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 IOP Publishing

Classical Electrodynamics
Problems with solutions
Konstantin K Likharev

Chapter 1
Electric charge interaction

Problem 1.1. Calculate the electric field created by a thin, long, straight filament,
electrically charged with a constant linear density λ, using two approaches:

(i) directly from the Coulomb law, and

(ii) using the Gauss law.

Solutions:

(i) From the translational and axial symmetries of the problem, it is clear that E(r) =
nρE(ρ), where ρ is the shortest distance from the observation point to the filament1.
Let us select the plane of drawing so that it contains both the filament and the
observation point, and take the line of the filament for axis z (see the figure below).

Then, according to the linear superposition principle, the field’s magnitude may
be calculated as
z=+∞ z=+∞ z=+∞
ρ
E (ρ ) = ∫z=−∞ dEρ = ∫z=−∞ dE cos θ = ∫z=−∞ dE
(ρ + z 2 )
2 1/2
,

1
I regret using the same letter ( ρ) as for the charge density per unit volume (used in the lecture notes, but not in
this problem), but both notations are traditional. The difference between these notions will be always very clear
from the context.

doi:10.1088/978-0-7503-1407-7ch1 1-1 ª Konstantin K Likharev 2018

 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

where dE is the magnitude of the elementary contribution to the field, created by a

small segment dz of the filament, with electric charge λdz. According to Eq. (1.7) of
the lecture notes,
1 1
dE = λdz ,
4πε0 ρ + z 2
2

so that the total field

+∞ +∞
λρ dz λ dξ λ
E (ρ ) =
4πε0
∫−∞ 2 2 3/2
(ρ + z )
≡
2πε0ρ
∫0 2 3/2
(1 + ξ )
=
2πε0ρ
. ( *)

For the last transition, I have used the well-known value (1) of this table integral—
see, e.g. Eq. (A.32b)2.

(ii) Taking a round cylinder of radius ρ and length l with its axis on the filament for
the Gaussian volume, we ensure that on its round walls the electric field E is
constant and perpendicular to the volume boundary, while the field flux through the
cylinder’s ‘lids’ is zero. As a result, Eq. (1.16) yields
λl
2πρlE = ,
ε0
immediately giving the same result (*).

We see that for this highly symmetric problem both solution ways are straightfor-
ward, but the Gauss law makes the calculations easier.

Problem 1.2. Two thin, straight parallel filaments, separated by distance ρ, carry equal
and opposite uniformly distributed charges with a linear density λ—see the figure below.
Calculate the electrostatic force (per unit length) of the Coulomb interaction between the
wires. Compare the result with the Coulomb law for the force between the point charges.

Solution: Using the result (*) of problem 1.1, we obtain

F qE ( ρ) λ2
= = λE ( ρ ) = .
l l 2πε0ρ
Note that the force drops with distance as 1/ρ, rather than as 1/r2 for point charges.
Such different scaling of interaction in systems of different dimensionality is very
typical for physics at large.

2
Actually, this integral may be easily worked out by substitution ξ ≡ tan φ, giving dξ = dφ/cos2φ = dφ (1 +
tan2φ) = dφ (1 + ξ2), so that dξ/(1 + ξ2)3/2 = dφ/(1 + ξ2)1/2 = cos φ dφ = d(sin φ).

1-2
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

Problem 1.3. A sphere of radius R, whose volume had been charged with a constant
density ρ, is split with a very narrow, planar gap passing through its center.
Calculate the force of mutual repulsion of the resulting two hemispheres.

Solution: Since the gap is very narrow, we may neglect its effect on the distribution of
the electric field E inside the sphere, and use Eq. (1.22) of the lecture notes:
ρr
E(r) = nrE (r ), with E (r ) = ,
3ε0
where r is the distance of the observation point from the sphere’s center O—see the
figure above. Acting on an elementary volume dV = d3r of the sphere’s material,
with the elementary charge dQ = ρd3r, this electric field produces a radially directed
force of magnitude
ρr 3 ρ 2r 3
dF = E (r )dQ = ρd r ≡ d r.
3ε 0 3ε 0
Due to the axial symmetry of the problem, the net (repulsive) Coulomb force F
acting on each hemisphere has to be normal to the gap—in the figure above, directed
along the axis z. Hence only the z-component of the elementary force dF,
ρ 2r
dFz = dF cos θ = cos θ d 3r ,
3ε0
where θ is the polar angle of the radius-vector r of the elementary volume d3r (see the
figure above), can contribute to the net force F. As a result, we may use the standard
spherical coordinates, with the origin in the sphere’s center, to calculate the net force
magnitude as
2 2π π /2 R
ρ 2 1 R4
F = Fz = ∫z>0 dFz = 3ρε0 ∫0 dφ ∫0 cos θ sin θ dθ ∫0 r 3dr = 2π
3ε0 2 4
π ρ2 R 4
= .
12 ε0
Another way to represent this result is to express it via the charge Q = (2π/3)R3ρ of
each hemisphere:
1 3 Q2 1 Q2
F= ≡ ,
4πε0 4 R2 4πε0 R ef2

1-3
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

showing that the effective distance of their interaction (as point charges) is Ref =
(2/√3)R ≈ 1.16 R.
One may wonder whether the above calculation properly excludes the effect of the
electric field of a hemisphere on itself, since the field we have used is evidently
produced by the sphere as a whole. The proper response to this concern is that due to
Newton’s second law, the internal forces between elementary charges of the same
hemisphere compensate each other, so that these forces are automatically canceled
at the integration over the hemisphere’s volume:

∫z>0 ρEfulld 3r = ∫z>0 ρ(Eother + Eself )d 3r = ∫z>0 ρEother d 3r + 0 = ∫z>0 ρEotherd 3r = F.

