CAPSTONE: Aerospatiale/BAC Concorde

Paul Poungsangchaun

In partial fulfillment of AERO 402

Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University
1. Introduction

System of Interest (SOI): Aerospatiale/BAC Concorde

From a very early age of 2, I had the experience of riding in my first aircraft. While I do not
remember much from that age, I had the privilege of riding in more aircraft throughout my
early childhood. During that time, I was intrigued by the idea of airplanes and the fundamentals
of getting an aircraft to fly. I can vividly remember going into the cockpit for the first time and
have the pilot “teach” me how to fly. From that moment on, I was fascinated by aerospace and
aeronautics.
Although these memories were full of positivity, in the back of my mind, I felt uneasy and
uncomfortable. As I grew, my tolerance became less, and I started to hate the idea of sitting in
an airplane for so long. I would always check the onboard flight navigation and ask my parents
“how much longer?” as most of the flights I took were 20+ hours. I wished that flights like these
could be faster.
With my passion high, I strived to enter college with the mindset of someday making flights
faster. Upon joining AERO 321, I was introduced to the topic of supersonic aircraft -- like the
Aerospatiale/BAC Concorde. The Concorde had the ability to reach a maximum speed of over
twice the speed of sound – minimizing flight time compared to the Boeing 700 series. The key
feature that distinguishes the aircraft from other commercial designs was the adjustable nose
and “ogival” wings. These kinds of designs interest me because they allowed the craft to reach a
maximum cruising speed of 2,179km (1,354mph). Sadly, the Concorde was retired in 2003.
There have not been any supersonic commercial flights since. Recently, United Airlines
indicated that it plans to bring back the supersonic aircraft with a more modern design. This
fascinates me, as one day, I would like to join and work on this project. Before being able to join
the task force, I want to learn and understand the design of the Concorde and how it allows for
greater efficiency in speed.
 2. Stakeholders & Concept of Operations (CONOPS)
Stakeholders Nature of Stakeholder interest in SOI
Passengers (Customers) Passengers may use the system of interest for way of travel
that provides speed, flexibility, comfort, and reliability.
Airport Organizations Airport organizations may use the system of interest to
(Customers) provide more planes based on customers’ needs for airport
and regional economic growth.
Pilots (Customers) Pilots may use the system of interest for training and to
obtain flight hours.
Airlines (Customer) Airlines may use the system of interest to promote their
organization by presenting a means of SST.
Travel Accommodations Travel accommodation agencies are interested in boosting
Agencies – Hotels, Motels, etc. economic growth from tourism.
(OIP)
Manufacturers (OIP) Manufacturers are interested in materials and parts needed
for production of the SST.
DOT (OIP) The DOT is interested in advancing development of civil
supersonic aircrafts
FAA (OIP) The FAA is interested in advancing development of civil
supersonic aircrafts

Concept of Operations (CONOPS):

The Aerospatiale/BAC Concorde supports the effort of the European nations to “leapfrog” the
United Stated in dominating the field of commercial aviation. The Concorde put Europe ahead of
the United States after their failed trial of the supersonic flight. The project was worked on by Air
France and British Airways to boost technological advancements and the economy for Europe.
The Aerospatiale/BAC Concorde is a supersonic transport (SST) that will primarily be used as a
commercial flight aircraft. The Concorde provides passengers with an alternate solution
compared to commercial jets like Boeing 700 series. Due to the Concorde’s unique shape and design, the
aircraft can only hold a capacity of approximately 130 passengers. The Concorde greatly differs
from other jet airliners like Boeing -- carrying 1/4 the number of passengers.
Additionally, the Concorde contains only a first-class luxurious experience with tickets normally
being around $10,000. The Concorde aims to target the upper-class community and business
personnel in quick and luxurious travel across the Atlantic. The Aerospatiale/BAC Concorde can
reach supersonic speeds. The aircraft requires engines with afterburners to accelerate to
supersonic speeds and speeds where the aircraft could liftoff and rotate. The Concorde’s
additional thrust from the afterburners assists in minimizing overall flight time. The Concorde
provides flight with speeds of approximately 1350mph (Mach 2.04). The Concorde provides the
means to help passengers get from one destination to another in a shorter amount of time. For
the Boeing 700 series, the average flight time from London to New York was about 5 hours. The
Concorde nearly halved the total amount of time of travel to 2 hours. The High-Level Operational
Concept graphic, OV-1, of the Aerospatiale/BAC Concorde is depicted in Figure 1. The figure
depicts the aircraft in its mission environment. It provides visuals of the integration of the aircraft
into its environment.
References/Credits:

AIRWAYS, Photograph by BRITISH, et al. “How Concorde Pushed the Limits – Then Pushed
Them Too Far.” National Geographic, 6 Aug. 2019,
www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/science-and-technology/2019/08/how-concorde-
pushed- limits-then-pushed-them-too-far.

