TOPIC: TWO NATIONALISM AND DECOLONIZATION IN AFRICA

What is African Nationalism?

There has emerged as many definitions of African nationalism as there are scholars who have tried
to define the word. However, the following descriptions are useful.
1. African nationalism is a desire of African people to terminate all foreign rules. Basically,
nationalism is the political will of the people of Africa in opposition of foreign domination
but in favour of African rule. It represents African struggles against Western colonialism
and imperialism (by Ndabaningi Sithole).

2. Nationalism is an expression of hostility to alien rule. In the colonial context, nationalism is

anti-colonialism. Colonialism, therefore, should be regarded as one of the major
progenitors-ancestors of African nationalism, because any people subjected to alien rule
will struggle to overthrow that rule. The process may take a generation or a century, but it
is inevitable stage (by S. Kiwanuka).

3. Nationalism is a consciousness on the part of individuals or groups of people regarding

their membership of a nation state either already existing or to which they aspire. It is also
a desire to achieve political and economic freedom over all social and economic
development, as well as the cultural revival of that national state (by Adu Boahen).

4. Nationalism is a patriotic sentiment or activity on the part of a group of Africans held

together by the bonds of common language and common historical experience to impose
their right to live under a government of their own making for the preservation of their
political, economic, and social interests (by K.B.C. Onwubiko).

5. Nationalism is the feeling of national consciousness or awareness by the people that they
are members of a nation state and desire freedom from colonial rule (by Michael Crowder).

THE PROCESS OF DECOLONIZATION

The process of decolonization or national liberation was fundamental in
Africa, for it allowed African states to regain their independence, which they had lost for more
than half a century. The rise of African nationalism dates back to the period of colonial conquest
and the imposition of colonial rule on one hand and primary African resistance against colonial
rule on the other hand. But later, the intensification of exploitation stimulated the nationalistic
struggle.
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AFRICAN NATIONALISM AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
Nationalism literally refers to the desire, love, or sprit for ones nation. In Africa the term
nationalism has been used to signify the struggle of independence or self determination against
foreign domination, in case of Europe the term nationalism has been used to signify Struggle for
national unification in Germany and Italy and to acquire oversea colonies. Some scholars define
nationalism as feeling of national consciousness or awareness by the people of the same state and
desire for freedom from colonial rule.
Nationalism in Africa is divided into two phases according to the period;
i. Nationalism before 1945
ii. Nationalism after 1945 before 1945.

In the first decades of colonial rule most East African communities experienced only spasmodic
contacts with the white man. But by the mid of 1 920s, the activities of the government officials,
missionaries and settlers were beginning impinge or to affect much more direct on the lives of
many Africans. Acts like land alienation, forced labor injustice and taxation now were affecting
the Africans more. As in most other part of tropical Africa the missionaries proved themselves the
most vigorous alien stimu1ators of change and their success measured in the statistics of
conversion, was often remarkable. But excessive missionary pressure could serve to produce
countervailing African nationalism as to protect their culture.

The struggle for self determination and resistance against the intruders begun in Africa
immediately after the inception of colonialism in around 1890s. The Africans started to resist
colonial domination in the early time e.g. Abushiri and Bwana Hen in Tanganyika, Shona and
Ndebele in Zimbabwe, Nama and Herero in Namibia. Some of the resistance was passive, while
others collaborative and others active.

The period and the intensity in which the early African resistance occurred in various societies
depended on the intensity of colonial activities and its impact. For example as early as the 1 890s
the people of Ghana had already forn1d the Gold. Coast Aborigine’s Right Protection Society
which was to fight against laws which had been enacted to expropriate African land. Also in 1920
the biggest welfare association in the region was the National Congress of British West Africa in
Accra. It was largely formed by the emerging African elites who wanted increased and effective
representation in various organs of the state especially n the legislature.

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FEATURES OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM BEFORE 1945.
i. Were spontaneous and ethnic based in nature /regional oriented. It lacked national scope,
every tribe was resisting alone and fight for tribal or regional interests. e.g. Kagera Coffee
Growers, Kilimanjaro National Cooperation Union [K.N.C.U.] etc

ii. Were apolitical and lacked clear political focus, i.e. it lacked political elements they were
fighting for social welfare of their society’s e.g. high wages, land alienation, and poor
working conditions e.g. the kikuyu central association fought for the return of the lost land
the restoration of kikuyu culture and rejection of missionary teachings which interfered
with the culture of female circumcision which became common among the kikuyu in 1
920s which they regarded that the operation of clitorodectomy or female circumcision is a
sign of woman hood.

iii. They were elites’ based mostly organized by those who were working for the colonial
government in urban areas they organized themselves and begun to ask for their rights, the
interests they represented were mainly related to the cooperation with colonialism. E.g.
Harry Thuku a clerk in colonial government services in1922 who started the younger
kikuyu association in Nairobi.

iv. Most of the resistances were easily suppressed by the colonialist in other words registered
limited success e g the Maji Maji uprising, the Shona Ndebele uprising, the resistance of
the Dembe people of Angola in 1907-10.

v. They lacked well organized and systematic form of resistance most of the uprising were
sporadic in nature and generated internally rather than externally e.g. cattle confiscation,
land alienation etc

vi. It lacked the element or uniformity; - and effectiveness it was characterized by uprising in
different areas and in different time.

vii. They were mostly motivated by the restoring of the pre-colonial social order, which had
been over thrown by the colonialists.

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CAUSE S OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA BEFORE 1945.
Political grievances
i. They lost their independence to the foreigners thus nationalism to regain their lost
independence.
ii. African rulers were thrown away and replaced them by foreign rulers who were imposed
on the African that they detested and wanted to restate their traditional rulers.

Economic grievances
i. Forced labour to work on the colonial plantations to provide cheap labor any African who
resisted was punished heavily

ii. Imposition of heavy taxes to initiate money economy taxes like hut tax, poll tax, matiti tax
were introduced as to force the indigenous to work in the plantation

iii. Cattle confiscation as to deny African from engaging in other economic activities and
resort on supplying cheap labour.

iv. Land alienation to keep African away from practicing their subsistence agriculture and
begin to supply cheap labor in plantations

v. Loss of control of their trade like Long distance trade and Trans-Saharan trade and the
introduction of the so called legitimate trade
vi. Destruction of African agriculture. Which was self sustaining that based on the needs of
Africa and in place cash crop plantation were introduced

Social grievances.
i. Colonial injustice and oppression like long working hour’s social abuses and separation of
men from their families.

ii. Heavy punishment like chopping off ribs of the Africans in case of the Congo colony under
Belgium, corporal punishment in Tanganyika under Carl Peter

iii. Racism and segregation of Africans, by insulting them by their color and making them the
third grade citizens on their own land

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 iv. Destruction of African values and traditions and implanting foreign culture like religion
language education and culture.

NATIONALISM AFTER 1945.

This refers to nationalistic activities that occurred after 1945, after the Second World War it was in
this period that African was successful in their struggle at times is referred as modern nationalism.
It was characterized by the following
i. Well organized and planned by elites African leaders those were educated from colonial
schools.

ii. It was a national wide that it covered the whole nation through opening up many branches
in the whole state both in the rural and urban areas

iii. It was led by the elites i.e. educated leaders who were focused e.g. Nyerere ,Kenyatta,
Nkrumah, Obote

iv. It was political in origin i.e. they struggled for political independence of Africa.

v. It was dominated by both dialogue and armed struggle, where dialogue proved a failure.

vi. It ware motivated by both internal and external factors unlike those before 1945 which
were motivated by internal factors.

vii. It led to the independence of some nations i.e. it was successful in getting independence for
African nations.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF NATIONALSM IN AFRICA AFTER 1945.

The factors that gave birth to African nationalism are of two kinds;
• Internal factors
• External factors
INTERNAL FACTORS.
These were forces that were internally motivated, that generated within Africa societies that
brought about nationalism in Africa. These included the following factors.
i. Formation of peasant cooperative union in rural areas to defend the interest and welfare of
the farmers some associations were formed by the colonialists as to speed up the
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 production and the marketing of cash crops as well as sensitizing peasants about
cultivation, through their associations. But later alone developed nationalistic feelings and
turned against the colonialists using their association’s structures in rural areas. Some of
the associations included The Kilimanjaro Cooperative Union, Victoria Cooperative,
Buhaya Cooperative Union etc.

ii. Intensive exploitation after the Second World War, in the colonies the colonizers wanted to
revamp their ruined economies, which ware heavily damaged by the war, large scale
colonization was carried out. New measures to increase production in the colonies and to
reduce metro pole expenditure on the colonies were introduced like; Land alienation to
establish more plantations for the white settlers, Forced labor to work on the colonial
plantations as to increase out put. New, taxes like gun tax hut tax were introduced. Etc.
Such exploitation awakened African to start fighting for their self determination thus rise of
nationalism mace African aware.

iii. Formation of independent churches .These were the churches that were lead by the
Africans breaking away from main stream white churches, to challenge their misdeeds over
the Africans, they addressed not only religious but also social political and economic
grievances of the Africans such churches included. Joseph Ejayi in West Africa, the
Kikuyu Native church, the Watch tower church movement in Malawi 1906, the African
national church in Tanganyika The people God and religion of Jesus in Kenya United
native church in Cameroon etc Such churches openly criticized the colonialists and
encouraged their followers to fight them thus the rise of African nationalism

iv. Formation of segregated African schools, after realizing that the missionary and colonial
schools taught nothing but European based syllabus some African societies began their
own schools, like among the kikuyu in Kenya Africans were taught African syllabus .this
helped in educating Africans and developing the sprit of nationalism.

v. Rise of elites who had attained colonial education like Nyerere in Tanganyika, Nkrumah in
Ghana, Kamuzu Banda in Malawi Abafemi Awolowo of Nigeria ,etc this education helped
them to get used to the white language to get exposed to various struggle and liberation of
the world, but on top of that some elites came from outside Africa the combination of both
helped to the rise of nationalism through provision of leadership for nationalistic struggles

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 vi. Ghana independence in 1957, it was an example to stimulate other African nations to begin
fight for their freedom so it as possible for them also to attain independence from their
colonial powers

vii. The Italy against Ethiopia war of 1935- 1941 under Mussolini and Haile Selasie and Ras
Imra increased the momentum of African nationalism Italy an industrialized nation was
heavily and bravery resisted by an African nation Ethiopia this boosted, African confidence
to wards their struggle for independence was defeated.

viii. Formation of social welfare association these aimed to improve the working conditions of
African workers discriminations and colonial abuses to the Africans such associations
largely based in urban centers and comprised colonial civil servants like; The kikuyu
central association in Kenya that was formed by Harry Thuku The railway territory civil
association in Tanganyika, Tanganyika Territory Civil Service Association
(T.T.C.S.A)which was formed by Martin Kayamba the peoples union in 1908 in Nigeria.
Such association exerted more pressure on the colonialist to consider giving African
independence which led to nationalism.

ix. Mass media especially news paper played a big role in spreading awareness among the
population in both rural and urban areas such news paper included Sauti ya TANU in
Tanganyika The pilot and the comet in Nigeria.

x. Colonial social infrastructures also played a big role in facilitating the spread and the rise of
African nationalism that’s why some historian do say that colonialism sown a seed of it
own destruction, infrastructures like railways roads facilitated the nationalistic activities in
rural and urban centers by spreading the massage of liberations in all parts of Africa.