Problem 1.4. A thin spherical shell of radius R, which had been charged with a constant
areal density σ, is split into two equal halves by a very narrow, planar cut passing
through the sphere’s center. Calculate the force of electrostatic repulsion between the
resulting hemispheric shells, and compare the result with that of the previous problem.

Solution: A thin cut does not alter substantially the electric field distribution, so it
has the same radial direction and spherically symmetric distribution, E(r) = nrE(r),
as for the uncut shell. The function E(r) may be readily found using the Gauss law
applied to spheres with r < R and r > R:
⎧ 0, for r < R ,
E (r ) = ⎨ 2
⎩ σR / ε0r 2 , for R < r .
Hence the average field applied to the shell equals3
E (R − 0) + E (R + 0) σ
E = = ,
2 2ε 0
providing distributed normal forces F, with the following density (force per unit area):
dF dQ σ2
= E = σE = .
dA dA 2ε0
Due to the axial symmetry of the problem, only the ‘vertical’ component
(meaning the direction perpendicular to the cut plane—see the figure above) of

3
A strict proof of the correctness of such averaging will be given in the model solution of problem 2.1.

1-4
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

these elementary forces contribute to the total force F acting on each hemisphere—
for example the top one:
⎛ ⎞
F= ∫hemisphere ⎜⎝ ddAF ⎟⎠ d 2r = ∫hemisphere dF
dA
cos θ d 2r
z
( *)
2π π /2
σ2 π σ 2R2
= ∫0 dφ ∫0 2ε0
cos θ R2 sin θ dθ =
2 ε0
.

In order to compare this result with the solution of the previous problem, let us
assume that the radius R and the total charge Q of each hemisphere are the same in
both cases:
2π 3
2πR2σ = R ρ = Q.
3
In this notation, Eq. (*) may be rewritten as
1 1 Q2 1 Q2
F= ≡ , with R ef = 2 R ≈ 1.41R ,
4πε0 2 R2 4πε0 R ef2

while for the case of volume-distributed charge, the similarly defined effective distance
equals (2/√3)R ≈ 1.16 R. This difference is natural, because in the case of thin
hemisphere shells, the elementary charges are, on the average, farther from each other.

Problem 1.5. Calculate the distribution of the electrostatic potential created by a

straight, thin filament of finite length 2 l, charged with a constant linear density λ, and
explore the result in the limits of very small and very large distances from the filament.

Solution: Due to the limited (axial) symmetry of the problem, applying the Gauss
law to it is not very productive, so let us resort to direct summation (actually,
integration) of component charge fields. Let us select the reference frame so that the
filament coincides with segment [−l, +l] of axis z, and the observation point r has
Cartesian coordinates {ρ, 0, z}—see the figure above. Then the field source point rʹ
has coordinates {0, 0, zʹ}, and Eq. (1.38) of the lecture notes, integrated across the
filament cross-section, reads
+l +l
λ dz′ λ dz′
ϕ(r) =
4πε0
∫−l r − r′
=
4πε0
∫−l [(z − z′)2 + ρ 2 ] 1/2
.

1-5
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

Introducing the new, dimensionless variable ξ ≡ (zʹ − z)/ρ, we may reduce the
integral to the table one—see, e.g. Eq. (A.29a):
(+l −z )/ρ
λ dξ λ (+l −z )/ρ
ϕ(r) =
4πε0
∫(−l −z )/ρ
( ξ 2
+ 1 )
1/2
=
4πε 0
ln (ξ 2 + 1)1/2 + ξ
(−l −z )/ρ

λ [(l − z )2 + ρ 2 ] 1/2 + (l − z )
= ln .
4πε0 [(l + z )2 + ρ 2 ] 1/2 − (l + z )
For the observation points very close to the filament, and not very close to any of
its ends, the denominator of the fraction becomes much smaller than its nominator.
Expanding the latter in the small parameter ρ/(l + z), and keeping only the leading
term, we obtain the result following from the solution of problem 1.1:

λ 2(l − z ) λ 4(l 2 − z 2 ) λ
ϕ(r) ≈ ln 2 = ln =− ln ρ + const,
4πε0 ρ /2(l + z ) 4πε0 ρ2 2πε0

for z < l , and ρ ≪ l , l − z .

On the other hand, at large distances from the filament the nominator and
denominator of the fraction become very close to each other. Expanding both
expressions in the Taylor series in the small parameter l/r, where r ≡ (z2 + ρ2)1/2 is the
distance from filament’s middle point, in the first non-vanishing approximation we
obtain
λ 1 + l /r λ ⎛ 2l ⎞ λ 2l
ϕ(r) ≈ ln ≈ ln ⎜1 + ⎟ ≈ , for r ≫ l ,
4πε0 1 − l /r 4πε0 ⎝ r ⎠ 4πε0 r

i.e. just Eq. (1.35) for a point charge q = 2lλ.

Problem 1.6. A thin plane sheet, perhaps of an irregular shape, carries electric
charge with a constant areal density σ.
(i) Express the electric field’s component normal to the plane, at a certain distance
from it, via the solid angle Ω at which the sheet is visible from the observation point.
(ii) Use the result to calculate the field in the center of a cube, with one face charged
with constant density σ.

