed. In
Equations (4) and (5), the stator active and reactive power was expressed by the stator current
based on the M-T frame. The relationships between the rotor and stator currents are:
54 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

IT 1 = I q1Cosg - I d1Sing (6)

IT 2 = I q 2Cosg - I d 2Sing (7)

( )
IT 1 + IT 2 = I q1 + I q 2 Cosg - ( I d1 + I d 2 ) Sing (8)

I d1 = I M 1Cosg ; I d 2 = I M 2Cosg (9)

I q1 = I M 1Sing ; I q 2 = I M 1Sing (10)

IT 1 + IT 2 = 0 ; IT 1 = - IT 2 (11)

By using Equations (9) and (10), the term of (IT1 + IT2) is expressed in terms of ψδ and LM:

æy ö æy ö
IT 1 + IT 2 = ç d
çL ÷÷ Sing Cosg - çç d ÷÷ Cosg Sing = 0 (12)
è M ø è LM ø

y d = LM ( I M 1 + I M 2 ) (13)

where ψδ is the air-gap flux, IM2 and IT2 are the M and T axis rotor currents, and LM is the mutual
inductance.

By using Equations (12) and (13), the stator active and reactive power is expressed in terms of
ψδ and LM:

ë ( )
P1 = U M 1 é LM ( I M 1 + I M 2 ) / LM - I M 2 ù + UT 1 ( - IT 2 )
û (14)
P1 = (y d / LM )U M 1 - U M 1I M 2 - UT 1IT 2

ë ( )
Q1 = U M 1 ( - IT 2 ) - UT 1 é LM ( I M 1 + I M 2 ) / LM - I M 2 ù
û (15)
Q1 = UT 1I M 2 - (y d / LM )UT 1 - U M 1IT 2
 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 55
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61130

In this system, the stator winding is directly connected to the power system. The conditions
UM1 ≈ 0, UT1 ≈ constant, ψδ ≈ constant are derived from this feature [25]. By using these
relationships and Equations (12), (13), (14), and (15), the stator active and reactive power is
expressed in terms of rotor current. Equations (4) and (5) are rewritten as follows:

P1 » -UT 1IT 2 (16)

Q1 » UT 1I M 2 - (y d / LM )UT 1 (17)

Equation (16) shows that the stator active power (P1) is expressed by the terms proportional
to the rotor current IT2. Equation (17) shows that the stator reactive power (Q1) is expressed by
the terms proportional to the rotor current IM2 and constant value (ψδ/LM).UT1. From the above
relationships, the rotor current is divided into the active power (P1) and the reactive power
(Q1) components. That is, the independent control of the stator active and reactive power can
be actualized by regulating rotor currents IM2 and IT2.

2.3. Current control

In this section, the relation between the rotor currents and the rotor voltages is analyzed. The
equations for wound rotor induction machine based on M-T frame are shown as follows:

L1s dI M 1 dy
U M 1 = R1I M 1 + - (w1 + wd ) L1s IT 1 + M 1d - (w1 + wd )y T 1d (18)
dt dt

L1s dIT 1 dy
UT 1 = R1IT 1 + + (w1 + wd ) L1s I M 1 + T 1d + (w1 + wd )y M 1d (19)
dt dt

L2s dI M 1 dy
U M 2 = R2 I M 2 + - (wS + wd ) L2s IT 2 + M 2d - (wS + wd )y T 2d (20)
dt dt

L2s dIT 2 dy
UT 2 = R2 IT 2 + + (wS + wd ) L2s I M 2 + T 2d + (wS + wd )y M 2d (21)
dt dt

where ψM1δ and ψT1δ are the M and T axis stator air-gap flux, R1 and R2 are the stator and rotor
resistance, ω1 is the stator angular speed, ωδ is the angular speed of the air-gap flux, ψM2δ and
ψT2δ are the M and T axis rotor air-gap flux, L1σ and L2σ are the stator and rotor leakage
inductance, ωS is the slip angular speed.
56 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

These equations are transformed by using the relationships ψT1δ = ψT2δ, ψM1δ = ψM2δ, and ωS =
ω1-ω2, and the following expressions are derived:

L2s dI M 2 dy
U M 2 = R2 I M 2 + - (wS + wd ) L2s IT 2 + M 1d - (wS + wd )y T 2d (22)
dt dt

L2s dIT 2 dy
UT 2 = R2 IT 2 + + (wS + wd ) L2s I M 2 + T 1d + (wS + wd )y M 2d (23)
dt dt

L2s dI M 2
U M 2 = R2 I M 2 + - (wS + wd ) L2s IT 2 + U M 1d + w2y T 2d (24)
dt

L2s dIT 2
UT 2 = R2 IT 2 + + (wS + wd ) L2s I M 2 + UT 1d - w2y M 2d (25)
dt

where ω2 is the rotor angular speed.

When the Equations (22), (23), (24), and (25) are transformed by the rotor current IM2 and IT2,
Equations (26) and (27) are given:

( )
I M 2 = U M 2 + (wS + wd ) L2s IT 2 - U M 1d / ( R2 + pL2s ) (26)

( )
IT 2 = UT 2 - (wS + wd ) L2s I M 2 - UT 1d + w2y d / ( R2 + pL2s ) (27)

where p is the differential operator.

The stator winding is directly connected to the power system. Therefore, stator voltage
becomes constant in the normal state, leading to the conditions UM1δ ≈ 0 and UT1δ ≈ constant.
And L2σ is negligible because it is generally small [25].
Thus, Equations (26) and (27) become as follows:

I M 2 = U M 2 / R2 (28)

IT 2 = (UT 2 - UT 1d + w2y d ) / R2 (29)

Equations (28) and (29) show that rotor voltages along the M and T axes, respectively depend
only on the rotor currents along the M and T axes. In other words, the relationships between
the currents and voltages along the M and T axes are linear. Consequently, the rotor currents
IM2 and IT2 can be controlled independently by regulating the rotor voltages UM2 and UT2.
 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 57
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61130

2.4. Composition of the control system

Figure 4 illustrates the control system diagram. Considering the analysis of control system, it
can be interpreted that M-T frame can be used to describe the composition of the active and
the reactive power. Mentioned control system has six parts: (1) power control loop (regulation
of the rotor current references from the deviation between detection and reference values for
both active and reactive power); (2) current PI regulator for rotor currents IM2 and IT2 (same
application with the first part for regulation of the voltage); (3) air-gap flux calculator (using
the stator currents, voltages, and the signals of the position sensor); (4) P1 and Q1 detector
(calculation of the stator active and reactive power); (5) detector of the rotor current (vector
values of M-T axis, Equation (30)); (6) coordinate transformer (three-phase voltage references,
Equation (31)) [25].

éI ù
é I M 2 ù éCos ( l + g ) Sin ( l + g ) ù é 1 -1 / 2 -1 / 2 ù ê a 2 ú
ê ú=ê úê ú ê Ib2 ú (30)
ë IT 2 û ëê Sin ( l + g ) Cos ( l + g ) ûú ëê0 3 / 2 - 3 / 2 ûú ê ú
ë Ic 2 û

éU a 2 ù é 1 0 ù
ê ú ê ú éCos ( l + g ) -Sin ( l + g ) ù éU M 2 ù
êU b 2 ú = ê -1 / 2 3 / 2 úê úê ú (31)
êU ú ê -1 / 2 - 3 / 2 ú êë Sin ( l + g ) Cos ( l + g ) úû ë T 2 û
U
ë c 2 û êë ûú

Figure 4. Block diagram of the control system

2.5. Power reference generation

Power Reference Generation (PRG) is one of the key modules of the algorithm. Strangely, it is
the only module that depends on the parameter values. Due to direct connection to the torque,
58 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

active power reference is the simplest way to find out the torque value desired to produce. On
the other hand, there are some difficulties related with the active power reference.

Normally, the following equation is enough to calculate active power reference [10]:

Pref = Tref wm 2 = Tref ( 2p n2 ) (32)

where Tref is supplied from some outer loop such as a speed control loop, and n2 is the actual
mechanical shaft speed at a particular instant of time.

Equation (32) is reliable under some limits so that calculated value of active power is not
adequate to generate the torque Tref. Main reason is the losses (losses in the stator and rotor
resistance and iron losses) where all input power can not be transmitted to output. Loss in
rotor resistance is influenced by the slip of the machine. Schematic demonstration of the power
flows under motoring and generating for an induction machine are shown in Fig. 5.

Figure 5. Schematic demonstration of the power flows in an induction machine under (a) motoring and (b) generating
(Pi = input power (taken from supply in motor mode, given from shaft in generator mode), Pm = mechanical power, Pδ
= air-gap power (transferred from stator to rotor under motoring and from rotor to stator under generating), Pl = pow‐
er loss, Pfe = iron loss, Pcu = copper loss, Pa = additional losses produced by harmonics, Pf,w = friction and windage loss‐
es, Pel = effective electrical power taken from rotor circuit, Po = output power (shaft power in motor mode, electrical
power in generation mode) (1 subscript means stator, 2 subscript means rotor) [28]

As seen in literature, whilst some researchers can assume that the stator resistance power and
the iron losses can be ignored (under many practical situations), the power in the rotor
 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 59
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resistance cannot be ignored, especially under heavy load conditions when the slip of the
machine can be large [10].

As the diagram shows, under the motoring condition the input power separates into two parts:
one part is for the losses (stator, iron, and harmonics) and the other part is related with the
rotating field power (air-gap power).

Also, under generating the input shaft power separates into two parts: the losses (friction,
windage) and mechanical power. All these parts should be balanced to reach the goal power
value. To manage this aim, we should be able to calculate the slip and afterward we could
calculate required power expressions as follows for the motoring/generating situation (if the
friction and windage losses are neglected):

Pshaft Tref wm 2
Pref = = (33)
(1 - s ) (1 - s )

where Pshaft is the desired shaft power, and Pref is the terminal reference power as defined
previously.

The reactive power reference generation is linked with the slip. So, first we should deal with
it. Figure 2 gives an approximate vector diagram of the voltages, currents, and fluxes of an
induction machine. Reactive power can be calculated as the multiplication of the emf voltage
E in one axis (e.g. qr) of the machine by the current in the other axis (e.g. dr):

Q = I mr E (34)

Q = I mrw1y m (35)

where ψm is the flux magnitude, Imr is the magnetising current, and ω1 is the stator angular
speed related with electrical frequency.

Rearranging (35) one can write:

æ Qref ö
wsref = - ç ÷ -w (36)
(
çç I y
è mrref mref ) ÷÷
ø
2

realizing:

f2 = pp.n2

ω2 = pp.ωm2
60 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

ω1 = ω2 + ωs

ωs = slip angular speed related with slip frequency

ωs ref = the desired slip angular speed related with slip frequency

Imr ref = the desired magnetizing current

pp = the pole pairs

│Qref│ = the desired reactive power

The negative sign in Equation (36) results from the sign of Qref, the reference reactive power.

Given Equation (36), we can now write the expression for the slip:

ws
s=
( w2 + ws ) ( ) ( 2
= 1 + w2 I mrrefy mref / Qref = 1 + w2 Lm I mrref / Qref ) (37)

This expression can be substituted into the active power slip compensation term 1/(1-s). The
Imr ref and ψm ref terms in this expression are reference values. Clearly, Imr and ψm for an induction
machine are related, that is, ψm = Lm.Imr. Hence, we have written the numerator of Equation
(37) as Lm.Imr ref2. This requires acquiring the value of magnetizing inductance of the machine.

The reactive power expression can be written as:

Qref = I mrw1y m = I mry m (w2 + ws ) (38)

So, it can be concluded that the reactive power is dependent on the slip frequency. The slip
frequency is well-related with the torque. In case a rapid change in torque is needed, slip
frequency changes as a step and consequently the reactive power value changes. The torque
T and ωs expressions of an induction machine can be written as (using the standard expression
from Field Oriented Control):

T = 1.5 pp L2m I mr I p / L2 (39)

(
ws = I p / t 2 I mr ) (40)

where τ2 = L2 /R2, L2 = the rotor inductance, and R2 = the rotor resistance. Therefore, τ2 is the
rotor time constant.

Rearranging Equation (39), one can write:

 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 61
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(
I p = (TL2 ) / 1.5 pp L2m I mr ) (41)

Substituting Equation (41) into Equation (40) gives:

(
ws = (TL2 ) / 1.5 pp L2m I mr t 2
2
) (42)

The denominator in Equation (42) can be simplified by assuming that the leakage inductance
of the machine is very small in relation to L2, and hence L 2 ≈ Lm. Therefore, Equation (42) can
be written as:

2T 2T
ws » =
( 3p L
p m
2
I mr t 2 ) ( 3 ppy m I mr t 2 ) (43)

We are now in a position to write an expression for the reference reactive power. Substituting
Equation (43) into Equation (38) and simplifying, we get Equation (44):

é öù é öù
( ) ( )
æ 2Tref 2 æ 2Tref
Qref = - ê I mr w2y mref + ç ÷ ú = - ê Lm I mr w2 + ç ÷ú (44)
ê ref ç 3 ppt 2 ÷ú ê ref ç 3 ppt 2 ÷ú
ë è øû ë è øû

3. Experimental studies

An experimental setup using the control system shown in Fig. 4 was established by Yamamoto
and Motoyoshi and the characteristics of the control system along the M-T frame have been
experimentally examined. Experimental data are taken from their study [25]. The schematic
diagram of the experimental system is shown in Fig. 6. Specifications of the generator used in
experimental system are shown in Table 1. Equations (16) and (17) show that active and reactive
power is proportional to the rotor currents IT2 and IM2.

Phase 3 Stator Voltage 270 V

Pole Pairs 2 Rotor Voltage 257 V

Power Capacity 20 kW Synchronous Speed 1500 rpm

Table 1. Specifications of the generator used in experimental system [25]

62 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 6. Experimental system [25]

3.1. Experimental results

Figures 7 and 8 show the relationships between stator power and rotor current reference and
Figs. 9 and 10 show the relationships between stator power and stator power reference.

Figure 10 shows the step response of the stator reactive power Q1 and the step response of the
rotor current IM2 which is in proportion to the stator reactive power (Q1). Figure 8 shows the
step response of the rotor current IT2 which is in proportion to the stator active power (P1).
Figure 9 shows the step response of the stator active power P1. IM2 and IT2 respond to stepping
of I*M2 and I*T2 in 20 ms without any effect on IT2 and IM2. P1 and Q1 respond to stepping of
P*1 and Q*1 in 80 ms without any effect on Q1 and P1. The effects of this active and reactive
power control method have been proved by these experimental results.

Figure 7. Step response of the M-axis current [25]

 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 63
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Figure 8. Step response of the T-axis current [25]

Figure 9. Step response of the active power [25]

Figure 10. Step response of the reactive power [25]

64 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

3.2. Harmonic analysis

For the power converter of this system, the cycloconverter which is suitable for a large capacity
system is often used. Generally, when the large-scale converter is applied to the electric power
network system, it is a very important item to analyze the harmonic currents of the power
converter. As known, the harmonic currents of the power converter are transmitted to the
electric power network system through the rotor and stator windings. In this chapter, the
characteristics of the transmission of the harmonic currents caused by the cycloconverter are
analyzed theoretically.

Before beginning analysis, let us remember the basic principles of cycloconverter and mathe‐
matical background (taken from [30]) for the understanding of the subject.

3.2.1. Principle of the cycloconverter

As known, cycloconversion is concerned mostly with direct conversion of energy to a different

frequency by synthesizing a low-frequency wave from appropriate sections of a higher-
frequency source. As shown in Fig. 11a, a cycloconverter can be considered to be composed of
periods.  The two periods, when the product of load voltage and current is positive, require 
two converters connected back-to-back. The load waveforms of Fig. 11b show that in the
power flow into the load, dictating a situation where the converter groups rectify, the 
general case, the instantaneous power flows in the load fall into one of four periods. The two
positive and negative groups conducting respectively during the appropriate positive and 
periods, when the product of load voltage and current is positive, require power flow into the
negative load‐current periods. 
load, dictating a situation where the converter groups rectify, the positive and negative groups
 
conducting respectively during the appropriate positive and negative load-current periods.
 

 
                                              (a)                                                                                   (b) 

Figure
Figure 11.11.
General cycloconverter layout (a) Block diagram representation, (b) Ideal load waveforms [30]
 General cycloconverter layout (a) Block diagram representation, (b) Ideal load waveforms 
[30] 
The other two periods represent times when the product of load voltage and current is
negative; hence, the power flow is out of the load, demanding that the converters operate in
The other two periods represent times when the product of load voltage and current is 
the inverting mode. As shown in Fig. 11a, the principle of the cycloconverter can be demon‐
negative; hence, the power flow is out of the load, demanding that the converters operate in 
strated by using the simplest possible single-phase input to single-phase output with a pure
the inverting mode.  As shown in Fig. 11a, the principle of the cycloconverter can be 
resistance as load. Each converter is a bi-phase half-wave connection, the positive group
demonstrated by using the simplest possible single‐phase input to single‐phase output with 
labeled P and the negative group for reverse current labeled N.
a pure resistance as load.  Each converter is a bi‐phase half‐wave connection, the positive 
group labeled P and the negative group for reverse current labeled N. 

[Placeholder for fig. 1Please, do not alter]  
Figure 12.  Single‐phase load fed from a three‐pulse cycloconverter [30] 
 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 65
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61130

Figure 12. Single-phase load fed from a three-pulse cycloconverter [30]

The operation of the blocked group cycloconverter with various loads can be readily explained
by reference to the three-pulse connection shown in Fig. 12, with the associated waveforms for
inductive load in Figs. 13 and 14. As known, the wound rotor induction motor is an inductive
load. In this chapter, waveforms are drawn for inductive load.

Figure 13. Waveforms with maximum voltage to an inductive load [30]

66 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 14. Waveforms when the load voltage is at half maximum (inductive load current continuous) [30]

                                  (a)                                                                                  (b) 
Figure 15.  Cycloconverter connections with three‐phase output. (a) Three‐pulse bridge, (b) Six‐pulse 
bridge [30] 
Figure 15. Cycloconverter connections with three-phase output. (a) Three-pulse bridge, (b) Six-pulse bridge [30]
The waveforms are as shown in Fig. 13 when the load is inductive, these being at a condition 
of maximum voltage.  The load current will lag the voltage and, as the load‐current 
The waveforms are as shown in Fig. 13 when the load is inductive, these being at a condition
direction determines which group is conducting, the group on‐periods are delayed relative 
to the desired output voltage.  The group thyristors are fired at such angles to achieve an 
of maximum voltage. The load current will lag the voltage and, as the load-current direction
output as close as possible to a sinewave, but now the lagging load current takes each group 

determines which group is conducting, the group on-periods are delayed relative to the
desired output voltage. The group thyristors are fired at such angles to achieve an output as
close as possible to a sinewave, but now the lagging load current takes each group into the
inverting mode. The group will cease conducting when the load current reverses. The load-
voltage waveform is shown as a smooth transfer between groups, but in practice, a short gap
would be present to ensure cessation of current in, and the regaining of the blocking state in,
the outgoing group, before the incoming group is fired. The waveforms drawn assume the
 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 67
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current is continuous within each load half-cycle. The effects of overlap will in practice be
present in the waveforms.

In practice, the load-current waveform in Fig. 13 is assumed to be sinusoidal, although it would

contain a ripple somewhat smaller than that in the voltage waveform. A light load inductance
would result in discontinuous current, giving short zero-voltage periods. Each thyristor will
conduct the appropriate block of load current, having the branch currents shown. The current
ia - ib would represent the transformer input line current if one assumed the supply to be via
a delta primary transformer. The input-current waveform shows changes in shape from cycle
to cycle but where the input and output frequencies are an exact multiple, the waveform will
repeat over each period of output frequency.

As shown in Fig. 14, a reduction in the output voltage can be obtained by firing angle delay.
Here firing is delayed, even at the peak of the output voltage, so that control is possible over
the magnitude of the output voltage. Comparison of Fig. 14 with Fig. 13 indicates a higher
ripple content when the output voltage is reduced.

As shown in Fig. 15a, the three-pulse cycloconverter when feeding a three-phase load can be
connected with a total of 18 thyristors. As shown in Fig. 15b, a six-pulse cycloconverter can be
based on either six-phase half-wave blocks or the bridge connection when 36 thyristors are
required.

Figure 16. Cycloconverter load-voltage waveform with a lagging power factor load (six-pulse connection) [30]

An example of the cycloconverter output waveforms for the higher-pulse connections is given
in Fig. 16, with an output frequency of one-third of the input frequency. It is clear from these
waveforms that the higher the pulse-number, the closer is the output waveform to the desired
sinusoidal waveform. In general, the output frequency is in general limited to about one-half
to one-third of the input frequency, the higher-pulse connections permitting a higher limit.

As in Fig. 15, when the three-pulse cycloconverter feeds a three-phase balanced load, the
current loading on the supply is much more evenly balanced. The waveforms to illustrate this
are given in Fig. 17 for a frequency ratio of 4/1 with a load of 0.707 power factor lagging. It has
68 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

been assumed that the load current is sinusoidal, although in practice it must contain ripple.
The total load current is not identical from one cycle to the next, obviously contains harmonics,
and its fundamental component lags the supply voltage by a larger amount than the load
power factor angle.

Figure 17. Development of total input current to three-pulse cycloconverter with three-phase lagging power factor
load [30]

The thyristors of a cycloconverter are commutated naturally, and whether the load is resistive,
inductive, or capacitive, the firing of the thyristors must be delayed to shape the output. The
net result is that the AC supply input current will always lag its associated voltage.

3.2.2. Circulating current mode

The previous section specified cycloconverter operation where either the positive or negative
groups were conducting, but never together. As shown in Fig. 18, if a center-tapped reactor is
connected between the positive group P and negative group N, then both groups can be
 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 69
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permitted to conduct. The reactor will limit the circulating current, that is, the value of its
inductance to the flow of load current from either group being one quarter of its value to the
circulating current, because inductance is proportional to the square of the number of turns.

In Fig. 19, typical waveforms are shown for the three-pulse cycloconverter shown in Fig. 18.
Each group conducts continuously, with rectifying and inverting modes as shown. The mean
between the two groups will be fed to the load, some of the ripple being cancelled in the
combination of the two groups. Both groups synthesize the same fundamental sinewave. The
reactor voltage is the instantaneous difference between the two group voltages. The circulating
current shown in Fig. 19 can only flow in one direction, the thyristors preventing reverse flow.
Hence, the current will build up during the reactor voltage positive periods until in the steady
state it is continuous, rising and falling as shown.

Figure 18. Three-pulse cycloconverter with intergroup reactor [30]

3.2.3. Mathematical analysis

The above subjects have demonstrated that almost all the waveforms associated with power
electronic equipment are non-sinusoidal, which contains harmonic components. The purpose
of this subject is to analyze the harmonic content of the various waveforms and discuss their
effects as regards both supply and load.

Any periodic waveform may be shown to be composed of the superposition of a direct

component with a fundamental pure sinewave component, together with pure sinewaves
known as harmonics at frequencies which are integral multiples of the fundamental. A non-
sinusoidal wave is often referred to as a complex wave [30].

Mathematically, it is more convenient to express the independent variable as x and the

dependent variable as y. Then, the series may be expressed as:

y = f ( x ) = a0 + a1 cos ( x ) + a2 cos ( 2 x ) + ... + ancos(nx) + b1sin( x) + b2 sin(2x) + ... + bn sin ( nx ) (45)

70 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 19. Waveform of a three-pulse cycloconverter with circulating current but without load [30]

Equation (45) is known as a Fourier series, and where f(x) can be expressed mathematically, a
Fourier analysis yields that the coefficients are [31]:

p
1
a0 =
2p ò f ( x ) dx
-p
(46)

p
1
an =
p ò f ( x ) cosnxdx
-p
(47)

p
1
bn =
p ò f ( x ) sinnxdx
-p
(48)

Alternatively, the series may be expressed as:

y = f ( x ) = R0 + R1 sin ( x - f1 ) + R2 sin ( 2 x - f2 ) + R3 sin ( 3 x - f3 ) + ... + Rn sin ( nx - fn ) (49)

Equations (49) and (45) are equivalent, with:

 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 71
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an cos nx + bn sin nx = Rn sin ( nx - fn ) (50)

From which the resultant and phase angle:

Rn = ( an2 + bn2 )1/ 2 (51)

an
fn = arctan (52)
bn

Electrically, it expresses the independent variable as ωt instead of x and the dependent variable
as volts or amperes instead of y. Then, the series may be expressed as:

v = V0 + V1 sin (wt - f1 ) + V2 sin ( 2wt - f2 ) + V3 sin ( 3wt - f3 ) + ... + Vn sin ( nwt - fn ) (53)

where

v is the instantaneous value of the voltage at any time t;

Vo is the direct (or mean) value of the voltage;

V1 is the maximum value of the fundamental component of the voltage;

V2 is the maximum value of the second harmonic component of the voltage;

V3 is the maximum value of the third harmonic component of the voltage;

Vn is the maximum value of the nth harmonic component of the voltage;

ϕ defines the relative angular reference; and

ω = 2πf, where f is the frequency of the fundamental component, 1/f

defining the time over which the complex wave repeats itself.

The constant term of Equation (46) is the mean value of the function, and is the value found
in, for example, the calculation of the direct (mean) voltage output of a rectifier. In the analysis
of a complex wave, certain statements and simplifications are possible by inspection of any
given waveform. If the areas of the positive and negative half-cycles are equal, then a0 is zero.
If f(x + π) = - f(x), then there are no even harmonics, that is, no second, fourth, etc. In plain
terms, this means the negative half-cycle is a reflection of the positive half-cycle. If f(- x) = -
f(x), then an= 0; that is, there are no sine terms. If f(- x) = f(x), then bn= 0; that is, there are no
cosine terms. Symmetry of the waveform can result in Equations (47) and (48) being taken as
twice the value of the integral from 0 to π, or four times the value of the integral from 0 to π /
2, hence simplifying the analysis.
72 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Where it is difficult to put a mathematical expression to f(x), or where an analysis of an

experimental or practical waveform obtained from a piece of equipment is required, graphical
analysis can be performed [30].

The conditions of analysis are as follows.

1. The frequency of the harmonic current for the three-pulse and six-pulse cycloconverter is
6mfl ± (2n + 1)fs, where m is any integer from 1 to infinity, n is any integer from 0 to infinity,
fl is the frequency of the power source, and fs is the output frequency of the cycloconverter
[32].

2. The analysis is carried out only on the harmonic components.

3. Zero-phase-sequence current (harmonic currents of multiple of 3) is neglected.

4. The stator is connected to the fundamental frequency voltage source.

Using these conditions, the three-phase rotor current can be defined as follows:

I a 2 = åå
{ } {
A( 6 n -1) mSin 6 mq1 - ( 6n - 1)q s + A( 6 n - 5) mSin 6 mq1 - ( 6n - 5 )q s}
(54)
m n
) Sin{6 mq - ( 6n - 1)q } + B(
+ B( 6 n -1 m 1 s ) Sin{6 mq - ( 6n - 5 )q }
6n- 5 m 1 s

ìï æ 2p ö üï
A( 6 n -1) mSin í6 mq1 - ( 6n - 1) ç q s - ÷ý
îï è 3 ø þï
ìï æ 2p ö üï
+ A( 6 n - 5) mSin í6 mq1 - ( 6n - 5 ) ç q s - ÷ý
ïî è 3 ø ïþ
Ib2 = åå (55)
ïì æ 2p ö ïü
+ B( 6 n -1) mSin í6 mq1 - ( 6n - 1) ç q s -
m n
÷ý
îï è 3 ø þï
ïì æ 2p ö ïü
+ B( 6 n - 5) mSin í6 mq1 - ( 6n - 5 ) ç q s - ÷ý
îï è 3 ø ïþ

ìï æ 2p ö üï
A( 6 n -1) mSin í6 mq1 - ( 6n - 1) ç q s + ÷ý
ïî è 3 ø ïþ
ïì æ 2p ö ïü
+ A( 6 n - 5) mSin í6 mq1 - ( 6n - 5 ) ç q s + ÷ý
îï è 3 ø þï
I c 2 = åå (56)
ïì æ 2p ö ïü
+ B( 6 n -1) mSin í6 mq1 - ( 6n - 1) ç q s +
m n
÷ý
îï è 3 ø þï
ìï æ 2p ö üï
+ B( 6 n - 5) mSin í6 mq1 - ( 6n - 5 ) ç q s + ÷ý
ïî è 3 ø ïþ
 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 73
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61130

where m=1,2,....., n=1,2,......, θl=ωlt: ωl is the stator angular speed, θs=ωst: ωs is the slip angular
speed.

When Equations (54)–(56) are transformed to the d-q axis based on the stator voltage, (57) and
(58) are derived:

A( 6 n -1) mSin{6 mq1 - 6nq s }

I d 2 = åå
{
+ A( 6 n - 5) mSin 6 mq1 - ( 6n - 1)q s }
(57)
m n + B( 6 n -1) mSin{6 mq1 + 6nq s }

{
+ B( 6 n - 5) mSin 6 mq1 + ( 6n - 1)q s }

A( 6 n -1) mCos{6 mq1 - 6nq s }

I q 2 = åå
{
+ A( 6 n - 5) mCos 6 mq1 - ( 6n - 1)q s }
(58)
m n + B( 6 n -1) mCos{6 mq1 + 6nq s }

{
+ B( 6 n - 5) mCos 6 mq1 + ( 6n - 1)q s }
The characteristics of transmission from the rotor winding to the stator winding are analyzed
by substituting into the fundamental equation of a wound rotor induction machine. The
analysis uses the symmetrical coordinate method for simplification. In this case, positive phase
sequence component value (F component value) and negative phase sequence component
value (B component value) have a conjugate relationship. The F component value is used for
the analysis in this paper, which gives the following fundamental equation of the wound rotor
induction machine:

é VF 1 ù é R1 + ( p + jw1 )( L1 + Lm ) ( p + jw1 ) Lm ù éI ù
ê ú=ê ú ê F1 ú (59)
ëVF 2 û êë ( p + jw0 ) Lm R2 + ( p + jw0 )( L2 + Lm ) úû ë I F 2 û

When Equation (59) is transformed relative to IF1, the following equation is obtained:

IF1 =
( p + jw ) L1 m
I F 2 + VF 1 (60)
R1 + ( p + jw )( L
1 1
+ Lm )

In this analysis, stator voltage is the fundamental voltage source, then, VF1 = 0 is defined. When
IF1 is expressed by Id2 and Iq2, using Equation (60) and IF2 = (1/√2)(Id2 + jIq2), the following
expression is derived:
74 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

( p + jw ) L 1
IF1 =
R1 + ( p + jw )( L
1 m

+ Lm ) 2
(I d2
+ jI q 2 ) (61)
1 1

Equation (59) is substituted into Equations (57) and (58). Applying Laplace transformation,
the stator current is calculated. A-phase stator current is derived as follows:

{
C( 6 n -1) mCos ( 6 m + 1)q1 - 6nq s }
I a1 = åå
{
+C( 6 n - 5) mCos ( 6 m - 1)q1 - ( 6n - 1)q s }
(62)
m n {
+ D( 6 n -1) mCos ( 6 m - 1)q1 + 6nq s }
{
+ D( 6 n - 5) mCos ( 6 m + 1)q1 + ( 6n - 1)q s }
where

æ Lm ö æ Lm ö
C( 6 n -1) m » A( 6 n -1) m ç ÷,D » B( 6 n -1) m ç ÷
ç ( Lm + L1 ) ÷ ( 6 n -1) m ç ( Lm + L1 ) ÷
è ø è ø
æ Lm ö æ Lm ö
C( 6 n - 5) m » A( 6 n - 5) m ç ÷ , D 6n-5 m » B 6n-5 m ç ÷
ç ( Lm + L1 ) ÷ ( ) ( ) ç ( Lm + L1 ) ÷
è ø è ø

The results of this analysis show that the harmonic currents fed to the rotors winding are
transmitted to the stator windings by changing its frequency. The rotor harmonic currents at
6mω1±(6n - 5)ωs change to stator harmonic currents at (6m±1)ω1±6(n - 1)ωs. And the rotor
harmonic currents at 6mω1±(6n - 1)ωs change to stator harmonic currents at (6m±1)ω1±6nωs.
This is the effect of the rotating speed of the wound rotor induction generator. Moreover, the
ratio between the amplitude of harmonic currents in the rotor and the stator is nearly 1:1.

Analysis results are verified by the experimental system shown in Fig. 6. Table 2 gives an
example of experimental results. It is seen that experimental values well match with the
theoretical ones. Thus, experiments confirmed that the analysis gives reliable results.

Rotor Harmonic Current Stator Harmonic Current

Frequency Experimental Value Frequency Experimental Value Theoretical Value

296.7 Hz 3.18 A 250 Hz 2.99 A 3.12 A

303.3 Hz 1.65 A 350 Hz 1.53 A 1.61 A

293.3 Hz 0.43 A 340 Hz 0.46 A 0.42 A

316.7 Hz 0.40 A 260 Hz 0.36 A 0.39 A

Table 2. Experimental results (ω1=50 Hz, ωs=50 Hz, m=1, N= 1400 r/min, I1=I2=25 A) [25]
 Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver 75
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61130

It has been proved by experiment that this control system can control the active and reactive
power independently and stably. In addition, it has been confirmed by analysis and experi‐
ment that the harmonic currents fed to the rotor windings of the generator are transmitted to
the stator windings changing its frequency [25].

3.3. Proposed experimental setup

By using the computer and driver/buffer, the experimental setups to control active and reactive
power of the wound rotor induction generator independently and stably are shown in Figs.
20 and 21 [28]. The terminals in experimental setups shown in Figs. 20 and 21 are numbered
considering that the three-pulse cycloconverter with a total of 18 thyristors shown in Fig.
15a will be used.

Figure 20. Schematic block diagram of the experimental setup for computer-aided power control of wound rotor in‐
duction generator

Figure 21. Another schematic block diagram of the experimental setup for computer-aided power control of wound
rotor induction generator
76 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

4. Conclusion

New configurations for power control system of the doubly-fed wound rotor induction
generator have been proposed. These configurations are based on a control method using a
rotating reference frame fixed on the air-gap flux of the generator. By using them, the active
and reactive power of generator can be controlled independently and stably. To achieve this
purpose, power and current control that are fundamental subjects have been analyzed and as
a result, a computer-aided circuit is given to achieve the power and current control. Using
computers enables application of new technologies for easier control. For example, any new
metaheuristic techniques or classification/identification techniques could be applied by just
changing the code in the computer.

Author details

Fevzi Kentli*

Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

Marmara University- Faculty of Technology – Department of Mechatronics Engineering

Kadıköy-Istanbul, Turkey

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 Chapter 3

Analysis and Methodology for

Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in
VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique

Rudolf Ribeiro Riehl, Fernando de Souza Campos, Alceu Ferreira Alves and
Ernesto Ruppert Filho

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544

Abstract
Three-phase induction motors present stray capacitances. The aim of this chapter is to
present a methodology to experimentally determine these capacitances and also evaluate
the effects of electromagnetic interference on motors in common mode. The proposed
procedures for this methodology consist of: a) identifying the motor equivalent electrical
circuit parameters through characteristic tests performed in the laboratory; b) setting up
configurations between the PWM inverter and the motor for voltage and current meas‐
urements: common mode and shaft voltages, leakage and shaft (bearing) currents by us‐
ing a dedicated measuring circuit; c) calculating the parasitic capacitance values between
stator and frame, stator and rotor, rotor and frame and bearings of the motor using the
capacitance characteristic equation; d) using the dedicated software Pspice to simulate
the system composed by the three-phase induction motor fed by PWM inverter with the
equivalent electrical circuit parameters; e) determining the characteristic waveforms in‐
volved in the common mode phenomenon.

Keywords: Induction motors, parasitic capacitances, PWM inverter

1. Introduction

The use of inverter controlled by pulse width modulation (PWM Inverter), on drive and control
of the three-phase induction motors is increasingly common, especially for the power range
of up to 10 Hp.
The recent developments in power semiconductor devices (IGBT, MOSFET, and others) have
allowed these drives to achieve switching frequencies up to 20 kHz. In these frequencies, the
82 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

rise time of PWM voltage becomes very small and responsible for the appearance of phenom‐
ena, defined as electromagnetic interference (EMI) in the induction motor [12, 18, 25]. Due to
the presence of parasitic capacitances in the motor caused by the free or isolated spaces between
metal parts, capacitive couplings occur, which become flow paths of the high-frequency
electric current between the motor phases (differential mode coupling) and between phases
and the ground (common mode coupling). The higher the switching frequency, the greater are
the extensions and consequences of these phenomena.

The differential mode phenomena are responsible for excessive heating of the motor, harming
the electrical insulation characteristics, performance, and, consequently, their useful life, and
can burn out the motor. This occurs because the PWM inverter does not feed the induction
motor with a sinusoidal voltage, but by applying modulated or switched pulses, producing
high-frequency harmonics, and high-voltage gradients values (high dV/dt) to the stator
windings [3].

The phenomena due to the common mode are responsible for the appearance of circulating
currents between motor and ground moving through the frame, bearings, and motor pedestals.
As the common mode voltage is different from zero, it raises a shaft voltage between the
bearing parts and the ground, which is dependent on both this common mode voltage and the
parasitic capacitances that can circulate electric currents capacitive for multiple paths by the
motor [10]. One of these paths passes through the bearings, and in this case the motor currents
are known as bearing currents, which, due to discharges occurring at the dielectric break, can
cause damages at their bearings and if the shaft locks, the motor would be forced to stop and
it will cause burning of the windings. Another phenomenon that occurs is electric shock or
electric discharge machining (EDM), due to the flow of leakage current motor to the frame
when it is not grounded or this ground is not suitable [1, 4, 7].

The conventional method to determine these parasitic capacitances is by measuring the

impedance of the induction motor using LCR Bridge [1 to 10]. In this method, the induction
motor is disassembled for specific parameters to be measured. For the determination of the
parameters between the stator and the motor frame, the rotor is removed and measurements
are conducted with each phase bridge between the LCR and the frame and among the three
phases (short-circuited in this case) and the frame. After that, the rotor is put back and its axis
is short-circuited to the frame. Parameter values between stator and rotor are measured. The
LCR Bridge is connected at the common point of the three phases (neutral) and the stator frame.

The parameters of the motor bearings are dynamic and depend on operating conditions
(speed) of the three-phase induction motor and also the dielectric characteristics of resistivity
of the lubricant temperature and the geometric construction of the motor [1 to 10]. The rotor
parameters can only be determined after all previous parameters have been obtained. The LCR
Bridge is connected between the rotor shaft and the frame of the induction motor.

In the absence of an LCR Bridge and an appropriate laboratory for this type of test, another
methodology [40, 41] is used to determine the parameters of the equivalent circuit of the
induction motor in steady state (nominal frequency) [26, 27] and for high frequency [1, 10, 14,
41], through laboratory measurements using features configurations of links between the
 Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique 83
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544

PWM inverter and the motor for measuring the following parameters of interest: common
mode voltage (VCM) and shaft voltage (VSHAFT); leakage (ILEAKAGE) and bearing (IB) currents, by
measurement circuit designed for this purpose; and calculation of the values of the parasitic
capacitances between the stator and motor frame (CSF), stator and rotor (CSR), rotor and motor
frame (CRF) and bearings (CB) using characteristic equations as will be shown in this chapter.
The computer application PSPICE [36, 40] is used to simulate the three-phase induction motor
powered by a PWM inverter system using the high-frequency equivalent circuit of the motor.
The characteristic waveforms that represent the common mode phenomena will be obtained
to allow comparisons for validation of procedures to determine the capacitance.

In this methodology [40, 41], the three-phase induction motor does not need to be disassembled
and reassembled as in the case of measurement with LCR Bridge. Only the bearings are
insulated, and the determination of parasitic capacitances is performed while the motor is
running. The results of testing for measurement and determination of two 1 Hp induction
motor parasitic capacitances and simulations, using the Pspice program, are presented.

2. Equivalent circuit of three-phase induction motor at high frequencies

At high frequencies, the capacitive reactance among the various parts of the three-phase
induction motor are shown in Figure 1, which illustrates the equivalent circuit of the three-
phase induction motor fed by PWM inverter [1, 6, 15]. The distributed parameters R, L, and C
represent the high-frequency coupling between the windings of the stator and the rotor.

ZRF is the impedance between the rotor and the motor frame, also called air gap impedance
Zg; ZER is the impedance between the windings of the stator and the rotor; ZSF is the impedance
between the stator windings and the frame; Zg is the air gap impedance; and ZB represents the
impedance between the rotor and the bearing. RW and LW represent the equivalent impedance
of the driver through which circulates the bearing current and Rg is the lead resistance
connected between the frame and ground. Using the defined impedances shown by equations
(1) through (4), one can obtain the high-frequency simplified circuit of the induction motor
presented in Figure 2 [15]:

Zrf = Zg = jXC g (1)

Zsr = Rsr + jXLsr + jXC sr (2)

Zsf = Rsf + jXLsf + jXC sf (3)

Zb = ( Rl / / jXCb ) + Rb + Rw + jXLw (4)

 At high frequencies, the capacitive reactance among the various parts of the three-phase induction

motor are shown in Figure 1, which illustrates the equivalent circuit of the three-phase induction motor
84 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics
fed by PWM inverter [1, 6, 15]. The distributed parameters R, L, and C represent the high-frequency

coupling between the windings of the stator and the rotor.

RSR LSR CSR

RSR LSR CSR

RSR LSR CSR

RSF RSF RSF ZSR

RB

Cg CB
LSF LSF LSF
ZSF ZRF=Zg ZB
Rl

CSF CSF CSF R

Frame
L

Rg
Figure 1: High-frequency equivalent circuit of induction motor
Figure 1. High-frequency equivalent circuit of induction motor

ZRF is the impedance between the rotor and the motor frame, also called air gap impedance Zg; ZER is
VSHAFT
the impedance between the windings of the stator and the rotor; ZSF is the impedance between the stator

windings and the frame; Zg is the

Vair gap impedance; and ZB represents the impedance between the rotor
CM RZ1SR
and the bearing. RW and LW represent the equivalent impedance of the driver through which circulates the

bearing current and Rg is the lead resistance connected

ZSF between Z the frame and ground.
ZB Using the defined
RF
impedances shown by equations (2.1) through (2.4), one can obtain the high-frequency simplified circuit of

the induction motor presented in Figure 2 [15]:

Z rf = Z g = jXCg (2.1)

Z sr = Rcircuit
Figure 2: High-frequency simplified sr + jXL + jXC sr
forsr three-phase (2.2)
induction motor according to its impedances
Figure 2. High-frequency simplified circuit for three-phase induction motor according to its impedances
Z sf = Rsf + jXLsf + jXC sf (2.3)

Simplifications of the circuit shown in Figure

Rb + Rw22 +
can be done using the following considerations [1, 3,
Simplifications of the Z b circuit
= ( Rl //shown
jXCb )in
+ Figure can be
jXL wdone using the following considerations
(2.4)
[1, 3,a)6,Z9,
6, 9, 10]: RF 10]: a) ZRF iscapacitive;
is purely purely capacitive; b) at frequencies
b) at frequencies lower200
lower than than 200ZkHz,
kHz, ZSR assumes
SR assumes a
a capacitive
capacitive characteristic; and c) ZSR represents a circuit with RC behavior. At frequencies of 4–
characteristic; and c) ZSR represents a circuit with RC behavior. At frequencies of 4–20 kHz range, which
20 kHz range, which are typical switching frequencies of a PWM inverter, parasitic impedances
are typical switching frequencies of a PWM inverter, parasitic impedances of the induction motor assume

purely capacitive characteristic [10], according to the example shown in Figure 3.

characteristic; and c) ZSR represents a circuit with RC behavior. At frequencies of 4–20 kHz range, which

are typical switching frequencies of a PWM inverter, parasitic impedances of the induction motor assume

purely capacitive characteristic [10], according to the example shown in Figure 3.

Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique 85
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544

of the induction motor assume purely capacitive characteristic [10], according to the example
shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Capacitive impedance characteristic of the three-phase induction motor [10]

Figure 3. Capacitive impedance characteristic of the three-phase induction motor [10]

Thus, it is possible to simplify the equivalent circuit presented in Figure 2 keeping only the
Thus, it is possible to simplify the equivalent circuit presented in Figure 2 keeping only the parasitic
parasitic capacitances at the high frequencies, as shown in Figure 4.
capacitances at the high frequencies, as shown in Figure 4.

VSHAFT

VCM R
C1SR CB
CSF CRF

Figure 4: Simplified equivalent circuit of high-frequency induction motor

Figure 4. Simplified equivalent circuit of high-frequency induction motor

In Figure 4, VCM is the common mode voltage, CSF is the capacitance between the stator winding
per phase and the induction motor frame, CSR is the capacitance among the windings of the
stator and the rotor, CRF is the capacitance between the rotor and motor frame, and CB is the
capacitance of the bearing. Using this high-frequency equivalent circuit of the induction motor,
the equations of both shaft voltage (VSHAFT) and leakage current (ILEAKAGE) are obtained:

v a + vb + vc
vCM = (5)
3

æ CSR ö
VSHAFT = VCM . çç ÷÷ (6)
è CSR + C RF + C B ø
86 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

VCM VSHAFT VSHAFT

I LEAKAGE = + + (7)
XCSF XC RF XC B

The capacitances CSF, CSR, CRF, and CB are defined according to the geometric characteristics of
both the stator as the rotor of a three-phase induction motor and its bearings [1, 2, 11, 12, 13,
23]. In [1], these capacitances are set according to the following equations, depending on the
geometrical dimensions of the induction motor shown in Figure 5.

KSF .NS .e r .e 0 . ( Wd + Ws ) .LS

CSF = (8)
d

KSR .N R .e 0 .Wr .Lr

CSR = (9)
g

K RF .p .e 0 .Lr
C RF = (10)
ln ( Rs / Rr )

N b .4.p .e 0 .e r
CB = (11)
( b + Rc / Rb - 1)
R

In the above equations, KSF, KSR, and KRF factors are stacked packages of magnetic stator and
rotor, NS and NR are the number of slots of the stator winding and the rotor, Ws and Wd are
the width and depth of the groove stator, Wr is the width of the rotor slot, Ls and Lr are the
lengths of the stator and rotor slots, Rr and Rs are the radii of the stator and rotor, d is the
thickness of the insulating dielectric material of the stator channel, g is the gap length, Nb is
the number of bearing balls, Rb and Rc are the ball lightning and the raceway, ε0 and εr are the
permittivity of the medium (air and insulation). The parasitic capacitances become important
when, besides the common mode voltage is different from zero, the frequency of the phase
voltages becomes high, resulting in small capacitive reactance and the circuit in parallel with
the remaining equivalent.

When the three-phase induction motor is fed by pure sinusoidal voltages, at the power grid
frequency, the effect of these capacitances is minimal or nonexistent. If there is an unbalance
in phase voltages, the common mode voltage becomes nonzero, establishing current flow
through these capacitances (Figure 4) which will be significant, if the amplitudes of phase
voltages are high. Thus, assuming that the motor is supplied by balanced phase voltages, the
common-mode voltage (5) is zero. When the three-phase induction motor is fed through a
PWM inverter, it establishes a “capacitive coupling” created by the modulated phase voltages
of the inverter output. These voltages have trapezoidal characteristic value with high dV/dt of
 capacitances are set according to the following equations, depending on the g

inductionformotor
Analysis and Methodology shown
Determining in Figure
the Parasitic 5. in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique
Capacitances 87
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544

K SF .N S
C SF =

K SR .N R
C SR =

K RF .π .ε
CRF =
the stator channel, g is the gap length, Nb is the number of bearing balls, Rb and Rc are the ball
ln(Rs /
lightning and the raceway, ε0 and εr are the permittivity of the medium (air and insulation). The parasitic

capacitances become important when, besides the common mode voltage is different from zero, the N b .4.π
frequency of the phase voltages becomes high, resulting in small capacitive reactance and the circuit Bin
C =
parallel with the remaining equivalent.
(Rb + R
When the three-phase induction motor is fed by pure sinusoidal voltages, at the power grid

frequency, the effect of these capacitances is minimal or nonexistent. If there is an unbalance in phase

voltages, the common mode voltage becomes nonzero, establishing current flow through these

capacitances (Figure 4) which will be significant, if the amplitudes of phase voltages are high. Thus,

assuming that the motor is supplied by balanced phase voltages, the common-mode voltage (2.5) is zero.
Figure 5. Dimensions – induction motor and bearing [1] Figure 5: Dimensions – induction motor and bea
When the three-phase induction motor is fed through a PWM inverter, it establishes a “capacitive
the inverter
coupling” while
created by the semiconductor
the modulated switches
phase voltages of are turned output.
the inverter on or off,
Theseas voltages
shown have
in Figure 6 (a,
trapezoidal
b) [12, 18, 22].
characteristic value with high dV/dt of the inverter while the semiconductor switches are turned on or off,
In the above equations, KSF, KSR, and KRF factors are stacked packages
as shown in Figure 6 (a, b) [12, 18, 22].
NS and NR are the number of slots of the stator winding and the rotor, Ws and
VPWM(V) 400
400V dV/dt(V)
300
of the groove stator, Wr is the width of the rotor slot, Ls and Lr are the length
300V

200V

Rr and Rs are the radii of the stator and rotor, d is the thickness of the insulatin 200V

00V dV
100V

-200V

00V
-400
-400V -37V dt
64.97ms
0V(R,S)66.00ms 68.00ms 70.00ms 72.00ms 74.00ms 76.00ms 78.00ms 80.00ms 82.00ms
17.0
t (ms) 0
40.14617ms 40.14650ms
V(R,S)
40.14700ms 40.14750ms 40.14800ms 40.14850ms 40.14900ms 40.14950ms
4.0
40.15000ms

Time Time

a) b)
t(ms) t(ms)
Figure 6: a) Terminal voltage of the PWM inverter , b) dV/dt voltage

Figure 6. a) Terminal voltage of the PWM inverter, b) dV/dt voltage

As the supply voltages are not sinusoidal, the common mode voltage (VCM) takes nonzero values.

Thus, this voltage and also the switching frequency (fS) of the PWM inverter now have an important role

on common mode capacitive currents. For example, Figures 7a and 7b present the waveforms of the

output phase voltages of the inverter and the common-mode voltage for a switching frequency (fS) of 16

kHz.
VRN(V) 200
200V
 88 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

As the supply
As the supply voltages
voltagesare
arenot
notsinusoidal,
sinusoidal,thethecommon
commonmodemode voltage
voltage (V)CMtakes
(VCM ) takes nonzero
nonzero values.
values. Thus, this voltage and also the switching frequency (fS) of the PWM inverter now have
Thus, this voltage and also the switching frequency (fS) of the PWM inverter now have an important role
an important role on common mode capacitive currents. For example, Figures 7a and 7b
presentmode
on common the waveforms
capacitive of the output
currents. phase voltages
For example, of 7a
Figures theand
inverter and the
7b present thecommon-mode
waveforms of the
voltage for a switching frequency (f ) of 16 kHz.
output phase voltages of the inverter and Sthe common-mode voltage for a switching frequency (fS) of 16

kHz.
VRN(V) 200
200V

100V

00V
-100V

-200
-200V
V(R,0)
VSN(V) 200200V

100V

00V
-100V

-200
-200V
V(S,0)
VTN(V) 200
200V

100V

00V
-100V
SEL>>
-200
-200V
71.0ms 71.1ms 71.2ms 71.3ms 71.4ms 71.5ms 71.6ms 71.7ms 71.8ms 71.9ms 72.0ms
0
V(T,0) 2.0
Time
a) a) t(ms)

VCM(V) 200200V

100V

00V

-100V

200
-200V
71.0ms 71.1ms 71.2ms 71.3ms 71.4ms 71.5ms 71.6ms 71.7ms 71.8ms 71.9ms 72.0ms
0
(V(R,0)+V(S,0)+V(T,0))/3
Time
2.0
b) t(ms)

Figure 7: a) Phase voltage, b) a common mode voltage (VCM) - fS = 16 kHz

Figure 7. a) Phase voltage, b) a common mode voltage (VCM) - fS = 16 kHz

The higher the

The higher the switching
switchingfrequency,
frequency,thethebetter
betteris isthe
the characteristic
characteristic of of
thethe waveform
waveform of the
of the current
current applied to the induction motor. Besides that, the frequency raise often implies an
applied to the induction motor. Besides that, the frequency raise often implies an increase in the switching
increase in the switching times of the IGBTs increasingly smaller, providing both increased
feature
times of dV/dt,
the IGBTs which is directly
increasingly smaller,related to the
providing bothvalues of the
increased capacitive
feature dV/dt,currents
which isofdirectly
common related

to the mode
valuescurrent,
of the as the reduction
capacitive of the
currents capacitivemode
of common reactance significantly
current, increased
as the reduction ofthe
theampli‐
capacitive
tudes thereof. The following equations show these relationships:
reactance significantly increased the amplitudes thereof. The following equations show these

relationships:
dv
i = C. (12)
dt dv
i  C. (2.12)
dt
I  2. . f S .C.V (2.13)

Observing equations (2.12) and (2.13), it is possible to conclude that V and I are effective values of

voltage and common mode current. Thus, from the down-movement of the common-mode electrical
to the values of the capacitive currents of common mode current, as the reduction of the capacitive

reactance significantly increased the amplitudes thereof. The following equations show these

relationships:
Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique 89
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544
dv
i = C. (2.12)
dt
I = 2.p . fS .C.V (13)
I = 2.π . f S .C.V (2.13)

Observingequations
Observing equations(2.12)
(12) and (13), ititisispossible
and (2.13), possibletotoconclude
concludethat
thatVVand
andIIare
areeffective
effective values
values of
of voltage and common mode current. Thus, from the down-movement of the common-mode
voltage and common mode current. Thus, from the down-movement of the common-mode electrical
electrical currents (also called capacitive currents) as shown in Figure 8a [18], one can obtain
currentsthe equivalent
(also circuit ofcurrents)
called capacitive the motorasfor
shownhighinfrequency
Figure 8apresented in Figure
[18], one can obtain8b
the[1equivalent
to 10]. circuit

of the motor for high frequency presented in Figure 8b [1 to 10].

Load

Motor

a)
ICSR CSR
VCM VSHAFT SH

ICR ICB
ICSF
CRF CB
CSF II
IIV
ILEAKAGE III
IIII
b)

Figure 8: a) Circulating currents in the motor, b) high-frequency equivalent circuit and circulating
Figure 8. a) Circulating currents in the motor, b) high-frequency equivalent circuit and circulating currents [10]
currents [10]
The electric currents are established as follows: [10] a) II is the current flowing through the
common mode voltage point (VCM), which passes through the pump capacitance for the motor
frame, ground or neutral and returns to the system to VCM point. It is the largest component
of the leakage current (ILEAKAGE), compared to other capacitive currents because CSF capacitance
is much larger than others. This current is primarily responsible for the electrical discharge of
the motor frame to the “ground.” If the motor is not grounded to the frame satisfactorily, an
important electrical discharge at various parts of it and even at the load may occur and cause
an “electric shock” if someone leans on the motor frame. b) III is the current flowing through
the common mode voltage point (VCM), which passes through the CSR and capacitances CRF,
motor frame, ground or neutral system and returns to the VCM point. c) III is the current flowing
through the common mode voltage point (VCM), which passes through the CSR capacitance
motor shaft bearing capacitance CB motor frame, ground or neutral system and returns to the
VCM point. d) IV is the current flowing shaft voltage point (VSHAFT); CRF capacitance thus stores
90 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

energy through the motor shaft, the switch SH, the motor frame, and returns to the CRF
capacitance.

The switch SH in Figure 8b is, when closed, the breaking of the bearing insulation dielectric
(grease film). When this occurs, and CSR is much smaller than CRF, a new mesh current flow
given by IV is then established. The IV mesh is responsible for the electrical discharge in the
motor bearings due to the charge stored in the capacitor CRF.

3. Experimental method for determination of parasitic capacitances rotor

cage three-phase induction motor [40]

This item presents a methodology [40] for the determination of the parasitic capacitances of
the equivalent high-frequency rotor three-phase induction motor circuit cage and the effects
of electromagnetic interference caused in the same common mode, when it is driven by a PWM
inverter. This is a methodology that uses an electronic circuit to measure variables needed to
calculate these parameters.

The procedures proposed for the development of this methodology are: a) determination of
the equivalent circuit parameters of the three-phase induction motor in steady state and high
frequency and [1, 10, 15, 31] through typical laboratory test; b) establish settings of links
between the PWM inverter and the motor for measurements of quantities of interest: common
mode (VCM) and shaft (VSHAFT) voltages, leakage (ILEAKAGE) and shaft (ISHAFT) currents, developed
by measuring circuit for this purpose [13, 14]; c) calculate the values of the parasitic capaci‐
tances between stator and frame (CSF), stator and rotor (CSR), rotor and frame (CRF) and bearings
(CB), using their characteristic equations [10, 15]; d) using PSPICE [36] to simulate the system
(three-phase induction motor fed by PWM inverter) with the high-frequency equivalent circuit
in the same [6, 16]; e) to obtain the waveforms characteristics of the EMI phenomena.

3.1. Methodology determination procedure

The methodology determines the high-frequency equivalent circuit parameters of rotor cage
three-phase induction motor, through direct measurement of quantities of interest and, using
equation (14), calculate the values of the parasitic capacitances. The quantities of interest are
common mode voltage (VCM), shaft voltage (VSHAFT), leakage current (ILEAKAGE), and shaft
current (ISHAFT).

IC
C= (14)
2.p . fs .VC

In equation (14), IC and VC represent the current and the effective voltage across the capacitor,
respectively, and fS the switching frequency of the PWM inverter. The schematic diagram of
the methodology is shown in Figure 9.
 2.π . f s .VC

InMethodology
Analysis and equation (3.1), IC and VC represent
for Determining the
the Parasitic current and
Capacitances the effective
in VSI-fed voltage
IM Drives across
Based on PWMthe capacitor,91
Technique
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544
respectively, and fS the switching frequency of the PWM inverter. The schematic diagram of the

methodology is shown in Figure 9.

Data Acquisition
System

MEASUREMENT
CIRCUIT
VCM
ILEAKAGE
ISHAFTVSHAFT

3ϕ
SOURCE

Neutral N

Isolated Base
Figure 9: Schematic diagram of the methodology
Figure 9. Schematic diagram of the methodology

The structure consists of the following equipment: three-phase power supply 220V/60Hz, 1 Hp
The structure consists of the following equipment: three-phase power supply 220V/60Hz, 1
Hp three-phase
three-phase PWMPWM inverter,
inverter, twotwo three-phase
three-phase 1Hp induction
1Hp induction motors, measuring
motors, measuring circuit of thecircuit of of
quantities
the quantities of interest,
interest, data acquisitiondata acquisition
board board LabView,
LabView, notebook notebook
PWM inverter PWM inverter
management and signal manage‐
processing
ment and signal processing through dedicated software LabView 8.5 and MOVITOOLS, base
through dedicated software LabView 8.5 and MOVITOOLS, base for sustaining fully insulated equipment
for sustaining fully insulated equipment to allow measurements, especially the currents (as
closetoasallow
possible to an actual
measurements, situation),
especially connecting
the currents cable
(as close with the
as possible neutral
to an actual system intercon‐
situation), connecting
nected to the
cable withPWM inverter
the neutral ground
system terminalstoand
interconnected thethe
PWMinduction
inverter motor
groundproviding
terminals anda circulating
the induction
path to the induction motor current.
motor providing a circulating path to the induction motor current.
The magnitudes of the measuring
The magnitudes circuitcircuit
of the measuring (VCM,(VVCM , ILEAKAGE,
, VSHAFT
SHAFT andand
, ILEAKAGE, ISHAFT ) are
ISHAFT ) areshown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 10.
10. The common mode voltage (VCM) is the common point of the measuring voltage (neutral)
The common mode voltage (VCM) is the common point of the measuring voltage (neutral) to the motor
to the motor frame when it uses star connection (Y). When the same connection uses delta (Δ),
framebe
it should when it uses star
equivalent to aconnection (Y). When
star connection the same
using connection
high-value uses delta
resistors (1MΩ)(∆), connected
it should be to
equivalent
each
phase of the motor with a common point (neutral). In the adjustment of the common mode
voltage measurement (VCM) to the acquisition board, a resistive divider (R1, R2, R3, and R4) is
added so that the measured voltage does not exceed the maximum allowed by the acquisition
board, that is, +/- 10V, as shown in Figure 10.

For measuring the shaft voltage (VSHAFT), which is the voltage measured between the shaft and
the induction motor frame, a copper ring carbon brush system is added to the induction motor
shaft.

For leakage current (ILEAKAGE) and shaft current (ISHAFT) measurements, a Rogowski coil current
sensor, developed for this methodology, was used [40]. The leakage current is the current
measured in the connection cable between the induction motor frame and the metal frame of
 induction motor frame, a copper ring carbon brush system is added to the induction motor shaft.

For leakage current (ILEAKAGE) and shaft current (ISHAFT) measurements, a Rogowski coil current

92 sensor, developed
Induction Motors - for this methodology,
Applications, Control andwas used
Fault [40]. The leakage current is the current measured in the
Diagnostics

connection cable between the induction motor frame and the metal frame of the PWM inverter connected

to the neutral system. It is composed of the sum of the currents flowing through the stator-frame
the PWM inverter connected to the neutral system. It is composed of the sum of the currents
flowing through
capacitances the stator-frame
(CSF), rotor-frame (CRF), andcapacitances
bearings (CB). (CSF), rotor-frame (CRF), and bearings (CB).

The The shaft current (ISHAFT) is the current measured in the conductor which is connected to the brush
shaft current (ISHAFT) is the current measured in the conductor which is connected to the
brush
and and corresponding
corresponding contributions contributions from currents
from currents flowing flowing
through the through
rotor-frame the rotor-frame
capacitances (CRF) and
capacitances
bearings (CB). (C RF ) and bearings (C B).

R SS 3Φ
PWM IM 3Φ
R
N INVERTER
S
220V/60
T V/f
T GINV
Hz

R = 1MΩ
ILEAKAGE
VC M VSHAFT
LABVIEW

ACQUISITION ISHAFT
CSR
& R1 R3
SH
MEASUREMENT
BOARD CRF CB
CSF
R2
CHANNELS
R4
a0+
a0-
a1+
a1-
a2+
a2-
a3+
a3-
GND

Figure 10: Measuring circuit of the quantities of interest

Figure 10. Measuring circuit of the quantities of interest

3.1.1. Induction motor preparation

For the application of the proposed method, the motor rotor three-phase induction cage should
be prepared so that the capacitance can be determined [1, 10, 14]. Under normal conditions,
the motor bearings are directly connected to both the shaft and the motor frame. It causes the
capacitance existing between the rotor and the frame (CRF) to short-circuit.

