LOW-RESOLUTION

REVIEW COURTESY
COPY NOT FOR COPY
DISTRIBUTION
 CHRISTOPHERALEXANDER

ACITYISNOTATREE:
50TH ANNIVERSARYEDITION
WI
TH

MIKEBATTY*LUÍSBETTENCOURT *HOWARDDAVIS
J
AAPDAWSON*BI NJ
IANG *MI
CHAELW MEHAFFY
HANSJOACHIM NEI
S*DELLÉODELEYE*SERGI
O
PORTA*YODANROFÈ*MARI APIAVI
DOLI

AND OTHERCONTRI
BUTORS

EDI
TED BY

MI
CHAELW MEHAFFY

SUSTASISPRESS
I
N ASSOCI ON WI
ATI TH
CENTERFORENVIRONMENTALSTRUCTURE

1
 ISBN 978-0-9893469-7-9

Copyright © 2015 Sustasis Press

Sustasis Foundation, Portland, Oregon USA

2
 Table of Contents

Editor's Preface iv

Acknowledgements vi

I THE ORIGINAL 1965 TEXT

Chapter 1 A City is Not a Tree 1

Christopher Alexander
University of California, Berkeley and
Center for Environmental Structure

II CONTEMPORARY COMMENTARIES

Chapter 2 Alexander’s Challenge: 35

Beyond Hierarchy In City Systems and
Systems of Cities
Michael Batty
University College London

Chapter 3 The Complexity of Cities 45

and the Problem of Urban Design
Luís Bettencourt
Santa Fe Institute

Chapter 4 A Building Culture is Not a Tree 63

Howard Davis
University of Oregon

Chapter 5 A City is a World Full of Bodies 77

Jaap Dawson
Delft University of Technology

Chapter 6 A City is a Complex Network 89

Bin Jiang
University of G8vle
 Chapter 7 Notes on the genesis of wholes: 101
“A city is not a tree” in the larger
context of Alexander's work
Michael Mehaffy
Sustasis Foundation

Chapter 8 ‘A City is Not a Tree’ and 121

A New Theory of Urban Design
From Urban Critique to Environmental
Structure to Urban Process
Hans Joachim Neis
University of Oregon

Chapter 9 Alexander and Emerging 139

'Images of the City’:
On Form, Metaphor and Theory
Dellé Odeleye
Anglia Ruskin University

Chapter 10 The City and the Grid: 163

Building Beauty at Large Scale
Sergio Porta, Yodan Rofè, MariaPia Vidoli
University of Strathclyde, Switzerland Institute
for Dryland Environmental and Energy
Research, and Ben-Gurion University of
the Negev

III REMINISCENCES

Chapter 11 Robert Campbell, Bruce F. Donnelly, 185

Bill Hillier, Charles Jencks and Karl Kropf,
Fred Kent, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk,
Witold Rybczynski, John Worthington

IV DIALOGUE

Chapter 12 New Science... New Architecture? 199

A conversation on geometry, life, and the
challenges of the future
Christopher Alexander and Michael Mehaffy
Center for Environmental Structure (2003)

Appendix: Author Biographies 229

 Edi
tor
'sPr
efa
ce

Mi
chae
lW Me
haffy

“A City is Not a Tree” was first published in two parts in the American
journal Architectural Forum, in April and May 1965. Later that year it
won the prestigious Kauffman International Design Award, and the
jurors noted that "the principles he [Dr Alexander] describes, and the
analytical methods he adopts, are applicable at all levels of design".
The paper was subsequently re-published in over a dozen journals and
books, and later circulated endlessly on the Internet – but unfortunately,
in formats of uneven quality and accessibility.
This seminal work has not, however, appeared in its own dedicated
volume, a format where it might be studied and assessed more
thoughtfully, by students, researchers, and practitioners. Given its
seminal influence within the history of 20th Century design theory, my
colleagues and I – part of a research coordination network called the
Environmental Structure Research Network (ESRG) – felt that the
occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of its first publication would be an
appropriate time to meet that need. We present the original paper here
along with a collection of newer reflections, exegeses and critical
analyses by a number of leading scholars and practitioners.
The historical influence of this slight 7,500 word paper is difficult to
overstate. Its author, Christopher Alexander, has some 15 books to his
credit, many of them noted theoretical or philosophical works, and
several that are landmarks in their own right – among them Notes on
the Synthesis of Form and A Pattern Language. But “A City is Not a
Tree” has been arguably as influential for many in the field of
environmental design, and indeed in design more generally, as any of
his books.

v
A representative example may be Robert Campbell, a prominent
architecture critic for the Boston Globe, who said that Alexander had
“an enormous critical influence on my life and work, and I think that’s
true of a whole generation of people” – and he singled out “A City is
Not a Tree” as most influential for him.
Campbell recalled discovering the paper as a student in the library of
Harvard’s Graduate School of Design. “That was a landmark moment
in my development as a thinker and as an architect,” he said, speaking
at the National Building Museum in 2009. “It really blew away what
were the foundational principles of the education at Harvard in those
days, and it established in me an interest in actually looking at the
world – not looking at set of preconceived abstract mechanical ideas
that were supposed to replace the existing world.”
It is instructive that such a change of focus should be necessary – that a
profession bewitched by its own abstractions should need to have its
spell broken, as it were, by the blunt force of a clear and compelling
argument. It may also be instructive that it took so long for such an
argument even to appear. That it was Alexander who did so might be
explained by his work at Harvard and MIT, not only in their design
schools but perhaps more importantly (as he himself has said) in their
psychology departments, where he worked with legendary pioneers of
cognition like George A. Miller.
Much has been said about the mathematical argument that Alexander
makes, the one derived from set theory, with a close relation to network
theory. This subject was later to blossom within the field of complexity
science, with contributions to urban studies (including the development
of Space Syntax, as our co-contributor Bill Hillier notes). Perhaps more
should be noted about Alexander’s description, later in the paper, of
cognitive biases and distortions, and the tendency of human minds to
organize things in particular ways that are subtle but enormously
consequential. In that sense, Alexander may have been an early
contributor to the psychology of bounded rationality and cognitive bias,
and their sometimes profound impacts on human life and social
vi
organization. If this is true, then perhaps the modern professions of
environmental design are, while not the only examples of such
cognitive distortions, then perhaps, “Exhibit A” in the case for reform.
The accompanying essays by contemporary authors assess the paper, its
legacy, and its relevance to contemporary challenges. They do not, as a
rule, attack the paper, or its author, by presenting critical dismissals or
revisionist history, or even detailed critiques of technical aspects of
Alexander's argument.
There are two reasons why we have refrained from including such
critical texts. One is that the reader can find quite a few of them
elsewhere; indeed, Alexander is a popular target in some quarters,
including many corners of architectural academia. The other is that,
speaking quite frankly, we believe the time has come to look for the
forest and not the trees. The latter may be a fond habit – but it may
also be a major reason that architectural academia is in crisis, while its
relevance is challenged as never before.
At present, the world is urbanizing at an unprecedented rate: on track to
produce more urban fabric in the first third of the Twenty-first Century
than in all of human history. In that light, whatever else we may say
about the strengths and weaknesses of this historic paper, we will say
this: the insightful connections it developed could not be more relevant
and even urgent, forming a provocative and compelling argument for
reform today. In one way or another, most of the essays by the other
contributors revolve around the question of what we have learned in the
half-century since publication – and perhaps, in too many cases, what
we still have to learn.

vii
 Ac
knowl
edg
eme
nts

First and foremost, the authors and publishers are greatly indebted to
Christopher Alexander for writing the original paper included herein,
and to him and his wife Maggie Alexander for graciously supporting
this project, and giving their permission for the paper to be re-
published. We are also indebted to Chris and Maggie for supporting
the creation of the Environmental Structure Research Network (ESRG),
a number of whose members contributed to this volume.
Secondly, we are indebted to those co-authors, who have contributed
their own thoughtful exegeses on this text. They have provided an
invaluable mix of perspectives from the half-century point since
publication.
Thanks to fellow board members of Sustasis Foundation, Ward
Cunningham and Bernard Franceschi, for supporting this project with
their ideas and suggestions, and with their own generous funds.
Thanks also to other donors to Sustasis Foundation in support of this
project and related initiatives, notably Besim Hakim of Albuquerque,
and Susan and Fred Ingham of Seattle. We are most grateful to you and
to other supporters, past and future, who make this work possible.
Thanks to my colleague Nikos Salingaros, who gave his time,
assistance and ideas to this and other related projects of Sustasis Press.
Special thanks to Yulia Kryazhneva of Yulia Ink in Amsterdam for
cover design, copy-setting and formatting, and to Levellers Press in
Boston for printing and fulfillment.

- Michael Mehaffy, Sustasis Press

ix
ITHEORI
GINAL1965TEXT
 Cha
pte
r1

ACi
tyi
sNotaTr
ee

Chr
is
top
herAl
exa
nde
r

The tree of my title is not a green tree with leaves. It is the name of an
abstract structure. I shall contrast it with another, more complex
abstract structure called a semilattice. In order to relate these abstract
structures to the nature of the city, I must first make a simple
distinction.

I want to call those cities which have arisen more or less spontaneously
over many, many years natural cities. And I shall call those cities and
parts of cities which have been deliberately created by designers and
planners artificial cities. Siena, Liverpool, Kyoto, Manhattan are
examples of natural cities. Levittown, Chandigarh and the British New
Towns are examples of artificial cities.

It is more and more widely recognized today that there is some

essential ingredient missing from artificial cities. When compared with
ancient cities that have acquired the patina of life, our modern attempts
to create cities artificially are, from a human point of view, entirely
unsuccessful.

Architects themselves admit more and more freely that they really like
living in old buildings more than new ones. The non-art-loving public
at large, instead of being grateful to architects for what they do, regards
the onset of modern buildings and modern cities everywhere as an
inevitable, rather sad piece of the larger fact that the world is going to
the dogs.

1
It is much too easy to say that these opinions represent only people's
unwillingness to forget the past, and their determination to be
traditional. For myself, I trust this conservatism. People are usually
willing to move with the times. Their growing reluctance to accept the
modern city evidently expresses a longing for some real thing,
something which for the moment escapes our grasp.

The prospect that we may be turning the world into a place peopled
only by little glass and concrete boxes has alarmed many architects,
too. To combat the glass box future, many valiant protests and designs
have been put forward, all hoping to recreate in modern form the
various characteristics of the natural city which seem to give it life. But
so far these designs have only remade the old. They have not been able
to create the new.

Outrage, the Architectural Review's campaign against the way in which

new construction and telegraph poles are wrecking the English town,
based its remedies, essentially, on the idea that the spatial sequence of
buildings and open spaces must be controlled if scale is to be preserved
- an idea that really derives from Camillo Sitte's book about ancient
squares and piazzas.

Another kind of remedy, in protest against the monotony of Levittown,

tries to recapture the richness of shape found in the houses of a natural
old town. Llewelyn Davies' village at Rushbrooke in England is an
example - each cottage is slightly different from its neighbour, the roofs
jut in and out at picturesque angles, the shapes are 'interesting' and cute.

A third suggested remedy is to get high density back into the city. The
seems to be that if the whole metropolis could only be like Grand
Central Station, with lots and lots of layers and tunnels all over the
place, and enough people milling around in them, maybe it would be
human again. The artificial urbanity of Victor Gruen's schemes and of
the LCC's scheme for Hook New Town, both betray this thought at
work.

2
Another very brilliant critic of the deadness which is everywhere is
Jane Jacobs. Her criticisms are excellent. But when you read her
concrete proposals for what we should do instead, you get the idea that
she wants the great modern city to be a sort of mixture between
Greenwich Village and some Italian hill town, full of short blocks and
people sitting in the street.

The problem these designers have tried to face is real. It is vital that we
discover the property of old towns which gave them life, and get it back
into our own artificial cities. But we cannot do this merely by remaking
English villages, Italian piazzas and Grand Central Stations. Too many
designers today seem to be yearning for the physical and plastic
characteristics of the past, instead of searching for the abstract ordering
principle which the towns of the past happened to have, and which our
modern conceptions of the city have not yet found. These designers fail
to put new life into the city, because they merely imitate the appearance
of the old, its concrete substance: they fail to unearth its inner nature.

What is the inner nature, the ordering principle, which distinguishes the
artificial city from the natural city? You will have guessed from the first
paragraph what I believe this ordering principle to be. I believe that a
natural city has the organisation of a semilattice; but that when we
organise a city artificially, we organise it as a tree.

Trees and semilattices

Both the tree and the semilattice are ways of thinking about how a large
collection of many small systems goes to make up a large and complex
system. More generally, they are both names for structures of sets.

In order to define such structures, let me first define the concept of a

set. A set is a collection of elements which for some reason we think of
as belonging together. Since, as designers, we are concerned with the
physical living city and its physical backbone, we must naturally

3
restrict ourselves to considering sets which are collections of material
elements such as people, blades of grass, cars, molecules, houses,
gardens, water pipes, the water molecules in them etc.

When the elements of a set belong together because they co-operate or

work together somehow, we call the set of elements a system.

Here is an example (photo below). In Berkeley at the corner of Hearst

and Euclid, there is a drugstore, and outside the drugstore a traffic light.
In the entrance to the drugstore there is a newsrack where the day's
papers are displayed. When the light is red, people who are waiting to
cross the street stand idly by the light; and since they have nothing to
do, they look at the papers displayed on the newsrack which they can
see from where they stand. Some of them just read the headlines, others
actually buy a paper while they wait.

The corner of Hearst and Euclid as it appeared in 2015. Photo courtesy Google.

This effect makes the newsrack and the traffic light interactive; the
newsrack, the newspapers on it, the money going from people's pockets
to the dime slot, the people who stop at the light and read papers, the
traffic light, the electric impulses which make the lights change, and the

4
sidewalk which the people stand on form a system - they all work
together.

From the designer's point of view, the physically unchanging part of

this system is of special interest. The newsrack, the traffic light and the
pavement between them, related as they are, form the fixed part of the
system. It is the unchanging receptacle in which the changing parts of
the system – people, newspapers, money and electrical impulses - can
work together. I define this fixed part as a unit of the city. It derives its
coherence as a unit both from the forces which hold its own elements
together and from the dynamic coherence of the larger living system
which includes it as a fixed invariant part.

Other examples of systems in the city are: the set of particles which go
to make up a building; the set of particles which go to make up a
human body; the cars on the freeway, plus the people in them, plus the
freeway they are driving on; two friends on the phone, plus the
telephones they hold, plus the telephone line connecting them;
Telegraph Hill with all its buildings, services and inhabitants; the chain
of Rexall drug stores; the physical elements of San Francisco that fall
under the administrative authority of City Hall; everything within the
physical boundary of San Francisco, plus all the people who visit the
city regularly and contribute to its development (like Bob Hope or the
president of Arthur D. Little), plus all the major sources of economic
welfare which supply the city with its wealth; the dog next door, plus
my garbage can, plus the garbage out of my garbage can which he lives
on; the San Francisco chapter of the John Birch Society.

Each one of these is a set of elements made coherent and co-operative

by some sort of inner binding forces. And each one, just like the traffic
light - newsrack system, has a physically fixed part which we think of
as a unit of the city.

Of the many, many fixed concrete subsets of the city which are the
receptacles for its systems and can therefore be thought of as significant

5
physical units, we usually single out a few for special consideration. In
fact, I claim that whatever picture of the city someone has is defined
precisely by the subsets he sees as units.

Now, a collection of subsets which goes to make up such a picture is

not merely an amorphous collection. Automatically, merely because
relationships are established among the subsets once the subsets are
chosen, the collection has a definite structure.

To understand this structure, let us think abstractly for a moment, using

numbers as symbols. Instead of talking about the real sets of millions of
real particles which occur in the city, let us consider a simpler structure
made of just half a dozen elements. Label these elements 1,2,3,4,5,6.
Not including the full set [1,2,3,4,5,6], the empty set [-], and the one-
element sets [1],[2],[3],[4],[5],[6], there are 56 different subsets we can
pick from six elements.

Suppose we now pick out certain of these 56 sets (just as we pick out
certain sets and call them units when we form our picture of the city).
Let us say, for example, that we pick the following subsets: [123], [34],
[45], [234], [345], [12345], [3456].

What are the possible relationships among these sets? Some sets will be
entirely part of larger sets, as [34] is part of [345] and [3456]. Some of
the sets will overlap, like [123] and [234]. Some of the sets will be
disjoint - that is, contain no elements in common like [123] and [45].

Diagram A Diagram B

6
We can see these relationships displayed in two ways. In diagram A
(above) each set chosen to be a unit has a line drawn round it. In
diagram B the chosen sets are arranged in order of ascending
magnitude, so that whenever one set contains another (as [345] contains
[34], there is a vertical path leading from one to the other. For the sake
of clarity and visual economy, it is usual to draw lines only between
sets which have no further sets and lines between them; thus the line
between [34] and [345] and the line between [345] and [3456] make it
unnecessary to draw a line between [34] and [3456].

As we see from these two representations, the choice of subsets alone

endows the collection of subsets as a whole with an overall structure.
This is the structure which we are concerned with here. When the
structure meets certain conditions it is called a semilattice. When it
meets other more restrictive conditions, it is called a tree.

The semilattice axiom goes like this: A collection of sets forms a

semilattice if and only if, when two overlapping sets belong to the collection,
the set of elements common to both also belongs to the collection.

The structure illustrated in diagrams A and B is a semilattice. It satisfies

the axiom since, for instance, [234] and [345] both belong to the
collection and their common part, [34], also belongs to it. (As far as
the city is concerned, this axiom states merely that wherever two units
overlap, the area of overlap is itself a recognizable entity and hence a
unit also. In the case of the drugstore example, one unit consists of
newsrack, sidewalk and traffic light. Another unit consists of the
drugstore itself, with its entry and the newsrack. The two units overlap
in the newsrack. Clearly this area of overlap is itself a recognizable unit
and so satisfies the axiom above which defines the characteristics of a
semilattice.)

The tree axiom states: A collection of sets forms a tree if and only if, for any
two sets that belong to the collection either one is wholly contained in the
other, or else they are wholly disjoint.

7
The structure illustrated in diagrams C and D (below) is a tree. Since
this axiom excludes the possibility of overlapping sets, there is no way
in which the semilattice axiom can be violated, so that every tree is a
trivially simple semilattice.

Diagram C Diagram D

However, in this paper we are not so much concerned with the fact that
a tree happens to be a semilattice, but with the difference between trees
and those more general semilattices which are not trees because they do
contain overlapping units. We are concerned with the difference
between structures in which no overlap occurs, and those structures in
which overlap does occur.

It is not merely the overlap which makes the distinction between the
two important. Still more important is the fact that the semilattice is
potentially a much more complex and subtle structure than a tree. We
may see just how much more complex a semilattice can be than a tree
in the following fact: a tree based on 20 elements can contain at most
19 further subsets of the 20, while a semilattice based on the same 20
elements can contain more than 1,000,000 different subsets.

This enormously greater variety is an index of the great structural

complexity a semilattice can have when compared with the structural
simplicity of a tree. It is this lack of structural complexity, characteristic
of trees, which is crippling our conceptions of the city.

8
Artificial cities which are trees

To demonstrate, let us look at some modern conceptions of the city,

each of which I shall show to be essentially a tree. It will perhaps be
useful, while we look at these plans, to have a little ditty in our minds:

“Big fleas have little fleas

Upon their backs to bite 'em;
Little fleas have lesser fleas,
And so ad infinitum.”

This rhyme expresses perfectly and succinctly the structural principle

of the tree.

Examples

Figure 1. Columbia, Maryland,

Community Research and
Development, Inc.: Neighbour-
hoods, in clusters of five, form
'villages'. Transportation joins
the villages into a new town. The
organization is a tree.

9
 Figure 2. Greenbelt, Maryland,
Clarence Stein: This 'garden city'
has been broken down into
superblocks. Each super-block
contains schools, parks and a
number of subsidiary groups of
houses built around parking lots.
The organization is a tree.

Figure 3. Greater London plan

(1943), Abercrombie and
Forshaw: The drawing depicts
the structure conceived by Aber-
crombie for London. It is made
of a large number of commu-
nities, each sharply separated
from all adjacent communities.
Abercrombie writes, 'The pro-
posal is to emphasize the identity
of the existing communities, to
increase their degree of seg-
regation, and where necessary to
recognize them as separate and
definite entities.' And again, 'The
communities themselves consist of a series of sub-units, generally with
their own shops and schools, corresponding to the neighbourhood
units.' The city is conceived as a tree with two principal levels. The

10
communities are the larger units of the structure; the smaller sub-units
are neighbourhoods. There are no overlapping units. The structure is a
tree.