1-6
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

Solutions:

(i) Let us place the coordinate origin 0 at the charged plane’s point that is closest to
the field observation point (at distance z from the plane)—see the figure above.
Then, according to Eq. (1.7) of the lecture notes, the normal (z-) component of the
electric field component induced by charge element dQ = σd2ρ (where ρ is the 2D
radius-vector within the plane) equals

1 dQ σ d 2ρ
dEz = dE cos θ = cos θ = cos θ , (*)
4πε0 r 2 4πε0 r 2

where r = (ρ2 + z2)1/2 is the distance from the elementary area d2ρ and the
observation point, and cos θ = z/r. But as the figure above shows, the product
d2ρ cos θ equals d2ρ′—the projection of the elementary area d2ρ on the plane normal
to the vector r. In turn, the ratio d2ρ′/r2 is just dΩ—the solid angle at which the
elementary area d2ρ is visible from the field measurement point4. As a result,
Eq. (*) may be rewritten simply as
σ
dEz = d Ω,
4πε0
and its integration over the charged sheet yields the requested result:
σ
Ez = Ω. (**)
4πε0

(ii) Since all six faces of a cube are visible from its center at equal angles Ω, and their
sum constitutes the full solid angle 4π, each Ω is equal to 4π/6, and Eq. (**) yields
σ 4π σ
Ez = ≡ .
4πε0 6 6ε0
Due to the evident symmetry of the system, the field cannot have other Cartesian
components, so that we may rewrite the result as
σ
E = .
6ε0

Problem 1.7. Can one create, in a non-vanishing region of space, electrostatic fields
with the Cartesian components proportional to the following products of Cartesian
coordinates {x, y, z},
(i) {yz , xz , xy },
(ii) {xy , xy , yz}?

4
All this calculation is absolutely similar to the one made at the proof of the Gauss law in section 1.2 of the
lecture notes—see the transition from Eq. (1.13) to Eq. (1.14).

1-7
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

Solution: Let us calculate the curl of both supposed fields, using the definition of that
operator—see, e.g. Eq. (A.54):

⎧ ∂E ∂Ey ∂Ex ∂Ez ∂Ey ∂Ex ⎫

∇×E=⎨ z − , − , − ⎬.
⎩ ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ⎭

For the field (i) we obtain ∇ × E ∝ {x − x, y − y, z − z} ≡ 0, while for the field

(ii) ∇ × E ∝ {z − 0, 0 − 0, y − x} vanishes only at one point (x = y = z = 0). However,
according to the homogeneous Maxwell equation (Eq. (1.28) of the lecture notes),
the curl of the electrostatic field has to equal zero at any point where it exists; hence
the field (i) can exist in a region of finite size, while the field (ii) cannot.
The fact that the field (i) has zero divergence as well, i.e. requires ρ(r) ≡ 0 within
the region of its existence, does not prevent it from being realistic, because the field
may be created by electric charges outside that particular region. Note also that the
electric field (ii) may be induced by a magnetic field changing (linearly) in time—see
section 6.1 of the lecture notes, but such E cannot be called an electrostatic field.

Problem 1.8. Distant sources have been used to create different electric fields on two
sides of a wide and thin metallic membrane, with a round hole of radius R in it—see
the figure below. Besides the local perturbation created by the hole, the fields are
uniform:

⎧E , at z < 0,
E(r) r ≫R = nz × ⎨ 1
⎩ E2, at z > 0.

Prove that the system may serve as an electrostatic lens for charged particles
flying along axis z, at distances ρ ≪ R from it, and calculate the focal distance f of
the lens. Spell out the conditions of validity of your result.

Solution: Let us select the orientation of the mutually perpendicular axes x = ρcos φ
and y = ρsin φ so that for the particular flying particle y = 0. At the axis of this axially
symmetric system (i.e. at ρ = 0), the partial derivatives ∂Ex/∂x and ∂Ey/∂y have to be
equal due to the symmetry, so that the Maxwell equation (1.27), ∇ · E = 0, yields

∂Ex ∂Ez
2 =− .
∂x ρ=0 ∂z ρ=0

1-8
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

Since at the axis, the value of Ex has to vanish, its Taylor expansion at x = 0 starts
with the linear term, so that at small x
∂Ex x ∂Ez
Ex x<<R ≈x ∣ρ=0 = − ∣ρ=0 .
y=0 ∂x 2 ∂z

According to this expression, at sufficiently small x, the field Ex is so small that

particle’s deviation from its initial trajectory during its flight through the perturbed
field region (of the length Δz ~ R) is negligible. However, during this flight the
particle picks up a transverse momentum created by the field:
dt
px = ∫ Fx dt = q ∫ Ex dt = q ∫ Ex dz dz

x +∞ ∂Ez x
= −q
2vz
∫−∞ ∂z
dz = −q
2vz
(E2 − E1).
ρ=0

(Here the change of the particle’s longitudinal velocity vz during its flight through the
hole was neglected—which is legitimate if the length of the uniform field region is
much larger than R, as implied by the problem’s conditions.) If this momentum, and
hence the acquired radial velocity vx = px/m, are directed toward the axis, which is
true at the proper sign of the combination q(E2 − E1),5 it would lead to the particle
hitting the system’s axis at the distance

x x 2mvz2 4T
z ≡ f = vzt f = vz = vz = = ,
( −vx ) (−px /m) q(E2 − E1) q(E2 − E1)
where T = mvz2/2 is particle’s initial kinetic energy. The most important feature of
this result is that the initial coordinate x of the particle has dropped out of it. This
means that particles with any small x (and, by axial symmetry, all particles flying
sufficiently close to axis z, and parallel to it) will be directed to the same focal point f.
This is the key property of any lens—in this case the electrostatic one.
It is remarkable that this result does not depend on the exact field distribution in
the hole region. (This distribution may be calculated analytically—for example,
using the degenerate ellipsoidal coordinates, to be discussed in section 2.4 of the
lecture notes.) It is valid if two strong conditions,
T
R≪f≪ ,
qE2

are satisfied. The first of them has allowed us to treat x as a constant during the
integration of force Fx over time, while the second one, to neglect the change of vz

5
If the sign is opposite, the system will disperse the parallel particle beam, but in a highly ordered way—with
the distance from the axis proportional to the initial distance x. So the system will still work as a lens, though a
diverging (‘negative’) one, with f < 0.