So the following changes are made. (a) Motor bearings are insulated by a nylon cover (tecnil)
high electrical resistance. Thus, there will be no current flow by bearings (IB) and the contri‐
 For the application of the proposed method, the motor rotor three-phase induction cage should be
frame can be evaluated, as shown in Figure 11 [10]. (b) A conductor is connected between the external
prepared so that the capacitance can be determined [1, 10, 14]. Under normal conditions, the motor
surface of one of the bearings
bearings are directly and closest
connected tothethe
to both motor
shaft and theframe by aItswitch
motor frame. causes thepoint. When
capacitance the switch is open,
existing
Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique 93
between the rotor and the frame (CRF) to short-circuit.
there is the condition set out in item (a). When the switch is closed, then one has the rolling movement for
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544
So the following changes are made. (a) Motor bearings are insulated by a nylon cover (tecnil) high
the current frame and the returning to the bearing [10]. (c) The motor shaft settles in a ring and brush
bution branch rotor frame can be evaluated, as shown in Figure 11 [10]. (b) A conductor is
electrical resistance. Thus, there will be no current flow by bearings (IB) and the contribution branch rotor

connected
frame canbetween
assembly, for measuring the as
the shaft
be evaluated, external
voltage
shown in surface
(VSHAFT
Figure of [10].
11 one of Athe
). This
(b) bearings
system
conductor is and closest
also used
is connected to the
to
between the motor
external frame
measure the shaft current
by asurface
switch of point. When
one of the theand
bearings switch
closestistoopen, there
the motor is the
frame by acondition setWhen
switch point. out intheitem
switch(a). When the
is open,
(ISHAFT) [14]. Figure
switch 12 shows theoneitems the (b) rolling
and (c).
thereisisclosed, then
the condition set outhas
in item (a). When movement for the
the switch is closed, current
then one hasframe andmovement
the rolling the returning
for to
the the
bearing [10]. (c) The motor shaft settles in a ring and brush assembly, for
current frame and the returning to the bearing [10]. (c) The motor shaft settles in a ring and brush
measuring the
shaft voltage (VSHAFT). This system is also used to measure the shaft current (ISHAFT) [14]. Figure
assembly, for measuring the shaft voltage (VSHAFT). This system is also used to measure the shaft current
12 shows the items (b) and (c).
Insulated
(ISHAFT) [14]. Figure 12 shows the items (b) and (c).
bearings with
Tecnil
Insulated
bearings with
Tecnil

a) b)

Figure 11 a, b): Insulation of the motor shaft bearings

a)
Figure 11. a, b): Insulation of the motor shaft bearings
b)

Figure 11 a, b): Insulation of the motor

b shaft bearings

c
b

Figure 12: Switch (b) and ring-brush assembly (c) for measuring

Figure 12: Switch (b) and ring-brush assembly (c) for measuring
Figure 12. Switch (b) and ring-brush assembly (c) for measuring
94 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

3.1.2. Data acquisition board and measuring

In order to acquire the quantities and accomplish the measurements, LabView [32, 33, 34]
platform
3.1.2. Data is used. Fourboard
acquisition channels for the different measurements are defined as follows: (a) a0
and measuring
channel: leakage current (ILEAKAGE); (b) A1 channel: the common mode voltage (VCM), which is
set to the voltage of -10V to + 10V limits; (c) a2 channel: shaft voltage (VSHAFT); and (d) a3 channel:
In order to acquire the quantities and accomplish the measurements, LabView [32, 33, 34] platform
shaft current (ISHAFT).
is used. Four channels for the different measurements are defined as follows: (a) a0 channel: leakage
Using dedicated software LabView 8.5, [35] created a block diagram (plant) of the measuring
current (ILEAKAGE); (b) A1 channel: the common mode voltage (VCM), which is set to the voltage of -10V to +
system for the magnitudes of interest. Figure 13 shows the block diagram for leakage current
10V limits; (c) a2 channel: shaft voltage (VSHAFT); and (d) a3 channel: shaft current (ISHAFT).
(ILEAKAGE). The configuration for each quantity to be measured using channels with differential
inputs is shown
Using insoftware
dedicated Figure 14 to minimize
LabView 8.5, [35] the effects
created of common-mode
a block diagram (plant) ofvoltages (noise).
the measuring

system for the magnitudes of interest. Figure 13 shows the block diagram for leakage current
Observations (Figure 13):
(ILEAKAGE). The configuration for each quantity to be measured using channels with differential inputs
Block A - CORRENTE DE FUGA - Ifuga <=> LEAKAGE CURRENT - Ileakage
is shown in Figure 14 to minimize the effects of common-mode voltages (noise).
Block D - FILTRO RUÍDO <=> NOTCH FILTER
Observations (Figure 13):
Block E - AFILTRO
Block PASSA-BAIXA
- CORRENTE <=><=>
DE FUGA - Ifuga LOW-PASS FILTER - Ileakage
LEAKAGE CURRENT

Block
Block F -D - FILTRO RUÍDO
ESPECTRO <=> NOTCH
- Ifuga FILTER
<=> ESPECTRUM - Ileakage
Block E - FILTRO PASSA-BAIXA <=> LOW-PASS FILTER
Block G - RMS Ifuga_fs <=> RMS Ileakage_fs
Block F - ESPECTRO - Ifuga <=> ESPECTRUM - Ileakage
SAÍDA
BlockDO
G - FILTRO - Ifuga
RMS Ifuga_fs <=>Ileakage_fs
<=> RMS OUTPUT FILTER – Ileakage
SAÍDA DO FILTRO - Ifuga <=> OUTPUT FILTER - Ileakage

F
C
A

B
E G
Figure 13: Block diagram for reading the leakage current (ILEAKAGE)
Figure 13. Block diagram for reading the leakage current (ILEAKAGE)
LABVIEW
Using the DAQ block (A), the following items are defined for each channel: a) type of quantity
CHANNEL
(voltage or current), b) nameVof greatness and sample rate, c) type of sampling, d) connection
SIGNAL

diagram channel and other settings which depend on the desired type of measurement. Can
be used up to 16 signals for reading.
R

100kΩ

Figure 14: Differential input of the A/D channels

 Analysis and MethodologyBfor Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique 95
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544
E G
Figure 13: Block diagram for reading the leakage current (ILEAKAGE)

LABVIEW
CHANNEL
VSIGNAL

100kΩ

Figure 14: Differential input of the A/D channels

Figure 14. Differential input of the A/D channels

Signals Using Split (B) block quantities of simultaneous readings can be made. In this case,
there are 4 outputs. The current ILEAKAGE a function of time is shown on the oscilloscope
ILEAKAGE (t).
The Amplitude and Level Measurements block (C) allows for the signs readings DC values
(DC) and effective (RMS). The value is shown on the display “RMS ILEAKAGE.”
The blocks Noise Filter (D) and Pass Filter Range MFB (E) treat the signal so that it can be
measured on the switching frequency of the PWM inverter. The filtered signal is displayed on
the oscilloscope FILTER OUT – ILEAKAGE.
Noise Filter (NOTCH) has the function of not allowing passage of signals of a frequency band
or a specific frequency. The Band Pass Filter MFB allows only the frequency band specified
signal to pass. This filtering block allows you to define: a) type of filter: low-pass, high-pass,
band-pass, band-reject; b) frequency band; c) the type of response: finite impulse response
(FIR) or infinite impulse response (IIR); d) topology: Butterworth, Chebyshev, Inverse
Chebyshev, Elliptic, and Bessel.
Spectral Measurement block (F) shows the oscilloscope through the spectrum ILEAKAGE already
filtered at the desired frequency. And the block (G) similar to block (C) provides effective
current at switching frequency fS, available in display RMS_ILEAKAGE_fS. This entire procedure
aims to ensure that measurements are made in order to respect the equation for calculating
the capacitance (14).

3.1.3. PWM inverter

The PWM inverter used in this study is a new generation of static power converters that feature
improvements in its modular structure, providing better functions in the lower-frequency
range and greater overload capacity. Introducing control functions integrated with the
possibility of use of communication accessories, this enables applications to AC inverter drive
systems requiring high efficiency in a power range 0.55–160 kW.
The Inverter MOVIDRIVE MDX60B/61B [29] has the following main characteristics: a) The
MOVIDRIVE MDX61B model allows application for asynchronous motors (induction motor)
with or without encoder feedback, synchronous and asynchronous servomotors. b) Control
modes: VFC (Voltage Flux Control): to control induction motors. Using encoder feedback, it
96 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

operates with vector control activated. If there is no feedback loop, it operates with V/f control
(scalar) and CFC (Current Flux Control); for controlling synchronous and asynchronous
servomotors it always operates with encoder feedback. The inverter model used in this work
is the Movidrive MDX61B 0037-2A3-4-0 with the following characteristics: Power 5 Hp (3.7
kw); phase power supply: 220 V/50–60 Hz; rated output current: 15.2 A and PWM switching
frequency: 4, 8, 12, and 16 kHz. Using MOVITOOLS [31] dedicated program, both the switch‐
ing frequency fS of the inverter induction motor as well as the rotational speed can be changed,
allowing a more complete analysis of the behavior of the parasitic capacitances to be realized.

3.2. Tests laboratory procedure

A procedure was adopted within the Electrical Machines Laboratory for the measurement
tests so that determining the high-frequency capacitance of the induction motors could be
carried out in conditions where there is the least possible interference in the results thereof.
These procedures are described as follows: a) Ensure the total isolation of the set: three-
phase induction motor being tested and PWM inverter from the base where they are
supported in order that there is no current flow to the system from the motor frame and
the inverter. b) Verification of the connections between the motor frame and the inverter
with the NEUTRAL of three-phase power supply, allowing you to create a single move‐
ment path of the motor leakage current and hence its correct measurement. c) The entire
measurement system (LABVIEW acquisition board) and the computer (notebook) used in
the execution of dedicated programs and measured data storage must be the same reference
system NEUTRAL. This ensures reliable measurements. d) Correct positioning and enough
brush pressure in the ring, the induction motor shaft, ensuring good contact and, there‐
fore, reliable measurements of shaft voltage and current (VSHAFT and ISHAFT). e) Check all
connections of the acquisition system/measurement and inverter with the computer. f)
carrying out the tests in air-conditioned environment, to ensure the same conditions for the
other tests, and g) if possible, work with a fully isolated power system, not only using an
isolating transformer, but also ensuring electrical insulation. This way, voltage and current
of the supply system will always be the same in any situation and time, providing
measurements and better results. Following these procedures, tests of induction motors to
determine the parasitic capacitances can be started.

3.3. Parasitic capacitances determination of the rotor cage three-phase induction motor

The high-frequency equivalent circuit is shown again in Figure 15.

When determining the capacitance the following procedure should be followed: a) Switch SH
open: Motor bearings are isolated. So there is no current flowing through the bearings and the
CB capacitance does not contribute to the value of BVR (Bearing Voltage Ratio). b) Switch SH
closed: a circulating current starts to flow through the bearings, and the CB capacitance becomes
to influence the value of BVR.

Measurements are performed in the following quantities of interest: common mode voltage
(VCM), shaft voltage (VSHAFT), leakage current (ILEAKAGE) shaft current with SH off (ISHAFT-OFF),
 3.3. Parasitic capacitances determination of the rotor cage three-phase induction

motor
Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique 97
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544

The high-frequency equivalent circuit is shown again in Figure 15.

VCM
CSR VSHAFT SH

ISHAFT
ICSR
CB
CSF ICSF CRF

ILEAKAGE ICRF ICB

Figure 15: Simplified equivalent circuit of high-frequency induction motor

Figure 15. Simplified equivalent circuit of high-frequency induction motor

shaft current with SH on (ISHAFT-ON). The following values are determined from the following
streams:

ICSF = I LEAKAGE - ISHAFT -OFF (15)

ICSR = ICRF = ISHAFT -OFF (16)

ICB = ISHAFT -OFF - ISHAFT -ON (17)

The parasitic capacitances of the induction motor: CSF, CRF, CSR, and CB are determined through
the rewritten equations below:

ICSF
CSF = (18)
2.p . fs .VCM

ICRF
C RF = (19)
2.p . fs .VSHAFT

ICSR
CSR = (20)
2.p . fs . ( VCM - VSHAFT )

I CB
CB = × C RC (21)
ICRC
98 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

4. Measurements and simulations

The method described in the previous section was applied in three-phase induction motors
(two 1 Hp motors). One of the 1 Hp motors no longer presents its original features because the
stator windings were fully replaced without regard to the original design features. This
procedure allowed to check if there were changes (or not) in the values of the capacitances for
the other 1 Hp motor, which presents original project features, since the objective is to ratify
that the parasitic capacitances depending only on geometric-constructive features of the motor.
Since the determination of the capacitances depends on the quantities of interest at high
frequency, the tests may be performed with or without load on the shaft of the induction
motors.

4.1. Test of three-phase induction motors

4.1.1.
4.1.1.Determination
Determinationof of
low-frequency parameters
low-frequency parameters

Initially, tests for determining the low-frequency equivalent circuit (nominal) parameters of
Initially, tests for determining the low-frequency equivalent circuit (nominal) parameters of the
the motors were performed [27, 37]. The parameters were determined from characteristic tests
motors were performed [27, 37]. The parameters were determined from characteristic tests using the two
using the two wattmeter method: test empty and locked rotor test with characteristic equations
[26, 27]. The
wattmeter equivalent
method: test emptycircuit parameters
and locked of the
rotor test with two induction
characteristic equationsmotors
[26, 27]. 1The
Hp shown in Table
equivalent

1 circuit
wereparameters
determined. of the These parameters
two induction motors 1 are used ininTable
Hp shown the 1simulation using
were determined. ThesePSPICE for analysis
parameters
and
are comparison with the
used in the simulation results
using PSPICEobtained in and
for analysis the comparison
laboratorywith(Figure 16). obtained in the
the results

laboratory (Figure 16).

The two three-phase induction motors used in this test are as follows: a) manufacturer: WEG,
b) ratedThepower: 1 Hp, c)induction
two three-phase nominalmotors
voltage:
used220V
in this(Δ)
test/are
380V (Y) d) a)
as follows: current nominal:
manufacturer: WEG,3,8A
b) (Δ) and

2,4a
rated(Y), e) rated
power: 1 Hp, speed: 1710
c) nominal rpm,
voltage: f) number
220V (∆) / 380Vof(Y)poles: 4. nominal: 3,8A (∆) and 2,4a (Y), e)
d) current

rated speed: 1710 rpm, f) number of poles: 4.

Motor (Hp) R1(Ω) R2 ’(Ω) L1= L2 (mH) Lmag(mH)

Table 1: The low-frequency equivalent circuit parameters determined from laboratory
1 (IM1hp1) 8.55 5.62 16.95 346.31
Motor (Hp) R1(Ω) R2’(Ω) L1= L2 (mH) Lmag(mH)
1 (IM1hp2) 8.70 6.53 18.22 366.40
1 (IM1hp1) 8.55 5.62 16.95 346.31

Table 1. The low-frequency equivalent

1 (IM1hp2) 8.70 circuit parameters
6.53 determined from laboratory
18.22 366.40

R1 L1 L’2
V1 Lmag R’2

Figure 16: Equivalent circuit of low-frequency induction motor

Figure 16. Equivalent circuit of low-frequency induction motor

4.1.2. High-frequency parameters determination

Using the application program MOVITOOLS [31], the PWM inverter is parameterized in terms of

induction motor characteristics to be tested (plate data) as well as the drive and operating characteristics.

PWM switching frequency and fundamental frequency of the induction motor can be changed in real time.

The application program LabView [35] was set to adjust the frequencies of noise filters and band
 Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique 99
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544

4.1.2. High-frequency parameters determination

Using the application program MOVITOOLS [31], the PWM inverter is parameterized in terms
of induction motor characteristics to be tested (plate data) as well as the drive and operating
characteristics. PWM switching frequency and fundamental frequency of the induction motor
can be changed in real time.

The application program LabView [35] was set to adjust the frequencies of noise filters and
band pass of the quantities of interest to the switching frequency of the PWM inverter.

After all measurements and calculations, the parasitic capacitance curves were constructed: a)
capacitance as a function of motor drive frequency (Hz) to a fixed switching frequency, b)
capacitance as a function of the switching frequency to drive 60 Hz motor, c) mean value of
capacitance as a function of the switching frequency. The waveforms of the quantities of
interest were also obtained by measuring with a digital oscilloscope.

4.2. Test of three-phase induction motors of 1 Hp

4.2.1. Motor IM1hp1

The three-phase induction motor 1 Hp (IM1hp1) is connected to stator winding delta (Δ), and
220 V line voltage. A star configuration equivalent to the common mode voltage measurement
(VCM) is well utilized. Table 2 shows the measured values of the quantities of interest. Table
3 shows the calculated values of the currents flowing between the stator and the motor frame
(ICSF) and bearings (ICB). Table 4 shows the calculated values of the three-phase induction motor
parasitic capacitances 1Hp IM1hp1.

Measurements and calculations of quantities of interest of parasitic capacitances of the two

induction motors were made to switching frequencies of 12 and 16 kHz. The results for the
switching frequencies of 4 and 8 kHz can be observed in [40].

Inverter Switching Motor

VCM VSHAFT ILEAKAGE ISHAFT-OFF ISHAFT-ON
Frequency Frequency
(V) (V) (mA) (mA) (mA)
(kHz) (Hz)
12
20 93,31 4,36 14,30 0,456 0,382
30 82,17 3,87 12,45 0,393 0,344
40 67,42 3,18 10,53 0,343 0,303
50 50,57 2,37 7,83 0,247 0,218
60 33,11 1,57 5,23 0,169 0,153
16
20 93,91 4,51 19,40 0,544 0,440
30 83,98 4,08 17,30 0,490 0,412
40 69,23 3,37 14,20 0,403 0,341
100 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Inverter Switching Motor

VCM VSHAFT ILEAKAGE ISHAFT-OFF ISHAFT-ON
Frequency Frequency
(V) (V) (mA) (mA) (mA)
(kHz) (Hz)
50 51,77 2,53 10,50 0,302 0,257
60 33,71 1,67 7,03 0,202 0,175

Table 2. Measurement of quantities of interest of 1Hp motor IM1hp1

Inverter
Motor
Switching IcSF IcB
Frequency
Frequency (mA) (mA)
(Hz)
(kHz)
12
20 13,84 0,07
30 12,06 0,05
40 10,19 0,04
50 7,58 0,03
60 13,84 0,07
16
20 18,86 0,10
30 16,81 0,08
40 13,80 0,06
50 10,20 0,05
60 6,83 0,03

Table 3. Calculated currents – IM1hp1

Inverter
Motor
Switching CSF CRF CSR CB
Frequency
Frequency (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF)
(Hz)
(kHz)

12

20 1967,82 1387,17 67,99 268,72

30 1946,16 1346,89 66,57 191,85

40 2004,05 1430,60 70,82 188,86

50 1988,84 1382,29 67,97 183,88

60 2027,35 1427,71 71,07 149,30

16

20 1997,33 1199,87 60,53 283,61

30 1991,15 1194,67 61,00 226,18

 Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique 101
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544

Inverter
Motor
Switching CSF CRF CSR CB
Frequency
Frequency (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF)
(Hz)
(kHz)

40 1982,45 1189,56 60,87 216,28

50 1959,52 1187,41 61,01 207,91

60 2014,87 1203,23 62,72 185,64

Table 4. Parasitic capacitances motor 1Hp IM1hp1

Figure 17 shows the values of each of the parasitic capacitances on the basis of the motor
Figure 17 shows the values of each of the parasitic capacitances on the basis of the motor frequency
frequency (speed) specific to the switching frequency of the PWM inverter 12 kHz and 16 kHz.
(speed) specific to the switching frequency of the PWM inverter 12 kHz and 16 kHz.

Capacitance (pF) MOTOR 1Hp – IM1hp1 – fS = 12kHz

2500,00

2000,00

1500,00

1000,00

500,00

0,00
20 30 40 50 60

Motor frequency (Hz)

CSF CRF CSR CB

a)

Capacitance (pF)
MOTOR 1Hp – IM1hp1 – fS = 16kHz

2500,00
2000,00
1500,00
1000,00
500,00
0,00
20 30 40 50 60
Motor frequency (Hz)

CSF CRF CSR CB

b)

Figure 17: Parasitic capacitances due to motor frequency of 1 Hp (IM1hp1) for 12 kHz (a) and 16 kHz (b)
Figure 17. Parasitic capacitances due to motor frequency of 1 Hp (IM1hp1) for 12 kHz (a) and 16 kHz (b) inverter
inverter switching frequency
switching frequency

The capacitances CSF, CRF, CSR are almost constant for the variation of the motor frequency and the

switching frequency of the PWM inverter, indicating that they depend mainly on the geometric

characteristics of the motor [1].

In turn, the CB capacitance decreases with increasing motor frequency (increase the speed). This is

because, besides being dependent on the dimensions of the bearing, this capacitance is also a function of

speed [10].
102 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

The capacitances CSF, CRF, CSR are almost constant for the variation of the motor frequency and
the switching frequency of the PWM inverter, indicating that they depend mainly on the
geometric characteristics of the motor [1].

In turn, the CB capacitance decreases with increasing motor frequency (increase the speed).
This is because, besides being dependent on the dimensions of the bearing, this capacitance is
also a function of speed [10].

Figure 18 shows the values of the parasitic capacitances on the basis of the switching frequency
Figure
of the PWM
Figure 18
18 shows the
the values
inverter
shows to theof
values the
the parasitic
ofmotor capacitances
frequency
parasitic on
on the
of 60Hz.
capacitances the basis
basis of
The of the
the switching
results confirm
switching frequency of
that the
frequency of parasitic
capacitances
the
the PWM
PWM inverter depend
inverter to the exclusively
motor
to the motor frequencyon
frequency of the
of physical
60Hz.
60Hz. The constructive
results
The results confirm thatcharacteristics
confirm that the parasitic of the induction
capacitances
the parasitic capacitances
motor.exclusively on the physical constructive characteristics of the induction motor.
depend
depend exclusively on the physical constructive characteristics of the induction motor.

MOTOR
MOTOR 1Hp
1Hp –– IM1hp1
IM1hp1 –– ffmotor= 60Hz
motor= 60Hz
Capacitance
Capacitance (pF)
(pF)
3000,00
3000,00
2500,00
2500,00
2000,00
2000,00
1500,00
1500,00
1000,00
1000,00
500,00
500,00
0,00
0,00
4 8 12 16
4 8 12 16
Switching frequency – fS (kHz)
Switching frequency – fS (kHz)

CSF CRF CSR CB

CSF CRF CSR CB

Figure 18: Capacitances due to the motor switching frequency of 1 Hp (IM1hp1) power frequency
Figure
Figure 18. 18: Capacitances
Capacitances duemotor
due to the to theswitching
motor switching frequency
frequency of 1 Hp of 1 Hp (IM1hp1)
(IM1hp1) power frequency
power frequency 60 Hz
60 Hz
60 Hz
Figure 19 presents
Figure
Figure
19 presents the average
the average
19 presents the average parasitic
parasitic
parasitic capacitance
capacitance
capacitance
values ofvalues of11the
the motor
values of the motor motor 1 Hp IM1hp1.
Hp IM1hp1.
Hp IM1hp1.

MOTOR
MOTOR 1Hp
1Hp –– IM1hp1
IM1hp1 -- Average
Average Values
Values
Capacitance (pF)
Capacitance (pF)
2500,00
2500,00
2000,00
2000,00
1500,00
1500,00
1000,00
1000,00
500,00
500,00
0,00
0,00
4 8 12 16
4 8 12 16
Switching frequency (kHz)
Switching frequency (kHz)
CSF CRF CSR CB
CSF CRF CSR CB

Figure 19: Average values of the capacitances for 1 Hp motor (IM1hp1)

Figure 19: Average values of the capacitances for 1 Hp motor (IM1hp1)
Figure 19. Average values of the capacitances for 1 Hp motor (IM1hp1)
 Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique 103
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544

4.2.2. Motor IM1hp2

The results for the second three-phase induction motor 1Hp, IM1hp2 are shown below. Table
5 presents the measured values of the quantities of interest.

Table 6 presents the calculated values of the currents flowing between the stator and the motor
frame (ICSF) and bearings (ICB).

Table 7 presents the calculated values of the three-phase induction motor parasitic capacitances
of 1 Hp IM1hp2.

Inverter
Motor
Switching VCM VSHAFT ILEAKAGE ISHAFT-OFF ISHAFT-ON
Frequency
Frequency (V) (V) (mA) (mA) (mA)
(Hz)
(kHz)

12

20 95,42 4,20 14,84 0,393 0,211

30 85,58 3,74 13,10 0,343 0,222

40 70,13 3,18 10,93 0,284 0,207

50 52,68 2,37 8,15 0,222 0,185

60 34,62 1,53 5,45 0,149 0,133

16

20 95,12 4,35 20,00 0,530 0,327

30 84,88 3,97 18,46 0,478 0,326

40 69,83 3,31 15,18 0,404 0,313

50 52,98 2,48 11,10 0,303 0,261

60 34,31 1,65 7,67 0,212 0,187

Table 5. Measurement of quantities of interest – IM1hp2

Inverter
Motor
Switching IcSF IcB
Frequency
Frequency (mA) (mA)
(Hz)
(kHz)

12

20 14,45 0,18

30 12,76 0,12

40 10,65 0,08

50 7,93 0,04
104 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Inverter
Motor
Switching IcSF IcB
Frequency
Frequency (mA) (mA)
(Hz)
(kHz)

60 5,31 0,02

16

20 19,47 0,20

30 17,98 0,15

40 14,78 0,09

50 10,80 0,04

60 7,46 0,03

Table 6. Calculated currents – IM1hp2

Inverter
Motor
Switching CSF CRF CSR CB
Frequency
Frequency (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF)
(Hz)
(kHz)

12

20 2008,24 1239,80 57,09 1062,69

30 1977,10 1215,68 55,55 661,51

40 2013,30 1185,36 56,30 442,07

50 1995,63 1244,62 58,64 253,24

60 2032,70 1291,66 59,73 159,75

16

20 2036,24 1212,65 58,06 749,66

30 2107,39 1196,70 58,72 554,36

40 2104,88 1212,93 60,35 349,10

50 2027,39 1215,36 59,69 196,66

60 2163,08 1280,51 64,68 172,38

Table 7. Parasitic capacitances of motor 1 Hp IM1hp2

Figure 20 shows the values obtained for the parasitic capacitance depending on the motor
frequency, for specific switching frequency of the PWM inverter 12 kHz and 16 kHz.

The same behaviors found in the motor 1Hp IM1hp1 were observed.

Figure 21 shows the values of the parasitic capacitances on the basis of the switching frequency
of the PWM inverter to the motor frequency of 60Hz.
 Figure 20 shows the values obtained for the parasitic capacitance depending on the motor

frequency, for specific switching frequency of the PWM inverter 12 kHz and 16 kHz.
Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique 105
The same behaviors found in the motor 1Hp IM1hp1 were observed. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544

MOTOR 1Hp IM1hp2 – fS = 12kHz

Capacitance (pF)

2500,00
2000,00
1500,00
1000,00
500,00
0,00
20 30 40 50 60

Motor frequency (Hz)

CSF CRF CSR CB

a)

MOTOR 1Hp IM1hp2 – fS = 16kHz

Capacitance (pF)
2500,00
2000,00
1500,00
1000,00
500,00
0,00
20 30 40 50 60

Motor frequency (Hz)

CSF CRF CSR CB

b)

Figure 20: a),b) Parasitic capacitances due to motor frequency for different inverter switching
Figure 20. a),b) Parasitic capacitances due to motor frequency for different inverter switching frequency (IM1hp2)
frequency (IM1hp2)

Figure 22 presents the average values of parasitic capacitance of motor 1 Hp IM1hp2.

Figure 21 shows the values of the parasitic capacitances on the basis of the switching frequency of

the4.3.
PWM Simulations
inverter to theand measurements
motor frequency of 60Hz.

The software Pspice [30, 36] was used to simulate the methodology and compare the wave‐
forms obtained in the simulations with actual measurements made using digital oscilloscope.
The schematic circuit simulation is shown in Figure 23.

The schematic circuit comprises: a) inverter structure with three-phase supply, three-phase
rectifier without control (diodes) with DC bus, and three-phase inverter bridge; b) equivalent
106 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

MOTOR 1Hp IM1hp2 – fmotor = 60Hz

Capacitance (pF)
3000,00
MOTOR 1Hp IM1hp2 – fmotor = 60Hz
2500,00
Capacitance (pF)
2000,00
3000,00
1500,00
2500,00
1000,00
2000,00
500,00
1500,00
0,00
1000,00
4 8 12 16
500,00
0,00 Switching frequency – fS (kHz)
4 8 12 16
CSF CRF CSR CB
Switching frequency – fS (kHz)

Figure 21: Capacitances due to the motor switching frequency of 1 Hp (IM1hp2) motor frequency 60 Hz
CSF CRF CSR CB

Figure 21: Capacitances

Figure dueaverage
22 presents the to the motor
valuesswitching frequency
of parasitic of 1 of
capacitance Hpmotor
(IM1hp2)
1 Hpmotor frequency 60 Hz
IM1hp2.
Figure 21. Capacitances due to the motor switching frequency of 1 Hp (IM1hp2) motor frequency 60 Hz

Figure 22 presents the average values of parasitic capacitance of motor 1 Hp IM1hp2.

MOTOR 1Hp IM1hp2 - Average Values
Capacitance (pF)
2500,00
MOTOR 1Hp IM1hp2 - Average Values
2000,00 (pF)
Capacitance
2500,00
1500,00
2000,00
1000,00
1500,00
500,00
1000,00
0,00
500,00 4 8 12 16
Switching frequency (kHz)
0,00
4 C8SF CRF CSR 12 CB 16
Switching frequency (kHz)
Figure 22: Average values of capacitance for the motor 1 Hp IM1hp2
Figure 22. Average values of capacitance for the motorC1SFHp IM1hp2
CRF CSR CB

Figure 22: Average

circuit of low-frequency valuesmotor;
induction of capacitance for the motor
c) equivalent 1 Hp IM1hp2
circuit of high-frequency three-phase
induction motor; and d) signal generator with pulse width modulation (PWM).
The charts below show waveforms that appear in the named graphs (a) are results of meas‐
urements by using digital oscilloscope. The forms of common mode voltage wave (VCM) are
attenuated to match the oscilloscope's full-scale capacity. The waveforms that appear in the
named graphs (b) are obtained by using PSPICE simulation application. Without loss of
generality, in the simulation (Figure 23) are used ideal components of semiconductor switches
that facilitate the process of solving differential equations reducing convergence problems.
The waveforms shown below are the quantities of interest with switching frequency of 16 kHz
PWM inverter and frequency of 60 Hz motor to three-phase induction motors of 1 Hp (IM1hp1
and IM1hp2), respectively.
 4.3. Simulations and measurements

The software Pspice [30, 36] was used to simulate the methodology and compare the waveforms
Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique 107
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544
obtained in the simulations with actual measurements made using digital oscilloscope. The schematic

circuit simulation is shown in Figure 23.

a)
b)

d)

c)
Figure 23: Schematic circuit used for simulation in Pspice [40]

Figure 23. Schematic circuit used for simulation in Pspice [40]

The schematic circuit comprises: a) inverter structure with three-phase supply, three-phase rectifier
Figureswithout
24 and 25 show
control (diodes)the
withwaveforms
DC bus, and of variousinverter
three-phase quantities
bridge;ofb)interest
equivalentfor the ofthree-phase
circuit low-
induction motor
frequency 1Hp motor;
induction IM1hp1, Figurescircuit
c) equivalent 26 and 27 show the
of high-frequency waveforms
three-phase formotor;
induction the three-phase
and d)
induction
signalmotor ofwith
generator 1 Hp IM1hp2.
pulse width modulation (PWM).

The charts below show waveforms that appear in the named graphs (a) are results of measurements

by using digital oscilloscope. The forms of common mode voltage wave (VCM) are attenuated to match the

oscilloscope's full-scale capacity. The waveforms that appear in the named graphs (b) are obtained by

using PSPICE simulation application. Without loss of generality, in the simulation (Figure 23) are used

ideal components of semiconductor switches that facilitate the process of solving differential equations

reducing convergence problems.

The waveforms shown below are the quantities of interest with switching frequency of 16 kHz

PWM inverter and frequency of 60 Hz motor to three-phase induction motors of 1 Hp (IM1hp1 and

IM1hp2), respectively. a)
Figures 24 200
and 25 show the waveforms of various quantities of interest for the three-phase
200V
VCM(V)
Vcm

induction motor
0 1Hp IM1hp1, Figures 26 and 27 show the waveforms for the three-phase induction motor
0V

of 1 Hp IM1hp2.
-200
-200V
-V(VCOM)
VSHAFT(V) 15 Veixo
10V

0
0V

-10V
SEL>>
-15
0 26.30ms
-V(VEIXO)
26.40ms 26.50ms 26.60ms 26.70ms
0.25
26.78ms

Time
b) t(ms)

Figure 24: VCM – CH1, VSHAFT – CH2; a) measured, b) simulated (IM1hp1)

Figure 24. VCM – CH1, VSHAFT – CH2; a) measured, b) simulated (IM1hp1)

 VSHAFT(V) 15 Veixo
10V

0
0V

-10V
SEL>>
-15
108 Induction Motors - Applications,
0 Control and Fault Diagnostics
26.30ms
-V(VEIXO)
26.40ms 26.50ms

Time
26.60ms 26.70ms
0.25
26.78ms

b) t(ms)

Figure 24: VCM – CH1, VSHAFT – CH2; a) measured, b) simulated (IM1hp1)

a)
VCM(V) 100 100V
Vcm

0V

-100V
0

-200 -200V
-V(VCOM)

ILEAKAGE(A) 1.5 1.0A

Ifuga

0A 0
-1.0A
SEL>>
-1.5 26.2489ms 26.2800ms 26.3200ms 26.3600ms 26.4000ms 26.4400ms 26.4753ms
0
-I(Rsensor) 0.25
b)b)
Time
t (ms)
t(ms)

Figure 25: VCM – CH1, ILEAKAGE – CH2; a) measured, b) simulated – (IM1hp1)

Figure 25. VCM – CH1, ILEAKAGE – CH2; a) measured, b) simulated – (IM1hp1)

a)
200V
VCM(V) 200 Vcm

0
0V

-200
-200V
V(VCOM)

VSHAFT(V) 5 5V
Veixo

0
0V

-5V

SEL>>
-10
-10V
93.3743ms 93.4000ms 93.4400ms 93.4800ms 93.5200ms 93.5600ms 93.6000ms
0
V(VEIXO)
Time
0.25
b) t(ms)
Figure 26: VCM – CH1, VSHAFT– CH2 - a) measured, b) simulated - (IM1hp2)

Figure 26. VCM – CH1, VSHAFT– CH2 - a) measured, b) simulated - (IM1hp2)

 VSHAFT(V) 5 5V
Veixo

0
0V

-5V

SEL>>

Analysis and Methodology-10

for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique 109
-10V
93.3743ms 93.4000ms 93.4400ms 93.4800ms 93.5200ms 93.5600ms 93.6000ms
0
V(VEIXO) 0.25
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544
Time
b) t(ms)
Figure 26: VCM – CH1, VSHAFT– CH2 - a) measured, b) simulated - (IM1hp2)

a)
VCM(V) 200
200V
Vcm

0
0V

-200
-200V
V(VCOM)
ILEAKAGE(A) 4
4.0A
Ifuga

0
0A

SEL>>
-4
-4.0A
93.3743ms 93.4000ms 93.4400ms 93.4800ms 93.5200ms 93.5600ms 93.6000ms
0 0.25
b)
-I(Rsensor)
Time
b) t(ms)
Figure 27: VCM – CH 1, ILEAKAGE – CH 2 - a) measured, b) simulated - (IM1hp2)

Figure 27. VCM – CH 1, ILEAKAGE – CH 2 - a) measured, b) simulated - (IM1hp2)

5. Results and conclusions

In the comparison of results between the two 1Hp motors (IM1hp1 and IM1hp2), the following
considerations are made: (a) Although the motors are of the same power and the same
manufacturer, one of them underwent maintenance and the other still has its original compo‐
nents. This results in differences in the values of capacitances CSF, CRF, and CB. The exchange
of maintaining consisted of stator conductors, insulating layer placed in the stator slots, and
replacing the original bearings. These changes result in different values of capacitances,
although they present very similar values. (b) The use of sensors of both voltage and current
characteristics more suitable for this type of experiment such as precision operation range,
frequency response, are necessary to avoid problems like those that occurred mainly in the
measurements of the motors on the switching frequency of 4 kHz [40]. (c) There was no
automation of measurements of quantities of interest according to the equipment available for
this purpose. Thus, measurement errors were the same, but it can still be said that they were
within a satisfactory tolerance, when comparing these two motors. In Table 8, comparisons
are shown between the parasitic capacitances for two 1Hp motors.

The methodology for determining the parasitic capacitance of the induction motor, when
driven by a PWM inverter presents consistent and coherent results.
110 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

The results of the tests have revealed that the parasitic capacitances of the induction motor are
a function only of the geometric-constructive characteristics [40, 41].

Inverter
Motor
Switching CSF CRF CSR CB
Frequency
Frequency (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF)
(Hz)
(kHz)

16

Motor 20 1997,33 1199,87 60,53 283,61

1Hp 30 1991,15 1194,67 61,00 226,18

IM1hp1 40 1982,45 1189,56 60,87 216,28

50 1959,52 1187,41 61,01 207,91

60 2014,87 1203,23 62,72 185,64

16

Motor 20 2036,24 1212,65 58,06 749,66

1Hp 30 2107,39 1196,70 58,72 554,36

IM1hp2 40 2104,88 1212,93 60,35 349,10

50 2027,39 1215,36 59,69 196,66

60 2163,08 1280,51 64,68 172,38

Table 8. Comparison between the parasitic capacitances of 1Hp motors

The switching frequency variations almost do not change the values of the capacitances. In
fact, the quantity which have their values changed due the variation of switching frequencies
is the reactance of these capacitances. High switching frequency of the PWM inverter, despite
improving the characteristic shape of the load current wave, causes the switching time of
power electronic devices (IGBT or MOSFET) to be rather low, resulting in increased rates of
growth of voltage (dV/dt) [7]. This reflects directly on the currents flowing through the
parasitic capacitances and therefore the leakage current.

Also there is an increase of the amplitude of these currents due to the capacitive reactance
parasites being substantially diminished in value due to the increase of the switching frequen‐
cy. So, the effects of electromagnetic interference are increased both on bearings (bearing
currents) as on capacitive currents in the motor. It is also noticed that the bearing of capacitance
values (CB) decrease with increasing induction motor speed [10].

Common mode filters are used to minimize the effects of currents flowing through the parasitic
capacitances of the induction motor. The accurate determination of these capacitances values,
using the methodology proposed in this section, has the main objective of optimizing the
design of these filters.
 Analysis and Methodology for Determining the Parasitic Capacitances in VSI-fed IM Drives Based on PWM Technique 111
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61544

This optimization implies a more accurate and reliable specification of the components used
in filter design, thus providing a significant reduction of volume and weight of the filter; the
number of components used, and thus cost reduction thereof.

Author details

Rudolf Ribeiro Riehl1*, Fernando de Souza Campos1, Alceu Ferreira Alves1 and
Ernesto Ruppert Filho2

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1 São Paulo State University, Unesp, Bauru, Brazil

2 State University of Campinas, Unicamp, Campinas, Brazil

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 Chapter 4

Health Condition Monitoring of Induction Motors

Wilson Wang and Derek Dezhi Li

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61110

Abstract
Induction motors (IMs) are commonly used in various industrial applications. A
spectrum synch (SS) technique is proposed in this chapter for early IM defect detection
using electric current signals; fault detection in this work will focus on defects in
rolling element bearings and rotor bars, which together account for more than half of
IM imperfections. In bearing fault detection, the proposed SS technique will highlight
the peakedness of the fault frequency components distributed over several fault
related local bands. These bands are synchronized to form a fault information
spectrum to accentuate fault features. A central kurtosis indicator is proposed to
extract representative features from the fault information spectrum and formulate a
fault index for incipient IM fault diagnosis. The effectiveness of the developed SS
technique is tested on IMs with broken rotor bars and with damaged bearings.

Keywords: Induction motors, Bearing fault detection, Broken rotor bars, Current
signal, Spectrum synch analysis

1. Introduction

Induction motors (IMs) are the workhorse of many industries such as manufacturing, mining,
and transportation; and more importantly, they consume up to 50% of the generated electrical
energy in the world [1]. Due to these facts, a series of R&D activities have been directed, for
decades, to improve the performance and efficiency of IMs. For example, in industrial
applications, an effective and reliable condition monitoring system is very valuable in the
detection of an IM fault at its earliest stage in order to prevent performance reduction and
malfunction of the driven machinery. It could also be utilized to schedule predictive mainte‐
118 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

nance operations without periodically shutting down machines for manual inspections.
Maintenance costs can be further reduced (especially for large expensive motors) by quickly
identifying the faulty component(s) without inspecting all components in the IM.

As illustrated in Figure 1, a typical IM consists of a stator, a rotor, a shaft, rolling element

bearings, and the related supplementary components. IM components could be damaged
during operations due to reasons such as impacts, fatigue, insufficient lubrication, aging, and
so on. Investigations have revealed that bearing faults account for approximately 75% of small
and medium-sized motor defects and 41% of large motor imperfections in domestic and
industrial applications [2]. Other IM defects include broken rotor bars (up to 10%), stator
winding faults, shaft imbalance, and phase imperfection.

Figure 1. Structure of induction motors: 1-shaft, 2-bearings, 3-rotor, 4-stator.

The traditional IM fault diagnostic method, which is still widely practiced by maintenance
crews in industry, relies on human diagnosticians for periodic inspections based on warning
signs such as smell, temperature increase, excessive vibration, and increased acoustic noise
level. However, these physical symptoms are prone to being contaminated with noise from
other sources. The alternative is the use of signal processing techniques for fault detection.
Signal processing is a process to extract representative features from the collected signals.
Traditional machinery fault detection is based on thermal signals [3], acoustic signals, and
vibration signals [4,5]. The local or bulk temperature can be used to diagnose IM defects,
however the heat accumulation and progression are slow, which may not be suitable for
incipient fault detection. The acoustic noise can indicate IM faults, especially for severe and
distributed defects; however the acoustic signal is prone to contamination by background noise
 Health Condition Monitoring of Induction Motors 119
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61110

such as noise from other machines in the vicinity. Vibration signals can be collected by the use
of the related vibration sensors mounted in the vicinity of the IM support bearings. Although
vibration signals have relatively high signal-to-noise ratio, the vibration sensors are expensive
and require a high degree of installation accuracy. The alternative is to use the stator current
signal for analysis, which is non-invasive to the IM structure. In addition, electric current
sensors are inexpensive and easy to install [6]. Thus, the proposed research in this work will
focus on IM fault diagnosis using stator current signals.
Several motor current signature analysis techniques have been proposed in the literature for
fault detection in IMs, mainly for rotors and bearings, which are briefly summarized next.

1.1. Fault detection of IM rotors

Broken rotor bars are common rotor defects that will render asymmetries of an IM rotor. The
rotor bar failures can be caused by several factors, such as overheating due to frequent starts
under loading, unbalanced thermal load due to air gap eccentricity, manufacturing defects,
and corrosion of rotor material caused by chemicals or moisture [7].
Because of the aforementioned reasons, the rotor bar(s) may be fully or partially damaged,
which will cause the rotor cage asymmetry and result in asymmetrical distribution of the rotor
currents. When a crack forms in a rotor bar, the cracked bar will overheat and tend to break.
Then the adjacent bars have to carry higher currents and consequently they become prone to
damage, leading to multiple bar fractures. Moreover, the broken parts from the faulty bars
may hit the end winding of the motor and cause serious mechanical damage to the IM [8].
The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) spectral analysis is a commonly used method for rotor bar
breakage detection, by examining the characteristic frequency components in the spectrum.
For example, Elkasabgy et al. [9] used spectral analysis of IM current signals to detect rotor
bar breakage. It has been reported that the IM current signal becomes non-stationary if rotor
bars are damaged. However, the FFT is useful for stationary signal analysis only, which lacks
the capability of capturing the transitory characteristics such as drifts, abrupt changes, and
frequency trends in non-stationary signals. To solve the problem, time-frequency methods,
such as short time Fourier transform (STFT), can be used to process small segments of non-
stationary signals for broken rotor bar defect detection. For example, Arabaci and Bilgin [10]
applied the STFT to detect IM rotor bar faults. However, the STFT cannot provide the infor‐
mation corresponding to different time resolutions and frequency resolutions due to its fixed
length windowing functions [11]. To solve this problem, the wavelet transform (WT) can be
employed to explore the information associated with different frequency resolutions. For
example, Daviu et al. [12] used discrete WT to detect IM broken rotor bars fault. The wavelet
packet decomposition (WPD) was used to explore the whole frequency band with high
resolution. For example, Sadeghian et al. [13] used WPD to extract features and applied neural
networks to diagnose IM rotor bar breakage. Pineda-Sanchez et al. [14] employed polynomial-
phase transform to diagnose broken rotor bar fault in time-varying condition. Riera-Guasp et
al. [15] extracted broken rotor bar fault features from transient state of IM using Gabor analysis.
Although the WPD can explore details of the signal for some advanced signal analysis, it is
usually difficult to recognize the real representative features from the map with redundant
 120 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

and misleading information. Akin et al. [16] performed real-time fault detection using the
reference frame theory. Soualhi et al. [17] diagnosed broken rotor bar fault through the
classification of selected fault features using the improved artificial ant clustering method.
Gunal et al. [18] conducted IM broken rotor bar fault diagnosis by using fault indices in the
time domain. Nevertheless, the aforementioned techniques only focus on limited fault
information, thus their performance may be degraded.

1.2. Fault detection of IM bearings

Rolling element bearings are commonly used not only in electric motors, but also in various
types of rotating machinery facilities. As illustrated in Figure 2, a rolling element bearing is a
system consisting of an outer ring (usually the fixed ring), an inner ring (usually the rotating
ring), a number of rolling elements, and a cage.

Figure 2. Structure of a rolling element bearing.

Figure 2. Structure of a rolling element bearing.
Since bearing materials are subjected to dynamic loading, fatigue pitting is the most common
defect in bearing components. The bearing defects can occur on the outer race, inner race, and
rolling materials
Since bearing elements. Under
are normal operating
subjected conditions, loading,
to dynamic after the load cycles exceed
fatigue pittingsome
is the most
threshold, fatigue pitting may occur on the fixed ring race first, and then on the rotating race
mmon defect andin rolling elements.
bearing Pitting defectsThe
components. not only deteriorate
bearing transmission
defects accuracy,
can occur on but
thealso
outer race,
generate excessive vibration and noise. Other bearing defects, such as scoring and severe wear
er race, and[7],rolling
can be generated by several
elements. external
Under causes such
normal as impacts,
operating overloading and
conditions, overheating,
after the load cycles
inadequate lubrication, contamination and corrosion from abrasive particles or acid, and
ceed some threshold, fatigue
improper installation of apitting may will
bearing, which occur on the
introduce fixedmisalignment
excessive ring raceerrors.
first, and then on
Whenand
rotating race a bearing component
rolling is damaged,
elements. the corresponding
Pitting defects notcharacteristic frequencies will
only deteriorate be
transmission
associated with the bearing geometry, rotation speed, and defect location. Suppose the outer
uracy, but also generate excessive vibration and noise. Other bearing defects, such as
ring and severe wear [7], can be generated by several external causes such as impacts,
erloading and overheating, inadequate lubrication, contamination and corrosion from
asive particles or acid, and improper installation of a bearing, which will introduce
 Health Condition Monitoring of Induction Motors 121
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61110

race of a bearing is fixed and the inner race rotates with the shaft, which is common case in
most applications. The outer race defect characteristic frequency fod inner race defect charac‐
teristic frequency fid and rolling element defect characteristic frequency frd are determined by

Né æ d cos (q ) ö ù
fod = ê fi ç 1 - ÷ú (1)
2ê è ç D ÷ú
ë øû

Né æ d cos (q ) ö ù
fid = ê fi ç 1 + ÷ú (2)
2ê è ç D ÷ú
ë øû

D é æ d cosq ö ù
2

frd = fi ê1 - ç ÷ ú (3)
2d ê è D ø ú
ë û

where fi is the inner race rotating speed or shaft speed in Hz; d is the diameter of the rolling
element; D is the pitch diameter; θ is the contact angle.

When bearing defects occur, these bearing characteristic vibration frequencies fv (i.e., fod , fid’
and frd) will be modulated with the power supply frequency fp in the spectrum of stator current
signals, because of the air gap eccentricity and load torque variations. Thus, the characteristic
stator current frequencies fc in terms of characteristic vibration frequencies fv will be calculated
by [19]:

fc = f p ± mfv , m = 1, 2, 3 ,... (4)

For IM bearing fault detection, the characteristic stator current frequency components can be
used as frequency domain indicators in spectrum analysis [20]. Several techniques have been
proposed in the literature for IM bearing fault detection using stator current signals. For
example, Devaney and Eren [21] applied IM stator current spectrum analysis for bearing defect
detection. FFT can be used to conduct spectrum analysis, so as to detect IM bearing faults under
deterministic motor conditions. Similar to the previous discussion regarding broken rotor bar
analysis, the WT can be used to catch the transitory characteristics of the signal for IM bearing
fault detection. For example, Konar and Vhattopadhyay [22] employed discrete WT to detect
IM bearing faults. The WPD can also be employed to explore transient fault information for
IM bearing fault detection [23]. Nevertheless, the WPD generates massive non-fault-related
information that may mask the fault features in the map, and increase the difficulties in fault
detection. Frosini and Bassi [24] used features from stator current signals and IM efficiency for
bearing fault detection. Zhou et al. [25] utilized the Wiener filter for noise reduction, so as to
detect IM bearing defect. Romero-Troncoso et al. [26] conducted online IM fault detection using
122 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

information entropy and fuzzy inference. Pineda-Sanchez et al. [27] employed Teager-Kaiser
energy operator to enhance fault features to detect IM bearing defect. Nevertheless, these
available techniques conduct IM bearing fault detection based on limited fault information
rather than comprehensively explore fault features from the time domain, the frequency
domain, and the time-frequency domain. Therefore their performance may be degraded.
Typically, the onset of IM faults begins with small imperfections, and propagates to a severe
stage as the operation progresses. The severe IM faults will cause machinery malfunction, and
even catastrophic failures. Therefore, the detection of IM faults at their earliest stage is of great
importance in IM condition monitoring. The IM fault features from stator current signals
would be associated with fault size, motor type, supply frequency, load condition, and so on.
To date, fault feature extraction from IM current signals, especially associated with bearing
defects, still remains a challenging task due to the complex transmission path and environ‐
mental noise.
To tackle the aforementioned difficulties, a spectrum synch (SS) technique is proposed in this
work to gather fault-related information and generate representative features of IM faults, such
as broken rotor bar fault and outer race defect in a bearing. The SS will examine characteristic
frequency components as well as their features over their neighborhood local bands, in order
to comprehensively highlight fault features, and mitigate the effects of high amplitude outliers.
The specific approaches in the proposed SS technique include the following: (1) a synch
technique is proposed to form fault information spectrum (FIS) by synchronizing several fault-
related local bands, so as to accentuate the fault features and improve the SNR; (2) a central
kurtosis technique is suggested to extract fault information from the resulting FIS and generate
a fault indicator for incipient IM fault detection. The effectiveness of the proposed SS technique
is verified by IM broken rotor bar fault detection and IM bearing fault detection.
The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows: the developed SS technique is described
in Section 2. The effectiveness of the proposed diagnostic tool is examined in Section 3 by using
two common types of IM fault conditions; finally, some concluding remarks of this study are
summarized in Section 4.

2. The spectrum synch technique for IM health condition monitoring

2.1. Theory of spectrum synch analysis

The proposed SS technique is composed of two procedures: local band synch and central
kurtosis analysis. The local band synch is used to form the fault information spectrum (FIS)
and accentuate fault features. The central kurtosis is suggested to generate fault indices for IM
health condition monitoring.

2.1.1. Local band synch

The IM fault characteristic frequency components are distributed over the spectrum, which,
however, are usually difficult to recognize due to their low amplitude. To highlight fault
 Health Condition Monitoring of Induction Motors 123
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61110

features in the spectrum, the FIS is used to enhance the local peakedness of the fault frequency
components. Firstly, to mitigate the noise effect in the IM current signal, the spectrum
averaging of J data sets φj , j = 1, 2,..., J, is applied to improve the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR),
computed by

F=
1 J
J j =1
( ( ))
å log P j j (5)

where Φ is the averaged spectrum over J spectra; P(φj )represents the nonparametric power
spectral density (PSD) estimate of the data set [28], given by

2 N / 2 +1
( )
2
P jj = å F (i)
fs N i =1 j
(6)

where Fj is the spectrum of φj using the Fourier transform (FT); N is the length of φj ; and fs is
the sampling frequency.

The fault features are related to fault characteristic frequencies, most of which are masked over
the local bands by some other higher level frequency components considered as noise. To tackle
this problem, the local bands containing the fault characteristic frequencies are synchronized
to reduce the noise effect and protrude the fault frequency components. In each selected local
band, the fault frequency component f c is located in the center of the window, and the width
of the local band is selected to properly reveal the peakedness of f c .

To synchronize the corresponding bands at different locations (frequencies) of the spectrum,

the spectrum is transformed from the frequency domain Φ( f ) to discrete point representation
Φ(d). Each frequency f can be represented by its nearest discrete point d. Then, fault charac‐
teristic frequency f c (k) is transformed into a discrete point, dc(k), whose corresponding
frequency is the one closest to f c , where k = 1, 2,..., K, and K is the total number of fault
characteristic frequencies considered. Thus, K local bands will be used for this synch operation.
The widths of local bands are identical in this work to facilitate the synch operation. Given the
bandwidth in frequency fw the length of the local band in discrete point representation, dw will
be

1 Ds
dw = 2 R f (7)
2 w fs

where fs is the sampling frequency in Hz, Ds is the discrete point representing fs, and R ⋅
represents round-off operation. The kth local band ψk in the discrete point representation can
be determined by
124 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

y k = {F ( i )} 1 1 -
i = dc ( k ) - dw ,... , dc ( k ) + dw
2 2

1 1
dc ( k ) + dw (8)
-
dw + 1
å 2
1
i = dc ( k ) - dw
F( i )
2

The ith discrete point in the kth local band ψk is denoted as ψi,k , i = 1, 2,..., dw+1; k = 1, 2,..., K. The
ith discrete points over K local bands { ψi,k } are sorted in a descending order in terms of their
values to generate πi,k k = 1, 2,..., K; the synchronized band FIS will be

ì 2 ( K -1)/ 2
ï å p i,j K is odd
ï ( K - 1) j = 1 1
gi = í , i = dw + 1 (9)
ï 2 K/2 2
ï åp
K j =1 i , j
K is even
î

1 1
{ }
gi = x p i , j
j = 1, 2, ..., K
, i = 1, 2 , ... , dw , dw + 2 , ..., dw + 1
2 2
(10)

where ξ {⋅} represents the computation of median value. The top 50% high amplitude center
frequency components in local bands are averaged in Equation (9) to enhance the fault feature.
The median value calculation in Equation (10) will suppress other frequency components in
local bands and reduce the amplitude of outliers. The processing procedures of the proposed
FIS formation are illustrated in Figure 3, where the frequency resolution Δf = 0.5 Hz.

2.2. Central kurtosis analysis

μ4
The classic kurtosis is a measure of the peakedness of a signal, computed as χ = , where σ
σ4
and μ4 are the standard deviation and the fourth moment of the signal distribution, respec‐
tively. The classic kurtosis measures all peaked frequency components of the FIS, which may
not properly reveal the fault information. In this work, the fault detection aims to evaluate the
peakedness of the center frequency component in the FIS. Therefore, a central kurtosis
indicator is proposed to facilitate fault detection. Given the FIS g(i); i = 1, 2,..., dw+1, the relative
amplitude of the center frequency components can be determined by

n s = gs - x {g} (11)

where gs = {gi }i=d /2+1 is the center discrete point in the FIS. The amplitude of fault frequency
w

component over synchronized local bands (i.e., FIS), rather than the entire spectrum as in the
classical methods, is used to examine fault information.
 Health Condition Monitoring of Induction Motors 125
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61110

Amplitude
(a) 0.5

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
1
Frequency

(b) 0.5

0
0 100 200
1

(c) 0.5

0
0 100 200
1

(d) 0.5

0
0 100 200
1

(e) 0.5

0
0 100 200

(f) 0.5

0
0 50 100 150 200

Figure 3. The formulation of FIS: (a) is the original spectrum; (b)-(e) are respective extracted local bands corresponding
to the four circled fault frequency components (red, green, pink, and black); (f) is the formulated FIS. The dotted lines
in graph
Figure (a) represent
3. The the boundaries
formulation of FIS:of(a)theis
local
thebands; the dashed
original rectangular
spectrum; boxes
(b)-(e) arerepresent outliers
respective in the local
extracted local
bands.
bands corresponding to the four circled fault frequency components (red, green, pink, and black);
The
(f) is thevariation of the
formulated FISThe
FIS. excluding centerinfrequency
dotted lines graph (a) component gs can
represent the be evaluated
boundaries of theby
local bands;
the dashed rectangular boxes represent outliers in the local bands.
1

{
s s = E ( g% - x {g% }) }
2 2
(12)

where E{⋅} represents the expectation function, and g̃ =

{gi , i = 1, 2, ..., dw / 2, dw / 2 + 2, ..., dw + 1}.
126 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Then the peakedness of the fault frequency component in the FIS can be measured by the
central kurtosis, determined by

ìn s 4 / s s 4 if n s > 0
ï
cs = í (13)
ï 0 if n s £ 0
î

2.3. Implementation of Spectrum Synch Technique

To recapitulate, the proposed SS technique is implemented for IM defect detection in the

following steps:
a. Collect J electric current data sets φj , j = 1, 2,..., J, with the same time delay.

b. Determine the spectrum average Φ over J spectra. Then extract characteristic local bands
using Equation (8). Synchronize the local bands to form the FIS using Equations (9) and
(10), in order to reduce the noise effect and highlight fault features.

c. Compute the center frequency representative feature using Equation (11), and the
variation of the FIS using Equation (12). The fault diagnosis can be performed by analyzing
the central kurtosis computed from Equation (13).

3. Performance evaluation

To evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed SS technique for IM fault detection, a series of
tests have been conducted for the two common types of IM defects, IM broken rotor bar fault
and IM bearing defect, using stator current signals. In rolling element bearings, defect occurs
on the race of the fixed ring first since fixed ring material over the load zone experiences more
cycles of fatigue loading than other bearing components (i.e., the rotating ring and rolling
elements). Correspondingly, this test focuses on incipient bearing defect, or fault on the outer
race (fixed ring in this case). The tests are conducted for two power supply frequencies fp: fp =
35 Hz and 50 Hz.

3.1. Experimental setup

Figure 4 shows the experimental setup employed in the current work. The speed of the tested
IM is controlled by a VFD-B AC speed controller (from Delta Electronics) with output
frequency 0.1~400 Hz. A magnetic particle clutch (PHC-50 from Placid Industries) is used as
a dynamometer for external loading. Its torque range is from 1 to 30 lb ft (1.356-40.675 N m).
The motor used for this research is made by Marathon Electric, and its specifications are
summarized in Table 1. The gearbox (Boston Gear 800) is used to adjust the speed ratio of the
dynamometer. The current sensors (102-1052-ND) are used to measure different phase
currents. A rotary encoder (NSN-1024) is used to measure the shaft speed with the resolution
 Health Condition Monitoring of Induction Motors 127
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61110

of 1024 pulses per revolution. Stator current signals are collected using a Quanser Q4 data
acquisition board, which are then fed to a computer for further processing.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 4. IM experimental setup: (1) tested IM, (2) speed controller, (3) gearbox, (4) load system, (5) encoder, (6) current
sensors, (7) data acquisition system, and (8) computer.

Phase 3 Connection Y

Poles 2 RPM 2850

HP 1/3 Rotor Bars 34

HZ 50 Stator Slots 24

Table 1. Motor specifications.

3.2. Broken rotor bar fault detection

The fault detection of IM broken rotor bar defect is generally based on spectral analysis by
inspecting fault-related sideband components in the spectrum:

fbl = ( 1 - 2 ks ) f p (14)

fbr = ( 1 + 2 ks ) f p (15)
128 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

where fbl and fbr are the respective left sideband and right sideband of the IM broken rotor bar
ns − na
fault, k = 1, 2,... ; fp is the power supply frequency of the IM; s = ns
× 100% is the slip of the

IM. ns (rpm) is the speed of rotating magnetic field, and na (rpm) is the shaft rotating speed. In
the following tests, an IM containing three broken rotor bars is used to evaluate the proposed
SS technique.

To examine the effectiveness of the proposed SS technique, the power spectral density (PSD)
based fault detection and the envelope analysis based fault detection are used for comparison.
The PSD explores the energy distribution of the data over the spectrum; the envelope analysis
performs amplitude demodulation to reveal fault features. In the PSD-based fault detection,
the fault index can be represented as,

ìïn p 4 / s p 4 if n p > 0
cp = í (16)
ïî0 if n p £ 0

The fault index of envelope analysis is given as

ïìn / s e
4 4
if n e > 0
ce = í e (17)
ïî0 if n e £ 0

where νp and νe represent the averages of the top 50% high amplitude fault frequency compo‐
nents from PSD and envelope analysis respectively; σp and σe represent the standard deviations
of the entire spectrum band of interests from PSD and envelope analysis respectively; χp and
χe are the respective fault indices from PSD and envelope analysis. Therefore, these two
techniques can be used to compare the local band synch method in the proposed SS technique,
and the corresponding central kurtosis index.

3.2.1. 35 Hz supply frequency

The first test aims to detect the IM with three adjacent broken rotor bars, 35 Hz power supply
frequency, and a half load (50% of rated power). To reduce the noise effect in the spectrum,
twenty data sets are collected for spectrum averaging (i.e., J = 20). Other settings are fs = 65,500
Hz and fw = 10 Hz. Since 1,024 low-to-high voltage transitions represent one shaft revolution
in the encoder signal, the high sampling frequency fs is chosen to properly capture the encoder
signal, so as to accurately estimate shaft speed (i.e., rotor speed). The frequency band [25 Hz,
45 Hz] is used to detect broken rotor fault, because the amplitudes of high order (i.e., k in
Equations (14) and (15)) characteristic frequencies are not prominent in the spectrum. Figure
5 illustrates the PSD of a healthy IM (Figure 5a), the PSD of an IM with broken rotor bars
(Figure 5b), the envelope analysis of a healthy IM (Figure 5c), and the envelope analysis of an
IM with broken rotor bars (Figure 5d), respectively. From Figures 5(b) and5(d), it is seen that
the broken rotor bar fault frequency components, although visible, do not prominently
 Health Condition Monitoring of Induction Motors 129
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61110

protrude in the spectrum. Therefore, a better fault detection technique is needed to extract
useful information from multiple characteristic frequency components in the spectrum to
generate a more reliable fault index.
-4

-4.5
Power (dB)

-5
(a)
-5.5

-6
25 30 35 40 45

2.5
Amplitude (A)

(b) 2

1.5
25 30 35 40 45

-4

-4.5
Power (dB)

(c) -5

-5.5

-6
25 30 35 40 45

2.5
Amplitude (A)

(d) 2

1.5
25 30 35 40 45

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 5. The spectrum average Φ corresponding to: (a) a healthy IM using PSD; (b) an IM with broken rotor bar fault
Figure 5. The spectrum average  corresponding to: (a) a healthy IM using PSD; (b) an IM with
using PSD; (c) a healthy IM using envelope analysis; and (d) an IM with broken rotor bar fault using envelope analysis,
at 35 Hz supply frequency and medium-load condition. The red solid rectangular boxes in (b) and (d) highlight fault
broken rotor bar fault using PSD; (c) a healthy IM using envelope analysis; and (d) an IM with
frequency components.
broken rotor bar fault using envelope analysis, at 35 Hz supply frequency and medium-load
condition. The red solid rectangular boxes in (b) and (d) highlight fault frequency components.

The FIS, corresponding to a healthy IM (Figure 5a) and a broken rotor bar faulted IM
(Figure 5b), are given in Figures 6(a) and 6(b), respectively. The unit of amplitude of the
 The FIS, corresponding to a healthy IM (Figure 5a) and a broken rotor bar faulted IM
(Figure 5b), are given in Figures 6(a) and 6(b), respectively. The unit of amplitude of the
130 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics
FIS is dB because the local bands are extracted from the PSD logarithmic spectrum. It is
seenThe
from
FIS, Figure 6 that tothe
corresponding center IM
a healthy frequency
(Figure 5a)component (i.e.,
and a broken rotorsynchronized broken rotor
bar faulted IM (Figure
bar 5b),
faultarefrequency
given in Figures 6(a) andin
components) 6(b),respectively.
Figure 6(b) has Thehigher
unit of relative
amplitude of the FISthan
amplitude is dBthat in
because the local bands are extracted from the PSD logarithmic spectrum. It is seen from Figure
Figure 6(a),
6 that the which is evaluated
center frequency by the (i.e.,
component index  s in the proposed
synchronized SSbar
broken rotor technique. Figure 6(b)
fault frequency
components) in Figure 6(b) has higher relative amplitude than that in Figure 6(a), which is
has similar spectrum variation as in Figure 6(a), which is examined by the value  s in the
evaluated by the index ν in the proposed SS technique. Figure 6(b) has similar spectrum
s
variation as Therefore,
SS technique. in Figure 6(a),
thewhich
faultisinformation
examined by in
thethe
value in the
FISσs can beSScharacterized
technique. Therefore,
by the index
the fault information in the FIS can be characterized by the index χs using the proposed SS
 s using the proposed SS technique.
technique.