EXTERNAL FACTORS
These were factors that motivated nationalism but being generated from out side Africa such
forces included.
i. The returning ex-soldiers who participated in the war on the side of their colonial masters
assisting them as porters and security guards of army camps, this participation brought
awareness since these soldiers were exposed to western democracy, freedom, and liberation
massage some veterans like Dedan Kimathi who ware latter a leader of Mau-Mau in

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 Kenya. Jonathan Okwiriri who became the president of the younger Kavirondo formed
movements that directly opposed the colonialists.

ii. Formation of U.N which replaced the league of nation where independent African states
were allowed to participate as members it become an organization of all nations African
and Asian nations through the UN opposed the colonialist and demanded for self
determination, unlike during the league of nation where African colonies became
mandatory colonies of European nations

iii. The India Pakistan independences. These acted as an external pressure for the Africans to
emulate both were British colonies that attain their independence in 1948 as one nation
which later separated in two nations, African quoted such incidences as a negotiative tool
to argue for there independence.

iv. The Bandug conference of April 17th 1955 where Asians and Africans nations like South
Africa Ghana Nigeria Egypt Libya met in Indonesia to discuss their problems which
include colonialism and economic development, they emphasized solidarity, it was during
this conference that. N.A.M. was formed in this conference.

v. Rise of communism in U.S.S.R the Second World War witnessed the expansion and
consolidation of the communist bloc Russia begun to provide material and moral support
for anti-colonial struggle for African e.g. it supported rebel groups in Angola and Namibia
to fight colonialists.

vi. Marshal plan, this was initiated by George Marshall the prime minister of U.S.A, whereby
he began giving loans to the war ruined European nations on conditions that they should
decolonize in Africa arid Asian nations, by granting independence to those nations.

vii. Open- door policy of U.S.A. U.S.A introduced a policy of conducting business with
Independent African states thus it begun requesting colonialist to give independence to the
African countries so as to do business with US.

viii. Formation of Pan-Africanize in 1900 by William Sylvester from the new world which later
led to the formation of O.A.U an organization that united all African independent nations to
helped in fighting for African independence.
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 ix. The British labor party which assumed power in 1945 its policies were against colonialism
which, they viewed as oppression of humanity and wastage of British tax payers money
thus such ant colonial sentiments in Britain made many nationalistic movement to agitate
for their immediate Independence.

x. The rise of USA as a leading capitalist nation after world war two US became the chief
supplier of war materials and the war did not affect her economy negatively made her to
became a leading capitalist nation and begun to advocate for decolonization of African
nations as a trick to compensate for not colonizing through establishment of neo
colonialism to get market for her finished goods area of investment for her international
corporations.

xi. The after math of Second World War to the colonialist who incurred a lot of losses and
could not continue with spending to the colonies so they were forced to grant some
independence to some African states. But on top of the above some European powers
adopted intensive exploitation to revamp their economies, which awakened many Africans
to resist thus rise of nationalism

THE INDEPENDENT CHURCHES.

These were religious Christian’s churches which broke away from European churches because of
dissatisfaction/discontent with Christian missionary churches .Some of their discontents included
the following:
 The European churches preached salvation equality of human being before God ,while
African were segregated oppressed not allowed even to lead prayers, they were taken as
third citizens

 The European churches also involved in helping colonizers for land alienation taxation
forced labor and administration which had no any relation with the teaching of the bible.

 They also realized that European churches and colonialism were two sides of the same coin
that the Christian missionaries were only to pave way for the colonization process of Africa
as always its said that the “flag followed the cross”.

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  They advised Africans concerning political and economic problems by breaking their
resistance e.g. through preaching biblical doctrines like the humble people are the blessed
for them will enter the kingdom of God, forgive those who wrong you.

 They intervened in African culture like girl circumcision among the kikuyu people in
Kenya who vehemently detested the missionary activities. That prompted them to start
independent schools and begun to spread.
SOME OF THE INDEPENDENT CHURCHES FORMED INCLUDED;
i. Joseph Enjayi of West Africa.
ii. The Kikuyu Orthodox church of Kenya.
iii. The African National church of Tanganyika.
iv. The Independent church movement in Zaire by Simon Kimbanga.
v. The Ethiopian church in Rhodesia.
vi. The United Native Church of Cameroon
vii. The Watch Tower Church Movement in Malawi 1906
viii. The people of God and the Religion of Jesus Christ in Kenya.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDEPENDENT CHURCHES
• They were founded by Africans as to preserve African values and customs

• Most of the independent churches were formed in urban centers

• Initially they were apolitical but after 1945 they started to practice political activities and
economic were addressed.

• Unlike the peasant cooperative associations which practiced tribalism the independent churches
included all tribes without segregation.

• They used indigenous languages in their church services (local languages) e.g. Kisukuma.

THE ROLE OF INDEPENDENT CHURCHES TO THE RISE OF NATIONALISM

i. They carried the Liberation message to the Africans during their church services which
brought awareness among the local Africans

ii. They condemned and criticized the white missionary churches as true agents of
colonialism who came for their interest but their not godly people
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 iii. They provided moral support and Devine guidance for the Nationalists.

iv. They trained and groomed Nationalistic leaders in their churches were they learn how to
speak to the congregations e.g Jomo Kenyatta, Nyerere, Kamzu Banda, Milton Obote,
Samola Michael, Sam Nujoma.

v. They also provided education for many African leaders through their Seminary schools.

vi. They provided physical assistance to Nationalistic activities like transport and financial
assistance, which contributed to gain their independence

vii. They participated in forming of Nationalistic political parties which late alone became he
dominant political parties that took over the independence

viii. Also independent churches become centers for the meetings of Nationalist to discuss their
plans or activities.

ix. They also encouraged unity among the Africans to the struggle of self-determination.
Using the church as a uniting, factor

PEASANTS COOPERATIVE UNION (ASSOCIATION)

BACKGROUND
These were initially established by the colonial government especially during the inter-war period,
their primary aims were to promote peasant produce by searching for market and improvement of
agriculture methods of farming, but latter alone turned into nationalism organs that begun to
agitate for political demands. For example in northern Tanzania the Chagga who occupied the
fertile slopes of mountain Kilimanjaro, had been the first East African people to take over the
growing of cash crops. In 1925 a group of Chagga coffee growers formed the first modern peasant
association yet to be seen in the rural areas. The Kilimanjaro native planters association (K.N.P.A.)
which had 10,000 members with in one year, its’ major aim was to provide efficient means of
marketing coffee of local peasants but its’ leaders latter alone turned to be more political activists
using the peasant association to promote nationalism. Other peasant associations included;
i. Bataka association formed in 1927 in Uganda, led by Clemens Kiiza.
ii. The Victoria cooperation union in Sukuma land Mwanza
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 iii. Central Kikuyu Association of 1928 whose general secretary was Jomo Kenyatta.
iv. Bahaya native growers in Tanganyika 1936.
v. The Kilimanjaro native planters’ association (K.N.P.A) 1925 under Joseph Mwinyi with
about 10,000members.
vi. Usambara native growers Association 1932.
vii. The Ukambani association in Kenya formed in the late 1930s.
viii. The Taita association.
ix. Kavirondo tax payers and welfare Association.
x. The Abangine Association in Ghana, and the Nigeria Youth Movement.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PEASANTS COOPERATIVE UNION (ASSOCIATION)

i. They lacked National scope i.e. they were not National wide only based in regions e.g. the
Bahaya based in Kagera region and Kilimanjaro native planters association based in
Kilimanjaro region etc

ii. They concentrated to demands of peasant welfare e.g. good price for cash crops, removal of
middle men etc but not political.

iii. It was dominated only in agricultural productive areas.

iv. In mining areas and labor reserves they did not exist.

v. Most of the members were peasant and non elites

vi. It largely based on tribalism e.g. the Haya, Chaga and Sukuma and the Gandas etc.

OBJECTIVES OF PEASANT COOPERATIVE UNIONS.

i. Their primary aim was to provide an efficient of marketing the cash crops produced by the
local growers, cash crops such as coffee, cotton, sisal. But latter alone the leaders of the
association became increasingly involving into national politics.

ii. To fight for the betterment of peasant welfare and resist the colonial government attempts
of introducing agriculture improvement schemes. E.g. in 1938 the colonial government in
Kenya wanted the Kamba people to de-stock of their cattle. The Ukambani peasant
cooperation resisted it.
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 iii. They were formed to fight against intensive exploitation like land alienation, forced labor,
taxation oppression and through provision of low wages especially to the office boys and
domestic servants. During the economic depression of 1930s the colonial government cut
their wages by a third, the younger kikuyu association resisted the colonial government
measures.

iv. To stabilize and maintain agricultural prices by eliminating middle men who took the big
share of their prices. Also to struggle in breaking the settlers’ monopoly of cultivating
certain, cash crops that visibly, enjoying supernormal profit especially during the postwar
boom. the Africans had been prohibited to cultivate some cash crops, this was especially in
the settlers economies

v. The aimed to promote agricultural output by searching for good methods of farming and
providing their members with agricultural equipments, like hoes ,fertilizers, axes, pangas,
etc through credit facilities and loans

vi. They also aimed to unite all the farmers for their general cause of fighting oppression and
exploitation. And also to gain full control of their political and economic independence.

vii. They also aimed to act as an adviser to the farmers, by instructing and advising about new
methods of cultivation

viii. It also acted as a representatives of boards for the peasants to the colonialist they reported
all grievances the faced the peasants

THE ROLE OF PEASANT COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS TO THE RISE OF

NATIONALISM.
i. It brought unity and solidarity between the peasants in rural areas and working class in
urban centers to fight against colonialism; it was such solidarity between peasant and elites
that led to independence

ii. It became a source of information feedback to the nationalistic movements who based in
urban centers

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 iii. They participated in strike and demonstration against colonialists which weakened the
colonial economy that eventually led to the collapse of rule.

iv. They provided leadership for political parties e.g. Jomo Kenyatta who was a general
secretary of the peasant association in Kenya later alone become the leader of a political
party called KANU in Kenya.

v. They provided moral support and material support like funds and manpower to the
nationalistic to continue with the struggle to achieve independence

vi. Peasant cooperatives played a role of representing all the peasants’ grievances with one
voice in the struggle against colonialism.

vii. They supported the education of the students who came from poor families e.g. the Bukoba
cooperative union in Tanganyika assisted very many needy students to acquire education
which later was used in nationalism

viii. They openly criticized the exploitation of the colonial marketing boards and always were
ready to participant in any demonstration and strikes against the colonialist exploitation.