“Concorde Pressurization Systems.” Heritage,

www.heritageconcorde.com/concorde- pressurization-system.

Craig Freudenrich, Ph.D. “How Concordes Work.” HowStuffWorks Science, HowStuffWorks, 27

Jan. 2020, science.howstuffworks.com/transport/flight/modern/concorde5.htm.

Eames, John D. “Concorde Operations.” Concorde Operations, 1 Sept. 1991,

www.sae.org/publications/technicalpapers/content/912161/?PC=DL2BUY.

“Stakeholders.” Airport Financing, 27 Apr. 2012,

airfundhub.wordpress.com/overview/stakeholder.

“Supersonic Flight.” Supersonic Flight | Federal Aviation Administration,

www.faa.gov/newsroom/supersonic-flight?newsId=22754.
CONOPS Graphic:

Figure 1: CONOPS Graphic for Aerospatiale/BAC Concorde

3. System Requirements Document (SRD) (20-50 reqmts)
Reqmt Requirement / Rationale
No.
SYS-001 (Functional) The system shall minimize wave drag during flight.
The fuselage shape will produce less wave drag on the aircraft.
SYS-002 (Functional) The system shall delay transonic drag rise.
The delay drag rise will assist in obtaining greater aircraft efficiency at low speeds.
SYS-003 (Functional) The system shall be a supersonic transport aircraft.
The Concorde will serve as a luxurious supersonic commercial aircraft traveling at
high speeds.
SYS-004 (Functional) The system shall have an optimized propulsion system for low bypass
ratio.
The optimization will allow for high thrust specific fuel consumption.
SYS-005 (Functional) The system shall utilize afterburners.
The afterburners within the engines produce additional thrust for supersonic speed.
SYS-006 (Functional) The system shall carry payload.
The payload weight depends on the number of passengers, baggage, and cargo.
SYS-007 (Functional) The system shall have adjustable cockpit visibility.
The pilots can adjust their field of view during landing and take-off.
SYS-008 (Functional) The system shall minimize skidding runways.
The aircraft must optimize landing at high speeds.
SYS-009 (Functional) The system shall dissipate heat.
The heat particles from the sun and high-speed particle collision will damage the
aircraft if the heat is not dissipated.
SYS-010 (Functional) The system shall slow down air intake rushing towards the engine.
Slowing down the air intake will maximize engine performance.
SYS-011 (Functional) The system shall have an automated flight system.
This gives pilots the option of flying “hands free”, which at the time, was state of the
art.
SYS-012 (Functional) The system shall have an auto throttle system.
The auto throttle maintains high speeds despite wind or environment changes.
SYS-013 (Functional) The system shall maintain a balanced center of gravity.
The center of gravity will continuously be adjusted for aircraft stability.
SYS-014 (Functional) The system shall have emergency exits for passengers and crew
members in cases of emergency.
In the case of an emergency passengers and the crew and safely exit the aircraft.
SYS-015 (Functional) The system shall pressurize the cabin
The pressurization maintains compatible and comfortable pressure for passengers
 and in-flight crew.
SYS-016 (Functional) The system shall withstand air turbulence.
Reduce air turbulence will improve the comfort during flight.
SYS-017 (Functional) The system shall have a navigation system.
The navigation system will assist in safe flight route, taxiing, take-off, and landing.
SYS-018 (Functional) The system shall have a restricted cabin space.
The narrow fuselage only allows for 130 passengers to ride on board the system.
SYS-019 (Functional) The system shall use turbo fan engines.
The turbofan engines allow the aircraft to surpass the speed of sound.
SYS-020 (Functional) The system shall include small cabin windows.
The windows allow passengers to feel less claustrophobic.

References/Credits:
AIRWAYS, Photograph by BRITISH, et al. “How Concorde Pushed the Limits – Then Pushed Them
Too Far.” National Geographic, 6 Aug. 2019,
www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/science-and-technology/2019/08/how-concorde-
pushed-limits-then-pushed-them-too-far

“Concorde SST.” Concorde SST : Technical Specs, http://www.concordesst.com/techspec.html.