0.6
Amplitude (dB)

0.4
0.2
(a) 0

-0.2
-0.4
10 20 30 40 50 60

0.6
Amplitude (dB)

0.4

0.2
(b)
0

-0.2
-0.4
10 20 30 40 50 60
Data Point

Figure 6.6.The
Figure FIS
The FIS generated
generated by the by the SS attechnique
SS technique 35 Hz and a at
half35
loadHz and a(a)half
condition: fromload condition:
a healthy (a)an from a
IM, (b) from
IM with broken rotor bar fault.
healthy IM, (b) from an IM with broken rotor bar fault.
The values of IM speed fr (Hz) and indices corresponding to PSD, envelope analysis and the
proposed SS are summarized in Table 2. It is seen from Table 2 that it is difficult to differentiate
TheIMvalues
the brokenofrotor
IM bar
speed fr (Hz)
faulted and indices
condition corresponding
from the to PSD,
IM healthy condition envelope
using analysis
envelope
analysis, because the values of χe corresponding to these two IM conditions are similar. The
and the proposed SS are summarized in Table 2. It is seen from Table 2 that it is difficult to
PSD has a relatively large difference of χp of different IM conditions in this case; however, the
differentiate the
PSD suffers IMinterference
from broken rotor bar faulted condition
of non-fault-related from the
high amplitude IM healthy
frequency condition
components and using
its χp values
envelope are too
analysis, small tothe
because be relied
valueson.of
TheIMcorresponding
with broken rotortobar defect
these twohasIM
considerably
conditions are
e
larger value of χs than that of the healthy IM using the proposed SS technique. Consequently,
similar. The PSDSShas
the proposed a relatively
technique large
associated difference
with its index χ  p be
of can ofused
different IM index
as a fault conditions
for IMin this
s
broken rotor bar fault detection in the stator current spectrum.
case; however, the PSD suffers from interference of non-fault-related high amplitude
frequency components and its  p values are too small to be relied on. The IM with broken

rotor bar defect has considerably larger value of  s than that of the healthy IM using the
proposed SS technique. Consequently, the proposed SS technique associated with its index
 Health Condition Monitoring of Induction Motors 131
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61110

Methods PSD Envelope analysis SS

Conditions Healthy Faulty Healthy Faulty Healthy Faulty

fr 34.333 34.343 34.333 34.343 34.333 34.343

n p ;n e ;n s 0.012 0.289 0.132 0.159 0.048 0.472
s p;s e;s s 0.751 0.764 0.176 0.161 0.122 0.098

c p ; c e ;c s 6.519e-8 0.021 0.316 0.951 0.024 538

Table 2. Comparisons of central kurtosis indices for IM broken rotor bar fault detection.

3.2.2. 50 Hz supply frequency

The proposed SS technique is then used for IM broken rotor bar fault detection with 50 Hz
supply frequency and a half load condition (50% of rated power). Other settings remain the
same as in the previous tests. The spectrum of frequency band [35, 65] Hz is used for fault
diagnosis. The selected band is shown in Figure 7 using PSD in Figure 7(a) and the envelope
analysis in Figure 7(b), respectively. It is seen from Figure 7 that most of the fault frequency
components are masked by noise, which cannot be used effectively for reliable fault diagnosis.

The FIS, corresponding to a healthy IM and an IM with broken rotor bar fault are given in
Figures 8(a) and 8(b), respectively. The related IM condition indices are summarized in Table
3. It is seen that the relative amplitude of fault frequency component in Figure 8(b) is greater
than that in Figure 8(a). From Table 3, the IM with broken rotor bar fault has a larger value of
χs than that of a healthy IM, which indicates a broken rotor bar fault. The IM health condition
with broken rotor bars cannot be differentiated from healthy condition using envelope
analysis, associated with its fault index χe . Although the PSD index χp has a relatively large
difference corresponding to different IM conditions, the performance of PSD may be degraded
by the interference of non-fault-related high amplitude frequency components and its χp values
are too small to be relied on. Hence, the proposed SS technique associated with its fault index
χs can accurately discern the health condition of IMs with broken rotor bar fault under different
supply frequencies, when compared to the related two classical methods.

3.3. Incipient bearing defect detection

As mentioned earlier, bearing defects are the most common faults in IMs, which also represent
the most challenging task in IM health condition monitoring, especially when using stator
current signals [29]. A small dent of diameter approximately 1/16-inch was introduced on the
outer race of the bearing to simulate fatigue pitting defect. Whenever a rolling element rolls
over the damaged region, impulses are generated, which then excite the resonance frequencies
of the IM structures. The vibration-related outer race bearing defect characteristic frequency
f v is given in Equation (1). The corresponding characteristic current frequency fc can be
calculated using Equation (4).
132 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

-4

-4.5

Power (dB)
-5

(a) -5.5

-6

-6.5
35 40 45 50 55 60 65

2.2
Amplitude (A)

2
(b)
1.8

1.6

1.4
 for an 40
Figure 7. The spectrum 35 IM with broken
45 rotor
50 bar fault,
55 50 Hz60supply frequency
65 and half-
Frequency (Hz)
load condition, using: (a) PSD; and (b) envelope analysis. The red solid rectangular boxes highlight
Figure
fault 7. The spectrum
frequency Φ for an IM with broken rotor bar fault, 50 Hz supply frequency and half-load condition, us‐
components.
Figure
ing: 7. The
(a) PSD; spectrum
and (b)  for an
envelope analysis. TheIM
redwith
solid broken rotor
rectangular barhighlight
boxes fault, 50 Hz
fault supplycomponents.
frequency frequency and half-
load condition, using: (a) PSD; and (b) envelope analysis. The red solid rectangular boxes highlight
0.4
fault frequency components.
Amplitude (dB)

0.2
0.4
(a) 0
Amplitude (dB)

0.2
-0.2
(a) 0
10 20 30 40 50 60

-0.2
Amplitude (dB)

0.2 10 20 30 40 50 60

(b)
Amplitude (dB)

0
0.2

(b) -0.2
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
-0.2 Data Point
10 20 30 40 50 60
Figure 8.
Figure 8. The
TheFISFIS
generated by the SS
generated bytechnique
the SS attechnique
50 Hz supply
atfrequency
Data 50 and a half-load
Hz supply
Point level (a)and
frequency fromaahalf-load
healthy IM; level
(b) from an IM with broken rotor bars.
(a) from a healthy IM; (b) from an IM with broken rotor bars.
Figure 8. The FIS generated by the SS technique at 50 Hz supply frequency and a half-load level
(a) from a healthy IM; (b) from an IM with broken rotor bars.

Table 3. Comparisons of central kurtosis indices for IM broken rotor bar fault detection.
 Health Condition Monitoring of Induction Motors 133
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61110

Methods PSD Envelope analysis SS

Conditions Healthy Faulty Healthy Faulty Healthy Faulty

fr 49.180 49.089 49.180 49.089 49.180 49.089

n p ;n e ;n s 0.103 0.195 0.083 0.119 0.092 0.325

s p;s e;s s 0.634 0.653 0.149 0.146 0.098 0.068

c p ; c e ;c s 6.966e-4 0.008 0.096 0.441 0.777 522

Table 3. Comparisons of central kurtosis indices for IM broken rotor bar fault detection.

3.3.1. 35 Hz supply frequency

The proposed SS technique is first tested with stator current signals collected from an IM with
the outer race defect, 35 Hz power supply frequency, and a light-load (20% of rated power).
The settings for the proposed SS technique are selected as J = 20, fs = 65,500 Hz, fw = 10 Hz, and
f v = 3.066 f r . The high sampling frequency is used to accurately estimate the IM shaft speed. To
obtain representative fault features, the frequency band [1000, 2000] Hz is selected for bearing
fault detection.

To have a clear view of fault frequency components, the frequency band [1090, 1360] Hz from
an IM with outer race bearing defect is shown in Figure 9 using PSD (Figure 9) and envelope
analysis (Figure 9b). It is seen that the bearing fault frequency components are difficult to
recognize due to the modulation of the signals with other IM frequency components.

The FIS, corresponding to a healthy IM and an IM with the outer race defect, are given in
Figures 10(a) and 10(b), respectively. The values of indices corresponding to these three fault
detection techniques are summarized in Table 4. It is seen from Figure 10 that the fault
frequency component in Figure 10(b) protrudes more significantly than that in Figure 10(a).
In Table 4, the fault index χs of the IM with faulty bearing is greater than that of a healthy IM
using the proposed SS technique, whereas the envelope analysis, associated with its index χe ,
cannot recognize different IM health conditions. The PSD index χp generates small values that
cannot be relied on. Therefore, the SS technique can be used effectively for IM outer race
bearing fault detection in this case, when compared to PSD and envelope analysis.

3.3.2. 50 Hz supply frequency

In this test, the IM supply frequency is set as 50 Hz. The other settings remain the same as in
previous test. The frequency band [1000, 2000] Hz of an IM with an outer race bearing defect
is used for testing. The band [1400, 1750] Hz is shown in Figure 11, using PSD (Figure 11a)
and envelope analysis (Figure 11b), respectively. From Figure 11, the bearing fault frequency
components in the spectrum are masked by higher amplitude frequency components unre‐
lated to the bearings, which will degrade the fault detection reliability.
 are difficult to recognize due to the modulation of the signals with other IM frequency
components.
134 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

-5

Power (dB)
-5.5
(a)

-6

1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350

2.2

2.1
Amplitude (A)

1.9
(b)
1.8

1.7

1.6
1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 9. The spectrum average  for an IM with outer race bearing defects, 35 Hz supply
Figure 9. The spectrum average Φ for an IM with outer race bearing defects, 35 Hz supply frequency, and light-load
condition, using (a)
frequency, andPSD; and (b) envelope
light-load analysis.
condition, using The
(a) rectangular
PSD; and boxes indicate bearing
(b) envelope fault
analysis. Thefrequency compo‐
rectangular
nents.
boxes indicate bearing fault frequency components.

0.15
The FIS, corresponding to a healthy IM and an IM with the outer race defect, are given
Amplitude (dB)

0.1
in Figures 10(a) and0.05
10(b), respectively. The values of indices corresponding to these three
(a) techniques
fault detection 0 are summarized in Table 4. It is seen from Figure 10 that the
fault frequency component
-0.05 in Figure 10(b) protrudes more significantly than that in Figure
-0.1
10 20 30 40 50 60
0.15
Amplitude (dB)

0.1

0.05
(b)
0

-0.05

-0.1
10 20 30 40 50 60
Data Point

Figure 10. The FIS generated by the SS technique at 35 Hz supply frequency and with a light-load
Figure 10. The FIS generated by the SS technique at 35 Hz supply frequency and with a light-load condition (a) from a
healthy IM; (b)
condition (a)from an a
from IMhealthy
with outer
IM;race
(b)bearing
fromdefect.
an IM with outer race bearing defect.

Table 4. Comparisons of central kurtosis indices for IM outer race bearing fault detection.

Methods PSD Envelope analysis SS

Conditions Healthy Faulty Healthy Faulty Healthy Faulty

fr 34.746 34.716 34.746 34.716 34.746 34.716

 fr 34.746 34.716 34.746 34.716 34.746 34.716
 p ; e ; s 0 0.006 0 0 0.023 0.107
 p; e; s 0.203 0.161 Health Condition
0.102 0.081 Monitoring
0.029 of Induction Motors
0.029 135
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61110
 p;  ekurtosis
Table 4. Comparisons of central ; s indices
0 for IM outer
1.929e-6 0 race bearing
0 fault detection.
0.396 185

2) 50 HzMethods PSD
Supply Frequency: Envelope analysis SS
Conditions
In this test, the IM Healthy Faulty Healthy
supply frequency Faulty
is set as 50 Healthy
Hz. The other Faulty
settings remain the
same as in previous
fr test.34.746
The frequency
34.716 band [1000,34.716
34.746 2000] Hz34.746
of an IM with an outer race
34.716
bearing defect pis; eused
; s for testing.
0 The band [1400,
0.006 0 1750]
0 Hz 0.023
is shown 0.107
in Figure 11, using
PSD (Figure 11a) ; ;and envelope
0.203
analysis
0.161
(Figure
0.102
11b), respectively.
0.081 0.029
From
0.029
Figure 11, the
p e s

bearing fault frequency components in the spectrum are masked by higher amplitude
 p ;  e ; s 0 1.929e-6 0 0 0.396 185
frequency components unrelated to the bearings, which will degrade the fault detection
reliability.
2) Table
50 Hz4. Comparisons of central kurtosis indices for IM outer race bearing fault detection.
Supply Frequency:
In this test, the IM supply frequency is set as 50 Hz. The other settings remain the
same as in previous test. The
-5 frequency band [1000, 2000] Hz of an IM with an outer race

bearing defect is used for testing. The band [1400, 1750] Hz is shown in Figure 11, using
Power (dB)

-5.5
PSD (Figure 11a) (a)
and envelope analysis (Figure 11b), respectively. From Figure 11, the
bearing fault frequency components in the spectrum are masked by higher amplitude
-6
frequency components unrelated to the bearings, which will degrade the fault detection
reliability. 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750

2.2
Amplitude (A)

-5 2

(b)
Power (dB)

1.8
-5.5
(a) 1.6

-6 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 11. The1400

spectrum average
1450 Φ for
1500an IM with
1550outer race
1600bearing1650
defects, 501700
Hz supply1750
frequency, and light-load
condition, using (a) PSD; and (b) envelope analysis.

2.2
The FIS of a healthy IM and an IM with outer race bearing defect are shown in Figure 12. The
values of the shaft speed fr and indices of the PSD, the envelope analysis and the proposed SS
Amplitude (A)

2
technique are listed in Table 5. It is seen that peaked center frequency component can be
(b)
highlighted in Figure 12(b) than in Figure 12(a). From Table 5, it is seen that the values of χs in
1.8
the proposed SS technique are much greater than that from a healthy IM. Thus, the SS technique
and its index
1.6 χs can be used for IM outer race bearing defect detection at different supply
frequencies.
1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750
Frequency (Hz)
136 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

0.2

Amplitude (dB)
0.1

0
(a)
-0.1

-0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

0.2
Amplitude (dB)

0.1

(b) 0

-0.1

-0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Data Point

Figure
Figure 12. The
12. TheFISFIS
generated by the SS by
generated technique
the at
SS50 Hz supply frequency
technique at 50and
Hzlight-load
supplycondition (a) fromand
frequency a healthy
light-load
IM; (b) from an IM with an outer race bearing defect.
condition (a) from a healthy IM; (b) from an IM with an outer race bearing defect.

Methods of central
Table 5. Comparisons PSD Envelopefor
kurtosis indices analysis SS bearing fault detection.
IM outer race
Conditions Healthy Faulty Healthy Faulty Healthy Faulty
Methods PSD Envelope analysis SS
fr 49.757 49.705 49.757 49.705 49.757 49.705
Conditions
n ;n ;n Healthy Faulty Healthy Faulty Healthy Faulty
p e s 0 0.041 0.005 0.007 0.090 0.196

s fpr;s e;s s 49.757

0.176 49.705 0.087
0.173 49.7570.08649.705
0.055 49.757
0.052 49.705
 p ;cpe; c;e ;sc s 00 0.003 0.0054.389e-5
0.041 1.091e-5 7.170
0.007 202
0.090 0.196
 p; e; s 0.176 0.173 0.087 0.086 0.055 0.052
Table 5. Comparisons of central kurtosis indices for IM outer race bearing fault detection.

 p ;  e ; s 0 0.003 1.091e-5 4.389e-5 7.170 202

4. Conclusion

A spectrum synch, SS, technique has been proposed in this work for IM fault detection using
electric current signals. This research focuses on broken rotor bar fault and outer race bearing
4. Conclusion
fault detection. The local band synch technique is employed to synthesize bearing fault related
features to form an FIS to enhance IM defect-related features. A central kurtosis analysis
A method is synch,
spectrum proposed to extract
SS, some has
technique features
beenfrom the FIS, which
proposed arework
in this then used
for to
IMformulate a
fault detection
using electric current signals. This research focuses on broken rotor bar fault and outer race
bearing fault detection. The local band synch technique is employed to synthesize bearing
fault related features to form an FIS to enhance IM defect-related features. A central
kurtosis analysis method is proposed to extract some features from the FIS, which are then
 Health Condition Monitoring of Induction Motors 137
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61110

fault indicator. The effectiveness of the proposed IM fault detection technique is verified using
IMs with the bearing defect and the broken rotor bar fault, under different operating condi‐
tions. Test results have shown that the proposed SS technique and the related central kurtosis
indicator can capture IM defect features effectively and can provide more accurate IM health
condition monitoring information. Further research is underway to improve its robustness of
the SS technique and adopt it for fault detection in other IM components such as bearings with
defects on inner races and rolling elements.

Author details

Wilson Wang1* and Derek Dezhi Li2

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1 Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Lakehead University, Canada

2 Dept. of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo,

Ontario, Canada

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 Chapter 5

Failure Diagnosis of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with

Broken Rotor Bars and End Rings

Takeo Ishikawa

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60964

Abstract

This chapter investigates the diagnosis of not only broken bar but also broken end
ring faults in an induction motor. The difference between the broken bars and broken
end ring segments is experimentally clarified by the Fourier analysis of the stator
current. This difference is verified by two-dimensional finite element (FE) analysis
that takes into consideration the voltage equation and the end ring. The electromag‐
netic field in the undamaged motor and the motor with broken bars and broken end
ring segments is analyzed. The effect of the number of broken bars and broken end
ring segments on the motor performance is clarified. Moreover, transient response is
analyzed by the wavelet analysis.

Keywords: Failure diagnosis, finite element method, motor current signature analy‐
sis, wavelet analysis

1. Introduction

Squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used in many industrial applications because they
are cost effective and mechanically robust. However, production will stop if these motors fail.
Therefore, early detection of motor faults is highly desirable. Induction motor faults are
summarized in [1] and [2], and rotor failures account for approximately 10% of the total
induction motor failures. Several studies have carried out diagnosis of induction machines
using motor current signature analysis (MCSA). For example, Davio et al. proposed a method
to diagnose rotor bar failures in induction machines based on the analysis of the stator current
142 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

during start-up using the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) [3]. Moreno et al. developed an
automatic online diagnosis algorithm for broken-rotor-bar detection, which was optimized for
single low-cost field-programmable gate array implementation [4]. Guasp et al. proposed a
method based on the identification of characteristic patterns introduced by fault components
in the wavelet signals obtained from the discrete wavelet transformation of transient stator
currents [5]. Kia et al. proposed a time-scale method based on DWT to make the broken-bar
fault diagnosis slip independent [6]. Gritli et al. carried out diagnosis of induction machines
using DWT under a time-varying condition [7]. However, most of the literature has studied
only broken-bar faults, and broken end ring faults have been marginally dealt with. For
example, Bouzida et al. dealt with the fault diagnosis of induction machines with broken rotor
bars and end ring segment and loss of stator phase during operation using DWT [8]. Con‐
cerning the FE analysis of rotor failures in induction motors, several papers have been
presented. For example, Mohammed et al. studied the broken rotor bar and stator faults using
FE and discrete wavelet analyses [9]. Weili et al. analyzed the flux distribution in the air gap
of an induction motor with one and two broken rotor bars [10]. Faiz et al. analyzed the stator
current under different numbers of broken bars and different loads of an induction motor [11].
They dealt with broken rotor bars but not a broken end ring.

This chapter addresses not only broken bar but also broken end ring faults. First, we manu‐
facture some rotors with broken bars or end rings [12]. Next, the difference between the broken
end ring segments and broken bars is verified by MCSA [12]. The electromagnetic field in the
rotor is analyzed to clarify the effect of the number of broken bars and broken end ring
segments on the motor performance [13]. Moreover, the stator voltage and current waveforms
in a transient response are analyzed by the wavelet analysis.

2. Induction motor with broken rotor and experimental system

Figure 1 shows the photographs of a rotor with broken bars and a broken end ring segments
that we have manufactured [13]. Figure 1(a) shows a rotor with one broken bar drilled at the
center of the rotor, and Fig. 1(b) shows a rotor with two broken bars drilled at the adjacent
aluminum bars. Figure 1(c) shows a rotor with a broken segment in the end ring, which is
made by cutting aluminum. Figure 1(d) shows a rotor with two broken segments in the end
ring, which are separated by two rotor bars. Figure 1(e) shows a rotor with two broken
segments in the end ring whose distance is 45 degrees, that is, 90 electrical degrees. The
experimental motor shown in Fig. 2 has the following specifications: 50 Hz, 200 V, 400 W, four
poles, and 1,400 min-1 speed.

Figure 3 shows the experimental system for the failure diagnosis, which is composed of a 200-
V 1.1-kVA 3-A inverter, an induction motor, a torque meter, and a servo motor used as load.
Figure 4 shows the developed measurement system using NI cDAQ and Lab VIEW [14]. Lab
VIEW is a system design platform and development environment for visual programming
language and can be easily used for data acquisition in Microsoft Windows. Figure 4(a) shows
the interface part, which is composed of a channel selector, x and y scales, trigger, and two
 Failure Diagnosis of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with Broken Rotor Bars and End Rings 143
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60964

(a) One broken bar [1 bar] (b) Two broken bars [2 bars]

(c) One broken segment (d) Two broken segments (e) Two broken segments (90)
[1 ring] [2 rings] [2 rings (2)]
Fig. 1. Rotors with broken bars and end rings.
Figure 1. Rotors with broken bars and end rings.

Fig. 2. Experimental induction motor.

Figure 2. Experimental induction motor.

displays that look like a multi-channel oscilloscope. Figure 4(b) shows a Lab VIEW block,
which is composed of blocks for the acquisition and correction of data, trigger detection, and
saving of data. Several physical variables, including the stator voltage v, stator current i, torque,
and speed are measured by the NI cDAQ and Lab VIEW and are then analyzed by Fourier
analysis.
144 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

                   
Induction  Torque 
Inverter  Load 
motor meter
                   
Induction  Torque 
Inverter 
v i Torque Speed Load 
motor meter
NI cDAQ 
Torque
v i Speed
Lab VIEW 
NI cDAQ 
Lab VIEW 
Figure 3. Experimental measurement system.
Fig. 3. Experimental measurement system.
Fig. 3. Experimental measurement system.

(a)
(a) Interface.
Interface.

Inputofofsignals
signals Display andand
Display savesave
Input
of of
signals
signals
Correctionof
Correction ofsignals
signals

Trigger
Trigger

File output

File output
(b) Block diagram using Lab VIEW
Fig. 4. Developed measurement system [14].
(b) [14].
Figure 4. Developed measurement system Block diagram using Lab VIEW
Fig. 4. Developed measurement system [14].
 Failure Diagnosis of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with Broken Rotor Bars and End Rings 145
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60964

3. Fourier analysis of the measured data

Figure 5 shows the Fourier analysis of the stator current at a rated speed of 1,400 min-1, where
the Fourier component of several rotors is shown at every 0.33 Hz to easily compare the broken
situations. Here, 1 bar, 2 bars, 1 ring, 2 rings, and 2 rings (2) mean one broken bar [see Fig.
1(a)], two adjacent broken bars [Fig. 1(b)], end ring broken at one position [Fig. 1(c)], end ring
broken at two positions separated by two rotor bars [Fig. 1(d)], and end ring broken at two
positions separated by five rotor bars, that is, 90 electrical degrees [Fig. 1(e)], respectively.

10
: Healthy
: 1 bar
: 2 bars
1 : 1 ring
Stator current [A]

: 2 rings
: 2 rings (2)

0.1

0.01

0.001
35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Frequency [Hz]
(a) Fourier analysis. 

10-2 5*10-2 5*10-2 10-2

5*10-3 5*10-3

10-2 10-2

10-3 5*10-3 5*10-3 10-3

36.7 43.3 56.7 63.3
(b) Enlarged around 36.7 Hz, (c) 43.3 Hz, (d) 56.7 Hz, (e) 63.3 Hz

Figure 5. Fourier analysis of the measured stator current at the rated speed.
Fig. 5. Fourier analysis of the measured stator current at the rated speed.
In Fig. 3, the inverter rating is 1.1 kVA, which is a sufficient capacity for the 400-W experimental
induction motor. Therefore, the Fourier analysis of the stator voltage did not include the (1 ±
2s)fFig.
In Hz3,components, whereiss 1.1
the inverter rating is the
kVA,slipwhich
and fisisa the fundamental
sufficient capacitysupply
for the frequency. Because
400-W experimental
induction
the servomotor.
motorTherefore, the Fourier
is a synchronous analysis
motor withof the stator
surface voltage did
permanent not include
magnets, the (1 ±ripple
the torque 2s)f Hz
is
components, where s is the slip and f is the fundamental supply frequency. Because the servo motor is
very small. Therefore, the effect of the inverter source and the load equipment
a synchronous motor with surface permanent magnets, the torque ripple is very small. Therefore, the on this meas‐
urement
effect was
of the very small.
inverter sourceHowever,
and the loadbecause the measured
equipment results arewas
on this measurement sensitive to the
very small. experi‐
However,
mental setup, the experiment was performed three times. We expected a slight
because the measured results are sensitive to the experimental setup, the experiment was performed difference in
the mechanical
three times. We loss because
expected the connection
a slight difference inof the
the motor, the torque
mechanical meter,the
loss because andconnection
the servo motor
of the
could not
motor, the be perfect
torque even
meter, andunder the same
the servo motorsituation.
could not To be take this
perfect slight
even difference
under the sameinto account,
situation. To
take this slight difference into account, the experimental system was set up for every measurement.
Therefore, three sets of measured results were slightly different.
We found 50 ± 6.67 Hz components, that is, (1 ± 2s)f Hz as expected [15]. Let us explain the
frequency of (1 ± 2s)f Hz. When the rotor is running at slip s and the supply frequency is f, the
frequency of the forward current in the rotor is sf. If the rotor has a defect, such as a broken bar or
broken end ring, a backward current frequency of -sf can flow in the rotor. The forward current
frequency sf in the rotor is considered as frequency f at the stator. Because the rotor is running at (1 -
s)f, the frequency recognized at the stator is sf + (1 - s)f = f. In contrast, the backward current
146 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

the experimental system was set up for every measurement. Therefore, three sets of measured
results were slightly different.

We found 50 ± 6.67 Hz components, that is, (1 ± 2s)f Hz as expected [15]. Let us explain the
frequency of (1 ± 2s)f Hz. When the rotor is running at slip s and the supply frequency is f, the
frequency of the forward current in the rotor is sf. If the rotor has a defect, such as a broken
bar or broken end ring, a backward current frequency of -sf can flow in the rotor. The forward
current frequency sf in the rotor is considered as frequency f at the stator. Because the rotor is
running at (1 - s)f, the frequency recognized at the stator is sf + (1 - s)f = f. In contrast, the
backward current frequency of -sf is considered as a stator frequency of (1 - 2s)f because -sf +
(1 - s)f = (1 - 2s)f. Then, a torque with a frequency of 2sf is developed because the stator current
has two frequencies f and (1 - 2s)f. The torque produces a vibration of 2sf, and thus, the rotor
speed becomes (1 - s)f ± 2sf. This speed vibration and the forward current produce a stator
current frequency of (1 - s)f ± 2sf + sf = (1 ± 2s)f.

In each fault, the components at 50 - 6.67 Hz, that is, (1 - 2s)f Hz, are approximately the same
as those at 50 + 6.67 Hz, that is, (1 + 2s)f Hz. Table 1 shows the average components at (1 ±
2s)f Hz. The order of the components for the different faults is as follows: [2 rings] > [1 ring] >
[2 bars] > [1 bar] > [2 rings (2)] > [healthy]. Therefore, we have experimentally clarified that we
can detect the fault of the rotor end ring segments and rotor bars from the (1 ± 2s)f Hz com‐
ponent of the stator current at the rated speed. In contrast, it is difficult to detect the failure
type from the Fourier analysis of the stator current at (1 ± 2s)f Hz because no order of the
components relative to the failure type is available.

43.33 Hz 50 Hz 56.67 Hz

Healthy 0.0010 A 2.818 A 0.0009 A

1 bar 0.0135 A 2.755 A 0.0119 A

2 bars 0.0176 A 2.890 A 0.0193 A

1 ring 0.0286 A 2.872 A 0.0258 A

2 rings 0.0306 A 2.725 A 0.0333 A

2 rings (2) 0.0076 A 2.760 A 0.0072 A

Table 1. Fourier components of the measured stator current.

Figure 6 shows the Fourier analysis of the stator current under a no-load condition. The rotating
speed of 1,495 min-1 was almost the same. We also find 50 ± 0.33 Hz components, that is, (1 ±
2s)f Hz components. However, because no order of the components relative to the failure types
is available, it is difficult to detect the failure type by Fourier analysis of the stator current
under the no-load condition.

Figure 7 shows the Fourier analysis of the torque at the rated speed of 1,400 min-1. We find 6.67
Hz components, that is, 2sf Hz. The order of the components for the 2sf for different faults was
not clear. For the end ring fault, the order of the components is as follows: [2 rings] > [1 ring]
 Failure Diagnosis of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with Broken Rotor Bars and End Rings 147
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60964

: Healthy
1 : 1 bar
: 2 bars

Torque [Nm]
: 1 ring
: 2 rings
0.1 : 2 rings (2)

0.01

0.001

0.0001
0 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency [Hz]

(a) Fourier analysis 

5*10-2 5*10-2

10-2 10-2
5*10-3 5*10-3

10-3 10-3
49.7 50.3

(b) Enlarged around 49.7 Hz (b) Enlarged around 50.3 Hz

Fig. 6. Fourier analysis of the measured stator current at no load.
Figure 6. Fourier analysis of the measured stator current at no load.

> Figure
[2 rings (2)]. However,
7 shows the Fourierthe component
analysis of the of [2 rings
torque at the(2)] is approximately
rated speed of 1,400 min the-1same as that
. We find 6.67ofHz
the healthy motor.
components, that is,For
2sfthe
Hz.bar
Thefault,
orderthe component
of the components of [2
forbars] was
the 2sf forapproximately
different faults the
wassame as
not clear.
that
Forofthe
[1 end
bar].ring
Therefore,
fault, theitorder
is difficult
of the to detect theis
components difference
as follows: in [2
therings]
faults>of[1the rotor
ring] > [2end rings
rings (2)].
and rotor bars
However, by Fourierof
the component analysis
[2 ringsof(2)]
theistorque even at the
approximately the same
ratedasspeed.
that of the healthy motor. For
the bar fault, the component of [2 bars] was approximately the same as that of [1 bar]. Therefore, it is
difficult to detect the difference in the faults of the rotor end rings and rotor bars by Fourier analysis
of the torque even at the rated speed. 
4. Simulation of induction motor with broken rotor bars and broken end
ring segments : Healthy
1 : 1 bar
: 2 bars
Torque [Nm]

: 1 ring
4.1. Analysis method : 2 rings
0.1 : 2 rings (2)

The experimental motor has rotor skew of one slot pitch. Although a three-dimensional FE
analysis is necessary to consider
0.01 the rotor skew, it is very time consuming. This study calculates
the electromagnetic field in the motor using a two-dimensional FE method, which considers
the voltage equation and the rotor end ring. The cross section of the motor is shown in Fig. 8.
0.001
The stator has 36 slots, and the rotor has 44 slots. The following assumptions have been made:
0.0001
1. Two-dimensional analysis 0 is employed,
10 and
20 the skew
30 in 40 the rotor50is ignored.
Frequency [Hz]
 However, the component of [2 rings (2)] is approximately the same as that of the healthy motor. For
148 the barMotors
Induction fault, -the component
Applications, of [2 and
Control bars]Fault
wasDiagnostics
approximately the same as that of [1 bar]. Therefore, it is
difficult to detect the difference in the faults of the rotor end rings and rotor bars by Fourier analysis
of the torque even at the rated speed. 

: Healthy
1 : 1 bar
: 2 bars

Torque [Nm]
: 1 ring
: 2 rings
0.1 : 2 rings (2)

0.01

0.001

0.0001
0 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency [Hz]

(a) Fourier analysis 

10-2 10-2

10-3 10-3

6.67 6.67
Enlarged around (b) 6.67 Hz for the end ring and (c) 6.67 Hz for the bar.
Fig. 7. Fourier analysis of the measured torque at the rated speed.
Figure 7. Fourier analysis of the measured torque at the rated speed.

2.
Simulation of Induction Motor with Broken Rotor Bars and Broken End Ring
Rotor bars and end ring are insulated from the rotor core, and no current flows from the
Segments
rotor bars to the rotor core.

3. 4.1The rotating
Analysis speed is constant.
Method
The experimental motor has rotor skew of one slot pitch. Although a three-dimensional FE analysis is
4. necessary
The supply voltage is assumed to be sinusoidal.
to consider the rotor skew, it is very time consuming. This study calculates the
electromagnetic field in the motor using a two-dimensional FE method, which considers the voltage
equation and the rotor end ring. The cross section of the motor is shown in Fig. 8. The stator has 36
slots, and the rotor has 44 slots. The following assumptions have been made:
V
W
1) Two-dimensional analysis is employed, and the skew in the rotor is ignored.
2) Rotor bars and end ring are insulated from the rotor core, and no current flows from the rotor bars
to the rotor core. U
3) The rotating speed is constant.

W
V

Fig. 8. Cross section of the experimental induction motor.

Figure 8. Cross section of the experimental induction motor.

NS = 9 

9 
 Failure Diagnosis of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with Broken Rotor Bars and End Rings 149
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60964

Although the motor is fed by a pulse width modulation (PWM) inverter, the Fourier compo‐
nents of the measured stator current around the switching frequency differ very slightly among
the rotor fault types. Therefore, the PWM inverter does not affect the harmonic components
of the stator current.

Figure 9 shows the FE analysis region and the connection of the end ring segments in the rotor
where 44 bars are included in the FE analysis. Because the end ring is connected to each rotor
bar, it is represented by 44 conductor segments whose resistance is R. For example, R1-2a
represents the resistance of the end ring segment between bars 1 and 2, and its value is
expressed by

l
R=r (1)
S

where of aluminum is. l is the length of conductor segment in the circumferential direction,
and S is the area of cross section. Fins connected to the end ring for cooling are neglected. When
rotor bar 1 is broken, its conductivity is set to zero. When part of the end ring is broken between
bars 1 and 2, resistance R1-2a is set to infinity. The FE analysis was conducted for 3 s with 6,750
steps, where the number of nodes and elements were 34,909 and 60,866, respectively.

Bar 44
R43-44a R43-44b

R2-3a R2-3b
Bar 2
R1-2a R1-2b
Bar 1
R44-1a R44-1b
FE Analysis region
: Resistance of
end ring segment
Figure 9. FE analysis region and end ring segments.
150 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

4.2. Analysis results

Figure 10 shows the Fourier analysis of the calculated stator current at the rated speed of 1,400
min-1. We find the (1 ± 2s)f and (1 ± 4s)f components. Table 2 shows the calculated results of
the Fourier analysis at the fundamental and (1 ± 2s)f components. By comparing these results
with those in Table 1, we find that the calculated fundamental components are slightly smaller
than the measured ones, and the calculated (1 ± 2s)f components are larger than the measured
ones. We believe that these differences are attributed to the assumption where the skew is not
taken into account in the calculation. We also verify from the calculated results that the (1 ±
2s)f components of the end ring faults are larger than those of the bar faults and that the (1 ±
2s)f component of the end ring broken at two positions separated by electrical radian is smaller
than that of the other faults.

10
: Healthy
: 1 bar
: 2 bars
1 : 1 ring
Stator current [A]

: 2 rings
: 2 rings (2)

0.1

0.01

0.001
35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Frequency [Hz]

Figure 10. Fourier analysis of the calculated stator current.

43.33 Hz 50 Hz 56.67 Hz

Healthy 0.0002 A 2.455 A 0.0003 A

1 bar 0.0326 A 2.434 A 0.0030 A

2 bars 0.0701 A 2.411 A 0.0079 A

1 ring 0.1637 A 2.390 A 0.0488 A

2 rings 0.1477 A 2.374 A 0.0618 A

2 rings (2) 0.0807 A 2.335 A 0.0222 A

Table 2. Fourier components of the measured stator current.

 V
W
Failure Diagnosis of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with Broken Rotor Bars and End Rings 151
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60964

U
4.3. Electromagnetic field in the motor calculated by FEM

An example of the magnetic flux and U eddy current distribution in the healthy motor under the
rated speed with rated-load condition is shown in Fig. 11. Because this motor is a four-pole
machine, the magnetic flux distribution is periodic in every one-fourth region, that is, in every
W
nine stator slots. Here, we denote the number V of stator slots in the same group of magnetic
flux lines as NS. Then, the NS for each pole is 9, 9, 9, and 9, and there is no distortion in the
magnetic flux distribution.
Fig. 8. Cross section of the experimental induction motor.

NS = 9 

9 

17 A/mm2 

9  0 

9 

Figure 11. Distribution of the

Fig. 11. magnetic flux
Distribution ofand
theeddy currentflux
magnetic in the healthy
and eddymotor.
current in the healthy motor.

Figure 12 shows the distribution of the magnetic flux and eddy current in the motor with two
NS = 9 
NS = 8.5 
broken bars under different rotor positions, namely, that where the magnetic flux does not
pass through the broken bars [Fig. 12(a)] and that 9 where it passes through the broken bars
9.5 
[Fig. 12(b)]. In Fig. 12(a), the eddy current distribution in the rotor bars is approximately the
same as that in the healthy motor shown in Fig. 11, and the NS under each pole is approximately
8.5, 9.5, 8.5, and 9.5, indicating that magnetic flux distortion occurs. On the other hand, Fig.
17 A/mm2 
12(b) shows a rotor bar where the eddy current density is very high, and the NS for each pole
is approximately 9, 9, 10, and 8. These magnetic distortions, shown in Figs. 12 (a) and (b), are
 
repeated.
0 
Figure 13 shows the distribution of the magnetic 9.5 flux and eddy current in the motor 8  with a
broken end ring8.5 segment under different rotor positions. 10 No rotor bar exhibits a very high
eddy current density, and the number of stator slots included
(a) Magnetic flux lines do not pass through  in the flux lines for each pole is
(b) Magnetic flux lines pass through the 
different. The NS for each pole is approximately
the position of the broken bars  8.5, 9, 9, and 9.5 in Fig. 13(a) and approximately
position of the broken bars 
8, 8.5, 10, and 9.5 in Fig. 12(b). These magnetic flux distortions are repeated. As explained in
Chapter 3, these magnetic distortions produce a stator current frequency of (1 ± 2s)f.

4.4. Effect of the number of broken bars and end ring segments

Next, we discuss the effect of the number of broken bars and broken end ring segments on the
motor performance. Figure 14 shows the Fourier components of the stator current and torque
 9  0 

9 
152 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics
Fig. 11. Distribution of the magnetic flux and eddy current in the healthy motor.

NS = 8.5  NS = 9 

9.5  9 

17 A/mm2 

0 
9.5
8 
8.5  10

(a) Magnetic flux lines do not pass  (b) Magnetic flux lines pass through the 
through the position of the broken bars  position of the broken bars 
Fig. 12. Distribution of the magnetic flux and eddy current in the motor with two broken bars under
different rotor
Figure 12. positions.
Distribution of the magnetic flux and eddy current in the motor with two broken bars under different rotor
positions.

NS = 8.5  NS = 8 

8.5
9 

17 A/mm2 

 
9.5
0 
9.5 
10 
9 

(a) Magnetic flux lines do not pass  (b) Magnetic flux lines pass through the 
through the position of the broken end  position of the broken end ring 
Fig. 13. Distribution of the magnetic flux and eddy current in the motor with a broken end-ring
Figure under
segment 13. Distribution
differentofrotor
the magnetic flux and eddy current in the motor with a broken end ring segment under dif‐
positions.
ferent rotor positions.

for different numbers of broken bars. The fundamental components of the stator current and
the average torque decrease, and the (1 ± 2s)f component of the stator current and the 2sf
component of the torque increase when the number of broken bars increases. Figure 15 shows
l
the Fourier components of theRstator
  current and torque for different numbers of end(1) ring
S
segments. The fundamental components of the stator current and the average torque also
  decrease, and the (1 ± 2s)f component of the stator current and 2sf component of the torque
approximately increase when the number of broken end ring segments increases. Tables 1 and
 Failure Diagnosis of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with Broken Rotor Bars and End Rings 153
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60964

2 show that when the number of faults is small, the components for the different faults appear
current and 2sf component of the torque approximately increase when the number of broken end ring
in the following
segments order:Tables
increases. [2 rings] > [12ring]
1 and show>that
[2 bars]
when> the
[1 bar] > [2 rings
number (2)]is> [healthy].
of faults In contrast, for
small, the components
thethe
comparison
different faults appear in the following order: [2 rings] > [1 ring] > [2 bars] > [1 current
of Figs. 14 and 15 shows that the (1 ± 2s)f component of the stator bar] > [2for
rings
the(2)]
broken bars is larger
> [healthy]. than the
In contrast, thatcomparison
for the broken end14ring
of Figs. andwhen the number
15 shows of±faults
that the (1 is greater of
2s)f component
thanthethree.
stator current for the broken bars is larger than that for the broken end ring when the number of
faults is greater than three. 

2.5 50Hz
Stator current [A]

1.5

0.5
43.33Hz
0 56.67Hz
0 4 8 12
Number of broken bars
(a) Stator current 

3
2.5
Torque [Nm]

2 Average
1.5
1
0.5 6.67Hz

0
0 4 8 12
Number of broken bars

(b) Torque
Fig. 14. Stator current and torque for different numbers of broken bars.
Figure 14. Stator current and torque for different numbers of broken bars.

5. Wavelet analysis

We have discussed about the failure diagnosis of broken end ring segments and broken bars
in induction motor at the steady state using the Fourier analysis. In this section, the transient
performance of an inverter-fed induction motor is discussed by using the wavelet analysis.
There are two kinds of wavelet transform; continuous and discrete ones.

2.5
tator current [A]

2 50Hz

1.5

1
154 Fig. 14. Stator
Induction Motors - Applications, Controlcurrent and
and Fault torque for
Diagnostics different numbers of broken bars.

2.5

Stator current [A]

2 50Hz

1.5

0.5
43.33Hz
0 56.67Hz
0 4 8 12
Number of broken end ring segments
(a) Stator current 

3
2.5 Average
Torque [Nm]

2
1.5
1
0.5 6.67Hz
0
0 4 8 12
Number of broken end ring segments
(b) Torque
Fig. 15. Stator current and torque for different numbers of broken end ring segments.
Figure 15. Stator current and torque for different numbers of broken end ring segments.

5.1.Wavelet
Continuous wavelet analysis
Analysis
Let us make a brief introduction of continuous wavelet transform. Figure 16 shows the
waveform of a signal and its wavelet analysis, which shows equipotential lines in the frequency
and time plane. Although there are several kinds of Wavelet function – Morlet, Paul, and
Derivative of Gaussian – Fig. 16 is the result of using the Morlet function, where the number
of waves is 30. We can find high value region around 100 Hz and from 0.3 to 0.6 s and around
400 Hz and from 0.4 to 0.7 s.

We investigate transient response of an inverter-fed induction motor, where the control

strategy is an open loop and the motor has no-load. The step responses of the stator voltage,
stator current, and motor speed were measured when a start signal was input to the inverter.
Figures 17 and 18 show the Wavelet analysis of the stator current iu and stator voltage Vuv using
the Morlet function, where the number of waves is two, for the healthy motor and for the motor
with two broken bars. We can find a very slight difference in the Wavelet analysis of the stator
 Failure Diagnosis of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with Broken Rotor Bars and End Rings 155
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60964

Figure 16. An example of the continuous wavelet analysis using the Morlet mother function.

current between the healthy rotor and two broken bars. There are large components at high
frequency before the motor starts, namely, time is from 0 to 0.05 s. As discussed before, the
rotor fault produces the components of (1 ± 2s)f. The component becomes 150 Hz when the
rotor is stopping, that is, s = 1. It is shown that there is no difference in the stator voltage.
Therefore, it is difficult to distinguish the rotor defect by using the continuous wavelet
transform of the stator current in the starting operation with no-load condition.

5.2. Discrete wavelet analysis

The discrete wavelet transform of a signal is calculated by passing it through a series of filters.
As it is well known, the use of wavelet signals, that is, approximation and high-order details,
resulting from discrete wavelet transform constitutes an interesting advantage because these
signals act as filters. Moreover, the computational time of discrete wavelet transform is much
shorter than that of continuous wavelet transform. Figure 19 shows the discrete wavelet
analysis for the same signal as shown in Fig. 16. It is found that the component of 100 Hz
appears in d6 and signal of 450 Hz component appears in d4 detail.

Table 3 shows frequency bands by decomposition in multi-levels. Figures 20 and 21 show

discrete wavelet signals of stator current iu of the motor with the healthy rotor and two broken
bars. It is shown that there are large components of d7 at t = 0.05 s, and a large component of
156 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

(a) Speed response.

(b) Stator current.

(c) Stator voltage.

Fig. 17. Continuous wavelet analysis of healthy rotor. 
Figure 17. Continuous wavelet analysis of healthy rotor.
 Failure Diagnosis of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with Broken Rotor Bars and End Rings 157
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60964

(a) Speed response. 

(b) Stator current. 

(c) Stator voltage.

Fig. 18. Continuous wavelet analysis of the motor with two broken bars.
Figure 18. Continuous wavelet analysis of the motor with two broken bars.
158 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

sig
2
0
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
2
0
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
2
0
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
2
0
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
2
0
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
2
0
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
2
0
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
2
0
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
t [s]
10 10
0
s ig
0
s ig

-10 -10
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
5 5
a 10

0
a 10

0
-5 -5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
5 5
d10

0
d10

0
-5 -5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
2 2
0 0
d9
d9

-2 -2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
0.5 0.5
0 0
d8
d8

-0.5 -0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
0.5 0.5
0 0
d7
d7

-0.5 -0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
0.2 0.2
0 0
d6
d6

-0.2 -0.2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
0.5 0.5
0 0
d5
d5

-0.5 -0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
0.5 1
0 0
d4
d4

-0.5 -1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
1 2
0 0
d3
d3

-1 -2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
1 2
0 0
d2
d2

-1 -2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
5 5
0 0
d1
d1

-5 -5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
t [s] t [s]

Figure 19. An example of the discrete wavelet analysis.

d8 at t = 0.07 s and a large component of d9 at t = 0.12 s. These components correspond to the

frequency of (1 + 2s)f Hz. We can find a slight difference of the components in these frequency
bands between the healthy rotor and the rotor with two broken bars, especially in d2 through
d6 details from 0 to 0.1 s.
 Failure Diagnosis of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with Broken Rotor Bars and End Rings 159
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60964

Approximation and details Frequency bands [Hz]

a10 0 – 24
d10 24 – 49
d9 49 – 98
d8 98 – 195
d7 195 – 391
d6 391 – 781
d5 781 – 1,563
d4 1,563 – 3,125
d3 3,125 – 6,250
d2 6,250 – 12,500
d1 12,500 – 25,000

Table 3. Frequency bands by decomposition in multi-levels.

6. Conclusions

This study has analyzed the Fourier components of broken end ring segments and compared
them with those of the broken bars. We have verified, by both experiment and simulation, that
the components of (1 ± 2s)f of the broken end ring segments are larger than those of the broken
bars when the number of faults is one or two. The electromagnetic field in the motor with two
broken bars and a broken end ring has been analyzed. Moreover, the effect of the number of
broken bars and broken end ring segments on the motor performance has been clarified. The
discrete wavelet analysis has shown that there are slight differences in the detail signals in
high frequency bands between healthy rotor and the rotor with two broken bars.

Author details

Takeo Ishikawa

Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

Division of Electronics and Informatics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Gunma

University, Japan

References

[1] A. H. Bonnett and G. C. Soukup, “Rotor Failures in Squirrel Cage Induction Motors,”
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[2] W. T. Thomson and M. Fenger, “Current Signature Analysis to Detect Induction Mo‐
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[3] A. Daviu, R. Guasp, J. Folch, and M. Palomares, “Validation of a New Method for the
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[4] O. Moreno, R. Troncoso, V. Frias, R. Gillen, and G. Perez, “Automatic Online Diagno‐
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[5] R. Guasp, A. Daviu, P. Sanchez, P. Panadero, and P. Cruz, “A General Approach for
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[6] S. H. Kia, H. Henao, and G. A. Capolino, “Diagnosis of Broken-Bar Fault in Induction

Machines Using Discrete Wavelet Transform without Slip Estimation,” IEEE Trans‐
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[7] Y. Gritli, C. Rossi, L. Zarri, F. Filippetti, A. Chatti, D. Casadei, and A. Stefani, “Ad‐
vanced Diagnosis of Broken Bar Fault in Induction Machines by Using Discrete
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[8] A. Bouzida, O. Touhami, R. Ibtiouen, A. Belouchrani, M. Fadel, and A. Rezzoug,

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[9] O. A. Mohammed, N. Y. Abed, and S. Ganu, “Modelling and Characterization of In‐

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[10] L. Weili, X. Ying, S. Jiafeng, and L. Yingli, “Finite-Element Analysis of Field Distribu‐
tion and Characteristic Performance of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor with Broken
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[11] J. Faiz and B. M. Ebrahimi, “A New Pattern for Detecting Broken Rotor Bars in In‐
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4673–4683 (2008)

[12] T. Ishikawa, R. Ishigame, M. Matsunami, and N. Kurita, “Analysis and Failure Diag‐
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[13] T. Ishikawa, S. Shinagawa, and N. Kurita, “Analysis and Failure Diagnosis of Squir‐
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[14] T. Ishikawa, Y. Seki, N. Kurita, and T. Matsuura, “Failure Diagnosis of Brushless DC

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[15] T. Ishikawa, K. Kurihara, K. Shinohara, and Y. Sato, “Rotor Fault Diagnosis Techni‐
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S4-3, pp. 9–14 (2007) (in Japanese)
 Chapter 6

Fuzzy Direct Torque-controlled

Induction Motor Drives
for Traction with Neural
Compensation of Stator Resistance

Mohammad Ali Sandidzadeh, Amir Ebrahimi and Amir Heydari

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61545

Abstract
In this chapter, a new method for stator resistance compensation in direct torque control
(DTC) drives, based on neural networks, is presented. The estimation of electromagnetic
torque and stator flux linkages using the measured stator voltages and currents is crucial
to the success of DTC drives. The estimation is dependent only on one machine parame‐
ter, which is the stator resistance. Changes of the stator resistances cause errors in the es‐
timated magnitude and position of the flux linkage and therefore in the estimated
electromagnetic torque. Parameter compensation by means of stator current phasor error
has been proposed in literature. The proposed approach in this chapter is based on a
principle that states the error between the measured current magnitude of the stator feed‐
back and the stator’s command, verified with neural network, is proportional to the var‐
iation of the stator resistance and is mainly caused by the motor temperature and the
varying stator frequency. Then the correction value of stator resistance is achieved by
means of a fuzzy controller. For the first time, a combination of neural control and fuzzy
control approach in stator resistance variations based on the stator current is presented.
The presented approach efficiently estimates the correct value of stator resistance.

Keywords: Fuzzy direct torque control, neural compensation, induction motor drives

1. Introduction

The direct torque control is one of the excellent control strategies available for torque control
of induction machine. It is considered as an alternative to field oriented control (FOC)
technique [1]. In fact, among all control methods for induction motor drives, direct torque
166 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

control (DTC) seems to be particularly interesting being independent of machine rotor

parameters and requiring no speed or position sensors [2].

A basic concept of direct torque control of induction motor drives is simultaneous control of
the stator flux and electromagnetic torque of a machine. Compared to the conventional vector-
controlled drives, the torque and flux of a DTC-based drive are controlled in a closed-loop
system that does not use the current loops.

In principle, DTC-based drives require only the knowledge of stator resistance and thereby
decrease the associated sensitivity to parameter variations [3, 4]. Moreover, compared to the
conventional vector-controlled drives, DTC-based drives do not require fulfilling the coordi‐
nate transformation between stationary and synchronous frames. Depending on how the
switching sectors are selected, two different DTC schemes become possible [5].

Since a DTC-based drive selects the inverter switching states using a switching table, neither
the current controllers nor the pulse-width modulation (PWM) modulator is required. As a
result, the DTC-based drive provides a fast torque response [6]. The conventional direct torque
control (CDTC) suffers from some drawbacks such as high current, flux and torque ripple,
difficulties in torque, and flux control at very low speeds [7]. However, the switching-table-
based DTC approach has some disadvantages. If the switching frequency of the inverter is not
high, the torque and flux pulsation could be high; moreover, there would be a sluggish
response during the start-up or change of the reference flux or reference torque [8]. Hence, to
improve the performance of the DTC drive during the start-up or changes in the reference flux
and torque, a fuzzy-logic-based switching-vector process is developed in this chapter [9–15].
In DTC drives, the feedback of the electromagnetic torque and stator flux linkage is used as
the input of controller. Using the measured stator currents and voltages, the electromagnetic
torque and also stator flux linkages are estimated in stator reference frames [16, 17]. “The
machine model is only dependent on stator resistance” [18]. There are different forms of direct
torque control induction motor based on how currents and voltages are measured or estimated
[19–21]. The stator current might be obtained using only the DC-link current sensor, and the
motor line voltages could be reconstructed inexpensively using gate signals [22]. Nevertheless,
all the measured values suffer from precision and low-speed operational problems caused by
errors induced by the varying stator resistance in the flux and its angle calculator [23, 24]. The
stator resistance change has a wide range, varying from 0.75 to 1.7 times the stator’s nominal
value. The variation is largely due to temperature variations, and to a small extent, due to the
stator frequency variations [21]. The variation deteriorates the drive performance by intro‐
ducing errors in the estimated magnitude and position of the flux linkage and therefore in the
electromagnetic torque estimation, particularly at low speeds [25]. Note that at low speeds,
the voltage drops of the stator resistance constitute a significant portion of the applied voltages.
Only a few control schemes have been proposed so far for overcoming the mentioned
parameter sensitivity (which restricts the speed control range of the drives). The stator
resistance has problems such as convergence and slowness of response. A partial operating-
frequency-dependent hybrid-flux estimator has been proposed for tuning the stator resistance
[10]. Adjustment of the stator resistance, based on the difference between the flux current and
its command, has problems in identifying the actual flux current [26, 27]. Finding the stator
 Fuzzy Direct Torque-controlled Induction Motor Drives for Traction with Neural Compensation of Stator Resistance 167
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61545

resistance based on the steady state voltage has the shortcoming of using direct axis flux
linkages that are affected by the stator resistance variations.

In this chapter, a neural network estimator is developed to find the reference stator current
values at each moment. Later, the error difference between the measured and the real stator
current values is fed to a fuzzy logic controller, which then outputs the correct stator resistance
value.

Figure 1. Block diagram of the fuzzy direct torque control of induction motor drives with a stator resistance estimator.

2. Fuzzy logic direct torque control

In this section, the concept and principle of direct torque control approach of an induction
motor is briefly introduced. A schematic diagram of the proposed drive is shown in Fig. 1. The
feedback control of torque and stator flux linkages, which are estimated from the measured
voltages and currents of the motor, is used in the proposed drive scheme. In this approach,
stator-reference frame model of the induction motor is used. To avoid the trigonometric
operations faced in coordinate transformations of other reference frames, the same reference
frame is used in the implementation [22]. This can be considered as one of the advantages of
the control scheme. Through the integration of the difference between the phase voltage and
the voltage drop in the stator resistance, Stator q and d and axis flux linkages λqs , λds can be
calculated as follows:
168 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

lqs = ò (Vqs - Rsiqs )dt (1)

lds = ò (Vds - Rsids )dt (2)

And the flux linkage phasor is as follows:

ls = lqs 2 + lds 2 ) (3)

The stator flux linkage phasor position is:

lqs
q s = tan -1 ( ) (4)
lds

And the electromagnetic torque is given by:

3P
Te = (i l - i l ) (5)
2 2 qs ds ds qs

According to Fig. 2, the inverter switching states are selected based on the errors of the torque
and the flux (as indicated by ΔT e and Δλs , respectively). Provided that

DTe = Te * - Te
(6)
Dls = l * s - ls

The optimum switching vector is selected to decrease the errors [23, 25, 26]. Using a fuzzy-
logic-based switching-vector selection process, it would be possible to improve the perform‐
ance of the DTC drive during start-up or changes in the reference flux and torque. For this, a
Mamdani fuzzy-logic-based system is used. Using the flux and torque deviation from reference
ones and the position of the stator flux linkage space vector, it is possible to select different
voltages. Then a rule-base has to be formulated based on these states. Thus the aim of the
approach is to use a fuzzy logic system to expand the system performance (i.e., gives faster
torque and flux response), outputs the zero and non-zero voltage switching states (n), and uses
three quantities as its inputs: eΦ, the torque error (eT ), and the position of the stator flux space
vector (θs ). The stator flux linkage space vector can be located in any of the twelve sectors, each
spanning a 60° wide region. These regions overlap each other as shown in Table 1.
he stator flux space vector ( ). The stator flux linkage space vector can be located in any of the twel

ectors, each spanning a 60 wide region. These regions overlap each other as shown in Table 1.
Fuzzy Direct Torque-controlled Induction Motor Drives for Traction with Neural Compensation of Stator Resistance 169
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61545

Figure 2. Changes of flux

Fig. 2. linkage space
Changes vectors
of flux due tospace
linkage the switching
vectorsvectors.
due to the switching vectors.

S1 S2 S3 TableS41 S5 S6

315–75 345–45 Overlaps

15–75 between
45–105sectors 75–135 105–165

S7 S8 S9
S1 S2 S3 S4S10 S5 S11 S6 S12

135-195 165-225 195-255 225-285 255-315 285-345

315–75 345–45 15–75 45–105 75–135 105–165
Table 1. Overlaps between sectors

S7 eΦet S8 S9 P S10 ZE
S11 S12 N

PL 1 2 2
135-195 165-225 195-255 225-285 255-315 285-345
PS 1 2 3

ZE 0 0 0

NS 6
6 0 4

NL 6 5 5

Table 2. Fuzzy vector selection in sector 1

Since it was assumed that there were three and five fuzzy sets for the flux error and the torque
error, respectively, there will be 15 rules for every sector. Table 2 shows the various rules for
sector 1. In particular, the stator flux error (eΦ) can be positive (P), zero (ZE), or negative (N),
corresponding to three overlapping fuzzy sets. The electromagnetic torque error can be
positive large (PL), positive small (PS), zero (ZE), negative small (NS), or negative large (NL).
This is because the intention is to make the torque variations smaller. Therefore, the universe
170 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

of the torque is divided into five overlapping fuzzy sets. The various membership functions
are shown in Fig. 3. Since there are 12 sectors, the total number of rules becomes 180. Each one
of the rules can be described by the input variables and the control variable, which is the
switching state (n). For example, Table 2 shows various rules for sector 1 as below:

Rule 1: If eΦ is positive (P), eT is positive large (PL) and θs is S1, then n is 1.

Rule 2: If eΦ is positive (P), eT is positive small (PS) and θs is S2, then n is 1.

Rule 3: If eΦ is positive (P), eT is ZE and θs is S3, then n is 0.

The goal of the fuzzy system is to obtain a crisp value (as the appropriate switching state) on
its output. A general “ith rule” has the following form:

Rule i: If eΦ is Ai , eT is Bi and θs is Ci , then n is N i

Thus, by using the minimum operation for the fuzzy AND operation and the firing strength
of the ith rule, αi can be obtained from

a i = min[ m Ai ( eF ), m Bi ( eT ), mci (q s )] (7)

where μAi (eΦ), μBi (eT ), μci (θs ) are membership functions of fuzzy sets Ai , Bi , and Ci of the
variables flux error, the torque error, and the flux position, respectively. The output form of
the ith rule is obtained from

m Ni (n) = min[a i , m Ni (n)] (8)

where μNi (n) is the membership function of fuzzy set N i of variable n. Therefore, the overall
(or the combined) membership function of output n is gained by using the max operator as
follows:

m N (n) = max[ m Ni (n)] (9)

In this case, the outputs include crisp numbers, switching states, and for defuzzification, the
maximum used criteria.

3. Stator resistance compensation

3.1. Scheme

A mismatch between the controller-set stator resistance and its actual value in the machine can
create the instability shown in Fig. 6a. This figure shows the simulations for the changes of the
this case, the outputs include crisp numbers, switching states, and for defuzzification, the maxim
Fuzzy Direct Torque-controlled Induction Motor Drives for Traction with Neural Compensation of Stator Resistance 171
ed criteria. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61545

Fig. 3. Membership functions.

Figure 3. Membership functions.

Stator resistance compensation

step stator resistance from 100% to 50% of its nominal value at second 0.5. The drive system
becomes unstable if the controller-instrumented stator resistance is higher than its actual value
Scheme in the motor [11]. An explanation for this could be as follows: when motor resistance decrease
in machine and the applied voltage is the same, the current increases, resulting in increased
A mismatchfluxbetween the controller-set
and electromagnetic torque [28].stator resistance
The opposite and in
effect occurs itscontroller.
actual value incurrent
In fact, by the machine can
increments, which are inputs of the system, the stator resistance voltage drops will increase in
instability the calculator.
shown Therefore,
in Fig. lower figure
6a. This flux linkages
shows andtheelectromagnetic
simulationstorquefor estimations
the changes will of the step
present. Compared with their command values, they give large torque and flux linkages
deviations, which result in commanding larger voltages and currents and leading to a run off
8
condition as shown in Fig. 6a. “The parameter mismatch between the controller and machine
will result in a nonlinear relation between the torque and the torque’s reference, making it a
non-ideal torque amplifier” [29]. This will have undesirable effect in a torque drive and speed-
controlled drive systems. Therefore, it will be reasonable to design a motor resistance adaption
law to overcome instability and to guarantee a linear torque amplifier in the DTC drive. A new
approach is presented in the next section for stator resistance parameter adaption.
172 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

3.2. Stator current phasor command

A diagram of the applied stator resistance compensation is shown in Fig. 4. The presented
technique is based on the principle that the error between the measured stator feedback
current-phasor magnitude is and the stator’s command i *s is proportional to the stator
resistance variation, which is mainly caused by the motor temperature and the varying stator
frequency. The correction value is obtained by means of a fuzzy controller. The final estimated
^
value of Rs is obtained as the output of the limiter. The above algorithm requires the stator
current phasor command, which is a function of the commanded torque and the commanded
stator flux linkages.

Figure 4. Block diagram of the adaptive stator resistance compensator.

A neural network estimator, presented in the following, is designed to evaluate the stator
current command from the torque and stator flux linkage commands.

The stator feedback current phasor magnitude is is obtained from the q and d axis measured
currents as

2
(iqs + ids
2
is = ) (10)

The stator command current phasor magnitude i *s is derived from the dynamic equations of
the induction motor in the synchronous-rotating reference frame, using the torque command
T * and the stator flux linkage command λ * and aligning the d axis with the stator flux linkage
e s
phasor as

l e qs = 0, pl e qs = 0, l e ds = l * s (11)

where p is the number of poles. Substituting these equations in flux linkages and torque
equations results in
 Fuzzy Direct Torque-controlled Induction Motor Drives for Traction with Neural Compensation of Stator Resistance 173
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61545

32 e
Te = iqs ls (12)
2p

Then the q axis current command is directly obtained by using the torque command T *e and
the stator flux linkage command λ *s as

2 2 Te *
i e * qs = (13)
3 p ls *

It can be shown that i e*ds is given by

e* * LL e*
Ls (i )2 - l (1 - 2 s r )i +
ds s L m - Ls Lr ds
* (14)
e* (ls )2 Lr
Ls (iqs ) - 2
=0
L2 m - Ls Lr

Equation 14 gives two solutions for i e*ds , and the appropriate solution is the one that outputs
a smaller value. Finally, the stator current command is calculated from

i * s = (i e * qs 2 + i e * ds 2 ) (15)

It is shown here that evaluation of the stator current command is a complicated and time-
consuming process. Instead of using the numerical solution for the system, it is possible to
perform the stator current command by using an artificial neural network (ANN) since it is
known that ANN is a general nonlinear function estimator. As a result, a multilayer feed-
forward back-propagation ANN, whose inputs are the torque and flux reference values, is
trained to estimate the stator current command. A 2-8-8-1 structure, which has two hidden
layers with 8 hidden nodes, is obtained by trial and error. The activation functions of the hidden
layers are tan-sigmoid functions. Fig. 5 shows the structure of the ANN estimator. The neural
estimator evaluates the reference stator current with less than 0.01% error. Furthermore, it is
shown that more complicated ANN structures result in higher error rates.

4. Results

Dynamic simulations are performed to validate the performance of the proposed technique.
The induction motor details, used in the simulation, are given in the appendix. Fig. 6a and 6b
show the simulations for a step change in the stator resistance parameter-uncompensated and
compensated torque drive system respectively. The system controller has the nominal value
174 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

of the stator resistance, and after half a second, the stator resistance is changed to ½ of its
nominal value. Then the corresponding effects are studied. In the compensated system, it is
observed that the estimation of stator resistance has experienced an initial transient state, and
after a short time, it converges gradually to its final actual value in a steady state. The similar
transitions are observed in other variables. However, all variables reach to their steady state
situation. A step variation in the stator resistance is rather an extreme test and not a significant
case encountered in practice. In real operating conditions, the temperature change rate is very
slow and so is the stator resistance.

Figure 5. Neural network structure: (a) structure of layers and (b) structure of first hidden layer.
 Fuzzy Direct Torque-controlled Induction Motor Drives for Traction with Neural Compensation of Stator Resistance 175
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61545

Stator flux linkages and the torque command are proportionally decreased and increased
linearly from/to their original reference values. The tracking of motor variables and stator
resistance is achieved, thus proving the effectiveness of the adaptive controller in the flux-
weakening region. It also perfectly operates in stator resistance incremental case and in
gradually stator resistance changes due to temperature changes. In these cases, there is not any
oscillation even at the initial moments of resistance variations.