ROLE OF SECOND WORLD WAR TO THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM

The Second World War which occurred 1939-1945 was a necessary evil to the rise of African
nationalism. The after math of Second World War witnessed vigorous nationalistic feelings in
Africa which resulted into African independence. The following were the contribution of Second
World War to the rise of African nationalism.
i. The returning ex-soldiers (war veterans) brought awareness and consciousness. During the
war African had worked along side with the Europeans, and found them little difference
from them selves. They had fought against and killed Europeans in the name of freedom
and democracy. They had observed European poverty in Europe and savagery in warfare.
Africa with their range and level of experience would never come back at home as docile
and subservient colonial labor force. Thus their returning had added more momentum in
the process on nationalism.

ii. The Second World War also helped in the changing of attitudes of Europeans them selves
towards their colonies. Allied forces especially France, was made accurately aware of its
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 indebtedness to Africa during the war. In order to ensure the continuing African support
European administrators had been obliged to promise the social political and economic
reforms would fall the allied victory in the war. At a free French conference held at
Brazzaville in 1944 Gaulli had promised a ‘new deal’ for the subject of the French African
territories. The promise of the Brazzaville was followed up in 1946 with the abolition of
the hated indige ‘nat and the corvee labour system. Some European powers became
reluctant to implement their promises. Thus rise of intensive nationalism.

iii. The second war also contributed to the rise of African elites who played a big role in
organizing and mobilizing Africans for large scale nationalism campaign. In British West
Africa the war years saw educated African being increasingly brought in the high
administrative positions and on the elected local councils. British colonial administrators
begun to contemplate a time in distant future when African would be allowed some degree
of self-governance few ex-service men actually played a significant role in the leadership
of the ensuing independence movements. But their influence in undermining the aura and
prestige of the European was considerable.

iv. The economic hard ship of European nations after the war most of their economies were
badly ruined that were not able to continue running vast over sea colonies of Africa and
Asia they begun preparing them for self determinations, this explain the independence of
India Pakistan Burma Egypt and Ghana immediately after world war two thus made other
colonies to increase demanding for their independence.

v. The Second World War brought intensive exploitation or large scale colonization of Africa.
Most of the European countries wanted to revamp their ruined economies by increasing
qualitative and quantitative production in the peripheries e.g. new taxes were introduced,
land alienation, forced labor, forced cropping in west Africa, grow more campaign in
Tanganyika such exploitation awakened the Africans to fight for their independence as to
avoid exploitation.

vi. Formation of UN came as a result of Second World War after the failure of the League of
Nations. UN became an international body where independent African states were
permitted as members; they voiced their grievances through UN and got support from
Asian countries that had experienced a similar problem of colonialism this made the
process of decolonization possible.
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vii. Rise of USSR as leading communist bloc the Second World War enabled USSR to
consolidate and expand her influence in Eastern Europe and Asia as well as in Africa. It
should be noted that the socialist ideology was against colonialism used her influence in
UN by Appling her veto power to oppose the colonialism in Africa. On top of that USSR
provided moral and material support to anti- colonial struggles in Africa and Asia.

viii. The rise of USA as a leading capitalist nation. The aftermath of world war two was
witnessed with the rise of USA as a leading capitalist nation because of the role it played
during the war; it was the chief supplier of raw materials and extended loans under her
Marshall plan with conditionality of decolonizing African states by the Europeans and
establishment of open door policy by USA, a policy which meant African nations to open
up their doors to do business with USA.

ix. The formation of NAM in April 1955 In Bandung Indonesia which was an afro-Asian
conference that welcomed delegates from all parts of Africa and Asia who belonged to
neither side of capitalism or communism. In this conference it was greed upon that
Africans should struggle by all means to get their independence. It brought awareness and
new force in Africa for indepen4ence struggle.

x. The Manchester conference of 1945 after world war two. It was called by pan-Africanist
activities that invited all Africans from various parts of Africa and resolved that Africans
should use all means peace or forceful to attain their independence.

THE ROLE OF USSR TO THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM

The USSR adopted communism after the Bolshevik revolution of 1917 under the leadership of
Lenin and Stalin, USSR became a strong bloc. Her strength reached the climax after the Second
World War which enabled her to consolidate and expand her communist ideology in the world.
She helped the rise of African nationalism in the following ways;
i. Ideological support: Many African nationalists adopted Marxist theory as a tool to fight and
oppose the capitalist exploitation and oppression. As Karl Marx had advocated views that
showed the possibility of doing away with the capitalist ideology. Many Africans were
conscious to implement the idea and, this gave the Africans hope that they could at one be
successful in their struggles thus the rise of African nationalism.
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 ii. Alternative for capitalism: socialism did provide the best alternative for capitalism as it
clearly spelt out the ills of capitalism which were characterized with exploitation and
oppression of man. Basing on this many Africans wanted to adopt an alternative that was
fair to the common man for example Ujamaa villages in Tanganyika, common man’s
charter in Uganda.

iii. Provided material and immaterial, support to many African nationalists’ e.g. military
equipments and military Skills.

iv. It provided scholarships to many African nationalists to go and. study in Russia who later
became leaders of independent Africa.

v. It used her veto power in UN to oppose colonialism in Africa and used UND to support
African struggle.

vi. USSR established class alliance with the revolutionary forces in Africa which gave
confidence and determination to fight capitalism.

vii. Russia supported military and armed struggle to liberate them V selves through the barrel
of the gun through the provision of equipments and training African man power to carry on
the fighting

viii. The USSR was against imperialism and extended sympathy to the African and Asian and
she was ready to support nationalist movement to get rid of the colonialists

THE EMERGENCE OF THE USA AS A LEADING IMPERIALISTS POWER AND ITS

ROLE FOR THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM
USA emerged as a leading imperialist power after world war two why? Because both wars first
and second war ware not fought in the land of USA thus no destruction that occurred that might
have affected industrial production. During the war USA became the major suppliers of military
equipment and food for many European nations during the war which made her to emerge as
richest nation after the war, on the addition to the above through the Marshall plan that was
launched by USA prime minister George Marshall where USA begun to provide loans, to the war

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toned European nations charging high interest rate made USA to emerge as a leading capitalist
nation.

Decline of Britain as a leading capitalist nation after world two due to mass destruction and high
expenditure during both wars; because both wars affected Britain very badly that could not regain
her economical status back this enabled USA to rise as a leading capitalist nation. There fore after
rising as a leading capitalist nation USA begun to advocated for decolonization process in Africa,
for her own economic Interest, the methods applied in the decolonization of Africa included the
following,
i. USA championed the struggle for African nationalism through UNO by high fighting the
Evil of colonialism to African countries

ii. Giving moral support to African nationalist parties struggling for Independence through her
veto power.

iii. Providing loans to support economic venture in African countries to colonizing power at
conditions for decolonization

REASONS FOR THE DECOLONIZATION IN AFRICA BY USA AFTER 1945.

Back ground.
It should be born in mind that USA was a colony of Britain which struggled for her independence
in 1 770s and got the independence in 1776 from Britain, USA inherited all the wealth which
included slaves’ plantations and the industries, USA began to industrializes in 1 880s, the first and
second world war made USA the leading industrialized nation in the world, which made her to
begin demanding raw materials, market and area for investment, since it had no colonies in Africa
it began to campaign for decolonization of Africa and Asia, so as to establish neo colonialism. It
uses human rights as a pretext to achieve her military and economic interest in the colonized and
independent world
i. Had no colonies in Africa Therefore she wanted African countries to be free so that she can
share the benefits of African economically under establishment of the new form of
colonialism called, neo- colonial relation

ii. They wanted to establish open door policy so as to establish direct trade with Africa. To
exploit the market for their industrial out put Independent African states would be a better

36
 ground for USA investment for there surplus capita1 thus the establishment of international
corporation companies.

iii. To spread capitalist ideology in the Africa and to check on the spreading of socialism in
Africa

iv. USA wanted places to establish her military bases, in every part of the world including
Africa so as it can maintain her military status-quo.

THE GHANA INDEPENDENCE

Ghana was a British colony originally and it was known as Gold Coast. It began her nationalism in
1868 after the formation of the Fante confederation. In 1920 a modern political party the national
congress of West Africa was formed but with little success Of independence. In 1940 another party
called united Gold Coast foundation was founded under J.B. Danguah and Nkrumah as her general
secretary. Ghana was the first country in Africa under the Sahara to attain her independence.
Factors that helped Ghana to get her independence earlier than other African nations included the
following;
i. The political party that took over power the conventional people’s party[CCP] enjoyed
overwhelming support in the cocoa growing because of her clear policies and implemental
programs that would serve the people of Ghana.

ii. Lack of tribalism in Ghana also played significant role in avoiding disunity in the struggle
for independence

iii. Also Ghana had developed reasonable social infrastructures that were used by many
nationalists in carrying out their campaign reaching in a very corner of the country.

iv. Ghana had no white settlers that would have been an obstacle for the struggle of their self
determination thus the path for independence was smooth

v. English was a common language which many Ghanaians used as a symbol for unity against
the colonialists

vi. Leadership Ghana had a strong leadership of Kwame Nkrumah who devoted all her time
and life, for the national cause
37
vii. Also external factors like the independence of India Pakistan and the rise of USSR in 1917
after the Bolshevik revolution

Factors for the C.P.P. to Win Independence for Ghana

1. The message and slogans of C.P.P. (e.g. “Independence now”) was well received by most
Ghanaians.
2. The party concerned itself with the genuine social and economic problems of the people.
3. The party exploited the widespread Cocoa Riots of 1948 and reinforced anti-British feelings
among the masses.
4. The position of the C.P.P. was strengthened by the creation of the Cocoa Purchasing Company
in 1952, which spread the message of the C.P.P. among farmers and peasants.
5. The good leadership of one of the ablest sons of Africa, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, was a major
contributing factor.
6. The weakness of the opposition parties like the National Liberation Movement.