1-9
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

during the focusing process. Note, however, that a violation of the second condition
does not ruin the focusing effect; it only makes the expression for f somewhat bulkier.

Problem 1.9. Eight equal point charges q are located at the corners of a cube of
side a. Calculate all Cartesian components Ej of the electric field, and their spatial
derivatives ∂Ej/∂rj′, at cube’s center, where rj are the Cartesian coordinates oriented
along the cube’s sides—see the figure below. Are all your results valid for the center
of a planar square, with four equal charges in its corners?

Solution: According to Eq. (1.33) of the lecture notes, the Cartesian components of
the field and their derivatives may be expressed via the derivatives of the electrostatic
potential:

∂ϕ ∂Ej ∂ 2ϕ
Ej = − , =− . (*)
∂rj ∂rj ′ ∂rj ∂rj ′

Due to the cube’s symmetry, at its center the whole vector E should vanish. (Indeed,
if it did not, the vector would be directed toward either some face or some corner of
the cube, but that would violate the equivalence of all faces and corners.) Hence,
according to the first of Eqs. (*), all field components, i.e. the partial derivatives of
the scalar potential, have to vanish at the center. So, if we take this point for the
origin (r = 0, i.e. r1 = r2 = r3 = 0), the Taylor expansion6 of function ϕ(r1, r2, r3),
apart from an inconsequential constant ϕ(0, 0, 0), should start with quadratic terms.
Due to the cube’s symmetry with respect to coordinate swaps, the coefficients at
these terms have to be independent of the coordinates:
3 3
A B
ϕ(r1, r2 , r3) − ϕ(0, 0, 0) = ∑rj2 + ∑ rjrj′ + O(rj3), (**)
2 j=1 2 j , j ′= 1
j ′≠ j

where A and B are constants:

∂ 2ϕ ∂Ej ∂ 2ϕ ∂Ej
A= ∣ ≡−
2 r=0
∣r=0 , while B = ∣r=0 ≡ − ∣r=0 , for j ≠ j ′ . (***)
∂rj ∂r j ∂r ∂r
j j′ ∂rj ′

6
See, e.g. Eq. (A.14b).

1-10
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

But because of the system’s symmetry, the potential also has to be invariant with
respect to the change of sign of any single coordinate, rj → −rj, which geometrically
corresponds to its mirror reflection in the plane of two other coordinate axes7. As
Eq. (**) shows, this is only possible if B = 0.
Moreover, since there is no charge in the vicinity of the cube’s center,
the potential has to satisfy the Laplace equation (1.42), in Cartesian coordinates
reading
3
∂ 2ϕ
∑ = 0. (****)
j=1
∂rj2

Comparing this requirement with the first of Eqs. (***), we obtain A = 0 as well, so
that all derivatives ∂Ej/∂rj′ at r = 0 have to equal zero.
For the field in the center of a planar square, with four similar charges in its
corners, the situation is somewhat different, due to the reduced symmetry of the
system. The electric field E at the center (and hence all its Cartesian components) still
has to equal zero, because its in-plane component (say, E12) cannot be directed
toward any side of the square, and its normal component E3 cannot be directed to
either side of the plane, due to the r3 ↔ −r3 symmetry. However, the potential may
not remain the same if the coordinate r3 directed normally to square’s plane
is swapped with one of in-plane coordinates (r1 or r2). As a result, Eq. (**), still
with B = 0 due to the mirror symmetry, has to be generalized as
A 2 A′ 2
ϕ(r1, r2 , r3) − ϕ(0, 0, 0) =
2
( r1 + r22 ) +
2
r3 + O (rj4 ) ,

and the Laplace equation (****) imposes only the following requirement: 2A +
Aʹ = 0, i.e.

∂E1 ∂E2 1 ∂E3

= =− .
∂r1 ∂r2 2 ∂r3

This relation is similar to the one used for the solution of problem 1.8 (where it is
true due to the axial symmetry of the system).

Problem 1.10. By a direct calculation, find the average electric potential of the
spherical surface of radius R, created by a point charge q located at a distance r > R
from the sphere’s center. Use the result to prove the following general mean value
theorem: the electric potential at any point is always equal to its average value on
any spherical surface with the center at that point, and containing no electric charges
inside it.

7
Actually, because of this symmetry, the higher terms of the expansion (**) should start with O(rj4), rather
than O(rj3).

1-11
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

Solution: Using the evident axial symmetry of the problem (see the figure above),
and Eq. (1.35) of the lecture notes, we obtain:
π π
1
ϕave ≡
4π
∮ ϕ(θ )d Ω = 24ππ ∫0 ϕ(θ )sin θ dθ =
1
2
∫0 q
4πε0r′
sin θ dθ ,

where r′ is the distance between the point charge and the observation point:

(r′)2 = R2 + r 2 − 2Rr cos θ .

The integral may be readily worked out by the introduction of a new variable
ξ ≡ cos θ (so that sin θ dθ = dξ):

1 q −1 dξ 1 q 2 ξ = +1
ϕave = ∫1 12
= [R 2 + r 2 − 2Rrξ ]1 2 ξ = −1
2 4πε0 [R 2 + r2 − 2Rrξ ] 2 4πε0r′ ( − 2Rr )
1 q 2 q
=
2 4πε0 ( − 2Rr )
{ [R2 + r 2 − 2Rr ]1 2 − [R2 + r 2 + 2Rr ]1 2 } = 4πε r .
0

We see that the average indeed coincides with the potential’s value in the middle
of the sphere. (Notice that this result is only valid for the case r > R.) Now the proof
of the mean value theorem is elementary using the linear superposition principle:
since the relation in question,
q
= ϕave ,
4πε0r

holds for each point charge located outside the sphere, it is also true for any system
of such charges.