Figure 4. Tokyo plan, Kenzo

Tange: This is a beautiful
example. The plan consists of
a series of loops stretched
across Tokyo Bay. There are
four major loops, each of
which contains three medium
loops. In the second major
loop, one medium loop is the
railway station and another is
the port. Otherwise, each
medium loop contains three
minor loops which are
residential neighbourhoods,
except in the third major loop
where one contains govern-
ment offices and another
industrial offices.

11
 Figure 5. Mesa City, Paolo
Soleri: The organic shapes
of Mesa City lead us, at a
careless glance, to believe
that it is a richer structure
than our more obviously
rigid examples. But when
we look at it in detail we
find precisely the same
principle of organi-zation.
Take, particularly, the
university centre. Here we
find the centre of the city
divided into a uni-versity
and a residential quarter,
which is itself divided into a
number of villages (actually
apart-ment towers) for 4000
inhabitants, each again
subdivided further and
surrounded by groups of still
smaller dwelling units.

12
 Figure 6. Chandigarh (1951),
Le Corbusier: The whole city is
served by a commercial centre
in the middle, linked to the
administrative centre at the
head. Two subsidiary elongated
commercial cores are strung out
along the major arterial roads,
running north-south. Subsidiary
to these are further adminis-
trative, community and com-
mercial centres, one for each of
the city's 20 sectors.

Figure 7. Brasilia, Lucio Costa:

The entire form pivots about
the central axis, and each of the
two halves is served by a single
main artery. This main artery is
in turn fed by subsidiary
arteries parallel to it. Finally,
these are fed by the roads
which surround the superblocks
themselves. The structure is a
tree.

13
 Figure 8. Communitas, Percival
and Paul Goodman: Commun-
itas is explicitly organized as a
tree: it is first divided into four
concentric major zones, the
innermost being a commercial
centre, the next a university, the
third residential and medical,
and the fourth open country.
Each of these is further sub-
divided: the commercial centre
is represented as a great cylin-
drical skyscraper, containing
five layers: airport, admini-
stration, light manufacture,
shopping and amusement; and,
at the bottom, railroads, buses
and mechanical services. The
university is divided into eight
sectors comprising natural history, zoos and aquariums, planetarium,
science laboratories, plastic arts, music and drama. The third concentric
ring is divided into neighbourhoods of 4000 people each, not consisting
of individual houses, but of apartment blocks, each of these containing
individual dwelling units. Finally, the open country is divided into three
segments: forest preserves, agriculture and vacation lands. The overall
organization is a tree.

14
Figure 9. The most beautiful example of all I have kept until last,
because it symbolizes the problem perfectly. It appears in
Hilberseimer's book The Nature of Cities. He describes the fact that
certain Roman towns had their origin as military camps, and then
shows a picture of a modern military encampment as a kind of
archetypal form for the city. It is not possible to have a structure which
is a clearer tree. The symbol is apt, for, of course, the organization of
the army was designed precisely in order to create discipline and
rigidity. The photograph on the [left] is Hilberseimer's own scheme for
the commercial area of a city based on the army camp archetype.

Each of these structures is a tree.

The units of which an artificial city is made up are always organised to

form a tree. So that we get a really clear understanding of what this
means, let us define a tree again:

Whenever we have a tree structure, it means that within this struc-

ture no piece of any unit is ever connected to other units, except
through the medium of that unit as a whole.

The enormity of this restriction is difficult to grasp. It is a little as

though the members of a family were not free to make friends outside
the family, except when the family as a whole made a friendship.

15
The structural simplicity of trees is like the compulsive desire for
neatness and order that insists that the candlesticks on a mantelpiece be
perfectly straight and perfectly symmetrical about the centre. The
semilattice, by comparison, is the structure of a complex fabric; it is the
structure of living things - of great paintings and symphonies.

It must be emphasised, lest the orderly mind shrink in horror from

anything that is not clearly articulated and categorised in tree form, that
the ideas of overlap, ambiguity, multiplicity of aspect, and the
semilattice, are not less orderly than the rigid tree, but more so. They
represent a thicker, tougher, more subtle and more complex view of
structure.

Let us now look at the ways in which the natural city, when
unconstrained by artificial conceptions, shows itself to be a semilattice.

A living city is and needs to be a semilattice

Each unit in each tree that I have described is the fixed, unchanging
residue of some system in the living city. A house , for example, is the
residue of the interactions between the members of a family, their
emotions and their belongings. A freeway is the residue of movement
and commercial exchange. But a tree contains only very few such units
– so that in a tree-like city only a very few of its systems can have a
physical counterpart. Thousands of important systems have no physical
counterpart.

In the worst trees, the units which do appear fail to correspond to any
living reality; and the real systems, whose existence actually makes the
city live, have been provided with no physical receptacle.

Neither the Columbia plan nor the Stein plan for example, corresponds
to social realities. The physical layout of the plans, and the way they
function suggests a hierarchy of stronger and stronger closed social

16
groups, ranging from the whole city down to the family, each formed
by associational ties of different strength.

In a traditional so-
ciety, if we ask a man
to name his best
friends and then ask
each of these in turn
to name their best
friends, they will all
name each other so
that they form a
closed group. A
village is made up of
a number of separate
closed groups of this
kind. (Upper draw-
ing, Fig. 10.)
Figure 10

But today's social structure is utterly different. If we ask a man to name

his friends and then ask them in turn to name their friends, they will all
name different people, very likely unknown to the first person; these
people would again name others, and so on outwards. There are
virtually no closed groups of people in modern society. The reality of
today's social structure is thick with overlap - the systems of friends
and acquaintances form a semilattice, not a tree. (Lower drawing, Fig.
10.)

In the natural city, even the house on a long street (not in some little
cluster) is a more accurate acknowledgement of the fact that your
friends live not next door, but far away, and can only be reached by bus
or car. In this respect Manhattan has more overlap in it than Greenbelt.
And though one can argue that in Greenbelt, too, friends are only
minutes away by car, one must then ask: since certain groups have been

17
emphasized by the physical units of the physical structure, why are just
these the most irrelevant ones?

Another aspect of the city's social structure which a tree can never
mirror properly is illustrated by Ruth Glass's redevelopment plan for
Middlesbrough, England, a city of 200,000 which she recommends be
broken down into 29 separate neighbourhoods. After picking her 29
neighbourhoods by determining where the sharpest discontinuities of
building type, income and job type occur, she asks herself the question:
'If we examine some of the social systems which actually exist for the
people in such a neighbourhood, do the physical units defined by these
various social systems all define the same spatial neighbourhood?' Her
own answer to this question is no.

Each of the social systems she examines is a nodal system. It is made of

some sort of central node, plus the people who use this centre.
Specifically she takes elementary schools, secondary schools, youth
clubs, adult clubs, post offices,
greengrocers and grocers selling
sugar. Each of these centres draws
its users from a certain spatial area
or spatial unit. This spatial unit is
the physical residue of the social
system as a whole, and is therefore
a unit in the terms of this
discussion. The units corresponding
to different kinds of centres for the
single neighbourhood of Waterloo
Road are shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11

The hard outline is the boundary of the so-called neighbourhood

itself. The white circle stands for the youth club, and the small solid
rings stand for areas where its members live. The ringed spot is the
adult club, and the homes of its members form the unit marked by
dashed boundaries. The white square is the post office, and the dotted

18
line marks the unit which contains its users. The secondary school is
marked by the spot with a white triangle in it. Together with its pupils,
it forms the system marked by the dot-dashed line.

As you can see at once, the different units do not coincide. Yet neither
are they disjoint. They overlap.

We cannot get an adequate picture of what Middlesbrough is, or of

what it ought to be, in terms of 29 large and conveniently integral
Chunks called neighbourhoods. When we describe the city in terms of
neighbourhoods, we implicitly assume that the smaller elements within
any one of these neighbourhoods belong together so tightly that they
only interact with elements in other neighbourhoods through the
medium of the neighbourhoods to which they themselves belong. Ruth
Glass herself shows clearly that this is not the case.

On the following page are two representations of the Waterloo

neighbourhood. For the sake of argument I have broken it into a
number of small areas. Figure 12 (following page) shows how these
pieces stick together in fact, and Figure 13 shows how the
redevelopment plan pretends they stick together.

There is nothing in the nature of the various centres which says that
their catchment areas should be the same. Their natures are different.
Therefore the units they define are different. The natural city of
Middlesbrough was faithful to the semilattice structure of the units.
Only in the artificial-tree conception of the city are their natural, proper
and necessary overlaps destroyed.

The same thing happens on a smaller scale. Take the separation of

pedestrians from moving vehicles, a tree concept proposed by Le
Corbusier, Louis Kahn and many others. At a very crude level of
thought this is obviously a good idea. It is dangerous to have 60 mph
cars in contact with little children toddling. But it is not always a good

19
 Figure 12

Figure 13

idea. There are times when the ecology of a situation actually demands
the opposite. Imagine yourself coming out of a Fifth Avenue store: you
have been shopping all afternoon; your arms are full of parcels; you
need a drink; your wife is limping. Thank God for taxis!

Yet the urban taxi can function only because pedestrians and vehicles
are not strictly separated. The cruising taxi needs a fast stream of traffic
so that it can cover a large area to be sure of finding a passenger. The
pedestrian needs to be able to hail the taxi from any point in the
pedestrian world, and to be able to get out to any part of the pedestrian
world to which he wants to go. The system which contains the taxicabs
needs to overlap both the fast vehicular traffic system and the system of

20
pedestrian circulation. In Manhattan pedestrians and vehicles do share
certain parts of the city, and the necessary overlap is guaranteed (Figure
14).

Figure 14

Another favourite concept of the CIAM theorists and others is the

separation of recreation from everything else. This has crystallized in
our real cities in the form of playgrounds. The playground, asphalted
and fenced in, is nothing but a pictorial acknowledgment of the fact that
'play' exists as an isolated concept in our minds. It has nothing to do
with the life of play itself. Few self-respecting children will even play
in a playground.

Play itself, the play that children practise, goes on somewhere different
every day. One day it may be indoors, another day in a friendly gas
station, another day down by the river, another day in a derelict
building, another day on a construction site which has been abandoned
for the weekend. Each of these play activities, and the objects it
requires, forms a system. It is not true that these systems exist in
isolation, cut off from the other systems of the city. The different
systems overlap one another, and they overlap many other systems
besides. The units, the physical places recognized as play places, must
do the same.

21
In a natural city this is what happens. Play takes place in a thousand
places it fills the interstices of adult life. As they play, children become
full of their surroundings. How can children become filled with their
surroundings in a fenced enclosure! They cannot.

A similar kind of mistake occurs in trees like that of Goodman's

Communitas or Soleri's Mesa City, which separate the university from
the rest of the city. Again, this has actually been realized in the common
American form of the isolated campus.

What is the reason for drawing a line in the city so that everything
within the boundary is university, and everything outside is
nonuniversity? It is conceptually clear. But does it correspond to the
realities of university life? Certainly it is not the structure which occurs
in nonartificial university cities.

Take Cambridge University, for instance. At certain points, Trinity

Street is physically almost indistinguishable from Trinity College. One
pedestrian crossover in the street is literally part of the college. The
buildings on the street, though they contain stores and coffee shops and
banks at ground level, contain undergraduates' rooms in their upper
stories. In many cases the actual fabric of the street buildings melts into
the fabric of the old college buildings so that one cannot be altered
without the other.

Figure 15
22
There will always be many systems of activity where university life and
city life overlap: pub-crawling, coffee-drinking, the movies, walking
from place to place. In some cases whole departments may be actively
involved in the life of the city's inhabitants (the hospital-cum-medical
school is an example). In Cambridge, a natural city where university
and city have grown together gradually, the physical units overlap
because they are the physical residues of city systems and university
systems which overlap (Figure 15, previous page).

Let us look next at the hierarchy of urban cores realized in Brasilia,

Chandigarh, the MARS plan for London and, most recently, in the
Manhattan Lincoln Center, where various performing arts serving the
population of greater New York have been gathered together to form
just one core.

Does a concert hall ask to be next to an opera house? Can the two feed
on one another? Will anybody ever visit them both, gluttonously, in a
single evening, or even buy tickets from one after going to a
performance in the other? In Vienna, London, Paris, each of the
performing arts has found its own place, because all are not mixed
randomly. Each has created its own familiar section of the city. In
Manhattan itself, Carnegie Hall and the Metropolitan Opera House
were not built side by side. Each found its own place, and now creates
its own atmosphere. The influence of each overlaps the parts of the city
which have been made unique to it.

The only reason that these functions have all been brought together in
Lincoln Center is that the concept of performing art links them to one
another.

But this tree, and the idea of a single hierarchy of urban cores which is
its parent, do not illuminate the relations between art and city life. They
are merely born of the mania every simple-minded person has for
putting things with the same name into the same basket.

23
The total separation of work from housing, started by Tony Garnier in
his industrial city, then incorporated in the 1929 Athens Charter, is now
found in every artificial city and accepted everywhere where zoning is
enforced. Is this a sound principle? It is easy to see how bad conditions
at the beginning of the century prompted planners to try to get the dirty
factories out of residential areas. But the separation misses a variety of
systems which require, for their sustenance, little parts of both.

Jane Jacobs describes the growth of backyard industries in Brooklyn.

A man who wants to start a small business needs space, which he is
very likely to have in his own backyard. He also needs to establish
connections with larger going enterprises and with their customers.
This means that the system of backyard industry needs to belong to
both the residential zone, and to the industrial zone – these zones need
to overlap. In Brooklyn they do (Figure 16, below). In a city which is a
tree, they don't.

Figure 16

Finally, let us examine the subdivision of the city into isolated

communities. As we have seen in the Abercrombie plan for London,
this is itself a tree structure. The individual community in a greater city
has no reality as a functioning unit. In London, as in any great city,
almost no one manages to find work which suits him near his home.
People in one community work in a factory which is very likely to be in
another community.

24
There are, therefore, many hundreds of thousands of worker-workplace
systems, each consisting of individuals plus the factory they work in,
which cut across the boundaries defined by Abercrombie's tree. The
existence of these units, and their overlapping nature, indicates that the
living systems of London form a semilattice. Only in the planner's mind
has it become a tree.

The fact that we have so far failed to give this any physical expression
has a vital consequence. As things are, whenever the worker and his
workplace belong to separately administered municipalities, the
community which contains the workplace collects huge taxes and has
relatively little on which to spend the tax revenue. The community
where the worker lives, if it is mainly residential, collects only little in
the way of taxes and yet has great additional burdens on its purse in the
form of schools, hospitals, etc. Clearly, to resolve this inequity, the
worker-workplace systems must be anchored in physically recognizable
units of the city which can then be taxed.

It might be argued that, even though the individual communities of a

great city have no functional significance in the lives of their
inhabitants, they are still the most convenient administrative units, and
should therefore be left in their present tree organization.

However, in the political complexity of a modern city, even this is

suspect.

Edward Banfield, in his book Political Influence, gives a detailed

account of the patterns of influence and control that have actually led to
decisions in Chicago. He shows that, although the lines of
administrative and executive control have a formal structure which is a
tree, these formal chains of influence and authority are entirely
overshadowed by the ad hoc lines of control which arise naturally as
each new city problem presents itself. These ad hoc lines depend on
who is interested in the matter, who has what at stake, who has what
favours to trade with whom.

25
This second structure, which is informal, working within the
framework of the first, is what really controls public action. It varies
from week to week, even from hour to hour, as one problem replaces
another. Nobody's sphere of influence is entirely under the control of
any one superior; each person is under different influences as the
problems change. Although the organization chart in the Mayor's office
is a tree, the actual control and exercise of authority is semilattice-like.

The origin of tree-like thought

The tree - though so neat and beautiful as a mental device, though it

offers such a simple and clear way of dividing a complex entity into
units - does not describe correctly the actual structure of naturally
occurring cities, and does not describe the structure of the cities which
we need.

Now, why is it that so many designers have conceived cities as trees

when the natural structure is in every case a semilattice? Have they
done so deliberately, in the belief that a tree structure will serve the
people of the city better? Or have they done it because they cannot help
it, because they are trapped by a mental habit, perhaps even trapped by
the way the mind works - because they cannot encompass the
complexity of a semilattice in any convenient mental form, because the
mind has an overwhelming predisposition to see trees wherever it looks
and cannot escape the tree conception?

I shall try to convince you that it is for this second reason that trees are
being proposed and built as cities - that is, because designers, limited as
they must be by the capacity of the mind to form intuitively accessible
structures, cannot achieve the complexity of the semilattice in a single
mental act.

Let me begin with an example. Suppose I ask you to remember the

following four objects: an orange, a watermelon, an American football,

26
 Some of you will take the two fruits
together, the orange and the
watermelon, and the two sports
balls together, the football and the
tennis ball. Those of you who tend
to think in terms of physical shape
may group them differently, taking
the two small spheres together - the
orange and the tennis ball and the
two large and more egg-shaped
objects – the watermelon and the
football. Some of you will be aware
of both.

Either grouping taken by itself is a

tree structure. The two together are
a semilattice (see Figure 17).

Now let us try and visualize these

groupings in the mind's eye. I think
you will find that you cannot
visualize all four sets simul-
taneously – because they overlap.
You can visualize one pair of sets
and then the other, and you can
alternate between the two pairs
extremely fast, so that you may
Figure 17 deceive yourself into thinking you

27
can visualize them all together. But in truth, you cannot conceive all
four sets at once in a single mental act.

You cannot bring the semilattice structure into a visualizable form for a
single mental act. In a single mental act you can only visualize a tree.

This is the problem we face as designers. While we are not, perhaps,

necessarily occupied with the problem of total visualization in a single
mental act, the principle is still the same. The tree is accessible
mentally and easy to deal with. The semilattice is hard to keep before
the mind's eye and therefore hard to deal with.

It is known today that grouping and categorization are among the most
primitive psychological processes. Modern psychology treats thought
as a process of fitting new situations into existing slots and pigeonholes
in the mind. Just as you cannot put a physical thing into more than one
physical pigeonhole at once, so, by analogy, the processes of thought
prevent you from putting a mental construct into more than one mental
category at once. Study of the origin of these processes suggests that
they stem essentially from the organism's need to reduce the
complexity of its environment by establishing barriers between the
different events that it encounters.

It is for this reason - because the mind's first function is to reduce the
ambiguity and overlap in a confusing situation and because, to this end,
it is endowed with a basic intolerance for ambiguity - that structures
like the city, which do require overlapping sets within them, are
nevertheless persistently conceived as trees.

The same rigidity dogs even perception of physical patterns. In

experiments by Huggins and myself at Harvard, we showed people
patterns whose internal units overlapped, and found that they almost
always invent a way of seeing the patterns as a tree - even when the
semilattice view of the patterns would have helped them perform the
task of experimentation which was before them.

28
 Figure 18

In Figure 18 (above), the original is shown at left, with two fairly

typical re-drawn versions to the right. In the redrawn versions the
circles are separated from the rest; the overlap between triangles and
circles disappears.

These experiments suggest strongly that people have an underlying

tendency, when faced by a complex organization, to reorganize it
mentally in terms of non-overlapping units. The complexity of the
semilattice is replaced by the simpler and more easily grasped tree
form.

You are no doubt wondering by now what a city looks like which is a
semilattice, but not a tree. I must confess that I cannot yet show you
plans or sketches. It is not enough merely to make a demonstration of
overlap – the overlap must be the right overlap. This is doubly
important because it is so tempting to make plans in which overlap
occurs for its own sake. This is essentially what the high- density 'life-

29
filled' city plans of recent years do. But overlap alone does not give
structure. It can also give chaos. A garbage can is full of overlap. To
have structure, you must have the right overlap, and this is for us
almost certainly different from the old overlap which we observe in
historic cities. As the relationships between functions change, so the
systems which need to overlap in order to receive these relationships
must also change. The recreation of old kinds of overlap will be
inappropriate, and chaotic instead of structured.

Figure 19a Figure 19b

One can perhaps make the physical consequences of overlap more

com-prehensible by means of an image. The painting illustrated at left
is a work by Simon Nicholson (Figure 19a). The fascination of this
painting lies in the fact that, although constructed of rather few simple
triangular elements, these elements unite in many different ways to
form the large units of the painting - in such a way indeed that, if we
make a complete inventory of the perceived units in the painting, we
find that each triangle enters into four or five completely different kinds
of unit, none contained in the others, yet all overlapping in that triangle.

Thus, if we number the triangles and pick out the sets of triangles
which appear as strong visual units (Figure 19b, above), we get the
semilattice shown in Figure 20 (below).

30
Triangles 3 and 5 form a unit be-
cause they work together as a
rectangle; 2 and 4 because they
form a parallelogram; 5 and 6
because they are both dark and
pointing the same way; 6 and 7
because one is the ghost of the
other shifted sideways; 4 and 7
because they are symmetrical
with one another; 4 and 6 because
they form another rectangle; 4
and 5 because they form a sort of
Z; 2 and 3 because they form a
rather thinner kind of Z; 1 and 7
because they are at opposite
Figure 20
corners; 1 and 2 because they are
a rectangle; 3 and 4 because they point the same way as 5 and 6, and
form a sort of off-centre reflection; 3 and 6 because they enclose 4 and
5; 1 and S because they enclose 2, 3 and 4. I have only listed the units
of two triangles. The larger units are even more complex. The white is
more complex still and is not even included in the diagram because it is
harder to be sure of its elementary pieces.