Craig Freudenrich, Ph.D. “How Concordes Work.” HowStuffWorks Science, HowStuffWorks, 27

Jan. 2020, science.howstuffworks.com/transport/flight/modern/concorde5.htm.

Maharajan, Seruvizhi. Design of Supersonic Transport. Department of Aerospace Engineering

San Jose State University, May 2014, www.sjsu.edu/ae/docs/project
thesis/Seruvizhi.Maharajan.S14.pdf.

“Nova | Supersonic Dream | Anatomy of Concorde (Non-Flash).” PBS, Public

Broadcasting Service, www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/concorde/anat-nf.html.
4. Subsystem

Subsystem Description

Environmental Control Radar cooling at the nose, cooling circuits, multiple air source
containers, and a pressurized bulkhead.
Propulsion Turbofan engine, afterburners, air intake system, fuel system,
engine controller, subsonic speed control, supersonic speed
control.
Structures Delta wings, drooped nose design, narrow fuselage, heatproof
airframe, compacted windows, emergency system.
Cockpit Controls Automatic flight control system, auto throttles, autopilot, attitude
direction indicator, datum adjust unit, warning and landing display
Fuel System Engine supply, main storage tanks, auxiliary tanks, transfer and
reserve tanks, fuel transfer, and center of gravity.
Landing Gears Antilock landing gears, front gear, main gears, tail bumper.
Ground Operations Air traffic control crew and maintenance crew.
Communication Air traffic control, antenna, and radio transmitters.

References/Credits:

Concept of Operations for Integrating Commercial ... - NASA.

https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20180000699/downloads/20180000699.pdf.

“Concorde SST.” Concorde SST : Technical Specs, http://www.concordesst.com/techspec.html.

Eames, John D. “Concorde Operations.” Https://Www.jstor.org/Stable/44548118, SAE

International, https://www-jstor-org.srv-
proxy1.library.tamu.edu/stable/pdf/4006615.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A75b3a77c40d206f08
262adc6029ad348.

“Nova | Supersonic Dream | Anatomy of Concorde (Non-Flash).” PBS, Public Broadcasting

Service, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/concorde/anat-nf.html.
5. Performance Requirements Summary (PRS)
Reqmt No. Requirement / Rationale
PERF-001 (Performance) The system shall carry approximately 31,500 gallons of fuel
during transportation.
Due to the high speeds of the Concorde, the aircraft requires a greater
amount of fuel. The amount of fuel also assists the aircraft in balancing the
C.G. as it is transferred around the wings.
PERF-002 (Performance) The system shall produce more than 38,000lbs of thrust per
engine.
The large amount of thrust produced in the engines allow the system to
achieve high speeds.
PERF-003 (Performance) The system shall have a flight range of 8,700 miles at cruise
speed.
The calculated duration allows the aircraft to travel for approximately four
hours.
PERF-004 (Performance) The system shall have a maximum cruising speed of 1350
mph (2,179 kph, or Mach 2.04)
The cruising speed allows the system to have reduce flight time between New
York and London – doubling the speed of sound.
PERF-005 (Performance) The system shall have a maximum payload of approximately
29,500lbs.
The aircraft must be optimized to carry 100-130 passengers, passenger
baggage, and additional payload.
PERF-006 (Performance) The system shall taxi at the speeds of 20 knots on straight
segments, but no more than 10 knots.
The speed on the Concorde was minimized due to jet blast considerations in
confined airport spaces.

References/Credits:
AIRWAYS, Photograph by BRITISH, et al. “How Concorde Pushed the Limits – Then Pushed Them
Too Far.” National Geographic, 6 Aug. 2019,
www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/science-and-technology/2019/08/how-concorde-
pushed-limits-then-pushed-them-too-far

“Concorde SST.” Concorde SST : Technical Specs, http://www.concordesst.com/techspec.html.

Craig Freudenrich, Ph.D. “How Concordes Work.” HowStuffWorks Science, HowStuffWorks, 27

Jan. 2020, science.howstuffworks.com/transport/flight/modern/concorde5.htm.

Maharajan, Seruvizhi. Design of Supersonic Transport. Department of Aerospace Engineering

San Jose State University, May 2014, www.sjsu.edu/ae/docs/project
 thesis/Seruvizhi.Maharajan.S14.pdf.