5. Conclusion

A fuzzy direct torque-controlled drive was introduced, and an adaptive stator resistance
compensation scheme was applied to a typical three-phase induction motor. With this
approach, the elimination of parameter sensitivity of the stator resistance by using only the
existing stator current feedback occurred. The scheme was simple to implement, and its
realization was indirectly dependent on stator inductances. Since the flux was controlled in
the machine, the inductances used in the computation of stator phasor current command were
constants. A procedure for finding the phasor command of the stator current from the torque
and stator flux linkage commands was derived to realize the complication of this method. The
ANN estimator was designed to effectively evaluate the reference stator current value. The
scheme was verified via dynamic simulation for various operating conditions, including the
flux-weakening mode. The scheme was successful despite rapid changes in the stator resist‐
ance, such as step changes. It was observed that the scheme adapted very well without
transients even for simultaneous variations of the torque and flux linkages command while
the stator resistance was varying. Finally, a simple fuzzy controller was used to generate the
exact stator resistance value.

Variable Symbol Variable Symbol

Stator q and d flux linkages λqs , λds Stator command current phasor magnitude i*
s

Stator q and d and axis voltages V qs , V ds Torque command T*

e

Stator resistance Rs Stator flux linkage command λ*

s

Stator q and d and axis currents iqs , ids Stator self-inductance L s

Stator flux linkage phasor position θs Mutual inductance M

Motor torque Te Rotor self-inductance L r

Number of poles p
176 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

(a) 

(b) 
Figure 6. (a) The step response for a parameter uncompensated system. (b)The step response for a parameter compen‐
sated system.
Fig. 6a. The step response for a parameter uncompensated system.  Fig. 6b.The step response for a parameter compensated system. 
 Fuzzy Direct Torque-controlled Induction Motor Drives for Traction with Neural Compensation of Stator Resistance 177
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61545

6. Appendix

Induction motor parameters

Nominal operation condition

Rated power 4 kW

Rated voltage 480 V

Rated speed 3000 rpm

Rated frequency 50 Hz

Parameters of simulated induction motor

Stator resistance 1.115 Ω

Stator self-inductance 0.005974 H

Mutual inductance 0.2037 H

Friction factor 0.00051 N·m/s

Rotor resistance 1.083 Ω

Rotor self-inductance 0.005974 H

Rotor inertia 0.0333 kg/m2

Number of poles 2

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the school of railway engineering in Iran University of Science
and Technology for the great support of this project. The assistance of Mr. H. Zafari for revising
this paper is appreciated as well.

Author details

Mohammad Ali Sandidzadeh1*, Amir Ebrahimi1 and Amir Heydari2

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1 School of Railway Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran

2 School of Railway Engineering, Iran university of Science and Technology, Tehran, Jahad
Daneshgahi, Saveh, Iran
178 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

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 Chapter 7

Development of
Fuzzy Applications for High
Performance Induction Motor Drive

Ali Saghafinia and Atefeh Amindoust

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61071

Abstract

This chapter develops a sliding mode and fuzzy logic-based speed controller, which
is named adaptive fuzzy sliding-mode controller (AFSMC) for an indirect field-
oriented control (IFOC) of an induction motor (IM) drive. Essentially, the boundary
layer approach is the most popular method to reduce the chattering phenomena,
which leads to trade-off between control performances, and chattering elimination for
uncertain nonlinear systems. For the proposed AFSMC, a fuzzy system is assigned as
the reaching control part of the fuzzy sliding-mode controller so that it improves the
control performances and eliminates the chattering completely despite large and
small uncertainties in the system. A nonlinear adaptive law is also implemented to
adjust the control gain with uncertainties of the system. The adaptive law is developed
in the sense of Lyapunov stability theorem to minimize the control effort. The applied
adaptive fuzzy controller acts like a saturation function in the thin boundary layer
near the sliding surface to guarantee the stability of the system. The proposed AFSMC-
based IM drive is implemented in real-time using digital signal processor (DSP) board
TI TMS320F28335. The experimental and simulation results show the effectiveness of
the proposed AFSMC-based IM drive at different operating conditions such as load
disturbance, parameter variations, etc.

Keywords: Boundary layer approach, sliding mode control, adaptive fuzzy sliding
mode controller, speed controller, induction motor
182 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

1. Introduction

The electrical motors convert more than 50% of electrical energy into mechanical energy. Over
the years, induction motors (IMs) have been widely used in industry for variable speed drives
due to some of the advantages such as robust construction, low cost, low maintenance, and
reliability [1]. Electric motor drives are applied widely in industrial applications such as
pumps, fan, paper and textile mills, elevators, electric vehicle and subway transportation,
home applications, servos and robotics, ship propulsion, etc. Nowadays, high performance
electric motor drives are an essential requirement for new industrial applications. The high
performance electric motor drives have some characteristics such as high reliability, high-
energy transformation efficiency, and quick response of torque, position, and speed, robust to
parameter variations and external load disturbance, low weight, and less expensive.
The field-oriented control (FOC) technique decouples the flux and torque controls so that the
central task becomes easier in both steady and transient states. Thus, the IM behaves like a
separately excited DC motor while maintaining its general advantages over DC motor. The
indirect FOC as an alternative method to measure the flux position without using any flux
sensor, and utilizes the rotor speed and the angular slip frequency to make the unit vector
signals for achieving the flux orientation. In fact, the motor current components are decoupled
by estimation of the slip speed, which requires a suitable knowledge of the rotor time constant.
The accuracy of this method depends on the precise estimation of the motor parameters and
rotor time constant [2, 3]. However, changes in these parameters often cause field orientation
detuning and degrade the electrical drive performance. Thus, the torque capability and
efficiency of the drive are reduced in steady state. Also, the torque/ampere capability is
significantly decreased due to the inverter current limits and causes unsatisfactory drive
performance especially to fast dynamic speed command [4, 5]. Moreover, disturbances such
as external load torque and unmodeled dynamics have effect on the drive performance [6, 7].
In order to achieve indirect vector control of high performance from IM drive sophisticated
speed control method is required [8].
Generally, in field of drives control, the methods of control can be classified into three main
categories such as fixed gain or linear methods, adaptive methods, artificial intelligence
methods, and a combination of them may also be used depending on their applications. Linear
controllers, which include the proportional-integral controller (PI), proportional-integral-
derivative (PID), and pseudo-derivative-feedback (PDF), are used as the most common
approaches in industrial applications. However, the IM drives are nonlinear, time variant,
complex, and uncertain systems and system conditions may be changed while the PI controller
as a linear controller is valid to operate within certain specific range and consequently it is
unable to deal with uncertainties [9, 10].
Several nonlinear adaptive methods are able to adapt or upgrade the PI controllers such as
model reference adaptive control (MRAC) [11], variable structure control (VSC) [12], self-
tuning PI controllers [13], etc. To implement the mentioned speed controller methods, it is
required to understand the exact mathematical model. To overcome these problems, over the
past four decades, the field of fuzzy controller applications has spread to include many
industrial control applications, and significant research work has supported the development
 Development of Fuzzy Applications for High Performance Induction Motor Drive 183
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61071

of fuzzy controllers [14, 15]. Fuzzy logic controllers (FLCs) have been developed and can be
divided into two groups [16]. The first group focuses on improving the design and performance
of the standard FLC [16, 17]. The second group of approaches combines the advantages of FLC
and those of conventional nonlinear adaptive techniques. Thus, they are adopted in the fuzzy
control area, such as fuzzy sliding control [18-20], fuzzy gain scheduling, various forms of self-
tuning and self-organizing FLCs [21, 22], and adaptive fuzzy control [23], in order to alleviate
difficulties in constructing the fuzzy rule base and improve the performance of the drive under
severe perturbations of model parameters and operating conditions. Hence, in this chapter,
the intelligent speed controller based on the second aforementioned group is developed to
high performance IM drive.
Due to some important characteristics of VSC, or in particular sliding-mode control (SMC)
system such as robustness to system parameters and fast dynamic response, it is applied in IM
drives [24]. However, the SMC-based system suffers from a chattering problem in steady state.
The chattering makes various undesirable effects such as current harmonics and torque
pulsation. To reduce or eliminate the chattering some methods have already been proposed
by the researchers [25, 26]. Generally, introducing a thin boundary layer around the sliding
surface can solve the chattering problem by interpolating a continuous function inside the
boundary layer of switching surface [27]. However, the slope of the continuous function is a
compromise between control performance and chattering elimination [28]. Also, asymptotic
stability is not guaranteed and may cause a steady-state error [29]. To tackle these problems
and due to the advantages of the fuzzy controllers based on the SMC system, the fuzzy
controllers were used to improve the chattering and the dynamic performance of the SMC-
based speed controller drives [30-32].
In this chapter, the fuzzy approach is applied to cope with the saturation function in reaching
the control part of the control effort in the SMC system to guarantee the stability of the system
so that the switching control law acts like a saturation function technique with a nonlinear
slope inside the thin boundary layer near the sliding surface. The applied fuzzy controller
improves the tracking performance despite the system uncertainties while the chattering is
reduced significantly. The salient advantages of the designed fuzzy controller on the basis of
the SMC system are decreasing the number of fuzzy rules and relaxation of the uncertainty
bound requirement [33]. Moreover, an adaptive law is developed to estimate the unknown
bound of uncertainty, which is obtained in the sense of Lyapunov stability theorem to
minimize the control effort. Therefore, in this chapter a fuzzy sliding mode control (FSMC)
technique is developed for IM drive to handle the large uncertainties. The performance of the
proposed adaptive FSMC (AFSMC)-based IM drive is tested in both the simulation and
experiment. The performance of the proposed AFSMC is also compared to the tuned PI
controller and the conventional SMC-based IM drive.

2. Mathematical model of IM for IFOC

By using the vector control, the IM can be represented as a two-phase motor in a stationary
reference frame (d s , q s ) and then transform in synchronously dynamic reference frame (d e , q e )
by applying Park’s transformation.
184 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 1 shows the block diagram of the IFOC induction motor drive. The concept of d-q
representations can be utilized to develop the basic machine equations for vector control
application in a dynamic model [34]. Equation (1) shows the d-q axes model of an induction
motor using reference axis rotating at synchronous speed.

é Lm Lm ù
ê Rs + s Ls p -s LSwe p - wú
ê Lr Lr e ú
Lm ú éids ù
e
é vdse ù ê Lm
ê e ú ê s LSwe Rs + s Ls p w p úê e ú
ê vqs ú ê Lr e Lr ú êiqs ú
ê ú=ê R Rr ú êf e ú (1)
ê0 ú ê - Lm r 0 +p -wsl ú ê dr ú
ê0 ú ê
ë û ê
Lr Lr ú êf e ú
ú ë qr û
ê R Rr
0 - Lm r wsl +pú
êë Lr Lr úû

where

L2m d
s = 1- , p = ,wsl = (we - wr ) (2)
Ls Lr dt

The electromagnetic torque of 3-phase and P-pole induction motor is obtained as,

3 P Lm2 e e
Te = (
i f - ie f e
2 2 Lr qs dr ds qr
) (3)

The FOC mentions that the stator current components are oriented in flux and torque compo‐
nent in reference axis rotating at synchronous speed. For vector control, ϕqr is set to zero so that
the flux is oriented in the d-axis:

fre = fdre (4)

The slip frequency is obtained as,

Lm æ Rr ö e
wsl = ç ÷÷ iqs (5)
fre çè Lr ø

The electromagnetic developed torque equation is given by:

 Development of Fuzzy Applications for High Performance Induction Motor Drive 185
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61071

3 P Lm2 * e * e
Te = i i = kt iqs* e (6)
2 2 Lr qs ds

Where

3 P Lm 2 e *
kt = i (7)
2 2 Lr ds

Figure 1. Control structure of an IFOC induction motor.

Figure 2. Simplified control block diagram of IFOC induction motor.

Considering the implementation of IFOC, the induction motor drive can be simplified as
shown in Figure and the mechanical equation of an induction motor can be presented as
follows [34]:
186 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

·
Jr wr ( t )+ Bwr ( t ) = Te - TL (8)

where J r , B , and T L are represented as rotor inertia, friction factor, and the external load
disturbance, respectively. Substituting Eq. (6) and Eq. (7) in Eq. (8) yields:

·
B k T
wr ( t ) = - wr ( t ) + t iqs* e - L
Jr Jr Jr (9)
= Bpwr + Ap iqs* e + DpTL

where Ap = kt / J r > 0, Bp = − B / J r < 0, and Dp = − 1 / J r > 0.

To achieve the nominal model of IM drive, the nominal value of the parameters must be
considered without any disturbances. Thus, the nominal model of the IM drive given by Eq.
(9) can be written as,

·
wr (t ) = Bwr + Aiqs* e (10)

where Ā = K̄ t / J̄ r and B̄ = − B̄ / J̄ r are the nominal values of Ap and Bp , respectively. To handle the
uncertainties, they must be considered and added to the nominal model for real-time induction
motor (IM) drive [35]. So, the dynamic Eq. (10) considering structured and unstructured
uncertainties and the unmodeled dynamics for the actual induction motor drive can be written
as follows:

·
wr ( t ) = ( B + DB ) wr ( t ) + ( A + DA ) iqs* e + DpTL + d = Bwr ( t ) + Aiq*se + L ( t ) (11)

where L (t ) = ΔBωr (t ) + ΔAiqs*e + Dp T L + δ

In Eq. (11), L (t)is called lumped uncertainty and the uncertainties are shown by ΔA & ΔB . In
addition, unstructured uncertainty due to detuning field-orientation in the transient state and
the unmodeled dynamics in practical applications are shown as δ .

3. The conventional SMC system

Considering the equation e(t) = ωr (t) − ωr *(t) as speed tracking error, time-varying surface of
sliding mode in the state of space ℜ2 is introduced as shown in Eq. (12):
 Development of Fuzzy Applications for High Performance Induction Motor Drive 187
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61071

(
S ( t ) = h Ce ( t ) + e& ( t ) ) (12)

where h in the preceding scalar equation is a positive constant and h < 1. Substituting Eq. (11)
in Eq. (12) the first derivative of S(t) is obtained as,

· æ · · · ··
ö
S(t ) = h çç C e ( t )+ B wr ( t )+ Au ( t ) + L ( t )- wr* ( t ) ÷÷ (13)
è ø

where u(t) = iqs*e (t).

In the preceding equation, u(t)is called the control effort or control law. In Eq. (13) it is assumed
•
to be the bound of L (t), which is unknown but is limited as | L˙ (t) | < M .
•
By solving S(t) = 0 without consideration of lumped uncertainty L (t) = 0 , the desired per‐ ( •
)
formance under nominal system model can be achieved. In this situation u(t) equals ueq (t) and
can be obtained using Eq. (12):

é · · ·· * ù
( )
ueq (t ) = - A -1 ê C + B e ( t )+ B wr* - w r ú (14)
ëê ûú

where ueq (t) is called the equivalent control part of the control effort. In order to have suitable
performance despite uncertainties on the dynamic of the system (lumped uncertainty), a
discontinuous term must be added to the equivalent control across the sliding surface S(t). The
term discontinuous is called hitting control part or reaching control part of the control effort
[36]. It is given as,

( ) k ( t ) sgn (S ( t ) )
-1
ur (t ) = - Ah (15)

where k(t) is called the control gain, and Sgn is the sign function as follows:

ïì 1 if S(t ) > 0
sgn(S(t )) = í
ïî-1 if S(t ) < 0

Therefore, the control law is obtained as shown in Eq. (16):

188 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

( ) k ( t ) sgn (S ( t ) )
u ( t ) = ueq ( t ) + ur ( t ) = ueq ( t ) - Ah
-1
(16)

t
1
u ( t )dt
tò
iqs* = (17)
0

where τ is the integral constant.

By defining the Lyapunov function as Eq. (18), stability of the system is guaranteed by Eq. (19):

1
V = S2 ( t ) (18)
2

V& £ -h S ( t ) (19)

The stability condition Eq. (19) guarantees stability of the system considering lumped uncer‐
tainties by keeping the scalar S(t) at zero. Then, substituting Eq. (11) in Eq. (12) and considering
Eq. (13), stability condition is obtained as,

· · ·
V = S ( t ) S ( t ) = -S ( t ) hAur ( t ) + hS ( t ) L ( t )
·
£ -k S (t ) + h S (t ) L (t ) (20)

(
£ - S ( t ) k ( t ) - hM )

A comparison between Eq. (19) and Eq. (20) yields,

k(t ) ³ hM + h (21)

Then by choosing Eq. (21), stability of the system Eq. (16) is guaranteed.

4. The proposed AFSMC controller

In case of the designed AFSMC, the “sgn” function in Eq. (15) is replaced by the fuzzy system
so that the control law for the AFSMC is obtained as shown in Eq. (22):
 Development of Fuzzy Applications for High Performance Induction Motor Drive 189
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61071

( ) k (t ) u
u ( t ) = ueq ( t ) - A h
-1
fsmc
(22)

where u fsmc = FSMC(S(t), ΔS(t)) and ueq (t) is presented in Eq. (14).

Triangular type inputs membership function (MF) with fuzzy sets negative (N), zero (Z), and
positive (P) and triangular and trapezoidal type output MF with fuzzy sets negative big (NB),
negative medium (NM), negative small (NS), zero (ZE), positive small (PS), positive medium
(PM), and positive big (PB) on the common interval [-1 1] have been defined for the AFSMC
as shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4, respectively. According to these figures, the thickness of
the boundary layer can be changed by varying the range of the fuzzy sets “Z” and “ZE” on
the interval [0 1] in the input and output membership functions, respectively. Since the
proposed fuzzy system structure is based on the saturation function technique, the best
thickness of the boundary layer can be derived from a fixed boundary layer sliding-mode
controller that selects saturation function as reaching the control part of its effort control. Thus,
boundary layer thickness can be adjusted in two steps as follows.

Step 1: Varying the slope of a saturation function so that the best performance is achieved for
the fixed boundary layer sliding mode-based speed controller.

Step 2: Varying the range of the fuzzy sets “Z” and “ZE” to settle the selected value of boundary
layer in the first step for the proposed FSMC-based speed controller.

According to these steps, considering Figure 4 and Figure 5 4, the obtained value of the
boundary layer thickness ψ is 0.75 in this chapter. In fact, the structure of the designed fuzzy
controller is shown in Figure 5.
Degree of membership function 

Z P
N
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

 
Figure 3. Membership functions of the inputs (S (t ), ΔS (t )), for the proposed AFSMC.
Figure 3: Membership functions of the inputs ( S (t ) , S (t ) ) for the proposed AFSM
 function 

NB NM NS ZE PS PM PB
1

0.8
190 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics  
Figure 3: Membership functions of the inputs ( S (t ) , S (t ) ) for the proposed AFSMC. 

Degree of membership function 
NB NM NS ZE PS PM PB
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

 

Figure 4. Output membership functions for the proposed AFSMC.

Figure 4: Output membership functions for the proposed AFSMC. 
The The Mamdani type fuzzy inferring method with nine rules is applied to have an appropriat
Mamdani type fuzzy inferring method with nine rules is applied to have an appropriate
tracking response,
tracking  have ahave 
response,  fast dynamic response, response, 
a  fast  dynamic  eliminate chattering
eliminate phenomenon, and
chattering  phenomenon,  an
satisfy the requirement of stability condition Eq. (19) as shown in Table 1. The center of the
satisfy  the  requirement  of  stability  condition  Eq.  (19)  as  shown  in  Table  1.  The  center  of  th
area (COA) method has used defuzzification method.
area (COA) method has used defuzzification method. 
In case of the designed FSMC speed controller, the upper band of lumped uncertainty ( L (t))
In case of the designed FSMC speed controller, the upper band of lumped uncertainty ( L( t )
is not available and the control effort cannot be minimized without the knowledge of L (t). It
is not available and the control effort cannot be minimized without the knowledge of
is necessary to estimate k(t) by using the adoption law to assure existing sliding-mode L( t ) . It 
^
conditions. Then,to 
necessary  can be estimated
k(t)estimate  with
k (t )  by  k to minimize
using  the control
the  adoption  law effort
to  Eq. (16) soexisting 
assure  that the sliding‐mod
stability condition through Lyapunov stability theorem isˆ guaranteed Eq. (19). In this chapter,
conditions. Then,  k (t )  can be estimated with  k  to minimize the control effort Eq. (16) so tha
to achieve the mentioned targets k̇(t) is chosen as follows:
the  stability  condition  through  Lyapunov  stability  theorem  is  guaranteed  Eq.  (19).  In  th
chapter, to achieve the mentioned targets 
& k(t ) is chosen as follows: 
k ( t ) = lk S ( t ) (23)
k(t )  k S (t )    (23) 
where λk is a strictly positive constant. In fact, k(t)acts like an adaptive filter to minimize the
where 
control k  is a strictly positive constant. In fact,  k (t )  acts like an adaptive filter to minimize th
effort.
control effort. 
^
Considering the following Lyapunov candidate function Eq. (24), k can be an estimation value
of k(t).

1 1
( )
2
V (t ) = S (t ) + k ( t ) - kˆ
2
(24)
2 2lk

Substituting Eq. (12) and Eq. (24) in Eq. (19) for | S(t) | > ψ(t) yields,
 Development of Fuzzy Applications for High Performance Induction Motor Drive 191
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61071

Figure 5. The performance of the proposed AFSMC system.

Switching variable s(t)

N Z P

N NB NS PM
Alteration of switching
Z NB ZE PB
variable ∆s(t)
P NM PS PB

Table 1. Fuzzy rule-based matrix for AFSMC

( )
V& ( t ) = S ( t ) h A ur ( t ) + L& ( t ) +
1
lk
( )
k ( t ) - kˆ k& ( t )

(
= S(t )h - Ak ( t ) hA ( )
-1
) l1 ( k (t ) - kˆ ) k& (t )
sgn ( S ) + L& ( t ) +
k
(25)

= -S ( t ) k ( t ) sgn ( S ) + hS ( t ) L& ( t ) +
1
lk
( )
k(t ) - kˆ k& ( t )

Substituting Eq. (25) in Eq. (23) and considering Eq. (19) yields:

V& (t ) £ - k(t ) + kˆ - kˆ S(t ) + h L& (t ) S(t ) + k(t ) - kˆ S(t )

< - k(t ) - kˆ S(t ) - kˆ S(t ) + hm S(t ) + k(t ) - kˆ S(t ) (26)

< ( - kˆ + hm) S(t )

192 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

A comparison between Eq. (19) and Eq. (26) yields:

V& ( t ) < ( - kˆ + mh) S ( t ) £ -h S ( t ) (27)

^ ^
Consequently, k can be chosen so that the value of − k + mh + η remains negative. In other words,
the stability of IFOC induction motor drive through the proposed AFSMC speed controller is
^
guaranteed by selecting k ≥ mh + η . In this stage, by applying the proposed AFSMC system
along with the designed fuzzy rules and the mentioned conditions, the stability condition Eq.
(19) is satisfied and consequently the stability of system is guaranteed.

The overall control block diagram of the proposed AFSMC model for IFOC of IM drive is
shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. The control block diagram of the proposed AFSMC for IFOC of IM drive.

5. Experimental implementation of the proposed AFSMC

The block diagram of hardware schematic for space vector modulated-voltage source inverter
(SVM-VSI) fed IM drive is shown in Figure 7. Three phase power inverters with 380V DC bus
voltage, 20 kHz and 10 kHz SVM-PWM switching frequency for non-fuzzy controllers (the
tuned PI, the conventional SMC), and the proposed controllers, respectively, are used for the
drive system. A 2 μs dead time is also used for short circuit protection of the inverter. As shown
in Figure, the ezdspF28335 board is used to implement the IM drive. An optical rotary encoder
E60H20 with resolution of 5000 pulses per turn is used to sense a position of rotor, which is
mounted on the rotor shaft and is provided as feedback to ezdspF28335 through the I/O
expansion. The motor speed is calculated from the rotor position using backward difference
 Development of Fuzzy Applications for High Performance Induction Motor Drive 193
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61071

equation. According to Figure 7, two HX 10-P/SP2 current sensors are employed to sense the
phase currents. The current signals are fed back to ezdspF28335 board through A/D channels.
The control algorithms are made by Simulink models based on Figure 1 using the digital motor
control (DMC) and IQMath libraries from TI and Mathworks to optimize the Simulink blocks.
Then, a fully automatic process is provided to compile, assemble, and download of the real-
time algorithms to the DSP board through Code Composer Studio (CCStudio) TI software and
MATLAB Simulink. The outputs of the board are six logic signals, which are fed to the inverter
through get drive circuit. The sampling frequencies of experimental implementation are used
as 10 kHz and 4 kHz for non-fuzzy (the tuned PI, the conventional SMC) and the proposed
controllers, respectively. The necessary data is saved on DSP’s memory with 400 Hz sampling
frequency. A DC generator is coupled to the IM, which is used as a load. The experimental
setup for the proposed AFSM-based prototype 1 kW IM drive system is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 7. Block diagram of the hardware schematic for real-time implementation of VSI fed IM drive.

The performance of the proposed AFSMC controller-based IM drives have been investigated
extensively both simulation and experiment. In order to show the superiority, the performance
of the proposed AFSMC is also compared with the tuned PI and conventional SMC controllers.
194 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Parameters of the 1kw 2-pole IM are given in Table 2. The PI controllers are initially tuned by
the Ziegler–Nichols method based on stability boundary. The saturation of the controller is
avoided by adding a correction of the integral term ( K C ) as shown in Figure 9 [26]. This method
is suggested by TI and Math Works. The gains, K P (proportional gain), K I (integral gain), and
KC (integral correction) are tuned based on the method suggested by TI [37]. The PI parameters
are found as K P = 0.3, K I = 0.0001, and K C = 0.0001.

Parameters Value Parameters value

Rated power 1000W Rated torque 3.37 Nm

Rs 6 Jr 0.0055 kg.m^2

Rr 5.72 B 0.001 kg.m^2/s

L s 428.7e-3H n 2

L r 428.7e-3H Rated speed 2830rpm

L m 416.6e-3H

Table 2. IM parameters (referred to stator side)

The PI coefficients of the d-axis current and the q-axis current controllers including the
proportional term ( K Pd , K Pq ), the integral term ( K Id , K Iq ), and the correction of the integral term
( K Cd , K Cq ) are obtained as (0.3, 0.05), (0.00625, 0.00625), and (0.00625, 0.00625), respectively.
The PI coefficients of the speed controller including the proportional term ( K Pw ), the integral
term ( K Iw ), and the correction of the integral term ( K Cw ) are also obtained as 0.3, 0.0001, and
0.0001, respectively. The parameters of control are adjusted so that the restriction of the control
effort, the requirement of system stability, and the best transient control performance are
provided. So, to achieve these goals, the parameters for the c proposed AFSMC controller are
chosen as C = 1500, h = Ā−1, τ = 1, and λk = 400.

6. Simulation study of the proposed AFSMC

According to the block diagram of closed-loop vector control of IM drive shown in Figure 1,
the SVM-VSI type inverter is modeled based on fast switching Insulated Gate Bipolar Tran‐
sistors (IGBTs) by the Simulink toolbox along with the existing libraries in MATLAB (for more
details, reader are refereed to [38]). Simulation results are provided at different operating
conditions such as load variation, inertia, and friction factor variations of the induction motor.
Their advantages are indicated in comparison with the conventional SMC and tuned PI
controller.
 Development of Fuzzy Applications for High Performance Induction Motor Drive 195
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61071

Figure 8. Experimental setups of the proposed speed controller of the IM drive.

196 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 9. PI controller structure with anti-windup correction term.

For simulation tests, the following cases including parameter variations and external load
disturbance are considered. If not mentioned, all other parameters are considered to be
nominal in all the cases.

Case-1: Using nominal parameters for simulation at no load and full load.

Case-2: Inertia and friction factor is chosen two times of nominal value, which is applied at
t=7 sec while the motor starts with half rated load.

Case-1 (no load and full load condition with nominal parameters):

Simulation results are illustrated in Figures 10–12(a)–(b) at no load and full load. It can be seen
that dynamic and steady state performance of the conventional SMC and the proposed AFSMC
controller are better than those of the tuned PI controller. In terms of overshoot and settling
time, the proposed AFSMC controller exhibits the best performance among all controllers. It
can also be seen from Figures 10–12(b) that the suitable tracking response has been obtained
for the conventional SMC at the expense of undesirable chattering in both currents and speed.
In addition, from these figures, the favorable tracking response has been obtained for the
proposed AFSMC controller without any chattering in currents and speed. From Figure 11
(a)–(b), it can be seen that motor currents and the components (Iq) are affected by chattering,
which appear in motor speed.

Case-2 (sinusoidal command speed with inertia and friction coefficient variation):

The sinusoidal command is selected as speed command to show the tracking error properly.
The other parameter variations are also tested in this case. Simulation results are shown in
Figures 13–14(a)–(b)for the conventional SMC and the proposed AFSMC, respectively. From
these figures, the proposed AFSMC has favorable tracking performance without any chatter‐
ing while the conventional SMC suffers from chattering for both speed and current. In addition,
the tracking error is obtained close to zero for the proposed AFSMC controller despite large
uncertainty in system, which shows the high accuracy tracking of this proposed controller.
 settling  time,  the  proposed  AFSMC  controller  exhibits  the  best  performance  among  all 
controllers. It can also be seen from Figures 10–12(b) that the suitable tracking response has 
been  obtained  for  the  conventional  SMC  at  the  expense  of  undesirable  chattering  in  both 
currents and speed. In addition, from these figures, the favorable tracking response has been 
Development of Fuzzy Applications for High Performance Induction Motor Drive 197
obtained for the proposed AFSMC controller without any chattering in currents and speed. 
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61071
From  Figure  11  (a)–(b),  it  can  be  seen  that  motor  currents  and  the  components  (Iq)  are 
affected by chattering, which appear in motor speed. 
(a)
3500

 Speed, Wm(rpm)  3000 Reference

2500
Reference
2000 3100 Actual Actual
3000
1500
2900
1000 2800
2700
500
0 .5 1 1.5
0
Simulation results are illustrated in Figures 10–12(a)–(b) at no load and full load. It can be 
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(sec)  
seen that dynamic and steady state performance of the conventional SMC and the proposed 
(b)
AFSMC controller are better than those of the tuned PI controller. In terms of overshoot and 
10 Ref erence Ref erence
settling  time,  the  proposed  AFSMC  controller  exhibits  the  best  performance  among  all 
Current, Iq(A) 

Actual
controllers. It can also be seen from Figures 10–12(b) that the suitable tracking response has 
5
been  obtained  for  the  conventional  SMC  at  the  expense  of  undesirable  chattering  in  both 
0
currents and speed. In addition, from these figures, the favorable tracking response has been 
obtained for the proposed AFSMC controller without any chattering in currents and speed. 
-5
From  Figure  11  (a)–(b),  it  can  be  seen  that  motor  currents  and  the  components  (Iq)  are 
-10 Actual
affected by chattering, which appear in motor speed. 
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(sec)  

Figure 10: Simulated response of the tuned PI controller‐based IM drive at no load in Case‐
Figure 10. Simulated response of the tuned PI controller-based IM drive at no load in Case-1: (a) speed and (b) q-axis
1: (a) speed and (b) q‐axis current. 
current.  
Figure 10: Simulated response of the tuned PI controller‐based IM drive at no load in Case‐
1: (a) speed and (b) q‐axis current. 
(a)
3500
3000 Reference
Speed, Wm(rpm) 

2500
2920
Actual Ref erence
2000 2900
Actual
1500 2880
2860
1000
2840
500 2820
0 0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(sec)  
(b)

10 Ref erence Ref erence

Actual
5
Current, Iq(A) 

-5 Actual

-10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(sec)  

Figure 11. Figure 11: Simulated response of the conventional SMC controller‐based IM drive at full 

Simulated response of the conventional SMC controller-based IM drive at full rated load in Case-1: (a) speed
and (b) q-axis current.
rated load in Case‐1: (a) speed and (b) q‐axis current. 
198 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

(a)
3500
3000 Reference
 Speed, Wm (rpm)  Actual
2500
2000 Reference
2840
1500 Actual
2830
1000

500 2820
.15 .2 .25
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(sec)
(b)
10 Reference
Actual
Actual
Current, Iq (A) 

0
Reference

-5

-10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(sec)

Figure  12:  Simulated  response  of  the  proposed  AFSMC  controller‐based  IM  drive  at  full 
Figure 12. Simulated
SMC  response
and  tuned ofPI 
thecontrollers. 
proposed AFSMC controller-based
In  addition,  IM driveAFSMC 
the  proposed 
rated load in Case‐1: (a) speed and (b) q‐axis current.  at full rated
is  load in Case-1:
found  robust (a)
to speed
and (b) q-axisparameter 
current. variations  and  external  load  disturbances.  Moreover,  the  chattering  is  absent  in 
Case‐2 (sinusoidal command speed with inertia and friction coefficient variation):  
the control effort of the proposed sliding‐mode controller despite parameter variations and 
external load disturbances.  
The  sinusoidal  command  is  selected  as  speed  command  to  show  the  tracking  error 
(a)
properly. The other parameter variations are also tested in this case. Simulation results are 
2000 Ref erence
shown  in  Figures  13–14(a)–(b) 
Actual for  the  conventional  SMC  and  the  proposed  AFSMC, 
Speed, Wm (rpm) 

1000
respectively. From these figures, the proposed AFSMC has favorable tracking performance 
without any chattering while the conventional SMC suffers from chattering for both speed 
0
and  current. 
-1000 In  addition,  the  tracking  error  is  obtained  close  to  zero  for  the  proposed 
AFSMC  controller  despite  large  uncertainty  in  system,  which  shows  the  high  accuracy 
-2000 -1496
-1498
tracking of this proposed controller.    Ref erence
-1500 -3000 -1502
-1504 Actual
Simulation results in these cases indicate that the tracking capability, dynamic, and steady‐
-4000 6.95 7 7.05
Inertia and Friction f actor changing at t=7sec
state performances of the proposed AFSMC controller are the best among the conventional 
-5000
SMC  and  0tuned  PI  controllers. 
5 In  addition, 
10 15the  proposed 
20 AFSMC  25 is  found  30robust  to 
Time(sec)  
parameter  variations  and  external  load  disturbances. 
(b) Moreover,  the  chattering  is  absent  in 
the control effort of the proposed sliding‐mode controller despite parameter variations and 
Actual
4 Reference
external load disturbances.   Ref erence
Current, Iq (A) 

Actual

-2 Inertia and Friction f actor changing

at t=7sec
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Time(sec)
 
Figure  13:  Simulated  response  of  the  conventional  SMC  controller‐based  IM  drive  with Jr 
Figure 13. Simulated response of the conventional SMC controller-based IM drive. with Jr and Br variations at t=7 in
and Br variations at t=7 in Case‐2: (a) speed and (b) q‐axis current
Case-2: (a) speed and (b) q-axis current.
 
(a)
2000
1000 Actual
Speed, Wm (rpm) 

-1000

-2000 Ref erence

-1499 Ref erence
-3000 -1500 Actual
-1501
-4000 6.98 7 7.02
Inertia and Friction f actor changing at t=7sec
  
Development
Figure  13:  Simulated  response  of  the ofconventional 
Fuzzy Applications
SMC for High Performance
controller‐based  Induction
IM  Motor Drive
drive  with Jr  199
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61071
and Br variations at t=7 in Case‐2: (a) speed and (b) q‐axis current.

 
(a)
2000
Speed, Wm (rpm)  1000 Actual

-1000

-2000 Ref erence

-1499 Ref erence
-3000 -1500 Actual
-1501
-4000 6.98 7 7.02
Inertia and Friction f actor changing at t=7sec
-5000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time(sec)
(b)
 

3 Actual Ref erence

Ref erence
Actual
Current, Iq (A) 

0 Inertia and Friction f actor changing

at t=7sec
-1
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Time(sec)  
Figure  14:  Simulated  response  of  the  proposed  AFSMC  controller‐based  IM  drive  with  Jr 
Figure 14. and Br variations at t=7 in Case‐3: (a) speed, (b) q‐axis current, and (d) tracking error. 
Simulated response of the proposed AFSMC controller-based IM drive with Jr and Br variations at t=7 in
Case-3: (a) speed, (b) q-axis current, and (d) tracking error.

Simulation7. Experimental Study of the Proposed AFSMC 
results in these cases indicate that the tracking capability, dynamic, and steady-
state performances of the proposed AFSMC controller are the best among the conventional
For  experimental  tests,  the  following  cases  are  considered  and  if  not  mentioned,  all  other 
SMC andparameters are considered to be nominal in all the cases.  
tuned PI controllers. In addition, the proposed AFSMC is found robust to parameter
variations and external load disturbances. Moreover, the chattering is absent in the control
effort of theCase‐1: Step changes in command speed with no load 
proposed sliding-mode controller despite parameter variations and external load
disturbances.Case‐2: Step increase in load from “0” to full load. 

7. Experimental study of the proposed AFSMC

For experimental tests, the following cases are considered and if not mentioned, all other
parameters are considered to be nominal in all the cases.

Case-1: Step changes in command speed with no load

Case-2: Step increase in load from “0” to full load.

Case-3: Inertia coefficient is increased three times of nominal value while full rated load is
applied from the beginning.

For case-1, experimental results are illustrated in Figures 15–17(a)–(b)at no load. From
Figures 15–17(a), it can be seen that dynamic and steady-state performance of the pro‐
posed AFSMC controller are better than those of the conventional SMC and the tuned PI
controllers. It can also be seen from Figures 15–17(c)that the suitable tracking response has
200 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

been obtained for the conventional SMC at the expense of undesirable chattering in both
currents and speed while the proposed intelligent speed controller shows the favorable
tracking response without any chattering in currents and speed. In terms of rising time, the
proposed AFSMC controller exhibits the best performance as compared to the convention‐
al SMC and the tuned PI controllers.

(a)
Actual
3000 Reference
Speed, Wm (rpm) 

3000 Reference
2000
Actual
2800
1000
2600
.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0
0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10
Time(sec)  
(b)

10 Reference
Current, Iq (A) 

-5 Actual

Actual Reference
-10

0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10

Time(sec)  
Figure 15: The experimental response of the tuned PI controller‐based IM drive at no load in 
Figure 15. The experimental response of the tuned PI controller-based IM drive at no load in Case-1: (a) speed and (b)
Case‐1: (a) speed and (b) q‐axis current. 
q-axis current.
 
For case-2, experimental
3500 Actual
results are illustrated in (a) Figures 18–19(a)–(b)for a step increase full

load. The motor3000

was running at no load condition,
Reference and then suddenly full load disturbance is
Speed, Wm (rpm) 

applied to the motor.

2500 From these figures, it can be seen that the PI controllerReference suffers from a
significant dip 2000
in speed (≈3000120 rpm) when the step increase in load isActual applied. On the other
hand, the proposed
1500
AFSMC 2800 is found almost insensitive when a step increase in full load is
applied. The proposed
1000
AFSMC is also free from chattering in steady-state. Moreover, the
500 2600
settling time for the
0
proposed.5AFSMC-based
1 1.5 2 2.5 IM drive is faster than the PI-based IM drive.
0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10
For case-3, experimental results are illustrated Time(sec)
in Figure 20(a) –(b).It is found from Figure
  20(a)
and 20(b) that the proposed AFSMC controller provides nearly the same responses with both
nominal inertia and three times of nominal inertia. Thus, the proposed AFSMC controller is
found insensitive to parameter variation in real-time.
Experimental results in this case indicate that the proposed AFSMC-based IM drive ensures
smooth operation of the motor and results in less harmonic losses in the motor and shows
superior performance in terms of tracking and transient responses without any chattering in
currents and speed. Moreover, the experimental results validate the obtained simulation
results in similar cases.
 Development of Fuzzy Applications for High Performance Induction Motor Drive
Figure 15: The experimental response of the tuned PI controller‐based IM drive at no load in  201
Case‐1: (a) speed and (b) q‐axis current.  http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61071

 
(a)
3500 Actual
3000 Reference
Speed, Wm (rpm) 
2500 Reference
2000 3000 Actual

1500
2800
1000

500 2600
.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0
0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10
Time(sec)  
(b)
10 Reference
Current, Iq (A) 

-5 Reference
Actual Actual
Figure 15: The experimental response of the tuned PI controller‐based IM drive at no load in 
-10
Case‐1: (a) speed and (b) q‐axis current. 
0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10
Time(sec)  
Figure 16: The experimental response of the conventional SMC controller‐based IM drive at 
Figure 16. The experimental response of the conventional SMC controller-based IM drive at no load in Case-1: (a)
no load in Case‐1: (a) speed and (b) q‐axis current. 
speed and (b) q-axis current.  
(a)
4000
Figure 16: The experimental response of the conventional SMC controller‐based IM drive at 
Reference
Actual
no load in Case‐1: (a) speed and (b) q‐axis current. 
Reference Actual
Speed, Wm (rpm) 

3000
(a)
4000
Actual Reference
2000
Reference Actual
Speed, Wm (rpm) 

3000
3000

1000 2800
2000
3000 .125 .375 .625
0
0 1.25
2800 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10
1000 Time(sec)
 
.125 .375 .625
0
0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10
Time(sec)
 
(b)
10 Reference
Refrence
Actual
Current, Iq (A) 

-5 Actual

-10

0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10

Time(sec)  
Figure 17: The experimental response of the proposed AFSMC controller‐based IM drive at 
Figure 17. The experimental response of the proposed AFSMC controller-based IM drive at no load in Case-1: (a)
no load in Case‐1: (a) speed and (b) q‐axis current. 
speed and (b) q-axis current.
For case‐2, experimental results are illustrated in Figures 18–19(a)–(b) for a step increase full 
load. The motor was running at no load condition, and then suddenly full load disturbance 
is applied to the motor. From these figures, it can be seen that the PI controller suffers from a 
significant dip in speed (≈ 120 rpm) when the step increase in load is applied. On the other 
hand, the proposed AFSMC is found almost insensitive when a step increase in full load is 
applied.  The  proposed  AFSMC  is  also  free  from  chattering  in  steady‐state.  Moreover,  the 
settling time for the proposed AFSMC‐based IM drive is faster than the PI‐based IM drive. 
 For case‐2, experimental results are illustrated in Figures 18–19(a)–(b) for a step increase full 
load. The motor was running at no load condition, and then suddenly full load disturbance 
is applied to the motor. From these figures, it can be seen that the PI controller suffers from a 
202 significant dip in speed (≈ 120 rpm) when the step increase in load is applied. On the other 
Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics
hand, the proposed AFSMC is found almost insensitive when a step increase in full load is 
applied.  The  proposed  AFSMC  is  also  free  from  chattering  in  steady‐state.  Moreover,  the 
settling time for the proposed AFSMC‐based IM drive is faster than the PI‐based IM drive. 
(a)
2500
Reference
Speed, Wm (rpm)  2000
Actual Actual
1500 Full rated load disturbance Reference
2100
1000
2000
1900
500 1800
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10
Time(sec)  
(b)

10 Reference
Current, Iq (A) 

0
Actual
Full rated load disturbance Reference
-5
Actual

-10

0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10

Time(sec)  

Figure 18. The experimental responses of the tuned PI controller-based IM drive in Case-2: (a) speed and (b) q-axis
current.

(a)
3000
Actual Reference Reference
2500
Speed, Wm (rpm) 

Actual
2000

1500 Full rated load disturbance

2200
1000 2000
1800
500
2 2.5 3 3.5
0
0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10
Time(sec)  
(b)
15
Reference Actual
10 Reference
Current, Iq (A) 

0
Actual
-5
Full rated load disturbance
-10
0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10
Time(sec)
 
Figure 19: The experimental responses of the proposed AFSMC controller‐based IM drive in 
Figure 19. The experimental responses of the proposed AFSMC controller-based IM drive in Case-2: (a) speed and (b)
Case‐2: (a) speed and (b) q‐axis current. 
q-axis current.
For  case‐3,  experimental  results  are  illustrated  in  Figure  20(a)–(b).  It  is  found  from  Figure 
20(a)  and  20(b)  that  the  proposed  AFSMC  controller  provides  nearly  the  same  responses 
with  both  nominal  inertia  and  three  times  of  nominal  inertia.  Thus,  the  proposed  AFSMC 
controller is found insensitive to parameter variation in real‐time. 
(a)
3000
Actual
2500
d, Wm (rpm) 

Reference

2000 Reference
Actual
1500
2600
1000 2500
 Development of Fuzzy Applications for High Performance Induction Motor Drive 203
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61071

(a)
3000
Actual
2500
Speed, Wm (rpm) 

Reference

2000 Reference
Actual
1500
2600
1000 2500
2400
500
0 .5 1
0
0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10
Time(sec)  
(b)
3000
Reference
2500 Actual
Current, Iq (A) 

2000
Reference
1500 Actual
2600
1000
2500
500 2400
0 .5 1
0
0 1.25 2.5 3.75 5 6.25 7.5 8.75 10
Time(sec)  
Figure  20:  Experimental  speed  responses  of  the  proposed  AFSMC‐based  IM  drive:  (a) 
nominal inertia with full load, (b) three times of nominal inertia with full load (Case‐3).
Figure 20. Experimental speed responses of the proposed AFSMC-based IM drive: (a) nominal inertia with full load,
(b) three times of nominal inertia with full load (Case-3).
Experimental results in this case indicate that the proposed AFSMC‐based IM drive ensures 
smooth operation of the motor and results in less harmonic losses in the motor and shows 
superior performance in terms of tracking and transient responses without any chattering in 
currents  and  speed.  Moreover,  the  experimental  results  validate  the  obtained  simulation 
8. Conclusion
results in similar cases. 

A sliding-mode and fuzzy logic controller-based IFOC of IM drive has been presented in this
8.  Conclusion 
chapter. The structure of the proposed controller is based on smoothing out the control
discontinuity in a thin boundary layer near the sliding surface. The proposed fuzzy system
A  sliding‐mode  and  fuzzy  logic  controller‐based  IFOC  of  IM  drive  has  been  presented  in 
actsthis chapter. The structure of the proposed controller is based on smoothing out the control 
like the saturation function technique with a nonlinear slope inside the thin boundary
layer. The proposed
discontinuity  AFSMC-based
in  a  thin  IM drive
boundary  layer  has sliding 
near  the  been successfully
surface.  The implemented in real
proposed  fuzzy  time
system 
using DSP board ezdspF28335 for a prototype 1.5 hp motor. The performance of the proposed
acts  like  the  saturation  function  technique  with  a  nonlinear  slope  inside  the  thin  boundary 
AFSMC has been tested in both simulation and experiment. The performance of the proposed
layer. The proposed AFSMC‐based IM drive has been successfully implemented in real time 
AFSMC controller was found superior to the tuned PI and conventional SMC controllers at
using DSP board ezdspF28335 for a prototype 1.5 hp motor. The performance of the proposed 
different operating conditions such as step change in command speed, load disturbance, and
AFSMC has been tested in both simulation and experiment. The performance of the proposed 
parameter
AFSMC variations.
controller  was Furthermore, the proposed
found  superior  AFSMC
to  the  tuned  reduced
PI  and  the steady
conventional  SMC state chattering
controllers  at 
in different operating conditions such as step change in command speed, load disturbance, and 
current. Thus, the proposed AFSMC ensures less harmonic loss and associated heat
dissipation in the motor.
parameter variations. Furthermore, the proposed AFSMC reduced the steady state chattering 
in  current.  Thus,  the  proposed  AFSMC  ensures  less  harmonic  loss  and  associated  heat 
204 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Author details

Ali Saghafinia1* and Atefeh Amindoust2

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1 Electrical Engineering Department, Majlesi Branch, Islamic Azad University, Esfahan, Iran

2 Industrial Engineering Department, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Esfahan,

Iran

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 Chapter 8

A Robust Induction Motor Control using

Sliding Mode Rotor Flux and Load Torque

Oscar Barambones, Patxi Alkorta,

Jose M. Gonzalez de Duran and Jose A. Cortajarena

Abstract
A sliding mode position control for high-performance real-time applications of induction motors
is developed in this work. The design also incorporates a sliding mode based flux and load
torque observers in order to avoid this sensors, that increases the cost and reduces the reliability.
Additionally, the proposed control scheme presents a low computational cost and therefore can
be implemented easily in a real-time applications using a low cost DSP-processor.

The stability analysis of the controller under parameter uncertainties and load disturbances is
provided using the Lyapunov stability theory. Finally simulated and experimental results show
that the proposed controller with the proposed observer provides a good trajectory tracking
and that this scheme is robust with respect to plant parameter variations and external load
disturbances.

Keywords: Position Control, Sliding Mode Control, Robust Control, Induction Machines,
Lyapunov Stability, Nonlinear Control

1. Introduction
AC induction motors have been widely used in industrial applications such machine tools,
steel mills and paper machines owing to their good performance provided by their solid
architecture, low moment of inertia, low ripple of torque and high initiated torque. Some
control techniques have been developed to regulate these induction motor servo drives in
high-performance applications. One of the most popular technique is the indirect field
oriented control method [1, 2].
The field-oriented technique guarantees the decoupling of torque and flux control commands
of the induction motor, so that the induction motor can be controlled linearly as a separated
excited D.C. motor. However, the control performance of the resulting linear system is
210
2 Induction
Induction Motors
Motors- Applications, ControlControl
- Applications, and Faultand
Diagnostics
Fault

still influenced by uncertainties, which usually are composed of unpredictable parameter

variations, external load disturbances, and unmodelled and nonlinear dynamics.
In the last decades the proportional integral derivative (PID) controller has been widely
used in the vector control of induction motors due to its good performance and its simple
structure. However in some applications the PID controller may not meet the concerned
robustness under parameter variations and external load disturbances. Therefore, many
studies have been made on the motor drives in order to preserve the performance under these
parameter variations and external load disturbance, such as nonlinear control, multivariable
control, optimal control, H-∞ control and adaptive control [3]-[7], etc. However usually
these controllers present a high computational cost and cannot be implemented over a low
cost DSP processor to perform a real time control.
The sliding-mode control can offer many good properties, such as good performance against
unmodelled dynamics, insensitivity to parameter variations, external disturbance rejection
and fast dynamic response. These advantages of the sliding-mode control may be employed
in the position and speed control of an AC servo system [8]. In [9] an integral sliding mode
speed control for induction motor based on field oriented control theory is proposed. In the
work of [10], an integrated sliding mode controller (SMC) based on space vector pulse width
modulation method is proposed to achieve high-performance speed control of an induction
motor. In this work using a field-oriented control principle, a flux SMC is first established
to achieve fast direct flux control and then a speed SMC is presented to enhance speed
control by the direct torque method. However in this work the performance of the proposed
controller is not validated over a real induction motor.
Position control is often used in some applications of electrical drives like robotic systems,
conveyor belts, etc. In these applications uncertainty and external disturbances are present
and therefore a robust control system that maintain the desired control performance under
this situations are frequently required [11]-[15].
The variable structure control strategy using the sliding-mode has also been focussed on
many studies and research for the position control of the induction motors [16, 17].
The induction motor position control problem has been studied in [18] using a discrete time
sliding mode control. The field oriented control theory is also used in order to decouple
the flux and the electromagnetic torque. In this paper the authors calculates the rotor flux
vector angular position using the slip estimates which is very sensitive to the rotor resistance
variation. In contrast, a rotor flux sliding mode observer is proposed in our control scheme,
in order to calculate an accurate value for the angular position of the rotor flux vector in the
presence of system uncertainties.
On the other hand in the last decade remarkable efforts have been made to reduce the number
of sensors in the control systems [19]-[22]. The sensors increases the cost and also reduces
the reliability of the control system because this elements are generally expensive, delicate
and difficult to instal.
In this chapter a robust approach for induction motor position control is presented. The
proposed sliding mode control may overcome the system uncertainties and load disturbances
that usually are present in the real systems. In the controller design, the field oriented control
theory is used to simplify the system dynamical equations. Moreover, the proposed controller
does not present a high computational cost and therefore can be implemented easily in a
real-time applications using a low cost DSP-processor.
 A Robust
A Robust Induction Motor Induction
Control Motor
usingControl using
Sliding Sliding
Mode ModeFlux
Rotor Rotorand
Flux Load
and Load Torque
Torque Observers
Observers 211
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In this work a sliding mode flux observer is proposed in order to avoid the flux sensors. The
estimated rotor flux is used to calculate the rotor flux vector angular position, whose value is
essential in order to apply the field oriented control principle. A load torque estimation
algorithm, based on a sliding mode observer, is also presented in order to improve the
adaptive robust position control performance. Additionally, the overall control scheme does
not involve a high computational cost and therefore can be implemented easily in a real time
applications.
Moreover, the control scheme presented in this chapter is validated in a real test using a
commercial induction motor of 7.5 kW in order to demonstrate the real performance of this
controller. The experimental validation has been implemented using a control platform based
on a DS1103 PPC Controller Board that has been designed and constructed in order to carry
out the experimental validation of the proposed controller.
This manuscript is organized as follows. The sliding mode flux observer is developed in
Section 2 and the sliding mode load torque observer is designed in Section 3. Then, the
proposed sliding mode position control is presented in Section 4. In the Section 5, the
experimental control platform is presented and some simulation and experimental results
are carried out. Finally, concluding remarks are stated in Section 6.

2. Sliding mode observer for rotor flux estimator

Many schemes based on simplified motor models have been devised to estimate some
internal variables of the induction motor from measured terminal quantities. This procedure
is frequently used in order to avoid the presence of some sensors in the control scheme. In
order to obtain an accurate dynamic representation of the motor, it is necessary to base the
calculation on the coupled circuit equations of the motor.
Since the motor voltages and currents are measured in a stationary frame of reference, it is
also convenient to express the induction motor dynamical equations in this stationary frame.
The system state space equations in the stationary reference frame can be written in the form
[23]:

−1 L2m
 
Lm 1
i̇ds = Rs + Rr ids + ψ
σLs L2r σLs Lr Tr dr
Lm 1
+ wr ψqr + V
σLs Lr σLs ds
−1 L2
 
Lm
i̇qs = Rs + m2 Rr iqs − wr ψdr
σLs Lr σLs Lr
Lm 1 1
+ ψqr + Vqs (1)
σLs Lr Tr σLs
Lm 1
ψ̇dr = i − ψ − wr ψqr
Tr ds Tr dr
Lm 1
ψ̇qr = iqs + wr ψdr − ψqr
Tr Tr
212
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- Applications, and Faultand
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Fault

where Vds , Vqs are stator voltages; ids , iqs are stator currents; ψdr , ψqr are rotor fluxes; wr is
motor speed; Rs , Rr are stator and rotor resistances; Ls , Lr are stator and rotor inductances;
L2 Lr
Lm , is mutual inductance; σ = 1 − m is leakage coefficient; Tr = is rotor-time constant.
L s Lr Rr
From singular perturbation theory [24], and based on the well-known induction motor model
dynamics [23], the slow variables of the system are ψdr , ψqr and the fast variables are ids , iqs .
Therefore, the corresponding singularly perturbed model of eqn.(1) is:

Lr
εi̇ds = − Lm αr ids + αr ψdr + wr ψqr + (V − Rs ids )
Lm ds
Lr

εi̇qs = − Lm αr iqs − wr ψdr + αr ψqr + Vqs − Rs iqs
Lm
ψ̇dr = Lm αr ids − αr ψdr − wr ψqr (2)
ψ̇qr = Lm αr iqs + wr ψdr − αr ψqr

σLs Lr 1
where ε = and αr = .
Lm Tr
The proposed sliding mode observer is a copy of the original system model, which
has corrector terms with switching functions based on the system outputs. Therefore,
considering the measured stator currents as the system outputs, the corresponding
sliding-mode-observer can be constructed as follows:

Lr
εî˙ds = − Lm αr ids + αr ψ̂dr + wr ψ̂qr + (V − Rs ids )
Lm ds
−k1 eid + gid sgn(eid )
˙ Lr

εîqs = − Lm αr iqs − wr ψ̂dr + αr ψ̂qr + Vqs − Rs iqs
Lm
−k2 eiq + giq sgn(eiq ) (3)
ψ̂˙ dr = Lm αr ids − αr ψ̂dr − wr ψ̂qr + gψd sgn(eid )
ψ̂˙ qr = Lm αr iqs + wr ψ̂dr − αr ψ̂qr + gψq sgn(eiq )

where î and ψ̂ are the estimations of i and ψ; k1 and k2 are positive constant gains; gid , giq , gψd
and gψq are the observer gain matrix; eid = îds − ids and eiq = îqs − iqs are de current errors,
and sgn() is the sign function.
Subtracting eqn.(2) from eqn.(3), the estimation error dynamics are:

εê˙id = αr eψd + wr eψq − k1 eid + gid sgn(eid )

εê˙iq = −wr eψd + αr eψq − k2 eiq + giq sgn(eiq )
ėψd = −αr eψd − wr eψq + gψd sgn(eid ) (4)
ėψq = wr eψd − αr eψq + gψq sgn(eiq )
 A Robust
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Control Motor
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Flux Load
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Observers 213
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where eψd = ψ̂dr − ψdr , eψq = ψ̂qr − ψqr

The previous equations can be expressed in matrix form as:

εėi = + Aeψ + Ki ei + Gi Υe
ėψ = − Aeψ + Gψ Υe (5)

where A = αr I2 − wr J2 , ei = [eid eiq ] T , eψ = [eψd eψq ] T , Υe = [sgn(eid ) sgn(eiq )] T ,

   
gi d 0 gψd 0
Gi = , Gψ =
0 gi q 0 gψq
     
10 0 −1 −k1 0
I2 = , J2 = , Ki =
01 1 0 0 −k2

Following the two-time-scale approach, the stability analysis of the above system can be
considered determining the observer gains Gi and Ki of the fast subsystem or measured state
variables (ids , iqs ), to ensure the attractiveness of the sliding surface ei = 0 in the fast time
scale. Thereafter, the observer gain Gψ of the slow subsystem or inaccessible state variables
(ψdr , ψqr ), are determined, such that the reduced-order system obtained when ei ∼ = ėi ∼
= 0 is
locally stable [24].
From singular perturbation theory, the fast reduced-order system of the observation errors
can be obtained by introducing the new time variable τ = (t − t0 )/ε and thereafter setting
ε → 0 [24]. In the new time scale τ, taking into account that dτ = dt/ε, eqn.(5) becomes:

d
e = Aeψ + Ki ei + Gi Υe
dτ i
d
eψ = 0 (6)
dτ

Therefore, if the observer gains Gi and Ki are adequately chosen, the sliding mode occurs in
eqn.(6) along the manifold ei = [eid eiq ] T = 0.
The attractivity condition of the sliding surface ei = 0 given by:

dei
eiT <0 (7)
dτ

is fulfilled with the following inequalities,

 
gid < − αr eψd + wr eψq  − k1 |eid | (8)
 
   
giq < − −wr eψd + αr eψq  − k2 eiq  (9)
   
214
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Motors- Applications, ControlControl
- Applications, and Faultand
Diagnostics
Fault

Proof:
Let us define the following Lyapunov function candidate,

1 T
V= e e
2 i i

whose time derivative is,

dV de
= eiT i
dτ dτ
= eiT [ Aeψ + Ki ei + Gi Υe ] (10)
 n o
eid gid sgn(eid ) + αr eψd + weψq − k1 eid
= n o
eiq giq sgn(eiq ) − weψd + αr eψq − k2 eiq

Taking into account that all states and parameters of induction motor are bounded, then
there exist sufficiently large negative numbers gid , giq , and positive numbers k1 and k2 so that
the inequalities defined in eqn.(9) are verified and then the attractivity condition defined in
eqn.(7) is fulfilled.
Then, once the currents trajectory reaches the sliding surface ei = 0, the observer error
dynamics given by eqn.(6) behaves, in the sliding mode, as a reduced-order subsystem
governed only by the rotor-flux error eψ , assuming that ei = ėi = 0.
The slow error dynamics (when ei = 0 and ėi = 0), can be obtained setting ε = 0 in the
system equation presented in eqn.(5):

0 = + Aeψ + Gi Υe
ėψ = − Aeψ + Gψ Υe (11)

In order to demonstrate de stability of the previous system, the following Lyapunov function
candidate is proposed:

1 T
V= e eψ (12)
2 ψ

The time derivative of the Lyapunov function candidate is:

dV
= ėψT eψ (13)
dt
 A Robust
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Observers 215
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From eqn.(11) it is deduced that:

eψ = − A−1 Gi Υe (14)
ėψ = ( Gi + Gψ )Υe (15)

Then from eqn.(13), (14) and (15)

dV
= −ΥeT ( Gi + Gψ )T A−1 Gi Υe
dt
= −ΥeT ( Gi + Gψ )T A−1 Gi Υe
h iT
= −ΥeT ( I2 + Gψ Gi−1 ) Gi A−1 Gi Υe
= −ΥeT GiT ( I2 + Gψ Gi−1 )T A−1 Gi Υe
= −ΥeT GiT ( A−1 )T A T ( I2 + Gψ Gi−1 )T A−1 Gi Υe
= −( A−1 Gi Υe )T A T ( I2 + Gψ Gi−1 )T A−1 Gi Υe
= −eψT A T ( I2 + Gψ Gi−1 )T eψ
= −eψT ( I2 + Gψ Gi−1 ) A eψ (16)

To ensure that V̇ is negative definite the following sufficient condition can be requested:

( I2 + Gψ Gi−1 ) A ≥ $I2 (17)

where $ is a positive constant

Solving the gain matrix Gψ in eqn.(17) yields:

( I2 + Gψ Gi−1 ) ≥ $I2 A−1 (18)

( I2 + Gψ Gi−1 ) ≥ $A−1 (19)
Gψ Gi−1 ≥ $A−1 − I2 (20)
Gψ ≤ ($A−1 − I2 ) Gi (21)

Therefore, the time derivative of the Lyapunov function will be negative definite if the
observer gain Gψ is chosen taking into account eqn.(21). As a result from eqn.(16) it is
concluded that the equilibrium point (eψ = 0) of the flux observer error dynamic given
by eqn.(11) is exponentially stable; that is, the flux observer error converges to zero with
exponential rate of convergence.
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Motors- Applications, ControlControl
- Applications, and Faultand
Diagnostics
Fault

3. Load Torque Observer

In the traditional sliding mode control schemes, the load torque should be known or should
be measured using a torque sensors in order to compensate this load torque. On the other
hand, the load torque could be also considered as a system uncertainty, but in this case the
control system should be robust under all load torque values that would appear over the
time and therefore the sliding gain should be adequately high in order to compensate the
these load torque values. Obviously these high values for the sliding gain will increase the
control activity and are undesirable in the real applications.
Therefore, when the load torque is unknown or is very variable over time, and the system
has no torque sensors, a good solution could be the use of a load torque estimator. In this
chapter a sliding mode observer is proposed in order to obtain the load torque applied to the
induction motor without requiring the use of the load torque sensor.
The mechanical equation of an induction motor can be written as:

J θ̈m + Bθ̇m + TL = Te (22)

where J and B are the inertia constant and the viscous friction coefficient of the induction
motor respectively; TL is the external load; θm is the rotor mechanical position, which is
related to the rotor electrical position, θr , by θm = 2 θr /p where p is the pole numbers and
Te denotes the generated torque of an induction motor, defined as [23]:

3p Lm e e e e
Te = (ψ i − ψqr ids ) (23)
4 Lr dr qs

where ψdr e and ψe are the rotor-flux linkages, with the subscript ‘e’ denoting that the quantity
qr
e and i e are the d-q stator current
is referred to the synchronously rotating reference frame; ids qs
components, and p is the pole numbers.
The relation between the synchronously rotating reference frame and the stationary reference
frame is performed by the so-called reverse Park’s transformation:

   
xa cos(θe ) − sin(θe )  e
 xb  =  cos(θe − 2π/3) − sin(θe − 2π/3)  xde (24)
xq
xc cos(θe + 2π/3) − sin(θe + 2π/3)

where θe is the angular position between the d-axis of the synchronously rotating reference
frame and the a-axis of the stationary reference frame, and it is assumed that the quantities
are balanced.
Using the field-orientation control principle, the current component ids e is aligned in the

direction of the rotor flux vector ψ̄r , and the current component iqs e is aligned in the

perpendicular direction to it. At this condition, it is satisfied that:

e e
ψqr = 0, ψdr = |ψ̄r | (25)
 A Robust
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Taking into account the results presented in eqn.(25), the induction motor torque of eqn.(23)
is simplified to:

3p Lm e e e
Te = ψ i = KT iqs (26)
4 Lr dr qs
where KT is the torque constant, defined as follows:

3p Lm e∗
KT = ψ (27)
4 Lr dr

∗
e denotes the command rotor flux.
where ψdr
With the above mentioned proper field orientation, the rotor flux dynamics is given by [23]:

e
dψdr ψe Lm e
+ dr = i (28)
dt Tr Tr ds

From the system mechanical equation eqn.(22) and the induction motor torque equation
eqn.(26), the following dynamic equation is obtained:

B K e 1
ẇm = − wm + T iqs − TL (29)
J J J

where wm = θ̇m
It is assumed that the load torque only changes at certain moments, and therefore the load
torque can be considered as a quasi-constant signal:

ṪL = 0 (30)

Therefore, the system state space equations are:

B K e 1
ẇm = − wm + T iqs − TL
J J J
ṪL = 0 (31)

Taking into account that the load torque TL is taken as a quasi-constant signal, the load
torque can be considered the slow component of this system. Therefore, from singular
perturbation theory [24], the stability of the above system can be demonstrated assuring
the asymptotic stability of the fast component of this system (the rotor speed), and thereafter
the convergence of the slow component (the load torque) for the reduced system, when the
rotor speed estimation error is zero.
218
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Motors- Applications, ControlControl
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Fault

Then, from eqn.(31) the sliding-mode-observer can be constructed as:

−B K e 1
ŵ˙ m = wm + T iqs − T̂L + k w1 ew + h1 sgn(ew )
J J J
T̂˙ = −k e − h sgn(e )
L w2 w 2 w (32)

where ew = wm − ŵm , and k w1 , k w2 , h1 and h2 are a positive constants.