The painting is significant, not so much because it has overlap in it

(many paintings have overlap in them), but rather because this painting
has nothing else in it except overlap. It is only the fact of the overlap,
and the resulting multiplicity of aspects which the forms present, that
makes the painting fascinating. It seems almost as though the painter
had made an explicit attempt, as I have done, to single out overlap as a
vital generator of structure.

All the artificial cities I have described have the structure of a tree
rather than the semilattice structure of the Nicholson painting. Yet it is
the painting, and other images like it, which must be our vehicles for
thought. And when we wish to be precise, the semilattice, being part of

31
a large branch of modern mathematics, is a powerfu1 way of exploring
the structure of these images. It is the semilattice we must look for, not
the tree.

When we think in terms of trees we are trading the humanity and

richness of the living city for a conceptual simplicity which benefits
only designers, planners, admini-strators and developers. Every time a
piece of a city is torn out, and a tree made to replace the semilattice that
was there before, the city takes a further step toward dissociation.

In any organized object, extreme compartmentalization and the

dissociation of internal elements are the first signs of coming
destruction. In a society, dissociation is anarchy. In a Person,
dissociation is the mark of schizophrenia and impending suicide. An
ominous example of city-wide dissociation is the separation of retired
people from the rest of urban life, caused by the growth of desert cities
for the old like Sun City, Arizona. This separation is only possible
under the influence of treelike thought.

It not only takes from the young the company of those who have lived
long, but worse, it causes the same rift inside each individual life. As
you pass into Sun City, and into old age, your ties with your own past
will be unacknowledged, and therefore broken. Your youth will no
longer be alive in your old age - the two will be dissociated; your own
life will be cut in two.

For the human mind, the tree is the easiest vehicle for complex
thoughts. But the city is not, cannot and must not be a tree. The city is a
receptacle for life. If the receptacle severs the overlap of the strands of
life within it, because it is a tree, it will be like a bowl full of razor
blades on edge, ready to cut up whatever is entrusted to it. In such a
receptacle life will be cut to pieces. If we make cities which are trees,
they will cut our life within to pieces.

32
I
I CONTEMPORARY
COMMENTARIES

33
34
 Cha
pte
r2

Ale
xander
’sChal
le
nge:
Be
yondHi
era
rchyI
nCitySyst
emsandSys
temsofCi
ti
es

Mi
chae
lBa
tty
1

It is very hard to really grasp the notion that any object can belong with
the same importance to more than one set. As a species we seem
destined to simplify the world by defining groups and categories that
are aggregations of simple units, perhaps units that at one level are
indivisible like ourselves. In our theorising about the biological world,
we have imposed a hierarchy of classification from Linnaeus onwards
that tries to neatly allocate the basic units that we define into relatively
unambiguous categories and this principle of order still lies at the basis
of modern science. In fact things are not so ordered in the social world,
for our everyday experience makes obvious that we can belong to more
than one social group and indeed the remarkable interest in network
science in the last 20 years is testament to this notion that the groups
we define overlap and interrelate. Yet our intuition provokes us to
search for the simplest and least ambiguous groupings we can find, to
minimise overlap and to this end, we tend to impose hierarchy on much
of what we observe in the effort to make sense of the world. We remain
uncomfortable with ambiguity.

One thing however does seem clear. The more abstract our thinking,
particularly about how we achieve an understanding of the world
ourselves, the harder it is to put our ideas into separate categories. The
1
Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis (CASA), University College London (UCL), 90
Tottenham Court Road, London W1N 6TR [email protected] www.complexity.info & t
@jmichaelbatty

35
very best examples of this involve the kinds of abstractions that are
associated with structuring a series of tasks to solve a problem. There
appear to be countless different ways of partition and grouping, and this
is especially the case in software engineering. There is little guidance at
all in writing software, how we should order the key concepts, whether
or not they should be sequenced hierarchically, and this is made all the
more problematic in the present day as everything can, in principle, be
related to everything else in a completely networked world. This is the
principle underlying hypertext of course where you can connect with
anyone anywhere and trace links between one another almost
indefinitely as one web link enables another in recursive fashion. In
1974, Ted Nelson in his hugely influential book Computer Lib/Dream
Machines wrote: “Everything is deeply intertwingled. In an important
sense there are no ‘subjects’ at all; there is only knowledge since the
cross-connections among the myriad topics of this world simply cannot
be divided up neatly.”. In a later edition (Nelson, 1987), he said:
“Hierarchical and sequential structures, especially popular since
Gutenberg, are usually forced and artificial. Intertwingularity is not
generally acknowledged – people think they can make things
hierarchical, categorizable and sequential when they can’t”. In short,
Nelson in exploiting Hegel’s dictum that ‘everything is connected to
everything else’, argued that putting things into categories is well-nigh
impossible particularly in an ever more abstract world. And it is in
terms of abstraction that we build our understanding of cities

Many people of course have said this many times before but in our own
domain, it was Christopher Alexander (1965) who so brilliantly posed
the question of how we might classify the components that make up our
cities – neighbourhoods, primarily – in his notion that “A City is Not a
Tree”. One of the reasons why his argument was so resonant was due to
the fact that at the time he was writing, systems approaches to
architecture, planning and much of social science, not to say biology
and some engineering, were being rapidly developed. The key notion
was that systems were and are composed of subsystems that interrelate
– as a network – but that many systems are organised hierarchically,

36
indeed that the building blocks of any system generate a hierarchy of
levels as the system grows and evolves. In many mechanical systems
which were used as exemplars, the idea that structure could be well-
articulated in a hierarchy of subsystems became a kind of null
hypothesis from which to explore its applicability to cities, societies,
economies as well as biologies and related systems in the human and
natural sciences. The notion that this hierarchy might not be strict, that
the neatly nested order whose greatest natural exemplar is the ‘tree’,
came as a shock and a revelation to those who were just getting used to
the idea that cities might be understood as hierarchical in structure. Yet
at the same time, what Alexander was saying was also intuitively very
satisfying as our everyday experiences bore out the notion that the
world of cities was in fact not a strict hierarchy. Alexander did not go as
far as Nelson in saying that everything was intertwingled, impossible to
produce as any form of hierarchy. He stopped well short of this,
suggesting that the way a system might be ordered into its hierarchy of
subsystems, sub-subsystems, and eventually component parts, might
admit a form of tree-like structure whose branches overlapped like a
lattice; in short, what he called a semilattice. All of this made perfect
sense while showing that the top-down systems model of the world was
not the ultimate explanation that most others were pursuing. Moreover
both the idea of hierarchy and its weakening in terms of a lattice
structure was consistent with the often quoted mantra of systems theory
half a century ago that “the whole is more and greater than the sum of
its parts”.

Alexander challenged the idea of hierarchy in cities and city systems.

The hierarchical model was in fact at the time deeply embedded as a
construct around which neighbourhoods, cities and systems of cities
were assumed to function. Many knew the limits of these constructs but
they were a convenient fiction on which to begin. In the 1930s, the idea
that cities were nested according to their functions and their sizes was
developed by Christaller (1933) as central place theory, with bigger
cities forming the hinterland in which smaller cities depended upon
them for more specialised functions, this model being replicated over

37
many levels to form a hierarchy of cities as the basis for a system of
cities. At about the same time, the notion that there was a sequence of
cities with few big and many small came to be enshrined in Zipf’s
(1949) Law, a rank-size rule that in its purest form implied that the
number and hierarchy of cities by size could be determined from a
simple formula where the population of a city at rank in the hierarchy
could be calculated from the formula where was the largest city in the
system. If you start with say the largest city of say 10 million and
compute a few terms in the series, then you get cities of 10m, 5m,
3.3m, 2.5m, 2m, and so on down the hierarchy. If we compare these to
the biggest cities in the US with New York at about 10m, LA at 5m and
Chicago at 3.3m and so on, then this casual comparison shows the
power of Zipf’s Law and the ascendency of the hierarchical idea. In
fact a rather nice relaxation of Zipf’s Law where cities do overlap,
which is entirely consistent with Alexander’s idea of the hierarchy
being a semilattice, produces a set of city sizes in the US which is a
good deal closer to what we might observe (Cristelli, Batty and
Pietronero, 2012). This is Alexander’s lesson from his paper: that the
variety of interconnections in the world is such that overlap is
necessary and inevitable – that is, it creates diversity which should not
be taken as noise – and we can see this everywhere where the
hierarchical idea is present. In fact Alexander was also making the
point that badly designed cities did not admit diversity and if one were
to impose the strict hierarchical model on the way neighbourhoods of
cities were configured and related, this was a recipe for disaster as in
many new towns and cities planned from the top down such as Brasilia.
In other words, cities that evolved naturally from the bottom up
inevitably generated variety and diversity that came from the overlap of
social groups and communities. This, of course, is the essential
message of complexity theory.

What is perhaps slightly curious about Alexander’s ‘A City is Not a

Tree’ paper was its timing. Alexander himself first wrote about a model
for design in his PhD which suggested that the various components of
design could always be linked as a network. He then argued that such a

38
network of components – or rather the elements that needed to be
fashioned into a design – might be grouped into sub-problems. If the
components were strongly linked in either a negative or positive sense
meaning that in the design they either reinforce each other or contradict
one another, they could be grouped according to this density of
interaction, and then these should form the sub-problems that needed to
be resolved first. In fact if a hierarchy based on the intensity of
interactions with the most intense involving the smallest numbers of
components in subsystems at the bottom of the hierarchy, could be
formed, this would provide an order in which to resolve the sub-
problems. The design would get easier to evolve as the designer
proceeded sequentially to solve the sub-problems as s/he progressed to
a final design following the order of the tree, from bottom to top. All of
this was developed in his thesis which was published in 1964 as Notes
on the Synthesis of Form, a wonderful, lucid book that had an
enormous impact on architecture from the time it was published until
now, a book that has outlasted the century and may well continue to
outlast this one.

Alexander in fact suggested that the concept of the hierarchy or the

design tree as he called it, provided a procedural structure for good
design. To an extent, he did not and could not demonstrate that this
protocol would generate better designs but his argument that good
design in less self-conscious societies than our own did evolve from the
bottom to the top, slowly and incrementally, provided a very
convincing story. Alexander in many senses was way ahead of his time.
He did in fact draw from much of what was going on in the
development of systems theory citing one of the most influential papers
on hierarchy ever written: Herbert A. Simon’s (1962) ‘Architecture of
Complexity’ which was yet another lucid statement of the importance
of evolving designs for complex systems from the bottom up but
according to a hierarchy. Indeed as I will recount below, the concept of
hierarchy, notwithstanding Alexander, is enduring for many reasons and
it is still a cornerstone in the complexity sciences.

39
But we are getting ahead of ourselves. What was rather odd about
Alexander’s argument that the structures we should deal with should be
lattice-like and not strict hierarchies is that this was written just after
his book had been published and was convincing us all that hierarchy
was the way forward. In fact a careful reader, would have realised that
his denial of the strict hierarchy and its generalisation as a semilattice
was entirely consistent with his early thesis on design protocols and
method. In fact it was rather easier to see how his method could be
improved by considering overlapping subsystems in a hierarchy and
how the networks which underlay such systems were proof in
themselves of the difficulty of breaking the bonding into strict
subsystems. I remember as a student working with methods for
decomposing hierarchies as well as building them from the bottom up –
from components of their graphs – and realising that semilattice like
forms were a much more natural consequence of this style of thinking.
Indeed I lay these kinds of structure bare in my recent book The New
Science of Cities (Batty, 2013) and these remain consistent with
systems that can be designed from the top down or evolved from the
bottom up, that is with systems theory or its modern incarnation as
complexity science.

When Alexander published his paper, several people reacted. An

unusual paper with the title “Who Ever Said the City was a Tree?” was
published by Mort and Eleanor Karp (1967) in the journal Landscape
20 months after Alexander’s publication. This paper never referred
explicitly to Alexander which is somewhat strange in that anyone
reading it who did not know of the paper “A City is Not a Tree” would
be somewhat mystified by what the Mort’s were saying, at least in their
title. In essence, their commentary was really a paper not about
hierarchies but about morphologies. They essentially argued that cities
could not be trees because their circulation systems were continuous
and in fact, this reinforced what Alexander was saying which in effect
was the idea that the networks which defined a city could not be
simplified to the point where a strict hierarchical representation was

40
useful. In a sense, they anticipated the world of cities where the
biological analogy is now dominant in saying that “A city and an
organism are not identical, only analogous”, although their comments
that cities do not grow as biological systems do, adjusting their shape
and mass as they get bigger does not accord with our contemporary
thinking about urban allometry.

A decade or so after Alexander, the eminent graph theorist Frank

Harary and his colleague James Rockey (1976) published a paper in
Environment and Planning A called “A City is not a semilattice Either”.
In this, they objected to Alexander’s use of the term semilattice arguing
that what he was proposing was not the topological structure known
formally as a semilattice; and they followed this up with a double
whammy that the structures he called hierarchies were not trees either
in formal graph-theoretic terms. These points are all contentious of
course for it depends on the level of formality adopted. Their article
however was more generous than it seemed because they also said that
cities were considerably more complex than hierarchies or semilattices
which is some respects was Alexander’s point. In a third article (and
this is the last I will single out from many), John Minett (1975) wrote a
polemical response entitled “If the City is not a Tree, nor is it a
System” arguing that as hierarchies are the essence of systems, then
cities can hardly be systems: the implication is that they are more
complex and to an extent this also reinforces Alexander’s point.

In short, both Alexander and those who followed up his argument, all
tended to agree that cities were eminently more complex structures than
strict trees or hierarchies could ever represent in more abstract terms.
Hierarchies with respect to how communities are defined and nested
within one another are defined from networks of relationships between
their elemental parts, with clusters (sub-systems) being identified at
successive levels as groups of ever more intense interactions as one
proceeds down the tree from top to bottom. In fact many conceptions of
systems whose relations defining the interactions between their
elemental components often do not require any simplification of their

41
structure through clustering. Models of such systems – and central
place systems are the archetypal example in the geography of cities –
define processes of exchange and interaction that take place directly on
network links and in this way, the natural clustering of interactions is
taken account of. Before such models were developed, central place
systems were defined in terms of retail hinterlands at different levels
using methods of defining breakpoints between clusters of nodes to
define catchment areas associated with the patronage of and interaction
with each of these places. However once spatial interaction modelling
developed there was never any need to define hinterlands and their
breakpoints for it was widely recognised that there could be flows from
any place to any other and that defining a hierarchy of clusters from
which hinterlands could be derived was a simplification too far.
Instead, one could work the models directly on these networks.

This is the case for models of design akin to Alexander’s (1964)

approach where instead of defining design as the averaging of conflicts
according to the hierarchy of interactions between the component parts,
the averaging and resolution of conflicting factors relevant to solving
the problem could be operated directly on the network. A host of
models which resolve conflict and produce consensus through opinion
pooling can thus be used to solve such problems directly (see Batty,
2013) and in this way the intricacies of the underlying network from
which a hierarchy is merely a representational summary, are taken
account of directly. There is thus no need for overlapping sets or lattice-
like structures to define the problem as the network is operated upon
directly. In fact network science which has emerged very rapidly in the
last 20 years, is still stuck in the paradigm of simplification in that a
major set of methods known collectively as community detection
algorithms have been devised to extract hierarchies and partitions of
networks into their densest parts which are assumed to reflect some
underlying social grouping. In one sense, all the arguments advanced
by Alexander for relaxing the strict hierarchy are still directly
applicable to this modern practice (Lancichinetti and Fortunato, 2009).

42
To an extent, there are still many problems in spatial and city systems
that require hierarchies to be extracted as summaries of clusters
defining groups of elements in cities. Countless multivariate, data
mining, neural net and evolutionary search processes yield strict
hierarchies. Hierarchies are simplifications and like all simplifications,
they are only useful for specific purposes. Denise Pumain (2006) in her
edited collection entitled Hierarchy in the Natural and Social Sciences
draws together many contributions that illustrate the important of
hierarchies and their limits, particularly in city systems. Alexander
(1965) in drawing attention to the limits of hierarchy and the need for
thinking of neighbourhoods and communities as overlapping in cities,
did not imply that the hierarchical idea was of no relevance but that in
using it to understand cities, one should be wary of continuing on to use
it to design cities. His argument was that if cities are designed as strict
hierarchies, they lead to sterile neighbourhoods, divorced and separated
from each other as in many British new towns and new capital cities
such as Brasilia. Fifty years on from his path-breaking article, there is
now recognition that the kind of complexity and diversity he was
alluding to is an essential feature of urban living. We have rediscovered
what Jane Jacobs (1961) was saying at much the same time as
Alexander was writing and there is a conscious movement to steer clear
of pattern book top-down recipes that introduce an artificial order into
new developments. This is still a danger of course and in rapidly
developing urban situations, there are still many examples of such top
down use of the blunt instruments of strict hierarchy. Nevertheless the
message that Alexander first promoted lives on in our embrace of
complexity theory as the appropriate paradigm for understanding
existing cities and designing future cities in the 21 st century (Batty,
2005).

43
REFERENCES

Alexander, C. (1964) Notes on the Synthesis of Form, Harvard University

Press, Cambridge, MA.
Alexander, C. (1965) A City is Not a Tree, Architectural Forum 122, No 1,
April 58-62 (Part I), No 2, May 58-62 (Part II)
Batty, M. (2005) Cities and Complexity: Understanding Cities with Cellular
Automata, Agent-Based Models, and Fractals, The MIT Press, Cambridge,
MA.
Batty, M. (2013) The New Science of Cities, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Christaller, W. (1933, 1967) Central Places in Southern Germany, Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Cristelli, M., Batty, M., and Pietronero, L. (2012) There is More than a Power
Law in Zipf, Scientific Reports, 6th November, 2012, at www.nature.com/srep/
Harary, F., and Rockey, J. (1976) A City is Not a semilattice Either,
Environment and Planning A 8, 375-384
Jacobs, J. (1961) The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Random
House, New York.
Karp, M., and Karp, E. (1967) Who Ever Said the City was a Tree?
Landscape, Autumn, 29-33.
Lancichinetti, A., and Fortunato, S. (2009) Community Detection Algorithms:
A Comparative Analysis, Physical Review E 80, 056117 2009.
Minett, J. (1975) If the City is not a Tree, nor is it a System, Planning Outlook
(New Series) 16, 4 -18.
Nelson, T. (1974, 1987) Computer Lib: You Can and Must Understand
Computers Now; Dream Machines: New Freedoms Through Computer
Screens— A Minority Report, Tempus Books, Microsoft Press, Redmond, WA.
Pumain. D. (Editor) (2006) Hierarchy in the Natural and Social Sciences,
Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
Simon, H. A. (1962) The Architecture of Complexity, Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society 106, 468-482
Zipf, G. K. (1949) Human Behavior and the Principle of Least Effort,
Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.

44
 Cha
pte
r3

Th eComple
xit
yofCi
ti
es
a
ndtheProbl
em ofUr
banDes
ign

Luí
sM.
A.Be
tte
nco
urt
1

1. Introduction

“The purpose of a scientific view of architecture is to enable us to create deeper

structure – and that means more satisfying design, more eternal forms, more valuable
places, more beautiful buildings.” - Christopher Alexander (2)

Seen from the distance of half a century Christopher Alexander’s “A

city is not a tree” (1) remains a landmark in our thinking about cities
and design.

Superficially, its main achievement was to produce a systematic

argument about what the city is not. In many ways this was a product
of its time, a reaction against the modernist view of the “city as a
machine” (3, 4). The logic and conceptual clarity of Alexander’s
argument and its lucid use of mathematical concepts in complex but
real circumstances wins the day any day against the then prevailing
forces in architecture, who saw the problem of the city as a technical
issue of design to produce health, efficiency and order (5).

But the article is much more than that. It is a new beginning: The first
step on a journey – for Alexander and for urbanism - to discover what
the city really is. Its daring novelty is to place the problems of
1
Santa Fe Institute, 1399 Hyde Park Road, Santa Fe NM, 87501, USA.
[email protected] @BettencourtLuis

45
architecture and urban planning on the same level of those in physics or
biology and to seek answers using the scientific method, expressed in
mathematical language (1, 2). This was new and radical, especially at a
time when formal mathematical thinking, empiricism and the search for
fundamental theory were shunned across many of the social sciences.
By setting a new course for architecture, Alexander almost single-
handedly placed its questions among the great mysteries of the universe
and offered its perspectives as new starting points for scientific enquiry.
Thus, “A city is not a tree” is the beginning of a unified science of
cities and of a dialogue between the city as a natural phenomenon and
other complex systems.

