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html

3.10.4 Go

4. More Control Flow Tools

Besides the while statement just introduced, Python uses the usual flow control statements known from
other languages, with some twists.

4.1. if Statements
Perhaps the most well-known statement type is the if statement. For example:

>>> x = int(input("Please enter an integer: ")) >>>

Please enter an integer: 42
>>> if x < 0:
... x = 0
... print('Negative changed to zero')
... elif x == 0:
... print('Zero')
... elif x == 1:
... print('Single')
... else:
... print('More')
...
More

There can be zero or more elif parts, and the else part is optional. The keyword ‘ elif ’ is short for ‘else
if’, and is useful to avoid excessive indentation. An if … elif … elif … sequence is a substitute for the
switch or case statements found in other languages.

If you’re comparing the same value to several constants, or checking for specific types or attributes, you
may also find the match statement useful. For more details see match Statements.

4.2. for Statements

The for statement in Python differs a bit from what you may be used to in C or Pascal. Rather than always
iterating over an arithmetic progression of numbers (like in Pascal), or giving the user the ability to define
both the iteration step and halting condition (as C), Python’s for statement iterates over the items of any
sequence (a list or a string), in the order that they appear in the sequence. For example (no pun intended):

>>> # Measure some strings: >>>

... words = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
>>> for w in words:
... print(w, len(w))
...
cat 3
window 6
defenestrate 12

Code that modifies a collection while iterating over that same collection can be tricky to get right. Instead, it
is usually more straight-forward to loop over a copy of the collection or to create a new collection:

# Create a sample collection

users = {'Hans': 'active', 'Éléonore': 'inactive', '景太郎': 'active'}

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# Strategy: Iterate over a copy

3.10.4
for user, status in users.copy().items(): Go
if status == 'inactive':
del users[user]

# Strategy: Create a new collection

active_users = {}
for user, status in users.items():
if status == 'active':
active_users[user] = status

4.3. The range() Function

If you do need to iterate over a sequence of numbers, the built-in function range() comes in handy. It
generates arithmetic progressions:

>>> for i in range(5): >>>

... print(i)
...
0
1
2
3
4

The given end point is never part of the generated sequence; range(10) generates 10 values, the legal
indices for items of a sequence of length 10. It is possible to let the range start at another number, or to
specify a different increment (even negative; sometimes this is called the ‘step’):

>>> list(range(5, 10)) >>>

[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

>>> list(range(0, 10, 3))

[0, 3, 6, 9]

>>> list(range(-10, -100, -30))

[-10, -40, -70]

To iterate over the indices of a sequence, you can combine range() and len() as follows:

>>> a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb'] >>>

>>> for i in range(len(a)):
... print(i, a[i])
...
0 Mary
1 had
2 a
3 little
4 lamb

In most such cases, however, it is convenient to use the enumerate() function, see Looping Techniques.

A strange thing happens if you just print a range:

>>> range(10) >>>

range(0, 10)

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In many ways the object returned by range() behaves as if it is a list, but in fact it isn’t. It is an object
3.10.4 Go
which returns the successive items of the desired sequence when you iterate over it, but it doesn’t really
make the list, thus saving space.

We say such an object is iterable, that is, suitable as a target for functions and constructs that expect
something from which they can obtain successive items until the supply is exhausted. We have seen that
the for statement is such a construct, while an example of a function that takes an iterable is sum() :

>>> sum(range(4)) # 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 >>>

6

Later we will see more functions that return iterables and take iterables as arguments. In chapter Data
Structures, we will discuss in more detail about list() .

4.4. break and continue Statements, and else Clauses on Loops

The break statement, like in C, breaks out of the innermost enclosing for or while loop.

Loop statements may have an else clause; it is executed when the loop terminates through exhaustion of
the iterable (with for ) or when the condition becomes false (with while ), but not when the loop is
terminated by a break statement. This is exemplified by the following loop, which searches for prime
numbers:

>>> for n in range(2, 10): >>>

... for x in range(2, n):
... if n % x == 0:
... print(n, 'equals', x, '*', n//x)
... break
... else:
... # loop fell through without finding a factor
... print(n, 'is a prime number')
...
2 is a prime number
3 is a prime number
4 equals 2 * 2
5 is a prime number
6 equals 2 * 3
7 is a prime number
8 equals 2 * 4
9 equals 3 * 3

(Yes, this is the correct code. Look closely: the else clause belongs to the for loop, not the if
statement.)