“Nova | Supersonic Dream | Anatomy of Concorde (Non-Flash).” PBS, Public

Broadcasting Service, www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/concorde/anat-nf.html.
 Risk Management
Safety Risks Rationale Risk Elements

Severity Probability Risk

Rating

Systematic Error

Health Crisis Unpredicted/Uncontrolled flight 10 3 30

Hijacking Potential national security risks 10 2 20

Pilot fatigue Exhaustion of pilot due to inadequate rest 7 3 21

Improper maintenance or Part failure occurs more rapidly before 10 4 40

usage required maintenance finds errors

Air traffic controller error Potential for collision with other aircraft 7 1 7
or emergency flight procedures

Hydraulics

Air & water Causes degradation and reduces 3 4 12

contamination [1] performance

Cavitation/Aeration [1] Damage to parts over time 3 6 18

Hydraulic Pump Failure Inhibits the system and can cause damage 6 2 12
or failure

FOD Degrades the valves 2 7 14

Fluid filter failure Degrades the system and can cause 4 1 4

failure

Landing Gear

Primary actuator failure Failure of the actuator results in inability 10 7 70

(unable to deploy or to retract or deploy
retract)
Actuator over center Failing to over center makes it impossible 9 2 18
failure for the landing gear to lock potentially
resulting in buckling of struts

Tire failure (burst) Takes form of a burst tire that results in 8 4 32

loss of ability to brake and compromises
steering

No tire pre-spinning Results in excessive tire wear and 4 4 16

increases potential for tire failure

Insufficient tire pressure Hard landing results in direct wear to 8 2 16

mechanical joints and wheel bearings

Brake failure Overrunning of landing strip 9 2 18

Loss of nose gear Uncontrolled landing, takeoff, and taxi 6 2 12

steering actuator direction vector

Communications

Interference Significant disruptions of 10 6 60

communications

Loss of two-way radio Unable to communicate with ground or 10 5 50

ATC

Flight Surfaces

Icing Prevents functionality 9 6 54

Surface separation Plane breaks down 10 3 30

Fatigue failure Fatigued surfaces unable to control flight 9 2 18

characteristics

Buckling Results in uncontrolled flight 9 3 27

Asymmetric flap Results in uncontrolled flight 8 6 48

deployment

Corrosion Surfaces degrade until potential for 4 7 28

failure is increased or functionality is
limited

Natural Events

Bird Strike Bird contact with engine leads to failure 10 8 80

High Winds Interfere with cruise 6 10 60

Lightning Strike Fries all of the digital components 10 1 10

Turbulence Causes uncontrolled flight 8 10 80

Crosswinds Dangerous take-off and landing 9 9 81

Low Visibility Lose sight of runway or flight 6 7 42

environment

Snow Creates oscillation in landing 7 7 49

Icing of Landing Strip Causes gliding on runway 7 7 49

Solar Flare Creates a EMP that shorts all FCS 10 4 40

systems

Propulsion [2]

Engine Seizure Engine rotor parts lock up and stop 8 2 16

turning during flight.

Fuel Exhaustion Loss of thrust and controlled flight 9 1 9

characteristics

Engine Separation Loss of primarily and secondary 10 1 10

parameters for the affected engine.

Foreign Object Debris Engine may surge and one or more fan 10 8 80
blades may fracture.

Engine Fire Fire can reach fuel resulting in 10 2 20

combustion.

Contamination of Fuel Carbon deposits, cotton waste, improper 5 4 20

fluids, etc -- lead to an oil filter clog.

Hot Starts Engine stops accelerating towards idle. 5 5 25

References

[1] “Most Common Causes of Hydraulic Systems Failure: Yorkpmh.” York PMH, 8 June 2021,
https://yorkpmh.com/resources/common-hydraulic-system-problems/.