What this would require -- and the shape that it would take -- was only
vaguely apparent in 1965. Alexander was, first and foremost interested
in identifying necessary concepts and processes for a new theory of
(urban) design (6, 7). This included the issue of mixing and overlap of
urban functions in space, the importance of incremental adaptation and
the need for multi-layered generative processes (8). In his own search
for concepts and solutions, Alexander looked to other natural systems
and – much like Jane Jacobs (9,10) –became one of the founders of the
emerging science of complex systems.

In the following decades, architects have adopted methods and

concepts from complex systems, while complex systems researchers
started to approach the problem of the city as one of their key
paradigms. Ever since, the study of cities has been fertile ground for
both disciplines. As a result, a new scientific synthesis of diverse
concepts and methods has now also emerged.

In this piece, I rethread some of Alexander’s ideas in light of what we

have learned since the publication of “A city is not a tree” about cities
as complex systems. As any journey of discovery, mine too is personal
and my thoughts will no doubt imperfectly relate to some of
Alexander’s original conceptions. I will focus on how several of the
ideas in “A city is not a tree” have been immensely generative of

46
modern formal models of cities, and how such work has also come to
embody ideas of information, economics, and sociology, among other
disciplines. I will end with some of the remaining challenges for urban
design as we continue to transform observations into syntheses and
theory into practice not only in cities but also across several other
related complex systems.

2. The Pursuit of a Science of Architecture and Design

The most important aspect of “A city is not a tree” is that it needed to

make a point that was true, rigorous and general – it needed to make a
scientific statement about the fundamental nature of all cities.

While urbanists are no strangers to grand conceptualizations,

Alexander’s approach was radical and new in that it used the methods
of several established scientific disciplines (1, 6, 8) and – like Jane
Jacobs’ (9)– was rooted in extensive empirical observations of existing
cities and their careful formal analysis.

Once Alexander showed how cities, like other natural systems, could be
analyzed and described by scientific methods there was no going back.

Thus, “A city is not a tree” marks a point of no return because it shows

that a science of cities that unifies observations and concepts from
many disciplines can be constructed. This implied that a universal
body of knowledge about all cities – past and present – could be built
and brought to bear on the design of new places. And, most
provocatively, it implied that such knowledge could be used to
distinguish between bad design and good; “life-expanding” concepts
from life-crushing master plans (4, 7, 9).

But, of course, there was a rub. In 1965, nobody knew how to create a
science of cities true to this vision, let alone a practical approach to
architecture and design able to create complex, evolving and vital urban
spaces.

47
What followed was, by necessity, a search for general principles of
cities and for a theory of design that could be true to their nature as
complex adaptive systems. Alexander and collaborators played a
crucial role in this search and construction, but the syntheses that would
be needed was to be even wider and broader than he seems to have
imagined. It would require knowledge that had been developing in
parallel in architecture, sociology, economics, geography and social
psychology along with methods from complex systems and from the
natural sciences.

How then have our concepts for the general nature of cities changed
over the last 50 years? We can trace this progress along many of the
ideas Alexander started out with in the 1960s (6, 8). I single out three
concepts, which I will focus on below: The problem of mixing and
interactions in cities, the problem of open-ended urban design and the
problem of evolution and adaptation of spatial forms to socioeconomic
life and vice-versa. These three problems are clearly interconnected,
but they also bring different perspectives on what the city is.

2.1 The Problem of Mixing

The concepts of mixing and of the networked structure of cities are the
main focus of the arguments in “A city is not a tree”. The problem is:
How do the myriads of elements in a city – people, places, activities –
interact with each other over built space? Do they do so in an organized
and sequential manner? Or in a more haphazard, accidental, mutually
overlapping way? How can we describe these different modes of
organization mathematically and what are their consequences?

To synthesize his observations, Alexander used the mathematical

language of sets and their organization and relationships in terms of
graphs (1). Graphs are “networks” made up of nodes and the links that
connect them, often known as edges (11). Graphs can map concrete
physical objects, such as the network of streets or of pipes in a city, but

48
they may also be more abstract and account for social interactions or
other relationships (12)2.

Among all possible networks with a given number of nodes, the tree
graph is the simplest (13). It is defined by the property that it has no
cycles (loops). Because of this property, it also has the smallest number
of connections that keep all elements in the graph linked. This apparent
efficiency comes at a cost: to interact with each other distant nodes
must go through a large number of other nodes, much like leaves of
different branches of a tree can only “communicate” through the trunk.
For this reason, tree graphs are models of hierarchal organizations.

The organization of a tree means that, in effect, interactions between

nodes have no local recurrences or overlaps. The tree represents instead
a gradual encapsulation of smaller sets into successively larger ones.
For small local sets -- such as a place in the city, or a person -- to
interact with each other they must do so through their mutual inclusion
into larger sets. This is much like two factory workers in different
divisions of a firm only being able to communicate via their CEO; Or
two cells in an organism only sharing information through the circu-
latory system flowing through the heart. Thus, if a city is not a tree it is
also not like a classical firm, or a multi-cellular biological organism.

So to describe a city in terms of more general networks one must go

beyond tree graphs. In “A city is not a tree” Alexander proposed a
semi-lattice as a graph structure that allows mutual inclusion between
sets (1). This goes in the right direction qualitatively, but it is not
particularly predictive. How much overlap may we expect? What are
the consequences of such overlaps?

It turns out that much progress can be made by describing cities

primarily as networks of socioeconomic interactions, embedded in
2
Alexander’s goal was rather abstract (functional): he asks for example how
people, a street corner, a newspaper stand and a traffic light on a Berkeley
street intersection are connected.

49
space and accounting for the cost-benefit tradeoffs that result in terms
of rents and transportation (14). This builds on models of cities in
geography and economics, due to von Thünen, Alonso and many others
(15–17), but also goes beyond them by decentralizing space and
emphasizing the primacy of social connections (14), as had been done
by decades of urban sociology (18, 19).

That cities are, at their most essential, socioeconomic networks

between people follows from considering what characteristics are
conserved across the history of a city (20, 21) and places with very
different levels of development (13): While infrastructure and
economic activities, for example, change radically, the fact that people
need to interact over space remains. These ideas instantiate Alexander’s
thinking in the more concrete sense that it is people who, through their
movement and multiplicity of functions, create overlaps between places
in the city. By looking at the city through the perspective of the trade-
offs presented to individuals we can then derive the structure of
overlaps that are possible in a city (14).

The key observation that follows from this “city as a network”

approach is that cities are primarily sets of interactions. Because the
number of edges in a graph can increase faster than the number of
nodes and because the productivity of cities is set by the latter 3, cities
can increase their socioeconomic productivity per capita the larger they
are (12, 14, 22). This is a fundamental urban phenomenon known to
economists as increasing returns to scale (23, 24). The increase in
socioeconomic connectivity with city size is in turn the mechanism by
which people can produce deeper divisions of labor and more
knowledge, which creates the principal function of cities as places
where new functions and new ideas tend to be created and translate into
3
This is a phenomenon known as Metcalfe’s law. It states that the value of a
network is proportional to its number of edges, not nodes. This idea was
developed to describe telecommunication networks, and seems to be implicit
in the reasoning for why “A city is not a tree”.

50
greater economic “value added” relevant within the city and as the
basis of its relations to other urban areas (22).

These general properties of cities are derived from mathematical theory

of interactions in the city that elaborate on Alexander’s ideas of the city
as a graph that is not a tree (14). Such networks relate people and their
activities over built urban spaces, which are constrained to operate
under the tradeoff between costs and benefits of living, interacting and
moving in the city.

2.2 The Problem of Open-Ended Urban Design

Tree graphs may be appropriate models for “control and command”

situations and as such are absurd models for a city. The tree limits the
bottom-up, self-organizing information flows and economic
interactions that create the city in the first place.

Thus, from the point of view of design, the tree sacrifices the functions
of the city to the forms convenient to the designer (4, 7). It assumes that
the city is infinitely malleable and can be organized in any (simple)
way a designer sees fit. Modernist conceptions of the city went further
to assume that the “city as a tree”, built on industrial scales and
emphasizing the circulation of people and goods using automobiles,
would be better than cities of the past (3), which had developed gra-
dually over centuries or even millennia of adaptation.

It is extraordinary to experience the consequences of the failure of such

ideas first hand. I remember thinking about Alexander’s arguments
during a recent visit to Brasilia. I was staying in the “hotel sector” and
was to have a meeting at the “bank sector”. I was told that pharmacies
were to be found only in the “pharmacy sector” across town, which in
turn was some distance away from the “restaurant sector”.
Nevertheless, Brasilia has since its conception “as a tree” changed
much. It is much more “mixed up”, at least in terms of small businesses
and services, and that is a good thing: It has adapted to being a real city

51
and become less like a tree. I was happy to find a busy new American-
style mall by my hotel, which (in its own artificial way) contained most
basic functions under the same roof.

So how does one design for cities that are not trees? The challenge is
that while the tree is static, the city is dynamic; while the tree is unique,
the city can exist in many spatial forms and configurations; and while
the tree is well organized; the city will always be a work in progress.

To understand what kind of design may be appropriate for real cities

Alexander turned to their history. The city that is not a tree is perhaps
best summarized in one of Alexander’s other memorable early titles:
“The timeless way of building” (25). By looking at cities over longer
periods of time, one could analyze their transformations, elaborations
and adaptations to create spaces – like St Mark’s Square in Venice or
modern Tokyo – that work well.

This was not an entirely new idea: The earliest clear conceptualization
of this evolving, complex system that is the city is perhaps to be found
in Patrick Geddes’ writings (26). Such ideas echo through the fringes of
20th century architecture in powerful voices such as Geddes (26, 27),
Lewis Mumford (28), Jane Jacobs (9), Kevin Lynch (4) and others, and
proliferated in our own time.

What is interesting about Alexander’s approach was the intentional

effort to distill principles of design from historic observations. He
emphasized recursive, nested processes that create functional overlaps
and meaningful articulations between elements - much like grammars
in natural and computer languages. He also emphasized the type of
multi-scale composition of networked elements that creates synergies
between “wholes”, their parts and elements beyond. As in natural
languages or in music, such recursive, patterned compositions can
always be extended, elaborated and sometimes simplified without
loosing meaning, and thus provide a template for open-ended urban
design (7, 8).

52
As a non-designer, it is hard for me to judge how useful such solutions
are in practice and to what extent they transcend metaphors from other
complex systems with desirable properties.

But there is much that have learnt over the last decades from analyzing
urban data on how the built spaces of the city grow and adapt to the
existing context of the city. These observations follow from natural,
gradual processes of urban growth (by “natural design” as it were)
without requiring a pre-set master plan 4. They support the general
observations of how cities operate, as described in “A city is not a tree”.

The linkages between the structure of socioeconomic networks of the

city, its built environment and their mutual co-evolution turn out to be
the crucial elements for urban design. On large scales and over
averages encompassing entire cities these are now reasonably well
understood quantitatively. They relate and elaborate on older ideas of
cities as spatial equilibria (bound states, in the language of physics),
which form the basis of urban theory in geography and economics (14,
23).

As such we may have thought that, much like models of self-

organization in other complex systems, cities would extent their build
spaces as they grow based on purely local rules (29). This is only
partially true. Understanding such rules reveals some of the
mechanisms that maintain the character of the city as a coherent whole.
4
Master plans that are not excessively prescriptive are useful and may be
positive elements in the development of real cities. An often-cited example is
New York City’s Commissioner’s Plan of 1811. Though controversial
because of its geometric monotony and artificial order, it opened up
functional freedom as it did not set up strict land uses. Unlike the master
plan for Brasilia with its strong assignment of functions in space, this
provided spatial clarity of possible land uses and facilitated real estate
transactions, while opening up a combinatorially large number of
possibilities for social and economic development over space.

53
In developed cities, new built places (buildings, public spaces) grow in
tandem with their connecting infrastructure (streets, pipes, cables) (13,
14, 20). Quantitatively they take typical physical dimensions in tune
with existing city density. This creates a density dependent growth
process that is open-ended but that also relates every built element to
the context of the city. A macroscopic consequence of these rules is
that the built area of cities grows more slowly than its population size
in a quantitatively predictable way. The area of the city also responds to
increases in wealth and changes on the relative cost and speed of
transportation, as it has been well-know to planners (14-17). These
interconnections have curious consequences for the nature of the built
environment of cities, such as that we can read the size of a city, its
wealth and the speed of its social life from the three dimensional
structure of its skyline, for example.

However, the problem that Alexander wanted to solve: how to create

good urban design in detail, in specific places of the city, remains open,
as relationships between places, people and functions within the city
are not purely local. Interesting work on how to design public spaces
has explored many of Alexander’s ideas and new forms of gathering
data (30, 31). The design of neighborhoods has also been inspired by
many of the ideas in “A city is not a tree”, specifically in “New
Urbanism” designs that seek local mixed uses and modes of
transportation (32). But the criticism to some of these approaches has
been that they tend to re-create solutions that have worked in the past
rather than create new city forms, based on fundamental new
understanding of cities.

The greatest tests to our ability to understand and design cities will
come from transformations already under way. Many cities in
developed nations are (or will be) loosing population and ageing. They
will require transforming their built forms and infrastructure to become
desirable environments again. Most importantly, most developing cities
have vast slum neighborhoods, which must change in ways that respect

54
existing socioeconomic networks without creating zones of exclusion
or ghettos typical of many “solutions” of the past.

2.3 The Problem of Adaptation and Evolution in Cities

Connected to the problem of open-ended design is the issue of

adaptation and evolution in cities. Understanding and creating good
dynamical change in urban environments is perhaps the greatest
challenge to urban science and design. The topic is important not only
for architectural but also for policy. Much hope is currently being
placed on the fact that more urban data may expand our ability to create
radically better solutions to a host of urban problems (33).

The model of a city as a tree and its antithesis provide again important
insights into the nature of the problem, several of which were discussed
by Alexander in later publications (2).

The city as a tree is meant to be ideally organized and, as such, would

stay the same forever as any change would be detrimental. It is unclear
how the most important features of any real city: new people, business
entrepreneurship, new technologies leading to improved services and
infrastructure and human socioeconomic development fit into such a
picture. It follows that any city that wishes to improve cannot be a tree.

But the problem is that once we stray away from the tree model many
configurations of the city become possible. In fact, it can be shown that
a combinatorially large number of possible designs is possible, larger
than the number of particles in the universe (33). This makes
discovering good designs by exhaustive search impossible in practice,
doesn't matter how much data one may have.

This property of combinatorially large search spaces is common to

most complex adaptive systems, such as living organisms (the space of
all genomes), or brains (the space of all synaptic connections). Such
systems change via processes of evolution and learning. These

55
processes are different in detail in distinct complex systems but rely on
certain common mechanisms, such as accidental or proposed variation,
and (de)amplification of (un)successful changes, via selection. In this
way, complex systems can evolve and learn in open-ended ways by
successively following small variations on already working designs.

In this light, the problem of change and adaptation in cities takes a very
interesting meaning: by what mechanisms is variation produced in
cities and how is it deemed successful and selected? Can this logic be
intentionally used in the process of urban design?

The answer, I think, echoes processes at play in the history of any city
and is clearly stated by Alexander many times, especially in his
appreciation of vernacular architecture and planning as containing the
elements necessary for more powerful and more systematic urban
design.

The diversity and heterogeneity so typical of urban environments, but

so absent in the tree, become a feature, not a bug (6, 22). The
intentionality and agency of each person and socioeconomic
organization to improve their own lot in the context of the city become
a force for evolution and, in turn, also a source of selection. The
dynamics of the overlaps and interactions between them become the
elements along which the city not only exists but can also change and
improve.

The result is a process of change and design that may seem, at first
sight, to be more parochial, less ambitious and more gradual that a
classical master plan. The power of such processes is to ensure a
systematic sequence of improvements by staying close to solutions that
already work for people in the city. But, by rendering such processes
open-ended, a succession of modest steps can achieve arbitrarily large
improvements.

56
In this picture, the role of the designer is to understand these processes
of urban adaptation and evolution and to be able to propose and
implement steps adequate to local environments that can create virtuous
cycles of positive change by harnessing the natural dynamics of their
city. To design in this way, requires the relentless study of real cities,
inspired guesses for improvements, the humility to be found wrong,
and great stamina. But the rewards over the long run are unlimited

3. Future Challenges: Design and Creation

“A City is Not a Tree” was written at a time of great need for cities.
Concepts of what a city should be had been hijacked, particularly in the
US during urban renewal, and in Europe during post-war
reconstruction. Much of what happened to Detroit or Baltimore;
Manchester or the poor outskirts of Paris and London was the result of
wrong ideas about what a city is and how urban designers should
intervene in times of crises.

Fifty years later, many of these issues recur globally, over a massively
larger scale and with an unprecedented urgency (34).

How should Beijing or Mumbai be built to accommodate their growth

and ensure their future economic prosperity and creativity? Should the
slums of Jakarta or Lagos, or of countless other cities in Asia, Africa
and Latin America, be razed to the ground and their people relocated,
“urban renewal style”? Or should these neighborhoods be evolved and
improved gradually and steadily? If the latter is the right answer, how
to do it well, quickly and effectively?

The backdrop to these challenges is positive, on balance. The

generative and creative potential of urban environments is now part of
the lives of most people on Earth. Latin America has become an urban
continent since “A city is not a tree” was written and Asia and Africa
are now urbanizing at a fast pace, creating new forms of built
environment and novel opportunities for their residents. New

57
technologies, in transportation and particularly in telecommunications,
information and computing are making it possible to measure many
aspects of the city in new ways, increasingly in real-time and affecting
the choices and behaviors of billions of people. New energy
technologies are starting to turn the tide on the destructive impact of
urban lifestyles and, if used properly, could come to create a new
synergistic relationship between human societies, their built
environments and nature beyond our cities.

For all these reasons we now experience a new wave of change and,
potentially, a latent new crisis for cities, reminiscent of that of the
1960s. Can we use our new powers of measurement and analysis to
study and change cities in positive ways? Or are we destined to repeat
the errors of building cities “as trees”, only in new and more potent
ways?

The lessons from “A city is not a tree” and the scientific and practical
knowledge that accumulated in its wake over the last 50 years make me
optimistic. We now understand, in quantitative and scientific ways
much about the nature of cities at least in broad terms. We also
understand the kind of design that can improve cities in gradual but
limitless ways.

What we still lack is the finer understanding of how to best harness the
natural processes of cities in each neighborhood, for each household, to
recognize and amplify processes that generate prosperity, health, and
creativity and distinguish them from often well-intentioned
interventions that render the city disconnected, lifeless and poor. As
we continue on our journey to understand and redesign cities in this
way, we may finally meet the challenges posed in “A city is not a tree”.
We will discover much more about our own humanity and the nature of
other complex systems in the process.

58
REFERENCES

1. Alexander C (1965) A city is not a tree. Archit Forum 122(1):58−62.

2. Alexander C (2004) The Interaction of Architecture and Science.
Available at:
http://www.katarxis3.com/Alexander_Architecture_Science.htm.
3. Le Corbusier (1986) Towards a new architecture (Dover Publications,
New York).
4. Lynch K (1984) Good city form (MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass).
5. Hall, P. G. (1988) Cities of tomorrow: an intellectual history of urban
planning and design in the twentieth century (Blackwell Publishing,
Oxford, UK)
6. Alexander C (2002) Notes on the synthesis of form (Harvard Univ. Press,
Cambridge, Mass.). 17. printing.
7. Alexander C ed. (1987) A New theory of urban design (Oxford University
Press, New York).
8. Alexander C, Ishikawa S, Silverstein M (1977) A pattern language:
towns, buildings, construction (Oxford University Press, New York).
9. Jacobs J (1992) The death and life of great American cities (Vintage
Books, New York). Vintage Books ed.
10. Jacobs J (2001) The nature of economies (Vintage Books, New York).
11. Newman MEJ (2010) Networks: an introduction (Oxford University
Press, Oxford ; New York).
12. Bettencourt LMA, Lobo J, Helbing D, Kühnert C, West GB (2007)
Growth, innovation, scaling, and the pace of life in cities. Proc Natl
Acad Sci 104(17):7301–7306.
13. Brelsford C, Martin T, Hand J, Bettencourt LMA The Topology of Cities.
St Fe Inst. Available at: http://www.santafe.edu/research/working-
papers/abstract/87c892fb8439b4063cd98b32c730cd53/ [Accessed
October 20, 2015].
14. Bettencourt LMA (2013) The Origins of Scaling in Cities. Science
340(6139):1438–1441.
15. Fujita M (1990) Urban economic theory: land use and city size
(Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge). 1. paperback ed.