ROLE OF GHANA INDEPENDENCE

The independence of Ghana in 1957 brought new impetus in the struggle for African
independence; Ghanaian independence had a great influence on African nationalism in the
following ways.
i. Ghana became the headquarters of the ant colonial groups of Africa following her
independence all issues pertaining independence in Africa were discussed in Accra Ghana.

ii. Ghana provided material support like man power and funds to many African nations who
were struggling for self determination from their colonial masters.

iii. Radio Accra in Ghana became the mouth piece of Africans to voice anti-colonial feelings
and to mobilize support from inside and out side Africa.

iv. Nkwame Nkrumah became the leader o pan - Africanism and in 1958 a conference was
help in Ghana to discuss the way forward of African independence.

v. Ghana became a model to other African countries to emulate. This made many African
countries to go for vigorous campaigns for against colonialism and get sovereignty like that
of Ghana.
38
 vi. Nkrumah the president of Ghana after independence held all African trade unions in 1959
with the aim to unity all African states into a confederation, such an idea increased
momentum for many Africans to fight for independence.

vii. Ghana as an independent country exerted more pressure on French domination on West
Africa to stop their excess over the Africans which increased the Africans to demand for
self determination.

PAN-AFRICANISM:
Definition
Pan-Africanism is the expression of desire for African unity; it’s at some time an expression of
sense of unity between all people whose ancestors originally came from Africa i.e. the Africa in
Africa and the African in the Diaspora. As such assume the common brotherhood of black people
every where in North America West Indies. Indeed the birth of the idea.

Back ground
Pan- Africanism had its roots out side Africa because of the descendants of the African the Negro
slaves in the new world who felt had been made home less by their transfer to the foreign countries
and subjection to alien culture they felt that they did not belong to, they felt themselves as the
orphans of Africa, alien and strangers in the world of white people who were chiefly interested in
their labour only to work in the plantations and hardly interested at all in their personality as men,
they felt to them selves as black out cast robbed of their dignity and with no claim of being of the
same value and equal insight of man.
Pan Africanism was founded by William Sylvester Trinidad lawyer in 1900, who convened the
first pan Africanist conference there were few representative from Africa but a big number came
from America and the west Indies others were student from London among them was Dr William
E.burghradt Dus Bois an outstanding negro scholar and prolific writer who later became “the
father and the prophet of pan Africanism” was born in USA 1868 and died in Ghana 1963 at the
ripe old age of 95.

He was the founder of national association for advancement of colored people [NAACP] He also
led four pan Africanism conference 1919 in Paris attended with 57 delegates 1921 London and
Brussels, in 1923 in Lisbon Portugal and the fourth was in new York in 1927 the massage of all

39
those conferences were that “the habit of democracy should encircle the all world “the emphasis
was inter—racialism and justice

The major plan of action for pan Africanism was to bring all the black people of African origin
under one umbrella of pan-Africanism i.e. black Africa in the New World and in Africa.
OBJECTIVES OF PAN-AFRICANISM
• To unite all black people in the Diaspora and in Africa.
• To liberate African slaves from slavery in the new world in order to make them free citizen
• To improve the economic status of Africa so that they can be equalized with the European
people.
• To create awareness among the Africans and instill the sprite of Africanism in them to remove
the inferior complex of the Africans to Europeans.
• To fight colonialism in Africa so as the African can get their self determination.
• It was also their objective to fight for civil rights of African slaves in the new world like freedom
of movement, owning property, worship etc.
CONTRIBUTION OF PAN-AFRICANISM FOR THE RISE OF NATIONALISM
AFRICAN CONTINENT.
i. It brought solidarity, unity among the Africans in their struggle for self determination.

ii. It led to the formation of OAU/AU a body which was responsible to fight for African
countries which were still under colonial domination.

iii. Pan Africanism brought awareness among the Africans to fight for their independence.

iv. Pan Africanism also acted as a body to represent the Africans in world politics.

v. Pan Africanism provided leadership in many nationalistic struggles in Africa e.g. Nkrumah
who became a leader of pan Africanism;

vi. Provided moral and financial support to the Africans who were struggling for their
independence.

40
MANCHESTER CONFERENCE
The Manchester conference was the conference that was convened by pan Africanits. It was
regarded as a turning point in the history of pans Africanism because of the outcome of the
conference which included the following:
WHY IS TURNING POINT (WATERSHED)
i. It was during the Manchester conference where by the leading participants were no longer
Negroes of the new world, but a big number of Africans from home land countries and
organizations sent delegates like Nkrumah, Kamuzu Banda, Kenyatta, Peter Abraham
Azikiwe was him self prevented from attending the conference but his idea and
encouragement were of great importance,

ii. It was during the Manchester conference that the headquarters of pan Africanism were
shifted from America to Africa under the leadership of Nkrumah following the
independence of Ghana.

iii. It was in this conference that colonialism was condemned and it was declared that by all
means either peaceful or forceful Africans should get their independence. They developed a
slogan that “if European for Europeans then Africa is for Africans”.

iv. It was during the Manchester conference that a letter was drafted by the delegates warning
all the imperialist countries who were committing excesses to the Africans like king
Leopold was seriously warned and asked to stop it.

v. It was during this conference that demanded education of Africans and progressive
participation in African governments.

vi. In this pan African conference it constrained racial consciousness among Africa and
removed inferior complex of the Africans to the Europeans in political and cultural values.

vii. It was during the Manchester conference that pan-Africanism drafted a charter demanding
the independence and implementation of civil rights in the colonies especially the human
rights of the Africans in the colonies.

41
viii. It was in this conference where all people from African origin demonstrated unity,
solidarity and cooperation. This brought awareness and consciousness to the black races to
fight for their rights.

FORMS OF AFRICAN LIBERATIONS

It should be noted that, the colonial state did not intend to create a sense of national hood among
the colonized people. Its major aim was to undermine all ethnic or regional loyalties. There was
very little feeling of national hood among the colonial subjects. Almost every body thought of him
self as belonging to a certain ethnic group or region.

The colonialists had different sentiment about granting independence to African states it should be
put clear that for the bourgeoisie in the metro pole were interested in maintaining colonial
exploitation, but they differed in the best way to do it. They were three types of different opinions
how to maintain this among the colonialists.

The liberal who realized that the only way to silence ant colonial struggle was to was through
reform of granting flag independence to the colonized subjects thus between 1950 and 1960 liberal
government of France and Britain began to grant flag independence. That is why the form of
liberation were peaceful

The conservatives thought that maintaining the status-quo was the best way to preserve the
capitalist interests, thus when ever these people were in power the question of granting
independence to Africa never rose, and this was especially in Portugal thus the form of liberation
in such Portuguese colonies were different.

The third opinion was that of the settlers their interest crushed with those of the bourgeoisie in the
metro pole. If the neo colonial government, under black skinned leadership, believed that there
interest could not be maintained no matter how neo colonialism was. If the worse came to worse
they seized power as in case of U.D.I in 1965 in then Rhodesia.

FORMS OF LIBERALIZATIONS
They were four types/methods that Africans applied in their struggle to liberate themselves from
the colonial domination

42
a) Liberation by constitution/ dialogue/ peacefully.
This involved intensive negotiation between the colonialists and African nationalists e.g. the
political independence of Tanganyika, Ghana, Uganda, Zambia etc. all applied negotiation or
peaceful means to get their independence.

b)Liberation by revo1ution
This was the type of liberation which involved complete overthrow of the existing political system.
This existed in colonies where independence was given to the minority at the expenses of the
majority, the case in point is in Zanzibar where minority Arabs were granted independence by the
British which prompted the majority blacks to make a revolution in 1964, and replaced with
another new political system that is supported by the masses. It took place even Egypt and Libya.
Liberation by revolution is always sudden and involves blood shed.

c) Liberation by armed struggle/arbitration:

This was conducted in the situation where peaceful means failed and the imperialist were reluctant
to negotiate or to give independence to the Africans. In such situation the Africans picked up arms
to fight the imperialists by force as a method to achieve their independence it involved bloodshed
use of guerrilla warfare. For example in Zimbabwe, Kenya, Angola, South Africa, Namibia,
Mozambique

d) Combination of constitution and armed struggle:

These liberations combined both methods. Firstly the Africans resorted to armed struggle as a way
to achieve their independence and then applied dialogue/peaceful means to solve the problems of
their independence, this happened in Kenya and Zimbabwe.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINED THE FORMS OF DE-COLONISATION/LIBERATION.

i. Existence of settler in the colonies that had a number of white settlers like Kenya
Zimbabwe where by they had made some developments in form of investment the
colonialist were not willing to surrender their wealth to Africans and were not sure of their
future incase Africans take over the government, thus giving independence was very
difficult. This made the Africans to apply armed struggle as the means of getting their
independence

ii. The nature of the colony. Those colonies that were regarded as overseas provinces of the
colonial nation and view them as their mandatory land this was mostly to colonial masters
43
 like Portugal and France in such cases the colonialist were not ready to grant independence
until the African decide to use the barrel of the gun to give independence; therefore armed
struggle was the only solution for example in Kenya, Angola, Mozambique and South
Africa.

iii. The economic strength of the colony. In those colonies were development was very high
and colonial investment was huge like South Africa and Zimbabwe the colonialists were
not able to grant independence to the Africans in a peaceful way, the only solution
remained to apply forceful means.

iv. The financial economic position of the colonial power. Many colonies that belonged to
Portugal applied armed struggle because Portugal economic position was not good highly
depended ion Africa colonies for domestic development so she was un willing to give
independence.

v. The status of the colony those colonies that were under the trust ship of UN managed to
achieve their Independence easily through peaceful means because of the pressure from
UN and USA, like Tanganyika got her independence early enough than other east African
sister nations of Kenya and Uganda, but those who were mandatory colonies could not get
their independence so easily thus armed struggle

vi. The minority rule like UDI in Zimbabwe and the white racist regime in SA where by the
minority white settlers declared the unilateral independence, in case of Zanzibar where
minority Arabs where given independence by the British to the expense of the majority
Africans on the islands this also caused armed struggle through a revolution

vii. Existence of peasant cash crops; colonies that had developed peasant cash crops like,
Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana, and Tanganyika, achieved their independence through peaceful
means, the colonialist could not delay this independence after realizing that they can
continue exploiting their resources through neo colonialism and they had nothing to lose in
granting independence

viii. The nature of reaction the African had towards the colonialist, also determined the form of
liberation, those African societies who were very collaborative to the colonialist and forged
class alliance with the colonialist in most cases dialogue or peaceful means were applied to
44
 decolonize e.g. in Uganda the Ganda were used as sub imperialist to Other areas of Uganda
to spread the colonial rule so independence was through peaceful means in Uganda as to
pave way for the Ganda to dominant other tribes.

ix. Existence Of wealthy especially minerals like gold diamond sliver, industries, well
developed social over heads like in south Africa, Kenya, independence could not be given
easily why because the colonialist were not ready to leave such wealthy un exploited armed
struggle became the only solution’ in case of such situations and on the other side in
colonies where development was minimal no infrastructure independence was easily given
through peaceful means e.g. in Tanganyika.