[2] Airplane Turbofan Engine Operation and Malfunctions Basic Familiarization for Flight Crews.
Federal Aviation Administration,
https://www.faa.gov/aircraft/air_cert/design_approvals/engine_prop/media/engine_malf_repo
rt.pdf.
 6. Performance Validation (TBD)
Report (500-1000words):
The mission profile of the Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde has 9 stages that are comparable to
a jet transport mission profile. The notable difference we must consider is that the cruise will be
supersonic at an altitude of 60,000ft. Additionally, the loiter of the aircraft differs from the jet
transport mission profile as it occurs at 5,000ft rather than the cruise altitude. The 9-stage
mission profile can be depicted in Figure 1. From our airplane type, we determined that our
airplane type was 12 -- supersonic cruise. Following the equations and tables from Roskam
Airplane 1, Chapter 2, we were able to determine the WTO, WP, WF, and WE based on Mff and log-
based calculations to be 363,000lbs, 29,000lbs, 174,000lbs, and 160,000lbs. We can compare our
numerical data to the exact solution as given by Roskam based off Table 2.14 for Supersonic
Cruise Airplanes. We find that the exact solutions are as followed for WTO and WE – 389,000lbs
and 172,000lbs. Comparing the values, we notice that our numerical solution came close to our
exact solution – ranging an error percentage of less than 10%. Obviously, many assumptions and
round-off errors were made in numerically computing our data compared to Roskam’s results
that caused a discrepancy from achieving an exact solution.
As for the RF Link Budget, our system will be considered a non-comms type aircraft. We
assumed the band for our frequency is the S-Band because it is the most used band for avionics.
Upon our calculation, we realized that our gain of the transmitter was relatively high of 21.96dB.
For typical aircrafts, we would suspect that this would not be relative for the entire duration of
the cruise. However, the Concorde is a relatively big aircraft, so it could be possible that it could
support this gain.
In computing our values, many topics from the CONOPS and requirements were
considered. Due to the aircraft being a supersonic transport aircraft, dimensional constraints were
implemented such that the aircraft can have greater stability and control during high speeds. As
result, the Concorde carried less passengers compared to transport jets of around 90-130
passengers. Despite the lesser number of passengers, the one key feature that the Concorde
provided was a luxury flight – providing a first-class experience for all passenger while traveling at
supersonic speeds. Resultingly, when calculating the payload weight, we will realize that our
overall weight is less than a commercial jet like the Boeing 747. In addition, no military weight was
accounted for in our process as the Concorde was primarily used as a commercial aircraft.
In conclusion, the Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde was a revolutionary aircraft at its time that
brought on many interesting discoveries about future avionics. While working on this project,
many points were discovered in why the aircraft was discontinued. The fault of the advancing
aircraft all came down to its safety constraints in take-off and landing, pricing to build and ride the
aircraft, fuel efficiency, and most the notable feature… the supersonic boom that causes noise
disturbances in the local community. Despite these failures, the Concorde excelled in commercial
airline expectations and is now in the process of being revived to meet greater standards than
how it was in its time.

More information on assumptions, used of equations, and the process of solving can be
seen in the Equations and Reference section.
 Equations and Reference
Section 0: Mission Profile
Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde: Airplane Type – 12 (Because the Concorde is an SST)

Figure 1: Concorde Mission Profile

Coefficient: Table 2.2
• Cruise
o L/D = 4-6 cj = 0.7-1.5 cp & np = DNE (1)
• Loiter
o L/D = 7-9 cj = 0.6-0.8 cp & np = DNE (2)
Because most supersonic aircrafts are military jets, we will assume the minimum values of the
given range for cj and L/D. These values will be used in the calculation of our mass fraction.

Section 1: Payload (WP)

Assume a passenger is 175 lb. per person and will carry 40 lb. of luggage. Concorde can carry a
max of 128 passengers and 6 cabin crew members our payload can be approximated.

WCrew+Passengers = (128+6) *175 (3)

WCargo = (128+6) *40 (4)
WMilitary = 0 (5)
WP = WCrew+Passengers + WCargo + WMilitary = 29,000lbs (6)

Section 2: Mission Fuel

Equation for Fuel:
WF = WFused + WFres (7)
Roskam table for the mission fuel fraction equation.
Mff = (W1 /WTO )π(Wi /Wi+1) for i =1 to i=7 (8)

Roskam’s Airplane 1 Table 2.1:

W1/ WTO = 0.990 (Engine Start and warm up) (9)
W2/ W1 = 0.995 (Taxi) (10)
W3/ W2 = 0.995 (Take-off) (11)
W4/ W3 = 0.992 (Climb) (12)
Cruise: Equation 2.10.
 Rcr = (V/cj)cr(L/D)crln(W4/ W5) (13)
4143mi = (1350mph/0.7)(4)ln(W4/ W5) (14)
W5/ W4 = 1/exp((4143mi*0.7)/(4*1350mph) (15)
W5/ W4 = 0.585 (16)
Descent: Table 2.1
W6/ W5 = 0.985 (17)
We will assume the loiter endurance is around ½ hour (30 mins). Use Equation 2.12.
Eltr = (1/cj)ltr(L/D)crln(W7/ W6) (18)
0.5hr = (1/0.6)ltr(8)ltrln(W7/ W6) (19)
W7/ W6 = 1/exp((0.5hr*0.6)/8 (20)
W7/ W6 = 0.958
Roskam’s Airplane 1 Table 2.1:
W8/ W7 = 0.985 (Approach) (21)
W9/ W8 = 0.992 (Landing, Taxi, Shutdown) (22)
Mff = (W9 W8 W7 W6 W5 W4 W3 W2 W1)/ (W8 W7 W6 W5 W4 W3 W2 W1 WTO) = 0.524 (23)

Compared to documentation of the fuel ratio for the Concorde, our data came relatively close to
the actual fuel fraction. The fuel fraction of the Concorde is documented as 0.51. This gives us an
error of approximately 2.67%.