59
16. Fujita M, Krugman PR, Venables AJ (2001) The spatial economy: cities,
regions, and international trade (MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.). 1.
paperback ed.
17. Black D, Henderson V (1999) A Theory of Urban Growth. J Polit Econ
107(2):252.
18. Wirth L (1938) Urbanism as a Way of Life. Am J Sociol 44(1):1–24.
19. Sampson RJ (2012) Great American city: Chicago and the enduring
neighborhood effect (Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill.).
20. Ortman SG, Cabaniss AHF, Sturm JO, Bettencourt LMA (2014) The Pre-
History of Urban Scaling. PLoS ONE 9(2):e87902.
21. Ortman SG, Cabaniss AHF, Sturm JO, Bettencourt LMA (2015)
Settlement scaling and increasing returns in an ancient society. Sci Adv
1(1):e1400066.
22. Bettencourt LMA (2014) Impact of Changing Technology on the
Evolution of Complex Informational Networks. Proc IEEE
102(12):1878–1891.
23. Fujita M, Krugman P, Venables AJ (2001) The Spatial Economy: Cities,
Regions, and International Trade (The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.).
24. Glaeser EL (2012) Triumph of the city: how our greatest invention makes
us richer, smarter, greener, healthier, and happier (Penguin Books, New
York, NY).
25. Alexander C (1979) The timeless way of building (Oxford Univ. Press,
New York, NY). 24. print.
26. Geddes P (1915) Cities in evolution: an introduction to the town planning
movement and to the study of civics (Williams & Norgate London).
27. Tyrwhitt J (1947) Patrick Geddes in India (Lund Humphries, London).
28. Mumford L (1989) The city in history: its origins, its transformations,
and its prospects (Harcourt, San Diego; New York; London).
29. M Batty, P Longley (1994) Fractal Cities: a geometry of form and
function. (Academic Press, London/Oxford, UK).
30. W H. Whyte (2001) The social life of small urban spaces (Project for
Public Spaces Inc, New York City)
31. Gehl, J. (2010) Cities for People (Island Press, Washington DC)
32. A Duany, J Speck, M Lydon (2009) The smart growth manual (McGraw-
Hill Education, New York, NY).

60
33. L M A Bettencourt (2014) The uses of Big Data in cities, Big Data 2:
12-22
34. UN-Habitat (2012) State of the World’s Cities 2012/2013 , Prosperity of
Cities (UN-Habitat) Available at:
http://mirror.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?
publicationID=3387.

61
62
 Cha
pte
r4
ABui
ldi
ngCul
tur
eisNotaTr
ee

Ho
war
dDa
vis
1

Author's note: When the editor of this volume suggested that this piece
be included as a chapter, I initially resisted, since it does not deal
explicitly with the issues of urban structure that were analyzed in "The
City Is Not a Tree." But I then realized that there is, arguably, a strong
analogy between a city of multiple and redundant connections, and a
building culture, or building production process, in which multiple
players, with diverse views and ways of working, coming at issues and
problems from different points of view, together contribute to the
success, robustness and beauty of the built environment.

This chapter is the text of a presentation delivered at the 2009 PUARL

conference in Portland, Oregon. The presentation used a personal
history—my long-time association with Christopher Alexander and my
subsequent work—to make a point about the need for architectural
practice and architectural theory to be open to differing ideas and
approaches, even while respecting the very specific goals of a built
environment of humanity and beauty. From one point of view the article
is a criticism of overly doctrinaire interpretations of Alexander's work.
Some of these interpretations insist on rigidly-defined procedures and
techniques, or claim that contemporary architectural and urban
practice are altogether incapable of producing built environments of
quality and deep feeling. I reject many of those interpretations, while at
the same time continue to be guided by the vision of a world that has a
fundamental respect for basic humanity and the often-lost sensibilities
of the human heart.

1
Professor of Architecture, University of Oregon; Co-director, Collaborative
for Inclusive Urbanism

63
The city and the building culture are metaphors for each other. When
they are working well, they both act as networks rather than "trees,"
non-hierarchical, with redundancies of functions and players. My own
experience, in which I moved from the intense and highly focused
cauldron of Chris Alexander's Center for Environmental Structure into
the much more messy "real world" of contemporary architectural
education and practice, and in which I experienced the realities of
contemporary buildings and cities, could have led to an irreconcilable
conflict. But it is precisely the openness, the messiness, the diversity,
the intellectual and professional opportunity that is lodged in our
present building culture that provides the fertile ground for progress. In
the same way that the city is not a tree, our present systems of building,
and the accepted structures of architectural knowledge, may contain
the material with which we can move toward a better built world. Not
all of it is helpful—but it is also critical not to reject it out of hand.

v v v

I’d like to talk about how the work I did with Chris Alexander affected
my subsequent work and views on architecture—and about how that
subsequent work affects my view of the work I did with Chris. I
worked with Chris beginning as a student, when we did a planning
project for Berkeley neighborhoods, and then continuing for several
years afterwards when the major projects were a housing project in
Mexico, a book about that project (The Production of Houses), a
planning project in Omaha, a housing project in Israel, and various
smaller projects in California. It was also during this period that I began
to teach, beginning with a year when I took over Chris’s courses when
he was on sabbatical, continuing with a remarkable year-long project
for San Francisco (subsequently published as A New Theory of Urban
Design)—and then teaching with Ray Lifchez before I finally left
Berkeley and moved to Texas.

Those were formative years for me. They helped to solidify a number
of ideas, including perhaps most significantly the power of reality in

64
shared decision-making about buildings, and the importance of process
in the production of the built environment. When I left Berkeley I
brought along a way of thinking and working that was coherent and
useful. But I was bringing it into an academic world and a professional
world that also demanded respect by themselves.

My own stance has evolved to one in which the work I did with Chris
remains central—but within a viewpoint from which I don’t see the
world in black and white terms, but much more in shades of gray. This
is a viewpoint from which I see value in many buildings and many
aspects of the profession to which I once had serious objections. This
may sound contradictory—but I think that progress will be made by
working within and through those contradictions. The fundamental goal
that Chris set —to figure out how to develop a way of building that
results in an architecture and urbanism of deep humanity—remains
central, along with many of his conclusions. But many people with the
same goals are working in ways that need to be seen as compatible,
within a shared building culture.

One of the reasons I studied architecture in the first place came out of a
fascination with New York City. My view of the city was one that
came from the bottom up, whether it was exploring the basement of the
three story apartment house in Brooklyn that I grew up in, or
accompanying my father on his visits to jobs rewiring restaurant
kitchens or factory lofts or apartment-house basements. My view of the
city was not only a view of its vernacular buildings, but also one in
which I developed a down-home respect for the people who built it. It
was only much later that I started looking at monumental buildings
with the same interest that I was looking at the ordinary everyday
building.

This was the history that I brought to Berkeley when I finally decided
to study architecture, and that along with my physics background made
me an ideal candidate to be attracted to an empiricist like Chris
Alexander, who was also deeply affected by his own childhood

65
environment in Oxford and Chichester. My first course on the pattern
language was from Max Jacobson—this was about four years before
the book was published—and in that course I began to see the
possibility of two ideas:

w first, the idea that architectural knowledge might be commonly

shared and improved

w and second, the idea that shared architectural knowledge might

be applied toward the support of everyday life, considered most
simply and most straightforwardly

That sounds easy enough.

The project in Mexicali was something of a turning point for me. Even
in school I was interested in what later became my book on building
cultures, and I took a seminar from Spiro Kostof on the history of the
architectural profession in which I wrote something about the idea that
the architect is only one of many influences in the production of the
built environment. Kostof had a series of visiting lecturers in that
seminar, and turned those lectures into a book that I later referred to in
my own research on building cultures.

In Mexicali, we were working to develop a new system of housing

production, that would include new ways of design, of construction, of
financing, of zoning, of participation. But of course, our innovations
were happening within the existing building culture of Mexicali, in
which there were already ways of design, of construction, of financing,
of zoning and of participation. The only way we could do what we
were doing, which was in opposition to most established standards and
procedures, was through the direct authority of the governor of the state
of Baja California, who himself saw a political advantage in supporting
the work of a notable architect from abroad, and who forced various
agencies that were under his control to suspend their rules for our
project.

66
So our project was surrounded by but in direct opposition to the
existing building culture. The project itself has been analyzed by Peter
Bosselmann and others. There were two small ripples beyond the
project, into the local building culture. A few concrete vaults were built
in the immediate neighborhood, and a local block manufacturer began
to manufacture a simplified version of our interlocking blocks, using a
standard concrete mix instead of our soil-cement concoction.

So Mexicali was not only about the production of low-cost houses. One
of the things I’ve often said about that project is that if we had more
understanding and respect for the local building culture, and introduced
innovations much more gradually in the context of it, we might still be
building houses there, or an outgrowth of the project would still be in
place.

The Culture of Building is a book that I began thinking about soon after
Mexicali. My original title was The Culture of Buildings, and Chris
suggested changing it to The Culture of Building—properly so, and
helping to ensure that the work would reflect our common interest in
the importance of process. It did take another twenty years, however, to
write the book.

The book is strongly connected to the pattern language work in a

number of ways.

One is the emphasis on process itself, and the idea that we ultimately
can’t make wholesale improvement in the shape of the built
environment without changing the underlying processes in the way
things get done. Where I differ somewhat from Chris about this, is in
identifying the sources of these changes. In my concluding chapter,
“Cracks in the concrete pavement,” I argue that architects, planners,
clients, and builders all over the place – even people who never heard
the name of Chris Alexander or the words “pattern language”—are
doing innovative things that may have a positive long-term effect, and

67
their initiatives and efforts need to be nurtured and watered, like
flowers growing through those cracks.

Another is a recognition that historical processes involved a very

different relationship between the architect and builder from what often
exist today.

The Metropolitan Club’s building (in New York) was designed by one
of the most important Beaux-Arts architecture firms. The Beaux-Arts
was of course the antithesis of Arts and Crafts, and in it one might not
expect that much of a dynamic relationship existed between the
different players in the building process. Yet in combing through about
6000 documents regarding the construction of this building, I found a
different story. When the building was first being set out on the ground,
for example, a temporary platform was erected on the site so the clients
could adjust the height of the ground floor, which contained the main
public lounge, in relationship to the view of Central Park. Other
documents of this building and others of the firm show very rough
sketches of details being provided to fabricators, because control of the
final form of the detail lay with the craftsmen.

Practice in the late nineteenth century is near the end of the time when
design and building were part of one integrated process. In Renaissance
Florence, the architect was in the middle of the hierarchy of
organization of a construction site, with the soprastante, or site
supervisor, at the top. In the book I documented this change more
precisely by looking at the evidence of building contracts in London. In
the late seventeenth century legally-binding contracts might have been
half a page long and included minimal drawings and specifications; by
the late nineteenth century contracts would have been many pages long
and included detailed drawings and specifications. The gradual change
over two hundred years, in which implicit understandings were
replaced by explicit contract statements, mirrored the emergence of a
building culture that was characterized by the emergence of the
separate institutions of architecture and general contracting, all

68
supported of course by more and more lawyers. And this was
accompanied by new regulatory mechanisms, in which common law
doctrine was eventually supplanted by explicit and numerically-based
statute.

And third, is the idea of a healthy building culture. With this idea I
tried to generalize from Chris’s insistence that the architect and the
builder necessarily had to be the same person, and postulate some
general features of a building culture that produces good results. This
all represents an extension of the pattern-language ideas about process,
judgment based on on-the-ground reality, and the proper sequence of
things in design and construction. And within these ideas there are a lot
of things happening in the contemporary building culture, coming from
different places, that are promising. These include so called “integrated
practice,” advanced visualization and modeling techniques, and new
concerns about urban and social sustainability.

In the course of writing this book I worked on a few projects that were
helpful in one way or another. This included work I did with David
Week in south India. In this project we developed a pattern language
based on local villages, informal settlements and the old part of the city
of Vellore; worked with community leaders to lay out the site; and
worked with families to lay out their own houses on the ground. They
were small, simple houses, in which tiny decisions like the exact
position of a door or window had a lot of impact. David brought his
Powerbook 160 to India—to local building officials in the early 1990s
that was like a flying saucer landing—and this project was probably the
first in south Asia to use digital graphics programs in conjunction with
on-site layout procedures.

For me one of the values of the project was the collaboration I had with
David, who was writing his PhD dissertation at the time. We wrote
several papers that were really about the transfer of expertise and
knowledge, and about the idea that foreign aid needs to be a two-way
street. An extreme position is that taken by organizations that are

69
skeptical of ANY kind of outside professional expertise, seeing
knowledge as needing to develop from within the community itself.

I’m talking in detail about this because it underscores the very delicate
position in which the pattern language work may find itself, and has
found itself in a variety of projects. On one hand the patterns and the
techniques that go along with them should be liberating. They are after
all resolutions to conflicts in the environment, and expressions of what
people may think when image and prejudice are stripped away. But on
the other the process of identifying a valid pattern, the process of
ensuring agreement among a diverse group, and the need to go only so
far and no more with a process within an established culture, are all
critical. At the end of a chapter on architectural education that I wrote
for a book about vernacular architecture, I wrote about the importance
of separating expertise from power. Communities and their cultures
deserve total respect at the same time new ideas are introduced.

I’ll briefly mention another project that reminded me of the importance

of acting with this respect, and of the pleasures of working in this way.
Along with John Rowell and Don Corner, I worked on a pattern
language for a Benedictine abbey and monastery about forty miles
south of here. This place is known among architects as the site of one
of the two buildings in this country designed by Alvar Aalto. But it is
also an abbey with a hundred and thirty-year history, with a mother
house in Switzerland, with ninety monks and two hundred seminarians,
on a beautiful hilltop site in the Willamette Valley, and with a
community that can trace itself back to St Benedict and his Rule, in the
fifth century. In other words, a place with a deeply-felt culture that is
lived and contemplated every day.

We worked closely with the monks, and one of them, Father Jeremy, is
also a published poet with wonderful insights about life in the Abbey. I
felt privileged to be a frequent guest in their community, and we found
that this is not a quick process—our own insights came as much from

70
the time we spent there as from the questions we asked. We read the
Rule of St Benedict, which talks a lot about daily life and the conduct
of hospitality, and with the help of the monks we interpreted the Rule in
terms of the settings of the Hilltop and the way people live on it. The
pattern language contributed to ongoing building projects at the Abbey,
but its real value may have been what it taught the monks and what it
taught us. The monks became aware of their own place in a way that
they had not done before, and I had the pleasure of talking to people
about their houses and how they live in them.

Talking to people about their own houses is an activity—whether I’m

doing it at Mount Angel or in a shophouse in Bangkok—I always find
real, energizing and humbling. And it always brings me back to a
central value of the pattern language approach, that many architects
often forget, and that is the reality and value of people’s lives and the
importance of the buildings in which they live them.

My current book, Living Over the Store: Architecture and Local Urban
Life, which is now in press, is in one sense the story of a single pattern.
It is not an explicit pattern in APL, but the idea is mentioned or
strongly implied in one or two of the patterns in that book, including
CORNER GROCERY and INDIVIDUALLY-OWNED SHOPS. Living
Over the Store is not so much about process but more about the
structure of the urban environment. It owes a lot to Chris but perhaps
even more to Jane Jacobs, and is intended to combine an historical and
cross-cultural understanding with many modern and contemporary
initiatives that are themselves reinstalling this idea in practice.

The book has four features:

First, it takes seriously the importance of everyday life, in its economic

and social aspects. This everyday life is supported both inside these
buildings and on the street, so that buildings in which independent
families live and work, are aspects of the same phenomenon as
buildings in which the same family lives and works.

71
Second, it identifies common architectural and urban ways in which
everyday life is manifested across different cultures and through
history. All these buildings give emphasis to the commercial frontage
and maintain strategies for the privacy of domestic life at the same
time. All of these urban districts, some irregular and some grid-like put
shop/houses in positions in between all-residential streets and much
busier streets, where they funnel pedestrian traffic toward much busier
places.

Third, it questions the modern boundaries between functions, in both

buildings and cities, and sees those boundaries as dynamic over time.
Within shop/houses, there is often a fluid relationship between
functions, as there is in these buildings in Bangkok, one a photo studio
and one a tailor shop. In both of them domestic life and economic life
strongly overlap. That is also seen on this sidewalk in Guangzhou and
inside this shophouse in Taiwan.

And fourth, it respects different contemporary projects, ranging from

single proprietors to developers to grassroots efforts, to changes to the
building culture that might allow these buildings to happen on a large
scale again in this country. My examples range from slum replacement
projects in Bangkok and Port Elizabeth, South Africa, to building on
greenfield sites in the US, to an elegant mixed-use building in Berlin. I
also write about different strategies for financing and for zoning for
new mixed use—not only form-based zoning but also straightforward
changes to standard Euclidean codes.

So even though the pattern LIVING OVER THE STORE is a simple

idea, it suggests a complex web of disciplinary sources ranging from
social history to urban geography and an equally complex web of
professionals ranging from community groups in Bangkok to architects
in Germany. Within a world that is as diverse as ours, these all have to
be taken seriously, and have to be respected for their intentions, within
their own orbits, to reinforce the practice of urban diversity.

72
I’d like to conclude by saying that the diversity of my interests is
supported by my connection to five academic and professional
communities. These have influenced my views and combined with the
school of thought that came out of my work with Chris and the Center.
I see all of these communities as strongly connected with the pattern
language work, and have helped me take that work out of its academic
and professional marginalization.

1. First is the community of scholars who study vernacular

architecture. This community has helped advance some critical
connections, such as the social forces in their influence on
architectural history, the strong relationship between vernacular
buildings and those designed by architects, and the idea that
buildings cannot be separated from their cultural contexts. Scholars
in vernacular architecture understand that as a collective
phenomenon, the vernacular is made up of buildings with repeating
characteristics – these characteristics are usually described as types
rather than patterns – and that they are shared within a culture, like
patterns are.

2. Second is the community of people who study urban history and

urban form. These scholars deal with the morphology and spatial
structure of cities, and relate urban form not only to cultural ideas
but also to the economics of production and exchange.

They have mapped towns and cities on a parcel-by-parcel basis and

have found confirmation not only of the intuitive idea that the
complexity of cities is made up of a relatively few repeating
configurational ideas, but also of variations in urban form that point
to a structure of centers, and to the idea that the piecemeal growth of
cities is connected strongly to economic and social conditions.

3. Third, is the community of people who are working on housing

and urban issues in the third world. I’ve already talked about this a
little. I would just reiterate that there is a lot to learn about the ideals

73
 of participation, about coherent piecemeal growth, and about the
sensitivity of community needs from both good and bad experiences
in world cities that are experiencing very rapid urbanization.

4. Fourth is the architectural profession, and particularly those

architects in the last eighty years or so who have resisted the
homogenizing and abstracting tendencies of modernism. The
architectural profession is not necessarily at odds with an
architecture that is humane and that can elevate the human spirit in a
profound way. The worst examples—and there are many of them—
are not the only examples. The sensitive and humane work moves
me into a position in which I believe there must be an
accommodation between theoretical precision and the messy
realities of our contemporary cultures of architecture and building.
And that accommodation is not an unfortunate compromise, but
may itself serve to modify the theory.

5. And finally is the Department of Architecture at the University of

Oregon. The department has a reputation for being hospitable to the
pattern language approach, and indeed it is. But by the time I came
to teach here in 1986, it was no longer central. At the same time
however, many of the people on the faculty who I respected a lot—
even though they might not have embraced the idea of the pattern
language with wholehearted enthusiasm (and that is an
understatement)—were teaching principles that were absolutely
consistent with it, and having their students design buildings that
were beautiful and contextual. As a faculty we tend to agree more
about buildings than about the curriculum. Oregon has been another
force in my career that has caused me to look outward, from my
roots in Etna Street (site of the office of the Center for
Environmental Structure when I worked for it) and Mexicali and the
eighth floor of Wurster Hall in Berkeley.

Within my worldview the pattern language work has a critical and

central role. The idea that the built world is important, the idea that

74
buildings can move us deeply, the idea of generative processes in the
formation of the built environment, the idea that we may share not only
knowledge but value—all of those things continue to shape my
thinking and my teaching.

At the same time I am part of a world in which people have their own
realities that I did not form, but which I need to deeply respect. The
contemporary built environment needs a lot of help, but at the same
time the answers are and have to be all around us. What I’m interested
in is a building culture that is resilient and that welcomes good ideas no
matter what their provenance.

A long time ago, Chris Alexander wrote a highly influential article on

city planning, “A city is not a tree,” in which he argued that a healthy
modern city, instead of being organized in a way that has an overall
hierarchical order, like a tree, is organized instead in the form of a
semilattice. This allows for fluidity of associations, for resilience, and
for overlaps between social groups and physical places to have a
meaning that corresponds to the realities of modern life. It also means
that the health of the city is not measured by the health of any one
person, or place, but by how all of it is working together, within a
framework of mutual respect.

And I would paraphrase the title of the article, by saying that

“A building culture is not a tree.”