When used with a loop, the else clause has more in common with the else clause of a try statement
than it does with that of if statements: a try statement’s else clause runs when no exception occurs,
and a loop’s else clause runs when no break occurs. For more on the try statement and exceptions,
see Handling Exceptions.

The continue statement, also borrowed from C, continues with the next iteration of the loop:

>>> for num in range(2, 10): >>>

... if num % 2 == 0:
... print("Found an even number", num)
... continue
... print("Found an odd number", num)

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...
Found an3.10.4
even number 2 Go
Found an odd number 3
Found an even number 4
Found an odd number 5
Found an even number 6
Found an odd number 7
Found an even number 8
Found an odd number 9

4.5. pass Statements

The pass statement does nothing. It can be used when a statement is required syntactically but the
program requires no action. For example:

>>> while True: >>>

... pass # Busy-wait for keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C)
...

This is commonly used for creating minimal classes:

>>> class MyEmptyClass: >>>

... pass
...

Another place pass can be used is as a place-holder for a function or conditional body when you are
working on new code, allowing you to keep thinking at a more abstract level. The pass is silently ignored:

>>> def initlog(*args): >>>

... pass # Remember to implement this!
...

4.6. match Statements

A match statement takes an expression and compares its value to successive patterns given as one or
more case blocks. This is superficially similar to a switch statement in C, Java or JavaScript (and many
other languages), but it can also extract components (sequence elements or object attributes) from the
value into variables.

The simplest form compares a subject value against one or more literals:

def http_error(status):
match status:
case 400:
return "Bad request"
case 404:
return "Not found"
case 418:
return "I'm a teapot"
case _:
return "Something's wrong with the internet"

Note the last block: the “variable name” _ acts as a wildcard and never fails to match. If no case matches,
none of the branches is executed.

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You can combine several literals in a single pattern using | (“or”):

3.10.4 Go

case 401 | 403 | 404:

return "Not allowed"

Patterns can look like unpacking assignments, and can be used to bind variables:

# point is an (x, y) tuple

match point:
case (0, 0):
print("Origin")
case (0, y):
print(f"Y={y}")
case (x, 0):
print(f"X={x}")
case (x, y):
print(f"X={x}, Y={y}")
case _:
raise ValueError("Not a point")

Study that one carefully! The first pattern has two literals, and can be thought of as an extension of the
literal pattern shown above. But the next two patterns combine a literal and a variable, and the variable
binds a value from the subject ( point ). The fourth pattern captures two values, which makes it
conceptually similar to the unpacking assignment (x, y) = point .

If you are using classes to structure your data you can use the class name followed by an argument list
resembling a constructor, but with the ability to capture attributes into variables:

class Point:
x: int
y: int

def where_is(point):
match point:
case Point(x=0, y=0):
print("Origin")
case Point(x=0, y=y):
print(f"Y={y}")
case Point(x=x, y=0):
print(f"X={x}")
case Point():
print("Somewhere else")
case _:
print("Not a point")

You can use positional parameters with some builtin classes that provide an ordering for their attributes
(e.g. dataclasses). You can also define a specific position for attributes in patterns by setting the
__match_args__ special attribute in your classes. If it’s set to (“x”, “y”), the following patterns are all
equivalent (and all bind the y attribute to the var variable):

Point(1, var)
Point(1, y=var)
Point(x=1, y=var)
Point(y=var, x=1)

A recommended way to read patterns is to look at them as an extended form of what you would put on the
left of an assignment, to understand which variables would be set to what. Only the standalone names (like

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var above) are assigned to by a match statement. Dotted names (like foo.bar ), attribute names (the x=
3.10.4 Go
and y= above) or class names (recognized by the “(…)” next to them like Point above) are never
assigned to.