WHY MOST OF THE AFRICAN STATES RESORTED ‘TO ARMED STRUGGLE

AFTER 1945?
It’s true that armed struggle became dominant after 1945 especially in Zimbabwe, Kenya’ Angola,
and South Africa etc as compared to other forms of liberation this was due to the following facts
that accelerated the application of armed struggle among such factors include the following,
i. Military assistance from USSR. After 1945 USSR consolidated her strength to the zenith it
was ant-colonialism and a sympathizers to African ant-colonial struggles .It was ready to
provide military support and moral to liberate the Africans from colonialism, thus military
struggle due to military assistance of USSR.

ii. Manchester conference. During the Manchester the major agenda of the conference was to
liberate Africans by all means peaceful or force, this gave courage to the Africans to use
force where the colonialists became reluctant to grant independence.

iii. Role and influence of the ex soldiers. The war veterans of Second World War came back
with military skills which they had acquired during the war it were these skills that
encouraged very many African nationalists to apply force to overthrow the colonialists who
were not ready to grant independence to Africans.

iv. The support from U.N Under U.S.A and USSR were ant-colonialism and supported the
African nationalist struggle to use all means to get rid of colonialism.

v. Failures of other methods. Other methods like peaceful means and constitutional failed, the
armed struggle became as the last resort for getting independence from the colonialists.
45
 vi. Impact of India and Pakistan independence. The independence of Asian countries
especially Pakistan and India was a big challenge for the Africans to emulate, they used all
means including armed struggle to get independence.

vii. Influence of pan Africanism. Especially after shifting her headquarters from the new world
to Africa .The plan of action of pan Africanism was to liberate African nations by all
means.

viii. The unwillingness of the colonial power to grant independence. Especially Portugal and
British colonies that, were not willing to grant independence. The Africans resorted the use
of force.

ix. Influence of front line states. That provided military and man power support to the ant-
colonial struggles in Africa e.g Tanganyika during the struggle in South Africa and
Zimbabwe

x. Intensive exploitation after world war two. It awakened Africans against the colonialists
who had increased exploitation of Africa resources as to revamp their ruined economies,
this made Africans to use all means to liberate themselves.

xi. Emergence of cold war after 1945. This was the struggle between USSR and USA, every
bloc wanted to win more countries in Africa as to spread their political ideologies of
socialism or capitalism, this witnessed the giving up of weapons to fight the colonialists.

NATIONALISM IN TANGANYIKA THE ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE.

Nationalism in Tanzania can be traced as early as the early days of colonial penetration under the
Germany rule when they threatened their independence. Thus for example, Abushiri and Bwana
Hen, the Zigua led the first resistance against the Germany at the coast in 1888-89, then Mkwawa
against the Germany from 1891 tilll898 and finally came the Maji-Maji wars in1905-97.

Although the Eurocentric historians have portrayed the early nationalistic movements as back-
word looking, leading their people from modernization and from God-sent blessings of
colonialism; recent historiography has revealed continuity between the early leaders of opposition
to colonialism and more recent leaders of mass nationalism. About fifty years ago, V.1 Lenin
46
described such resistance as national war or national rebellion. These early resistances showed a
symbol o great patriotism. For example Maji-Maji, Mkwawa and Abushiri are hailed as national
Heroes in modem Tanzania monuments have been built for their memorials and honors.
During the interwar period some modern nationalistic political parties were formed, namely the
TTCSA, TAA, and the TAWCA they developed crucial mass nationalism that begun to agitate for
Nationalism after 1945. Of all parties that were started it’s only the TAA that survived the
onslaught colonial administration in the interwar period, it kept the nationalistic sentiments in
Tanzania a live. In 1945 the TAA political party begun to expand country wide and to campaign
for mass support from the rural areas of Tanzania by 1948 the branches grew to 39 and
membership had spiraled to 1, 780. It gave birth to the Tanzanian African National Union (TANU)
in 1950s mainly urban oriented and trans-tribal in nature and non religious

Tanganyika got her independence in 1961 under the leadership of Mwl. J.K. Nyerere it was the
first country in East Africa to get independence. It was formerly a Germany colony but latter alone
it was given to Britain under the trust ship of UN. It got her independence through application of
diplomacy led by J.K Nyerere and Oscar following the transformation of TAA to TANU in July
7th 1954.
OBJECTIVES OF TANU
 To struggle for self-determination of Tanganyika from the colonial master Britain
 To fight for African freedom against the injustice and inequalities of the colonialist
 To promote unity and solidarity among the people of Tanganyika and fight against
regionalisms and tribalism.
 To abolish all forms segregations among the masses and to promote development in the of
country.
 It also aimed at helping the workers to fight their rights through forming trade unions of the
workers so as can defend the workers’ rights.

WHY TANGANYIKA GOT HER INDEPENDENCE EARLIER THAN OTHER EAST

AFRICAN COUNTRIES?
i. In Tanganyika there were no European white settlers, like in Kenya and other parts of
Africa who were not willing to grant independence to the Africans, because they did not
trust them in case they assume power. Tanganyika contained influential minorities of
Europeans and Asians. The number involved was not large enough to bring obstacle in the
path of national independence only 23,000 European among whom only few hundreds
could properly be regarded as settlers and the number of Asians was 87,000.
47
 ii. In Tanganyika internal problems like tribalism and religious differences were very
minimal. This was a sovereign advantage over her neighbors, the country’s population was
made up with large number of ethnic groups but none of the tribe was large enough unlike
the Ganda or the Kikuyu-to offer a serious threat to its neighbors by seizing power at the
central and monopolizing jobs and development grants for its own advantage. That would
have brought internal disputes struggle or disunity. So it was simple for them to unite the
masses for self determination

iii. Tanganyika was not mandatory colony like Uganda or Kenya it was under the trust ship of
UN given to Britain. As a trust territory Tanganyika was subjected to measure of
supervision by the United Nations. A situation which made it impossible for the British
government to entirely disregard pressure exerted by international opinion. Thus the
independence of Tanganyika was easily influence by United Nations

iv. Swahili language played a big role to unite various ethnic groups Swahili had came to be
widely spoken throughout the country, thus providing Tanganyika with an indigenous
lingua franca, an advantage possessed by no other East African nation. It was rather less
difficult to build up a sense of national unity in Tanzania than any other East African
country.

v. TANU political party which took over the power lacked serious opposition from other to
political parties which would have delayed the independence

vi. The superb leadership of Mwl J.K Nyerere and Oscar Kambona also played a big role in
achieving independence in Tanganyika earlier than other nations he was a simple man
approachable democratic with high sprite of patriotism for his nation.

vii. The effect of Mau-Mau in Kenya prompted governor Richard of Britain to grant
independence in Tanganyika immediately fearing that a similar situation may happen also
in Tanganyika

viii. Unlike Uganda and Kenya were most of the political parties were very much affiliated to
religion and tribes, TANU in Tanganyika had no any religious or tribal attachment it was a
party for national unity
48
 ix. In Tanganyika the colonialists did not invest heavily in infrastructures or agriculture which
they might have feared to lose, in case Of independence like Kenya were a lot of colonial
investment had been invested. And on top of that Tanganyika had been viewed as the most
economically back word country the least advanced in the field of education as compared
to her sister Nations.

x. TANU as major political party had never been banned by the colonial government it was
able to operate freely with out any hindrance unlike KANU in Kenya. This was very
significant in achieving her goals of independence.

PROBLEMS FACED BY TANU IN HER STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE.

i. The colonial bureaucracy was a stumbling-block, when it came at registering T.A.NU
branches national wide. As soon as it was learned that TANU had replaced TAA the
legislation governing the operation of political parties was amended aiming at debarring
TANU activities, the government technically put a delay tactic in registering the branches
of TANU, with the same agenda of checking the spread of TANU and its influences. The
colonial government first applied simple repression, banning of TANU activities in
disaffected areas and the second tactic which was applied mostly in French colonies was
the creation of colonial government sponsored political parties, the United Tanganyika
party (U.T.P) designed to up hold the cause of melt-racialism. But both methods proved a
failure when the election was held early in 1959. For the thirty members of the legislative
council, ten for each race, TANU won an overwhelming victory.

ii. Colonial government sabotage by closing TANU’s branches and banning its activities This
tactic was used by colonial government to check the influence of TANU e.g. in Sukuma
land rural radicalism and TANU activities had given colonial regime threats, after branches
were closed of Tanga, Dodoma, Iringa and Kondoa Irangi.

iii. The colonial policy of divide and rule, which wanted to divide the people of Tanganyika
on ethnicity lines, e.g the meeting of 1957 Governor Twining attempted to drive division
between traditional rulers and members of nationalist movement. This was a very big
obstacle for TANU to forge unity between the masses.