Problem 1.11. Two similar thin, circular, coaxial disks of radius R, separated by
distance 2d, are uniformly charged with equal and opposite areal densities ±σ—see
the figure below. Calculate and sketch the distribution of the electrostatic potential
and the electric field of the disks along their common axis.

1-12
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

Solution: Let us start from calculating the electrostatic potential of one disk, with a
constant areal charge density σ, at the axis point separated by distance z from disk’s
plane—see the figure below.

In the polar coordinates {ρ, φ} within the plane of the disk (with angle φ referred to
an arbitrary horizontal axis), the elementary disk area is ρdφdρ, and its electric
charge is σρdρdφ, so that Eq. (1.38) of the lecture notes takes the form
2π R
σ ρdρ
ϕ(z ) =
4πε0
∫0 dφ ∫0 r
,

where r is the distance between the elementary charge’s location and the observation
point on disks’ common axis. As the figure above shows, r = (ρ2 + z2)1/2, so that the
function under the integral is independent of φ, and the integral may be easily
worked out:
R ρ=R
σ ρdρ σ d (ρ 2 + z 2 ) σ
ϕ(z ) =
4πε0
∫0
2π
2 2 1/2
(ρ + z )
=
4ε 0
∫ρ=0 2
(ρ + z )2 1/2
=
2ε 0
[(R2 + z 2 )1/2 − z ].

Now using this formula and the linear superposition principle, we may readily write
down an expression describing the potential created by both disks, at distance z from
the center of the system (in this new reference frame, the disk center positions are ±d):

σ ⎧⎪ [R
2
+ (z − d )2 ]1/2 − z − d ⎫
⎪
ϕ= ⎨ ⎬.
2ε0 ⎩− [R2 + (z + d )2 ]1/2 + z + d ⎪
⎪
⎭

This function is plotted in the figure below for three values of the ratio R/d. For
small values of this ratio, the potential is clearly separated into two peaks, of
opposite polarity, created by each disk. On the other hand, at R ≫ d the result tends
to the one for two infinite planes, with ϕ between the disks being a linear function of
z, with the slope corresponding to the electric field—see the model solution of
problem 1.14 below.

1-13
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

Now the electric field at the axis (which has only one, vertical component due to
the axial symmetry of the problem) may be calculated by differentiation of the
electrostatic potential—see Eq. (1.33) of the lecture notes:

∂ϕ
Ez = −
∂z
σ ⎧ z−d z+d ⎫
= ⎨− + sgn( z − d ) + − sgn( z − d ) ⎬.
2ε0 ⎩ [R2 + (z − d )2 ]1/2 [R2 + (z + d )2 ]1/2 ⎭

In the figure below, this function is plotted for the same three values of the R/d
ratio as the potential in the figure above. The plots show that at R/d = 5, the field
between the disks is already pretty uniform, although its magnitude is still noticeably
smaller than that (σ/ε0) between two infinite planes. Note also that the ratio does not
affect the electric field’s jump by ±σ/ε0 as the observation point crosses a disk—just
as it should be, according to Eq. (1.24) of the lecture notes.

On the technical side, this solution illustrates again the advantage of calculating the
electrostatic potential (a scalar function) first, and only then the electric field from it.

1-14
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

Problem 1.12. In a certain reference frame, the electrostatic potential created by an

electric charge distribution is
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎧ r⎫
ϕ(r) = C ⎜ + ⎟ exp ⎨ − ⎬ ,
⎝r 2r0 ⎠ ⎩ r0 ⎭

where C and r0 are constants, and r ≡ ∣r∣ is the distance from the origin. Calculate the
charge distribution in space.

Solution: According to the Poisson equation (see Eq. (1.41) of the lecture notes), the
charge density may be calculated as
ρ(r) = −ε0∇2 ϕ(r).

Since the potential distribution is spherically symmetric, ϕ(r) = ϕ(r), the general
expression for the Laplace operator of such scalar function in spherical coordinates8
is reduced to

1 d ⎛ 2 dϕ ⎞
∇2 ϕ(r ) = ⎜r ⎟. (*)
r 2 dr ⎝ dr ⎠

so that by performing straightforward differentiation we obtain a very simple,

exponential charge density distribution:

ε0C ⎧ r⎫
ρ(r) = − exp⎨ − ⎬ . (INCOMPLETE!)
3
2r0 ⎩ r0 ⎭

Note, however, that since Eq. (*) is invalid at r = 0, this point has to be explored
separately. At r → 0 the potential distribution tends to C/r and, as Eq. (1.35) of the
lecture notes shows, such a potential is created by a point charge q = 4πε0C, located
at the origin. As a result, the complete solution of our problem is
⎡ 1 ⎧ r ⎫⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎧ r ⎫⎤
ρ(r) = ε0C ⎢4πδ(r) − 3 exp⎨ − ⎬⎥ = q⎢δ(r) − exp ⎨ − ⎬⎥ ,
⎣ 2r0 ⎩ r0 ⎭⎦ ⎣ 8πr03 ⎩ r0 ⎭⎦

with the total charge9

⎛ ⎧ r⎫ ⎞ ⎛ ∞ ⎧ r⎫ ⎞
Q= ∫ ρ(r)d 3r = q⎜⎝1 − 8π1r3 ∫ exp⎨ − ⎬d 3r⎟ = q⎜1 −
⎩ r0 ⎭ ⎠ ⎝
1
8πr03
4π ∫0 exp⎨ − ⎬r 2dr⎟
⎩ r0 ⎭ ⎠
0
⎛ 1 ∞ ⎞
= q⎜1 − ∫0 exp{ −ξ}ξ 2dξ⎟ = 0.
⎝ 2 ⎠

For the reader’s reference, such a ρ(r) is a reasonable approximation of the charge
distribution in an atom, describing the screening of the positive nuclear charge

8
See, e.g. Eq. (A.67).
9
The last step of this calculation uses the table integral (A.34d) with n = 2.

1-15
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

q = Ze by Z negatively charged electrons. Such an approximation, as well as a more

accurate Thomas–Fermi model of the screening10, essentially ignore the quantum
mechanics of the electrons, and as the result work reasonably well only for very
heavy atoms (Z ≫ 1).