Section 3: Take-off Weight (WTO)

Take-Off Weight: Equation 2.24
Log10(WTO) = A + Blog10(CWTO - D) (24)

Constants: Table 2.15

A = 0.4221 (25)
B = 0.9876 (26)

Assume Mtfo = 0.005 and neglect Mres (Follow Example 2.6.3 for Transport Jet)
C = {1 – (1 + Mres ) (1 - Mff ) - Mtfo } (28)
C = {1 – (1 – 0.524 ) - 0.005 } (29)
C = 0.519 (30)
Assume Wp(exp) = 0.
D = (WPL + Wcrew) + Wp(exp)} = 29,000lb (31)

Substituting into: Equation 2.24:

WTO = 363,000lb. (32)

Step 4: Empty Weight (WE)

Take-Off Weight: Equation 2.28

Log10(WTO) = A + Blog10(WE ) (33)

Log10(363,000lb) = 0.4221 + 0.9876log10(WE ) (34)
WE = 160,000lb (35)
Section 5: Fuel Weight (WF)

WF = WTO – WE – WPL (36)

WF = 363,000lbs – 160,000lbs – 29,000lbs (37)
WF =174,000lbs (38)

Section 6: Non-Comms-Centric SOI

Most data collections were pulled from the 05-3-Comms-Selva PDF.
Known Variables:
Rb = 1Mbps = 100000 bps. (40)
R = 35786000 m (41)
K = 1.3806452 x 10^-23 m^2 kg/ (s^2 K) (42)
speed of light ( c ) = 299,792,458 m/s (43)
Gr = 3.98 x 10^4 (receiver gain (46 dB), satellite) (44)
Pt = 1 (Assumed) (45)
Eb/Nomin = 18.197 (46)
Frequency and Wavelength:
Assuming S-band our frequency
f = 3 GHz (47)
lambda = c/f (48)
Lambda = 0.0999 m (49)
Losses:
Considering the following plot, we can find our losses.

Figure 2: Losses Graphs

L = LrLaLl… (50)
L = 0.5 (losses (-3 dB)) (51)
Temperature:

Figure 3: Temperature Table

Ts = TA + To(F-1) (52)
Ts = Ta + To(F-1)/Ll + To(1-Ll)/Ll (53)
Ts = 614K (system noise temperature) (54)

Plugging in our value for the final equation we achieve the following:

Eb/No = PtGtGrL(Lambda^2)/((4R*pi)^2 kTsRb) > Eb/Nomin (55)

Gt = 27.6dB (56)
Sources:
AIRWAYS, Photograph by BRITISH, et al. “How Concorde Pushed the Limits – Then Pushed Them
Too Far.” National Geographic, 6 Aug. 2019,
www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/science-and-technology/2019/08/how-concorde-
pushed-limits-then-pushed-them-too-far

“Celebrating Concorde: History and Heritage: British Airways.” History and Heritage | British
Airways, https://www.britishairways.com/en-us/information/about-ba/history-and-
heritage/celebrating-concorde.

“Concorde Plane.” Modern Airliners, 3 May 2020, https://modernairliners.com/concorde-plane/.

“Concorde SST.” Concorde SST : Technical Specs, http://www.concordesst.com/techspec.html.

“Fuel Fraction.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 26 May 2020,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_fraction#:~:text=The%20Concorde%20supersonic%20tra
nsport%20had%20a%20fuel%20fraction%20of%2051%25.

“Nova | Supersonic Dream | Anatomy of Concorde (Non-Flash).” PBS, Public

Broadcasting Service, www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/concorde/anat-nf.html.

(PDF) Technical Viability and ... - Researchgate.net.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325963601_Technical_Viability_and_Operation
al_Assessment_of_a_Supersonic_Business_Jet.

Roskam, Jan. Airplane Design: Preliminary Sizing of Airplanes. DAR Corporation, 1997.

Selva, Daniel, and Brad Worsham. “AERO401-05-3-Comms-Selva (Fall'21 Communication

Systems).” Texas A&M Aerospace Department, 29 Sept. 2021.