Patterns can be arbitrarily nested. For example, if we have a short list of points, we could match it like this:

match points:
case []:
print("No points")
case [Point(0, 0)]:
print("The origin")
case [Point(x, y)]:
print(f"Single point {x}, {y}")
case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]:
print(f"Two on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2}")
case _:
print("Something else")

We can add an if clause to a pattern, known as a “guard”. If the guard is false, match goes on to try the
next case block. Note that value capture happens before the guard is evaluated:

match point:
case Point(x, y) if x == y:
print(f"Y=X at {x}")
case Point(x, y):
print(f"Not on the diagonal")

Several other key features of this statement:

• Like unpacking assignments, tuple and list patterns have exactly the same meaning and actually match
arbitrary sequences. An important exception is that they don’t match iterators or strings.

• Sequence patterns support extended unpacking: [x, y, *rest] and (x, y, *rest) work similar to
unpacking assignments. The name after * may also be _ , so (x, y, *_) matches a sequence of at
least two items without binding the remaining items.

• Mapping patterns: {"bandwidth": b, "latency": l} captures the "bandwidth" and "latency"

values from a dictionary. Unlike sequence patterns, extra keys are ignored. An unpacking like **rest is
also supported. (But **_ would be redundant, so it is not allowed.)

• Subpatterns may be captured using the as keyword:

case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ...

will capture the second element of the input as p2 (as long as the input is a sequence of two points)

• Most literals are compared by equality, however the singletons True , False and None are compared by
identity.

• Patterns may use named constants. These must be dotted names to prevent them from being interpreted
as capture variable:

from enum import Enum

class Color(Enum):
RED = 'red'
GREEN = 'green'
BLUE = 'blue'

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color 3.10.4
= Color(input("Enter your choice of 'red', 'blue' or 'green': ")) Go

match color:
case Color.RED:
print("I see red!")
case Color.GREEN:
print("Grass is green")
case Color.BLUE:
print("I'm feeling the blues :(")

For a more detailed explanation and additional examples, you can look into PEP 636 which is written in a
tutorial format.

4.7. Defining Functions

We can create a function that writes the Fibonacci series to an arbitrary boundary:

>>> def fib(n): # write Fibonacci series up to n >>>

... """Print a Fibonacci series up to n."""
... a, b = 0, 1
... while a < n:
... print(a, end=' ')
... a, b = b, a+b
... print()
...
>>> # Now call the function we just defined:
... fib(2000)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597

The keyword def introduces a function definition. It must be followed by the function name and the
parenthesized list of formal parameters. The statements that form the body of the function start at the next
line, and must be indented.

The first statement of the function body can optionally be a string literal; this string literal is the function’s
documentation string, or docstring. (More about docstrings can be found in the section Documentation
Strings.) There are tools which use docstrings to automatically produce online or printed documentation, or
to let the user interactively browse through code; it’s good practice to include docstrings in code that you
write, so make a habit of it.

The execution of a function introduces a new symbol table used for the local variables of the function. More
precisely, all variable assignments in a function store the value in the local symbol table; whereas variable
references first look in the local symbol table, then in the local symbol tables of enclosing functions, then in
the global symbol table, and finally in the table of built-in names. Thus, global variables and variables of
enclosing functions cannot be directly assigned a value within a function (unless, for global variables,
named in a global statement, or, for variables of enclosing functions, named in a nonlocal statement),
although they may be referenced.

The actual parameters (arguments) to a function call are introduced in the local symbol table of the called
function when it is called; thus, arguments are passed using call by value (where the value is always an
object reference, not the value of the object). [1] When a function calls another function, or calls itself
recursively, a new local symbol table is created for that call.