49
 iv. The All Muslim National Unity of Tanganyika (AMNUT) was a stumbling block in the
path of independence after petitioning to the colonial government to delay the
independence of Tanganyika until the education gap between the Moslems and Christians
is bridged

v. The defection of ANC from mainstream TANU, led by Zuberi, Mtemvu, in 1958 in Tabora
they defected from TANU and formed their one party, this move to a certain extent it
weakened TANU as a party ,this new party was even able to get some legislative council in
election of 1958 and 1960 in Tanga and lake Victoria area

vi. The opposition from church missionary society, who barred their followers from involving
into active politics that would be regarded as disobedient to the church. This affected very
many members of TANU who were Christians.

vii. Lack of education for most TANU members .The colonial government prohibited the civil
servants from joining active politics and were the only small elite who were educate that
would have helped the party. Most of the party members were comprised by a big numbers
of peasants

viii. Transport and communication structures were too poor to assist TANU in mobilizing the
masses in the vast Tanganyika mainland, some roads were impassable during rain season

ix. Lack of political awareness among the masses, most of the followers of TANU was
peasants who were in rural areas who, did not know the objectives of the political party
and their financial assistance to the party was very minimal

NATIONALISM IN ZANZIBAR
Background.
The social structure in the post — slavery Zanzibar society was highly racial based. After the
formal abolition of slavery in 1897 the Zanzibar society had just gone into feudal socio economic
stratification which based on racial segregation. The British were on top of the hierarchy the Arabs
followed the lowest class wares the Africans these were mostly poor and squatters on Arab cloves
plantation.

50
In the next hierarchy after the Europeans were the Arabs, these were sub-sections within the Arab
community which included the relatively less, rich shih iris from Yemen and Mangos from Oman
,they ran small business such as shops and other retail trade ventures mostly in rural areas. The
Arabs family shared both political, economical and administration powers with the British
colonialists. Other Oman clans of high class such as the Mazrui and Miskury they held some
decision making position in the local authority administrative network and supervisory roles they
dominated the middle ranking administrative load of the civil service. They owned big plantation,
real estates and the large business. Arabs of Oman origin were favored by British colonialists and
were deliberate given senior administrative posts in to prepare them to run the government after
independence; they wanted Zanzibar to develop as an Arab and not as an African state.

The third structure was that of the Indian community which enjoyed the considerable social status
and influence. They were big merchants who monopolized the exports and imports of trade. They
helped senior economic advisory position in the government and dominated the whole financial
sector. The lowest that of oppressed African majority .These were mostly poor landless peasant
who were mostly squatters in Arab owned plantations where they provided cheap labor for their
survival. Others were employed as domestic servant in rich Arabs and Indian houses .They were
denied access to education that were not given the best employment opportunity that could secure
in the civil service.

In the colonial Zanzibar the Africans were next to none in personality they were regarded as
inferiors. As some afro- centric historian once lamented in his writings that;
“It is true that Africans were intellectually, morally and personality inferior to the European,
Zanzibar Africans just like pendulum clocks who needs constant reminding and reprimands, they
have been like children who have been taught Arab manners.
I think it is evident that most of these Africans were and hypocrites” [Robinson R, and Gallagher
in Africans and the historians.

The education system was given racial lines to serve the goals of preparing for public
administration, Indian for commercial and financial control Africans for sub service.
More degrading statements were made by the colonialists revealing the mentality concerning
Zanzibar Africans that they were inferior in all aspects to the Europeans and to the Arabs.
Example; Population structure of Zanzibar before independence

51
AFRICA RACE
Africans made 76% of the Zanzibar population in 1948 non of them owned a plantation of 3000
hectares and more over in education they accounted only 39% of the lower primary education and
3% of secondary education

Africans in Zanzibar by 1964 were immigrants who went there in three phases: during slave trade
1 840-1 870s during colonialism 1891-1963 and during clove harvesting.

THE SHIRAZI RACE.

These were of the mixed blood [shiraz, Africans and Arabs] .The shiraz Arabs settled in Zanzibar
since the 1st century .They came from Persia, Iran and Iraq. The indigenous of Pemba and Unguja
before 12th century were black .The Shiraz intermarriage with the black Africans and have mixed
blood race .By 1964 the Shiraz identify themselves as; Tumbatu Shiraz and Pemba Shiraz .These
were more Arabs in features than Africans and the Hideous —Shiraz who ware more Africans in
features than Arabs .They mixed easily with the African race by 1964.

THE ARABS RACE,

These were few Arabs who immigrated to Zanzibar since 1940.They were the ones who introduced
clove plantations and slave trade in the islands of Zanzibar

THE INDIAN RACE

These few in number and were chiefly merchants who lived in Zanzibar they were allowed to
conduct business the by British colonialists to trade in Zanzibar.

THE 1963 INDEPENDENCE CONFERENCE

The conference involved the government and the opposition parties held at Lancaster House in
London from 20-24 September 1 963.It was agreed that Zanzibar should become full independent
10th December 1963. On 1 0th December 1963 the British government declared the independence
of Zanzibar and handed sovereignty to the sultan hence ensuring Arab domination to the land.
This is how the efforts towards the independence of Africans came to unsatisfactory. Alternative
measures had to be taken by the victimized African majority hence the Revolution of 1964.

52
THE ZANZIBAR PEOPLES REVOLUTION.
BACKGROUND
The Zanzibar revolution is not an isolated incident. It was due the continuous humiliation of the
black African ever since the first black was taken on the island as a slave, by definition a political
revolution can be defined as a total overthrow of an existing government in any country or state by
those who were previously subjected to it. A political revolution may be gradual or sudden. But the
most important of all it should leave ever lasting impact in that particular society that serves the
fundamental difference between a revolution and a mere political change.

British were preparing to decolonize African states thus they allowed the people of Zanzibar to
form political parties. Political parties emerged based on races e.g. ZNP Zanzibar Nationalist party
for Arabs, African Association for African only, Shiraz Association of Shiraz only later in 1955
Shiraz split into two. Hadimu Afro shiraz party and The Tumbatu shiraz and Pemba peoples party
for shiraz only.

The most likely immediate causes of the revolution of the Zanzibar revolution were numerous that
included the humiliative manner the Arabs treated the Africans who were taken as slaves despite
the factor that were the majority in the islands of Zanzibar but the most touching was the three
failures of the people of Zanzibar to get the government they wanted, created disenchantment with
constitution means. The decision of the old regime, only three weeks after a new constitution came
into effect, to begin suppressing the opposition, seemed to prove there was no hope to change
through lawful means.

THE ELECTION BEFORE INDEPENDENCE

Before independence 1963 there were three elections
Period A.S.P Z.N.P Z.P.P.P
Jan1961 40% 35% 17%
June 1961 49% 35% 13%
July 1963 54% 20% 16%
But the British wanted to hand over independence to the majority privileged race [Arabs] on
12/12/1963 Z.P.N became a ruling party and Sultan was made head of state. The A.S.P members
the majority regarded that independence as an Arab independence. The A.S.P had tried to bring
democratic majority by the use of ballot box without success, the only alternative was the
revolution.

53
Within a month after the Arab independence of 12/12/1963 new Arabs government introduced
oppressive measures which included the following; All African schools were closed down and
therefore all African teachers were ordered to leave Zanzibar. A.S.P was banned and leaders
escaped to Dar –es- Salaam before being arrested, African trade unions were banned. All
policemen from the mainland were dismissed and expelled from Zanzibar The new government
recruited new policemen within a month.

Due to the above factors A.S.P leaders organized the revolution in Dar- es- Salaam with the
assistance of Okello a Ugandan from northern Uganda who had migrated in Zanzibar during
colonial; era, as a colonial worker. He captured the armory at Zanzibar city with the assistance of
other workers of African origin in Zanzibar and main land Tanganyika using ordinary weapon and
managed to over throw the Arab minority regime.

WHY ZANZIBAR REVOLUTION WAS NECESSARY

i. Economic Marginalization of the African majority, Africans were mainly squatters who
made, a living by selling their labor to the landlords and subjected to extreme exploitation
Africans had no access to the major means of production Economic inequality, on the
Arabs owned land, the Indians controlled finance, the Europeans controlled trade, the
Africans owned nothing such a situation made the revolution necessary to occurred.

ii. Zanzibar an African or Arab state? The revolution was also caused by the desire of Arab
rulers and British colonialists to make Zanzibar an Arab state in 1962 which the majorities
African were not ready to be Arab rise on their own African soil thus the revolution.

iii. Deprivation of black African from Education. Despite the government’s role to provide
suitable elementary education for all people, the Africans continued to suffer from
inequality of education system. They were not catered like the other races which made
them unsatisfied with the regime thus the revolution

iv. Segregation in the other social services. Africans were also segregated in health services,
housing and water supply. Even in civil services African hold lower ranks unlike the Arabs
and the Indians

v. Deception Africans were divided along the lines of religion .Z.P.P campaign slogan used to
call Africans to join Z.N.P because they claimed that the party was recognized by God.
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 vi. Cultural and religion it was the Arab culture and religion that became dominated and
recognized from that of the African culture and religious beliefs.

vii. Act of intimidation After unexpectedly loosing the 1957 election to Z.N.P it decided to
employ various act of intimidation to force Africans to join them i.e. the 1958 strikes at the
docks led to mass uprising It initiated a strong campaign against them

viii. Segregation in the social Association As the wind of struggle for political independence
which was in full in the continental African swept the island Zanzibar in the mid 1950.The
social association underwent complex transformation into political parties .Africans were
opposed politically by the ruling class.

ix. The emergence of John Okello from northern Uganda who settled in Zanzibar in 1952 and
worked periodically as painter he was an official of ASP of Pemba island he joined a
revolutionary army in 1961 he played a big role in over throwing the Arab regime.

x. Poor working condition and low wages of Africans after 1963 that could not make them to
meet their basic needs of life and despite that were heavily taxed by the Arab government.
WHY THE REVOLUTION WAS SUCCESSFUL?
i. The disunity within the ruling party of Z.N.P gave the revolutionists to capitalize on it and
managed to attain easy success

ii. The poor political organization and weak military, structures of the Arabs also paved way
for the revolution to occur.

iii. The good organization and plan of the leaders of the revolution who kept their secret with
out breaching it that caught the Arab government by surprise

iv. The role played by general Okello a man with great determination skilled tactician this
helped him to organize the revolution with few ill equipped military men that managed to
over throw the Arab government

v. The taking by storm of the Zinawi armory and police station at Mtoni also accelerated the
revolution to success
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 vi. The fact that the revolution took place took place when the government officials and
leaders of the regime were busy with Ramadan festival it enabled the revolution to be
successful

SIGNIFICANCE/IMPACTS/CONSOLIDATION OF THE REVOLUTION

Having seized power with an astonishing ease, Okello and his associate were confronted with the
task of forming a government. They decided to form a “revolutionary council” made up of
prominent members not only from the Afro-Shiraz party but also of the Umma the recently
founded, partly Arab party which was emphatically Marxist in its policy statements.