Subtracting eqn. (32) from (31), the estimation error dynamic is obtained:

1
ėw = − eT − k w1 ew − h1 sgn(ew )
J
ėT = k w2 ew + h2 sgn(ew ) (33)

where eT = TL − T̂L
In order to demonstrate the stability of the fast component of the system the following
Lyapunov function candidate is proposed:

1 2
V= e (34)
2 w

The time derivative of this Lyapunov function candidate is:

V̇ = ew ėw (35)
 
1
= ew − eT − k w1 ew − h1 sgn(ew ) (36)
J
1
= −h1 |ew | − k w1 e2w − ew eT (37)
J

To ensure that V̇ is negative definite the following sufficient condition can be requested:

 
1 
h1 ≥  eT  − k w1 |ew | + ηw (38)
J

where ηw > 0
Therefore,

V̇ ≤ −ηw |ew | (39)

 A Robust
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From eqn.(39) it is deduced that the equilibrium point ew = 0 is asymptotically stable, and
from this equation it can be also deduced that the maximum time in order to reach the
equilibrium point ew = 0 is:

e w ( t = 0)
treach ≤ (40)
ηw

When the speed observation error reaches the equilibrium point, ew = 0 and ėw = 0, and then
from eqn.(33) it is obtained that the observer error dynamics behaves as the reduced-order
subsystem presented below:

1
0 = − e L − h1 sgn(ew ) (41)
J
ėT = h2 sgn(ew ) (42)

From the previous equations it is obtained:

1 h2
ėT = − e (43)
J h1 T

The solution of the previous differential equation is:

 
1h
eT (t) = C exp − 2 t (44)
J h1

Consequently, the load torque estimation error tends exponentially to zero.

Therefore, if the observer gains h1 , h2 k w1 and k w2 are adequately chosen, then the estimation
error converges to zero. Consequently the estimated states ŵm , T̂L converges to the real
states wm , TL as t tends to infinity. Hence, the load torque may be obtained from the states
observer given by eqn.(32), that uses the rotor speed and the stator current in order to obtain
the load torque applied to the induction motor.

4. Variable structure robust position control

The mechanical equation of an induction motor presented in equation (29) can be rewritten
as:
e
θ̈m + a θ̇m + f¯ = b iqs (45)

where the parameters are defined as:

B KT T
a= , b= , f¯ = L ; (46)
J J J
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Diagnostics
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Now, the previous mechanical equation (45) is considered with uncertainties as follows:

e
θ̈m = −( a + 4 a)θ̇m − ( f + 4 f ) + (b + 4b)iqs (47)

T̂L
where f = , and the terms 4 a, 4b and 4 f represents the uncertainties of the terms a,
J
b and f respectively.
It should be noted that the load torque TL has been replaced by the estimated load torque T̂L
and the difference between the real and the estimated value is taken as an uncertainty.
Let us define the position tracking error as follows:

∗
e(t) = θm (t) − θm (t) (48)

∗ is the rotor position command.

where θm
Taking the second derivative of the previous equation with respect to time yields:

∗
ë(t) = θ̈m − θ̈m = u(t) + d(t) (49)

where the following terms have been collected in the signal u(t),

e ∗
u(t) = b iqs (t) − a θ̇m (t) − f (t) − θ̈m (t) (50)

and the uncertainty terms have been collected in the signal d(t),

e
d(t) = −4 a wm (t) − 4 f (t) + 4b iqs (t) (51)

Now, the sliding variable S(t) is defined as:

Z
S(t) = ė(t) + k e(t) + k i e(t) dt (52)

where k and k i are a positive constant gains.

Then, the sliding surface is defined as:

Z
S(t) = ė(t) + k e(t) + k i e(t) dt = 0 (53)
 A Robust
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Observers 221
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The sliding mode controller is designed as:

u(t) = −k ė − k i e − β sgn(S) (54)

where k and k i are the previously defined positive constant gains, β is the switching gain, S
is the sliding variable defined in eqn. (52) and sgn(·) is the sign function.
Assumption. In order to obtain the position trajectory tracking, the gain β must be chosen so
that β ≥ d¯ where d¯ ≥ supt∈ R0+ |d(t)|. Note that this condition only implies that the system
uncertainties are bounded magnitudes.
Theorem. Consider the induction motor given by equation (47), the control law (54) leads
∗ (t)
the rotor mechanical position θm (t) so that the position tracking error e(t) = θm (t) − θm
tends to zero as the time tends to infinity.
Proof: Define the Lyapunov function candidate:

1
V (t) = S(t)S(t) (55)
2

Its time derivative is calculated as:

V̇ (t) = S(t)Ṡ(t)
= S · [ë + k ė + k i e]
= S · [u + d + k ė + k i e]
= S · [−k ė − k i e − β sgn(S) + d + k ė + k i e]
= S · [d − β sgn(S)]
≤ −( β − |d|)|S|
≤ 0 (56)

It should be noted that the eqns. (52), (49) and (54) have been used in the proof.
Using the Lyapunov’s direct method, since V (t) is clearly positive-definite, V̇ (t) is negative
definite and V (t) tends to infinity as S(t) tends to infinity, then the equilibrium at the origin
S(t) = 0 is globally asymptotically stable. Therefore S(t) tends to zero as the time t tends to
infinity. Moreover, all trajectories starting off the sliding surface S = 0 must reach it in finite
time and then they will remain on this surface. This system’s behavior, once on the sliding
surface is usually called sliding mode.
When the sliding mode occurs on the sliding surface (53), then S(t) = Ṡ(t) = 0, and therefore
the dynamic behavior of the tracking problem (49) is equivalently governed by the following
equation:
14 222 Induction
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Motors- Applications, ControlControl
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Fault

Ṡ(t) = 0 ⇒ ë(t) + k ė(t) + k i e(t) = 0 (57)

Then, like k and k i are a positive constants, the tracking error e(t) and its derivatives ė(t) and
ë(t) converges to zero exponentially.
It should be noted that, a typical motion under sliding mode control consists of a reaching
phase during which trajectories starting off the sliding surface S = 0 move toward it and
reach it in finite time, followed by sliding phase during which the motion will be confined to
this surface and the system tracking error will be represented by the reduced-order model
(57), where the tracking error tends to zero.
e∗ ( t ), can be obtained directly substituting eqn. (54) in
Finally, the torque current command, iqs
eqn. (50):

e∗ 1 ∗ 
iqs (t) = −k ė − k i e − β sgn(S) + a θ̇m + θ̈m + f (t) (58)
b

It should be noted that the current command is a bounded signal because all its components
are bounded.
Therefore, the proposed variable structure position control resolves the position tracking
problem for the induction motor in presence of some uncertainties in mechanical parameters
and load torque.
It should be pointed out that, as it is well known, the variable structure control signals may
produce the so-called chattering phenomenon, caused by the discontinuity that appear in
eqn.(58) across the sliding surface. Chattering is undesirable in practice, since it involves high
control activity and further may excite high-frequency dynamics. However, in the induction
motor system, this high frequency changes in the electromagnetic torque will be filtered by
the mechanical system inertia. Nevertheless, in order to reduce the chattering effect, the
control law can also be smoothed out. In this case a simple and easy solution (proposed in
[25]) could be to replace the sign function by a tansigmoid function in order to avoid the
discontinuity in the control signal.

5. Simulation and Experimental Results

In this section the position regulation performance of the proposed sliding-mode field
oriented control versus reference and load torque variations is analyzed by means of different
simulation examples and real test using a commercial induction motor.
The block diagram of the proposed robust position control scheme is presented in Figure 1,
and the function of the blocks that appear in this figure are explained below:
The block ‘SMC Controller’ represents the proposed sliding-mode controller, and it is
implemented by equations (52) and (58). The block ‘limiter’ limits the current applied to the
motor windings so that it remains within the limit value, being implemented by a saturation
function. The block ‘dqe → abc’ makes the conversion between the synchronously rotating
 A Robust
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ie∗
qs-
i∗abc-
∗
θm +
- e- SMC ie∗
-
qs Current
e
Limiter ie∗ dq → abc
−6 Controller ds- - Controller
6 6 Pulses
θm θ̂e
?
- ie∗ θ̂e SVPWM
ds
e∗
ψdr Calculation Calculation Inverter
66
ψ̂dr ψ̂qr
wm Field  iabc
- s -
Weakening Flux Estimator vabc
?
θm IM

Figure 1. Block diagram of the proposed sliding-mode field oriented control

and stationary reference frames (Park’s Transformation). The block ‘Current Controller’
Figure 1: Block diagram of the proposed sliding-mode field oriented control
consists of a SVPWM current control. The block ‘SVPWM Inverter’ is a six IGBT-diode
bridge inverter with 540
It should V DC
be noted thatvoltage
the currentsource.
command Theis ablock
bounded ‘Field
signal Weakening’
because all its gives the flux
command based
componentson are
rotor speed, so that the PWM controller does not saturate. The block
bounded.
e∗ Calculation’ provides the current reference i e∗ from the rotor flux reference through
‘ids Therefore, the proposed variable structure position ds control resolves the position track-
the equation
ing (28).
problemThe block
for the ’Fluxmotor
induction Estimator’
in presencerepresents the proposed
of some uncertainties sliding mode flux
in mechanical
parameters
estimator, and it is and load torque.
implemented by the eqn.(3). The block ‘θ̂e Calculation’ provides the
It should
angular position be pointed
of the rotoroutflux
that,vector.
as it is wellFinally,
known, the variable
the block structure
‘IM’ control signals the induction
represents
may produce the so-called chattering phenomenon, caused by the discontinuity that ap-
motor. pear in eqn.(58) across the sliding surface. Chattering is undesirable in practice, since it
In order toinvolves
carry high
outcontrol activity and further may excite high-frequency dynamics. However,
the real experimental validation of the proposed control scheme, the
in the induction motor system, this high frequency changes in the electromagnetic torque
control platform show in figure 2 is used
will be filtered by the mechanical system. The block
inertia. diagram
Nevertheless, of this
in order experimental
to reduce the platform
is shown inchattering
figure 3.effect, the control law can also be smoothed out. In this case a simple and easy
solution (proposed in [25]) could be to replace the sign function by a tansigmoid function
This control platform
in order to avoidallows to verify
the discontinuity the
in the realsignal.
control time performance of the induction motor
controls in a real induction motor. The platform is formed by a PC with Windows XP in
which it is 5 Simulation
installed and Experimental
MatLab7/Simulink Results 2.7 and the DS1103 Controller
R14 and ControlDesk
Board real time interface of dSpace. The power block is formed of a three-phase rectifier
In this section the position regulation performance of the proposed sliding-mode field ori-
connected to 380
ented V/50
control Hz reference
versus AC electrical
and load net
torqueand a capacitor
variations bank
is analyzed of 27.200
by means µF in order to get
of different
a DC bus ofsimulation
540 V. The platform
examples and realalso includes
test using a three-phase
a commercial IGBT/Diode bridge of 50A, and
induction motor.
the M2AA 132M4 The block
ABB diagram of the proposed
induction motor of robust
7.5kWposition control scheme
of die-cast is presented
aluminium in
squirrel-cage type
Figure 1, and the function of the blocks that appear in this figure are explained below:
and 1440 rpm, with the following parameters given by the manufacturer:
The block ‘SMC Controller’ represents the proposed sliding-mode controller, and it is
implemented by equations (52) and (58). The block ‘limiter’ limits the current applied
• w N , nominal speed,
to the motor 1440 so
windings rpm
that it remains within the limit value, being implemented by
• TN , nominal torque, 49.3 Nm
• Rs , stator resistance, 0.81 Ω 12
• Rr , rotor resistance, 0.57 Ω
• Lm , magnetizing inductance, 0.118 mH
• Ls , stator inductance, 0.120 mH
• Lr , rotor inductance, 0.122 mH
• p, pair of poles, 2
• J, moment of inertia, 0.057 kg m2
• B, viscous friction coefficient, 0.015 N m/(rad/s)
16 224 Induction
Induction Motors
Motors- Applications, ControlControl
- Applications, and Faultand
Diagnostics
Fault

Figure 2. Induction motor experimental platform

• α Al , temperature coefficient of Aluminium, 0.0039K −1

The rotor position of this motor is measured using the G1BWGLDBI LTN incremental rotary
encoder of 4096 square impulses per revolution. This pulses are quadruplicated in a decoder,
giving a resolution of 16384 ppr which gives an angle resolution of 0.000385 rad (0.022 deg).
The platform also includes a 190U2 Unimotor synchronous AC servo motor of 10.6 kW
connected to the induction motor to generate the load torque (controlled in torque). This
servo motor is controlled by its VSI Unidrive inverter module.
The sample time used to realize the real implementation of the the position control is 100µs,
and the processor used for the real tests is a floating point PowerPC at 1MHz, located in
the real time DS1103 hardware of dSpace. This target incorporates the TMS320F240 DSP
working as slave to generate the SVPWM pulses for the inverter. Finally, the position and
currents control algorithms, the θe angle and flux estimator, the SVPWM calculations, and the
Park’s transformations have been realized in C programming language in a unique S-Builder
module of Simulink, in order to obtain a compact and portable code.
 A Robust
A Robust Induction Motor Induction
Control Motor
usingControl using
Sliding Sliding
Mode ModeFlux
Rotor Rotorand
Flux Load
and Load Torque
Torque Observers
Observers 225 17

10.5772/61153

Figure 3. Block diagram of the induction motor experimental platform

In the experimental validation it is assumed that there is an uncertainty around 50% in the
system mechanical parameters, that will be overcome by the proposed sliding mode control.
The nominal value of the rotor flux is 1.01 Wb and it is obtained for a flux current command
∗ = 8.61A. However, in some cases, for a very high rotor speed, the flux command
value of isd
should be reduced so that the PWM controller does not saturate.
On the other hand, the electromagnetic torque current command, isq ∗ , has been limited to 30
A, in order to provide a protection against overcurrents in the induction motor’s stator feed.
Finally, the frequency of commutation of VSI module of the platform is limited to 8 kHz.
In this example the motor starts from a standstill state and it is required that the rotor position
follows a position command, whose amplitude varies between 0 and 2π rad.
The system starts with an initial load torque TL = 0 N.m, and at time t = 0.1 s, the load
torque steps from TL = 0 N.m to TL = 20 N.m, then at time t = 1 s, the load torque steps
from TL = 20 N.m to TL = 40 N.m and finally at time t = 2 s, the load torque steps from
TL = 40 N.m to TL = 60 N.m, which is a 20% above the nominal torque value (49 Nm).
In these examples the values for the controller parameters are: k = 46, k i = 160 and β = 20,
the values for the flux observer parameters are: gid = −44.5, giq = −44.5, gψd = −50,
gψq = −50, k1 = 100 and k2 = 100, and the values for the load torque observer parameters
are: k w1 = 25, k w2 = 250 h1 = 100 and h2 = 100.
Figure 4 shows the simulation test of the proposed adaptive variable structure position
control. The first graph shows the reference and the real rotor position, and the second
graph shows the rotor position error. As it can be observed, after a transitory time in which
the sliding gain is adapted, the rotor position tracks the desired position in spite of system
uncertainties. Nevertheless, at time t = 1s and t = 2s a little position error can be observed.
This error appears because there is a torque increment at this time, and then the controlled
system lost the so called Śsliding modeŠ because the actual sliding gain is too small for
18 226 Induction
Induction Motors
Motors- Applications, ControlControl
- Applications, and Faultand
Diagnostics
Fault

the new uncertainty introduced in the system due to the load torque increment. However,
after a short time, the new load torque value is adapted and then the sliding gain value can
compensate the system uncertainties, and hence the rotor position error is eliminated. The
third graph shows the real and the estimated rotor flux. In this figure it can be observed
that the proposed sliding mode observer provides an accurate and fast rotor flux estimation.
The fourth graph shows the motor torque, the load torque and the estimated load torque.
As it can be seen in this graph, after a transitory time, the load torque observer estimates
the load torque value with a small estimation error. This figure also shows that the so-called
chattering phenomenon appears in the motor torque. Although this high frequency changes
in the torque will be reduced by the mechanical system inertia, they could cause undesirable
vibrations in the real rotor, which may be a problem for certain systems. However, for
the systems that do not support this chattering, it may be eliminated substituting the sign
function by the saturation function in the control signal. The fifth graph shows the stator
current i A . This graph shows that the current signal increases when the load torque increases
in order to increment the motor torque. The sixth graph shows the time evolution of the
sliding variable. In this figure it can be seen that the system reaches the sliding condition
(S(t) = 0) at time t = 0.25s, but then the system lost this condition at time t = 1s and t = 2s
due to the load torque increment which produces an increment in the system uncertainties.
Figure 5 shows the real test of the variable structure position control using the experimental
platform. In this figure, a small noise can be observed in the signals due to the sensors used
to make the real measurements in the system. The first graph shows the reference and the
real rotor position. Like in the previous case (simulation test), the rotor position tracks the
reference position in spite of system uncertainties. The second graph shows the rotor position
error. In this experimental validation a small position error is obtained in the presence of a
high load torque. It should be noted that this performance is not an easy task to achieve for
an induction motor. The third graph shows the estimated rotor flux and the fourth graph
shows the motor torque, the load torque and the estimated load torque. It can be noted that
the proposed sliding mode observers also perform very well in a practice. The fifth graph
shows the stator current i A , and finally the sixth graph shows the sliding variable S.

6. Conclusion
In this chapter an induction motor position regulation using a sliding mode control for a
real-time applications has been presented. In the design a field oriented vector control theory
is employed in order to simplify the system dynamic equations.
Additionally, in order to avoid the flux sensors, because the flux sensors increase the cost
and reduces the reliability, a rotor flux estimator is proposed. This flux estimator is a sliding
mode observer and employs the measured stator voltages and currents in the stationary
reference frame. The design incorporates also a load torque observer, based on sliding mode
theory, in order to improve the controller performance.
In order to demonstrate the performance of the proposed design over a commercial induction
motor of 7.5 kW, a new experimental platform has been designed and constructed in order to
text the proposed robust controller in a real time application over a high power commercial
induction motor
 A Robust
A Robust Induction Motor Induction
Control Motor
usingControl using
Sliding Sliding
Mode ModeFlux
Rotor Rotorand
Flux Load
and Load Torque
Torque Observers
Observers 227 19

10.5772/61153

6.2832

Rotor Position (rad)

3.1416

reference
0 sim real
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)

0.2
Position Error (rad)

−0.2

−0.4 sim

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Time (s)
Rotor Flux alfa (Wb)

1
0.5
0
−0.5
sim real
−1 sim est
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)
80
60
Te (Nm)

40
20
0 Te exp
Tl est
−20 Tl real
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)
Stator current, iA (A)

20

iA sim
−20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)
Sliding Variable, s

10
0
−10
−20
−30 sim
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)

Figure 4. Position tracking simulation results

Due to the nature of the sliding mode control this control scheme is robust under system
uncertainties and changes in the load torque applied to the induction motor. The closed loop
stability of the presented design has been proved through Lyapunov stability theory.
Finally, by means of simulation and real examples, it has been confirmed that the
proposed position control scheme presents a good performance in practice, and that the
position tracking objective is achieved under parameter uncertainties and under load torque
variations.
20 228 Induction
Induction Motors
Motors- Applications, ControlControl
- Applications, and Faultand
Diagnostics
Fault

6.2832

Rotor Position (rad)

3.1416

reference
0 exp real
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)

0.2
Position Error (rad)

−0.2

−0.4 exp

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Time (s)
Rotor Flux alfa (Wb)

1
0.5
0
−0.5
−1 exp est
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)
80

60
Te (Nm)

40

20

0 Te exp
Tl est
−20 Tl real
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)

20
Stator current, iA (A)

iA exp
−20

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Time (s)
Sliding Variable, s

10
0
−10
−20
−30 exp
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)

Figure 5. Position tracking experimental results

Acknowledgements
The authors are very grateful to the Basque Government by the support of this work through
the project S-PE12UN015 and S-PE13UN039 and to the UPV/EHU by its support through
the projects GIU13/41 and UFI11/07.
 A Robust Induction Motor Control using Sliding Mode Rotor Flux and Load Torque Observers
A Robust Induction Motor Control using Sliding Mode Rotor Flux and Load Torque Observers
229 21

10.5772/61153

Author details
Oscar Barambones1∗ , Patxi Alkorta2 , Jose M. Gonzalez de Durana1 and Jose A. Cortajarena2
*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1 Vitoria Engineering School, Vitoria, Spain

2 Eibar Engineering School, Eibar, Spain

References
[1] P. Vas. Vector Control of AC Machines. Oxford Science Publications, Oxford. 1994

[2] W. Lehonhard. Control of Electrical Drives. Springer, Berlin. 1996

[3] R. Marino, P. Tomei, C.M. Verrelli. (2005) A nonlinear tracking control for sensorless
induction motors, Automatica, vol. 41, pp. 1071-1077.

[4] R. Yazdanpanah, J. Soltani, G.R. Arab Markadeh. Nonlinear torque and stator
flux controller for induction motor drive based on adaptive input-output feedback
linearization and sliding mode control Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 49, pp.
541-550. 2008

[5] H. Ouadi, F.Giri, A.Elfadili, L.Dugard. (2010) Induction machine speed control with flux
optimization, Control Engineering Practice, vol. 18, pp. 55-66.

[6] P-H Choua, C-S Chen, F-J Lin. (2012) DSP-based synchronous control of dual linear
motors via Sugeno type fuzzy neural network compensator, Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Vol. 349, pp.792-812.

[7] M.A. Hamidaa, A. Glumineau,n, J. de Leon. (2012) Robust integral backstepping control
for sensorless IPM synchronous motor controller, Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 349,
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[8] V.I. Utkin. Sliding mode control design principles and applications to electric drives,
IEEE Trans. Indus. Electro., vol. 40, pp. 26-36. 1993

[9] O. Barambones and P. Alkorta, A robust vector control for induction motor drives with
an adaptive sliding-mode control law, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 348, pp.
300-314. 2011

[10] C.-Y Chen, Sliding mode controller design of induction motor based on space-vector
pulse width modulation method, Int. J. of Innovative Computing, Information and
Control 5, pp. 3603-3614. 2009.

[11] G.R. Lii, C.L. Chiang, C.T. Su and H.R. Hwung. An induction motor position controller
optimally designed with fuzzy phase-plane control and genetic algorithms, Electric
Power Systems Research, vol. 68, pp. 103-112. 2004.
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Motors- Applications, ControlControl
- Applications, and Faultand
Diagnostics
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[12] D. Naso, F. Cupertino and B. Turchiano. Precise position control of tubular linear motors
with neural networks and composite learning, Control Engineering Practice, vol. 18, pp.
515-522. 2010.

[13] P. Alkorta, O. Barambones, J.A. Cortajarena, and A. Zubizarrreta, "Efficient

Multivariable Generalized Predictive Control for Sensorless Induction Motor Drives",
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 61. pp.5126-5134. 2014.

[14] O. Barambones and P. Alkorta,, "Position Control of the Induction Motor using an
adaptive sliding mode controller and observers", IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 61.
pp.6556-6565. 2014.

[15] O. Barambones, P. Alkorta and J.M. Gonzalez de Durana, A real-time estimation and
control scheme for induction motors based on sliding mode theory, Journal of the
Franklin Institute, vol. 351, pp. 4251-4270. 2014

[16] A. Benchaib and C. Edwards. Nonlinear sliding mode control of an induction motor,
Int. J. of Adaptive Control and Signal Procesing, vol. 14, pp. 201-221. 2000.

[17] W.J. Wang and J.Y. Chen . Passivity-based sliding mode position control for induction
motor drives IEEE Trans. on Energy conversion, vol. 20, pp. 316-321. 2005.

[18] B. Veselić, B. Perunic̆it’ć-Draz̆enović, and C̆. Milosavljević, High-Performance Position

Control of Induction Motor Using Discrete-Time Sliding-Mode Control, IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron., vol. 55, no. 11, pp. 3809-3817, Nov. 2008.

[19] M. Menaa, O. Touhami, R. Ibtiouen and M. Fadel. Sensorless direct vector control of an
induction motor, Control Engineering Practice, vol. 16, pp. 67-77. 2008

[20] O. Barambones, A.J. Garrido and I. Garrido. (2008) Robust speed estimation and control
of an induction motor drive based on artificial neural networks, Int. J. Adapt. Control
Signal Process., Vol. 22, pp.440-464.

[21] H. Yang, Y. Xiaa, P. Shi. (2010) Observer-based sliding mode control for a class of
discrete systems via delta operator approach, Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 347,
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[22] A.Y.Alanisa, E.N.Sanchez, A.G.Loukianov, E.A. Hernandez. (2010) Discrete-time

recurrent high order neural networks for nonlinear identification, Journal of the Franklin
Institute, Vol. 347, pp.1253-1265.

[23] B.K. Bose. Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives., Prentice Hall, New Jersey. 2001.

[24] P.V. Kokotovic, H. Khalil, J. OŚReilly. (1996) Singular Perturbation Methods in Control:
Analysis and Design Academic Press, New York.

[25] O. Barambones, V. Etxebarria, Robust neural control for robotic manipulators,

Automatica 38 pp.235-242. 2002
 Chapter 9

An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-

driven Variable Speed Drives

Nordin Saad, Muawia A. Magzoub, Rosdiazli Ibrahim and

Muhammad Irfan

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61086

Abstract
This paper discusses the performance and the impact of disturbances onto a proposed
hybrid fuzzy-fuzzy controller (HFFC) system to attain speed control of a variable
speed induction motor (IM) drive. Notably, to design a scalar controller, the two fea‐
tures of field-oriented control (FOC), i.e., the frequency and current, are employed.
Specifically, the features of fuzzy frequency and fuzzy current amplitude controls are
exploited for the control of an induction motor in a closed-loop current amplitude in‐
put model; hence, with the combination of both controllers to form a hybrid control‐
ler. With respect to finding the rule base of a fuzzy controller, a genetic algorithm is
employed to resolve the problem of an optimization that diminishes an objective func‐
tion, i.e., the Integrated Absolute Error (IAE) criterion. Furthermore, the principle of
HFFC, for the purpose of overcoming the shortcoming of the FOC technique is estab‐
lished during the acceleration-deceleration stages to regulate the speed of the rotor us‐
ing the fuzzy frequency controller. On the other hand, during the steady-state stage,
the fuzzy stator current magnitude controller is engaged. A simulation is conducted
via MATLAB/Simulink to observe the performance of the controller. Thus, from a ser‐
ies of simulations and experimental tests, the controller shows to perform consistently
well and possesses insensitive behavior towards the parameter deviations in the sys‐
tem, as well as robust to load and noise disturbances.

Keywords: Indirect field-oriented control (IFOC), hybrid fuzzy-fuzzy control (HFFC),

hybrid fuzzy-PI control (HFPIC), disturbances, genetic algorithm (GA)

1. Introduction

During the last forty years, induction motors have been largely utilized in applications that
use variable speeds. In the industry, the term workhorse is used to refer to an induction motor.
232 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

With the development in the field of silicon-rectifier devices, the variable speed induction
motor drives techniques began to emerge in the late 1960s. At that time, the principal of speed
control was only based on the steady state aspects of an induction machine. The rigorous
research in this field has made possible the emergence of more techniques in industrial drives.
One of the techniques that previously used for drives control is the V/f ratio that has been
applied in an open-loop speed control of drives that normally need low dynamics. In addition,
the slip frequency control technique is also effective for producing improved dynamics. Until
the emergence of field-oriented controls (FOCs), this technique, based on all the high-per‐
formance induction motor (IM) drives, was considered as an industry standard for AC drives
whose dynamics resemble DC motors [1–2, 19]. Hence, the invention of vector control and
FOC are considered as the most significant factors in AC motor drives that boosted programs
related to the development and research for improving control performance. Several benefits
of process control can be obtained by adjusting the speed of the drive motors, such as varying
speeds for its operation process, better control of speed variation, work efficiency, precise
control for positioning, tension or torque, energy saving, and compensation of process varying
variables [2].

Zadah, in 1965, described Fuzzy Logic as a novel kind of mathematical set approach consisting
of a fuzzy set theory that is considered as a basic theory of the fuzzy logic. A fuzzy control
system is established by applying a principle of fuzzy logic that consists of three phases:
fuzzification, inference engine, and defuzzification. The inputs are converted into fuzzy sets
in an initial phase. An inference engine defines the fuzzy rules in the next phase that links the
outputs by using the sets of inputs via explicit rules. Finally, the conclusions are inferred by
combining the outcomes of the fuzzy rules, which is then transformed into a sharp value from
the fuzzy sets [3, 13].

In order to provide an effective means for a variable speed drive (VSD) control, several research
studies exist that are based on control techniques and commercially available tools yielding a
high degree of performance and reliability. Hence, a PLC-based hybrid-fuzzy control for pulse-
width modulation PWM driven VSD is examined that depends upon the s-domain transfer
function in a scientifically presented model of an original plant by keeping the V/f ratio at a
constant value as in [5]. Notably in [5], the optimizations of the controller's performance against
the parameter variations and external disturbances are not fully considered. Hence, the
disadvantages of the FOC method and the results gained from the simulation are overcame
by implementing two stage controllers as explain in [6–8], though all the practical implemen‐
tations are quite satisfactory. Moreover, the satisfactory results are achieved by applying some
controller algorithms for controlling the speed of an IM as in [9, 10].

Generally, by using simple solutions, fuzzy systems are capable of managing non-linear,
complicated, and at times mathematically intangible dynamic systems [11]. Though, it is not
an easy task to get an optimal set of fuzzy membership rules and functions, the designer needs
to invest some times, skills, and experience for the tiresome fuzzy tuning exercise. Even though
an iterative and heuristic process for transforming the membership functions to enhance
performance has been recommended, in principle, there is no common method or rule for the
fuzzy logic setup [11]. A lot of researchers have recently considered numerous intelligent
schemes for the purpose of tuning the fuzzy system [12–17]. For instance, the genetic algorithm
(GA) and neural network (NN) approach to optimize either the membership rules or functions
 An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven Variable Speed Drives 233
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61086

have turned into a trend in the development of the fuzzy logic system [11]. The benefits of the
GA approach, apart from involving less cost, it is easy to implement the procedures and
requires a single objective to be assessed [22]. Figure 1 presents the basic configuration of GA
for a fuzzy control system with fuzzifier, defuzzifier, and an inference engine.

Genetic Algorithm

m m
 m* Fuzzy Rules Controller Induction
+ e m
gain
Motor
Fuzzifier Inference Engine Defuzzifier coefficients
-
m Fuzzy Logic System

Figure 1. Genetic algorithm for a fuzzy control system.

A GA is employed in this research to attain the rules of the fuzzy inference system. However,
the key aim of this study is to compare the performance of a fuzzy controller built on heuristics
with a controller developed via the optimization technique.

Therefore, the best combination between the fuzzy input-output variables is needed to be
discovered to enhance the inference rules of a fuzzy controller for a particular range of the
fuzzy logic controller operation.

The FOC has two features [4, 6] that have been implemented in this work. Firstly, it is not able
to do frequency control directly, due to the fact that the supply frequency changes during the
period of acceleration-deceleration of the FOC while the slip frequency remains the same.
Furthermore, in the presence of a torque command, the magnitude of a supply current
magnitude remains stable.

The application of the FOC method has commonly been effective in achieving elevated
performances in adjustable speed induction motor drives, however, it still suffers the following
disadvantages [6]:
i. When evaluating certain integrals (i.e., the error accumulation), the degradation will
be in the steady-state if the control time is extended and the outcome will be a
transient responses owing to too much drift and accumulation of error in the values
of the parameters;

ii. Susceptibility of the parameter deviations;

iii. There should be a steadiness in control and the calculation must be set off right from
an initial state;

iv. Complex calculation is included in the final step.

234 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

The simulation and modeling of an induction motor controller constructed using MATLAB/
Simulink and the examination of the performance of the controllers (i.e., hybrid fuzzy-fuzzy
controller (HFFC), hybrid fuzzy-PI controller (HFPIC), and indirect field-oriented controller
(IFOC)) on the system are discussed in this paper. Also, in this study, the objective is to enhance
the performance of the controller using HFFC. The purpose and context of this study are
outlined in Figure 2.

Induction Motor

Application in Speed Control

variable speed
drive Position Control

Experimental Results Controller

Hybrid Fuzzy-PI controller:
Indirect Field-Oriented
Intelligent Optimization + Insensitive to parameter variattion Control (IFOC):
Program GA + reliable + Flux and torque are controlled
+ robustness to noise and load disturbs + High Performance

- Slow response - Sensitive to parameter variation

Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy controller - Need experience and skills - Integral error accumulation

Comparison

Figure 2. Overview of the study background.

The implementation of a fuzzy current amplitude controller on the induction motor model
makes this work unique. This controller possesses the same supply features as FOC and
insensitivity to the parameter variation for the motor and system robustness to noise and load
disturbances are some of the advantages of this controller. Due to the fact that it provides better
performance, the fuzzy current amplitude controller has been selected. While, the common
structure of hybrid fuzzy-fuzzy controller is defined in Figure 3.

Frequency
 m* Fuzzy Logic +
+ e Gain Gain
m Controller
+
-
Inverter

Induction
m
Motor

Fuzzy Logic
Gain Saturation
Controller
Current
Amplitude

Figure 3. General structure of an HFFC.

 An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven Variable Speed Drives 235
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61086

2. Mathematical modeling

A higher order of mathematical equations that fall under one of the VSD control classifications
can be used to model the dynamics of an induction motor. The steady-state model provides
information about the performance of the induction motors in a steady state only. Table 1
provides the related parameters of IM. Figure 4 illustrates the IFOC model block of the
proposed system for an IM.

Name Symbol Value

Resistance of stator rs 29.4 × 10−2 Ω
Resistance of rotor rr 15.6 × 10−2 Ω
Self-inductance of stator L s 42.4 × 10−3 H
Self-inductance of rotor L r 41.7 × 10−3 H
Magnetizing inductance L M 41 × 10−3 H
Rotor inertia J 40.06 × 10−2 Kg.m 2
Damping constant B or f 0.062 N .m.s / rad
Number of pairs of poles P 3

Table 1. Electrical and mechanical parameters of the IM.

By employing a two-phase motor in a quadrature and direct axis, the dynamic model of the
induction motor is developed. The description of the notations is tabulated in Table 2. The
state-space model of an induction motor in a stationary reference frame can be derived with
the help of the voltage and flux linkage relations of an induction motor in the reference frame
that is randomly selected [11, 12].

Figure 4. Proposed IFOC model block.

236 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

ids , iqs d- and q-axis stator current components, respectively, and expressed in stationary reference
frame

idr , iqr d- and q-axis rotor current components, respectively, and expressed in stationary reference
frame

L M Magnetizing inductance

L s, L r Self-inductance of the stator and rotor, respectively

rs , rr The resistance of a stator and rotor phase winding, respectively

T e, T l Electromagnetic torque and Load torque reflected on the motor shaft, respectively

V ds , V qs d- and q-axis stator voltage components, respectively, and expressed in stationary reference
frame

L ls , L lr Leakage resistance of the stator and rotor, respectively

λds , λqs d- and q-axis stator flux components, respectively, and expressed in stationary reference
frame

λdr , λqr d- and q-axis rotor flux components, respectively, and expressed in stationary reference
frame

ωm, ωr Mechanical and electrical angular rotor speed, respectively

ω Synchronous speed or dominant frequency

P Number of pairs of poles

ρ Operator d dt

J The inertia of the rotor kgm2 or Js2

B The damping constant that represents dissipation due to windage and friction

2
L M rr + L r2rs L M2 L M 1 rr
γ= 2 , σ =1− L sL r , β= σL sL r , β1 = σL s , α= L r
σL sL r

Table 2. Nomenclatures.

The final state-space model of an induction motor with the controlled stator currents in a
stationary frame can be written as shown in equations (1)–(6).

didss
= -g idss + bwr lqrs + baldrs + b1Vdss (1)
dt

diqss
= -g iqss - bwr lqrs + balqrs + b1Vqss (2)
dt
 An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven Variable Speed Drives 237
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dldrs
= -aldrs - wr lqrs + a LM idss (3)
dt

dlqrs
= -alqrs + wr ldrs + a LM iqss (4)
dt

dwm B 1 P
= - wm + (Te - Tl ) , wr = wm (5)
dt J J 2

æ 3 öæ P ö L
(
Te = ç ÷ç ÷ M iqss ldrs - idss lqrs
è 2 øè 2 ø Lr
) (6)

Notably, the two features of the FOC that have been used in this research study are shown in
Eq. (1) to (6). The first aspect that shows the supply frequency changes with the speed of a
rotor [6] is given in Eq. (7) and (8).

P
w = wr + w (7)
2 m

where:

3rrTl *
wr = * (8)
Pldre 2

If T * is maintained constant during acceleration, then ωr is also constant. In Eq. (7), as ωm

changes during acceleration, then ω has to be varied, so that Eq. (7) satisfies the first FOC
feature. The second feature can be proven by substituting the conditions λqr = 0 and λdr = constant
in Eq. (3) [6, 21].

2 2
is = i + i2 (9)
3 ds qs

where:

ldre
ids = = constant (10)
LM
238 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

3 LrT *
iqs = (11)
PLM ldre *

Eq. (9) will be a constant if the torque command T * is a constant, which satisfies the second
feature. The Figure 5 shows that the speed response may be divided into two stages. For the
HFFC, Table 3 shows the relationship between the inputs and outputs.

0.9

0.8

0.7
Speed (rad/sec)

0.6

0.5

0.4 Fuzzy slip Fuzzy current

frequency control amplitude control
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Acceleration period Steady-state period Time

Figure 5. Speed response stages.

3. Design of the controllers

3.1. Fuzzy current amplitude controller

In the stage of acceleration-deceleration, the stator current magnitude is regulated as the

system is driven by the maximum permissible values of an inverter. During the final steady-
state period, the speed of the rotor is controlled by adjusting the magnitude of the stator
current, while the supply frequency is kept constant. In the presence of a constant supply
frequency, the relationship between torque-current may be expressed as follows [21].

é é P ù ù
ê rr L2M is2 êw - wm ú ú
é 3P ù ê ë 2 û ú
T=ê ú (12)
ë 2 û ê r 2 + é L + L ù 2 éw - P w ù ú
ê r ë M lr û ê ú
êë ë 2 m úû úû
 An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven Variable Speed Drives 239
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The values for the current amplitude are depicted as follows:

ìï50.54 is ³ 50.54 A when Dwm ¹ 0

is = í (13)
ïî is is < 50.54 A when Dwm = 0

The main phase from every input-output data couples is to create a fuzzy rule to find out a
degree of every data-value in each affiliated area of its corresponding fuzzy domain. Conse‐
quently, a variable is assigned to a region having a maximum value.

Supply Frequency Current Amplitude Rotor Speed Control Objective

Acceleration Change Constant Change Speed Change

Steady-State Constant Change Constant Reduce Oscillation

Table 3. HFFC relationship.

A truth or rule degree is assigned to a newly generated fresh rule from the input-output data
couples. Therefore, a rule degree can be defined as an extension of assurance to relate the
current- and voltage-related functions with an angle. Usually, a degree that is a creation of the
membership function degree of every variable in its corresponding area is assigned in a
formulated technique.

A compatible fuzzy rule is created by each training data set that is placed in the fuzzy rule
base. Consequently, each input-output data couples is preserved and the rules are generated.
A two-dimensional form that can be explored by the fuzzy reasoning tool is used to tabulate
a knowledge base or fuzzy rule.

Figure 6 demonstrates the general structure of the fuzzy logic control (FLC), a combination of
knowledge base, fuzzification, a defuzzification, and inference engine.

Speed
Reference Inference Defuzzifi-
Fuzzification o/p
Speed Engine cation
Error

Knowledge
Base

Figure 6. A general block diagram of FLC.

240 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

A speed error can be computed by comparing the reference speed and the speed signal
feedback. The fuzzy knowledge base consists of membership functions of the inputs of the
fuzzy controller including speed reference, error changing, and current amplitude/slip
frequency outputs.

Stages ωm* A fA

Deceleration - -50.54 NBB

Steady-State -120 -15.07 NB

- -80 -12.79 NM

- -40 -11.214 NS

- 0 0 Z

- 40 11.214 PS

- 80 12.79 PM

- 120 15.07 PB

Acceleration - 50.54 PBB

Table 4. Speed, current amplitude, and fuzzy linguistic values.

3.2. Membership functions

Primarily, the fuzzy logic controller is used to convert the change of error variables and the
crisp error into fuzzy variables, which is then plotted into the linguistic tags. All the member‐
ship functions and labels are connected with each other (Figures 7, 8, and 9), which comprises
of two inputs and one output. The nine sets are formed by classifying the fuzzy sets that are
outlined as follows:

Z: Zero PS: Positive Small PM: Positive Medium

PB: Positive Big NS: Negative Small NM: Negative Medium

NB: Negative Big PBB: Positive Big Big NBB: Negative Big Big

Table 5. Classification of the fuzzy sets

The previously defined seven numbers of linguistics, along with both inputs and outputs,
include membership functions. Eq. (9) shows the samples of current amplitude of the two
stages as shown in Table 4.
 An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven Variable Speed Drives 241
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NB NM NS Z PS PM PB
1

0.8
Degree of membership

0.6

0.4

0.2

-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150

m

Figure 7. Membership function of speed reference.

NB Z PB
1

0.8
Degree of membership

0.6

0.4

0.2

-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300

d m

Figure 8. Membership function of speed error.

242 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

NBB NB NM NS Z PS PM PB PBB
1

0.8
Degree of membership

0.6

0.4

0.2

-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

fA

Figure 9. Membership functions of current amplitude.

NBB NB NM NS Z PS PM PB PBB
1

0.8
Degree of membership

0.6

0.4

0.2

-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
fA, fr

Figure 10. Membership functions of slip frequency.

 An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven Variable Speed Drives 243
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3.3. Rule base

The fuzzy inputs can be plotted easily into the required output with the help of a useful tool,
the rule base, as shown in Table 6.

Speed Reference
Speed Error
NB NM NS Z PS PM PB

NB NBB NBB NBB NBB NBB NBB NBB

Z NB NM NS Z PS PM PB

PB PBB PBB PBB PBB PBB PBB PBB

Table 6. Rule matrix for fuzzy amplitude/slip controller.

3.4. Fuzzy frequency controller

A fuzzy frequency control is presented by using a frequency aspect of the field orientation
principle. At a steady state phase, the torque command is a smaller value, whereas, the torque
command becomes a larger value during the stage of acceleration-deceleration. The speed
reference and rotor speed represent these values [4, 6, 11]. The following relations show a slip
frequency at a steady-state.

ì 3rr
ï T when Dwm ¹ 0
e * 2 acc
ï Pldr
wr = í (14)
ï 3rr mw when Dw = 0
ï Pl e* 2 m m
î dr

So the slip frequency can be written as:

wr = f (wm , Dwm ) (15)

Eq. (14) shows the reference and speed error from the inputs of the fuzzy slip control. The
membership functions of the output and input are depicted in Figures 7, 8, and 10. In addition,
Table 6 shows the rule matrix. The samples of the slip frequency of the two stages can be
obtained by Eq. (14), which is shown in Table 7.

3.5. Defuzzification

The fuzzy control action is executed with the help of simulating the human decision process
via the interference engine, from the understanding of the linguistic variable expressions and
244 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Stages ωm* ωr fω
r

Deceleration - -16.80 NBB

Steady-State -120 -3.6328 NB

- -80 -2.42192 NM

- -40 -1.21096 NS

- 0 0 Z

- 40 1.21096 PS

- 80 2.42192 PM

- 120 3.6328 PB

Acceleration - 16.80 PBB

Table 7. Speed, slip frequency, and fuzzy linguistic values.

the control rules. As a result, the knowledge base along with the inference engine is intercon‐
nected during the course of the control process. At first, through substituting the fuzzified
inputs into rule base, the active rules are differentiated. Then, by employing one of the fuzzy
reasoning methods, these rules are combined. The utmost distinctive fuzzy reasoning methods
are the Max-Product and Min–Max. Since the Min-Max interference scheme is commonly used,
it is also applied in this research. The fuzzy control actions are then regenerated with the help
of defuzzification, which is deduced from the inference engine to a non-fuzzy control action.
Thus, using the center of gravity method, the defuzzification is accomplished in the set of Eq.
(16) to create a non-fuzzy control signal:

y=
å u(i)m w ( y )
i =1 A, r i
(16)
n
å m w (y )
i =1 A , r i

where, μA,ωr is the degree of membership function.

[NBB=1, NB=2, NM=3, NS=4, Z=5, PS=6, PM=7, PB=8, PBB=9]

Whereas, the linguistic standards of the antecedents relate to the entire values as follows:

[NB=1, NM=2, NS=3, Z=4, PS=5, PM=6, PB=7]

However, it is essential to recognize the values of the precedents, fuzzy operators in the rule
base weights, and fuzzy rules to form the rule base of a fuzzy controller; in this situation, the
antecedents 1 and 2 and the other stated values are positioned in a matrix inside the MATLAB
functions, as can be seen in the matrix below [24]:
 An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven Variable Speed Drives 245
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é Ant1 Ant2Con1RwRC L Ant7 Ant7Con7 RwRC ù

ê ú
ê M O M ú
ê Ant Ant Con RwRC L Ant Ant Con RwRC ú
ë 3 3 3 21 21 21 û

Where, Antn : antecedent n , Antn : antecedent n , Conn : consequent n , Rw : rule weight, and RC :
rule connection. Finally, the input/output variables range and the membership function data
are in the same MATLAB function. The MATLAB FIS (Fuzzy Inference System) file is the
output of this function that relates to a structure in which all the information of fuzzy inference
of the system is incorporated, which is utilized as a fuzzy controller in the feedback scheme of
the Simulink library. The flowchart procedure is shown in Figure 11.

Start

 Chromosome1 
Generate Chromosome 2  evaluation 1
  evaluation 2
initial     
population (n)      
   
Chromosome n    
Calculate  evaluation n  yes
fitness of Satisfy Stop End
individuals
No

Calculate Crossover to Roulette

Replace Mutation of
fitness of produce selection of
“Elitism” children
children children parents

Figure 11. Flowchart procedure.

The parameters of the GA are set as below:

1. Initial population size: 30

2. Maximum number of generations: 30

3. Probability of crossover: 0.8

4. Mutation probability: 0.09

5. Performance measure: IAE

From the feedback scheme, the performance index is entertained and reverted to the genetic
algorithm for the stability of the genetic process. Finally, the rule base attained is displayed as
below:
246 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

é1 2 2 2 1 1 3ù
ê ú
ê1 2 2 4 8 8 8ú
ê9 9 7 9 7 9 8 ú
ë û

4. GA-optimization method

GAs are computational schemes, which on the basis of processes of natural evolution, utilize
the operators who understand the process of heuristic search in a search space, in which it is
presumed that the perfect solution for the optimization problem is available [22]. The process
of GA is revealed in Figure 12 [21, 25].

Start
MATLAB Fuction
System Simulink
FIS Structure

First Generation
Initial data: Decode · Selection
Encode
· Population size Calculate fitness of · Crossover
Generate initial population
· Maximum range individuals (evaluation · Mutation
(chromosome 1,2, ….,n)
· Minimum range 1,2,….,n) Next generation
· Number of generation

Values of 21 consequents

Figure 12. The process flowchart of GA.

The objective function recommended in the optimization problem is the standard IAE
(Integrated Absolute Error) that is described by [5, 23, 26]:

T
IAE = ò e ( t ) dt (17)
0

The objective function recommended in Eq. (17) that is reduced in the course of the optimiza‐
tion process reflects a good reaction to set point changes. Among the most significant points,
i.e., the decay ratio, the settling time, the rise time, the overshoot, and the steady-state error,
this objective function is also considered [23]. However, merely the rule base is attained with
the assistance of the optimization technique.
 An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven Variable Speed Drives 247
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The genetic algorithm is applied to a population of individuals (chromosome) in order to

devise the rules where each of them encompasses a certain fuzzy controller. The antecedents
conforming to the input linguistic variables are fixed in a group as a fragment of a MATLAB
function [24]. During the assessment process, this function is utilized by the genetic algorithm
and it gets as arguments in the consequents of a controller; the assessment is done in all the
pre-established generations for each of the individuals of the population. Also, the binary code
is implemented for simplicity. The values are:

[NBB NB NM NS Z PS PM PB PBB]

And the output language variables are coded in the order:

[0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001]

A likely chromosome is shown in Table 5, which would be codified as:

[0001 0010 1001 0001 0100 1001 0001 0101 1001......1000 1001]

With the formation of a population of individuals (generated randomly), the genetic process
starts in which every individual comprises the 21 consequents of a fuzzy controller in general.
Since 21 consequents could be employed in the MATLAB function, to create the rules, it is
essential to change the individual, codified as a binary chain, to complete numbers in the values
from 1 to 9.

5. Outcomes and analysis

A combination of the fuzzy frequency controller and fuzzy current amplitude controller is
used to form an HFFC. This controller provides similar supply frequency as the FOC and is
insensitive to the parameter variation for the motor and system robustness to noise and load
disturbances, which are the advantages of this controller. A model of HFFC for an induction
motor is produced by using the MATLAB/Simulink software, which is shown in the Figure
13. Table 1 shows the parameters that are chosen to perform the simulation study.

Figure 13. Simulink diagram of the HFFC.

248 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

An HFFC can be modeled by combining the fuzzy frequency controller and the fuzzy current
amplitude controller. Throughout the final steady-state stage, the fuzzy frequency controller
outputs the frequency that relates to the speed command. During the acceleration-deceleration
stages, the fuzzy current amplitude controller outputs the maximum permitted current. The
model of HFFC for the induction motor is built using MATLAB/Simulink as presented in
Figure 14.

Figure 14. The model diagram of the HFFC.

6. Performance criteria

Generally, following the reference and to cast off the disturbance are the two basic key
objectives of control. The following performance criterion is employed for evaluating the
efficiency of the controller in achieving the aims of control for complete speed control and the
performances are identified for comparisons and investigation [5, 27]. The error (e), the
difference between actual and reference value, is generally categorized into a number of
quantities. One of the quantities to state the accumulative error magnitude is the IAE, whose
formula is given in Eq. (17) [5, 23, 26]. The quadratic measure, i.e., integral of squared error
(ISE), provides the error quantitative in quadratic mode. The ISE accrues the squared error.
The ISE expression is presented as:

T
ISE = òe 2 (t)dt (18)
0
 An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven Variable Speed Drives 249
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This criterion’s main disadvantage is that it provides large weight if the error is large, such as,
a poorly checked system. Other criteria are the integral of time weighted absolute error (ITAE)
and integral of the time multiplied by the squared error (ITSE). The expression of ITAE and
ITSE are articulated in Eq. (19) and Eq. (20).

T
ITAE = òt e ( t ) dt (19)
0

T
ITSE = òte 2 ( t ) dt (20)
0

The objective of control is to reduce every performance criteria’s error. The Simulink model
for calculating the performance indices is presented in Figure 15 [28].

e(t )  e(t ) dt
0
|u| 1/s
Abs Integrator for IAE IAE
T
t e(t )  t e(t ) dt
0
1/s
e(t ) t
Product Integrator for ITAE ITAE
Speed Error T

 te
2 2
Ramp te (t ) (t )dt
0
1/s
HFFC masked subsystem Product1 Integrator for ITSE ITSE
T

e
2
e 2 (t ) (t )dt
0
u^2 1/s
Fcn Integrator for ISE ISE

Figure 15. Simulink model for computing the performance indices.

7. Simulation results

By undertaking a simulation of an indirect rotor flux FOC, a new controller is matched with
the FOC. As shown in Figure 16, the speed has augmented in 0 s from 0–120 rad/s; in 8 s period,
the speed reduced to -120 rad/s; in the 12 s period, the speed has elevated to 50 rad/s; in the 16
s period, the speed has reduced to -120 rad/s; in the 18 s period, the speed has raised to 0 rad/
s; and increased to 120 rad/s in the 20 s.
250 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

150

100

50
Speed (rad/s)

-50

-100

-150
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (s)
Time (sec)

Figure 16. Reference speed step change.

The simulation outcomes of the HFFC are presented in Figures 17, 18, 19 and 20. The two-stage
control method provides a very fast speed. Due to the control of the current in a final steady-
state stage, the oscillations of speed are completely eliminated at a final operating point. It is
evident from the comparison of these results with an IFOC with PI-controller that the HFFC
shows the two features of FOC controller, i.e., the current feature at the steady state stage and
the frequency feature at accelerate-decelerate stage.

150
GA-hybrid fuzzy fuzzy controller (GA-HFFC)
Hybrid fuzzy-PI controller (HFPIC)
100 Hybrid fuzzy fuzzy controller (HFFC)
Indirect field-oriented controller (IFOC)

50
Speed (rad/s)

-50

-100

-150
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (s)
Time (sec)

Figure 17. Fuzzy responses of the fuzzy controllers

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80

60
Stator currents amplitude (A)

40

20

-20

-40

-60

-80
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (sec)

Figure 18. Stator currents amplitude of HFFC.

600

HFPIC HFFC IFOC

400

200
Torque (N.m)

-200

-400

-600

-800
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)

Figure 19. Torque response of HFFC.

The simulation outcomes on the efficiency of the controller centered on the performance
measures are revealed in Table 7. A closer look at the overshoot, performance criteria, time
rise, IAE, final steady-state value, ISE, ITAE, and ITSE is displayed to show reduced values.
This validates the act of the modified controller with a better performance to effectively control
the speed.
252 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

40
HFPIC HFFC IFOC
30

20
Slip frequency (rad/sec)

10

-10

-20

-30

-40

-50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)

Figure 20. Slip frequency response of the fuzzy controllers.

No. Performance Index HFPIC HFFC IFOC GA-HFFC

1 Overshoot (%) 0.000 3.000 0.000 0.000

2 Rise time (sec) 0.4363 0.2803 0.6107 0.2648

3 Final steady-state value 120.0989 120.08483 120.0681 120.08391

4 IAE 289.3 194 158.28 186

5 ISE 3.409e+004 2.311e+004 1.223e+004 2.287e+004

6 ITAE 2544 1656 1457.6 1625

7 ITSE 2.691e+005 1.765e+005 1.31e+005 1.799e+005

Table 8. The performance index comparison of the system.

8. Effects of internal and external disturbances

The mutual inductance and the rotor resistance are expected to be changed to 3 rr and 0.8 LM,
respectively, in order to demonstrate the insensitivity of the HFFC to the variation of motor
parameters. An insensitivity to the parameter variation shown by the speed response of a fuzzy
controller is shown in Figure 21.
Additionally, the distributed random noises are added in the input current and the feedback
speed to assess the effects of the noise of the input current and the noise of the speed sensor.
The speed response to the current noise and with the measured speed illustrates that the HFFC
possesses decent disturbance rejection (see Figure 22).
 An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven Variable Speed Drives 253
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150

HFFC with Rr and Lm HFFC with 3Rr and 0.8Lm

100

50
Speed (rad/sec)

-50

-100

-150
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)

Figure 21. Speed response of HFFC with parameter variations.

Furthermore, for studying the impact of magnetic saturation of the induction motor on the
controller performance, in the induction motor model, Figures 23 and 24 demonstrate the
simulation results of the torque and rotor speed responses. The flux upsurge is limited, owing
to the magnetic saturation so that the torque oscillations are decreased considerably, but
during the acceleration-deceleration stage, an extreme magnetic saturation will create a higher
temperature rise and larger losses.

150

100

50
Speed (rad/sec)

-50

-100

-150
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)

Figure 22. Speed response of HFFC with noise.

254 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

150
HFFC with magnetic saturation HFFC without magnetic saturation

100

50
Speed (rad/sec)

-50

-100

-150
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)

Figure 23. Speed response of HFFC with the effect of magnetic saturation.

Moreover, the effects of load torque variation on the HFFC system are analysed by the
simulation. In the simulation, the control system encounters quick variations in the load torque:
at t = 2 s , the load increases from 0% to 100% of the rated torque, T l , at t = 7 s , the load decreases
to 100% of T l , and at t = 10 s and 14 s , the load rises to 100% of T l again, at t = 19 s , the load
declines to 100% of T l .

500
HFFC with magnetic saturation HFFC without magnetic saturation
400

300

200
Torque (N.m)

100

-100

-200

-300

-400

-500
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)

Figure 24. Torque response of HFFC with effect of magnetic saturation.

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The torque reaction of the fuzzy-fuzzy control system with a load torque variation is demon‐
strated in Figure 25. The above-mentioned simulation results illustrate that the greater
variations can be created in a load torque by the fuzzy-fuzzy controller. However, the extracted
outcomes of performance of the model are found to be corresponding precisely with the
anticipations, when it is compared with an IFOC controller. The results also reveal that the
HFFC performance is unresponsive to the parameter variation for the motor and the system
strength to load and noise disturbances.

500
HFFC without load changes HFFC with load changes
400

300

200
Torque (N.m)

100

-100

-200

-300

-400

-500
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)

Figure 25. Torque response of HFFC with load changes.

9. The experimental results

The following experiments are conducted to demonstrate and verify the operability of the
proposed controller. There are several experiments that can be conducted, however the
experimental results presented here are necessary for this purpose. The experimental rig
constituting the induction motor speed controller system constructed comprises of the
following equipment:

• 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor 240/415 V- 175 W-1360 r/min-0.52 A-50 Hz (Lab-Volt)
• Prime Mover/Dynamometer (Lab-Volt)
• TMS320F28335 (Digital Spectrum Inc.)
• DMC1500 motor controller (Digital Spectrum Inc.)
• Tacho-generator with 500 rpm/volt
• Data acquisition card (DAQ) (Lab-Volt)
256 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

• Current sensors

• LVDAM-EMS software for DAQ

• Host PC
Figure 26 (a), (b), and (c) demonstrate the three-phase voltages waveforms V a, V b, and V c ,
respectively, acquired by DAQ. The actual voltages are 120° different phases from each other.

Figures 27 (a), (b), and (c) show the three-phase sinusoidal PWM for an inverter-fed induction
motor in a TMS320F28335 eZdsp control card. These signals are the output from the digital
signal processor (DSP) that have been applied to the inverter to control the induction motor.
The frequency of switching has been set at 10 kHz. It is worth to point out that for this controller
the operating frequency can be applied between 0 to 10 kHz.

X -scale: 20 ms/div X -scale: 20 ms/div

Y -scale: 50 V/div Y -scale: 50 V/div

(a) Y (b) Y

X -scale: 20 ms/div
Y -scale: 50 V/div

(c) Y

Figure 26. (a) Va , (b) Vb and (c) Vc waveforms output.

In Figure 28 (a) and (b) are the output signals measured by the encoder at two different
sampling rates: 5 kHz and 10 kHz, respectively, which demonstrate the different speeds that
can be achieved. The encoder is providing signal to the controller that represents the feedback
signals.
 An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven Variable Speed Drives 257
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61086

X -scale: 0.2 ms/div X -scale: 0.2 ms/div

Y -scale: 1 V/div Y -scale: 1 V/div

(a) Y (b) Y

X -scale: 0.2 ms/div

Y -scale: 1 V/div

(c) Y

Figure 27. The three-phase PWM. (a) PWM1, (b) PWM2, and (c) PWM3.

X -scale: 0.2 ms/div X -scale: 0.2 ms/div

Y -scale: 2 V/div Y -scale: 2 V/div

Y Y
(a) (b)

Figure 28. Encoder output signals at different sampling rate (a) 5 kHz and (b) 10 kHz.

Figure 29 (a), (b), and (c) show the stator voltage and current in the acceleration and steady-
state stages and speed response in the steady-state stage, respectively, looking at one of the
three phases. Figure 29 (a) reveals the stator voltage that increases gradually to a constant
value. For the stator current, as shown in Figure 29 (b), the current is initially at maximum
258 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

value and gradually decreases to a constant value. These verify that the controller is perform‐
ing as expected during the acceleration and steady-state stages. Figure 29 (c) represents the
speed at steady-state stage, which also proves that the controller is performing as expected,
though some spikes are observed that can be related to the encoder used in this set-up. The
spikes can be eliminated if a more sensitive encoder has been used.

X -scale: 50 ms/div
X -scale: 50 ms/div
Y -scale: 50 V/div
Y -scale: 0.5 A/div

Y
(a) (b) Y

X -scale: 0.2 ms/div

Y -scale: 500 r/min/div

Y
(c)

Figure 29. (a) Stator voltage, (b) stator current, and (c) speed response outputs.

10. Conclusions

The objective of this study is to elaborate and elucidate the effects and performance of internal
and external disturbances for an established HFFC scheme to accordingly modify the speed
of an induction motor. The fuzzy-fuzzy controller has been proven to be more effective as
compared to a scalar controller due to the utilisation of the two aspects of the FOC. Besides,
one of the key advantages of this controller includes the supply of the same FOC and frequency
that is unresponsive to the parameter variation in the motor and system strength to noise and
load disturbances. This study, under dynamic settings, produced a comprehensive evaluation
and analysis of the three controllers, HFFC, IFOC, and HFPIC. The experimental results verify
the performance of the proposed HFFC in controlling the IM variable speed drive. Therefore,
 An Optimized Hybrid Fuzzy-Fuzzy Controller for PWM-driven Variable Speed Drives 259
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61086

for further enhancing the IM-VSD performance, the work to be considered includes the
advancement in the augmentation of the controllers to improve the VSD performances.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the support from the Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS through the
award of the Graduate Assistantship scheme and URIF.

Author details

Nordin Saad*, Muawia A. Magzoub, Rosdiazli Ibrahim and Muhammad Irfan

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Bandar

Sri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia

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 Chapter 10

DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors

Rafael Rodríguez-Ponce, Fortino Mendoza-Mondragón,

Moisés Martínez-Hernández and Marcelino Gutiérrez-Villalobos

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60871

Abstract
Direct torque control, or DTC, is an electrical motor strategy characterized for
simplicity and high performance when controlling industrial machines such as
induction motors. However, this technique is often accompanied by an unwanted
deformation on the torque and flux signals denominated ripple, which can cause
audible noise and vibration on the motor. Considerable research has been presented
on this topic; nevertheless the original DTC algorithm is often modified to the point
that it is as complex as other motor control strategies. To solve this problem, a novel
architecture was designed in order to reduce the sampling period to a point where
torque ripple is minimal, while maintaining the classical DTC control structure. In this
work, the original DTC control strategy was implemented on a Virtex-5 field
programmable gate array (FPGA). For the code, a two´s complement fixed-point
format and a variable word-size approach was followed using very-high-speed
integrated circuit hardware description language (VHDL). Results were validated
using MATLAB/Simulink simulations and experimental tests on an induction motor.
With this new architecture, the authors hope to provide guidelines and insights for
future research on DTC drives for induction motors.