A function definition associates the function name with the function object in the current symbol table. The
interpreter recognizes the object pointed to by that name as a user-defined function. Other names can also
point to that same function object and can also be used to access the function:

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>>> fib 3.10.4 >>>

Go
<function fib at 10042ed0>
>>> f = fib
>>> f(100)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89

Coming from other languages, you might object that fib is not a function but a procedure since it doesn’t
return a value. In fact, even functions without a return statement do return a value, albeit a rather boring
one. This value is called None (it’s a built-in name). Writing the value None is normally suppressed by the
interpreter if it would be the only value written. You can see it if you really want to using print() :

>>> fib(0) >>>

>>> print(fib(0))
None

It is simple to write a function that returns a list of the numbers of the Fibonacci series, instead of printing it:

>>> def fib2(n): # return Fibonacci series up to n >>>

... """Return a list containing the Fibonacci series up to n."""
... result = []
... a, b = 0, 1
... while a < n:
... result.append(a) # see below
... a, b = b, a+b
... return result
...
>>> f100 = fib2(100) # call it
>>> f100 # write the result
[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]

This example, as usual, demonstrates some new Python features:

• The return statement returns with a value from a function. return without an expression argument
returns None . Falling off the end of a function also returns None .
• The statement result.append(a) calls a method of the list object result . A method is a function that
‘belongs’ to an object and is named obj.methodname , where obj is some object (this may be an
expression), and methodname is the name of a method that is defined by the object’s type. Different
types define different methods. Methods of different types may have the same name without causing
ambiguity. (It is possible to define your own object types and methods, using classes, see Classes) The
method append() shown in the example is defined for list objects; it adds a new element at the end of
the list. In this example it is equivalent to result = result + [a] , but more efficient.

4.8. More on Defining Functions

It is also possible to define functions with a variable number of arguments. There are three forms, which
can be combined.

4.8.1. Default Argument Values

The most useful form is to specify a default value for one or more arguments. This creates a function that
can be called with fewer arguments than it is defined to allow. For example:

def ask_ok(prompt, retries=4, reminder='Please try again!'):

while True:
ok = input(prompt)

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if ok in ('y', 'ye', 'yes'):

3.10.4return True Go
if ok in ('n', 'no', 'nop', 'nope'):
return False
retries = retries - 1
if retries < 0:
raise ValueError('invalid user response')
print(reminder)

This function can be called in several ways:

• giving only the mandatory argument: ask_ok('Do you really want to quit?')
• giving one of the optional arguments: ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2)
• or even giving all arguments: ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2, 'Come on, only yes
or no!')

This example also introduces the in keyword. This tests whether or not a sequence contains a certain
value.

The default values are evaluated at the point of function definition in the defining scope, so that

i = 5

def f(arg=i):
print(arg)

i = 6
f()

will print 5 .

Important warning: The default value is evaluated only once. This makes a difference when the default is
a mutable object such as a list, dictionary, or instances of most classes. For example, the following function
accumulates the arguments passed to it on subsequent calls:

def f(a, L=[]):

L.append(a)
return L

print(f(1))
print(f(2))
print(f(3))

This will print

[1]
[1, 2]
[1, 2, 3]

If you don’t want the default to be shared between subsequent calls, you can write the function like this
instead:

def f(a, L=None):

if L is None:
L = []
L.append(a)
return L

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4.8.2. Keyword
3.10.4 Arguments Go

Functions can also be called using keyword arguments of the form kwarg=value . For instance, the
following function:

def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom', type='Norwegian Blue'):

print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.")
print("-- Lovely plumage, the", type)
print("-- It's", state, "!")

accepts one required argument ( voltage ) and three optional arguments ( state , action , and type ).
This function can be called in any of the following ways:

parrot(1000) # 1 positional argument

parrot(voltage=1000) # 1 keyword argument
parrot(voltage=1000000, action='VOOOOOM') # 2 keyword arguments
parrot(action='VOOOOOM', voltage=1000000) # 2 keyword arguments
parrot('a million', 'bereft of life', 'jump') # 3 positional arguments
parrot('a thousand', state='pushing up the daisies') # 1 positional, 1 keyword

but all the following calls would be invalid:

parrot() # required argument missing

parrot(voltage=5.0, 'dead') # non-keyword argument after a keyword argument
parrot(110, voltage=220) # duplicate value for the same argument
parrot(actor='John Cleese') # unknown keyword argument