Problem 1.13. A thin flat sheet, cut in the form of a rectangle of size a × b, is
electrically charged with a constant areal density σ. Without an explicit calculation
of the spatial distribution ϕ(r) of the electrostatic potential induced by this charge,
find the ratio of its values at the center and at the corners of the rectangle.
Hint: Consider partitioning the rectangle into several similar parts and using the
linear superposition principle.

Solution: Selecting the Cartesian coordinates as shown in the figure above, we may
use Eq. (1.38) of the lecture notes to calculate the potential at the origin (i.e. in one of
the rectangle’s corners) as
a b
σ 1 σa
ϕ0 =
4πε0
∫0 dx ∫0 dy
2 2 1/2
(x + y )
≡
4πε0
I,

where I is the following dimensionless integral:

1 b /a
1
I≡ ∫0 dξ∫0 dζ
(ξ + ζ 2 )
2 1/2
,

with ξ ≡ x/a, ζ ≡ y/a.

Now let us calculate what potential would be induced, at the same point, only by
the adjacent quarter of the rectangle, of size (a/2) × (b/2), marked in the figure above
with darker shading:
a /2 b /2
σ 1
ϕ0′ =
4πε0
∫0 dx ∫0 dy
(x + y 2 )
2 1/2
.

10
See, e.g. Part QM, problems 8.22 and 8.23.

1-16
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

Introducing dimensionless variables in a similar but modified way: ξ ≡ x/(a/2),

ζ ≡ y/(a/2), we may reduce this result to the same dimensionless integral I:
σ (a /2)
ϕ0′ = I,
4πε0
so that even without the calculation of the integral11 we see that ϕ0′ = ϕ0/2.
Next, we may note that due to the linear superposition principle, the potential ϕA
at the center of the rectangle may be represented as a sum of four potentials induced
by such quarters in their corners. Due to the symmetry, all these partial potentials
are equal to ϕ0′, so that finally

ϕA = 4ϕ0′ = 2ϕ0 .

This solution illustrates the power of scaling arguments, broadly used, for
symmetric geometries, in all fields of physics.

Problem 1.14. Calculate the electrostatic energy per unit area of a system of two
thin, parallel planes with equal and opposite charges of a constant areal density σ,
separated by distance d.

Solution: From the similar problem solved in the lecture notes (see figure 1.4 and its
discussion), it is clear that the electric field everywhere should be normal to the
planes and constant within each of three ranges:
⎧ E−, at z < −d /2,
⎪
⎪
E = n z ⎨ E 0, at − d /2 < z < +d /2,
⎪
⎪
⎩E , + at + d /2 < z ,

where the axis z is selected as shown in the figure below, and E−, E0, and E+ are some
scalar constants. These constants may be calculated by applying the Gauss law to three
pillboxes with all three possible combinations of lid positions, giving three equations:
E + − E 0 = + σ / ε0 , E 0 − E− = −σ / ε0, E+ − E− = 0,
whose solution yields
σ
E+ = E− = 0, E0 = − . (*)
ε0

11 b (a 2 + b2 )1/2 + a b
Just for reference, this integral may be worked out analytically: I = ln + sinh−1 .
a b a

1-17
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

(An even simpler way to obtain Eq. (*) is to employ the linear superposition
principle by summing up the fields of the same magnitude (1.23), ∣E∣ = ∣σ∣/2ε0,
induced by each of the planes. Due the difference of plane charge signs, the fields add
up between the plates, but cancel each other outside the system.)
Thus, the field exits only between the planes, producing the electrostatic potential
z
σ ⎧ z, for z < d /2,
ϕ = ϕ z=0 − ∫ E (z′)dz′ = ϕ z=0 + ×⎨
0 ε0 ⎩(d /2)sgn(z ), for z > d /2,
so that the potential difference (called voltage) between the planes is
⎛ d⎞ ⎛ d⎞ σ σ
V ≡ ϕ⎜ + ⎟ − ϕ⎜ − ⎟ = d ≡ ,
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ε0 C0
where C0 = ε0/d is the specific capacitance of this simple system (which is equivalent
to a plane capacitor—for more, see chapter 2).
Now using Eq. (*) in Eq. (1.65) for the potential energy of the field, we obtain

U ε +d 2 ε0E 02 σ2 C V2
= 0 ∫−d 2 E 2dz = d= d= 0 .
A 2 2 2ε0 2

(We will repeatedly run into this expression in chapter 2.) Note that at fixed σ (of any
sign) the energy grows with d. This is natural, because the oppositely charged planes
attract each other, so that following the force (reducing d) corresponds to the way
toward the potential energy’s minimum.

Problem 1.15. The system analyzed in the previous problem (two thin, parallel,
oppositely charged planes) is now placed into an external, uniform, normal electric
field Eext = σ/ε0—see the figure below. Find the force (per unit area) acting on each
plane, by two methods:
(i) directly from the electric field distribution, and
(ii) from the potential energy of the system.

Solutions:

(i) In order to calculate the force F acting on the top plane, we have to neglect the
field of this plane itself12 and add the external field directed up and equal to σ/ε0, and

12
Different elementary charges of the same plane do Coulomb-interact, but the elementary forces between
them are directed along the plane, and cancel at summation, due to the 2nd Newton’s law.