Keywords: Direct torque control, AC servo drive, Field programmable gate array

1. Introduction

It is well known that one of the components most commonly found in any industrial or
residential machine is the electric motor. Motors are used almost in any application where
264 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

electricity must be converted to a mechanical motion of some kind. They come in a wide variety
of sizes, ranging from very small, as the motors found inside a cellphone for creating vibration,
to very large, as the ones used in wind tunnels for aircraft testing.
There are many types of electrical motors but one that has remained the favorite for almost
any medium- to large-sized application is the AC induction motor (ACIM). The concept of this
“sparkless” motor was first conceived by Nicola Tesla in the late nineteenth century. Although
it was first designed as a polyphase structure that consisted of two stator phases in an
orthogonal relationship, it has since been modified to a more common three-phase structure,
which results in a more balanced operation of the motor voltages and currents [1]. The ACIM
is rugged and highly reliable, can be manufactured at a low cost, and is almost maintenance-
free, except for bearings and other external mechanical parts.
The ACIM is essentially a fixed-speed machine. However, most industrial applications require
a motor in which torque or speed can easily be controlled. Therefore, several high-performance
control strategies have been developed for AC motors; two of the most popular motor control
methods are field oriented control (FOC) and direct torque control (DTC) [2]. Unlike FOC, DTC
is characterized for its simplicity since it does not require PI regulators, coordinate transfor‐
mations, pulse width modulation (PWM) generators, or position encoders on the motor shaft
[3]. In spite of its simplicity, DTC provides fast torque control in the steady state and under
transient operating conditions with simple control structure [4].
One major disadvantage of DTC is that it has the distinct characteristic of ripple on torque and
flux signals; this ripple is an unwanted deformation or “noise” on motor signals that can lead
to audible noise and vibration in the motor [5]. It is possible to reduce ripple by reducing the
sampling period [6]; for this reason, recent DTC drives have been implemented by using fast
processing devices such as FPGAs [7].
The purpose of this chapter is to present the development of an ACIM drive on an FPGA; the
original DTC strategy was implemented by using a fixed-point architecture on a Xilinx Virtex-5
development board and used on real-time experiments. By using an FPGA and a novel
architecture, it was possible to reduce processing time to 1.6 µs, therefore reducing torque
ripple to a minimum.
This chapter is organized as follows: Section 2 presents a mathematical model for the
induction motor. Section 3 presents a simplified description of the DTC strategy. A detailed
description of the FPGA-based induction motor drive is described in Section 4. Simula‐
tion and experimental results are presented in Section 5. Finally, the conclusion of this work
is given in Section 6.

2. Induction motor mathematical model

The cage rotor induction machine is widely used in industrial applications, such as belt
conveyors, pumps, fans, cranes, etc. It presents great mechanical sturdiness and there is a good
standardization between ACIM manufacturers worldwide. Nevertheless, the relative simplic‐
 DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors 265
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60871

ity of the operation of the motor hides a great complexity, especially when it is aimed at
controlling the performed electromechanical conversion [1].

There are a number of ACIM models; the model used for vector control design can be obtained
by using the space vector theory. The 3-phase motor quantities, such as currents, voltages, and
magnetic fluxes, are expressed in terms of complex space vectors. Such a model is valid for
any instantaneous variation of voltage and current and adequately describes the performance
of the machine under steady-state and transient operation. The motor is considered to be a 2-
phase machine by using two orthogonal axes; with this model, the number of equations is
reduced and the control design is simplified [8].

When describing a three-phase IM by a system of equations, the following simplifying

assumptions are made [8]:

• The three-phase motor is symmetrical.

• Only the fundamental harmonic is considered, while the higher harmonics of the spatial
field distribution and of the magneto-motive force (MMF) in the air gap are disregarded.

• The spatially distributed stator and rotor windings are replaced by a specially formed, so-
called concentrated coil.

• The effects of anisotropy, magnetic saturation, iron losses, and eddy currents are neglected.

• The coil resistances and reactance are taken to be constant.

• In many cases, especially when considering steady state, the current and voltages are taken
to be sinusoidal.

Taking into consideration the earlier-stated assumptions, the following equations of the
instantaneous stator phase voltage values can be written as follows (all variable descriptions
are listed in Table 1):

d
V A = Rsi A + Ψ (1)
dt A

d
VB = RsiB + Ψ (2)
dt B

d
VC = RsiC + Ψ (3)
dt C

A three-phase variable system can be uniquely described through a space vector, which is a
complex term and time-dependent k(t) and a real homopolar component k0(t) as follows:

2
k( t ) = é1*k + a*kB + a 2 *kC ù (4)
3ë A û
266 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

1
k0 ( t ) = é k + kB + kC ûù (5)
3ë A

The real axis direction coincides with that one of phase A. Usually, the neutral connection for
a three-phase system is open, so that the homopolar component equals zero.

The ACIM model is given by the space vector form of the voltage equations. The system model
defined in a two-phase stationary (α, β) coordinate system attached to the stator is expressed
by the following equations:

a. The stator voltage differential equations:

d
Vsa = Rsisa + Ψ (6)
dt sa

d
Vsb = Rsisb + Ψ (7)
dt sb

b. The rotor voltage differential equations:

d
Vra = 0 = Rr ira + Y + wY r b (8)
dt ra

d
Vr b = 0 = Rr ir b + Y + wY ra (9)
dt r b

c. The stator and rotor flux linkages expressed in terms of the stator and rotor current space
vectors:

Ψ sa = Lsisa + Lmira (10)

Ψ sb = Lsisb + Lmir b (11)

Ψ ra = Lr ira + Lmisa (12)

Ψ r b = Lr ir b + Lmisb (13)
 DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors 267
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60871

d. The electromagnetic torque expressed by utilizing space vector quantities:

3
Te =
2
(
P Ψ sa isb - Ψ sb isa ) (14)

The ACIM model is often used in vector control algorithms. The aim of vector control is to
implement control schemes that produce high-dynamic performance and are similar to those
used to control DC machines [2]. To achieve this, the reference frames may be aligned with the
stator flux-linkage space vector, the space vector of the rotor current in the rotor reference
frame, the rotor flux-linkage space vector, or the magnetizing space vector. The most popular
reference frame is the reference frame attached to the rotor flux linkage space vector with direct
axis (d) and quadrature axis (q) [8].

After transformation into d-q coordinates the motor model follows:

d
Vsd = Rsisd + Ψ - ws Ψ sq (15)
dt sd

d
Vsq = Rsisq + Ψ - ws Ψ sd (16)
dt sq

d
Vrd = 0 = Rr ird + Y - (ws - w )Y rq (17)
dt rd

d
Vrq = 0 = Rr irq + Y - (ws - w )Y rd (18)
dt rq

Ψ sd = Lsisd + Lmird (19)

Ψ sq = Lsisq + Lmirq (20)

Ψ rd = Lr ird + Lmisd (21)

Ψ rq = Lr irq + Lmisq (22)

3
Te =
2
(
P Ψ sd isq - Ψ sq isd ) (23)
268 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Variable Description

V A, V B , V C Instantaneous values of the stator phase voltages

iA, iB , iC Instantaneous values of the stator phase currents

Ψ A, Ψ B , ΨC Flux linkages of the stator phase windings

k A, k B , k C Arbitrary phase variables

a, a 2 Spatial operators a = e j2π/3

and a 2 = e j4π/3

α, β Stator orthogonal coordinate system

V sα,β Stator voltages [V]

isα,β Stator currents [A]

V rα,β Rotor voltages [V]

irα,β Rotor currents [A]

Ψsα,β Stator magnetic fluxes [Wb]

Ψrα,β Rotor magnetic fluxes [Wb]

Rs Stator phase resistance [Ohm]

Rr Rotor phase resistance [Ohm]

L s Stator phase inductance [H]

L r Rotor phase inductance [H]

L m Mutual (stator to rotor) inductance [H]

ω / ωs Electrical rotor speed/synchronous speed [rad/s]

P Number of pole pairs

Te Electromagnetic torque [Nm]

Table 1. Variable description.

3. Classical DTC scheme

The theory for the DTC control strategy was developed by Manfred Depenbrock as direct self-
control (DSC) and separately, as direct torque control (DTC) by Isao Takahashi and Toshihiko
Noguchi, both in the mid-1980s, although the DTC innovation is usually credited to all three
individuals [2]. A block diagram of the DTC strategy is shown in Figure 1.
The main objective of DTC is to estimate instantaneous values of torque and magnetic flux,
based on motor current and voltage. Torque and flux vectors are controlled directly and
independently by selecting the appropriate inverter voltage vector that will maintain torque
and flux errors within the hysteresis comparator limits [3].
 DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors 269
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60871

3-phase line

Rectifier
Hysteresis
Comparators
Flux e
* Sa
Reference s Inverter Voltage S
b
Flux Vector
Torque e Sc VSI
*
Reference e
T Table
Torque sector
Flux
Te Sector
s
Vcd
T/F V ,V (a,b,c) ia ib
Estimator i , i (a, b) ADC

ACIM

Figure 1. Direct torque control block diagram.

In order to estimate the motor torque and flux values, the instantaneous current (ia, ib) and DC
bus voltage (V cd ) signals are obtained from the ACIM as illustrated in Figure 1. These analog
signals are converted to digital values by means of an analog to digital converter (ADC). The
current and voltage signals, as well as the current state of the voltage source inverter (VSI)
vector (Sa, Sb, Sc ), are transformed from a 3-phase reference frame to a 2-phase reference frame
(α, β ), as follows:

a. The α, β current signals:

ia = ia (24)

3
ib =
3 a
( i + 2 ib ) (25)

b. The α, β voltage signals:

Vcd
Va =
3
( 2Sa - Sb - Sc ) (26)

3
Vb = V ( S - Sc ) (27)
3 cd b
270 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

c. The α, β flux components:

ja = ja 0 + ( Va - Rsia ) Ts (28)

j b = j b 0 + ( Vb - Rsib ) Ts (29)

where

T s – Sampling period [seconds]

Rs – Stator resistance [ohms]

φα0, φβ0 – Previous flux component value [Wb]

Based on this data, the flux magnitude and the electromagnetic torque are obtained as follows:

a. The stator magnetic flux magnitude:

js = (j ) + (j )
a
2
b
2
(30)

b. The electromagnetic torque:

3
Te =
2
(
P ja ib - j b ia ) (31)

In order to re-orient the flux vector φs , first it is necessary to determine where it is localized.
For this reason, the flux vector circular trajectory is divided into six symmetrical sectors, as
shown in Figure 2.

The angle θs can be calculated, based on the α, β flux components as follows:

jb
q s = tan-1 (32)
ja

However, implementing Eq. (32) in an FPGA is complex and time consuming and is usually
performed be means of the coordinate rotation digital computer (CORDIC) algorithm [9].
Instead, it is possible to determine the sector in which the flux vector is located, based on the
signs of the flux components, as described in [3]. The sector can be determined by using Table
2 and Eq. (33).
 DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors 271
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60871

V b
Sector 3 Sector 2
js
jb
Sector 4 Sector 1
qs

ja Va

Sector 5 Sector 6

Figure 2. Sectors of the flux vector circular trajectory.

Sign of φα Sign of φβ φref Sector

+ +/- - 1

+ + + 2

- + + 3

- +/- - 4

- - - 5

+ - + 6

Table 2. Stator flux space vector’s sector.

jref = 3 j b - ja (33)

For example, if both flux components are positive and the result of Eq. (33) is also positive,
then the flux vector is located in sector 2. Instead, if the result of the equation is negative, the
vector is located in sector 1.

The method described previously to determine the sector of the flux vector is easier to
implement in a digital device and can be processed faster since it consists of a simple data table.
272 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

As shown in Figure 1, the estimated magnetic flux and electromagnetic torque values are
compared with the magnetic flux reference and the electromagnetic torque reference, respec‐
tively. The flux and torque errors (eφ , eT ) are delivered to the hysteresis controllers.

A two-level hysteresis controller is used to establish the limits of the flux error. For the
torque error, a three-level hysteresis controller is used. The hysteresis controllers are shown
in Figure 3.

a) b)
f t

-LT eT
-Lj +Lj ej +LT

Djs

DT ᵉ

Figure 3. Hysteresis controllers for (a) flux and for (b) torque.

The hysteresis controller output signals ϕ and τ are defined as follows:

f = 1 for ej > + Lj (34)

f = 0 for ej < - Lj (35)

t = 1 for eT > + Lt (36)

t = 0 for eT = 0 (37)

t = -1 for eT < -Lt (38)

The digitized output variables ϕ, τ and the stator flux sector determine the appropriate
voltage vector from the inverter switching table. Thus, the selection table generates pulses
Sa, Sb, Sc to control the power switches in the inverter in order to generate six possible active
vectors (v1-v6) and two zero vectors (v0, v7), as shown in Figure 4.
 DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors 273
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60871

Vb

v3(010) v2(110)

v7(111) v0(000)
v4(011) v1(100)
Va

v5(001) v6(101)

Figure 4. Voltage vectors based on eight possible inverter states.

For the stator flux vector laying in sector 1 (Figure 5), in order to increase its magnitude, voltage
vectors v1, v2 or v6 can be selected. Conversely, a decrease can be obtained by selecting v3, v4
or v5. By applying one of the voltage vectors v0 or v7, the stator flux vector is not changed.

Vb
S3 S2

ws
v3 v2

js v1
S4 v4

v5 v6
Va
S1

Djs

S5 S6

Figure 5. Selection of the optimum voltage vectors for the stator flux vector in sector 1.

For torque control, if the vector is moving as indicated in Figure 5, the torque can be increased
by selecting vectors v2, v3 or v4. To decrease torque, vectors v1, v5 or v6 can be selected.
274 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

The above considerations allow the construction of the inverter switching table as presented
in Table 3.

Sector
φ τ
1 2 3 4 5 6

τ =1 v2(110) v3(010) v4(011) v5(001) v6(101) v1(100)

φ =1 τ =0 v7(111) v0(000) v7(111) v0(000) v7(111) v0(000)

τ = −1 v6(101) v1(100) v2(110) v3(010) v4(011) v5(001)

τ =1 v3(010) v4(011) v5(001) v6(101) v1(100) v2(110)

φ =0 τ =0 v0(000) v7(111) v0(000) v7(111) v0(000) v7(111)

τ = −1 v5(001) v6(101) v1(100) v2(110) v3(010) v4(011)

Table 3. Optimum switching table.

The optimal voltage vector is a vector such that, once applied to the VSI, will maintain the flux
and torque signals within the hysteresis comparator limits [4]. The selected voltage vector is
applied at the end of the sampling period.

4. DTC Digital Implementation

In this section, a detailed description of a DTC drive for induction motors is presented. The
drive was implemented on a Xilinx Virtex-5 FPGA based on two´s complement fixed-point
architecture composed of 7 main blocks, which are described as follows and shown in Figure
6:
a. Conversion control block: this block controls 3 external 12-bit serial, ADCs that operate
in parallel. The motor current and voltage signals are converted from serial to parallel.
Since both signals are scaled versions of the original, in this block both values are restored
to their real value.

b. Torque and flux estimator: the real time electromagnetic torque and magnetic flux vectors
are estimated based on motor current and voltage signals.

c. Flux sector detection block: the sector for the magnetic flux vector is detected.

d. Reference comparison block: the real torque and flux estimated values are compared with
torque and flux references.

e. Hysteresis comparators: two-level and three-level hysteresis comparators are included in

this block.

f. Switching table: all the optimal voltage vectors for the inverter are contained in this block.
 DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors 275
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60871

g. Global control block: a finite state machine (FSM) is included in this block and is in charge
of the control of all the other DTC blocks.

100MHz
Clock
FSM

s *
1 n
ia ADC ia 12 1
ia s
n e n
1 i Conversion ib 12 Torque/Flux Reference Hysteresis 2 Switching 6
b
ib ADC VSI
vcd Control 12 Estimator Te m Comparison e m Comparators Table
vcd
1
vcd ADC
Sa Sb Sc n 3 3
Te* n
Flux Vector
n
Detection sector
(0 - 7)

Xilinx Virtex5

Figure 6. DTC architecture on Xilinx Virtex5 FPGA.

One of the benefits of this DTC architecture presented is that it is completely generic; the data
width can be modified depending on the application or the precision required, and all the DTC
equations will adjust automatically. The flux data path has n bits while the torque data path
can have m bits, as shown in Figure 6. The data paths can be extended for more precision,
however this will also extend the sampling time. For this project, the flux data path was left at
20 bits and the torque data path was set to 23 bits in order to achieve a low sampling period
of 1.6 µs.

4.1. Conversion control block

The current signals (ia, ib) are first obtained by sensing two of the motor lines by means of coil
sensors. The output is an AC signal that is amplified and added a DC offset, in order to have
a positive only value between 0 and 3.3 V for the ADC. The signals are then converted by the
ADC to a serial 12-bit value and then to a 12-bit parallel value. Finally, the offset value is
subtracted and multiplied by a scaling factor in order to obtain the original current signal. This
process is shown in Figure 7.

Motor
Current Current Line
Sensor

3.3 1.65
1v 3.3V -1.65
0
10A -1v 3.9 4.9 4.9
AMP 0 10A
-10A
+ OFF A/D S P - OFF x FACT -10A

Control
Signals
Conversion Block

Figure 7. Current signal conversion process from current sensor to conversion control block.
276 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

The conversion process for the DC bus voltage signal is similar to the process described for
the current signals, except that a current sensor is not used. Instead, by means of a resistive
voltage divider, the voltage signal is reduced to a suitable value. Since the signal is always
positive, there is no need to add an offset. The signal is only filtered and passed through several
operational amplifier (OP AMP) stages, in order to isolate and adjust to a specific value
between 0 and 3.3 V.

The DC voltage signal (Vdc) is converted to digital using a serial 12-bit ADC; the serial signal
is converted to a parallel value and then multiplied by a scaling factor to restore it to the original
DC value. The conversion process for the DC voltage signal is shown in Figure 8.

DC Bus +120V
Voltage 3.3
1.2V 3.3V
R1 0 0
0
OP 7.5 7.5 120V

AMP A/D S P x FACT 0

C1 R2
Control
Signals Conversion Block

Figure 8. Voltage signal conversion process.

4.2. Torque and flux estimator

The estimation block is the most important part of the DTC process, since the selection of the
optimal voltage vector for the VSI depends on the accuracy of the magnetic flux vector [4].

The flux estimator was designed in VHDL to execute Eq. (24-31) presented previously in
Section 3, where basically the stator flux is calculated based on stator currents and voltages;
once flux stationary components are calculated, the stator flux can be obtained by adding both
components squared and applying the square root operation.

Several equations are implemented in parallel, such as the voltage and current transformation
to stationary coordinates and later the stator flux stationary components.

In FPGA implementation, word size is critical; a large word size reduces quantization errors
but increases area and affects costs. On the contrary, a small word size affects precision,
increasing control error and torque ripple [10]. Therefore, a fixed-point format with a variable
word size was used in the implementation of the DTC equations.

The DTC architecture was designed for implementation on an FPGA with data words starting
at 12 bits and increased according to the mathematical operations to avoid a loss in precision.

The estimator was divided in three stages as follows:

Stage 1 – In the first stage, the values of ia, ib and Vcd, and the previous inverter vector (Sa, Sb,
Sc) are used to calculate the corresponding stationary components iα, iβ, Vα and Vβ. This stage
is shown in Figure 9.
 DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors 277
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60871

iᵃ iᵇ Vᵈ Sᵃ Sᵇ S
3.9 3.9 7.5
2 0.10 1 0.10 3
3 3
Adjust Adjust * * *
5.9 5.9 7.15 2 7.15
+
0.10 3 * 2's Comp
5.9
3 9.15 7.15
* 0 0
5.19 MUX
9.15 MUX
Adjust 2's Comp
9.15

Adjust
7.15 7.15 7.15 7.15
Register Register Register Register

i i V V

Figure 9. First stage of flux and torque estimator.

In the previous figure, the fixed-point format is indicated in each vertical line and width
adjustments are made when required. At the end of this stage, four 22-bit parallel registers
restrict data flow until they receive a pulse from the estimator FSM; this assures that all values
pass to the next stage at the same time.

Stage 2 – In this stage, flux stationary components φα and φβ are calculated based on data from
stage 1 as described in (28) and (29). Both components are calculated based on the same
equation, therefore a generic block was designed for this calculation and is used twice in
parallel. The architecture for this stage is shown in Figure 10.

In this stage, both flux components are loaded to the register by a pulse from the estimator
FSM, which serves as the previous flux value (φα0 or φβ0) for the next calculation.

Stage 3 – In this last stage, the flux components are squared, added, and then the square
root (SQRT) algorithm is applied as in Eq. (30); a special architecture was designed for the
SQRT and will be described in detail later in section 4.8. The stator torque is calculated, by
means of Eq. (31), in parallel with the flux equation. The architecture for this last stage is
shown in Figure 11.

4.3. Flux sector detection block

Based on the value and sign of the stationary flux components, the flux vector sector is
determined by means of Eq.(33) and Table 2. The signs of the flux components are used to
278 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

V i Rs Ts V i Rs Ts
7.15 7.15 4.6 0.24 7.15 7.15 4.6 0.24

Adjust * Adjust *
11.21 11.21 11.21 11.21

- -
11.21 11.21

* *
11.45 11.45
Adjust Adjust
0 0
2.34 2.34
+ +
2.34 2.34 2.34 2.34
Register Register

2.34 2.34

Figure 10. Second stage of flux and torque estimator.

i i P 3/4
2.34 2.34 7.15 2.34 7.15 2.34 5.0 1.2

Adjust Adjust Adjust Adjust

2.30 2.30 2.30 2.30

* * *
9.45 9.45 6.2
* *
4.60 4.60 Adjust Adjust Adjust
9.30 9.30 4.2
+
4.60 -
9.30
SQRT
2.30 *
13.32
Adjust Adjust
1.19 4.19
Register Register
1.19 4.19
s Te

Figure 11. Last stage of flux and torque estimator.

 DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors 279
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60871

determine the quadrant of the flux vector and the value of φref is used for selecting between
the upper or lower sectors in that quadrant. The architecture for this block is shown in
Figure 12.

2.34 2.34

Adjust Adjust
1.19 1.19

Ö3 | |-| |
MSB MSB

2.25

Table

3
Register
3
Sector

Figure 12. Architecture of the sector detection block.

4.4. Reference comparison block

In this DTC block, the estimated flux and torque values are subtracted from the corresponding
reference values. The reference data may be entered by means of external slide switches or it
can come from a user interface through the USB port. The structure of the USB interface is not
discussed in this document. The structure of the comparison block is shown in Figure 13.

4.5. Hysteresis comparators

A two-level comparator for flux and a three-level comparator for torque are implemented in
this block. Both hysteresis comparators were designed as FSMs in order to provide fast
transition from one to another state. The FSM for the hysteresis comparators are shown in
Figure 14.
280 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Magnetic Flux Torque

s* s* Tᵉ* Tᵉ*
Switches USB s Switches USB Tᵉ
1.19 1.19 1.19 4.19 4.19 4.19
MUX MUX
1.19 4.19

- -
1.19 4.19
Register Register
1.19 4.19
e eT
Figure 13. Reference comparison blocks for flux and torque.

Flux Torque
e j < Lj - eTe < Lt - eTe < 0
e j < Lj - e j > Lj + eTe < Lt- eTe > Lt - eTe < Lt+ eTe > L t+
f=0 f=1 t = -1 t=0 t=1

e j > Lj + eTe > 0 eTe > Lt+

Figure 14. FSMs for flux and torque hysteresis comparators.

4.6. Switching table

The VSI optimal switching vectors listed in Table 3 are included in the switching table. A
voltage vector is selected based on the hysteresis comparator values ϕ and τ, and on the flux
vector sector. The table output is a 3-bit vector and its complement, which are fed to the VSI.
The 3-bit vector is also sent back to the torque-flux estimator to obtain the next torque and flux
values. The architecture for the switching table is shown in Figure 15.

4.7. Global control block

In order to have a constant sampling period (Ts), a global FSM was used to control the data
flow from one block to the next. Since there is a register at the output of every major block, the
FSM sends a timed pulse to each one, depending on the selected width of the data path. The
 DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors 281
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60871

flux
f t
sector
1 1 3
To
Estimator
Switching Table
3

Register
3 3
To VSI

Figure 15. Switching table architecture.

ADC conversion and adjustment take a total of 600 ns and the estimation of torque and flux
take 940 ns with the data path set to 20-bits for the flux and 23-bits for torque. The rest of the
processes take only 20 ns each, giving a total of 1600 ns for the sampling period. The execution
times are shown in Figure 16.

600ns 940ns 20ns 20ns 20ns =1600ns

start

ADC T/F HYST SW

ADC REF VSI
CONV ESTIM COMP TABLE

SECT

FSM

Figure 16. Execution times of each DTC block.

4.8. Square root algorithm

In order to reduce current ripple to a minimum, the DTC algorithm must have a processing
period as low as possible, and the square root is the calculation that usually takes the longest
[4]. For this reason, a special architecture was devised in order to have an algorithm that could
be scaled easily to any number of bits and could execute quickly [11].
282 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

A successive approximation register (SAR), similar to the used in commercial ADCs, was
designed in order to arrive quickly to the result.

The whole algorithm is based on a square root calculation as follows:

y= x (39)

which can also be written as:

y2 - x = 0 (40)

In other words, if a certain number y is squared and x is subtracted, and the result is zero or
very close to it, then y would be the square root of x. Hence, the main objective is to find y as
fast as possible; this is where the SAR proved worthy.

The SAR is basically a register in which each bit is LOW and, bit by bit, is toggled to HIGH,
starting from the most significant bit (MSB) down to the least significant bit (LSB) under the
flowing conditions; if the result of Eq. (40) is:
• Greater than zero, the HIGH bit is toggled back to LOW and the SAR proceeds to toggle the
next bit.

• Less than zero, the HIGH bit is maintained and the SAR proceeds to toggle the next bit.

• Equal to zero or if the SAR ran out of bits to toggle, the current value of y is the square root
of x and the process is terminated.
The architecture used for the square root is shown in Figure 17.

Multiplier

n
n
y2
* 2n y2 > x
Magnitude Parallel
n
2
Comparator y = x SAR y Register
y
n n n
x x
n 2n
n zeros

Start

Figure 17. Square root architecture.

 DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors 283
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60871

The SAR is the main block of the SQRT architecture; a START pulse is received from the
estimator FSM to initialize the SAR process. Once the result is found, it is loaded to a parallel
register and passed on to the reference comparison block.

Despite the simplicity of the square root architecture presented, it proved to be a fast and
precise algorithm that could be scaled easily to adapt to the generic nature of the torque and
flux estimator. The only restriction is that it requires x having an even number of bits.

5. Results and discussion

5.1. Simulation results

The DTC architecture presented in Section 4 was first tested in MATLAB/Simulink for
simulation studies and later was implemented on an FPGA-based induction motor drive for
experimental verification.

The torque dynamic response is shown in Figure 18 with a sampling period of 1.6 µs and the
hysteresis band reduced to 0.1 Nm.

Reference
Actual

Figure 18. Torque dynamic response in MATLAB/Simulink.

Thanks to the small sampling period, the torque ripple was reduced to a small value.

Similarly, the flux hysteresis band was reduced to 0.06 Wb and as a result, as shown in Figure
19, the flux locus is almost a perfect circle with very small ripple.

Consequently, due to the small sampling period and reduced torque ripple, the stator current
signal appears almost as a perfect sinusoidal, as shown in Figure 20.
284 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05
PSIbeta (Wb)

-0.05

-0.1

-0.15

-0.2
-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
PSIalfa (Wb)

Figure 19. Flux locus in MATLAB/Simulink.

2
Current (Amps)

-1

-2

-3

-4
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
time (s)

Figure 20. Stator current in MATLAB/Simulink.

5.2. Experimental results

For experimental verification, the DTC strategy was implemented on a Xilinx Virtex-5
development board running at 100 MHz. The current and voltage signal conversions were
done using Analog Devices AD7476A ADCs. For the motor power interface, a two-level VSI
Fairchild Smart Power Module FNB41560 was used. All motor tests were done using a Texas
 DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors 285
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60871

Instruments 3-phase induction motor HVACIMTR. The motor parameters shown in Table 4
are the same used in simulations.

Parameter Value

Poles 4

Rs 11.05Ω

Rr 6.11Ω

Ls 0.316423 mH

Lr 0.316423 mH

Lm 0.293939 mH

Power 0.25KW

V 220VAC

Table 4. Induction motor parameters.

Firstly, the torque dynamic response to a 2 Nm step is shown in Figure 21. A FUTEK torque
sensor (TRS300) was used and the output analog signal was scaled, filtered, and displayed on
a digital oscilloscope.

2
Torque (Nm)

-1

-2

-3

time (100ms/div)

Figure 21. Experimental torque dynamic response.

286 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

To visualize the FPGA flux locus on the oscilloscope, two 16-bit digital to analog converters
(AD5543) were used. The resulting image is shown in Figure 22, and as the flux simulation, it
also appears as a perfect circle with reduced torque ripple.

0.3

0.2
PSIbeta (Wb)

0.1

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

PSIalfa (Wb)

Figure 22. Experimental flux locus.

Finally, the experimental stator current of one of the phases is shown in Figure 23.

4
Current (Amps)

-2

-4

-6

time (15ms/div)

Figure 23. Experimental stator current.

 DTC-FPGA Drive for Induction Motors 287
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60871

For comparison purposes, the sampling frequency was reduced to 100 KHz and, as expected,
a large content of ripple was observed in the torque signal as shown in Figure 24. This increased
ripple caused vibration and heating on the motor.

1.25

1.0
Torque (Nm)

0.75

0.5

0.25

-1.5

time (100ms/div)

Figure 24. Experimental torque signal at reduced sampling frequency (100 KHz).

6. Conclusion

This chapter has presented an induction motor drive using classical DTC as the main control
strategy. This technique was preferred over others due to its simplicity and high performance
in motor control. Although DTC is characterized for presenting large ripple on flux and torque
signals, it was possible to minimize it to a low value by reducing the sampling period to 1.6
µs. This reduction was achieved by implementation on an FPGA device and the application
of a novel architecture for the square root algorithm in the torque/flux estimator. The DTC
algorithm was designed based on a structural description and generic VHDL blocks, in order
to make the controller easily re-scalable and completely independent of the FPGA technology.
A Xilinx Virtex-5 FPGA development board running at 100 MHz was used for this project. The
design coded in VHDL uses two´s complement fixed-point format and variable word size for
all arithmetic calculations. The complete controller algorithm was simulated using double-
precision on MATLAB/Simulink to compare with experimental results. The induction motor
presented a smooth, vibration-free operation with a precise torque dynamic, which proves the
validity of the presented torque algorithm.
288 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Author details

Rafael Rodríguez-Ponce1*, Fortino Mendoza-Mondragón2, Moisés Martínez-Hernández2 and

Marcelino Gutiérrez-Villalobos2

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1 Polytechnic University of Guanajuato, Robotics Engineering Department, Cortazar, Gua‐

najuato, México

2 Autonomous University of Querétaro, Automation and Control Department, Querétaro,

México

References

[1] Chomat M., editor. Electric Machines and Drives. 1st ed. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech;
2011. 274 p. DOI: 10.5772/600

[2] Vas P. Sensorless Vector and Direct Torque Control. 1st ed. New York: Oxford Uni‐
versity Press; 1998. 729 p.

[3] Lamchich M.T., editor. Torque Control. 1st ed. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech; 2011. 304 p.
DOI: 10.5772/636

[4] Sutikno T., Idris N.R.N., Jidin A. A Review of Direct Torque Control for Induction
Motors for Sustainable Reliability and Energy Efficient Drives. Renewable and Sus‐
tainable Energy Reviews. 2014; 32:548-558. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.040

[5] Jezernik K., Korelic J., Horvat R. PMSM Sliding Mode FPGA-Based Control for Tor‐
que Ripple Reduction. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. 2013; 28(7):3549-3556.
DOI: 10.1109/TPEL.2012.2222675

[6] Ahmad M., editor. Advances in Motor Torque Control. 1st ed. Rijeka, Croatia: In‐
Tech; 2011. 122 p. DOI: 10.5772/862

[7] Bahri I., Idkhajine L., Monmasson E., El Amine Benkhelifa M. Hardware/Software
Codesign Guidelines for System on Chip FPGA-Based Sensorless AC Drive Applica‐
tions. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics. 2013; 9(4):2165-2176. DOI: 10.1109/
TII.2013.2245908

[8] Lepka J., Stekl P. 3-Phase AC Induction Motor Vector Control Using 56F80x, 56F8100
or 56F8300 Device. Freescale Application Note. 2005; 1-68.

[9] Lis J., Kowalski C.T., Orlowska-Kowalska T. Sensorless DTC Control of the Induction
Motor Using FPGA. IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics; June
30th; Cambridge : IEEE; 2008. p. 1914-1919. DOI: 10.1109/ISIE.2008.4677287
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[10] Ferreira S., Haffner F., Pereira L.F., Moraes F. Design and Prototyping of Direct Tor‐
que Control of Induction Motors in FPGAs. In: 16th Symposium on Integrated Cir‐
cuits and System Design; 8-11 Sept.; Sao Paulo, Brazil. IEEE; 2003. p. 105-110. DOI:
10.1109/SBCCI.2003.1232814

[11] Rodriguez R., Gomez R.A., Rodriguez J. Fast Square Root Calculation for DTC Mag‐
netic Flux Estimator. IEEE Latin America Transactions. 2014; 12(2):112-115. DOI:
10.1109/TLA.2014.6749526
 Chapter 11

Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on

Indirect Matrix Converter

Javier Riedemann, Rubén Peña and

Ramón Blasco-Giménez

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61157

Abstract

Open-end winding induction machines fed from two standard two-level voltage
source inverters (VSI) provide an attractive arrangement for AC drives. An alternative
approach is to use a dual output indirect matrix converter (IMC). It is well known that
IMC provides fully bidirectional power flow operation, with small input size filter
requirements. Whilst a standard IMC consists of an AC–DC matrix converter input
stage followed by a single VSI output stage, it is possible to replicate the VSI to produce
multiple outputs. In this chapter, an open-end winding induction machine fed by an
IMC with two output stages is presented. Different modulation strategies for the
power converter are analyzed and discussed.

Keywords: Open-end winding, Electrical drive, Matrix converter, Pulse width mod‐
ulation (PWM)

1. Introduction

An open-end winding induction machine, fed by two 2-level VSIs, offers several advantages
when compared to a standard wye or delta connected induction machine drive. The main
features of an open-end winding induction machine drive can be summarized as [1, 2]: equal
power input from both sides of each winding, thus each VSI is rated at half the machine power
rating; each phase stator current can be controlled independently; possibility to have twice the
effective switching frequency (depending on the modulation strategy); extensibility to more
292 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

phases, therefore multiphase induction machines can be considered if current reduction is

required; possibility of reducing common-mode voltage; and certain degree of fault tolerance,
as there is voltage space vector redundancy.
However, an open-end winding induction machine drive can have some drawbacks, such as
[1]: possibility of zero sequence current flowing in the machine because of the occurrence of
zero sequence voltage; increased conduction losses; more complex power converter require‐
ments, i.e., more power devices, circuit gate drives, etc.
To supply energy to an open-end winding machine, different power converter topologies have
been developed; for instance, [3–6] propose an open-end winding induction machine drive
based on two 2-level VSIs fed from isolated DC sources. This topology has the advantage of
avoiding the circulation of zero sequence current; however, two isolation transformers are
needed. On the other hand, [7–11] present a topology based on two 2-level VSIs fed by a single
DC source. In this case, a zero sequence current could circulate in the machine windings
(depending on the modulation strategy used), but just one transformer is needed, reducing
the volume and cost of the drive.
Multilevel topologies for open-end winding AC drives are presented in [12–16] where different
voltage levels can be achieved in the machine phase windings with certain power converter
configurations, then reducing the output voltage distortion but increasing the system cost and
complexity.
In the past decades, significant research effort has been focused on direct frequency changing
power converters, such as the matrix converter (MC) [17] or the indirect matrix converter [18].
It is known that these power converter topologies offer a suitable solution for direct AC–AC
conversion, achieving sinusoidal input and output currents, bidirectional power flow capa‐
bility and controllable input power factor, without using bulky energy storage elements [18].
Matrix converters have been utilized to supply open-end winding AC machines such as
reported in [19–21].
In this chapter, the application of an IMC with two output stages to supply energy to an open-
end winding induction machine is described [22–24]. For evaluation purposes, simulations
and experimental results are presented.

2. Power converter topologies for open-end winding induction machine

drives

An open-end winding induction machine drive can be supplied by different configurations of

power converters. Some of the most common topologies will be reviewed in this chapter.

2.1. Two 2-level voltage source inverters fed by isolated DC sources

This is the basic power converter for open-end winding AC drives. The circuit configuration
is shown in Figure 1 where a standard two-level VSI is connected at each side of the machine
stator winding [3]. The VSIs are supplied by isolated DC power sources.
 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 293
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61157

Figure 1. Two 2-level VSIs fed by isolated DC sources for an open-end winding AC machine drive.

The voltage vectors for inverter 1 are shown in Table 1; the same space vectors are valid for
inverter 2, but with superscript 2. As each VSI can produce eight voltage space vector locations
independent of the other, there are 64 voltage vector combinations of the full converter,
resulting in a vector locus similar to a three-level neutral point clamped (NPC) inverter [6].

States of inverter 1 S A1S B1SC 1

V 11 = 1 0 0 V 21 = 1 1 0 V 31 = 0 1 0 V 71 = 1 1 1

V 41 = 0 1 1 V 51 = 0 0 1 V 61 = 1 0 1 V 81 = 0 0 0

Table 1. Switching states of the individual inverters

Let V ij = V i1V j2 with i, j = 1...8 be the phase voltage vector combination of the dual-inverter
output. A representation of the vector locations is shown in Figure 2 [6].

2.2. Two 2-level voltage source inverters fed by a single DC source

This topology is basically the same described in Section 2.1, but now just one DC supply is
considered for the drive, as shown in Figure 3. The disadvantage of this converter is that zero
sequence current could circulate in the machine windings because of the generation of output
zero sequence voltage; however, this issue can be addressed with an appropriate modulation
strategy for the inverters [7].

2.3. Multilevel topologies

Several multilevel power converters have been developed for open-end winding induction
motor drives. For example, Figure 4a shows a three-level inverter [12] and Figure 4b shows a
294 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 2. Space vector locations of the dual-inverter scheme.

Figure 3. Two 2-level VSIs fed by a single DC source for an open-end winding AC machine drive.

five-level inverter [16]. The main advantage of the multilevel topologies is that the machine
phase voltage presents lower voltage distortion, increasing the performance of the drive; but
on the other hand, the complexity and cost of the system are also increased.
 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 295
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61157

 
(a) 

 
(b) 
Figure 4. (a) Three-level inverter and (b) five-level inverter for open-end winding AC machine drives.
Figure 4. (a) Three-level inverter and (b) five-level inverter for open-end winding AC machine drives.

2.4 Direct power converters

2.4. Direct
Modern power
direct powerconverters
converters consider matrix converter and indirect matrix converters. A matrix
converter [17] is a direct frequency converter consisting of nine bidirectional switches (three switches
Modern
per phase)direct power
allowing converters
to connect consider
any of matrix
the output converter
terminals to anyand indirect
of the matrix converters.
input voltages. For an open-A
matrix
end converter
winding [17] motor
induction is a direct
drive,frequency
two MCsconverter consisting
are required, connectedof in
nine
thebidirectional switches
arrangement shown in
(three switches
Figure 5. The main perfeatures
phase)of allowing
a matrixto connectare:
converter anybidirectional
of the output terminals
power to any of sinusoidal
flow capability, the input
voltages.
input For ancurrents
and output open-end winding
without bulkyinduction motor
energy storage drive, two
elements, and MCs are required,
controllable connected
input power factor.
For a standard matrix converter, a total of 36 IGBTs and diodes are required in this topology.
296 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

in the arrangement shown in Figure 5. The main features of a matrix converter are: bidirectional
power flow capability, sinusoidal input and output currents without bulky energy storage
elements, and controllable input power factor. For a standard matrix converter, a total of 36
IGBTs and diodes are required in this topology.

Figure 5. Open-end winding induction motor drive based on matrix converters.

An indirect matrix converter [18] is also a direct frequency converter having the same features
of an MC, but now a DC stage is clearly identified in the topology. The IMC consists of an input
rectifier, an AC–DC matrix converter, built of six bidirectional switches; this rectifier produces
the DC voltage to supply the converter output stage which is a standard two-level VSI. To
supply an open-end winding AC machine, two output inverters are required as can be seen
in Figure 6. Considering the six bidirectional switches of the input stage and the two output
stages, a total of 24 discrete IGBTs and diodes are required in this topology.

Figure 6. Open-end winding induction motor drive based on indirect matrix converter.
 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 297
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3. Model of the open-end winding induction motor drive based on IMC

The complete drive of Figure 6 can be modeled by state equations which describe the dynamic
behavior of the system. The effects of power devices dead-times on zero sequence voltages are
neglected. All the equations derived below are written in fixed abc coordinates.

The differential equations for the input side are:

dis
v s = R f is + L f + vi (1)
dt

dvi
is = C f + ii (2)
dt

where

T T
v s = éë vsa vsb vsc ùû , is = éëisa isb isc ùû (3)

T T
vi = éë via vib vic ùû , ii = éëiia iib iic ùû (4)

are the source voltage and current (3), and the rectifier input voltage and current (4).

The DC link voltage can be obtained as:

vDC = S rT × vi (5)

with the rectifier switching matrix:

éSap - San ù
ê ú
S r = êSbp - Sbn ú (6)
ê ú
êë Scp - Scn úû

where S xp , S xn ∈ {0, 1} with x = a, b, c . The output pole voltage of Inverter 1 (vo1) and Inverter
2 (vo2), with respect to the negative DC link rail, are defined in (7).

vo1 = S i 1 × vDC , vo 2 = S i 2 × vDC (7)

298 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

where the switching matrices of Inverter 1 (Si1) and Inverter 2 (Si2) are:

éSA1 ù éSAp1 - SAn1 ù éSA 2 ù éSAp 2 - SAn 2 ù

ê ú ê ú ê ú ê ú
S i 1 = ê SB1 ú = ê SBp1 - SBn1 ú , S i 2 = ê SB 2 ú = ê SBp 2 - SBn 2 ú (8)
êSC 1 ú ê S - S ú êSC 2 ú ê S - S ú
ë û êë Cp1 Cn1 úû ë û êë Cp 2 Cn 2 ú
û

and S xpk = S̄ xnk ∈ {0, 1} with x = a, b, c , k = 1, 2. The output phase voltage corresponds to the
difference of both inverters pole voltages:

T
v ph ,o = éë vph , oa vph , ob vph , oc ùû = vo1 - vo 2 = ( S i 1 - S i 2 ) vDC (9)

Considering a model of the AC machine with Rs the stator resistance, the output phase voltage
can be written as:

dΨ s ( io , ir ,q r )
v ph ,o = Rs io + (10)
dt

where Ψs is the stator flux linkage vector given by:

T
Ψ s = ëé Ψ sa Ψ sb Ψ sc ûù (11)

The rotor angle is θr and the output (stator) current vector io and rotor current vector ir are
given by (12):

T T
io = ëéioa iob ioc ûù , ir = ëéira irb irc ûù (12)

As Ψs is an implicit function of t , (10) can be rewritten by using the chain rule for the derivative:

¶Ψ s dio
v ph ,o = Rs io + +y 2 (t ) (13)
¶io dt

where

¶Ψ s dir ¶Ψ s dq r
ψ2 (t ) = + (14)
¶ir dt ¶q r dt
 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 299
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Assuming ∂ Ψs / ∂ io is a bijective function of t , it can be defined as:

¶Ψ s
= ψ1-1 ( t ) (15)
¶io

and (13) can be redefined by:

dio
v ph ,o = Rs io + y 1-1 ( t ) +y 2 (t ) (16)
dt

The DC link current is:

iDC = ( S i 1 + S i 2 ) io
T
(17)

and the rectifier input current:

ii = S r iDC (18)

Taking into account (1) – (18), the state space model of the drive is given by (19) –(21):

dis Rf 1 1
=- is - vi + v (19)
dt Lf Lf Lf s

dvi 1 1
S ( S + S i 2 ) io
T
= i - (20)
dt C f s C f r i 1

dio
= -ψ1 ( t ) Rs io - ψ1 ( t ) ψ 2 ( t ) + ψ1 ( t )( S i 1 - S i 2 ) S rT × vi (21)
dt

4. Zero sequence voltage

As mentioned before, the dual-inverter fed open-ended winding induction motor drive may
suffer from zero sequence current caused by zero sequence voltage. This zero sequence voltage
is produced because of the asymmetry of the instantaneous phase voltages applied to the
machine windings (due to the voltage space vectors used). In general, zero sequence currents
300 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

may give rise to increased RMS phase current, thus increasing the system losses, high current/
voltage THD, and machine over-heating and vibrations. The zero sequence voltage is given
by [11]:

v A1 A 2 + vB1B 2 + vC 1C 2
vzs = (22)
3

The zero sequence voltage contributions from the 64 space vector combinations are shown in
Table 2. As can be noted, there are twenty voltage space vectors that do not produce zero
sequence voltage; thus in order to avoid the circulation of zero sequence current in the machine
windings, only these space vector combinations could be used in the modulation strategy for
the dual inverter [9].

V zs Voltage vector combinations

− V DC / 2 V 87
− V DC / 3 V 84 , V 86 , V 82 , V 57 , V 37 , V 17
V 85 , V 83 , V 54 , V 34 , V 81 , V 56 , V 52 , V 36
− V DC / 6
V 32 , V 47 , V 14 , V 16 , V 12 , V 67 , V 27
V 88 , V 55 , V 53 , V 35 , V 33 , V 44 , V 51 , V 31 , V 46 , V 42
0
V 15 , V 13 , V 64 , V 24 , V 11 , V 66 , V 62 , V 26 , V 22 , V 77
V 58 , V 38 , V 45 , V 43 , V 18 , V 65 , V 25 , V 63
+V DC / 6
V 23 , V 74 , V 41 , V 61 , V 21 , V 76 , V 72
+V DC / 3 V 48 , V 68 , V 82 , V 75 , V 73 , V 71
+V DC / 2 V 78

Table 2. Zero sequence voltage contributions from different space vector combinations

Moreover, from Table 2 and Figure 2, it can be noted that there are two different but equivalent
sets of active vectors producing null zero sequence voltage (see Table 3), which could be used
along with the zero vectors: V 11, V 22, V 33, V 44, V 55, V 66, V 77, and V 88.

Set 1 V 15 V 35 V 31 V 51 V 53 V 13

Set 2 V 24 V 26 V 46 V 42 V 62 V 64

Table 3. Active space vectors producing null zero sequence voltage

5. Common-mode voltage

Conventional PWM inverters generate alternating common-mode voltages relative to ground

which generate currents through the motor parasitic capacitances to the rotor iron [25]. These
 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 301
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currents find their way via the motor bearings back to the grounded stator case. The so-called
bearing currents have been found to be a major cause of premature bearing failure in PWM
inverter motor drives [26].

One of the main features of an open-end winding induction machine drive is the possibility
of reducing the common-mode voltage by using certain space vector combinations of the dual-
inverter topology (Figure 2). In general, for an open-end winding machine, the common-mode
voltage is given by [8]:

1
vcm = ( v + vB1 + vC 1 + vA 2 + vB2 + vC 2 )
6 A1
(23)

where vAi , vBi , vCi , with i = 1, 2, are the pole voltages of each inverter with respect to a common
point of the drive (usually ground).

For the topology depicted in Figure 6, the common-mode voltage is given by:

1
vcm = ( v + vB1G + vC 1G + vA 2G + vB2G + vC 2G )
6 A1G
(24)

where the common point G is the grounded neutral point of the source. These voltages can
also be expressed as:

v AiG = SApi vpG + SAni vnG

vBiG = SBpi vpG + SBni vnG (25)
vCiG = SCpi vpG + SCni vnG

where v pG and vnG are the voltages of the positive and negative rail of the DC link with respect
to the grounded neutral point of the source, respectively; S xpi , S xni ∈ {0, 1} with x = A, B, C ,
i = 1, 2 are the switching functions of the inverter devices (0: switch opened, 1: switch closed)
and S xni = 1 − S xpi (because of the complementary operation of the upper and lower switches of
each inverter leg). Therefore,

1é
vcm = ( )
S + SBp1 + SCp1 + SAp 2 + SBp 2 + SCp 2 vpG
6 ë Ap1 (26)
+ ( SAn1 + SBn1 + SCn1 + SAn 2 + SBn 2 + SCn 2 ) vnG ùû

Let N sw = S Ap1 + S Bp1 + SCp1 + S Ap2 + S Bp2 + SCp2, thus

302 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

1
vcm = é N v + ( 6 - N sw ) vnG ù (27)
6 ë sw pG û

where N sw is the number of upper inverter switches closed. The squared RMS value of the
common-mode voltage is:

T
1 2
é N v + ( 6 - N sw ) vnG ù dt
36T ò0 ë sw pG
2
vcm RMS
= û (28)

where T is the period of v pG (equals the period of vnG ). Further expansion yields:

T T T
1 2 1 2 1
v dt + 2 N sw ( 6 - N sw ) òvpG vnG dt + ( 6 - N sw ) òvnG
T ò0 pG
2 2 2
36 vcm = N sw dt (29)
RMS
T0 T0

The voltages of the DC link rails are given by:

vpG = Sap vra + Sbp vrb + Scp vrc

(30)
vnG = San vra + Sbn vrb + Scn vrc

wherevra, vrb, and vrc are the converter input phase voltages and S xp , S xn with x = a, b, c are the
switching functions of the rectifier. Accordingly, v pG and vnG will always be segments of
different input phase voltages and

vpG ( t ) = vnG ( t - to ) , to Î R (31)

thus

T T

òv dt = òvnG
2 2
pG
dt (32)
0 0

2
Differentiating (29) with respect to N sw and equating to zero, it can be found that vcm RMS
(and
implicitly vcmRMS ) achieves a minimum value at N sw = 3, which means that in order to reduce the
RMS common-mode voltage at the machine terminals, only three upper inverter switches
should be closed at each switching period.
This can be further investigated by considering a virtual midpoint of the DC link as a reference
point (see point 0 in Figure 6). Then, (24) can be rewritten as:
 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 303
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1
vcm = ( v + vB10 + vC 10 + vA 20 + vB20 + vC 20 ) + v0G = vcm0 + v0G
6 A10
(33)

where the contributions of the input and output stages to the overall common-mode voltage
have been separated (v0G and vcm0, respectively). The voltage v0G is the voltage between the
reference point 0 and the grounded neutral point of the source. This voltage can be calculated
as:

1é
v0 G = ( ) ( ) (
S + San vra + Sbp + Sbn vrb + Scp + Scn vrc ù
2 ë ap û ) (34)

It can be seen in (34) that v0G depends on the modulation of the input stage, which is totally
defined by the duty cycles of the rectifier stage. On the other hand, the voltage vcm0 can be
rewritten as:

1é vDC æv öù 1
vcm 0 = êN + ( 6 - N sw ) ç DC ÷ ú = éë N sw vDC - 3vDC ùû (35)
6 êë sw 2 è 2 ø úû 6

Therefore, it can be seen in (35) that by using N sw = 3, the contribution of the output inverters
to the common-mode voltage is eliminated [8]. Table 4 shows the voltage space vector
combinations of the dual-inverter topology which do not produce common-mode voltage.

As can be noted from Table 4 and Figure 2, there are larger and lower active vectors available
which produce zero common-mode voltage. Any of them could be considered in the modu‐
lation strategy for the dual-inverter system depending on the machine voltage requirement.
However, from Table 2 and Table 4, it can be appreciated that the space vectors which reduce
the common-mode voltage are not the same vectors which reduce the zero sequence voltage;
thus, if a common-mode voltage is required, a compensation should be done for the zero
sequence voltage; in other case, large zero sequence current components will circulate in the
machine windings; a type of compensation will be reviewed in the following section.

Space vector combinations

SAp1SBp1SCp1SAp2 SBp2SCp2

V 14 = 1 0 0 0 1 1 V 56 = 0 0 1 1 0 1

V 25 = 1 1 0 0 0 1 V 61 = 1 0 1 1 0 0

V 36 = 0 1 0 1 0 1 V 43 = 0 1 1 0 1 0

V 41 = 0 1 1 1 0 0 V 12 = 1 0 0 1 1 0

V 52 = 0 0 1 1 1 0 V 16 = 1 0 0 1 0 1

V 63 = 1 0 1 0 1 0 V 65 = 1 0 1 0 0 1
304 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Space vector combinations

SAp1SBp1SCp1SAp2 SBp2SCp2

V 23 = 1 1 0 0 1 0 V 54 = 0 0 1 1 1 0

V 34 = 0 1 0 0 1 1 V 32 = 0 1 0 1 1 0

V 45 = 0 1 1 0 0 1 V 21 = 1 1 0 1 0 0

V 78 = 1 1 1 0 0 0 V 87 = 0 0 0 1 1 1

Table 4. Space vectors with zero common mode

6. Pulse width modulation strategies

In this section, PWM strategies for an open-end winding induction motor drive based on a
two-output IMC are described.
In this section, PWM strategies for an open-end winding induction motor drive based on a two-output
6.1. Modulation strategies for the input stage of the IMC
IMC are described.

The modulation for the

6.1 Modulation input (rectifier)
strategies stagestage
for the input of theofconverter
the IMC aims to obtain a positive DC link
voltage in each sampling period and unity displacement factor at the input [27]. Two different
spaceThe modulation
vector for the
modulation inputstrategies
(SVM) (rectifier)can
stage
be of
usedthe for
converter aims to
the rectifier obtain
[28]. One amodulation
positive DC link
maximizes the DC voltage by commutating between the largest and the second largest different
voltage in each sampling period and unity displacement factor at the input [27]. Two positive space
line input voltage (Figure 7). The other modulation produces a reduced DC voltage commu‐
vector modulation (SVM) strategies can be used for the rectifier [28]. One modulation maximizes the
tating between the lowest and the second lowest input line voltage (Figure 8).
DC voltage by commutating between the largest and the second largest positive line input voltage
(Figure 7). The other modulation produces a reduced DC voltage commutating between the lowest
and the second lowest input line voltage (Figure 8).

a)  b) 
Figure 7. (a) Space vector locations for maximum DC voltage. (b) Maximum DC voltage

Figure If
7. (a) Spaceisvector
the locations
angle offorthe
maximum
voltageDCreference
voltage. (b)vector;
MaximumtheDC voltageduty
cycles for both modulation
,
strategies are given in (36)–(38). Further details about the modulations for the input stage can be
found in [27, 28].

, (36)

with
sin 3 , , sin , (37)
 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 305
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If θref ,i is the angle of the voltage reference vector; the γ − δ duty cycles for both modulation
strategies are given in (36)–(38). Further details about the modulations for the input stage can
be found in [27, 28].

dg dd
dgR = , ddR = (36)
dg + dd dg + dd

with

(
dg = sin p
3 ) (
- q ref ,i , dd = sin q ref ,i ) (37)

the duty cycles for maximum DC voltage and

( )
dg = cos q ref ,i , dd = cos p ( 3
- q ref ,i ) (38)

the duty cycles for reduced DC voltage. Figure 9a shows the transition from reduced DC
voltage to maximum DC voltage and Figure 9b shows the opposite situation.

 
a)  b) 
Figure 8. (a) Space vector locations for reduced DC voltage. (b) Reduced DC voltage.

Figure 8. (a) Space vector locations for reduced DC voltage. (b) Reduced DC voltage.

The rectifier SVM for reduced DC link voltage decreases the voltage gain by 3. Thus, the
transition between reduced and maximum DC link voltage should take place when the output
1.5
voltage reference is higher than ⋅ V ph , input = 0.866 ⋅ V ph , input .
3

Figure 9. Transition between both rectifier modulation strategies.

The rectifier SVM for reduced DC link voltage decreases the voltage gain by √3. Thus, the transition
306 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 9. Transition between both rectifier modulation strategies.

6.2. Modulation strategies for the output stages of the IMC

6.2.1. Carrier-based modulation strategy

In a PWM strategy based on a triangular carrier (SPWM), the duty cycles for each leg of inverter
1 are [29]:

1æ æ 2p ö ö
da = ç m ( t ) cos ç k ÷ + 1÷ (39)
2ç ç mf ÷ ÷
è è ø ø

1æ æ 2p 2p ö ö
db = ç m ( t ) cos ç k- ÷ + 1÷ (40)
2 ç ç ÷ ÷
è è mf 3 ø ø

1æ æ 2p 2p ö ö
dc = ç m ( t ) cos ç k+ ÷ + 1÷ (41)
2ç ç mf 3 ÷ ÷
è è ø ø

In this case, It is necessary a variable modulation index given by m(t ) = mo (dγ + dδ ) to compensate
the fluctuations of the DC link voltage, mo is the final modulation index (0 ≤ mo ≤ 1), mf = f s / f o is
the frequency index ( f o : output frequency, f s : switching frequency) and 0 ≤ k ≤ mf . Duty cycles
of inverter 2 are obtained using (39)–(41), but considering a phase shift of 180° for the cosine
functions. For implementation purposes, the duty cycles da, db, and dc are transformed into
equivalent α − β − 0 duty cycles. Thus, considering Figure 10, the α − β − 0 duty cycles are:

d0 = 1 - dmax (42)
 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 307
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da = dmax - dmid (43)

db = dmid - dmin (44)

d7 = dmin (45)

Figure 10. A single inverter stage duty cycles.

To obtain a correct balance of the input currents and the output voltages in a switching period,
the modulation pattern should produce all combinations of the rectification and the inversion
switching states [27], resulting in the following duty cycles for the active vectors:

dag = da dgR , dbg = db dgR , dad = da ddR , dbd = db ddR (46)

The duty cycle corresponding to the switching state S Ap S Bp SCp = 0 0 0 is:

d00 = d0,tot - dmin (47)

and the combined zero vectors duty cycles are:

d0g = d00 dgR , d0d = d00 ddR (48)

The output stages duty cycles are different for each inverter and are represented in Figure 11
[23] for inverter i (i = 1, 2).
308 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 11. Inverters duty cycles.

6.2.2. Space vector modulation strategy for zero sequence reduction

As mentioned in Section 4, in an open-end winding induction machine drive, the zero sequence
voltage can be reduced by using the active space vectors given in Table 3. The zero vectors are
mapped depending on the sector information [9]. The mapping is shown in Table 5.

Sector I II III IV V VI

Set 1 zero vectors V 55 V 33 V 11 V 55 V 33 V 11

Set 2 zero vectors V 22 V 66 V 44 V 22 V 66 V 44

Table 5. Mapping of zero vectors

The duty cycles for the output stages are calculated as:

da = m ( t ) sin p ( 3 ) ( )
- q ref , o , db = m ( t ) sin q ref , o and d0 = 1 - da - db (49)

where m(t ) = mo (dγ + dδ ) and 0 ≤ mo ≤ 1. θref ,o is the angle of the output reference voltage space
vector. As in the carrier-based modulation strategy, the duty cycles of the rectifier and the
inverters should be combined; thus the active vector duty cycles are given in (46).

The combined zero vectors duty cycles are:

d0g = d0 dgR , d0d = d0 ddR (50)

Thus, the switching sequence, which is the same for both output stages, is shown in Figure
12, commutating the input stage with zero DC current [27].
 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 309
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Figure 12. Standard switching sequence for IMCs.

6.2.3. Space vector modulation strategy for common-mode voltage reduction

If only the voltage space vectors shown in Table 4 are used in the modulation strategy for the
output stages of the IMC, the contribution of the dual-inverter to the overall common-mode
voltage can be eliminated. The duty cycles for the IMC outputs are calculated as in (49) – (50).
However, as mentioned in Section 5, the space vectors producing null vcm0 are not the same
vectors producing null zero sequence voltage. Hence, as in this SVM strategy, the vectors used
to modulate the converter output stages will eliminate the common-mode voltage; a compen‐
sation must be performed to avoid the circulation of zero sequence current in the machine.

The average zero sequence voltage within a sampling interval can be eliminated by forcing
the zero sequence volt-seconds to zero [11] by applying the null voltage vectors with unequal
times. Accordingly, the standard switching sequence used in the IMC [27] is modified in order
to reduce/eliminate the average zero sequence voltage within a sampling period. For the
modulation strategy presented, the duty cycles for both output VSIs are the same, which can
be noted in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Modified switching sequence for the IMC with two outputs.

Taking into account that the same space vectors sequence applied in γ R interval is applied in
the δ R interval but in reverse order, then the value of x , which causes the cancellation of the
zero sequence volt-seconds, is calculated at every sampling period to satisfy [11]:

vzs1x ( 0g + 0d ) + vzs 2 (ag + ad ) + vzs 3 ( bg + bd ) + vzs 4 ( 1 - x )( 0g + 0d ) = 0 (51)

310 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

where vzsk with k = 1, 2, 3, 4, is the zero sequence voltage value at intervals x0γ , αγ , βγ , and
(1 − x )0γ , respectively. The value of vzsk can be calculated by using (22) and considering the
space vectors used in the modulation strategy.

7. Open-end winding induction machine drive

In this section, the application of a two-output IMC supplying an open-end winding induc‐
tion machine will be presented. The performance of the drive by using some of the modula‐
tion strategies discussed above will be shown and analyzed via simulation and experimental
results. The simulations are carried out in a PSIM/MATLAB simulation platform. On the other
hand, experimental results are obtained using the setup shown in Figure 14. The IMC has been
designed and built at the Power Electronics, Machines and Control lab facilities, University of
Nottingham, UK. A six-pole induction machine rated at 7.5 kW is used. A DSP board, based on
the TMS320C6713 processor, is used as the control platform. The calculation of duty cycles is
carried out on the DSP among several other tasks. An FPGA interface board, designed at
Nottingham University, is used to implement the modulation strategies and data acquisition.
Communication between the DSP and a PC is achieved using a DSK6713HPI (Host Port
Interface) daughter card. The converter input stage uses SK60GM123 modules and the output
stages use SK35GD126 modules. The switching frequency is 10 kHz and voltages and cur‐
rents are also sampled at 10 kHz. The load used in the experimental system is a DC generator,
supplying a resistive load, coupled with the induction motor shaft.

Figure 14. Experimental setup.

7.1. SVM strategy for zero sequence voltage reduction and changing DC voltage

The modulation strategies, presented in Section 6.1 and 6.2.2, are used to implement a standard
feedforward vector control scheme [30] for the machine currents (Figure 15). Simulation and
experimental results are shown in Sections 7.1.1 and 7.1.2, respectively.
 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 311
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Figure 15. Feedforward vector control scheme of induction machine.

7.1.1. Simulation results

The performance of the vector control scheme is verified by applying step changes in the dq-
axis reference currents. Figure 16 shows the waveforms obtained by applying a step change
in the q-axis reference current from 7.7 to 10 A at t = 0.16 s , while d-axis current is kept constant
at 6 A. Figure 16a shows dq reference currents and their corresponding responses. A good
tracking of the reference currents is obtained. The motor currents and phase a voltage are
shown in Figure 16b. The step change in q-axis current is followed with changes in the
magnitude and phase of the instantaneous machine currents. Moreover, a transition between
reduced virtual DC voltage to maximum virtual DC voltage can be noticed in the output phase
voltage of Figure 16b (bottom).
Figure 17a shows the performance of the control scheme when a step change from 6 to 8 A is
applied in d-axis reference current while q-axis current is kept constant at 7.7 A. The motor
currents and phase- a voltage are shown in Figure 17b. Again, the transition between both
modulation strategies for the input rectifier can be noticed.
Figure 18 (top) shows the converter input phase voltage and current; the unity input displace‐
ment factor can be noted. Figure 18 (bottom) shows the output zero sequence voltage that has
been obtained from the voltage across the load in each phase and then applying (22). As can
be seen, the zero sequence voltage has been eliminated due to the modulation strategy used
for the output stages.
312 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

 
a)  b) 
Figure 16. q-axis current step change. (a) Motor q-axis current (top) and d-axis current (bottom). (b)
Figure
Motor 16. q-axis
currents current
(top) andstep change.
phase (a) Motor
voltage q-axis current (top) and d-axis current (bottom). (b) Motor currents
(bottom).
(top) and phase voltage (bottom).

Figure 17a shows the performance of the control scheme when a step change from 6 to 8 A is applied
in d-axis reference current while q-axis current is kept constant at 7.7 A. The motor currents and
phase-ܽ voltage are shown in Figure 17b. Again, the transition between both modulation strategies for
the input rectifier can be noticed.

 
a)  b) 
Figure 17. d-axis current step change. (a) Motor q-axis current (top) and d-axis current (bottom). (b)
Figurecurrents
Motor 17. d-axis (top)
current stepphase
and change. (a) Motor
voltage q-axis current (top) and d-axis current (bottom). (b) Motor currents
(bottom).
(top) and phase voltage (bottom).  
a) b)
Figure17.
Figure 18d-axis
(top) current
shows the
stepconverter
change. (a)input phase
Motor voltage
q-axis and(top)
current current; the unity
and d-axis input(bottom).
current displacement
(b)
factor can be noted. Figure 18 (bottom) shows the output zero sequence voltage that has been
7.1.2. Experimental results
Motor currents (top) and phase voltage (bottom).
obtained from the voltage across the load in each phase and then applying (22). As can be seen, the
Thesequence
zero
Figure dq-axis
18 (top)currents
voltage areconverter
has
shows the shown
been ininput
Figure
eliminated 19a.
due
phase As
the the
to voltage speed
modulation controller
strategy
and current; saturates
the used thewhen
unityforinput a step
output stages.
displacement
change
factor can in
bethe speedFigure
noted. reference takes place,
18 (bottom) a step
shows change
the outputin zero
q-axissequence
current reference is applied.
voltage that has been
obtained from the voltage across the load in each phase and then applying (22). As can bescheme
The d-axis current reference is kept constant at 6 A. A good performance of the control seen, the
zerocan be appreciated
sequence agreeing
voltage has with the simulated
been eliminated due to theresults. The instantaneous
modulation motor
strategy used for the currents and
output stages.
phase a voltage are shown in Figure 19b. Again, the transition between both rectifier modu‐
lation strategies can be noted in the output phase voltage (Figure 19b bottom) when the change
in q-axis reference current is applied.