In a function call, keyword arguments must follow positional arguments. All the keyword arguments passed
must match one of the arguments accepted by the function (e.g. actor is not a valid argument for the
parrot function), and their order is not important. This also includes non-optional arguments (e.g.
parrot(voltage=1000) is valid too). No argument may receive a value more than once. Here’s an
example that fails due to this restriction:

>>> def function(a): >>>

... pass
...
>>> function(0, a=0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: function() got multiple values for argument 'a'

When a final formal parameter of the form **name is present, it receives a dictionary (see Mapping Types
— dict) containing all keyword arguments except for those corresponding to a formal parameter. This may
be combined with a formal parameter of the form *name (described in the next subsection) which receives
a tuple containing the positional arguments beyond the formal parameter list. ( *name must occur before
**name .) For example, if we define a function like this:

def cheeseshop(kind, *arguments, **keywords):

print("-- Do you have any", kind, "?")
print("-- I'm sorry, we're all out of", kind)
for arg in arguments:
print(arg)
print("-" * 40)
for kw in keywords:
print(kw, ":", keywords[kw])

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It could be called like this:

3.10.4 Go

cheeseshop("Limburger", "It's very runny, sir.",

"It's really very, VERY runny, sir.",
shopkeeper="Michael Palin",
client="John Cleese",
sketch="Cheese Shop Sketch")

and of course it would print:

-- Do you have any Limburger ?

-- I'm sorry, we're all out of Limburger
It's very runny, sir.
It's really very, VERY runny, sir.
----------------------------------------
shopkeeper : Michael Palin
client : John Cleese
sketch : Cheese Shop Sketch

Note that the order in which the keyword arguments are printed is guaranteed to match the order in which
they were provided in the function call.

4.8.3. Special parameters

By default, arguments may be passed to a Python function either by position or explicitly by keyword. For
readability and performance, it makes sense to restrict the way arguments can be passed so that a
developer need only look at the function definition to determine if items are passed by position, by position
or keyword, or by keyword.

A function definition may look like:

def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):

----------- ---------- ----------
| | |
| Positional or keyword |
| - Keyword only
-- Positional only

where / and * are optional. If used, these symbols indicate the kind of parameter by how the arguments
may be passed to the function: positional-only, positional-or-keyword, and keyword-only. Keyword
parameters are also referred to as named parameters.

4.8.3.1. Positional-or-Keyword Arguments

If / and * are not present in the function definition, arguments may be passed to a function by position or
by keyword.

4.8.3.2. Positional-Only Parameters

Looking at this in a bit more detail, it is possible to mark certain parameters as positional-only. If positional-
only, the parameters’ order matters, and the parameters cannot be passed by keyword. Positional-only
parameters are placed before a / (forward-slash). The / is used to logically separate the positional-only
parameters from the rest of the parameters. If there is no / in the function definition, there are no
positional-only parameters.

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Parameters following the / may be positional-or-keyword or keyword-only.

3.10.4 Go

4.8.3.3. Keyword-Only Arguments

To mark parameters as keyword-only, indicating the parameters must be passed by keyword argument,
place an * in the arguments list just before the first keyword-only parameter.

4.8.3.4. Function Examples

Consider the following example function definitions paying close attention to the markers / and * :

>>> def standard_arg(arg): >>>

... print(arg)
...
>>> def pos_only_arg(arg, /):
... print(arg)
...
>>> def kwd_only_arg(*, arg):
... print(arg)
...
>>> def combined_example(pos_only, /, standard, *, kwd_only):
... print(pos_only, standard, kwd_only)

The first function definition, standard_arg , the most familiar form, places no restrictions on the calling
convention and arguments may be passed by position or keyword:

>>> standard_arg(2) >>>

2

>>> standard_arg(arg=2)
2

The second function pos_only_arg is restricted to only use positional parameters as there is a / in the
function definition:

>>> pos_only_arg(1) >>>

1

>>> pos_only_arg(arg=1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: pos_only_arg() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments:

The third function kwd_only_args only allows keyword arguments as indicated by a * in the function
definition:

>>> kwd_only_arg(3) >>>

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: kwd_only_arg() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given

>>> kwd_only_arg(arg=3)
3

And the last uses all three calling conventions in the same function definition:

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>>> combined_example(1, 2, 3) >>>

3.10.4 Go
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: combined_example() takes 2 positional arguments but 3 were given

>>> combined_example(1, 2, kwd_only=3)

1 2 3

>>> combined_example(1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)

1 2 3

>>> combined_example(pos_only=1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: combined_example() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword argumen

Finally, consider this function definition which has a potential collision between the positional argument
name and **kwds which has name as a key:

def foo(name, **kwds):

return 'name' in kwds

There is no possible call that will make it return True as the keyword 'name' will always bind to the first
parameter. For example:

>>> foo(1, **{'name': 2}) >>>

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: foo() got multiple values for argument 'name'
>>>

But using / (positional only arguments), it is possible since it allows name as a positional argument and
'name' as a key in the keyword arguments:

def foo(name, /, **kwds):

return 'name' in kwds
>>> foo(1, **{'name': 2})
True

In other words, the names of positional-only parameters can be used in **kwds without ambiguity.

4.8.3.5. Recap

The use case will determine which parameters to use in the function definition:

def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):

As guidance:

• Use positional-only if you want the name of the parameters to not be available to the user. This is useful
when parameter names have no real meaning, if you want to enforce the order of the arguments when
the function is called or if you need to take some positional parameters and arbitrary keywords.
• Use keyword-only when names have meaning and the function definition is more understandable by
being explicit with names or you want to prevent users relying on the position of the argument being
passed.
• For an API, use positional-only to prevent breaking API changes if the parameter’s name is modified in

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the future.
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4.8.4. Arbitrary Argument Lists

Finally, the least frequently used option is to specify that a function can be called with an arbitrary number
of arguments. These arguments will be wrapped up in a tuple (see Tuples and Sequences). Before the
variable number of arguments, zero or more normal arguments may occur.

def write_multiple_items(file, separator, *args):

file.write(separator.join(args))

Normally, these variadic arguments will be last in the list of formal parameters, because they scoop up all
remaining input arguments that are passed to the function. Any formal parameters which occur after the
*args parameter are ‘keyword-only’ arguments, meaning that they can only be used as keywords rather
than positional arguments.

>>> def concat(*args, sep="/"): >>>

... return sep.join(args)
...
>>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus")
'earth/mars/venus'
>>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus", sep=".")
'earth.mars.venus'

4.8.5. Unpacking Argument Lists

The reverse situation occurs when the arguments are already in a list or tuple but need to be unpacked for
a function call requiring separate positional arguments. For instance, the built-in range() function expects
separate start and stop arguments. If they are not available separately, write the function call with the
* -operator to unpack the arguments out of a list or tuple:

>>> list(range(3, 6)) # normal call with separate arguments >>>

[3, 4, 5]
>>> args = [3, 6]
>>> list(range(*args)) # call with arguments unpacked from a list
[3, 4, 5]

In the same fashion, dictionaries can deliver keyword arguments with the ** -operator:

>>> def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom'): >>>

... print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
... print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.", end=' ')
... print("E's", state, "!")
...
>>> d = {"voltage": "four million", "state": "bleedin' demised", "action": "VOOM"}
>>> parrot(**d)
-- This parrot wouldn't VOOM if you put four million volts through it. E's bleedin' demise

4.8.6. Lambda Expressions

Small anonymous functions can be created with the lambda keyword. This function returns the sum of its
two arguments: lambda a, b: a+b . Lambda functions can be used wherever function objects are
required. They are syntactically restricted to a single expression. Semantically, they are just syntactic sugar
for a normal function definition. Like nested function definitions, lambda functions can reference variables
from the containing scope:

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>>> make_incrementor(n):
def 3.10.4 >>>
Go
... return lambda x: x + n
...
>>> f = make_incrementor(42)
>>> f(0)
42
>>> f(1)
43

The above example uses a lambda expression to return a function. Another use is to pass a small function
as an argument:

>>> pairs = [(1, 'one'), (2, 'two'), (3, 'three'), (4, 'four')] >>>
>>> pairs.sort(key=lambda pair: pair[1])
>>> pairs
[(4, 'four'), (1, 'one'), (3, 'three'), (2, 'two')]

4.8.7. Documentation Strings

Here are some conventions about the content and formatting of documentation strings.