75
76
 Cha
pte
r5

ACi
tyi
saWor
ldFul
lofBodi
es

J
aapDa
wso
n1

We long for a world full of bodies we can meet

It’s a ten-minute walk from my house to the new train station in Delft,
the town I’ve lived in since 1980. The main street leading to the station
has been broken up for more than five years in order to make a tunnel
for the trains to ride through. The new station is now underground, but
above it there’s a massive structure that the people in Delft have
baptised ‘the Ice Block’. It’s the newest of several office blocks for
city bureaucrats.

The Ice Block is not an ice cube: it’s an ice block. It’s like the huge,
abstract block of ice we bought when I was a boy after a hurricane in
Miami. The power lines were down for at least a week. Only the ice
company – apparently with its own source of power – was still capable
of making ice. The ice block helped us survive the storm.

We never imagined what it would be like to live inside an ice block.

Nor did we ever suspect that ice blocks could grow as large as the
eggplant that ate Chicago (GREENBAUM, 1967).

As I approach the colossal ice block, I find myself reflecting on the

essay I’d just written on the work of Christopher Alexander. ‘Forget
the essay,’ I heard a voice inside me say. ‘Start with the building, the
1
Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology, NL (Retired)

77
world you experience now. Let your experience direct you in your
reflection on Alexander’s discoveries.’

The voice is compelling. So is my experience of the Ice Block. And

then it starts to rain. I take refuge under the overhang that announces
the entrance to the station. I’m glad it shelters me. But does it really
shelter me? It keeps me dry, but it doesn’t protect me, doesn’t welcome
me, doesn’t relate to my body.

Fig. 1 Entrance to the station in Delft

We can recognize bodies in what we build

Relate to my body? What do I mean by that? If you relate to someone,

you have a relationship with another person. You’re connected not only
as two people, but also as two bodies. And both bodies are living
bodies. When you relate, you’re alive. When you’re related to, you
know you’re alive.

78
When I stand under the overhang at the entrance to the Ice Block, I
don’t feel the presence of a body. I mean a built body, a massive piece
of material I can recognize as a body like my own body. Under the
overhang I only feel literal dryness. Under the overhang I only meet
abstract space. The overhang literally hangs over the space. There is
no visual means of support that might define the entrance to the station,
that might create the space I walk through, that might greet me as built
bodies whom I could relate to as living bodies.

Alexander’s Fifteen Properties are all properties of a living body

The entrance to the station in Delft is only one of countless spaces we

can’t experience as alive, as living. Both terms are descriptions
Alexander uses to describe buildings, spaces, and designs that touch us
deeply. Alexander uses the terms too when he tells us about the Fifteen
Properties he finds present in architecture that really lives.

It would be easy to dismiss a living architecture as a romantic

metaphor. That’s probably what critics of Alexander’s work do. But
I’m not satisfied with such a cynical interpretation. I’m convinced we
can ground what a living architecture is. Our bodies and our
consciousness enable us to do so.

Look again at the marvellous vignette drawings that depict the Fifteen
Properties. They all have something in common. The have clear
centres and definite boundaries. They demarcate an inside from an
outside. They embody a structure similar or analogous to the structure
of all living cells. The patterns that comprise the Fifteen Properties are
in essence patterns that living cells share with each other, that living
bodies share with each other. The connection between a description of
something that lives and a body that lives is unmistakable.

And then there’s the actual body that lives. It’s our body that feels
unprotected in the undefined space at the entry to the station in Delft.

79
If we’re preoccupied with sheltering ourselves from the rain or with
catching a train on time, we may not always be conscious about how
our body feels in such a space. But feel it we do, unless we’ve become
alienated from our own body and feeling.

We feel alienated in an undefined space – a huge square so big we have

no massive elements to relate to. We feel alienated when we try to
cross a too-broad street: instead of feeling the boundaries of the space,
we have to think about them, have to focus expressly on where the
traffic is coming from. We feel alienated in a large auditorium or
church that lacks columns or wall segments to suggest a space our body
naturally feels at home in.

We recognize a living body in a column

Columns are bodies. Without thinking about it, we made bodies of the
first columns we built. George Hersey reminds us of our history. The
entire history of architecture gives us columns we experience as bodies
(HERSEY, 1988). Joseph Rykwert wrote a whole book about how we
meet bodies in the columns we experience (RYKWERT, 1996 ). And
Geoffrey Scott, nearly a century before Rykwert, reached a similar
conclusion: We feel at home in spaces that columns make between
themselves and between rows of themselves. We recognize a body –
our own body – in a column of the right scale (SCOTT, 1914).

When we see ourselves, our bodies, in a built body, we obviously are

experiencing an analogy. But we’re not experiencing an analogy only
in a cognitive way. We’re feeling the presence of built material that
touches us as living material. And if we’re surrounded by bodies we
experience as alive, then we inhabit a world not of mere things but of
living beings. Our world is animated: after all, the bodies have souls!

We can build in a way that keeps us from experiencing the analogy

of our body with a built body

80
Our experience of the world as animated is far older than our
experience of the world as a machine. In the Preface and Chapter One
of The Phenomenon of Life (ALEXANDER, 2002) Alexander reminds
us how our view of the world and of life has led us away from a way of
building that previously came automatically to us. Once we start to
believe that the world is a well-oiled machine rather than a living
organism, we suppress our experience of analogy when we design and
build. And when we suppress our experience of analogy in a timeless
way of building, we’re in effect suppressing a belief. I don’t mean a
belief in the sense of received doctrine: I mean belief in the sense of
meaning, of a meaning that infuses us and guides us and helps us make
sense of life.

The new belief – and a belief it surely is – comes with its own doctrine:
We make the world we build in order to feel physically comfortable in
it. The world is a thing, and we are the designers. The world serves
our physical needs.

You can find a remarkably clear presentation of the new doctrine in the
CIAM declaration at La Sarraz in 1928. The architects who signed the
declaration mistrusted our experience of analogy in the images we
experience. Their ideology led them to conceive of town planning
solely as ‘the organization of the functions of collective life’ (WOUD,
1991, 210). Their vision continued at the scale of the building: the
signers aimed at ‘replacing architecture on its true plane, the economic,
and sociological plane’ (CIAM’s, 2011). Where are the images – the
analogies – in a vision based on use alone?

You can’t help seeing in this vision the tenets of a newly established
church. When, you wonder, might we rebel? When, you ask yourself,
might we leave this church?

Our body gives us the answer. Our animated body gives us the answer.
Once we’ve experienced spaces and buildings that are alive, that are
animated, we now know they’re animated because they embody a

81
structure like the structure of our own animated body. We’re not
playing with a cognitive metaphor. We’re not looking at a world that
reminds us of a better world. We’re living among built bodies. The
bodies protect us from an endless world outside the space we inhabit.
The bodies greet us as elements we experience as living. The bodies
are comprised of cells, and cells have centres and boundaries.

We can build a living world by following our feeling and intuition

Once we’ve left the church that told us our world was but a thing and
what we built was but a thing, where do we go next? How do we learn
again how to build a world that literally lives?

Alexander doesn’t tell us. At least he doesn’t give us a recipe. He

challenges us to experiment. He hopes we’ll bear the Fifteen Properties
in mind as we build. He reminds us that we discover how to build just
by building. We can make full-scale models as we build, discovering
along the way whether they greet us as living beings or not. That’s the
way I’ve built and rebuilt my own house. I didn’t start consciously
with the Fifteen Properties as though they were a recipe. I just tried
various arrangements and configurations till they felt right. Only then
did I see the Fifteen Properties in them.

Why did the Fifteen Properties appear in what I built?

I think they appeared because I let myself listen to my body. That’s not
something I did consciously. I just tried various designs and
arrangements till they felt good in and for my body. And when I looked
at them as though I had seen them for the first time, I recognized
compositions we could call classical.

Demetri Porphyrios reminds us that ‘Classicism Is Not a Style’

(PORPHYRIOS, 1982). It’s an attitude – an attitude that enables us to
build a world we experience as alive. We experience it as alive because
the patterns and structures we build reflect the patterns and structures of

82
life – in short, the Fifteen Properties. We build centres with protecting
boundaries. We tell tectonic tales. We differentiate between outside
and inside. We connect with the ground. We specify a hat above the
body we’ve built.

We can build a living world by embodying the classical attitude

One clear route to a built world we experience as alive is the route the
classical attitude has shown us. We can follow classical examples, be
they ancient or contemporary. They are indeed a recipe. And why
should we not see if the recipe appeals to us, fulfils us?

The neighbourhood centre that Javier Cenicacelaya built (below) is a

timeless example of the classical recipe. It embodies all the Fifteen
Properties. We experience it as friendly, as known before we knew it.
Its spatial cells cradle our body. In the increments of space we walk
through, we meet built bodies. They are alive, just as we are. They
define the measures of space that comprise the whole building. Just
like our own body, the building could have been built thousands of
years ago, yesterday, today, tomorrow, or thousands of years hence.

We can build a living world by attending to boundaries and centres

But how shall we build if we’re not entirely reconnected with our built-
in tendency to build a world that reflects our own bodily and animated
structure?

If we’re still members of the architectural church that tells us we should

think and control before we build, that we should build spaces that
allow us to function as though we ourselves were machines, how might
we liberate ourselves and our world?

One way might be the route the Dutch monk Hans van der Laan
followed in his search for built spaces that we could experience with
our body. Van der Laan played with spaces and their boundaries. He

83
body. Bodies standing at a reasonable distance from each other form a
perforated wall. And perforated walls on either side of a space generate
that space, make that space feelable, make that space live. After all,
that space is born between rows of living built bodies.

A row of columns we experience as living bodies stands at a reasonable

distance from the wall on the other side of the space the columns bring
into being. The reasonable distance is not a distance based on reason;
it’s a distance we can reasonably ascertain without thinking about it.
It’s a distance whose measure, according to Van der Laan, is no more
than seven times the thickness of the column bodies that determine it.

Once we build a space we can experience as a spatial building block, a

space whose measures are segments of the column bodies, we can then
build larger spaces. We do so by choosing measures that allow us to
experience the original spatial building block. Built bodies stand at just
the right distance from each other to allow us to feel the space between
them. Because we can experience the bodies as living, we experience
the space between them as alive too. We take this experience with us in
our encounter with a larger space whose size we can feel and meet
because we’ve already felt and met the original spatial building block.

The church in the Abbey Sint-Benedictusberg (next page) is a prime

example. The side aisles are seven times the width of the columns, the
built bodies, on centre. The built bodies are alive. They make spaces
we experience as alive, as living. These living spaces – the side aisles
– allow us to experience the nave as living, as alive because we’ve
already met them with and in our body. The width of the nave stands in
relation to the width of the side aisles just as the width of the side aisles
stands in relation to the column bodies.

85
Fig. 3 Abbey church, Sint-Benedictusberg, Lemiers, Nederland

Our body is the source of the order in the Fifteen Properties

The lesson we can learn is that there are at least three routes to building
a world we experience as alive, a world that incorporates the Fifteen
Properties, a world we’ve always built till we learned not to.

One route is simply to build, to experiment. On this route we need to

build with our own hands. While building we discover what we need
to do in order to experience our built world as a world that truly lives.
We can follow this route only if we’ve liberated ourselves from the
ideology, the belief, that our built spaces only serve use and comfort,
that our built spaces are no more than things.

Another route is to build in the continuing tradition of classical

building. Classical building depends on columns as built bodies that
determine the feelable spaces between them, that generate spaces

86
between opposing rows of columns. Classical building creates centres
as spaces between boundaries as columns or wall segments. Classical
building creates inner worlds protected from the outer world. Classical
building arises from our experience of our body, our animated body.

But if we’ve become alienated from our experience of our body, what
then? And if we’re alienated from our body but still open in mind for
the possibility of a built world we can experience as alive, as living,
what then?

Then we can follow the recipe of Van der Laan. We can learn
consciously to build spaces in relation to the built bodies that bound
them. We can, in short, choose to build spaces and buildings that have
a goal: to build a built world that mirrors and reflects and recreates the
order of our own biological and inner world.

The Fifteen Properties, it’s now clear, are not only a description of
living architecture: they’re also an embodiment of life on earth, of our
life on earth. The Fifteen Properties are rooted in our own body, our
own perception, our own consciousness. And if we rediscover how to
build cities that live as our bodies live, that spring from the measures of
our own bodies, that present us with built bodies, then we have built a
truly animated world. We’ve come home to who we are.

FIGURES

Fig. 1. Station Delft. Author’s photo.

Fig. 2. Centro Rural, Muskiz. Cenicacelaya y Saloña, Bilbao. With
permission.
Fig. 3. Abbey church, Sint-Benedictusberg, Lemiers, Nederland.
Author’s photo.

87
REFERENCES

ALEXANDER, Christopher. The Nature of Order (Book 1). Berkeley, The

Center for Environmental Structure, 2002.

CIAM’s La Sarraz Declaration (1928).

http://modernistarchitecture.wordpress.com/2011/09/08/ciams-la-sarraz-
declaration-1928.

GREENBAUM, Norman. ‘The Eggplant that Ate Chicago.’ Dr. West’s

Medicine Show and the Junk Band, 1967.

HERSEY, George. The Lost Meaning of Classical Architecture. Cambridge,

MIT Press, 1988.

LAAN, Hans van der. De architectonische ruimte. Leiden, Brill, 1983.

PORPHYRIOS, Demetri. ‘Classicism Is Not a Style.’ London, Architectural

Design and Academy Editions, 1982.

RYKWERT, Joseph. The Dancing Column. Cambridge, MIT Press, 1996.

SCOTT, Geoffrey. The Architecture of Humanism. London, Constable and

Company, 1914.

WOUD, Auke van der. ‘De kunst van het stedebouwen’ in WOUD, Auke van
der (ed.). De stedebouw volgens zijn artistieke grondbeginselen. Rotterdam,
Uitgeverij 010, 1991.

88
 Cha
pte
r6
ACi
tyi
saCompl
exNe
twor
k

Bi
nJi
ang
1

Abstract

A city is not a tree but a semilattice. To use a perhaps more familiar

term, a city is a complex network. The complex network constitutes a
unique topological perspective on cities and enables us to better
understand the kind of problem a city is. The topological perspective
differentiates it from the perspectives of Euclidean geometry and
Gaussian statistics that deal with essentially regular shapes and more
or less similar things. Many urban theories, such as the Central Place
Theory, Zipf’s Law, the Image of the City, and the Theory of Centers
can be interpreted from the point of view of complex networks. A
livable city consists of far more small things than large ones, and their
shapes tend to be irregular and rough. This chapter illustrates the
complex network view and argues that we must abandon the kind of
thinking (mis-) guided by Euclidean geometry and Gaussian statistics,
and instead adopt fractal geometry, power-law statistics, and
Alexander’s living geometry to develop sustainable cities.

Keywords: Scaling, living structure, theory of centers, objective beauty,

head/tail breaks

1. Introduction

A city is not a tree but a complex network. Implicit in Alexander’s

earlier works (e.g., Alexander 1965), this insight on city networks is a
1
Faculty of Engineering and Sustainable Development, Division of GIScience,
University of Gävle, SE-801 76 Gävle, Sweden; Email: [email protected]

89
foundation for the Theory of Centers (Alexander 2002–2005).
According to the theory, a whole consist of numerous, recursively
defined centers (or sub-wholes) that support each other. A city is a
whole, as is a building, or a building complex. The centers and their
nested, intricate relationship constitute a complex network (see below
for further discussion). The complex network offers a unique
perspective for better understanding the kind of problem a city is
(Jacobs 1961). Based on the premise that a whole is greater than the
sum of its parts, complexity science has developed a range of tools,
such as complex networks (Newman et al. 2006) and fractal geometry
(Mandelbrot 1982), for enhancing our understanding of complex
phenomena. Unlike many other pioneers in the field, Alexander’s
contribution to complexity science began with creation or design of
beautiful buildings. The Theory of Centers, or living geometry, is much
more broad and profound than fractal geometry. Living geometry aims
for creation (Mehaffy and Salingaros 2015), while fractal geometry is
mainly for understanding. Creation or design is the highest status of
science. This chapter will elaborate on the network city view and how
its advance significantly contributes to a better understanding of fractal
structure and nonlinear dynamics of cities. I will begin with hierarchy
within, and among, a set of cities, then illustrate beauty and images
emerging from a complex network of centers, and end up with further
discussions on fractal geometry and living structure for sustainable
urban design.

2. Hierarchy within, and among, cities

A city is not a complex network seen from individual street segments or

junctions. This is because both street segments and junctions have more
or less similar degrees of connectivity (approximately four), very much
like a regular or random network. However, a city is a complex
network seen from individual streets. The streets are created from
individual street segments with the same names or good continuity; so-
called named and natural streets (Jiang and Claramunt 2004, Jiang et
al. 2008). Unlike street segments that are more or less similar, there are

90
all kinds of streets in terms of lengths or degrees of connectivity. The
topological view helps develop new insights into cities. To illustrate, let
us look at the street network of the historic part of the city Avignon in
France. The network comprises 341 streets, which are put into six
hierarchical levels based on the head/tail breaks, a classification
scheme, as well as a visualization tool, for data with a heavy-tailed
distribution (Jiang 2013a, Jiang 2015a). Given the set of streets as a
whole, we break it into the head for those above the mean and the tail
for those below the mean, and recursively continue the breaking
process of the head until the notion of far more less-connected streets
than well-connected ones is violated; the head/tail breaks process can
be stated as a recursive function as follows.

Recursive function Head/tail Breaks:

Break a whole into the head and the tail;
// the head for those above the mean
// the tail for those below the mean
While (head <= 40%):
Head/tail Breaks (head);
End Function

Figure 1: (Color online) Hierarchy of the street network of Avignon, and its
connectivity graph both showing far more less-connected streets than well-connected
ones. (Note: The hierarchy is visualized by the spectral color with blue for the least-
connected streets and red for the most-connected ones. The 341 streets and their 701

91
relationships become the 341 nodes and 701 links of the connectivity graph.)

The head/tail breaks enables us to see the parts and the inherent
hierarchy. The resulting hierarchy is visualized using the spectral color,
with blue for the least-connected streets and red for the most-connected
ones (Figure 1a). The 341 streets and their 701 relationships
(intersections) are converted respectively into the nodes and links of a
connectivity graph (Figure 1b). The connected graph is neither regular
nor random, but a small-world network – a middle status between the
regular and random counterparts (Jiang and Claramunt 2004, Watts an
Strogatz 1998). The ring-like visualization shows the connectivity
graph with a striking hierarchy of far more small nodes than large ones,
with node sizes indicating the degrees of connectivity. Networks with
this scaling hierarchy have an efficient structure, commonly known as
scale-free networks (Barabási and Albert 1999). Both small world and
scale free are two distinguished properties of complex networks. A
complex network is highly efficient, both locally and globally, inherited
respectively from the regular and random counterparts. How is a
complex network developed? What are the underlying mechanisms of
complex networks? How do we design a complex network of high
efficiency? These questions are design oriented, with far-reaching
implications for architectural design and city planning. Inspired by
Alexander’s works (Alexander 2002–2005), a theory of network city
(Salingaros 2005) has already been developed for dealing with various
urban-design issues.

Not only a city but also a set of cities (or human settlements, to be more
precise) is a complex network. All cities in a large country tend to
constitute a whole, as formulated by Zipf’s Law (Zipf 1949) and in the
Central Place Theory (Christaller 1933, 1966). According to Zipf’s
Law, city sizes are inversely proportional to their rank. Statistically, the
first largest city is twice as big as the second largest, three times as big
as the third largest, and so on. Zipf’s Law is a statistical law on city-
size distribution, and it does not say anything about how the cities are
geographically distributed. The geographical distribution of cities is

92
captured by the Central Place Theory. Cities in a country or region tend
to be distributed in a nested manner, i.e. each city acts as a central
place, providing services to the surrounding areas. Conversely, small
cities tend to support large ones, which further support even larger ones
in a nested manner. The Central Place Theory is about a network of
cities or human settlements that constitute a scaling hierarchy. The
underlying network structure formulated by the Central Place Theory
resembles the structure of a whole, in which recursively defined centers
tend to support each other (Alexander 2002–2005, Jiang 2015). In this
regard, cities in a country or region can be considered to be a living
structure.

3. Beauty and image out of complex networks

Alexandrian living structure is a de facto complex network of

numerous centers. The centers are recursively defined, which means
that a center contains smaller centers and is contained within larger
centers. Besides the nested, intriciate relationships among the numerous
centers, they tend to support each other to constitute a whole. In this
context, wholeness, as defined by Alexander (2002–2005), can be
considered to be a global structure or life-giving order emerging from
the whole as a complex network of the centers. This complex-network
view of whole captures the mathematical model of wholeness as part of
the Theory of Centers, and enables us to compute the degrees of
wholeness or beauty (Jiang 2015). Using Google’s PageRank
algorithm, beautiful centers are defined as those to which many
beautiful centers point. This definition of beautiful centers is recursive,
and computation of the degree of beauty is achieved through an
iterative process until a convergence is reached. Eventually, each center
is assigned to a degree of beauty between 0 and 1. The degree of beauty
of the whole can be measured by the ht-index, a head/tail breaks-
induced index; the higher the ht-index, the more beautiful the whole.
Let us illustrate the computation using the Alhambra plan as a working
example at a building complex scale.