 
 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 313
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61157

Figure 18. Input phase voltage and current (top) and zero sequence voltage (bottom).

 
 a)  b) 
Figure 19. q-axis current step change. (a) Motor q-axis current (top) and d-axis current (bottom). (b)
Figure currents
Motor 19. q-axis current stepphase
(top) and change.voltage
(a) Motor q-axis current (top) and d-axis current (bottom). (b) Motor currents
(bottom).
(top) and phase voltage (bottom).

Figure 20a shows the dq machine currents when a step change in d-axis reference current is applied
Figure
while 20a shows
q-axis currentthe dq machine
is kept constantcurrents
at 7.7 A.when a step currents
The motor change in d-axis
and reference
phase-ܽ current
voltage is in
are shown
applied while q-axis current is kept constant at 7.7 A. The motor currents
Figure 20b. A good correspondence with the simulation results can be noted. and phase- a voltage
are shown in Figure 20b. A good correspondence with the simulation results can be noted.
314 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

 
a)  b) 
Figure 20. q-axis current step change. (a) Motor q-axis current (top) and d-axis current (bottom). (b)
Figure
Motor20.currents
q-axis current
(top) step
and change. (a) Motor
phase voltage q-axis current (top) and d-axis current (bottom). (b) Motor currents
(bottom).
(top) and phase voltage (bottom).
Finally, Figure 21 (top) shows the input phase voltage and current. The zero sequence voltage shown
Finally, Figure
in Figure 21 (top) is
21 (bottom) shows the input
not exactly phase
zero, voltage
but this and current.
is probably due toThe
thezero sequenceprocedure
measurement voltage
shown
becauseinnot
Figure 21the
all of (bottom) is not
channels are exactly
sampledzero,
at thebut thistime
same is probably due to
and because in the measurement
Figure 18 the input
procedure because
switches are ideal. not all of the channels are sampled at the same time and because in Figure
18 the input switches are ideal.

 
Figure 21. Input rectifier voltage and current (top) and zero sequence voltage (bottom).

7.2 SVM strategy for common-mode voltage reduction and zero sequence voltage compensation
Simulation and experimental results for the modulation strategy presented in Section 6.2.2 will be
shown in this section. The rectifier is modulated to maximize the DC link voltage (Figure 7) and the
full drive is tested in open-loop v/f operation.

7.2.1 Simulation results

The DC link voltage and phase-ܽ machine voltage are shown in Figure 22a, top and bottom,
respectively. The reference output voltage and frequency were set to 150 V and 50 Hz, respectively.
The machine currents for 25 Hz operation are shown in Figure 22b (top), while Figure 22b (bottom)
Figure
shows 21.machine
Input rectifier voltage
currents forand
50 current (top) and zero sequence voltage (bottom).
Hz operation.
 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 315
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61157

7.2. SVM strategy for common-mode voltage reduction and zero sequence voltage
compensation

Simulation and experimental results for the modulation strategy presented in Section 6.2.2 will
be shown in this section. The rectifier is modulated to maximize the DC link voltage (Figure
7) and the full drive is tested in open-loop v/f operation.

7.2.1. Simulation results

The DC link voltage and phase- a machine voltage are shown in Figure 22a, top and bottom,
respectively. The reference output voltage and frequency were set to 150 V and 50 Hz,
respectively. The machine currents for 25 Hz operation are shown in Figure 22b (top), while
Figure 22b (bottom) shows machine currents for 50 Hz operation.

 
 a)  b) 
Figure 22. (a) DC link voltage (top) and output phase voltage (bottom). (b) Machine currents for 25
Hz output (top) and 50 Hz output (bottom).
Figure 22. (a) DC link voltage (top) and output phase voltage (bottom). (b) Machine currents for 25 Hz output (top)
and 50 Hz
Small output (bottom).
disturbances, occurring every 60, can be noted in the motor currents shown in Figure 22b.
These current disturbances are due to the application of zero voltage vectors to machine windings, see
Small disturbances, occurring every 60°, can be noted in the motor currents shown in Figure
PWM pattern in Figure 13, aiming to reduce the zero sequence voltage. During the application of zero
22b. These current disturbances are due to the application of zero voltage vectors to machine
voltage vectors, each machine phase winding is supplied with a voltage of െܸ஽஼ or ൅ܸ஽஼ . When
windings, see PWM pattern in Figure 13, aiming to reduce the zero sequence voltage. During
െܸ஽஼ voltage is applied to the machine windings, the current decreases according to the zero vector
the application of zero voltage vectors, each machine phase winding is supplied with a voltage
duty cycle. Figure 23 shows the current disturbance along with the corresponding DC link voltage and
of − V DC or +V DC . When − V DC voltage is applied to the machine windings, the current decreases
output phase voltage.
according to the zero vector duty cycle. Figure 23 shows the current disturbance along with
the corresponding DC link voltage and output phase voltage.
The input (supply) currents are shown in Figure 24 (top) while Figure 24 (bottom) shows the
converter input phase voltage (blue) and current (green) for an output reference of 150 V and
50 Hz. The unity displacement factor is evident in Figure 24 (bottom).
The low-order harmonics of the machine currents are presented in Table 6.

 
Figure 23. Phase a machine current (top), DC link voltage (middle), and machine phase-ܽ voltage
(bottom).
316 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 23. Phase a machine current (top), DC link voltage (middle), and machine phase- a voltage (bottom).

Current Harmonic RMS Value (A)

Fundamental 14.400
2nd 0.250
3rd 0.184
4th 0.112
5th 0.025
6th 0.815

Table 6. Harmonic content of the machine currents

Figure 25a shows the common-mode voltage separated into v0G and vcm0 as defined in (33)–
(35). Due to absence of the reference point 0 in the real (and also simulated) converter, the
common-mode voltages v0G and vcm0 shown in Figure 25a top and bottom, respectively, are
obtained as:

vDC
v0G = vnG +
2
(52)
1 v
vcm 0 =
6
( v A1n + vB1n + vC 1n + v A 2 n + vB 2 n + vC 2 n ) - DC
2
 Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 317
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61157

Figure 24. Input currents (top) and input phase voltage and current (bottom).

where n is the negative rail of the DC link.

It can be seen in the simulation results that the contribution of the output inverters to the
common-mode voltage is completely eliminated due to the modulation strategy used. Figure
25b shows the zero sequence voltage (top) and its frequency spectrum (bottom). It can be noted
that the low-order zero sequence harmonics are reduced because of the asymmetry of the null
vector duty cycles used in the switching sequence for each output stage.

7.2.2. Experimental results

Figure 26a (top) shows the DC link voltage while Figure 26a (bottom) shows the voltage across
the machine phase- a winding. The output phase voltage presents a fundamental component
of 141 V, 50 Hz, slightly less than the voltage reference (150 V) because of the device voltage
drops. As can be seen, the modulation strategy used results in a bipolar pulse width modulated
voltage at the converter output. The machine currents for 25 Hz and 50 Hz operation are shown
in Figure 26b (top and bottom), respectively. The reference output voltages are set to 75 and
150 V, respectively. Correspondence between the simulation and the experimental result can
be observed.

In Figure 26b, the effect of the zero voltage vectors in the PWM pattern shown in Figure 13 is
also observed. The supply currents are shown in Figure 27 (top), again with good correspond‐
ence with the simulation study. Figure 27 (bottom) shows the input phase voltage and current.
 where is the negative rail of the DC link.
It can be seen in the simulation results that the contribution of the output inverters to the common-
mode voltage is completely eliminated due to the modulation strategy used. Figure 25b shows the
318 Induction Motors -voltage
zero sequence Applications,
(top)Control
and itsand Fault Diagnostics
frequency spectrum (bottom). It can be noted that the low-order
zero sequence harmonics are reduced because of the asymmetry of the null vector duty cycles used in
the switching sequence for each output stage.

 
 a)  b) 
Figure 25. (a) Common-mode voltages (top) and (bottom). (b) Zero sequence voltage (top)
Figure
and its25.frequency
(a) Common-mode
spectrumvoltages v0G (top) and vcm0 (bottom). (b) Zero sequence voltage (top) and its frequency
(bottom).
spectrum
  (bottom).

Figure 28a shows the

7.2.2 Experimental common-mode
results   voltages v0G (top) and vcm0 (bottom). The voltage v0G
follows very closely the simulation results shown in Figure 25. The voltage vcm0 is not exactly
Figure 26a (top) shows the DC link voltage while Figure 26a (bottom) shows the voltage across the
zero, butphase-
machine this is probably dueoutput
winding. The to thephase
measurement procedure
voltage presents because not
a fundamental all of the
component channels
of 141 V, 50
are
Hz, sampled at the
slightly less thansame time and
the voltage because
reference in V)
(150 Figure 25 the
because input
of the switches
device aredrops.
voltage ideal.AsFinally,
can be
Figure
seen, the28b shows the
modulation zeroused
strategy sequence voltage
results in (top)
a bipolar and
pulse its modulated
width frequencyvoltage
spectrum
at the(bottom),
converter
output. The machine currents for 25 Hz
agreeing closely with the simulation results. and 50 Hz operation are shown in Figure 26b (top and
bottom), respectively. The reference output voltages are set to 75 and 150 V, respectively.
Correspondence between the simulation and the experimental result can be observed.

a)  b) 
Figure 26. (a) DC link voltage (top) and output phase voltage (bottom). (b) Machine currents for 25
Hz output (top) and 50 Hz output (bottom).
Figure 26. (a) DC link voltage (top) and output phase voltage (bottom). (b) Machine currents for 25 Hz output (top)
and Figure
In 26b, (bottom).
50 Hz output the effect of the zero voltage vectors in the PWM pattern shown in Figure 13 is also
observed. The supply currents are shown in Figure 27 (top), again with good correspondence with the
simulation study. Figure 27 (bottom) shows the input phase voltage and current.
6b, the effect of the zero voltage vectors in the PWM pattern shown in Figure 13 is also observed. T
Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter 319
e shown in  Figure  27  (top), again  with  good  correspondence  with  the  simulation  study.  Figure  2
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61157
nput phase voltage and current. 

Figure 27. Input currents (top) and input phase voltage and current (bottom).

Figure 28a shows the common-mode voltages ‫ݒ‬଴ீ (top) and ‫ݒ‬௖௠଴ (bottom). The voltage ‫ݒ‬଴ீ follows
very closely the simulation results shown in Figure 25. The voltage ‫ݒ‬௖௠଴ is not exactly zero, but this
is probably due to the measurement procedure because not all of the channels are sampled at the same
put currents (top)
Figure
and
time 27. input
andInput
because phase
in(top)
currents
voltage
Figure 25 the
and input
and current
input
phase
(bottom).
switches
voltage are (bottom).
and current ideal. Finally, Figure 28b shows the zero
hows the common-mode voltages
sequence voltage (top) and ଴ீ ‫ݒ‬ (top) and ‫ݒ‬ ௖௠଴ (bottom).
its frequency spectrum closely ‫ݒ‬with
The voltage
(bottom), agreeing ଴ீ follows
closely the very
the simulation
The voltage ‫ݒ‬௖௠଴ is not exactly zero, but this is probably due to the measurement
n in Figure 25.results. procedure
annels are sampled at the same time and because in Figure 25 the input switches are ideal. Finally, Figure 28
e voltage (top) and its frequency spectrum (bottom), agreeing closely with the simulation results.

a) Common-mode voltages ‫ݒ‬଴ீ (top) and ‫ݒ‬௖௠଴ (bottom). (b) Zero sequence voltage (top) and its frequenc

usion
 
d winding induction machine has a)  been presented in this chapter. Different b)  power converter topologies for
nection have been shown and briefly discussed. Because of the advantages of indirect matrix converter, em
Figure
the application of28.this
a) Common-mode voltages
converter to v0G (top)
control the and vcm0. (bottom).
machine. (b) Zero sequence
Therefore, voltage (top)
an indirect matrixand its frequency with two ou
converter
spectrum (bottom).
posed to supply energy to the open-end winding induction motor. This topology has been thoroughly modele
28. (a) Common-mode voltages ‫ݒ‬଴ீ (top) and ‫ݒ‬௖௠଴ (bottom). (b) Zero sequence voltage (top)
ation strategiesFigure
for the input and output stages of the proposed topology have been shown. Issues such as ze
and its frequency spectrum (bottom).
common-mode voltage, presented in the dual-inverter configuration, have been analyzed and strategies t
e such effects have been presented. The control and modulation strategies have been simulated and experime
8. Conclusion
e rig. Results for
8. open and closed-loop operation of the open-end winding topology based on IMC have been
Conclusion
dgements
was funded byThe open-end winding induction machine has been presented in this chapter. Different power
Fondecyt Chile under Grant 1151325. The financial support of CONICYT/FONDAP/15110
converter topologies for this type of machine connection have been shown and briefly
ed. discussed. Because of the advantages of indirect matrix converter, emphasis has been done in
s
Y, Panda D, Lipo,TA, Pan D. Open-winding power conversion systems fed by half-controlled conve
n, IEEE Transac 2013;28(5):2427,2436.
Y, Lipo TA, Pan D. Robust operation of double-output AC machine drive. Power Electron ECCE Asia (ICPE
EE 8th Int Conf 2011;1:140,144.
handrasekhar K, Mohan S, Srinivas S. An improved PWM for a dual two-level inverter fed open-end windin
320 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

the application of this converter to control the machine. Therefore, an indirect matrix converter
with two outputs stages has been proposed to supply energy to the open-end winding
induction motor. This topology has been thoroughly modeled and pulse width modulation
strategies for the input and output stages of the proposed topology have been shown. Issues
such as zero sequence voltage and common-mode voltage, presented in the dual-inverter
configuration, have been analyzed and strategies to eliminate and/or reduce such effects have
been presented. The control and modulation strategies have been simulated and experimen‐
tally tested in a prototype rig. Results for open and closed-loop operation of the open-end
winding topology based on IMC have been shown.

Acknowledgements

This work was funded by Fondecyt Chile under Grant 1151325. The financial support of
CONICYT/FONDAP/15110019 is also acknowledged.

Author details

Javier Riedemann1, Rubén Peña2 and Ramón Blasco-Giménez3

1 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Bío-Bío, Concepción,

Chile

2 Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile

3 Department of System Engineering and Control, Polytechnic University of Valencia,

Valencia, Spain

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 Chapter 12

Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction

Motor Drives

Hugo Guzman, Ignacio Gonzalez, Federico Barrero and Mario Durán

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810

Abstract

Multiphase machines have been recognized in the last few years like an attractive alterna‐
tive to conventional three-phase ones. This is due to their usefulness in a niche of applica‐
tions where the reduction in the total power per phase and, mainly, the high overall
system reliability and the ability of using the multiphase machine in faulty conditions are
required. Electric vehicle and railway traction, all-electric ships, more-electric aircraft or
wind power generation systems are examples of up-to-date real applications using multi‐
phase machines, most of them taking advantage of the ability of continuing the operation
in faulty conditions. Between the available multiphase machines, symmetrical five-phase
induction machines are probably one of the most frequently considered multiphase ma‐
chines in recent research. However, other multiphase machines have also been used in
the last few years due to the development of more powerful microprocessors. This chap‐
ter analyzes the behavior of generic n-phase machines (being n any odd number higher
than 3) in faulty operation (considering the most common faulty operation, i.e. the open-
phase fault). The obtained results will be then particularized to the 5-phase case, where
some simulation and experimental results will be presented to show the behavior of the
entire system in healthy and faulty conditions. The chapter will be organized as follows:
First, the different faults in a multiphase machine are analyzed. Fault conditions are de‐
tailed and explained, and the interest of a multiphase machine in the management of
faults is stated. The effect of the open-phase fault operation in the machine model is then
studied. A generic n-phase machine is considered, being n any odd number greater than
three. The analysis is afterwards particularized to the 5-phase machine, where the open-
phase fault condition is managed using different control methods and the obtained re‐
sults are compared. Finally, the conclusions are presented in the last section of the
chapter.

Keywords: Multiphase drives, Fault-tolerance, Predictive control techniques, Resonant

controllers
328 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

1. Introduction

Multiphase machines have been recognized in the last few years as an attractive alternative to
conventional three-phase ones. This is due to their usefulness in a niche of applications where
the reduction in the total power per phase and, the high overall system reliability and the
ability of using the multiphase machine in faulty conditions are required. Electric vehicle and
railway traction, all-electric ships, more-electric aircraft or wind power generation systems are
examples of up-to-date real applications using multiphase machines, most of them taking
advantage of the ability of continuing the operation in faulty conditions. Among the available
multiphase machines, symmetrical five-phase induction machines are probably one of the
most frequently considered multiphase machines in recent research. However, other multi‐
phase machines have also been used in the last few years due to the development of more
powerful microprocessors. This chapter analyzes the behavior of generic n-phase machines
(n being any odd number higher than 3) in faulty operation (considering the most common
faulty operation, i.e. the open-phase fault). The obtained results will be then particularized to
the 5-phase case, where some simulation and experimental results will be presented to show
the behavior of the entire system in healthy and faulty conditions.
The chapter will be organized as follows:
First, the different faults in a multiphase machine are analyzed. Fault conditions are detailed
and explained, and the interest of a multiphase machine in the management of faults is stated.
The effect of the open-phase fault operation in the machine model is then studied. A generic
n-phase machine is considered, n being any odd number greater than three. The analysis is
afterwards particularized to the 5-phase machine, where the open-phase fault condition is
managed using different control methods and the obtained results are compared. Finally, the
conclusions are presented in the last section of the chapter.

2. Faults in electromechanical multiphase drives

An electrical drive is an electromagnetic equipment subject to different electrical and mechan‐

ical faults which, depending on its nature and on the special characteristics of the system, may
result in abnormal operation or shut down. In order to increase the use of electrical drives in
safety-critical and high-demand applications, the development of cost-effective, robust and
reliable systems is imperative. This issue has recently become one of the latest challenges in
the field of electrical drives design [1]. Therefore, fault-tolerance, which can be defined as the
ability to ensure proper speed or torque reference tracking in the electrical drive under
abnormal conditions, has been considered in three-phase electrical drives taking into account
different design and research approaches, including redundant equipment and over-dimen‐
sioned designs, leading to effective and viable fault standing but costly solutions. Fault-
tolerance in three-phase drives for different types of faults is a viable and mature research field,
where the drive performance and the control capability is ensured at the expense of extra
equipment [1]. However, this is not the case in the multiphase drives area in spite of the higher
 Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor Drives 329
and mature research field, where the drive performance and http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810
the control capability is
ensured at the expense of extra equipment [1]. However, this is not the case in the
number of phases
multiphase drivesthat
areathe multiphase
in spite machine
of the higher possesses,
number which
of phases thatfavors its highermachine
the multiphase fault-
tolerance capability
possesses, which compared
favors its with conventional
higher three-phase
fault-tolerance drives.
capability Multiphase
compared withdrives do not
conventional
need extra electrical
three-phase drives.equipment
Multiphase to drives
managedopost-fault
not needoperation, requiring
extra electrical only proper
equipment post-
to manage
fault control techniques in order to continue operating [2]. Therefore, they are ideal for traction
post-fault operation, requiring only proper post-fault control techniques in order to continue
and aerospace
operating [2].applications for security
Therefore, they are idealreasons or in and
for traction offshore wind farms
aerospace where for
applications corrective
security
maintenance can be difficult under bad weather conditions [3-6].
reasons or in offshore wind farms where corrective maintenance can be difficult under bad
weather conditions [3-6].

Phase Line Open-Ci rcuit Fault Short-Ci rcuit Switch Fault Phase Current Sensor Faults Open-Ci rcuit phase Fault
Phase Winding
P Short-Ci rcuit
ias
ibs + Te
Vdc1 Sa Sb Sc=0 Sd=1 Se + vbs vas
- n-
A
O vcs - - ves +
Open-Ci rcuit Line -
B C ics
Fault D + vds
E
+
ωm
Vdc2 ids
Sa Sb Sc=0 Sd Se=0 Speed Sensor
Fault

N ies
Open-Ci rcuit Switch Fault Inter-Turn Short-Ci rcuit Winding Short-Ci rcuit
Vol tage Sensor Faults
Power Converter Faults Multiphase Machine Faults Sensor Faults

Figure
Figure 1. Types
1. Types of faults
of faults on a five-phase
on a five-phase drive. drive.

Faults
Faults in electromechanical
in an an electromechanical drivedrive
can becanalsobe also classified
classified dependingdepending on (electrical
on the nature the nature
(electrical or mechanical), the location or the effect they have on the overall system
or mechanical), the location or the effect they have on the overall system (notice that different(notice
that different types of faults can result in the same abnormal machine
types of faults can result in the same abnormal machine behavior). The most common behavior). The most
common classification of faults in electrical drives defines three main groups of faults that
classification of faults in electrical drives defines three main groups of faults that can appear
can appear in the electrical drive. The power converter, electronic sensors (current,
in the electrical drive. The power converter, electronic sensors (current, temperature, speed
temperature, speed and voltage) and the electrical machine focus the main faults in an
and voltage) and the electrical machine focus the main faults in an electrical drives, as shown
electrical drives, as shown in Figure 1. These faults are detailed hereafter.
in Figure 1. These faults are detailed hereafter.

1.1. Electrical
Electricalmachine
machinefaults
faultsthat
thatcan
canbebecaused
causedby byeither
eitherelectrical
electricalorormechanical
mechanicalproblems/
stress and are further
problems/stress anddivided as follows
are further divided[7-11]:
as follows [7-11]:
2. Stator faults: open-circuit or short-circuit of one or more stator phase windings. These
2. Stator
kindsfaults: open-circuit
of faults appear due ortoshort-circuit
mechanically of damaged
one or more stator phase
connections windings.
caused These
by insulation
kinds of faults appear due to mechanically damaged connections caused
failure, extreme electrical operating conditions (high temperatures in the stator core or by insulation
failure,
windingextreme electricalstresses,
coils, starting operating conditions
over- (high temperatures
or under-voltage in the stator
operation, electrical core or
discharges,
winding coils, starting stresses, over- or under-voltage operation,
unbalanced stator voltages) or nonappropriate ambient conditions (dirt, oil and electrical discharges,
unbalanced stator voltages)[10-12],
moisture contamination) or nonappropriate ambient conditions
leading to inter-turn (dirt, oil and
[12], stator-winding moisture
[13], and
contamination)
different phase[10-12],
windingleading
shortto inter-turn
circuits [10- [12], stator-winding
11], which may result[13],
in and different
further phase
open-phase
winding
faults ofshort
one orcircuits
more [10-
phase11], which may
windings result in further open-phase faults of one or
[14-15].
3. more
Rotorphase windings
faults: shorted[14-15].
rotor field winding, broken rotor bars and cracked rotor end-rings.
They are caused by electrical (shorted rotor windings) or mechanical (broken bars and
3. Rotor faults: shorted rotor field winding, broken rotor bars and cracked rotor end-rings.
cracked rotor rings) problems. These types of faults appear due to thermal stress (drive
They are caused by electrical (shorted rotor windings) or mechanical (broken bars and
cracked rotor rings) problems. These types of faults appear due to thermal stress (drive
operation under overload and unbalanced load conditions), electromagnetic stress,
330 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

manufacturing problems, dynamic stress from shaft torque, environmental conditions

and fatigued mechanical parts [10-11].
4. Air-gap irregularities due to static or dynamic eccentricity problems. Eccentricity is
caused by manufacturing and constructive errors that generate an unequal air gap
between the stator and the rotor, leading to unbalanced radial forces and possible rotor-
stator contact [10]. Static eccentricity appears when the position of the air gap inequality
is fixed, whereas dynamic eccentricity happens when the rotor center is not properly
aligned at the rotation center and the position of the air gap does not rotate equally.
5. Bearing faults, which are mainly caused by assembling errors (misalignment of bearings)
that result in bearing vibration forced into the shaft [16].
6. Bent shaft faults, which are similar to dynamic eccentricity faults [10]. These faults appear
when force unbalance or machine-load misalignment happens, resulting in machine
vibration and further machine failure [11].

Statistically, the most common faults in electrical machines are the bearing failures, stator
winding faults, broken rotor bar, shaft and coupling faults, cracked rotor end-rings, and air-
gap eccentricity [7-9], leading to unbalanced stator currents and voltages, the appearance of
specific harmonics in the phase currents, overall torque oscillation and reduction, machines
vibration, noise, overheating and efficiency reduction [10- 11].

1. Sensor Faults. Electrical drives commonly include speed, voltage and current sensors for
control and protection purposes (Figure 1). In the multiphase drive case, standard FOC
and predictive control techniques require a speed and at least n − 1 (for an n-phase drive)
current measurements in order to ensure proper control behavior. In case of abnormal
sensor operation, inexistent or nonaccurate signals can downgrade the system perform‐
ance or result in a complete drive failure [17-20]. Sensor faults have been mainly analyzed
for three-phase drives, and recent works have also addressed this type of faults for the
multiphase case [21-23]. Notice that depending on the faulty sensor (i.e. DC-link voltage,
current or speed), the effect in conventional three-phase or multiphase drive is mainly the
same. In any case, the analysis of these kinds of faults mainly focuses on handling only
one faulty sensor due to the small probability of fault in more than one sensor [24], which
would include current and speed sensor faults, which are the most critical in electrical
drive applications. The main reason for this is that high-performance drives are based on
speed and current closed-loop controllers and consequently on speed and current sensors.
Any variation or systematic error on the measured quantities may result in instantaneous
power demanding control actions, subjecting the whole system to possible electrical stress
[17].
2. Power Converter Faults. The most common types of faults in electrical drives are those
associated to the power converter [25]. Power converter faults are presented graphically
in Figure 1, and can be further classified as single short-circuit switch fault, single open-
circuit switch fault, phase-leg short-circuit fault, phase-leg open-circuit fault or open-
circuit line fault [2]. These types of faults are mainly due to the burn out of the
semiconductor or due to the semiconductor driver failure, forcing the semiconductor to
 Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor Drives 331
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810

remain in a constant ON or OFF state. As a result, the power converter may either lose a
complete phase (also termed open-phase fault) or may physically maintain the number
of phases and current flow but lose specific control capabilities on either one or both of
the semiconductor of a certain phase. Thus, the configuration of the electrical drive varies,
and the post-fault electrical drive may be regarded as an entire different system [26].

The phase redundancy that multiphase drives possess allows managing faulty operation
without the need of extra equipment, depending on the specific electrical machine configura‐
tion. Postfault control techniques exploit extra degrees of freedom of the multiphase system
to maintain a circular Magneto-Motive Force (MMF) and achieve the desired speed or torque
references. Depending on the type of fault and the electrical drive characteristics, different
postfault control strategies, drive configuration and electrical machine winding connections
are adopted under postfault operation. For instance, in the case of short-circuit faults, the
proposed fault management strategies are based on controlling the available four healthy
phases in a five-phase drive, maintaining operation at the expense of higher stator phase
winding losses and torque ripple [27]. Nonetheless, this increase in torque ripple is managed
in a dual three-phase drive [13] maintaining postfault operation with one three-phase drive in
short-circuit and compensating the braking torque with the healthy three-phase drive [28]. The
inclusion of auxiliary semiconductors in the electrical machine windings, in order to change
from a short-circuit fault to an open-circuit or open-phase fault, was also addressed in [29],
where ripple-free output torque was obtained with the appropriate control of the remaining
four healthy phases. As a result, the multiphase electrical drive is able to manage different
types of faults but at the expense of extra electronic equipment, like in the conventional three-
phase case. Different winding connections have also been considered for single and phase
short circuit faults for a dual three-phase machine, assessing the effect of the harmonics
obtained in the machines losses and torque, and evaluating its performance under different
working conditions [30]. A similar approach has also been followed for open-phase and open-
line faults, where different drive topologies or machine winding connections have been
considered. In one study [3], a six-phase drive was designed in order to independently control
each phase of a three-phase machine under different types of faults and its viability was stated
emulating an open-circuit line fault. Five-phase machines considering penta- and star-type
winding connections are also compared in another study [30], where fundamental and third-
harmonic components are used to control the post-fault operation of the electrical drive. The
available torque is increased, while torque ripple and losses are reduced. It is concluded that
penta-winding connection results in improved fault-tolerance capabilities due to the higher
number of open-circuit phases it can withstand (three open-phase faults in a five-phase drive).

But fault management does not include only postfault control techniques. It is divided in four
different states namely, fault occurrence, fault detection, fault isolation and, finally, postfault
control or the fault-tolerant control operation. Different fault detection and fault isolation
techniques have been proposed based on the specific characteristics of the electrical drive to
ensure proper postfault behavior. Then, a proper postfault control method is implemented to
maintain correct reference tracking. This book chapter will be only focused on the postfault
controller, and fault-detection and fault-isolation techniques will not be addressed.
332 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

3. Analysis of an open-phase fault in multiphase drives with odd number

of phases

The most common fault, the open-phase fault, is studied in this section. The ability of a
multiphase machine managing the fault operation lies in the greater number of phases and in
the greater number of independent variables that model the system. The model of the multi‐
phase machine is analyzed. The analysis is done for a generic multiphase machine. Then, the
modeling equations of an n-phase multiphase drive under an open-phase fault operation is
presented, emphasizing their effect in the healthy model to understand the imposed con‐
straints for the design of postfault control techniques.
In the first place, the n-phase one neutral induction machine model is studied. The machine
can be modeled by a set of stator and rotor phase voltage equilibrium equations referred to a
fixed reference frame linked to the stator as follows:

d
(
éëVs ùû = éë Rs ùû·éë I s ùû + éëls ùû = éë Rs ùû·éë I s ùû + p· éë Lss ùû·éë I s ùû + éë Lsr (q ) ùû·éë I r ùû
dt
) (1)

d
(
éëVr ùû = éë Rr ùû·éë I r ùû + éëlr ùû = éë Rr ùû·éë I r ùû + p· éë Lrr ùû·éë I r ùû + éë Lrs (q ) ùû·éë I s ùû
dt
) (2)

Where θ represents the rotor electrical angular position with respect to the stator, and rotates
at the rotor electrical velocity ωr . The voltage, current and flux matrices are given by (3)-(8).
Notice that the voltage rotor components (4) are equal to zero.

T
éëVs ùû = éë vas vbs vcs vds ves L vns ùû (3)

T
ëéVr ûù = ëé var vbr vcr vdr ver L vnr ûù (4)

T
éëls ùû = éëlaslbslcsldsles L lns ùû (5)

T
éëlr ùû = éëlar lbr lcr ldr ler L lnr ùû (6)

T
ëé I s ûù = ëéias ibsics idsies L ins ûù (7)

ëé I r ûù = [iar ibr icr idr ier L inr ]

T
(8)

The rotor and stator resistance and inductance matrices are defined as follows:
 Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor Drives 333
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810

é Rs 0 0 0 L 0ù é Rr 0 0 0 L 0ù
ê ú ê ú
ê0 Rs 0 0 L 0ú ê0 Rr 0 0 L 0ú
ê0 0 Rs 0 L 0ú ê0 0 Rr 0 L 0ú
[ Rs ] = ê ú [ Rr ] = ê ú (9)
ê0 0 0 Rs L 0ú ê0 0 0 Rr L 0ú
êM M M M O M ú êM M M M O M ú
ê ú ê ú
êë 0 0 0 0 L Rs úû êë 0 0 0 0 L Rr úû

ëé Lss ûù = Lls ·ëé I n ûù + Lms ·éë L (J )n ùû (10)

éë Lrr ùû = Llr ·éë I n ùû + Lmr ·éë L (J )n ùû (11)

é
ê
1 cos (J ) cos ( 2J ) (
cos ( 3J ) L cos ( n - 1)J ù
ú
)
ê
(
ê cos ( n - 1)J ) 1 cos (J ) (
cos ( 2J ) L cos ( n - 2 )J ú
ú
)
(
êcos ( n - 2 )J
ê
) (
cos ( n - 1)J ) 1 (
cos (J ) L cos ( n - 3 )J ú
ú
)
é Λ (J ) ù = ê
ë nû
ê
(
cos ( n - 3 )J ) cos ( ( n - 2 )J ) (
cos ( n - 1)J ) 1 (
L cos ( n - 4 )J ú
ú
) (12)

ê M M M M O M ú
ê ú
ê cos ( 2J ) cos ( 3J ) cos ( 4J ) cos ( 5J ) L cos (J ) ú
ê cos (J ) cos ( 2J ) cos ( 3J ) cos ( 4J ) L 1 ú
ë û

Due to the machine symmetry, the stator-rotor ( L msr ) and rotor-stator ( L mrs ) mutual induc‐

tances are given by:

Lmsr = Lmrs = Lms ® Lms = kw2 ·Lmr (13)

Making possible to conclude that:

ëé Lsr (q ) ûù = ëé Lrs (q ) ûù ® ëé Lsr (q ) ûù = Lms ·éë Y (q ) ùû

T
(14)

é cos ( D1 ) cos ( D 2 ) cos ( D 3 ) cos ( D 4 ) L cos ( D n ) ù

ê ú
ê cos(( D n )
ê
cos ( D1 ) cos ( D 2 ) cos ( D 3 ) L (
cos D( n -1) ú
ú
)
(
ê cos D( n -1) ) cos ( D n ) cos ( D1 ) cos ( D 2 ) L (
cos D( n - 2) ú )
ëé Y(q ) ûù = ê ú (15)
(
êcos D( n - 2)
ê
) (
cos D( n -1) ) cos ( D n ) cos ( D1 ) L (
cos D( n - 3) ú
ú
)
ê M M M M O M ú
ê ú
ë cos ( D 2 ) cos ( D 3 ) cos ( D 4 ) cos ( D 5 ) L cos ( D1 ) û
334 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Notice that [In] is the identity matrix of order n, ∆i angles are defined as: ∆i=θ + (i−1)ϑ, being
i={1,2,3, ,n}, L ls and L lr are the stator and rotor leakage inductances, and ϑ is the angle between
phase windings.

Depending on the working state of the electrical drive and the number of phases it possesses,
different transformation matrices can be used in order to describe the machine’s electrical
parameters in an α - β - x - y - z reference frame. For instance, for normal operation the
traditional Clarke transformation (16) is used. (16)

é1
ê
cos (J ) cos ( 2J ) cos ( 3J ) L (
cos ( n - 1)J ) ù
ú
ê0 sin (J ) sin ( 2J ) sin ( 3J ) L sin ( ( n - 1)J ) ú
ê ú
ê1 cos ( 2J ) cos ( 4J ) cos ( 6J ) L cos ( 2 ( n - 1)J ) ú
ê ú
ê0 sin ( 2J ) sin ( 4J ) sin ( 6J ) L sin ( 2 ( n - 1)J ) ú
ê ú
ê1 cos ( 3J ) cos ( 6J ) cos ( 9J ) L cos ( 3 ( n - 1)J ) ú
ê ú
ê0 sin ( 3J ) sin ( 6J ) sin ( 9J ) L sin ( 3 ( n - 1)J ) ú
ê ú
2 ê1 cos ( 4J ) cos ( 8J ) cos ( 12J ) L cos ( 4 ( n - 1)J ) ú
ëéTn ûù = n ê ú (16)
ê0 sin ( 4J ) sin ( 8J ) sin ( 12J ) L sin ( 4 ( n - 1)J ) ú
ê ú
êM M M M O M ú
ê ú
æ n-1 ö æ n-1 ö æ n-1 ö æ n - 1 öú
ê1 cos ç J ÷ cos ç 2 J ÷ cos ç 3 J÷ L cos ç ( n - 1) J÷
ê è 2 ø è 2 ø è 2 ø è 2 øú
ê ú
ê0 æ n-1 ö æ n-1 ö æ n-1 ö æ n - 1 öú
ê sin ç J ÷ sin ç 2 J ÷ sin ç 3 J÷ L sin ç ( n - 1) J ÷ú
ê è 2 ø è 2 ø è 2 ø è 2 øú
ê1 1 1 1 1 ú
êë 2 L úû
2 2 2 2

In order to eliminate the time dependence of the coupling inductances and divide the model
in a set of different independent-orthogonal equations, the Clarke transformation is applied
to the machine model. The stator and rotor voltage, current and flux components in the α1 - β1
- α2 - β2 - … - zn reference frame can be calculated by:

é vsa1 ù é isa1 ù é lsa1 ù

ê ú ê ú ê ú
ê v s b1 ú ê i s b1 ú ê lsb1 ú
ê ú ê ú ê ú
ê vsa 2 ú = éT ù * éV ù êisa 2 ú = éT ù * é I ù êlsa 2 ú = éT ù * él ù
ê v ú ë n û ë s û êi ú ë n û ë s û êl ú ë n û ë s û (17)
ê sb 2 ú ê sb 2 ú ê sb 2 ú
ê M ú ê M ú ê M ú
ê ú ê ú ê ú
v
êë szn úû i
êë szn úû êë lszn úû
 Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor Drives 335
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810

é vr' a ù é ir' a ù é lr'a ù

ê 1ú ê 1ú ê 1ú
ê vr' b ú ê ir' b ú ê lr' b ú
ê ' 1ú ê ' 1ú ê ' 1ú
ê vra 2 ú êira 2 ú êlra ú
ê ' ú = éëTn ùû * éëVr ùû ê ' ú = éëTn ùû * éë I r ùû ê ' 2 ú = éëTn ùû * éëlr ùû (18)
ê vr b2 ú ê ir b 2 ú êlr b2 ú
ê ú ê ú ê ú
ê M ú ê ú M ê M ú
ê v' ú ê i' ú êl' ú
ë rzn û ë rzn û ë rzn û

Multiplying the transformation matrix T n with the stator and rotor phase voltage equations,
(1) and (2), we get:

-1
ëéTn ûù·ëéVs ûù = ëéTn ûù·ëé Rs ûù·ëéTn ûù ·ëéTn ûù·ëé I s ûù
-1
+ p·éëTn ùû·éë Lss ùû·éëTn ùû ·éëTn ùû·éë I s ùû (19)
+ p·éëTn ùû·éëLsr (q ) ùû·éëTn ùû ·éëTn ùû·éë I r ùû
-1

-1
éë0 ùû = éëTn ùû·éë Rr ùû·éëTn ùû ·éëTn ùû·éë I r ùû
-1
+ p·ëéTn ûù·ëé Lrr ûù·ëéTn ûù ·ëéTn ûù·[ I r ] (20)
+ p·ëéTn ùû·éëLrs (q ) ùû·ëéTn ûù ·ëéTn ûù·ëé I s ûù
-1

When an open-phase fault occurs in phase “i”, the stator windings become an unbalanced
system, the faulty phase current is now zero (iis=0), leading to a modification in the machine
equations.

Due to the fact that the machine has no longer symmetrical stator windings, the back-emf terms
are no longer mutually canceled, consequently the sum of the phase voltages are no longer
zero.

å éëVsùû ¹ 0 (21)

Even though the faulty phase stator current will be zero, the corresponding phase voltage with
respect to the neutral machine point will have an equivalent voltage value equal to the back-
emf (22).

vis = Rsiis + p·lis = p·lis = BackEmfi (22)

Taking this into account the new voltage, current and flux matrices are:
336 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

T
éëVs ùû = éë vas vbs vcs L - BackEMFi L vns ûù (23)

T
éë0 ùû = éë var vbr vcr vdr ver L vnr ùû (24)

T
ëéls ûù = ëélaslbslcsldsles L lns ûù (25)

T
éëlr ùû = éëlar lbr lcr ldr ler L lnr ùû (26)

T
éë I s ùû = éëias ibsics L 0L ins ùû (27)

éë I r ùû = [iar ibr icr idr ier L inr ]T (28)

Notice that the rotor components remain the same as in normal operation, due to the fact that
in postfault operation the machine rotor maintains a symmetrical winding distribution.

The absence of the stator phase results in a loss in one degree of freedom. Depending on the
position of the faulty phase the transformation matrix (16) is modified, making it no longer
possible to generate the same number of orthogonal sub-systems, leading to the removal of
one or more of the generated components (29).

é1
ê
cos (J ) cos ( 2J ) cos ( 3J ) L 0 L (
cos ( n - 1)J ) ù
ú
ê0 sin (J ) sin ( 2J ) sin ( 3J ) L 0 L sin ( ( n - 1)J ) ú
ê ú
ê1 cos ( 2J ) cos ( 4J ) cos ( 6J ) L 0 L cos ( 2 ( n - 1)J ) ú
ê ú
ê0 sin ( 2J ) sin ( 4J ) sin ( 6J ) L 0 L sin ( 2 ( n - 1)J ) ú
ê ú
ê1 cos ( 3J ) cos ( 6J ) cos ( 9J ) L 0 L cos ( 3 ( n - 1)J ) ú
ê ú
ê0 sin ( 3J ) sin ( 6J ) sin ( 9J ) L 0 L sin ( 3 ( n - 1)J ) ú
2êM M M M M 0 L M
ú
éëTnUF ùû = ê ú (29)
nê ú
ê0 0 0 0 L 0 L 0 ú
êM M M M M 0 O M ú
ê ú
ê1 æ n-1 ö æ n-1 ö æ n-1 ö æ n - 1 öú
ê cos ç J ÷ cos ç 2 J ÷ cos ç 3 J÷ L 0 L cos ç ( n - 1) J ÷ú
ê è 2 ø è 2 ø è 2 ø è 2 øú
ê æ n-1 ö æ n-1 ö æ n-1 ö æ n - 1 öú
ê0 sin ç J ÷ sin ç 2 J ÷ sin ç 3 J÷ L 0 L sin ç ( n - 1) J ÷ú
ê è 2 ø è 2 ø è 2 ø è 2 øú
ê1 1 1 1 1 ú
ê L 0 L ú
ë2 2 2 2 2 û
 Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor Drives 337
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810

Consequently, the machine coupling inductance matrices (10-14) for the stator-rotor compo‐
nents need to be arranged considering the absence of the faulty phase.

é 1 cos(J ) cos(2J ) L 0 L cos((n - 1)J ) ù

ê ú
ê cos(( n - 1)J ) 1 cos(J ) L 0 L cos((n - 2)J ) ú
êcos((n - 2)J ) cos((n - 1)J ) 1 L 0 L cos((n - 3)J ) ú
ê ú
ê cos((n - 3)J ) cos((n - 2)J ) cos((n - 1)J ) L 0 L cos((n - 4)J ) ú
éë L(J )nUF ùû = ê ú (30)
M M M M 0 O M
ê ú
ê 0 0 0 0 0 L 0 ú
ê ú
ê M M M M 0 M M ú
êë cos(J ) cos(2J ) cos(3J ) L 0 L 1 úû

The equations (1) and (2) need to be multiplied by the new Clarke transformation matrix
T nuf , to express the stator and rotor voltage, current and flux components in the α1 - β1 - α2 -
β2 - … - zn reference frame in post-fault situation:

-1
éTnuf ù·éëVs ùû = éTnuf ù·éë Rs ùû·éTnuf ù ·éTnuf ù·éë I s ùû
ë û ë û ë û ë û
-1
+ p·éëTnuf ùû·éë Lss ùû·éëTnuf ùû ·éëTnuf ùû·éë I s ùû (31)
-1
+ p·éëTnuf ùû·éëLsr (q ) ùû·éëTnuf ùû ·éëTnuf ùû·éë I r ùû

-1
ëé0 ûù = éëTnuf ùû·ëé Rr ûù·éëTnuf ùû ·éëTnuf ùû·ëé I r ûù
-1
+ p·éëTnuf ùû·ëé Lrr ûù·éëTnuf ùû ·éëTnuf ùû·[ I r ] (32)
-1
+ p·éëTnuf ùû·éëLrs (q ) ùû·éëTnuf ùû ·éëTnuf ùû·ëé I s ûù

The equations (31) and (32) depict the stator and rotor voltage vector equations in the α1 - β1 -
α2 - β2 - … - zn reference frame in postfault situation, when an open-phase fault occurs in a
multiphase drive with odd number of phases. In the next section these equations are particu‐
larized for a five-phase machine.

4. Open-phase fault operation in five-phase drives

The case study presented in this chapter is a 5-phase induction machine with symmetrical and
distributed windings. The n-phase mathematical model presented in the previous section must
be first particularized for the 5-phase case to understand the system behavior in the faulty
situation and to predict the effect of the selected control actions on the post-fault controlled
338 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

system. Two different post-fault control strategies for the open-phase fault management will
be presented. The first one is based on linear Proportional Resonant (PR) current controllers
and the field oriented control technique. The second one is also based on the field oriented
control method but combined with a Predictive Current Control (PCC) technique. Both control
methods can be applied during postfault operation, and will be described in this section, along
with the criteria that can be used to generate the current references in the drive during the
fault. These criteria differ from those established in healthy operation, and constitute one of
the bases of the postfault operation of the drive.

4.1. A. Five-phase induction machine modeling under an open phase fault

The general n-phase induction machine model introduced before can be particularized for the
5-phase case. Taking also into account that the faulty phase is ‘a’, which can be made without
any lack of generality, from now on it can be assumed that ias = 0. The stator/rotor resistance,
inductance and coupling general matrices can be obtained as follows:

éë Rs ùû = Rs ·[ I 4 ] (33)

éë Rr ùû = Rr ·[ I 4 ] (34)

Lss = Lls ·éë I 4 ùû + Lm ·éë L(J ) ùû (35)

Lrr = Llr ·éë I 4 ùû + Lm ·éë L(J ) ùû (36)

é 1 cos (J ) cos ( 2J ) cos ( 3J ) cos ( 4J ) ù

ê ú
êcos ( 4J ) 1 cos (J ) cos ( 2J ) cos ( 3J ) ú
é L (J ) ù = ê cos ( 3J ) cos ( 4J ) 1 cos (J ) cos ( 2J ) ú
ú
(37)
ë nû ê
êcos ( 2J ) cos ( 3J ) cos ( 4J ) 1 cos (J ) ú
ê ú
êë cos (J ) cos ( 2J ) cos ( 3J ) cos ( 4J ) 1 úû

é cos ( D1 ) cos ( D 2 ) cos ( D 3 ) cos ( D 4 ) cos ( D 5 ) ù

ê ú
ê cos ( D 5 ) cos ( D1 ) cos ( D 2 ) cos ( D 3 ) cos ( D 4 ) ú
ê ú
éë Ψ(q ) ùû = êcos ( D 4 ) cos ( D 5 ) cos ( D1 ) cos ( D 2 ) cos ( D 3 ) ú (38)
ê cos ( D ) cos ( D 4 ) cos ( D 5 ) cos ( D1 ) cos ( D 2 ) ú
ê 3
ú
êëcos ( D 2 ) cos ( D 3 ) cos ( D 4 ) cos ( D 5 ) cos ( D1 ) úû
 Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor Drives 339
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810

where L ls and L lr are the stator and rotor leakage inductances, M is the mutual inductance of
the machine M = 5L m / 2, and the stator and rotor inductances are defined as L s = M + L ls
and L r = M + L lr , respectively.

The 5-phase case is characterized by the transformation matrix (T 5). The stator and rotor phase
variables can be mapped to a set of four independent variables divided in two orthogonal
stationary planes (namely α-β and x-y subspaces) and a zero sequence component (z compo‐
nent). Notice that the distributed windings’ characteristic of the five-phase machine deter‐
mines that the torque production is only dependent of the α - β components, while x - y
components only generate motor losses. This particularization for the 5-phase case can be
summarized in the following equations:

T T
éia s ib s ixs iys izs ùû = éëT5 ùû·éëias ibs ics ids ies ùû (39)
ë

T T
é va s vb s vxs vys vzs ùû = éëT5 ùû·éë vas vbs vcs vds ves ùû (40)
ë

é 1 cos (J ) cos ( 2J ) cos ( 3J ) cos ( 4J ) ù

ê ú
ê 0 sin(J ) sin(2J ) sin(3J ) sin(4J ) ú
2ê
éëT5 ùû = · 1 cos ( 2J ) cos ( 4J ) cos (J ) cos ( 3J ) ú (41)
5ê ú
ê 0 sin(2J ) sin(4J ) sin(J ) sin(3J ) ú
ê ú
êë1 / 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1 / 2 úû

While the traditional Clarke transformation matrix (T5) is applied in healthy state, a modified
matrix can be used under open-phase postfault operation in order to have a reduced-order
subset of equations. If the reduced-order Clarke transformation matrix remains orthogonal as
in (T5), the asymmetries lead to noncircular α - β current components. In order to compensate
for the stator/rotor impedance asymmetries appearing in postfault situation, a new nonor‐
thogonal transformation matrix that will be named (TPCC) is used here [31]. When the fault
appears, it is no longer possible to define four independent variables in the system because a
fixed relationship exists between α and x current components, being isx = − is .

écos (J ) - 1 cos ( 2J ) - 1 cos ( 3J ) - 1 cos ( 4J ) - 1ù

ê ú
2 ê sin (J ) sin 2J sin ( 3J ) sin ( 4J ) ú
éëTPCC ùû = ·ê ú (42)
5 sin ( 2J ) sin ( 4J ) sin ( 6J ) sin ( 8J ) ú
ê
ê 1 1 1 1 ú
ë û

In a similar way, the coordinate transformation can be applied to the machine voltage
equations. The stator phase voltages in normal operation (Vpre) depend on the switching state
340 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

of every leg of the power converter (Si ), being Si = 0 if the lower switch is ON and the upper
switch is OFF, and Si = 1 if the opposite occurs.

é vas ù é4 -1 -1 -1 -1ù éSa ù

ê ú ê úê ú
v
ê bs ú V ê -1 4 -1 -1 -1ú êSb ú
ê v ú = DC ·ê -1 -1 4 -1 -1ú·êSc ú = Vpre (43)
ê cs ú 5 ê úê ú
ê vds ú ê -1 -1 -1 4 -1ú êSd ú
êv ú ê -1 -1 -1 -1 4 úû êë ve úû
ë es û ë

During prefault operation the five-phase drive possesses 25 = 32 switching states and the sum
of the healthy phase voltages is zero (∑ vin = 0
). However, if an open-phase fault appears, the
available switching states are reduced to 24 = 16 and the faulty phase current is zero. Nonethe‐
less, the faulty phase voltage is not null since there is a back-emf induced in the faulty phase,
leading to an asymmetric effect in the machine modeling [31]. Taking this into account, the
phase voltage of the faulty phase (‘a’) is given by:

d d
vas = Rs ·ias + l = l = BackEmfa (44)
dt as dt as

Consequently, the back-emf term can be expressed as (45), estimating the stator flux term in
(44) and considering the transformation matrix (T5) and i sx = − is .

las = la s + lxs = Lsia s + Lmia r + Llsixs

d (45)
BackEmfa = éë Lsia s + Lmia r - Llsia s ùû
dt

As a result, the stator phase voltage matrix (43) must be modified considering the faulty phase
back-emf in the phase voltage equilibrium equations and must guarantee sinusoidal flux [4].
Consequently, taking into account the faulty phase voltage and the absence of current in the
open-phase, the stator phase voltage matrix can be written as in (46).

é ù é ù
ê ú é 3 -1 -1 -1ù ê ú di di
ê vbs ú V ê -1 3 -1 -1ú êSb ú Lm · a s + Lm · a r
ê vcs ú = DC
· ê ú ·êS ú - dt dt ·é I ù (46)
ê ú 4 ê -1 -1 3 -1ú ê c ú 4 ë 4û
ê vds ú ê ú êSd ú
êv ú êë -1 -1 -1 3 úû ê ú
ë es û ëSe û
 Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor Drives 341
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810

where [I4] is the identity matrix of order 4 and the second term on the right hand side is the
counter electromotive force (45).

4.2. B. Implemented fault-tolerant control methods

In what follows, the two implemented open-phase fault-tolerant controllers are presented.
Different control criteria can be implemented depending on the overall electrical drive aim.
However, only field oriented control methods have been recently used to manage postfault
(open-phase type) operations. The inner current controllers of the field oriented controller have
been implemented using linear or predictive control techniques. Both methods require a
redefinition of the stator current references in the postfault operation to ensure minimum
copper losses, a minimum derating strategy or minimum torque ripples in the drive [4, 31-35].
The maximum achievable α - β currents in the electrical drive vary depending on the selected
control criteria. In general, the minimum copper loss criteria is used in applications where
efficiency is of special interest and, consequently, Joules losses need to be minimized, while
the minimum derating or the minimum torque ripple strategies are preferred when the faulty
electrical drive must provide the maximum achievable torque or ensure smooth, vibration-
free operation, respectively. From the postfault operation control performance and controller
perspective, all the techniques behave in a similar way in the multiphase drive. In our case,
the minimum copper loss criteria will be used for comparison purposes for the sake of
simplicity.

5. Minimum copper loss criteria

The minimum copper loss (MCL) criterion focuses on reducing the drive losses. The α - β stator
current references are then calculated in order to ensure proper torque/flux control while
imposing a rotating circle-shaped MMF and maintaining the amplitudes of the phase currents
bellow the rated values of the drive (these maximum values are established by the power
semiconductors of converter and the stator windings of the electrical machine). As a result, the
drive needs to be derated in such a way that the remaining healthy phases do not exceed their
nominal current value (I n ) and the maximum reference currents in the α - β subspace are [36]:

iamax
s
= 0.6813 × I nibmax
s
= -0.6813 × I n (47)

The non-torque contributing y -current reference is set to zero (iy* = 0) in order to minimize Joules
losses, whereas the x -current component is not anymore an independent variable for the
controller (it is inherently fixed to the α -current component after the fault occurrence). Notice
that the procedure to manage the postfault operation effectively minimizes the electrical drive
losses, at the expense of reducing the maximum obtainable postfault torque and generating
unequal peaks of the phase currents [36, 37].
342 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

6. Predictive Current Control (PCC)

The first fault-tolerant control scheme is the PCC method, based on Finite-Control Set (FCS)
Model-Based Predictive Techniques [38]. An accurate discrete system model is required in
order to predict the machines’ operation for every VSI state. The implemented controller is
based on an outer PI-based closed-loop speed control and an inner fault-tolerant PCC method,
as shown in Figure 2. During every sampling period (k), the speed and the stator currents of
the machine are measured. Then, stator currents are mapped into the stationary α - β - x - y
subspaces by means of the modified Clarke transformation (TPCC) for postfault operation. The
postfault available voltage vectors (24 = 16) are used afterwards to predict the stator currents
evolution for the next sampling period (k+1). These current references are finally evaluated in
a cost function (J) to determine which voltage vector produces the minimum values of J. This
voltage vector is referred as the optimum switching state (Sioptimum(k + 1)) to be applied in the
power converter of the electrical drive to minimize the cost function (equivalent to the control
law). Notice that different cost functions can be defined in order to include different control
criteria. This can be easily done by setting weighting factors in the definition of the cost
function, as shown in (48) where the A, B, C and D terms multiply errors between the reference
(isi* ) and the predicted (^i si ) stator currents in the α - β - x - y reference frame (49)-(50).

J = A isa + B isb + C isb + D isy (48)

isa = is*a ( k + 1) - iˆsa ( k + 1) , isb = is*b ( k + 1) - iˆsb ( k + 1) (49)

isx = isx* ( k + 1) - iˆsx ( k + 1) , isy = isy* ( k + 1) - iˆsy ( k + 1) (50)

The main control criterion in healthy operation is to maintain a desired electrical torque, while
ensuring sinusoidal stator current references in phase coordinates (a-b-c-d-e). This objective is
met under normal drive operation by setting a constant circular stator current reference vector
in the α - β plane and a zero reference stator current vector in the x - y plane. In postfault
operation, the x -axis stator current is inherently fixed to the α -axis stator current. Then, the
α - β stator current references can be set following a circular trajectory but with a derating
factor in its maximum value, while the y-axis stator current is now controlled to be null.

Successively, the α-β current components are mapped in the rotating d-q reference frame by
means of the Park rotating transformation (51) and the field-oriented control position estimator
(52).

é isa ù écos (q ) -sin(q ) ù éisd ù

ê ú=ê ú ·ê ú (51)
êëisb ûú ëê sin(q ) cos(q ) ûú ëê isq ûú
 Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor Drives 343
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810

æ isq* ö
q = ò ç wr + ÷·dt (52)
ç t r × isd* ÷ø
è

The implementation of PCC techniques for multiphase fault-tolerant drives requires the same
control scheme for pre- and postfault operation, as long as the following considerations are
addressed after the fault occurrence detection:
• The weight of the x - y currents has to be changed in the cost function. The x current
• The weight
weight of
will - y to
thebex set currents hasthe
zero and to ybecurrent
changedwillinbe
the cost
the function.
same Theα-β
as for the x current weight
currents, i.e.
will be set to zero and the y
C = 0 and A = B = D in (48).current will be the same as for the α-β currents, i.e. C = 0 and
A = B = D in (48).
• yThe
• The y current
current reference
reference has has to be
to be changed,depending
changed, dependingon
on the
the selected
selectedpostfault
postfaultcontrol
control
criteria.
criteria.

• The
• limitation of the
The limitation - βαcurrents
of αthe needneed
- β currents to betochanged to (47),
be changed changing
to (47), thethe
changing settings ofofthe
settings
saturated anti wind-up PI speed controllers.
the saturated anti wind-up PI speed controllers.
• The transformation matrix that relates the switching functions with the phase voltages need
to
• be The
modified as in (46)matrix
transformation and the Clarke
that transformation
relates the switching of (42). with the phase voltages
functions
need to be modified as in (46) and the Clarke transformation of (42).

PCC i sd* i s*α MODEL PREDICTIVE

CONTROL - MPC
dq
Sioptimum (k+1)

+
i sq* i s*β is*(k) COST
FUNCTION
J MINIMIZER
ω m* PI αβ
FUNCTION
Min(J) 4
-
POSSIBLE VOLTAGE is(k+1)
ωm POSITION θ i sy
* VECTORS
PREDICTIVE
ESTIMATOR MODEL
SEQUENCER
j=1...N
Sij(k+1)
isd* isq*
Notations ωm
ωm: measured angular rotor speed. Vdc is(k)
is(k): measured stator currents. isa
is(k+1): predicted stator currents. abcd i sb
is*(k): reference stator currents. iabcd To is(k)
Sij(k+1): One of the possible switching voltage vector. αβyz i sy
Sioptimum(k+1): Switching voltage vector that minimices J.

Figure
Figure 2. Postfault
2. Postfault controller
controller based based
on the on
PCCthe PCC technique.
technique.

7. Proportional Resonant Control (PR)

7. Proportional Resonant Control (PR)
The second open-phase fault-tolerant implemented control scheme is based on stator current
Thex-y Proportional
second Resonant
open-phase (PR) regulators,
fault-tolerant as it is explained
implemented in [37]. is
control scheme The control
based technique
on stator is
current
detailed in Figure 3. It is based on a rotor flux controller, where the speed and flux control
x-y Proportional Resonant (PR) regulators, as it is explained in [37]. The control techni‐
are implemented in a rotor-flux-oriented reference frame (d-q coordinates) using PI
regulators. For simplicity, the d-current reference is set to a constant value while the q-
current reference is obtained from the speed error and a PI controller. The phase currents of
the machine can then be mapped in the stationary α-β-x-y planes using the classic Clarke
transformation and a position estimator. In order to improve the controllers’ performance,
344 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

que is detailed in Figure 3. It is based on a rotor flux controller, where the speed and flux
control are implemented in a rotor-flux-oriented reference frame (d-q coordinates) using PI
regulators. For simplicity, the d-current reference is set to a constant value while the q-
current reference is obtained from the speed error and a PI controller. The phase currents
of the machine can then be mapped in the stationary α-β-x-y planes using the classic Clarke
transformation and a position estimator. In order to improve the controllers’ perform‐
ance, two feedforward terms ed and eq , which depend on the machine model (it is used a
rotor-flux estimator based on the speed measurement and the d-current component [37]),
are included in the control loop:

ed = s × Ls × isq* × we (53)

lr*
eq = Ls × ×w (54)
Lm e

d æ1 ö L
l + ç - jwm ÷÷ lr = m isd (55)
dt r çè t r ø tr

Traditional PI regulators are capable of following the constant x-y current references under
normal operation. However, PR regulators are required under postfault operation to appro‐
priately track the oscillating x-y reference current components [39], where the x-current
component is forced to track the stator current in the α-current component and the y-current
reference is set depending on the postfault control method.

The PR controller is implemented using two PI regulators in two different reference frames to
track positive and negative stator current sequences [37], one rotating in the direction of the
field-oriented reference frame (ω1) and the other in the opposite direction ( − ω1). These PI
regulators are capable of appropriately following the current references with nonoscillating
terms. When their outputs are summed, and the action of the PR control is generated, the
controller is capable of effectively driving to zero the total tracking error.

The main advantage of implementing linear controllers in open-phase fault-tolerant drives is

that the asymmetry in the impedance terms in the α-β plane does not affect the controller
performance. Then, there is no need to consider the back-emf of the faulty phase in the voltage
equilibrium equations, and the same electrical drive model can be used for control purposes
in normal or abnormal operation. Nonetheless, it must be considered that due to the low
bandwidth that PI regulators possess, the parameters of the utilized PI must be tuned for
different operating points in pre- or postfault operating conditions, increasing the complexity
of the implemented controller.
 Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor Drives 345
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810

λsd
PR
isd FLUX ESTIMATOR ed
- isd* - vsd*
+ +
λsd* Kflux PI
dq xy Si

isq* + vsq* PWM

+ +
ω m* PI Ktorque PI
bcde
4
- - +
λsd* isq eq
vsy*
i* +
sx isy
*
ωm PR
-
isx isy
isd
i sq ωm ed
abcd POSITION ESTIMATOR
iabcd To i sx is(k) λsd* AND eq
dq-xyz
i sy isq* FEEDFORWARD TERM
θ

Figure 3. Postfault
Figure controller
3. Postfault basedbased
controller on PRon
technique.
PR technique.

8. Experimental and simulation results

8. Experimental and simulation
In this section, simulation results
and experimental results will be presented to show the behavior
in healthy and faulty states of the five-phase induction machine with symmetrical and
In this section,windings.
distributed simulation and experimental
Simulation results wereresults willusing
obtained be presented to showmodel
the mathematical the behavior
of the in
healthy and and
machine faulty states of&the
a Matlab five-phase
Simulink induction
based machine
simulation with symmetrical
tool described and distributed
in [40], whereas the
windings. Simulation
experimentation wasresults werean
done using obtained using
electrical drivethe mathematical
test-bench model
designed and of the machine
implemented in and
a Matlab & Simulink based simulation tool described in [40], whereas the experimentation was
a lab. To start with, the test bench will be described.
done using an electrical drive test-bench designed and implemented in a lab. To start with, the
test8.1.
bench
A. will be described.
Simulation Environment and Test-bench

8.1.The
A. Simulation Environment
developed Matlab andsimulation
& Simulink Test-benchenvironments are shown in Figure 4. Each
simulation model is composed of three main parts: the controller algorithm (PR and PCC
Thebased,
developed Matlabthe
respectively), & Simulink simulation
voltage source environments
converter are shown
and the five-phase in Figure
induction 4. Each
machine
simulation model is on
model. Depending composed of three
the selected main
postfault parts:criteria,
control the controller
appropriatealgorithm
current (PR and PCC
references
based,
mustrespectively),
be provided the
to voltage source The
the controller. converter
minimumand the five-phase
copper loss is induction machine
used during model.
postfault
Depending
operation on the
and, selected postfault
consequently, control
the y-current criteria,isappropriate
reference set to zero. current references must be
provided to the controller. The minimum copper loss is used during postfault operation and,
consequently, the y-current reference is set to zero.