1-18
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

the field of the bottom plane, directed down and equal to σ/2ε0—see figure 1.4 and
(1.24) of the lecture notes. The net field equals σ/2ε0 and is directed up, so that the
force per unit area is
F q σ σ2
= = , ( *)
A A 2ε0 2ε0
and is directed up. A similar calculation for the bottom plane yields force of the
same magnitude, but directed down.

(ii) Using the linear superposition principle, we may calculate the total field in each
spatial region by adding the external field to that of the planes, which was calculated
in the previous problem:
⎧ 0, at z < −d /2, ⎫
σ σ ⎪ ⎪
E = nz + nz × ⎨−1, at − d /2 < z < +d /2,⎬
ε0 ε0 ⎪ ⎪
⎩ 0, at + d /2 < z , ⎭
⎧1, at z < −d /2,
σ ⎪
= nz × ⎨ 0, at − d /2 < z < +d /2,
ε0 ⎪
⎩1, at + d /2 < z .
Using these values, let us calculate the potential energy U from Eq. (1.72) of the
lecture notes, artificially limiting the integration volume to a pillbox of an arbitrary
area A, with some fixed thickness d0 > d. The second integral does not depend on d,
and may be dropped (included into an arbitrary constant that may be always added
to the energy), and the first integral yields

ε ⎛σ ⎞
2
U σ2
= 0 ⎜ ⎟ (d 0 − d ) ≡ const − d.
A 2 ⎝ ε0 ⎠ 2ε0
Now the vertical force (per unit area) exerted at the top plane may be calculated as
F/A = −∂(U/A)/∂d, giving the same result (*) as the first method. The same is true for
the lower plane whose vertical coordinate is (const −d), so that the ratio U/A should
be differentiated over (−d) rather than d.

Problem 1.16. Explore the relation between the Laplace equation (1.42) and the
condition of minimum of the electrostatic field energy (1.65).

Solution: Let us consider a small variation δϕ of the electrostatic potential inside a

charge-free volume V limited by a closed surface S, such that the variation vanishes
at the surface, but is otherwise arbitrary. Let us calculate the corresponding
variation of the electric field energy (1.65):
⎛ε ⎞
δU = δ ⎜ 0
⎝2 ∫V (∇ϕ)2d 3r⎠ = ε20 ∫V δ(∇ϕ ⋅ ∇ϕ)d 3r
⎟

( *)
= ε0∫V ∇ϕ ⋅ δ(∇ϕ) d r = ε0∫V ∇ϕ ⋅ ∇(δϕ) d r
3 3

1-19
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

The last step above has exploited the main rule of the variational calculus that the
operations of small variation and the usual differentiation are interchangeable13.
Now let us work out the resulting 3D integration by parts—just as was done at the
derivation of Eq. (1.65) of the lecture notes, i.e. by applying the divergence theorem
(A.79) to the vector function f = δϕ∇ϕ:

∮S (δϕ∇ϕ)nd 2r = ∫V ∇ ⋅ (δϕ ∇ϕ)d 3r ≡ ∫V ∇(δϕ) ⋅ ∇ϕ d 3r + ∫V δϕ ∇2 ϕ d 3r.

The surface integral on the left-had side of this relation has to equal zero, due to our
condition δϕ∣S = 0, and the first volume integral on the right-hand side equals that in
the last form of Eq. (*). Hence, that equality may be rewritten as
δ U = − ε0 ∫V δϕ ∇2 ϕ d 3r.
Since the variation δϕ is arbitrary, this expression shows that the only way for the
potential energy of the field to have the lowest possible value (just as it does in any
stable equilibrium in classical mechanics) and hence for the variation δU to equal
zero, is to have the Laplace operator of the field equal zero, i.e. to satisfy the Laplace
equation (1.42) in all charge-free spatial regions.

Problem 1.17. Prove the following reciprocity theorem of electrostatics14: if two

spatially confined charge distributions ρ1(r) and ρ2(r) create respective distributions
ϕ1(r) and ϕ2(r) of the electrostatic potential, then

∫ ρ1(r) ϕ2(r)d 3r = ∫ ρ2 (r) ϕ1(r)d 3r.

Hint: Consider integral ∫ E1 ⋅ E2 d 3r.
Solution: Applying Eq. (1.33) of the lecture notes to E1(r), let us transform the
integral mentioned in the hint as

∫ E1 ⋅ E2d 3r = −∫ ∇ϕ1 ⋅ E2 d 3r.

Now we may use the rule of spatial differentiation of a vector-by-scalar function
product15 to continue as follows:

− ∫ ∇ϕ1 ⋅ E2d 3r = ∫ ϕ1(∇ ⋅ E2)d 3r − ∫ ∇(ϕ1E2)d 3r.

Next, we may use the inhomogeneous Maxwell equation (1.27) in the first integral,
and the well-known divergence theorem16 to transform the second integral to that of

13
This rule has a simple geometric meaning—see, e.g. Part CM section 2.1, in particular figure 2.2.
14
This is only the simplest one of the whole family of reciprocity theorems in electromagnetism. (Sometimes it
is called the ‘Green’s reciprocity theorem’, but historically it is fairer to reserve the last name for the
generalization to surface charges, discussed in section 2.10 of the lecture notes.)
15
See, e.g. Eq. (A.74a), with f = ϕ1 and g = E2.
16
See, e.g. Eq. (A.79).

1-20
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

(ϕ1E2)n over some distant, closed surface S that limits the volume of our spatial
integration. As a result, our expression becomes
1
ε0
∫ ϕ1ρ2 d 3r − ∮S (ϕ1E2)nd 2r.
Since the charge (and hence the field) distributions are space-confined, we may
always select the surface S so distant that the surface integral is negligible17, and our
chain of transformations may be summarized as

∫ E1 ⋅ E2 d 3r = ε10 ∫ ϕ1ρ2 d 3r.