Soon afterwards Okello disappeared from the scene and Abedi Karume, the veteran leader of the
ASP, who was to die at the hands of mysterious assassins eight years later, emerged as the
dominant personality in the island. The revolutionary government rapidly announced the number
of progressive measures which included the following.

Three months after the revolution the revolutionary council agreed to the establishment of a union
government with the neighboring Tanganyika to be known as the United Republic of Tanzania.
i. The nationalization of land and the distribution of three acre plot to the Africans. The Arab
land owners were forcibly asked to surrender African land for distribution it to the majority
blacks. About 10,000 Arabs more than one-fifth were expelled from the island.

ii. It brought dignity to Africans. As a result of the revolution the ruling class of Zanzibaris
ceased to exist in the island, Africans were treated as equal citizens with all rights like the
of Arabs.

iii. Free education and health care to all the people with out segregation posts in government
civil service previously monopolized by Arabs or Asians were opened up to Africans; and
the wages of the lowest-paid workers were increased sometimes as much as three times.

iv. Scientific socialism was introduced in Zanzibar which brought some social development.
The revolutionary council turned to communist countries particularly to East Germany and
China. Problem of development were tackled more vigorously than they had been under the
easy regime of British.

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 v. The formation of parastatal enterprises e.g., The peoples’ Bank of Zanzibar, The state fuel
and power corporation, BIZANJE-The corporation which had the responsibility of
managing the import trade and distribution of essential commodities such as food textile
building materials and other capital and commerce goods, The Zanzibar state trading
corporation [ZSTCJ which had the responsibility of managing the export trade in cloves,
coconuts, and other primary products.

vi. It brought majority rule in Zanzibar where by the majority Africans were able to take over
the political control of the island.

vii. Racial segregation ended and brought unity to all the masses without any sort of
segregation.

COLONIAL DOMINATION AND THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE NAMIBIA.

Namibia then called South West Africa was first colonized by Germany up to the end of first world
war after which it was handed over to South Africa from 1919 at the Versailles Treaty peace treaty
.As it happened in many other Africans countries the inhabitants of Namibia ware mainly; Nama,
Herero, and Ovambo did not accept foreign domination so easily. The Nama and Herero were
farmers they resisted against German in 1904 -7 but even before that, they did not succeed
because of internal disunity.

After world war one Namibia remained officially united nation Trust territory, though occupied
and ruled by South Africa ever since the southern army had conquered the Germany colonialist in
1915. But South African government reused refused to honor terms of the trust and prepare the
country for independence. It treated largely-desert territory of Namibia (South West Africa) as a
fifth province of South Africa and applied to her people all oppressive legislation of apartheid.

Politically characterized movements were first observed in 1957 when Harman Taivo Jo Tolvo
from the Ovambo land People Organization [O.P.O]. It was aimed at achieving better working
conditions; it gave rise to the beginning of more powerful and political conscious party. The
South-West African peoples’ organization [S.W.A.P.O] In 1960 SWAPO began a long campaign
of guerilla activities against the occupying forces of South Africa. Since then SWAPO have been
playing a big role up to the attainment of independence in 1990 after three decades of struggle.

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WHY DID IT TAKE LONG FOR SWAPO TO SUCCEED UNLIKE OTHER POLITICAL
PARTIES IN AFRICA SUCH AS TANU, MPLA, UPC?
i. Imperialists’ interest over the country e.g. Namibia was the chief producer of uranium as
the important source of nuclear fuel, Namibia was made a home of capitalist investment of
the big powers Britain and U.S.A. South Africa based mining companies systematically
stripped the country of its vast natural minerals resources, that were very significant in
developing the capitalist nations of Europe and USA, thus reluctance in granting
independence to Namibia.

ii. The question of SWAPO liberation movement organizing its guerrilla warfare from exile
[under Sam Nujoma] has been another problem for the independence of the nation it
brought disunity among the masses which delayed the struggle of independence in
Namibia.

iii. The presence of Cuban troops in Angola to keep peace. South Africa used that as an excuse
to continue staying in Namibia that she could not withdrew her troops from Namibia due to
the threats of Cuban troops that may take over Namibia to a communist state, so South
Africa has been insisting on conducting election under her own supervision.

iv. The presence of opposition parties such as the Turnholla Democratic alliance whose
members were whites and their African puppets, were a big obstacle in the path of
independence for Namibia.

v. U.N weakness to force South Africa out of Namibia, as it was always differed by VETO
power of 5 permanent members like USA, Britain and France. Most of them had economic
interests in the colony.

vi. Nature an4 character of colonialism in Namibia. It was under Germany and then latter
alone given to British South Africa under the supervision of United Nations This made it
difficult for the nationalist to have consistency in their struggle.

vii. Tribalism, there was no effective strong political party for Africans that would champion
peaceful means.

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viii. Failure of imperialist powers to observe the united nations economic sanctions against the
illegal white minority rule led by Ian Smith.

LIBERATION IN SOUTH AFRICA.

Freedom and democracy in South Africa are the impact of life that has been fought for by Africans
inside and outside South Africa for long time. However the attainment of freedom in South Africa
had remained at a remote like most of the colonies that had white settlers the road to independence
was not all smooth.

In South Africa white settlers were 4 million by 1970 who ruled the majority blacks who were 20
million and the mixed race of the Asian race origin were 2 million, the black majority were not
allowed to vote by 1936 for fear of dominating political aspect of South Africa South Africa was
the most powerful nation in the continent economically socially and politically that strength
originated from mineral revolution of 1 87Oand 1 880s given that prosperity the white minority
were more than ready not to let the black major to take over power.
In 1 950s they established an apartheid policy which literally mean separateness that would keep
the black away from dominance of South African politics they remained in reserves known as
Bantustan they were only free when serving white in urban centre , the policy reduced the life style
of the African blacks.

The population registration act of 1950 registered people according to their race dividing them
basically into white and non white under the old imperial principle of divide ad rule non white
were sub divided into colored (mixed race) Indians who came as contractors in the sugar plantation
at Natal in the l9 century and the ‘Bantu’ who were the black majority population. The blacks were
then further divided into further sub groups basing on ethnic origin Zulu, Xhosa, Tswana, Venda,
Sotho and so on this was deliberate move to weaken African unity and destroy any African
national sense of nationalism, it kept each ethnic group separate from another this act formed the
corner stone of the apartheid policy affecting all the life style of the black people banning sexual
relation among the races and prohibiting them from public places like bus parks, schools, hospitals,
etc all black African trade unions activity were banned thus enabling the white to exploit the
African as they wished this was an economic system to keep the black at the position of permanent
subordinate of low-paid working class.

Such state of affair provided stimulus to African protest and resistance in South Africa. There was
a wave of resistance to new pass laws, a number of spontaneous strikes boycotts and
59
demonstrations in the towns the ANC (African national congress) which had been formed in 1912
by the educated African elites of teachers’ clerks, and lawyers was boosted by the new leader of
Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo and Trade unionist Walter Sisulu. In 1952 ANC staged a
‘defiance campaign’ deliberately defying apartheid segregationist laws and refusing to carry
passes.

On 21 march 1 960 police opened fire on un armed black demonstrators killing 69 and wounding
180 most of them short behind as they fled, this was known as the Sharpeville massacre which
marked a new phase in the struggle for freedom. Fearing a revolution the government swiftly
banned the ANC party and many members of the party were arrested and jailed. The ANC resorted
to the use of armed struggle as the way forward.

WHY SOUTH AFRICA TOOK LONG TO GAIN HER INDEPENDENCE

i. The presence of imperialist investment in South Africa had continues cooperation between
big capitalist powers ever since which included powers like Dutch and British with the
apartheid regime of South Africa so they were not willing to grant independence to African
easily.

ii. Lack of unity among the nationalist organization .There were many movements working
independently, they included the Indian National Congress [IAC], African people
organization [APO], Pan African Congress [PAC] UMSA, ANO, and Inkatha Freedom
Movement. These except ANC were less radical they could not bring any impact but rather
weakened the strength of the struggle

iii. South Africa was the country that was recognized by UN to be independent country from
1980. But the fact was that because both political and economic power were in the hands
of whites ,worse still there was apartheid that did not able the African excess to economic
power the blacks were denied democracy

iv. All liberation movements like ANC and PAC were declared illegal and banned in South
Africa by the apartheid regime of the white. The killing of prominent political activities
like mass killing in Sharpeville and the imprisonment of Nelson Mandela also made the
struggle for independence to delay.

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 v. Methods of struggle were weak initially, until 1960s ANC and PAC were using non violent
based on Mahatma Gandhi philosophy e.g. demonstrations petition strikes and boycotts .It
was until 1960 after the Sharpeville massacre that ANC formed UMKONTO WE SIZWE
meaning the spear of the nation and adopted violence.

vi. The big powers of western Europe feared that an independent south Africa may fall in the
hands of Russia a communist nation this was because Mozambique and Angola who ere
geographically near South Africa had the elements of communism opposed to the situation.
Thus the struggle lacked international support of the big capitalist countries.

vii. On addition to the above the constant indiscriminant attacks earned out by the racist white
regime of South Africa destabilized the activities of national struggle of the black Africans,
their major purpose was to kill the nationalists of the blacks and destroy their political
parties.

viii. Economic constraints most of the black African were pushed in the reserves of Bantustan
were economic activity were very hard the land was barren no infrastructures to facilitate
the activities of the movement thus it took long to achieve their independence.

ix. Some capitalist countries who were pro the racist regime of south Africa denied economic
aid to front line states i.e. those states that were ready to support the struggle of liberation
in South Africa which included Tanzania Kenya Zimbabwe among others.

x. The possession of Namibia by South Africa racist regime, which was used by her as naval
base and harbored the American French and British military men, hindered the military
wing of the nationalistic movement.

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN THE SETTLER PORTUGUESE

DOMINATED COLONIES.
Portugal had three colonies in Africa which included; Angola, Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde, and
Mozambique. These countries attained their independence late as compared to other African
countries; the Portuguese government was therefore determined not to give independence to these
nations because were seen as vital props to the Portuguese economy.

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Also the Africans of the Portuguese colonies were equally determined to win there independence
thus prolonged guerrilla struggle began throughout the Portuguese colonies the lead was taken by a
smallest colony of Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde, led by Amilcar Cabral, he founded the
(P.I.G.C) portido africano, da independence da guinea Cabo Verde in 1956 but He was
assassinated in January 1976 only two years after the independence of 1974.