The experimental test-bench is shown in Figure 5. The five-phase machine was built based on
a conventional three-phase induction machine (IM) that has been rewound to obtain a
symmetrical five-phase induction motor with distributed windings. This five-phase machine
is driven by two conventional SEMIKRON (SKS22F) three-phase two-level voltage source
inverters (VSI’s), connected to an independent external DC power supply as the DC-Link. The
IM is mechanically connected to a DC motor, which can provide a programmable mechanical
load torque to the five-phase drive. The rotational speed is measured by means of an incre‐
mental encoder from the manufacturer Hohner with reference 10-11657-2500, coupled to the
346 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Figure 4.
Figure 4.Developed
DevelopedMATLAB/Simulink
MATLAB/Simulinkmodel, including
model, both PCC
including (upper
both PCCfigure)
(upperandfigure)
PR controllers
and PR(lower figure).
controllers
(lower figure).
shaft. For control purposes, four phase hall-effect current sensors are used to measure the stator
The
phase experimental
currents. Thetest-bench is shown
control actions in Figure 5.using
are performed The five-phase
a DSP-based machine wasControl
Electronic built based
Unit
on a conventional three-phase induction machine (IM) that has
(ECU) connected to a personal computer (this PC acts as a Human Interface Unitbeen rewound to obtain
which a
symmetrical five-phase induction motor with distributed windings. This five-phase machine
manages the entire test bench) using a standard RS232 cable. The user of the system can
is driven by two conventional SEMIKRON (SKS22F) three-phase two-level voltage source
program the control algorithm using the Texas Instruments proprietary software called Code
inverters (VSI’s), connected to an independent external DC power supply as the DC-Link.
Composer Studio. This software runs in the DSP and configures the ECU’s internal peripherals,
The IM is mechanically connected to a DC motor, which can provide a programmable
the communication protocol and the data acquisition system.
mechanical load torque to the five-phase drive. The rotational speed is measured by means
TheanPCC
of and PR control
incremental encoderstrategies
from the aremanufacturer
implemented Hohner
in the DSPwithto analyze
referenceand compare the
10-11657-2500,
behavior of the real system. Regardless of the control strategy, the experimental
coupled to the shaft. For control purposes, four phase hall-effect current sensors aretests
usedthat
to
follow are performed setting a constant d-axis stator current reference of 0.57 A for constant-
measure the stator phase currents. The control actions are performed using a DSP-based
flux operation,
Electronic while
Control Unitthe(ECU)
q-axisconnected
stator current
to a reference is obtained(this
personal computer fromPCthe PI-based
acts speed
as a Human
Interface
controllerUnit which
(Figure manages
2 and Figurethe3).entire test bench)
The VSI’s using
DC-link a standard
voltage was set RS232 cable.
to 300 The fixed
V. The user
 ECU’s internal peripherals, the communication protocol and the data acquisition system.

The PCC and PR control strategies are implemented in the DSP to analyze and compare the
Open-Phase Fault
behavior of the real system. Regardless of Operation on Multiphase
the control strategy,Induction
the experimental 347 that
Motor Drives tests
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810
follow are performed setting a constant d-axis stator current reference of 0.57 A for constant-
flux operation, while the q-axis stator current reference is obtained from the PI-based speed
switching controller
and sampling frequency
(Figure 2 and for PR is3).setThe
Figure to 2.5 kHz,
VSI’s whereas
DC-link the sampling
voltage was set period
to 300 for
V. The fixed
PCC is set switching
to 0.1 ms, providing around
and sampling 2.5 kHzfor
frequency of PR
average
is setswitching
to 2.5 kHz, frequency.
whereas the Thesampling
postfault period for
operation of
PCCthe is
multiphase
set to 0.1drive
ms, considers
providingalways
around an 2.5
open-phase
kHz of fault
averagein leg ‘a’.
switching frequency. The
postfault operation of the multiphase drive considers always an open-phase fault in leg ‘a’.

DC-Link

CONTROL UNIT

RS232 RS232
PWM 5

DSP

SIGNAL I/O
4
ADC
COMM

eQEP a b c d e

FIVE-PHASE IM
MOTOR DRIVE

DC MOTOR FIVE-PHASE IM

Figure 5. Experimental
Figure 5. test bench.
Experimental test bench.

8.2. B. Steady-state performance inperformance

8.2. B. Steady-state postfault operation
in postfault operation

The steady-state performance

The steady-state can be easily
performance canstudied using
be easily the simulation
studied environment.
using the simulation First,
environment. First,
the postfault
themodel of the
postfault system,
model and
of the the PCC
system, andand
the PR
PCC controllers are implemented
and PR controllers using
are implemented using
aforementioned Matlab & Simulink
aforementioned Matlab & environments. The behavior
Simulink environments. Theof the system
behavior is evaluated
of the system is evaluated
driving the motor at a reference speed of 500 rpm and applying a load torque of 56% of the
nominal one (T n ). The obtained stator phase currents are shown in steady-state in Figures 6
and 7 for PCC and PR controllers, respectively. The minimum copper loss operation is applied.
Then, phase currents possess unequal peak values, with phases b-e equal in magnitude and
higher than those of phases c-d. It is observed that the fault-tolerant PCC produces higher
current ripple than the PR control method, even though the sampling frequency of the
predictive controller is set at four times the value of the PR method. This is due to the intrinsic
property of FCS predictive controllers, where the switching frequency is not fixed and depends
 produces higher current ripple than the PR control method, even though t
frequency of the predictive controller is set at four times the value of the
frequency of the predictive controller is set at four times the value of the PR me
due to the intrinsic property of FCS predictive controllers, where the sw
due to the intrinsic property of FCS predictive controllers, where the switching
348 notMotors
Induction fixed and depends
- Applications, Control and Faulton the electrical drive operating point. The beh
Diagnostics
not fixed and depends on the electrical drive operating point. The behavior
system
system offersoffersfasterfasterresponse
response and and
lowerlower switching
switching frequency
frequency using using
PCC th P
controllers.
on the electrical drive
controllers. The
The αα- β- point.
operating current
βcurrent vector
The behavior
vector of thedescribes
entire system
describes aoffers
circular
a circular faster trajectory
response
trajectory and
and the x-yth
t
and lower switching frequency using PCC than PR-based controllers. The α - β current vector
the same behavior
the same behaviorusing using both
both postfault
postfault controllers,
controllers, beingbeing the x-current
the x-current te
term fix
describes a circular trajectory and the x-y terms present the same behavior using both postfault
the y-current
the y-current
controllers, termnull.
being the term
x-currentnull.
term fixed to –α and the y-current term null.

4
4
iα s vs iβ s
iα s vs iβ s
2
4 2
4

[A]
ias ibs ics ids ies

[A]
3 0
ias ibs ics ids ies

βs
3 0

βs
i

i
2 -2
2 -2
1
[A][A]

-4
-4 -2 0 2 4
1
Current

-4 i [A]
0 -4 α s -2 0 2 4
Current

4 i [A]
0 αs
-1 4
ixs vs iys

-1 2 ixs vs iys
-2
2

iy s [A]
-2
-3
0

iy s [A]
0
-3
-4 -2
1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75
-4 Time [s] -4 -2
1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75
-4 -2 0 2 4
i [A]
Time [s] -4
xs
-4 -2 0 2 4
i [A]
xs

Figure 6. Phase current evolution in different subspaces using the PCC controller and the
Figure 6. Phase current
copper evolution in different subspaces using the PCC controller and the minimum copper loss criteri‐
loss criterion.
on. Figure 6. Phase current evolution in different subspaces using the PCC controller a
copper loss criterion. 4
iα s vs iβ s
4 2
4
ias ibs ics ids ies
[A]

3 0 iα s vs iβ s
βs

2
i

24
-2
ias ibs ics ids ies
[A]

13 0
Current [A]

βs

-4
i

-4 -2 0 2 4
02 i [A]
-2 αs
4
-11
Current [A]

ix s vs iy s
-4
2 -4 -2 0 2 4
-20
i [A]
[A]

αs
0 4
-3
ys

-1 ix s vs iy s
i

-4 -2 2
-2
1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75
Time [s]
[A]

-4 0
-3 -4 -2 0 2 4
ys

i [A]
i

xs
-4 -2
1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75
Figure 7. Phase current evolution in different
Timesubspaces
[s] using the PR controller and the minimum copper loss criteri‐
-4
on. -4 -2 0 2 4
i [A]
xs
 Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor Drives 349
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810
Figure 7. Phase current evolution in different subspaces using the PR controller and the minimum
copper loss criterion.
The same steady-state test is performed experimentally using the real test bench. The experi‐
mentally obtained
The same results in test
steady-state postfault situation are
is performed presented in using
experimentally Figurethe
8. Notice thatbench.
real test simula‐The
tionexperimentally
and experimental resultsresults
obtained agree,inand the fault-tolerant
postfault system
situation are usinginthe
presented PCC 8.
Figure controller
Notice that
provides higherand
simulation current ripple thanresults
experimental using the PR control
agree, method.
and the Nonetheless,
fault-tolerant bothusing
system controllers
the PCC
appropriately track the higher
controller provides currentcurrent
references in than
ripple all subspaces,
using theproducing
PR controla method.
circular trajectory
Nonetheless,
similar
bothtocontrollers
the one obtained in healthy
appropriately operation.
track the current references in all subspaces, producing a
circular trajectory similar to the one obtained in healthy operation.

PCC-MCL 4
PR-MCL
i vs i 4
αs βs
2 i vs i
αs βs
2
[A]

[A]
βs

0
i

βs
-2

i
-2
-4
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4
-4 -2 0 2 4
i [A]
αs i [A]
4 αs
4
ix s vs iy s
2 ix s vs iy s
2
[A]

[A]
0
0
ys

ys
i

i
-2 -2

-4 -4
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
i [A] i [A]
xs xs

Figure 8. Stator
Figure phase phase
8. Stator currentcurrent
evolution in different
evolution insubspaces
differentusing the PCC
subspaces (left side)
using and the
the PCC PRside)
(left (rightand
side) control‐
the PR
ler and the minimum
(right copper loss
side) controller and(MCL) criterion. copper loss (MCL) criterion.
the minimum

8.3. 8.3.
C. Dynamic operation:
C. Dynamic From pre-From
operation: to postfault
pre- tooperation
postfault operation
The pre- and postfault operations are now analyzed and compared. In order to provide a more
The pre- and postfault operations are now analyzed and compared. In order to provide a
realistic insight, tests have been conducted considering a fault detection delay. Consequently,
more realistic insight, tests have been conducted considering a fault detection delay.
a delay between the fault occurrence and the control action is observed.
Consequently, a delay between the fault occurrence and the control action is observed.
The results provided in Figure 9 show the pre- to postfault transition with a fault detection
delay
Theofresults
40 ms provided
between the fault occurrence
in Figure 9 show theinpre-
phase ‘a’ at t = 0.2transition
to postfault s and the control
with software
a fault detection
reconfiguration.
delay of 40 ms The results the
between obtained when the PCC
fault occurrence is implemented
in phase ‘a’ at t = 0.2are presented
s and in the
the control left
software
column whereas results
reconfiguration. The obtained with PRwhen
results obtained are shown
the PCC in the right side. The
is implemented arespeed reference
presented is left
in the
set to 500 rpm,
column as in previous
whereas tests, while
results obtained withaPRconstant
are shownload intorque of (0.56T
the right side.n )The
is demanded.
speed reference is
set to 500 rpm, as in previous tests, while a constant load torque of ( 0.56Tn ) is demanded.
In the case of PCC, the q -current waveform clearly indicates that the control is completely lost
during the fault detection delay (Figure 9, second row), and as a result a speed drop is observed
In the case of PCC, the q -current waveform clearly indicates that the control is completely
(Figure 9, first row). Notice that the β-current component is not affected during the fault
detection delay the
lost during because
fault the faulty phase
detection delay ‘a’ does 9,
(Figure notsecond
contribute
row),toandthe as
β component (Figure
a result a speed 9, is
drop
third row). Conversely,
observed the αrow).
(Figure 9, first and xNotice
statorthat
current components
the β-current are both driven
component to zero (Figure
is not affected during the
9, third
fault and fourthdelay
detection rows),because
causingthe torque oscillations.
faulty phase ‘a’ doesThis abnormal
not contributeoperation
to theis βobserved
component
during the fault
(Figure detection
9, third delay due tothe
row). Conversely, theαabsence of an current
and x stator accuratecomponents
system model arefor
boththedriven
PCC to
to provide an adequate
zero (Figure 9, third control.
and fourthAfter the fault
rows), detection
causing torquedelay, the control
oscillations. This scheme
abnormal is recon‐
operation
figured and a more accurate system model is considered. As a result, the α-current reference
is immediately tracked (Figure 9, third row), the x-current becomes sinusoidal (ix = − iαs ) and
350 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

600 600
ω ω
m 550
m
550

Speed [RPM]
Speed [RPM]
ω* ω*
m m
500 500

450 450

400 400
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Time [s] Time [s]
3 3

2 2
Current [A]

Current [A]
1 1

0 0

-1 i -1 i
sq sq
-2 i* -2 i*
sq sq
-3 -3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Time [s] Time [s]
4 4
iαs iβs i*αβs iαs iβs i*αβs
2 2
Current [A]

Current [A]

0 0

-2 -2

-4 -4
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time [s] Time [s]
4 4
i i i* i i i*
xs ys xys xs ys xys
2 2
Current [A]

Current [A]

0 0

-2 -2

-4 -4
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time [s] Time [s]

Figure 9. Figure 9. Transition

Transition from pre-from pre- to postfault
to postfault operationoperation considering
considering fault detection
fault detection delay. Thedelay.
motorThe motor at
is driven is 500 rpm
with a constant
driven load
at 500torque 0.56T
rpm with . The
a constant
n minimum copper
load torque Tn . The
0.56loss strategy is
minimum used in postfault
copper operation,
loss strategy and
is used inPCC (left
plots) andpostfault
PR-based (right figures)
operation, and PCC controllers are and
(left plots) applied. The fault
PR-based occurs
(right at t controllers
figures) = 0.2 s but it is applied.
are detectedThe40 ms after its
fault
occurrence. The at
occurs speed response
t = 0.2 and
s but it is q-current
detected component
40 ms in pre- and The
after its occurrence. postfault
speedsituations
response are
andshown in rows (a) and
q-current
(b), whilecomponent
the zoomed-in postfault
in pre- α-β and x-y
and postfault currents
situations are
are presented
shown in rows
in rows (c) and
(a) and (d), respectively.
(b), while the zoomed-in postfault
α-β and x-y currents are presented in rows (c) and (d), respectively.
the y-current is null according to the minimum copper loss criterion (Figure 9, fourth row). On
The transition from pre- to postfault is also tested under low speed operation (Figure 10).
the other hand,
The faultthe q-current
detection waveform
delay when equal
is considered PR control
to 200isms
implemented shows a slight
and an instantaneous drop
control
in the moment when the phase is open (Figure 9, second row), but the control action is
maintained during the fault detection delay and the motor speed is only slightly affected
(Figure 9, first row). Thus, the effect of the delay and the control reconfiguration is noticeably
less severe in the case of PR compared to PCC. This can be explained by the fact that the prefault
PR control scheme is essentially similar to the postfault scheme except for the transition from
 reconfiguration of the system after the fault occurrence is not considered. As in previous
tests, the fault occurs at t = 0.2s and constant load and speed references are maintained from
pre- to postfault operation.
Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor Drives 351
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810
The machine is driven at 50 rpm, and a 56% of the nominal torque is applied during the test
PI toThis
PR invalue
the xof- ytorque
currentmatches with
controllers. thethe
Once maximum
postfault quantity that the have
current references minimum
been copper loss
criteria
properly can manage
tracked, PR controlin can
a postfault situation.
effectively provide As
the itreference
is observed,
torquethe speed
and reference
regulate the tracking is
slightly affected after the fault occurrence with PR controller (Figure
speed, but an important current oscillation appears at double the fundamental frequency due 10, first row); however
this effect is much more noticeable when the PCC controller is implemented
to some negative sequence current that cannot be regulated by the d - q controllers. The speed (Figure 10, firs
row). Despite
is, however, this so
not affected, considerable
the system isdrop of speed,
regulated the system
with minimum reaches the
modifications in reference
postfault speed using
the
situation. PCC controller sooner than when using the PR technique. Then, PCC controllers presen
again faster responses compared with the PR controllers.

100 100

50 50
Speed [RPM]

Speed [RPM]
0 0
ωm ω
-50 -50
m
ω* ω*
m m
-100 -100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time [s] Time [s]
3 3

2 2
Current [A]

Current [A]

1 1

0 0

-1 isq -1 isq
-2 i*sq -2 i*sq
-3 -3
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time [s] Time [s]
4
4 iα s iβs i*αβ s iα s iβs i*αβ s
2
Current [A]
Current [A]

0
0

-2 -2

-4 -4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

2 2
Current [A]

Current [A]

0 0

-2 -2
ixs iys i*xys ixs iys i*xys
-4 -4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Time [s] Time [s]

FigureFigure 10. Transition

10. Transition from pre- tofrom pre-operation
postfault to postfault operation
considering considering
fault detection fault
delay. The detection
motor is driven delay.
at 50 rpmThe motor is
with adriven
constantat
load torque 0.56 T . The minimum copper loss strategy is used in postfault operation,
50 rpm with an constant load torque 0.56 T . The minimum copper loss strategy is used inand PCC (left
n
plots) and PR-based (right figures) controllers are applied. The fault occurs at t = 0.2 s but it is detected 200 ms after its
postfault
occurrence. operation,
The speed responseand
and PCC (left
q-current plots) and
component PR-based
in pre- (right
and postfault figures)
situations arecontrollers are(a)applied.
shown in rows and The fault
(b), while the zoomed-in postfault α-β and x-y currents are presented in rows (c) and (d), respectively.
352 Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

The transition from pre- to postfault is also tested under low speed operation (Figure 10). The
fault detection delay is considered equal to 200 ms and an instantaneous control reconfigura‐
tion of the system after the fault occurrence is not considered. As in previous tests, the fault
occurs at t = 0.2s and constant load and speed references are maintained from pre- to postfault
operation.

The machine is driven at 50 rpm, and a 56% of the nominal torque is applied during the test.
This value of torque matches with the maximum quantity that the minimum copper loss
criteria can manage in a postfault situation. As it is observed, the speed reference tracking is
slightly affected after the fault occurrence with PR controller (Figure 10, first row); however,
this effect is much more noticeable when the PCC controller is implemented (Figure 10, first
row). Despite this considerable drop of speed, the system reaches the reference speed using
the PCC controller sooner than when using the PR technique. Then, PCC controllers present
again faster responses compared with the PR controllers.

9. Conclusions

This chapter focuses on the management of open-phase faults in multiphase electrical drives.
First of all, the different types of faults that appear in conventional and multiphase drives are
presented. The ability to continue operating in the event of a fault, which is one of the main
advantages of multiphase drives compared to standard three-phase ones, is discussed next.
The open-phase fault being the most common type of fault, it is next analyzed in a generic
multiphase drive with an odd number of phases. The analysis is particularized for one of the
most common multiphase drives, the five-phase induction machine with symmetrical and
distributed windings. The considered open-circuit is located in phase ‘a’, but the result is
general due to the spatial symmetry of stator windings. Two recently proposed controllers
based on the field oriented control technique, the PR and PCC-based methods, are described
as alternatives to manage the pre- and postfault operation with a minimum cost in the redesign
and performance of the controllers. Both methods must share the strategy to operate in
postfault operation, which must change the limits of the impressed stator currents to guarantee
the safety operation of the entire system. This is the case of the minimum copper loss criterion,
described in the document and applied with PCC and PR techniques to study the performance
of a five-phase IM using simulation and experimental results. These results not only show the
behavior of the system in steady and transient states, but also compare the ability of predictive
and linear controllers to manage the fault appearance. Provided results show that speed control
in postfault operation is viable using either PCC or PR control methods, with nearly similar
performance. Speed response of the predictive technique is faster than using a PR controller
at the expense of a higher steady-state current ripple. Additionally, PCC proves to be more
affected in the transition from pre- to postfault modes of operation because the high depend‐
ence on the model accuracy provides less robustness during the unavoidable fault detection
delay. Both control methods, however, ensure safe operation within the postfault current
ratings, and proper postfault current reference tracking.
 Open-Phase Fault Operation on Multiphase Induction Motor Drives 353
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/60810

Author details

Hugo Guzman1*, Ignacio Gonzalez2, Federico Barrero2 and Mario Durán1

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1 Universidad de Málaga, Spain

2 Universidad de Sevilla, Spain

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tion Control Conference (EPE-PEMC 2012).
 Chapter 13

Reduced-order Observer Analysis in MBPC

Techniques Applied to the Six-phase
Induction Motor Drives

Raúl Gregor, Jorge Rodas, Derlis Gregor and Federico Barrero

Abstract
Model-based predictive control techniques have been recently applied with success
in power electronics, particularly in the fields of current control applied to AC
multiphase electrical drives. In AC electrical drives control, most of state variables
(i.e., rotor currents, rotor fluxes, etc.) cannot be measured, so they must be estimated.
As a result of this issue, this chapter proposes a comparative study of reduced-order
observers used to estimate the rotor currents in an model-based predictive current
control applied to the six-phase induction motor. The proposed control techniques
are evaluated using the Luenberger observer and the optimal estimator based on
Kalman filter. Different operation modes are analyzed and are further compared in
terms of statistical parameters of performance (i.e., covariance, standard deviation,
mean square error, etc.). The effectiveness of proposed methods is verified by a set
of comparative experiments obtained by using a six-phase induction motor system
experimental setup.

Keywords: Model-based predictive control (MBPC), Kalman filter (KF), Luenberger

observer (LO), Six-phase induction motor (SpIM)

1. Introduction
While the first variable speed drives back to the late 1960s, multiphase drives have
only gained the special attention of the research community during the past few
years in comparison with the traditional three-phase scheme for various applications -
especially in those where high reliability and fault tolerance are needed, as cases of ship
propulsion, locomotive traction, electric and hybrid electric vehicles, more-electric aircraft,
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and high-power industrial applications - and recently in wind energy applications [1]-[3].
Different types of multiphase machines have been recently developed mainly for high-power
applications where the increase of the number of phases enables reduction of power per
phase, which leads to a reduction of the power per inverter leg. Often the multiphase
machines can be classified according to the phase numbers in 5-phase [4]-[8], 6-phase [9]-[11],
9-phase [13]-[14], 12-phase [15]-[17], and 18-phase [18] and by the spatial distribution of the
phases within the stator winding symmetrically or asymmetrically. The six-phase induction
motor (SpIM) fed by two sets of voltage source inverters was investigated since 1993.
Because of the configuration of induction motor having two sets of balanced windings, with
phase shift of 30 electrical degrees, six harmonic torque pulsations produced by two sets of
windings, respectively, are antiphase and therefore can be completely eliminated. Nowadays,
numerous control strategies such as direct torque control (DTC), model-based predictive
control (MBPC), and vector control have been developed for SpIM. The DTC technique has
the advantages of low machine parameter dependence and fast dynamic torque response.
Moreover, the main advantage of the MBPC technique is it focuses on flexibility to define
different control criteria, changing only a cost function, a reason why this control technique
has been recently applied to the SpIM [19]. MBPC is a control theory developed at the end
of the 1970s but has been recently introduced as a viable alternative in power converters
and drives. Various control schemes based on MBPC, including current, flux and torque,
speed, and sensorless speed control, have been recently reported. Developed schemes have
demonstrated good performance in the current and torque control of conventional drives, at
the expense of a high computational burden. It is a more flexible control scheme than DTC,
and it also provides faster torque response than the field-oriented control (FOC). The interest
in predictive control approach and multiphase drives has grown during the last few years,
when the development of modern microelectronics devices has removed the computational
barriers in their implementation. However, predictive control techniques have been only
proved as a viable alternative to conventional controllers in the current regulation of the
multiphase power converter. Predictive torque control (PTC), as a variation of the predictive
current control methods, has been recently analyzed as an alternative to classic DTC at a
theoretical level [20].
In this work, the predictive model of the SpIM is obtained from the vector space
decomposition (VSD) approach using the state-space representation method where the two
state variables are the stator and rotor currents. As the rotor currents are not measurable
parameters, these must be estimated. This chapter hence focuses in the efficiency analysis of
the MBPC techniques using the Luenberger Observer (LO) and the optimal estimator based
on Kalman Filter (KF). The chapter provides a background material about model-based
predictive current control applied to SpIM and includes experimental results by using an
experimental setup based on a digital signal controller (DSC). Finally, the main results are
discussed in the conclusion section.

2. The SpIM mathematical model

The asymmetrical SpIM with two sets of three-phase stator windings spatially shifted by
30 electrical degrees and isolated neutral points as seen on Figure 1 (a) is one of the most
widely discussed topologies. The asymmetrical SpIM is a continuous system which can
be described by a set of differential equations. The model can be simplified by using
the VSD theory introduced introduced in [21], [22], [26] which enables to transform the
 Reduced-order
Reduced-Order Observer
Observer Analysis
Analysis in MBPC
in MBPC Techniques
Techniques Applied
Applied to to
thethe Six-phaseInduction
Six-Phase InductionMotor
MotorDrives
Drives 3359

Six-phase Induction Motor

(a) Cross section of an SpIM (b) General scheme of an asymmetrical SpIM drive

Figure 1. Asymmetrical SpIM feed topology and winding configuration

original six-dimensional space of the motor model into three two-dimensional orthogonal
subspaces in stationary reference frames (α − β), ( x − y), and (z1 − z2 ) by means of a 6 × 6
transformation matrix using an amplitude-invariant criterion. This matrix, namely, T, is
defined as:

 √ √ 
3 1 3
1 2 −
√2
− 2 −√21 0
3 1 1
− 23 −1 
 
0
 2 2√ √2 
1 1 − 3 −1
 3
− 1
0

T=  2 √2 2 √ 2 . (1)
3
0 1 − 3 1 3

 2 2 2 2 − 1 

1 0 1 0 1 0 
0 1 0 1 0 1

It is worth remarking that, according to the VSD approach, the electromechanical energy
conversion variables are mapped in the (α − β) subspace, meanwhile the current components
in the ( x − y) subspace represent supply harmonics of order 6n ± 1 (n = 1, 3, 5, ...) and only
produce losses. The voltage vectors in the (z1 − z2 ) subspace are zero due to the isolated
neutral points configuration [23]. Moreover, the SpIM is supplied by a 2-level 12-pulse IGBT
based VSC and a Dc-Link (VDc ), as shown in Figure 1 (b).
The VSC has a discrete nature with a total number of 26 = 64 different switching state vectors
defined by six switching functions corresponding to the six inverter legs (Sa , Sd , Sb , Se , Sc , S f ),
where Sa− f ∈ {0, 1}. The different switching state vectors and the VDc voltage define the
phase voltages which can in turn be mapped to the (α − β) − ( x − y) space according to
the VSD approach [24]. To represent the stationary reference frame (α − β) in the dynamic
reference frame (d − q), a rotation transformation can be used. This transformation matrix,
namely, Tdq is represented as:
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cos (θr ) sin (θr )
Tdq = , (2)
−sin (θr ) cos (θr )

where θr is the rotor angular position referred to the stator as shown in Figure 1 (a).
From the VSD approach, the following conclusions should be emphasized:

1. The electromechanical energy conversion variables are mapped to the (α − β) subspace.

Therefore, the fundamental supply component and the supply harmonics of order 12n ±
1 (n = 1, 2, 3, ...) are represented in this subspace.
2. The current components in the ( x − y) subspace do not contribute to the air-gap flux and
are limited only by the stator resistance and stator leakage inductance. These components
represent the supply harmonics of the order 6n ± 1 (n = 1, 3, 5, ...) and only produce
losses, so consequently they should be controlled to be as small as possible.
3. The voltage vectors in the (z1 − z2 ) are zero due to the separated neutral configuration of
the machine.

The VSI with isolated neutrals is depicted in Figure 1 (b), being the gating signal represented
by [Sa , ..., S f ] and their complementary values by [S a , ..., S f ], where Si ∈ {0, 1}. The discrete
nature of the VSI defines the phase voltages which can be mapped in the (α − β) − ( x − y)
according to the VSD approach. Figure 2 shows the active vectors in the (α − β) and ( x − y)
subspaces, where each switching vector state is identified using the switching function by
two octal numbers corresponding to the binary numbers [Sa Sb Sc ] and [Sd Se S f ], respectively.
Stator voltages are related to the input control signals through the VSI model. An ideal
inverter converts gating signals into stator voltages that can be projected to (α − β) and
( x − y) subspaces and gathered in a row vector Uαβxys computed as

h iT
Uαβxys = uαs , u βs , u xs , uys , 0, 0 = Vdc T M, (3)

where (T ) indicates the transposed matrix and M represents the model of the VSI that can be
expressed as function to the switching vectors as follows:

 
2 0 −1 0 −1 0
 0
 2 0 −1 0 −1 

1  −1 0 2 0 −1 0  ST .
M=  (4)
3 0 −1 0 2 0 −1 

 −1 0 −1 0 2 0 
0 −1 0 −1 0 2

As shown in Figure 2, the 64 possible voltage vectors lead to only 49 different vectors in the
(α − β) and ( x − y) subspaces. Applying the transformation matrix, the mathematical model
 Reduced-order
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Analysis in MBPC
in MBPC Techniques
Techniques Applied
Applied to to
thethe Six-phaseInduction
Six-Phase InductionMotor
MotorDrives
Drives 5361

ß y
2-6 6-6 1-6 5-6

2-2 6-2 6-4 1-4 5-4 5-2

2-4 1-2
3-6 2-0 0-6 7-6
3-6 1-0 0-6 7-6
2-7 6-0 6-7 4-6 1-7 5-0 5-7 4-6
3-2 0-2 3-4 4-2 0-4 4-4 3-4 0-4 3-2 4-4 0-2 4-2
2-3 1-5

3
5

1-
6

5-
2-
7-4 7-2

-3
7-2 7-4

5
3-7
1- 6 5- 6
4-0 6-5 a 3-7
2-6 6-6
4-0 5-3 x
3-0 2-1 6-1 4-7 3-0 1-1 5-1 4-7
1-2 2-4
5-4 6-2

4
2

6-
5-

2-
7-5

1-4
7-3 0-5 0-3

2
3-3 0-3 3-5 4-3 7-5 4-5 3-5 0-5 3-3 4-5 7-3 4-3
3-1 1-7 4-1 3-1 2-7 4-1
1-0 5-7 5-0 2-0 6-7 6-0
7-1 0-1 7-1 0-1

1-5 2-3
1-3 5-3 5-5 2-5 6-5 6-3

1-1 5-1 2-1 6-1

Figure 2. Voltage space vectors and switching states in the (α − β) and ( x − y) subspaces for a six-phase asymmetrical
VSI

of the SpIM can be written using the state-space (SS) representation as follows:

d
[u]αβ = [G] [x] + [F] [x]αβ , (5)
dt αβ

 T  T
where [u]αβ = uαs u βs 0 0 represents the input vector, [x]αβ = iαs i βs iαr i βr denotes
the state vector, and [F] and [G] are matrices that define the dynamics of the drive that for
the particular case of the SpIM are represented as follows:
 
Rs 0 0 0
 0 Rs 0 0 
[F] =  , (6)
 0 ωr L m R r ωr L r 
− ωr L m 0 − ωr L r R r

 
Ls 0 Lm 0
 0 Ls 0 Lm 
[G] = 
 , (7)
Lm 0 Lr 0 
0 Lm 0 Lr
where Rs and Rr are the stator and rotor resistance, ωr is the rotor angular speed, and
Ls = Lls + 3 Lm , Lr = Llr + 3 Lm , and Lm are the stator, rotor, and magnetizing inductances,
respectively. For a machine with P pairs of poles, the mechanical part of the drive is given
by the following equations:

P 
Te = 3 ψβr iαr − ψαr i βr , (8)
2

d P
Ji ωr + Bi ωr = ( Te − TL ) , (9)
dt 2
where TL denotes the load torque, Ji the inertia, ψαβr the rotor flux, and Bi the friction
coefficient.
362
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InductionMotors
Motor- Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics

Six-phase Induction Motor

Figure 3. Scheme of the experimental setup

The equations in ( x − y) subspace do not link to the rotor side and consequently do not
contribute to the air-gap flux; however, they are an important source of Joule losses. Using
the SS representation, these equations can be written as:

   
Lls 0 d Rs 0
[u] xy = [i] xy + [i] xy , (10)
0 Lls dt 0 Rs

where Lls represents the stator leakage inductance.

3. SpIM parameter identification

A commercial three-phase induction machine with three pairs of poles, 72 slots, and 15 kW
of rated power has been rewound to obtain an asymmetrical six-phase winding (configured
with two isolated neutral points) with the same pairs of poles and power with the original
three-phase machine. Conventional test (blocked rotor and no-load tests) procedures have
been applied to determine experimentally the electrical and mechanical parameters of the
SpIM. The obtained values are shown in Table 1.
Two three-phase VSC modules manufactured by Semikron SKS 35F B6U+E1CIF+B6CI21V
series are used to generate the six-phase stator voltages and to obtain the experimental
results. A hardware timer based on the LM555 device operating in monostable mode is
implemented to control the internal pre-charge circuit of both the SKS 35F modules. The
Dc-Link voltage is VDc = 585 V. The implementation of the control system is based on
the DSC TMS320LF28335 manufactured by Texas Instruments and the MSK28335 board
from Technosoft which has 12 pulse-width modulation (PWM) outputs. The PWM is
configured with a 10 kHz of switching frequency. Stator currents are measured by using Hall
effect sensors (LA-55P from LEM). The analog-to-digital (A/D) converter peripherals of the
MSK28335 board with 16 parallel channels are used to capture all the measured signals. On
 Reduced-order
Reduced-Order Observer
Observer Analysis
Analysis in MBPC
in MBPC Techniques
Techniques Applied
Applied to to
thethe Six-phaseInduction
Six-Phase InductionMotor
MotorDrives
Drives 7363

Six-phase induction motor

Parameter Symbol Value Unit

Stator resistance Rs 0.62 Ω

Rotor resistance Rr 0.63 Ω
Stator inductance Ls 0.2062 H
Rotor inductance Lr 0.2033 H
Mutual inductance Lm 0.0666 H
System inertia Ji 0.27 kg·m2
Viscous friction coefficient Bi 0.012 kg·m2 /s
Nominal frequency fa 50 Hz
Load torque TL 0 N·m
Pair of poles P 3 –

Table 1. Electrical and mechanical parameters

the other hand, the mechanical speed is measured by employing a Hengstler RI 58-O digital
incremental encoder with a resolution of 10,000 pulses per revolution and the enhanced
quadrature encoder pulse (eQEP) peripheral of the DSC. To preserve the system integrity,
input, and output, digital outputs of the control board are galvanically isolated by means of
a Texas Instruments ISO7230CDW isolator. Figure 3 shows a picture of the different parts of
the experimental test bench. In order to validate the electrical and mechanical parameters,
a PLL software implementation is used to calculate the stator current angle (θ). Finally,
the angle is used to calculate the stator current in dynamic reference frame (ids − iqs ) using
the transformation matrix shown in Eq. (2). Statistical parameters of performance (taking
as reference the experimental evolution of stator currents in dynamic reference frame) are
quantifiable for two different implementations: the SpIM model based on MatLab/Simulink
simulation environment and a real SpIM using the experimental setup.

3.1. Digital PLL implementation

Figure 4 (a) shows that the dynamic performance of the proposed PLL is highly influenced
by the compensator G(z). Considering that the reference signal is the stator current in d axis
and since the loop gain includes an integral term, θ must track the constant component of
the reference signal with zero steady-state error. However, to ensure zero steady-state error,
the loop gain must include at least two integrators. Therefore, G(z) must include at least one
integral term, that is, one pole at z = 1. The other poles and zeros of G(z) are determined
mainly by the closed-loop bandwidth requirements of the PLL and stability indices such as
phase margin and gain margin, according with the procedure described in [25]. Due to the
fact that G(z) is controllable, the transfer function can be expressed into controllable canonical
form as follows:
h i h i
x (k +1|k ) = [ F ] 5×5 x (k |k ) + [ D ] 5×1 e(k |k ) , (11)
5×1 5×1

ω(∗k|k)=[C] , (12)
1×5 [ x (k |k ) ] 5×1
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(a) Block diagram of a PLL with special design of the compensator

(b) Representation of G(z) transfer function on controllable canonical form

Figure 4. PLL software implementation block diagram

where the matrix [F]5×5 and the vectors [D]5×1 and [C]1×5 define the dynamics of the PLL
compensator [G(z)], which for the set of state variables shown in Figure 4 (b) are as follows:

 
2.5 −2.2 0.9 −0.2 0.01
 1 0 0 0 0 
 
[ F ]5×5 = 
 0 1 0 0 0  , (13)
 0 0 1 0 0 
0 0 0 1 0

 T
[ D ]5×1 = 1 0 0 0 0 , (14)

 
[C]1×5 = 1.7 −5.7 8.1 −5.8 1.6 . (15)
This state-space realization is called controllable canonical form because the resulting model
is guaranteed to be controllable. Since the control enters a chain of integrators, it has the
ability to move every state as shown in Figure 4 (b).
The proposed PLL architecture has been implemented by using the TMS320LF28335 DSC,
considering floating-point arithmetic and 10 kHz sampling frequency. The PLL algorithm
is executed as an interrupt service routine (ISR), which is triggered by one of the
general-purpose timer circuits available on chip. The same timer also triggers the acquisition
of input signals, simultaneously with the sampling interrupt. As the on-chip A/D converters
have a fast conversion rate (approximately 106-ns conversion time), input data are made
available at the beginning of the ISR with negligible time delay. The current components in
 Reduced-order
Reduced-Order Observer
Observer Analysis
Analysis in MBPC
in MBPC Techniques
Techniques Applied
Applied to to
thethe Six-phaseInduction
Six-Phase InductionMotor
MotorDrives
Drives 9365

Figure 5. Stator current angle evolution obtained experimentally by using the proposed PLL with special design of the
compensator

stationary references frame (α-β) are calculated at each sampling time from the measured
phase stator currents (ibs , ics , ids , i f s ) by using Eq. (1), immediately after performing A/D
conversion.
Figure 5 shows the stator current angle evolution obtained experimentally by using the
proposed PLL architecture, when the SpIM is fed with electrical frequency voltages ( f e ) of
40 Hz. It can be seen that the angle evolves from 0 to 2π during a single period of the stator
current wave. It is also possible to observe that the result is satisfactory even when the stator
currents in stationary reference frame are distorted due to electrical noise.

3.2. SpIM parameter validation

SpIM electrical and mechanical parameters have been analyzed and validated using the
experimental setup as well as a SpIM MatLab/Simulink model where a fourth-order
Runge-Kutta numerical integration method has been applied to compute the evolution of the
state variables step by step in the time domain. Table 1 shows the electrical and mechanical
parameters of the asymmetrical SpIM which have been considered during the simulation.
The validation of the measured parameters has been evaluated under no-load conditions.
Figure 6 shows the stator current start-up characteristics when a VSC supplied with 585 V
of Dc-Link is considered and when a sinusoidal modulation index of 0.275 and 40 Hz of
frequency is applied. Figure 6 (a) shows the i β current evolution of the SpIM provided
by the MatLab/Simulink model. In this case, the VSC, the PWM scheme, and the AC
motor are simulated within the MatLab/Simulink model. The stator current evolution
is compared with the id current obtained using the experimental setup in order to verify
the analogy between the MatLab/Simulink model simulation results and the experimental
results especially with respect to the time constants associated with the SpIM (start-up
current, speed, steady-state current, etc.). It can be seen that the time constant converges
to the value obtained experimentally both in transient and steady-state conditions where it is
possible to quantify a steady-state current of approximately 2 A. Moreover, Figure 6 (b) shows
the results obtained experimentally. These results have been compared with the id current
obtained experimentally. It can be seen that the start-up current evolution converges to a
common value for the MatLab/Simulink-based simulations as well as for the experimental
366
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8 8

(a) Stator current (i β ) obtained by using the (b) Stator current (i β ) current obtained by
MatLab/Simulink simulation environment experimental tests

Figure 6. Stator current start-up characteristics

Figure 7. Transient rotor speed evolution

setup, with a start-up transient of approximately 1.15 s. After 1.5 s, the reference frequency
is changed from 40 to 50 Hz, while the modulation index is kept constant at 0.275.
Statistical performance parameters such as the covariance, the standard deviation (SD), and
the mean square error (MSE) are used in order to evaluate the accuracy of the parameters,
taking as reference the results obtained through simulations, as well as those obtained by
means of experimental tests. The envelope of the fundamental frequency component of the
 Reduced-order
Reduced-Order Observer
Observer Analysis
Analysis in MBPC
in MBPC Techniques
Techniques Applied
Applied to to
thethe Six-phaseInduction
Six-Phase InductionMotor
MotorDrives
Drives 11
367

Statistical parameters of performance

PARAMETER COVARIANCE SD MSE

MatLab/Simulink 1.60×10−26 1.025 1.064

Experimental 5.23×10−26 1.004 1.030

Table 2. Performance analysis.

stator currents in stationary reference frame can be calculated using the Hilbert transform
(HT) method. This envelope detection method involves creating the analytic signal of the
stator current using the HT. An analytic signal is a complex signal, where the real part (iαs )
is considered the original signal and the imaginary part (ji βs ) is the HT of the original signal.
A discrete-time analytic signal (h̄(k)) can be defined as follows:

h̄(k) = iαs (k) + ji βs (k), (16)

while the envelope of the signal can be determined by computing the modulus of the analytic
signal from the following equation:

v
u" #2 " #2
u n n
|h̄(k)| = t ∑ iαs (k) + ∑ i βs (k) . (17)
i =0 i =0

Using the above equation, it is possible to determine the envelope evolution of the stator
current, which is used to evaluate those aforementioned statistical performance parameters.
This analysis enables to determine the degree of dispersion of the envelope (of the stator
current) with respect to the value obtained experimentally through the PLL software
implementation (which is shown in red color in Figure 6). The statistic relationship
between the curves (iqs and stator current envelope) and the MSE has been analyzed under
steady-state conditions. Table 2 details the obtained results for the two different SpIM
implementation methods considered in Figure 6. Notice that the obtained performance
results are similar for both cases (MatLab/Simulink model and experimental). Moreover,
Figure 7 shows the rotor speed evolution for the two cases analyzed before. It can be seen
that the results provided by the MatLab/Simulink model in steady state converge to the
values obtained experimentally using a motor having three pairs of poles and 50 Hz of
nominal frequency (close to 1,000 rpm).
Further analysis has been done to validate the parameters under different test conditions. For
example, a change in the modulation index from 0.275 to 0.481 was considered at t = 1.5 s,
while a constant voltage frequency of 40 Hz was considered. Figure 8 (a) shows the trajectory
of the iαs vs. i βs as well as (ids − iqs ) current evolution considering at least four current periods
in steady-state operation, where it is also possible to observe the effect of the change of the
modulation index in the reference voltages. Figure 8 (a) shows the results obtained using
the MatLab/Simulink model, and Figure 8 (b) shows the experimental results. As in the
previous case, it can be seen that the simulated current converges to values equivalent to
those obtained experimentally and exhibiting similar dynamic behavior. Finally, Figure 8 (c)
368
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ibs = 3.98 ibs = 3.94

ibs = 1.94 ibs = 1.94

(a) iαs vs. i βs current obtained by using the (b) iαs vs. i βs current obtained by experimental
MatLab/Simulink simulation environment tests

iq = 3.96
iq = 1.94

(c) Stator current evolution in dynamic

reference frame

Figure 8. Dynamic reference frame characteristics

shows the stator current evolution in the dynamic reference frame (d − q) obtained by means
of Eq. (2) using the angle values calculated by the PLL software implementation. It can be
seen that the steady-state current values converge to those values shown in Figure 8 (a) and
Figure 8 (b) before and after applying the change in the modulation index from 0.275 to 0.481,
being these values close to 2 and 4 A, respectively. These results validate the SpIM electrical
and mechanical parameters shown in Table 1.

4. Predictive model
Assuming the mathematical model expressed by Eq. (5) and using the state variables defined
by the vector [x]αβ , the derivative of states can be defined as follows:

x˙1 = c3 ( Rr x3 + ωr x4 Lr + ωr x2 Lm ) + c2 (uαs − Rs x1 ) ,
 
x˙2 = c3 ( Rr x4 − ωr x3 Lr − ωr x1 Lm ) + c2 u βs − Rs x2 ,
(18)
x˙3 = c4 (− Rr x3 − ωr x4 Lr − ωr x2 Lm ) + c3 (−uαs + Rs x1 ) ,
 
x˙4 = c4 (− Rr x4 + ωr x3 Lr + ωr x1 Lm ) + c3 −u βs + Rs x2 ,
 Reduced-order
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Six-Phase InductionMotor
MotorDrives
Drives 13
369

where ci (i = 1, 2, 3, 4) are constants defined as:

Lr Lm Ls
c1 = Ls Lr − L2m , c2 = , c = , c4 = . (19)
c1 3 c1 c1

This set of differential equations can be represented in the state-space form as follows:

Ẋ (t) = f (X(t), U(t)) ,

(20)
Y(t) = CX(t),

h i
with state vector X(t) = [ x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ] T , input vector U(t) = uαs , u βs , and output vector
Y(t) = [ x1 , x2 ] T . The components of the vectorial function f and matrix C are obtained in a
straightforward manner from Eq. (18) and the definitions of state and output vector.
The continuous time model represented by Eq. (20) can be discretized in order to be used
for the predictive controller using the forward difference approximation method of the
first derived, also known as the forward Euler method. Thus, a prediction of the future
next-sample state X̂(k + 1|k) is expressed as:

X̂(k + 1|k) = X(k) + Tm f (X(k), U(k)) , (21)

where (k) is the current sample and Tm the sampling time. In Eq. (21), currents and voltages
of the stator and the mechanical speed are measurable variables; however, the rotor currents
cannot be measured directly. This difficulty can be overcome by means of estimating the rotor
current using the reduced-order estimator concept. Figure 9 shows the proposed predictive
current control technique for the asymmetrical SpIM.

4.1. The Estimator Based on the State Variables (SV)

The state variables evolution in discrete time can be represented using the following
equations:

      
X̂ a (k + 1) A11 A12 X a (k) B1
= + Uαβs ,
X̂b (k + 1) A21 A22 Xb (k ) B2
 
  X a (k)
Y(k) = I 0 , (22)
Xb (k )

 T  T
where X a = iαs (k) i βs (k) is the vector directly measured which is Y, Xb = iαr (k) i βr (k)
is the remaining portion to be estimated, I represents the identity matrix, and A and B are
matrices whose components are obtained in the following equations:
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cost function

Sensor

Six-phase Induction Motor

Figure 9. Proposed predictive current control technique for the asymmetrical SpIM

..
 
 (1 − Tm c2 Rs ) Tm c3 Lm ωr . Tm c3 Rr Tm c3 Lr ωr 

 .. 

 − Tm c3 Lm ωr (1 − Tm c2 Rs ) . − Tm c3 Lr ωr Tm c3 Rr 
 
A=
 ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ,

 .. 
− Tm c4 Lm ωr . (1 − Tm c4 Rr ) − Tm c4 Lr ωr 
 
 Tm c3 Rs
(23)
 
..
Tm c4 Lm ωr Tm c3 Rs . Tm c4 Lr ωr (1 − Tm c4 Rr )
 
Tm c2 0
 0
 Tm c2 
 ···
B= ···  .
 − Tm c3 0 
0 − Tm c3

The prediction of the stator currents can be calculated as follows:

îαs (k + 1|k) =(1 − Tm c2 Rs )iαs (k) + Tm c3 Lm ωr (k)i βs (k) + Tm c2 uαs (k) + Tm c3 ξ αs (k), (24)

 
where ξ αs (k) = Rr iαr (k) + Lr ωr (k)i βr (k) .

On the other hand, the quadrature current can be written as follows:

î βs (k + 1|k) = − Tm c3 Lm ωr (k)iαs (k) + (1 − Tm c2 Rs )i βs (k) + Tm c2 u βs (k) + Tm c3 ξ βs (k),

  (25)
where ξ βs (k) = Rr i βr (k) + Lr ωr iαr (k) .
 Reduced-order
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It can be seen from theh above equations

i that the prediction of theh stator currents
i has
a measurable (m(k) = mα (k), m β (k) ) and unmeasured (e(k) = eα (k), e β (k) ) parts.
Assuming this, the prediction equations can be rewritten as follows:

îαs (k + 1|k) = mα (k) + eα (k), (26)

î βs (k + 1|k) = m β (k) + e β (k), (27)

where

mα (k) =(1 − Tm c2 Rs )iαs (k) + Tm c3 Lm ωr (k)i βs (k) + Tm c2 uαs (k), (28)

m β (k) = − Tm c3 Lm ωr (k )iαs (k) + (1 − Tm c2 Rs )i βs (k) + Tm c2 u βs (k), (29)

eα (k) = Tm c3 ξ αs (k), (30)

e β (k) = Tm c3 ξ βs (k). (31)

Analyzing Eqs. (26) and (27), which establish a prediction of the stator currents in the (α − β)
subspace for a (k + 1) sampling time using the measurements of the (k ) sampling time, it
can be noted that the term m(k) contains measurable variables, such as stator currents, rotor
speed, and the stator voltages, while the term e(k) contains unmeasurable variables of the
asymmetrical SpIM, for this particular case are the rotor currents in the (α − β) subspace.
Consequently, to solve the equations, it is necessary to obtain an estimate of the value of
ê(k|k), since the rotor currents are not measurable states of the system. This can be solved
using the following equations:

êα (k|k) = êα (k − 1) = iαs (k) − mα (k − 1), (32)

ê β (k|k) = ê β (k − 1) = i βs (k) − m β (k − 1). (33)

Considering null initial conditions êα (0) = 0 and ê β (0) = 0, the estimated portion that
represented the rotor currents can be calculated from a recursive formula given by:

êα (k|k) = êα (k − 1) + (iαs (k ) − îαs (k − 1)), (34)

ê β (k|k) = ê β (k − 1) + (i βs (k ) − î βs (k − 1)). (35)

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4.2. The estimator based on a Luenberger Observer

The dynamics of the unmeasured part of the state vector defined by Eq. (22) is described as:

Xb (k + 1) = A22 Xb (k) + A21 X a (k) + B2 Uαβs , (36)

where the last two terms are known and can be considered as an input for the Xb dynamics.
The X a part may be expressed as:

X a (k + 1) − A11 X a (k) − B1 Uαβs = A12 Xb (k). (37)

Note that Eq. (37) represents a relationship between a measured quantity on the left and the
unknown state vector on the right. Assuming this, Eq. (36) can be rewritten as follows:

X̂b (k + 1) = (A22 − Kl A12 )X̂b (k) + Kl Y(k + 1)+

(A21 − Kl A11 )Y(k) + (B2 − Kl B1 )Uαβs (k), (38)

where Kl is the Luenberger gain matrix. Therefore, Eqs. (37) and (38) describe the dynamics
of the reduced-order estimators for Luenberger observer [27].

4.3. The Estimator Based on a Kalman Filter

Considering uncorrelated process and measurement of Gaussian noises, Eq. (22) can be also
written as follows:

X̂(k + 1|k) = AX(k) + BU(k) + Hv (k),

(39)
Y(k) = CX(k) + ν(k),

where H is the noise weight matrix, v (k) is the noise matrix of the system model (process
noise), and ν(k) is the matrix noise of measurement. The covariance matrices Rv and Rν of
these noises are defined as:

n o
Rv = cov(v ) = E v · v T ,
n o (40)
Rν = cov(ν) = E ν · ν T ,

where E {.} denotes the expected value. Thus, the dynamics of the reduced-order estimator
equations are:

X̂b (k + 1|k) = (A22 − Kk A12 )X̂b (k) + Kk Y(k + 1) +

(A21 − Kk A11 )Y(k) + (B2 − Kk B1 )Uαβs (k), (41)
 Reduced-order
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where Kk represents the KF gain matrix that is calculated at each sampling time in a recursive
manner from the covariance of the noises as:

K k ( k ) = Γ ( k ) · C T R− 1
ν , (42)
where Γ is the covariance of the new estimation, as a function of the old covariance estimation
(ϕ) as follows:

Γ ( k ) = ϕ ( k ) − ϕ ( k ) · C T ( C · ϕ ( k ) · C T + Rν ) −1 · C · ϕ ( k ). (43)

From the state equation, which includes the process noise, it is possible to obtain a correction
of the covariance of the estimated state as:

ϕ(k + 1) = AΓ(k ) · A T + HRv · H T ; (44)

this completes the required relations for the optimal state estimation. Thus, Kk provides the
minimum estimation errors, given a knowledge of the process noise magnitude (Rv ), the
measurement noise magnitude (Rν ), and the covariance initial condition (ϕ(0)) [28].

4.4. Cost function

The cost function should include all aspects to be optimized. In the current predictive control
applied to the asymmetrical six-phase induction motor, the most important features to be
optimized are the tracking errors of the stator currents in the (α − β) subspace for a next
sampling time, since these variables are related to the electromechanical conversion. To
minimize the prediction errors at each sampling time k, it is enough to utilize a simple term
as:
(
∗ (k + 1) − î (k + 1| k ),
êiαs (k + 1|k) = iαs αs
J =k êiαs (k + 1|k) k2 + k êiβs (k + 1|k) k2 ↔ (45)
êiβs (k + 1|k) = i∗βs (k + 1) − î βs (k + 1|k),

where k . k denotes the vector modulus, is∗ is a vector containing the reference for the stator
currents, and îs (k + 1|k) is the prediction of the stator currents calculated from measured
and estimated states and the voltage vector Uαβs (k). Figure 10 (a) shows all projections of the
stator current predictions calculated from the prediction model. The current control selects
the control vector that minimizes the cost function at each sampling time. Figure 10 (b)
shows the selection of the optimal vector based on a minimization of prediction errors.
More complicated cost functions can be devised, for instance, to minimize harmonic content,
VSI switching losses, torque and flux, and/or active and reactive power. Also, in multiphase
drives, stator current can be decomposed in subspaces in different ways. An appropriate
decomposition allows to put more emphasis on harmonic reduction as will be shown in the
case study for a six-phase motor drive [29,30]. The most relevant cost functions are shown in
Table 3. The superscript (∗ ) denotes the reference value, and the terms involved in each cost
function are detailed in Table 4.
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î2-6(k+1|k) î6-6(k+1|k) → Sopt (k+1|k)

i*(k+1) î6-6(k+1|k) → Sopt (k+1|k)
î 2-2(k+1|k) î 6-4(k+1|k)

i(k) êiβs(k+1|k) J
î3-2(k+1|k) i*(k+1)
î4-4(k+1|k)
î6-4(k+1|k)

iβ [A]
iβ [A]

î0-0(k+1|k)

êiαs(k+1|k)
î3-3(k+1|k) î4-5(k+1|k)

î1-3(k+1|k) î 5-5(k+1|k)

î1-1(k+1|k) î5-1(k+1|k) i(k)

iα [A] iα [A]
(a) Projection of the stator current prediction in (b) Evaluation of the cost function (J) and selection of the
stationary reference frame (α − β) optimal vector (Sopt )

Figure 10. Minimization of tracking error in stator currents in stationary reference frame (α − β)

Controlled variables Cost functions ( J )

Currents (α-β) and harmonic (x − y) ||iα∗ − iα | + |i∗β − i β ||2 + λ||i∗x − i x | + |iy∗ − iy ||
Active and reactive power ∗ −P |
| Qin | + | Pin in
Torque and flux | Te − Te | + λ||ψs∗ | − |ψs ||
∗
Currents (α-β) and voltage balance ||iα∗ − iα | + |i∗β − i β | + λ|Vc1 − Vc2 |
Currents (α-β) and VSI switching losses ||iα∗ − iα | + |i∗β − i β || + λNs

Table 3. Possible cost functions in function to the controlled variables

Variable description
iα Measured α current
iβ Measured β current
ix Measured x current
iy Measured y current
Qin Reactive power
Pin Active power
Te Torque
ψs Flux of the stator
λ Weighting factor
Vc1 , Vc2 Voltages on each capacitor (VSI balanced)
Ns Number of switches

Table 4. Description of the terms involved in each cost function of Table 3

4.5. Optimizer
The optimization is done by exhaustive search over all possible realizations of the control
actions. However, for electrical machines, some combinations of gating signals produce the
same stator voltages, as shown in Figure 2. This means that, for prediction purposes, they
are equivalent. This reduces the effective number of gating combinations to ε = 2φ − r, r
 Reduced-order
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being the number of redundant configurations and φ the phase numbers of the machine. For
the particular case of the SpIM, assuming the previous consideration, the search space for
the optimal solution are 49 different vectors (48 active and 1 null). For a generic multiphase
machine, the optimization algorithm produces the optimum gating signal combination (Sopt )
using the estimator based on the state variables as follows:
Algorithm 1 Optimization algorithm for state variable method
Jo := ∞, i := 1.
while i ≤ ε do
Si ← Si,j ∀ j = 1, ..., φ.
comment: Compute stator voltages. Eq. (3).
comment: Compute the prediction of the states. Eq. (22).
comment: Compute the cost function. Eq. (45).
if J < Jo then
Jo ← J, Sopt ← Si .
end if
i := i + 1.
end while

Algorithms 2 and 3 show the pseudocode for the particular case of the proposed estimation
methods, the Luenberger observer and Kalman filter, respectively.
Algorithm 2 Proposed algorithm for Luenberger observer method
comment: Optimization algorithm.
Jo := ∞, i := 1
while i ≤ ε do
Si ← Si,j ∀ j = 1, ..., φ
Compute stator voltages. Eq. (3).
Compute the prediction of the measurement states. Eqs. (36)-(37) assuming null initial
conditions Xb (0) = 0.
Compute the cost function. Eq. (45).
if J < Jo then
Jo ← J, Sopt ← Si
end if
i := i + 1
end while
Compute the prediction for X̂b (k + 1) by using Eq. (38).

5. Simulation results and discussion

A MatLab/Simulink simulation environment has been designed to analyze the efficiency
of the proposed reduced-order observer applied to the model-based predictive current
control of the SpIM considering the electrical and mechanical parameters that are shown in
Table 1. Numerical integration using fourth-order Runge-Kutta algorithm has been applied
to compute the evolution of the state variables step by step in the time domain. A detailed
block diagram of the proposed predictive current control technique is provided in Figure 9.
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Algorithm 3 Proposed algorithm for Kalman Filter method

Compute the covariance matrix. Eq. (43).
Compute the Kalman Filter gain matrix. Eq. (42).
comment: Optimization algorithm.
Jo := ∞, i := 1
while i ≤ ε do
Si ← Si,j ∀ j = 1, ..., f
Compute stator voltages. Eq. (3).
Compute the prediction of the measurement state. Eq. (39).
Compute the cost function. Eq. (45).
if J < Jo then
Jo ← J, Sopt ← Si
end if
i := i + 1
end while
Compute the correction for the covariance matrix. Eq. (44).

The reduced-order observer efficiency has been analyzed by performing parametric

simulations considering a 10 kHz of sampling frequency and non-ideal conditions assuming
that the control system has measurement (Rv ) and process (Rw ) noises. Figure 11 (a) (top)
shows the obtained parametric simulation results for the particular case of the estimator
based on the SV technique when are considered a constant frequency reference of 50 Hz
with 15 A of reference current in stationary reference frame (iαs ) and different levels of
measurement and process noises (from 0 to 0.16) under varying load torque conditions
(from 0 to 20 N·m). It can be seen in this figure the evolution of the MSE (measured
between the reference and simulated currents) when the load torque and the measurement
and process noises simultaneously increase. This behavior is associated with uncertainties in
the estimation of the stator current due to the method based on the state variables. It can be
observed that the MSE increases in direct proportion under varying load torque conditions
(from 0.25 to 0.65 A). Figure 11 (a) (middle) shows the stator current tracking characteristic,
where the following parameters are considered: Rv = Rw = 0.08 and TL = 10 N·m. The
references and simulated and prediction currents are represented in red, black, and green
colors, respectively. According to Table 5, under these operating conditions, the performance
of the MBPC based on the SV method in terms of MSEiαs and THDiαs can be quantified
in 0.69 A and 6 %, respectively. On the other hand, Figure 11 (a) (bottom) shows the
rotor current evolution, calculated according to the SV methods under the same conditions
described above.
Moreover, Figure 11 (b) (top) and Figure 11 (c) (top) show the parametric simulation of the
MBPC technique for cases based on the LO and KF estimators, respectively. It can be noted in
these graphs that the proposed MBPC methods based on the LO and KF estimators introduce
improvements quantified with respect to the MSE, mainly when these control algorithms are
compared with the MBPC method based on state variables. It can be concluded from these
graphs that the MBPC based on the LO and KF estimators exhibits low sensitivity (in terms of
MSE) to change of the load torque, and the performance is related with the measurement and
process noise levels. Under the same test conditions considered above, the MSE measured
between the reference and simulated currents in alpha axis are 0.47 A and 0.48 A for
 Reduced-order
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TL = 10 [N.m] TL = 10 [N.m] TL = 10 [N.m]

Ru, Rv = 0.08 Ru, Rv = 0.08 Ru, Rv = 0.08
Staor current [A]

Staor current [A]

Staor current [A]

Time [s] Time [s] Time [s]
Rotor current [A]

Rotor current [A]

Rotor current [A]

Time [s] Time [s] Time [s]
Reference Prediction Simulated

(a) Estimator based on the SV (b) Estimator based on the LO (c) Estimator based on the KF

Figure 11. Performance analysis considering a 15 A and 50 Hz of reference current

f = 45 [Hz] f = 45 [Hz] f = 45 [Hz]

Ru, Rv = 0.12 Ru, Rv = 0.12 Ru, Rv = 0.12

f [Hz] f [Hz] f [Hz]

Staor current [A]

Staor current [A]

Staor current [A]

Time [s] Time [s] Time [s]

Rotor current [A]

Rotor current [A]

Rotor current [A]

Time [s] Time [s] Time [s]

Reference Prediction Simulated

(a) Estimator based on the SV (b) Estimator based on the LO (c) Estimator based on the KF

Figure 12. Performance analysis considering a 15 A of reference current and TL = 0

Figure 11 (b) (middle) and Figure 11 (c) (middle), respectively. Figure 11 (b) (bottom) and
Figure 11 (c) (bottom) show the rotor current estimated, for the cases based on the LO and
KF estimators, respectively.
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The performance of the MBPC based on reduced-order estimators has been evaluated
considering a 15 A of reference current with no-load condition and different levels of
measurement and process noises (from 0 to 0.16) under varying reference frequencies (from
30 to 50 Hz). Figure 12 (top) shows the performance analysis in terms of MSE, where it is
possible to observe from the parametric simulation that the three control methods evaluated
has low sensitivity to the frequency variation when are considered no-load conditions. It can
be seen that the efficiency strongly depends on the measurement and process noise levels,
as in the previous case. Figure 12 (middle) shows the stator current tracking characteristic,
where the following parameters are considered: Rv = Rw = 0.12 and 45 Hz of reference
frequency. Finally, Figure 12 (bottom) shows the rotor current estimated, for the case of
study.

Figure 11 analysis
MSEiαs MSEi βs THDiαs THDi βs

State variables 0.6965 0.6571 6.00% 6.06%

Luenberger observer 0.4799 0.4971 4.39% 4.62%
Kalman filter 0.4802 0.5084 4.29% 4.37%
Figure 12 analysis
MSEiαs MSEi βs THDiαs THDi βs

State variables 0.7798 0.7702 7.44% 7.17%

Luenberger observer 0.5622 0.5951 5.13% 5.18%
Kalman filter 0.5897 0.5208 5.10% 5.20%

Table 5. Performance analysis

A similar analysis was performed for the case of beta current component, obtaining similar
results as shown in Table 5. These simulation results substantiate the expected performance
of the proposed algorithms based on reduced-order observers.

6. Conclusion
In this chapter, an efficiency analysis of two reduced-order observers for rotor current
estimator applied to the model-based predictive current control of the SpIM has been
presented. The electrical and mechanical parameters of the SpIM have been measured
and validated experimentally using an experimental setup. Real 15 kW SpIM parameters
have been used to perform simulations using a MatLab/Simulink simulation environment.
The simulation results obtained by different operation points under no-load and full-load
conditions as well as different measurement and process noises have shown an increase
in the efficiency of the proposed current control methods (based on the Kalman filter and
Luenberger observer) measured with respect to the mean squared error of the stator currents
in stationary reference frame, especially when they are compared with the control method
based on state variables. Furthermore, the optimal estimator based on the Kalman filter
achieves better performance than the Luenberger observer in terms of THD, mainly because
it takes into account the effects of the noises in the control structure, recalculating the state
feedback matrix at each sampling time recursively given the covariance of the new estimation
 Reduced-order
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Analysis in MBPC
in MBPC Techniques
Techniques Applied
Applied to to
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379

as a function of the old covariance estimation. These results show that the experimental
implementation of these control techniques are feasible and can be applied to the SpIM to
increase the efficiency of the MBPC technique.

Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank the Paraguayan Government for the economical support
they provided by means of a CONACYT grant project 14-INV-101 – Desarrollo y análisis de
eficiencia de nuevos algoritmos de control enfocados al generador hexafásico en aplicaciones
de energía eólica. In addition, they wish to express their gratitude to the reviewers for their
helpful comments and suggestions.

Author details
Raúl Gregor1∗ , Jorge Rodas1 , Derlis Gregor2 and Federico Barrero3
*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1 Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional de Asuncion, Department of Power

and Control Systems, Asuncion, Paraguay

2 Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional de Asuncion, Department of Computer

Science, Asuncion, Paraguay

3 Escuela Superior de Ingenieros, Universidad de Sevilla, Department of Electronic

Engineering, Sevilla, España

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 Reduced-order
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Observer Analysis
Analysis in MBPC
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Techniques Applied
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Six-Phase InductionMotor
MotorDrives
Drives 25
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