The first line should always be a short, concise summary of the object’s purpose. For brevity, it should not
explicitly state the object’s name or type, since these are available by other means (except if the name
happens to be a verb describing a function’s operation). This line should begin with a capital letter and end
with a period.

If there are more lines in the documentation string, the second line should be blank, visually separating the
summary from the rest of the description. The following lines should be one or more paragraphs describing
the object’s calling conventions, its side effects, etc.

The Python parser does not strip indentation from multi-line string literals in Python, so tools that process
documentation have to strip indentation if desired. This is done using the following convention. The first
non-blank line after the first line of the string determines the amount of indentation for the entire
documentation string. (We can’t use the first line since it is generally adjacent to the string’s opening quotes
so its indentation is not apparent in the string literal.) Whitespace “equivalent” to this indentation is then
stripped from the start of all lines of the string. Lines that are indented less should not occur, but if they
occur all their leading whitespace should be stripped. Equivalence of whitespace should be tested after
expansion of tabs (to 8 spaces, normally).

Here is an example of a multi-line docstring:

>>> def my_function(): >>>

... """Do nothing, but document it.
...
... No, really, it doesn't do anything.
... """
... pass
...
>>> print(my_function.__doc__)
Do nothing, but document it.

No, really, it doesn't do anything.

4.8.8. Function Annotations

Function annotations are completely optional metadata information about the types used by user-defined

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functions (see PEP 3107 and PEP 484 for more information).
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Annotations are stored in the __annotations__ attribute of the function as a dictionary and have no effect
on any other part of the function. Parameter annotations are defined by a colon after the parameter name,
followed by an expression evaluating to the value of the annotation. Return annotations are defined by a
literal -> , followed by an expression, between the parameter list and the colon denoting the end of the def
statement. The following example has a required argument, an optional argument, and the return value
annotated:

>>> def f(ham: str, eggs: str = 'eggs') -> str: >>>
... print("Annotations:", f.__annotations__)
... print("Arguments:", ham, eggs)
... return ham + ' and ' + eggs
...
>>> f('spam')
Annotations: {'ham': <class 'str'>, 'return': <class 'str'>, 'eggs': <class 'str'>}
Arguments: spam eggs
'spam and eggs'

4.9. Intermezzo: Coding Style

Now that you are about to write longer, more complex pieces of Python, it is a good time to talk about
coding style. Most languages can be written (or more concise, formatted) in different styles; some are more
readable than others. Making it easy for others to read your code is always a good idea, and adopting a
nice coding style helps tremendously for that.

For Python, PEP 8 has emerged as the style guide that most projects adhere to; it promotes a very
readable and eye-pleasing coding style. Every Python developer should read it at some point; here are the
most important points extracted for you:

• Use 4-space indentation, and no tabs.

4 spaces are a good compromise between small indentation (allows greater nesting depth) and large
indentation (easier to read). Tabs introduce confusion, and are best left out.

• Wrap lines so that they don’t exceed 79 characters.

This helps users with small displays and makes it possible to have several code files side-by-side on
larger displays.

• Use blank lines to separate functions and classes, and larger blocks of code inside functions.

• When possible, put comments on a line of their own.

• Use docstrings.

• Use spaces around operators and after commas, but not directly inside bracketing constructs: a = f(1,
2) + g(3, 4) .

• Name your classes and functions consistently; the convention is to use UpperCamelCase for classes
and lowercase_with_underscores for functions and methods. Always use self as the name for the
first method argument (see A First Look at Classes for more on classes and methods).

• Don’t use fancy encodings if your code is meant to be used in international environments. Python’s
default, UTF-8, or even plain ASCII work best in any case.

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• Likewise, don’t use non-ASCII characters in identifiers if there is only the slightest chance people
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speaking a different language will read or maintain the code.

Footnotes
"
[1] Actually, call by object reference would be a better description, since if a mutable object is passed, the
caller will see any changes the callee makes to it (items inserted into a list).

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