93
Figure 2: (Color online) The complex network of the centers with the plan of Alhambra
(Note: The degrees of beauty are calculated using Google’s PageRank algorithm; the
bigger the dots, the more beautiful the centers.)

The Alhambra is probably the most beautiful building complex in the

world. It possesses many of the 15 geometric properties such as levels
of scale, strong centers, thick boundaries, and local symmetries. Seen
from its plan, the most distinguished property is local symmetries. The
plan does not look globally symmetric, but its numerous local
symmetries make it unique and beautiful. Let us focus on the Alhambra
plan that is partitioned into 725 convex spaces, each of which acts as a
center. Most of the centers are related to surrounding centers, as long as
there is no barrier between them. This makes 880 relationships in total.
There are a few isolated centers that do not contribute to the whole. The
880 relationships are directed from the peripheral small spaces to the
central large spaces. Figure 4 shows the result, in which the dots
indicate the degrees of beauty; the bigger the dots, the more beautiful
the centers. It should be noted that there are 13 centers hidden or
embedded in the network: One as the whole, three sub-wholes, and nine

94
sub-wholes of the three sub-wholes.

The living structure has deep implications for understanding the city
structure from a cognitive perspective. In this connection, the image of
the city (Lynch 1960) is another classic in the field of urban design. A
large body of literature has been produced over the past 50 years.
Much of the literature focuses on human internal representation, or how
do mental images of a city vary from person to person? In fact, it is the
city’s external representation, or the city itself, or the living structure,
that makes a city imageable or legible (Jiang 2013b). To be more
precise, the largest, the most-connected, or the most meaningful
constitute part of a mental image of the city. Among the five city
elements (paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks), only
landmarks capture the true sense of scaling or living structure. The
image of the Alhambra plan consists of three sub-wholes: The left,
middle, and right. Each of these comprises three further sub-wholes.
Among the many other centers, the most beautiful one, or the one with
the most dense local symmetries, tends to shape our image of the
building complex.

4. Fractal and living structures

The topological perspective differentiates it fundamentally from the

perspectives offered by Euclidean geometry and Gaussian statistics.
Euclidean geometry aims for measuring regular shapes, and Gaussian
statistics aims for analyzing more or less similar things. These two
mathematical tools show some constraints while dealing with
complexity of the world. Instead of more or less similar things and
regular shapes, there are far more small things than large ones, and
irregular shapes. To put them in perspective, Euclidean geometry aims
for measurement or scale, while fractal geometry aims for scaling or
the scaling pattern of far more small things than large ones. Gaussian
statistics aims for average things, while power-law statistics aims for
outliers. Events of a small probability in Gaussian statistics are
impossible, whereas events of a small probability in power-law

95
statistics are highly improbable or vital. To a great extent, Euclidean
and fractal geometries complement each other, and one cannot stand
without another. This is because one must measure all things under the
framework of Euclidean geometry to recognize scaling. However, our
thinking in architecture and urban design is very much dominated by
Euclidean and Gaussian thinking. For example, to characterize a tree,
we tend to only measure its height, rather than all its branches. To
illustrate, let us examine two patterns shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Fractal (a) versus Euclidean (b) patterns. (Note: The left pattern appears
metaphorically in traditional buildings, in the sense of all scales involved rather than
of precisely the same pattern, whereas the right pattern is pervasively seen in modern
buildings metaphysically and in terms of precisely the same pattern.)

The square of one unit is cut into nine congruent squares, and the
middle one is taken away. The same procedure is recursively applied to
the remaining eight squares again and again, until we end up with the
pattern commonly known as Sierpinski carpet (Figure 3a). This
particular carpet of three iterations comprises one square of scale 1/3,
eight squares of scale 1/9, and 64 squares of scale 1/27. A Sierpinski
carpet is hardly seen in reality, but it helps illustrate some unique
properties shared by the real-world patterns, referring to not only those
in nature but also those emerging in cities and buildings. First, a pattern

96
recurs again and again at different scales, known as self-similarity.
Second, there are multiple scales, rather than just one. It is essentially
these two properties that differentiate the left pattern from the right one
in Figure 3. It is important to note that the right pattern is with nine
squares, which are disconnected each other. However, all the squares of
the left pattern are connected each other, according to Gestalt
psychology (Köhler 1947). The largest square is supported by the eight
middle-sized squares, each of which is further supported by the eight
smallest squares. This support relationship is very much similar to the
framework of the Central Place Theory.

Unfortunately, modern architecture has been deadly misguided by

Euclidean geometry and Gaussian thinking towards so-called geometric
fundamentalism (Mehaffy and Salingaros 2006). Geometric funda-
mentalism worships simple and large-scale Euclidean shapes, such as
cylinders and cubes, so removes small scales and ornament. However,
scaling laws tell us that all scales ranging from the smallest to the
largest (to be more precise, many smallest, a very few largest, and some
in between) are essential for scaling hierarchy and for human beings.
This scaling hierarchy appears pervasively in traditional buildings such
as temples, mosques, and churches, yet has been removed from
contemporary architecture and city planning. The life of living structure
lies on the smallest scales or fine structure (Alexander 2002–2005) as
demonstrated in Figures 1 and 2. It is time to change our mindsets
toward fractal geometry, power-law statistics, and Alexandrian living
geometry to develop sustainable cities and architecture.

5. Concluding remarks

A city is not a simple network, as simple as a regular or random

network. Instead, a city is a complex network, or a middle status
between the regular and random counterparts. It is highly efficient
locally and globally, inherited respectively from regular and random
counterparts. Many urban theories, such as the Central Place Theory,
Zipf’s Law, the Image of the City, and the Theory of Centers can be

97
better understood from the perspective of complex networks. Network
cities bear the scaling hierarchy of far more small things than large
ones, or living structure in general. This is the source of structural
beauty and the image of the city. The scaling hierarchy should be
interpreted more broadly, i.e., far more unpopular things than popular
ones in terms of topology, or far more meaningless things than
meaningful ones in terms of semantics. In this connection, a city is
indeed a tree in terms of the scaling hierarchy.

The kind of complex network thinking is manifested in a series of

Alexander’s works that are highly iterative, such as Notes on the
Synthesis of Form (Alexander 1964), A City Is not a Tree (Alexander
1965), The Timeless Way of Building (Alexander 1979), and The Nature
of Order (Alexander 2002–2005). The complex-network perspective
implies that within a city, every element depends on every other
element, and changing one element would affect virtually every other
in a design context. In this chapter, I have shown the power of
complex-network perspective in understanding city complexity, in
particular the topological view of city structure. Further work is
expected towards the integration of the Theory of Centers and network
science, and of living geometry and fractal geometry, for sustainable
urban design.

REFERENCES

Alexander C. (1964), Notes on the Synthesis of Form, Harvard University

Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Alexander C. (1965), A city is not a tree, Architectural Forum, 122(1+2), 58-
62.
Alexander C. (1979), The Timeless Way of Building, Oxford University Press:
Oxford.
Alexander C. (2002-2005), The Nature of Order: An essay on the art of
building and the nature of the universe, Center for Environmental
Structure: Berkeley, CA.

98
Barabási A. and Albert R. (1999), Emergence of scaling in random networks,
Science, 286, 509–512.
Christaller W. (1933, 1966), Central Places in Southern Germany, Prentice
Hall: Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Jiang B. (2013a), Head/tail breaks: A new classification scheme for data with a
heavy-tailed distribution, The Professional Geographer, 65 (3), 482 –
494.
Jiang B. (2013b), The image of the city out of the underlying scaling of city
artifacts or locations, Annals of the Association of American
Geographers, 103(6), 1552-1566.
Jiang B. (2015a), Head/tail breaks for visualization of city structure and
dynamics, Cities, 43, 69-77.
Jiang B. (2015b), Wholeness as a hierarchical graph to capture the nature of
space, International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 29(9),
1632–1648.
Jiang B., Zhao S., and Yin J. (2008), Self-organized natural roads for
predicting traffic flow: a sensitivity study, Journal of Statistical
Mechanics: Theory and Experiment, July, P07008.
Jiang B. and Claramunt C. (2004), Topological analysis of urban street
networks, Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 31(1),
151-162.
Jacobs J. (1961), The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Random
House: New York.
Köhler W. (1947), Gestalt Psychology: An introduction to new concepts in
modern psychology, LIVERIGHT: New York.
Lynch K. (1960), The Image of the City, The MIT Press: Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
Mandelbrot B. (1982), The Fractal Geometry of Nature, W. H. Freeman and
Co.: New York.
Mehaffy M. W. and Salingaros N. A. (2006), Geometrical fundamentalism, In:
Salingaros N. A. (2006), A Theory of Architecture, Umbau-Verlag:
Solingen.
Mehaffy M. W. and Salingaros N. A. (2015), Design for a Living Planet:
Settlement, science, and the human future, Sustasis Press: Portland,

99
 Oregon.
Newman M., Barabási A.-L., Watts D. J. (2006, editors), The Structure and
Dynamics of Networks, Princeton University Press: Princeton, N.J.
Salingaros N. A. (2005), Principles of Urban Structure, Techne: Delft.
Watts D. J. and Strogatz S. H. (1998), Collective dynamics of `small-world'
networks, Nature, 393, 440-442.
Zipf G. K. (1949), Human Behaviour and the Principles of Least Effort,
Addison Wesley: Cambridge, MA.

100
 Cha
pte
r7

NotesontheGenes
isofWholes
:
“
ACi t
yisNotaTree
”inthela
rger
contex
tofAle
xander'
sca
reer
1

Mi
chae
lW Me
haffy
2

Christopher Alexander, the author of “A city is not a tree” in 1965,

remained extremely prolific in the five decades since. Almost everyone
knows about his best-selling 1977 book A Pattern Language –
According to long-time Harvard Design Review Editor William
Saunders, that work “could very well be the most read architectural
treatise of all time” (Architectural Record, May 2002, p. 93). Also well
known are The Oregon Experiment (1975), The Timeless Way of
Building (1979), The Production of Houses (1985) and A New Theory
of Urban Design (1987). Alexander has also been remarkably prolific
as a designer and builder of some 300 structures during that time.

Beginning in 2003, Alexander began publishing perhaps his most

ambitions work of all: a four-volume magnum opus, The Nature of
Order: An Essay on the Art of Building and the Nature of the Universe.
The grand title, and equally grand and dense text, has fuelled a
perception in some quarters that Alexander’s career somewhere
1
Portions of this essay first appeared in Urban Design International, under the title
“Notes on the Genesis of Wholes: Christopher Alexander and His Continuing
Influence.” I am indebted to Ward Cunningham (pioneer of pattern languages of
programming, and originator of “wiki”) for information about Alexander’s subsequent
influence on computer science, and to Marcial Echenique, Head of the Architecture
School at the University of Cambridge, for information about Alexander’s early
theoretical influence within architecture.
2
Sustasis Foundation, Portland, OR. Email: [email protected]

101
derailed from his earlier, rigorous scientific path, evidenced by “A city
is not a tree,” into a gauzy world of mysticism, solipsism or worse.

But the truth is more interesting, and more potentially useful for the rest
of us. Alexander’s career is in fact a straight line from the Cambridge
(England) physics student, dealing with precisely the same topic
throughout: the relation of parts to wholes, and the search for useful
new design tools for their genesis and transformation.

Along the way he has surprised even himself with the increasing
philosophical complexity of his conclusions; but he has never deviated
from the scientific method that brought him there.

Furthermore, let me assert, his career reveals as much about the modern
history of planning and architecture, and the philosophical issues
scarcely yet confronted, let alone resolved, as it does about one
individual’s remarkably diverse, idiosyncratic, but (as I shall argue)
coherent corpus.

Alexander, the first PhD student in architecture at Harvard, became

instantly well known in the design world with the publication of his
landmark PhD thesis and first book, Notes on the Synthesis of Form.
The book was widely acclaimed and made Alexander a star of design
theory. In fact its influence extended far beyond the world of
architecture and planning: it was said to be required reading for
researchers in computer science throughout the 1960s, and reportedly
influenced major software innovations of the 1970’s including object-
oriented programming. It helped to launch the influential “design
methods” movement (which Alexander later repudiated). It was equally
a seminal text for the generation of architectural theorists that included
Lionel March and Horst Rittel3.
3
For example, an early review in Industrial Design Magazine termed it “one
of the most important contemporary books about the art of design, what it is,
and how to go about it.”

102
Like Herbert Simon’s classic paper of that era, “The Architecture of
Complexity”, Notes took up anew the age-old philosophical question of
the relationship between parts and wholes – the vital but oddly
neglected philosophical topic of mereology – but in a specific modern
form. Both Simon and Alexander wanted to know the precise
mathematical structure of that relationship, and its development and
transformation over time. In Simon’s case the focus was on human
cognition and computation, whereas Alexander was interested more
specifically in the designer’s challenge. As he formulated it then: how
does a designer synthesize a coherent and successful form out of the
elements of a design program?

Like Simon, Alexander made the basic structural observation that parts
tend to relate to wholes in hierarchies, roughly speaking. Simon called
them “nearly decomposable” hierarchies. This nearly-but-not-quite-
hierarchical quality turned out to be key: there are subtle but
significant areas of overlap and redundancy, and in that fact this is
something profoundly important. These overlaps may seem accidental
or trivial, but they are not: they are essential attributes of what we
would today recognize as web-network structures, and they occur in
very particular ways. Alexander quickly recognized, perhaps even
more than Simon, that these areas were somehow of fundamental
importance.

A City is Not A Tree

That insight was the salient point of “A City is Not A Tree,”

Alexander's widely-cited 1965 paper on the failures of that era’s new
towns – and by extension, modern urban planning and even design as a
whole. As readers will likely know by now, the tree to which he
referred to was a mathematical tree, a neat hierarchical system of
nested sets and subsets:

Whenever we have a tree structure, it means that within this

structure no piece of any unit is ever connected to other units,

103
 except through the medium of that unit as a whole. The
enormity of this restriction is difficult to grasp. It is a little as
though the members of a family were not free to make friends
outside the family, except when the family as a whole made a
friendship.

He contrasted that structure with a semilattice, a more complex kind of

structure with overlap, ambiguity and mutual interaction. This
characteristic was a key aspect of the architecture of complexity.

The city is full of these overlapping and ambiguous systems, Alexander

noted, and they are responsible for a great deal of its complexity and
richness:

It must be emphasized, lest the orderly mind shrink in horror

from anything that is not clearly articulated and categorized in
tree form, that the idea of overlap, ambiguity, multiplicity of
aspect and the semilattice are not less orderly than the rigid
tree, but more so. They represent a thicker, tougher, more subtle
and more complex view of structure.

And yet, as he showed, much of modern planning exhibited this tree-

like structure. He argued that the rational mind inevitably defaults to
these neater, more easily managed categories of thought.

It is for this reason - because the mind's first function is to

reduce the ambiguity and overlap in a confusing situation and
because, to this end, it is endowed with a basic intolerance for
ambiguity - that structures like the city, which do require
overlapping sets within them, are nevertheless persistently
conceived as trees.

But the result of this can be devastating:

…the city is not, cannot and must not be a tree. The city is a
receptacle for life. If the receptacle severs the overlap of the
strands of life within it, because it is a tree, it will be like a
bowl full of razor blades on edge, ready to cut up whatever is
entrusted to it. In such a receptacle life will be cut to pieces.

104
“A City is Not a Tree” quickly took on the status of a landmark
critique, joining the ranks of Jacobs’ The Death and Life of Great
American Cities in shaping that era’s seminal criticisms of modernist
planning. With other critical texts of that era, it helped to put a brake
on the rush of new towns and urban renewal “projects,” and it set the
stage for a more circumspect, asset-based approach to planning.

Yet forty years later, we can ask whether the implications of this
seminal work were ever fully realised. Today a new generation of
planners and architects seems to have forgotten - or never learned -
Alexander’s elegant mathematical analysis. New towns following the
old model are springing up around the world, notably in the developing
world, and new infill projects are proposed for rapidly-growing cities.
There is a greater emphasis on mixed-use and interaction, but not much
difference in the fundamental planning methodologies or results. As
Jacobs noted in 1961, the urban professions have still not made the
progress of other fields, particularly the biological sciences.

The Development of Pattern Languages

Alexander next asked, if the mind inevitably tries to force complex

systems into neat hierarchies, then how can designers counteract this
trend? Are there methods available to overcome this limitation?

Alexander noted several hopeful sources. One was in the structure of

natural languages. An entire complex system, with all its overlap, can
be represented by a word or phrase, and can be linked to other systems
and other words through grammatical rules. While following basic
hierarchical rules of structure, natural language nonetheless does permit
tremendous ambiguity, overlap and interactivity. Poetry, for example,
is an obvious example of language that is rich in overlap and density of
interrelations.

105
Another inspiration came from computer science. Alexander had
continued his work in the synthesis of form using computer programs,
and he made an intriguing observation. Amid the unwieldy thicket of
data he was generating, he saw recurrent patterns of the same elements,
or the same kind of solutions. If these patterns could be abstracted,
they could perhaps be re-combined in usable ways, preserving the
essential network structures of the patterns. Such a “language” itself
could, like a natural language, contain overlap and network
connectivity.

At its heart, a pattern is simply a recurrent

configuration of forces that can be resolved
in repeatable ways. To take an obvious
example – so obvious that no designer
actually has to think about it in practice – a
door is a system that resolves the physical
forces that occur when it is swinging be-
tween open and closed, using a con-
figuration of hinges and knob (Figure 1,
right). But the positions of the hinges and
knob are not arbitrary: they need to have a
certain configuration for the door to work
properly. If the knob is on the same side of
the door as the hinge, it will not work very
well! The arrangement of hinges and knob
Figure 1
is the kind of key configuration that is
captured by a pattern.

As one moves beyond the scale of a local configuration and its “strong”
forces, one encounters other relationships that are notably weaker –
what Alexander termed “weak forces.” For example, I might have two
doors in the same room, but their positions don't really have any critical
relationship to one another. They can be on opposite sides of the room,
or on adjoining sides. The doors are not randomly placed in relation to

106
one another, but by comparison to the requirements of the hinges and
knob, the doors are only coupled by a “weak” force.

In fact, most structures in the

world are complex mixtures of
these “strong forces” and
“weak forces,” as Alexander
observed. The structures with
strong forces form clusters, but
they are not rigid. They are,
instead, “patterns” – recurrent
relationships between parts,
that can themselves form new
relationships at larger (and also Figure 2
smaller) scales. (Figure 2,
right.) The doors in my room might connect it to several other rooms,
and ultimately to my house, which connects again to the street and to
the house next door, and so on. Similarly, the hinges on my door can
be composed of diverse arrangements of screws, and so on.

As designers, once we recognize this clustering, we are free to use it to

our advantage. We can combine the clusters in many different and
creative ways, while still retaining the essence of the strong force
configurations, so that our designs are likely to work. For example, we
can make many different shapes and sizes of door, so long as they all
have hinges on one side, and knobs on the other. (Again, this example
is so obvious that we don't actually have to think about it; other
examples, however, are more subtle, and this “pattern logic” becomes
more useful.)

It is not yet obvious why this “pattern language” approach resolves the
inherent problem outlined in “A City is Not a Tree.” That is, it is not
obvious why patterns can form “semi-lattices” (or web-networks) and
not just “trees” (or rigid hierarchies). After all, don't our houses have
rooms, which have doors, which have hinges, which have pins, and so

107
on? Isn't that a rigid hierarchy? In that case it is, but we are not at all
limited to that kind of relationship.

The neat tree-like nature of this system is broken when a new pattern is
formed that spans across the relationships of other patterns. At an
obvious level, a door can be (and usually is) shared by two rooms.
Multiple rooms can be inter-connecting, and pathways between them
can literally overlap. A hallway can be very precise in one context
(e.g. enclosed with walls and doors at the ends) but quite ambiguous in
another: just a pair of doors aligned in one part of a room, which
becomes a regular passage. The pattern language approach is equally
adept at managing both kinds of design configuration.

In addition, other kinds of relationships can be cross-cutting. “Parts

made of brass” might encompass my door hinge, but not my doorknob
– or it might include both. Sets of patterns comprising other patterns
could overlap – but also might not overlap.

Understanding this web-

network capacity for overlap
was an enormous revelation
for Alexander, and it opened
his eyes to yet another
revelation. The same
capacity for ambiguity and
overlap exists in human
Figure 3 language, and notably in
poetry. The rich inter-
connection of relationships is precisely what gives language its
power, and what gives poetry its capacity for meaning. What about the
poetic qualities of the built environment?