In Angola Agustino Neto led guerrilla struggle against the Portuguese after founding M.P.L.A
(Movemento popular de libertagao de Angola) in December 1956 in Luanda among the working
class, and were able to get there independence in 1975.

The struggle for Mozambique was led by Eduardo Mondlane and his deputy Samora Machel after
founding FRELIMO (Frente de Libertacao de Mozambique) found in 1962 in the capital of
Tanzania Dar- es- salaam they declared war officially in September 1964.

WHY LATE INDEPENDENCE FOR PORTUGUESE COLONIES?

i. Poor/weak economic base of Portugal. She was the poorest country among the colonialists,
she had not Under gone industrial revolution, therefore she regarded the heavily depended
on her colonies for economic prosperity at home that is why she was very reluctant at
granting independence to her colonies, which she viewed like committing economic suicide

ii. The Portugal colonial policy Portugal regarded her colonies s overseas provinces since
Portugal was a small nation, she was very interested to acquiring more oversea land
whereby they could stay forever and obtains raw materials exploit market for their goods
and settlement of surplus population.

iii. Settlers opposed the granting of independence to the Africans .The number of settlers were
in big in numbers in many Portuguese colonies with high investment in agriculture and
other economic ventures in the colonies. They therefore feared economic losses once the
black majority takes over power

iv. The Portuguese exploited the Africa maximally as to support their economy in the metro
pole such as, imposed harsh taxes like dog, tax poll tax, this was great economically to
them that’s why they hesitated to grant independence to the African early like other
European nation.

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 v. Land alienation .All African fertile land was taken and known as crown land, it was
confiscated for the construction of infrastructures, establishment of colonial economies
establishment of white plantation, and this was too precious to them to give independence
to the African easily.

vi. Mass illiteracy. Many Portuguese were illiterate and hence conservative and ignorant of
what was taking place outside world .Other European nations had changed their way of
exploitation to neo-colonialism. Since Portuguese were short sighted they never dreamt of
granting independence to their colonies soon, such situation prompted the use of armed
struggle for the African as a means to get their independence.

WHY WAS IT NECESSARY FOR THE NATIONALISTS TO FIGHT FOR MAJORITY

RULE THROUGH ARMED STRUGGLE IN ZIMBABWE
Zimbabwe was a British settler colony. The constitutional of 1923 gave special political power to
the minority white settlers at the expense of the Africans majority .Throughout the colonial period
the minority white settlers used various efforts to establish political dominance, e.g. Creation of
central African federation 1953 to 1963 with the intention of placing Malawi and Zambia under
political and control of white minority settlers of Zimbabwe to hinder nationalism.

In November 1965 Ian Smith, leader of new white Rhodesia front party, a unilateral declaration of
independence (UDI).He thereby illegally declared white-ruled Rhodesia to be independent state,
free from any British colonial control. The British government protested but little effective action
was taken to stop it. It was clear to the leaders of ZANU that their, commitment to armed struggle
was indeed the only way forward.

The international community declared a policy of economic sanctions against the illegal Smith
regime. But South Africa and Portugal colonies like Mozambique ignored the instruction and
continued to trade with Zimbabwe even British multinational oil companies secretly continued to
trade with Rhodesia.

WHY LIBERATION CAME THROUGH GUN?

i. Land alienation by the British colonialist that were given to the white settlers and the
African remained with totally nothing for there live hood apart from supplying cheap -labor
in the white settler plantations

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 ii. Zimbabwe whites declared U.D.I 1965 by Ian Smith this left the black majority with no any
other alternative apart from using armed struggle.

iii. Forced labor to work in the white plantation this humiliated the African very much that
made them to use armed forces to fight it.

iv. Richness of Zimbabwe, especially in minerals and rich agricultural land which attracted
whites and made them not willing to grant independence to the African, thus application of
armed struggle.

v. Failure of whites to agree to the peaceful means, to grant independence to the African.

vi. Taxation also prompted the black majority to use force as the way to stop the excessive
taxation system of the colonialists.

vii. Imperialist powers supported the whites’ minority over the black majority.

viii. Tribalism, there was no effective strong political party for Africans that would champion
peaceful means.

ix. Failure of imperialist powers to observe the united nations economic sanctions against the
illegal white minority rule led by Ian Smith.

LIBERATION THROUGH ARMED FORCES IN KENYA.

The struggle for independence in Kenya after the Second World War was difficult. All peaceful
attempts and diplomatic methods had failed to regain their alienated land .Attempts by the young
kikuyu associations had all failed. British thinking about its colonial policy in Kenya was
complicated further by the presence of settlers, it considered that some alternative should be found
to the normal one-man one-vote democracy; if not the white settlers were not sure of their future in
case the majority African take political power, the white settlers suggested multiracial type of
constitution.

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No doubt that the kikuyu people had exceptional grievance to strike a rebellion at that particular
time, one of the major reason for that was the fact that their number had grown steadily throughout
the colonial period and yet their land into which they would have expanded on was occupied by
settlers.

In face of land shortage large number of Kikuyu was driven to seek inadequately paid jobs in
towns or else in European farms. In towns many were unemployed and took to living by crime.
These poverty stricken and land-hungry people looked with understandable envy and resentment
upon the settlers

This led to the outbreak of MAUMAU which was guerilla warfare 1951 .It started with the murder
of few British farmers their cattle were mutilated and doing other acts of violence. All these act of
violence were intended to instill such terror into the settler community that most would leave the
country. The colonial government responded by arresting Jomo Kinyatta and other well-known
Kikuyu leaders. They were charged for organizing the revolts and condemned to long terms of
imprisonment.

The absence of Kinyatta from the scene did not affect the resistance, the Mau-Mau remained active
and resorted to impenetrable bases in mountain Kenya and Nyandarua range. From these forests
they ventured forth in small bands in the dead of night to swoop on outlying farms, to attack the
soldiers who had been sent against them, and very frequently to take bloody reprisals against
fellow Kikuyu suspected of co-operating with the colonial government. At the end of 1955 the
back of the uprising had been broken at the cost of 20 million pounds and some hundred British
lives.

CAUSES OF MAU - MAU.

i. Taxation, land alienation and forced labor annoyed Africans this was seen as total
humiliation of the white against the Africa blacks. Who became squatters on their own land
most of them ended up going in urban centers were they were unemployed and living on
crimes

ii. Missionary interference in kikuyu traditions such as female genital mutilation, and
indoctrination of western values like religion, education. While condemning the African
traditions and culture as satanic practice that are not permitted to God

65
 iii. Depriving Africans the right to grow cash crops, which only the white settlers were given
the monopoly role to grow and market such cash crops leaving African with to provide
cheap and V manual labor in European plantations.

iv. The role of the returned soldiers who could not find jobs which they were promised when
they were taken in the Second World War.

v. The presence of Kenya setters who thought Kenya was their .permanent territory. Were not
willing to let Kenya go into the hands of the black African political leaders, such sentiment
prompted the Kikuyu people to up guns
Kenya eventually got her independence in l963 under the leadership of Jomo Kenyatta of KANU,
becoming the last country in East Africa to get her independence. KANU provided a country with
the ruling group of great ability. Within a year of independence the opposition party KADU had
gone into voluntary dissolution, its members deciding either to retire from politics or to join the
ruling ranks.

But it proved impossible to maintain the structure of one party-state. In 1966 Ogiga Odinga after
Kenyatta the most powerful politician broke with his old associate and formed a new political
party the Kenya peoples’ union. He opposed Kikuyu domination in the politics, him being Luo
many his followers were his tribesmen. He also opposed KANU ideological approach of handling
the Kenyan problems. He favored the radical approach.

In sharp contrast to situation in Tanzania the Kenya government policy had encouraged the growth
of a class of local capitalists whose new acquired wealthy contrasted sharply with the poverty of
the high growing unemployed urban population. That was-the starting point of Kenyan income
inequality.

GENERAL PROBLEMS FACED DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN

AFRICA
i. The unwillingness of the colonial power to grant independence. Some European nations
came in Africa to stay for ever and regarded their African colonies as oversea provinces,
thus they were very reluctant to grant independence this was mostly on Portuguese colonies
like Mozambique, Angola.

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 ii. The colonial state apparatus ware very oppressive and coercive to the nationalistic
movements in many Africa nations these included colonial army, police and
judicially/prison which were put in place to facilitate colonial production, e.g. in 1958
Nyerere was arrested, Kenyatta was also arrested in I954, Mutesa of Buganda was exiled to
Britain.

iii. Also there was lack of political structures to mobilize the people to the common struggle
for independence; in rural areas most of the political parties lacked branches which would
have been used as centers to create awareness and mobilization of the masses most of the
nationalistic activities centered in urban areas.

iv. Tribalism also was a problem in for the nationalistic struggle it brought disunity and
weakened the nationalistic struggle for independence. Some tribes did not participant in
national struggle in steady they involved secessionist politics, e.g. Buganda in Uganda
which demanded for her separate independence at the expense of the entire nation of
Uganda.

v. The low level of education also affected the struggle for independence many masses in
Africa were not educated and lacked political awareness about the essence of their
independence this was a big hindrance in the path of independence since most of the
indigenous did not know the significance of the struggle.

vi. Financial problem to meet their expenditure, nationalistic movement in Africa lacked clear
source of funds since most of their members were financially sick to fund the activities of
the struggle like mobilization for support from the masses for independence.

vii. Poor infrastructure especially in up country, during the movement of the nationalistic to
mobilize support and sensitizing the masses about their aim it was very difficulty to
penetrate in other regions during rainy season like southern Tanzania, because there was no
railway roads ports etc.

viii. Internal disputes and insecurity also brought a hindrance in the way of independence e.g.
tribal wars regional imbalance

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ix. The policy of divide and rule that were established by the colonialist played a big role in
making African not united some Africans were favored while others were not cared by the
colonialist this made national struggle very difficulty.

x. A religious difference was also another problem .e.g. For Tanganyika to attain her
independence the AMNUT all Muslim national union of Tanganyika. Were not willing
Tanganyika to be given their independence until a Muslim candidate is graduated to take
over the government.

xi. The colonial tactics to divide and rule, that kept African divided were always at loggerhead
that kept them divided along tribal lines e.g. the Gandas in Uganda were favored to other
tribes that made the Ganda to be reluctant to support the struggle for independence.

68