Now repeating the same calculation with swapped indices, we arrive at the
reciprocity theorem.
Note that if some parts of these two charge distributions reside on some surface(s)
S, and may be well described by surface charge densities σ1(r) and σ2(r) (as is very
instrumental, for example, in systems with good conductors, to be discussed in
chapter 2 of the lecture notes), the reciprocity theorem may be rewritten as

∫V ρ1(r)ϕ2(r)d 3r + ∫S σ1(r)ϕ2(r)d 2r = ∫V ρ2 (r)ϕ1(r)d 3r + ∫S σ2(r)ϕ1(r)d 2r,

where ρ1(r) and ρ2(r) are the remaining, ‘genuinely volume’ parts of the distributions.

Problem 1.18. Calculate the energy of electrostatic interaction of two spheres, of

radii R1 and R2, each with a spherically symmetric charge distribution, separated by
distance d > R1 + R2.

Solution: According to Eq. (1.55) of the lecture notes, applied sequentially to each of the
spheres, the energy Uint of their interaction may be calculated in either of two ways18:

Uint = ∫sphere 1 ρ1(r)ϕ2(r)d 3r, (*)

Uint = ∫sphere 2 ρ2 (r)ϕ1(r)d 3r. (**)

But as was discussed in section 1.2 of the lecture notes (see Eqs. (1.19) and (1.20)),
the electric field, and hence the electrostatic potential ϕ, created by a spherically
symmetric charge distribution ρ(r) outside of its boundary coincides with that of the

17
Indeed, we may take S in the shape of a spherical shell, with radius R much larger than the spatial scales of
distributions ρ1(r) and ρ2(r). At such large distances, their fields are close to those of point charges, so that
according to Eqs. (1.6) and (1.35), ϕ1 ∝ Q1/R and E2 ∝ Q2/R2, so that the integral over surface S, of area
A ∝ R2, is decreasing with R as 1/R (or faster if any of the net charges Q1,2 vanishes).
18
Their equivalence is strictly confirmed by the reciprocity theorem (see the previous problem) even if the
charge distributions ρ1,2(r) partly or fully overlap—although in our current case, they do not.

1-21
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

full charge Q of the sphere concentrated in its center. Applying this fact to, for
example, the first sphere, we may rewrite Eq. (**) as

Q1
Uint = ∫sphere 2 ρ2 (r)ϕ1(point)(r)d 3r, where ϕ1(point)(r) =
4πε0 r − r1
,

with Q1 ≡ ∫sphere 1 ρ1(r)d 3r,

where r1 is the position of the center of sphere 1. This means that the interaction
energy, however calculated, cannot depend on whether the charge of sphere 1 is
distributed as given, or compressed to point r1, i.e. should be invariant with respect
to the replacement

ρ1(r) → Q1δ(r − r1).

Making this replacement in Eq. (*), we obtain

Uint = Q1ϕ2(r1).

Now applying the same argument to the potential created by the spherically
symmetric distribution ρ2(r),

Q2
ϕ2(r) = ϕ2(point)(r) =
4πε0 r − r2
, with Q2 ≡ ∫sphere 2 ρ2 (r)d 3r,
where r2 is the position of the center of sphere 2, we finally obtain:

Q1Q2
Uint = , with d ≡ r1 − r2 .
4πε0d

In plain English, the spheres interact as if their electric charges were concentrated at
their centers. Remember, however, that this result is only applicable at d > R1 + R2, so
that the charge distributions ρ1(r) and ρ2(r) do not overlap—even partly.

Problem 1.19. Calculate the electrostatic energy U of a (generally, thick) spherical

shell, with a charge Q uniformly distributed through its volume—see the figure
below. Analyze and interpret the dependence of U on the inner cavity’s radius R1, at
fixed Q and R2.

1-22
 Classical Electrodynamics: Problems with solutions

Solution: Calculating the only (radial) component E of the electric field E = nrE (say,
using the Gauss law), we readily obtain

⎧ 0, for 0 ⩽ r < R1,

Q ⎪
E= × ⎨(r − R1 )/(R 2 − R1 ), for R1 < r < R2 ,
3 3 3 3
4πε0r 2 ⎪
⎩1, for R2 < r ,

so that Eq. (1.65) for the electrostatic energy yields

2⎡ ⎛ r 3 − R13 ⎞2 dr ⎤
ε0 ε0 ∞
ε0 ⎛ Q ⎞ ⎢ R2 ∞
dr ⎥
U=
2
∫ E 2dr 3 =
2
∫0
4π E 2r 2dr = 4π ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ 4πε0 ⎠ ⎢⎣
∫R 1
⎜ 3 3⎟
⎝ R 2 − R1 ⎠ r 2
+ ∫R
2 r 2 ⎥⎦

Q2 ⎡ 1⎛ 3
ξ − α 3 ⎞ dξ dξ ⎤
2 ∞
Q2
= ⎢ ∫α ⎜ ⎟ + ∫1 ⎥= f (α ),
8πε0R2 ⎢⎣ ⎝ 1 − α3 ⎠ ξ2 ξ ⎥⎦ 8πε0R2

1/5 − α 3 + (9/5)α 5 − α 6
with f (α ) ≡ + 1,
(1 − α 3)2

where α ≡ R1/R2 ⩽ 1.
A plot of the function f(α), i.e. of the normalized electrostatic energy as a function
of R1 at fixed Q and R2, is shown in the figure below. The function reaches
its maximum f(0) = 6/5 (so that U is given by Eq. (1.66) of the lecture notes, with
R = R2) at α = 0, i.e. for a solid sphere, and tends to f(1) = 1, giving

Q2
Umin =
8πε0R2
at α → 1, i.e. for the ultimately thin spherical shell. This is very natural, because the
elementary charges of the sphere repulse each other and try to go apart as far as
possible, in particular increasing its inner radius.

1-23