Alexander began to recognise that human beings had already been

using something like a “pattern language” in their traditional building
cultures. The apparently humble structures of vernacular building were

108
in fact extremely robust and capable of producing exceedingly complex
results. Something like this pattern structure seemed to be deeply
rooted in the nature of the interactions between humans and their
environment. It might even be rooted in the very nature of things.

Alexander developed this concept of a “pattern language” through a

series of tests, and found it worked remarkably well. He began to
envision a resource that any ordinary person could use to produce
reasonably good vernacular buildings, in place of the unsatisfying
standardised buildings that comprised the vast majority of the built
environment.

Alexander and his colleagues compiled an initial set of 253 patterns,

and, in 1977, published them in the book A Pattern Language. The
book became an immediate and perennial bestseller, and a major
influence on yet another generation of architects and planners.

Design Patterns in Computer Software

As it happened, the benefits that originated with computer software

came full circle, and spawned major new developments in that field. In
1987 Kent Beck and Ward Cunningham, two Tektronix software
engineers in Oregon, were inspired by the idea that pattern languages
could perhaps be developed into a robust programming methodology.
Beck had come across Alexander’s work in his University of Oregon
dorm, which included students from the Architecture School.

The design pattern methodology proved to be a great success, and a

global phenomenon in the computing world. The influence is if
anything greater than that in the world of architecture, spawning a line
of innovations including The Sims, Wikipedia and many others.

In one sense the success should not be surprising: after all, the
structure of a design problem in one field is similar to that in another,
and a methodology that solves it in one might also work in another.

109
More intriguing is the possibly greater empirical success of design
patterns in computing than in architecture, where the actual prevalence
of pattern language methodology is considerably more limited. This
may be because while Alexander and his colleagues developed patterns
in a small group, using a “proprietary” model, the software engineers
had a wider, more “open source” approach. The design pattern
movement (as it is called) includes conferences, papers and many other
activities, both proprietary and public.

The Nature of Order

The popularity of A Pattern Language was surely gratifying – in

particular its hoped-for success with non-architects seeking to design
and build for themselves. But Alexander and his colleagues were
disturbed to find that many of the designers inspired by the book
produced crude work that lacked the simple dignity of older vernacular
buildings. Clearly they had not succeeded in replacing the traditional
pattern languages of vernacular building with an equivalent new
technology. What was missing from the methodology?

Alexander came to believe that he had not sufficiently dealt with the
detailed problem of geometry. Returning to the problem of the relation
of parts to wholes, he asked, what is it about the particular geometries
of the built environment that we find beautiful and satisfying? What
characteristics do they have, and what detailed processes actually create
them? And why is this so?

Answering this question, and documenting the ideas for his readers,
was the task that would occupy him for the next 25 years, culminating
in a magnum opus subtitled “An Essay on the Art of Building and the
Nature of the Universe.”

Alexander was well aware of the work of theorists like Reyner

Banham, who had simply concluded that humanity was in a different
era -- the modern age of the machine -- and the complex social and

110
economic conditions in which the great traditional buildings were
created no longer existed. Hence the effort to create such qualities
again was in vain.

But Alexander the structuralist was having none of it. This was a
misunderstanding of the determinants of technology, overestimating a
temporary set of limitations as a final deterministic fate. The
alternatives available to us were hardly limited only to fictional
historicist simulacra.

As a scientist, Alexander saw the processes of morphology as phe-

nomena of nature that transcended any particular era of human history,
and that were always available for us to incorporate in human creations.
Indeed, he saw the modern era of human technology as a crude one, in
need of reform. “I am a modernist,” he told this author – a declaration
that might surprise his less-informed critics - although he is quick to
add that he is a modernist who believes the time has come for radical
reform of design technology.

Taking his cue from nature, Alexander studied the processes of

morphogenesis in biology and other natural phenomena, and the
characteristic geometries that resulted. Working phenomenologically
rather than reductively, he grouped them into a series of categories,
eventually distilling them down to 15 “properties”. They range from
familiar ones like “boundaries” and “alternating repetition” to more
esoteric-sounding ones like “not-separateness”. Even so, as always,
the structural logic of even the esoteric-sounding ones is rigorous.

In addition to these geometric properties, Alexander also looked at the

processes that shape them. He made an intriguing observation: each
of the 15 properties has a corresponding kind of transformation that
gives rise to it – and this goes for human acts of creation as well. These
transformations do not create structure from scratch, but instead
preserve some aspect of the previously existing structure. Hence
Alexander referred to these as “structure-preserving transformations.”

111
environment as a field of wholes, each supporting and amplifying one
another in an interlocking totality. One can be very precise and
descriptive about these wholes, and one can use very specific tools to
manipulate and transform them; but one cannot avoid looking at the
totality at each step of the way.

This “systemic” understanding of structure – in contrast to the “com-

binatoric” one that has previously dominated – is a common feature of
organisation theory, biology and other fields, and the familiar “systems
approach”. But the notable contribution of Alexander, the Cambridge
(England) educated physicist, was to give this understanding a specific
geometric analysis, describing the relation of process to product.

Alexander calls each spatial region a "center," emphasizing that it is not

an isolated entity, but an embedded field within an infinitely larger
system of fields, with gradually diminishing contextual influences. One
cannot look at a part of the whole without looking at its relation to the
whole, and the complex influences of its location within the field.

Though this view has close parallels with the biological sciences and
other fields, as a theory of planning and design it is radical, and its
implications have only begun to be recognised. Taken to its logical
conclusion, it implies completely different forms of diagnosis and
prescription, different tools and methodologies, and different systems
of production.

A Science of Qualities

It gradually dawned on Alexander that it is impossible to talk about the

structure of a built environment and its effect upon the human user,
without facing squarely the human users themselves, and the qualitative
nature of their experience as an a priori condition that must be
accommodated. One could pretend that qualitative experience didn’t
matter, and only quantitative analyses mattered. But it was increasingly
clear that this omission was precisely the source of much of the current

113
grief, and the reason that progress had begun to grind to a halt. It had
continued in fields like neuroscience, artificial intelligence and other
subjects of complexity, precisely because these fields had recognised
the necessity of facing the phenomenon of subjectivity, and the
subjective experience of value.

As Alexander noted, value is the unwelcome guest at the party, simply

because it is so hard to define in quantitative terms. It is the ultimate
holistic, emergent phenomenon. And yet, Alexander noted, value is a
sharable phenomenon, and a discussable one. There are cognitive
methodologies that can indeed reliably find large areas of shared value.
Moreover, these shared areas turn out to have a definable relation to
structure itself. When it comes to living organisms, and apparently,
when it comes to the built environment, value is rooted in the structure
of things.

For many commentators, this is treacherous, alarming stuff – the

makings of totalitarian design, or an enforced blandness of “average
tastes”. But for Alexander, there is no alternative but to face it
squarely. While some things are variable, not everything about value is
entirely relative or “subjective”. Our job as scientists is to tease this
apart carefully, using rigorous scientific methods.

In this respect, Alexander sees no problem whatever applying the rigor

of science to subjective and qualitative phenomena. Indeed, he sees
them as necessary allies in confronting the current challenge of the built
environment.

A biological perspective may help to put a more comprehensible

perspective on the situation. Clearly there are matters of individual
taste and preference in the built environment, but equally clearly,
matters of shared valuation. Car exhaust is likely to be universally
regarded as an undesirable feature of built environments, whereas, say,
fresh air is generally regarded as desirable.

114
There are structures within the built environment that affect human
health and well-being, and for Alexander, it is the business of built
environment professionals, not unlike doctors, to diagnose and
prescribe more healthful and more desirable conditions. There is
certainly art to it; but there is equally science, to be applied to the
professional care of the well-being of others.

The relegation of value to a secondary or even peripheral role is,

according to Alexander, a result of the quantitative emphasis that
occurred in science around the time of Descartes and Newton. That
was an enormously powerful and useful abstraction, but it came with
increasingly negative unintended consequences. It created an artificial
divide between value and structure, and as a result, it blinded the design
professions, and the culture as a whole. Alexander’s great insight was
to suggest that structure has an intelligible tie to value, and that there
are sharable, reliable methods to tease this out. And further, if we are
to adequately respond to the current set of challenges, the time has
come when we must do so.

For Alexander, none of this is inconsistent with a progressive notion of

modernity. Indeed, this is modernity’s inevitable next phase.

The Continuing Influence

Today, Alexander remains an unquestionably central figure of planning

and design. His ideas, which are dismissed as quixotic, grandiose and
impractical by many architects, are delivering undeniable results in
other fields – often with high demand for empirical results, like
computer science. The field of architecture and design seems long
overdue for a rediscovery, and perhaps that is partly Alexander’s own
fault; but at the same time, as Jane Jacobs noted almost a half-century
ago, the fields do seem to be stubbornly laggard.

At a time when an unbridled faith in design as a means of social pro-

gress has given way to a diminished perception of design as a method

115
merely for “organisational efficacy,” Alexander’s clear-eyed insistence
that major progress is still possible sets him apart. At a time when the
emphasis on sustainable design is growing exponentially, his biological
understanding of the form-creating process is starting to look
remarkably relevant and useful.

Alexander’s continued warnings about the structural defects of tree-like

urban planning and architecture would also seem to be sadly still
relevant, in an age when the cautionary lessons of Jane Jacobs and
others have been brushed aside by a naïve new generation of image-
hungry designers, gleefully ready to repeat the many horrific mistakes
of that era – if anything on an even larger scale, in developing countries
like China and India. In the years to come, the growing crisis of
sustainability is even more likely to bring these chickens home to roost.

Certainly his contributions to the history of design, and his ongoing

influence on computer science and other fields, cannot be denied, even
by those critics who believe he veered off along the way into an arcane
world of mysticism. As I have argued, they would do well to look
more carefully at the unifying symmetries, and philosophical and
scientific parallels, within this remarkable career.

It is certainly true that Alexander has left a legacy long on grand ideas
and tantalising starts, and short on fully practical, implementable
methods. Along with brilliant insights have come huge problem areas
that, at best, require massive further development – as he himself has
noted. The economic dimension of the development process alone, for
example, poses profound problems that are a long way from being
resolved. Lacking progress in these key areas, Alexander’s actual
impact on the built environment has been understandably modest.

Alexander’s personal style has always been iconoclastic, and

dismissive of conventional wisdom. That spirit was formed in him
early, as a young candidate for a Cambridge scholarship, when an
accidental magnetic influence skewed the results of a laboratory test,

116
and Alexander alone refused to modify the results to meet the predicted
results. That bit of stubborn iconoclasm won him the scholarship, and
as he tells it, he never forgot that lesson. But it has probably
complicated his ability to collaborate with other researchers, or to
develop much stomach for the political messiness of human affairs,
never his strong suit. Yet it is precisely this stubborn and dogged spirit
that has propelled him onward to new insights, and radically fresh
approaches. As is often the case with iconoclasts, it may be up to
others to pick up many of these threads, and develop them into
complete methodologies and useful new standards.

A number of investigators have formed collaborative efforts to develop

further many of these promising starts. Perhaps most intriguing, the
example of software engineers in developing design patterns, suggests
that a more “open source” approach, particularly with patterns, might
be enormously helpful. In place of a single small, tight team working
under Alexander’s lead, an army of such teams of collaborators (and,
on occasion, competitors) might be able to match the impressive gains
of the software designers. A number of groups have now embarked on
such efforts.

By their nature, many of the remaining challenges do not lie in neat

tree-like compartments, but span across disciplines. One prominent
group of investigators has agreed to form a loose interdisciplinary
research association, dubbed the Environmental Structure Research
Group, to investigate these topics. Some of their members have
contributed to this volume, and taken forward other work in an
Alexandrine vein.

Alexander’s many students certainly continue to influence the

profession, and many now teach at institutions in the United States,
England, China, Israel and many other countries. Some of these
students, frustrated at the lack of coordinated progress on many of the
remaining topics, have recently established a group called the Building
Process Alliance. Representatives of the group have attended

117
conferences such as the Congress for the New Urbanism, the
Environmental Design Research Association, the Council for European
Urbanism, and a number of others, and other intriguing collaborative
links are in formation.

Alexander himself has remained active, with a particular ongoing focus

on developing usable tools. A recent focus has been on developing a
new kind of code, as a kind of generative design tool. Such a
“generative code” can be thought of, in analogy to computing terms, as
a local “operating system” that guides design and construction through
an integrated design-build process.

Alexander’s focus has remained very much on the creation of form, and
the way that parts go together to form wholes – or, perhaps more
accurately in many cases, the way wholes differentiate to create new
wholes, and new parts along with them. In that sense, his work
throughout his career has focused on morphogenesis – a topic that takes
on new urgency in a time when “sustainability” has become an urgent
goal, and broadens into topics of social engagement and organisation,
economic process and other dimensions of the culture of building. But
instead of aiming for what he once termed the “synthesis of form,”
Alexander’s aim now might better be characterised as the “genesis of
wholes”. Judging from his previous successes, the direction of his more
recent work would seem to warrant careful attention at the very least.

118
REFERENCES

Alexander, Christopher (2003) The Nature of Order. Berkeley: Center for

Environmental Structure.

Alexander, Christopher, S. Ishikawa, M. Silverstein, M. Jacobson, I. Fiksdahl-

King, and S. Angel. (1977). A Pattern Language. New York: Oxford
University Press.

Alexander, Christopher (1972). Notes on the Synthesis of Form. Cambridge:

Harvard University Press.

Alexander, Christopher (1965). “A City is Not A Tree.” in Architectural

Forum, Vol 122, No 1, April 1965, pp 58-62 (Part I), Vol 122, No 2, May
1965, pp 58-62 (Part II); Available on the web at
http://www.arq.ufmg.br/rcesar/alex/alexander/alexander1.html

Jacobs, Jane (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New
York: Vintage Books.

Saunders, William (2002). “Book Review: A Pattern Language”. In

Architectural Record, May 2002, p. 93. Available on the web at
http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/research/publications/hdm/back/16books_saunder
s.html

119
120
 Cha
pte
r8

‘
ACi
tyi
sNotaTr
ee’
andANe
wTh e
oryofUr
banDe
sig
n:
Fr
om Ur
banCr
it
iquet
oEnv
iro
nme
ntal
Str
uct
uret
oUr
banPr
oce
ss

Ha
joNe
is1

“You are no doubt wondering by now what a city looks like which is a
semilattice, but not a tree. I must confess that I cannot yet show you plans or
sketches.” (‘A City is not a Tree,’ Alexander 1965)

“A New Theory of Urban Design provides an entirely new theoretical

framework for the discussion of urban problems, one that goes far to remedy
the defects which cities have today.” (Alexander, Neis, Anninou, King, 1987)

Abstract

This article describes and constructs the intricate connections between

one seminal critique of modernist urban structure and modernist urban
design in the 20th century and a book that was published 22 years later
that tries to respond to some of the criticism of the former in a
constructive fashion. While the article ‘A City is Not a Tree’ (Alexander
1965) is primarily an analysis of the failure of 20th century urban
planning and design, the book A New Theory of Urban Design
(Alexander, Neis, Anninou, King) is an attempt to remedy some of those
failures by proposing a new way of designing and building our cities,
suggesting that they can achieve physical wholeness in the structure of
the city in a process of a growing whole.

1 De
part
mentofArchi
te
ctur
e,Port
land Urban Ar
chi
te
ctur
eRese
arch La
borat
ory
PUARL,Uni
ver
si
tyo
fOregon;ha
jone
is@uore
g o
n.e
du,USA:0015
034 1
23 731–Fax:
0015
034123745
2
Ale
xande
r,C.
,Nei
s,H.,Annino
u,A.,a
ndKi
ngI
.(1
987
)A Ne
w The
oryo
fUr
ban
De
si
gn,Oxf
ordUni
ver
si
tyPres
s,N.Y.

121
Introduction

As the title suggests, this article will not dwell on ‘A City is Not a Tree’
(ACNT) alone but will try to cover the work that responds to the
analysis and critique presented in ACNT, in other words, the
intellectual and practical development that has taken place from 1965
up to today. Special emphasis is placed on the book A New Theory of
Urban Design (ANTUD), which might be considered the prime
response for attempting to create and shape natural cities with life and
numerous urban relations, overlaps, and ambiguity, resulting in a city of
positive complexity.

The two quotes at the beginning of this article present a sequence

which first raises an issue and question about the nature and character
of city design and urban structure. Specifically, Alexander warns about
artificial and tree-like cities. The second quote seems to suggest that
there is a framework that has been designed and developed to solve
some of the problems in contemporary urban design.

In this article we will cover several main aspects of development from

the original article ‘A City s not a Tree’ to the main response of A New
Theory of Urban Design, briefly interjecting an important aspect of the
city as a system of patterns that comes with the development of the
book A Pattern Language APL (Alexander et. al. 1977). Through this
means we can observe the process which provides the subtitle of this
article.

In addition to the constructive response of A New Theory of Urban

Design to ‘A City is not a Tree,’ another main component of the
presented argument is the change of mode from critique and analysis of
city structure to process, urban dynamics, and the idea of the city as a
growing whole, which promises to be capable of creating a structure
with meaningful overlap, connection, and ambiguity in a process of
step by step formation.

122
A City is Not A Tree (Critique of Urban Structure)

The seminal article “A City is Not a Tree” by Christopher Alexander is

an enlightening analysis of the shortcomings of the structures common
to 20th century cities. The article can also be considered a fundamental
critique of modern urban design and modern urban development of the
first two thirds of the 20 th century in that it distinguishes ‘artificial
cities’ which are more tree-like, from ‘natural cities,’ which are more
semilattice-like.

“I want to call those cities which have arisen more or less

spontaneously over many, many years natural cities. And I shall call
those cities and parts of cities which have been deliberately created
by designers and planners artificial cities. Sienna, Liverpool, Kyoto,
Manhattan are examples of natural cities. Levittown, Chandigarh and
the British New Towns are examples of artificial cities.” (ACNT)

In its critique of modernist cities, the well-known article emphasizes

three main points:

1. Distinction of natural and artificial cities based on observation

and critical analysis
2. Use of the two mathematical models of semilattice and tree as a
way of supporting the first argument and analysing several
particular cities in this way
3. Use of psychological analysis that demonstrates why planners
and urban designers are creating artificial tree-like cities

The first and most important aspect of a city that ACNT emphasizes is
the amount of connections and relationships that a city has (or does not
have). It is these relationships that are so critical for a lively and
healthy city: the relationships between the people and the buildings,
streets, districts, parks, neighborhoods, and the city as a whole. If we
take an example from urban infrastructure and transportation, it can be
argued that a city with several public and private means of connection
and modes of transportation along with the ability to switch between

123
million different subsets.” Alexander uses this mathematical analysis as
a basis to describe the shortcomings of modern urban design. He says:
“It is this lack of structural complexity, characteristic of trees, which is
crippling our conceptions of the city” (ACNT). Furthermore, he
demonstrates his claims by analysing nine modernist cities of the 20 th
century, including famous places such as Brasilia, Chandigarh, and
Tokyo-Bay. He concludes that all of them have been designed and built
as tree structures (Tokyo Bay remains a design proposal by Kenzo
Tange).

So far, the contrast of these two urban relations has been demonstrated
using the two mathematical concepts of tree and semilattice. Alexander
also illustrates the difference in complexity through a psychological
explanation. He argues that “the mind has an overwhelming
predisposition to see trees whenever it looks into complex relations, it
cannot escape the tree conception.” To understand in real terms the
difference in relational complexity between a tree and a semilattice,
consider the following explanation using fruit and sports equipment:
suppose someone has two pieces of fruit (an orange and a water
mellon) and two balls (a tennis ball and a football). He or she can group
these objects according to function (food and sporting equipment) or by
shape (two spheres and two elongated spheres). In both cases we see a
system as a tree. Only when we start to see the two ways of groupings
together in one mental picture do we reach the complexity of a
semilattice. And Alexander argues that for this reason alone many
urban structures have been laid out as trees, lacking complexity and
richness of connections and, ultimately life because of our own
limitations to appreciate necessary complexity.
“For the human mind, the tree is the easiest vehicle for complex
thoughts. But the city is not, cannot and must not be a tree. The city is
a receptacle for life. If the receptacle severs the overlaps of the
strands of life within it, because it is a tree, it will be like a bowl full
of razor blades on edge, ready to cut whatever is entrusted to it. In
such a receptacle life will be cut to pieces. If we make cities which
are trees, they will cut our life within to pieces.” (ACNT)

125
The article ‘A City is Not a Tree’ (ACNT) had a tremendous impact on
architects, planners and urban designers from its time in the late sixties
up through today as it has helped to guide and shape views on urban
design theory and practice all over the world. The impact of this article
is that a new, more critical generation of architects and urban designers
began to emerge, which have a more complex understanding of how to
analyze, design, and build rich, progressive cities with life.

From Urban Critique (A City is Not a Tree, ACNT) to Environ-

mental Structure (A Pattern Language, APL) to Urban Process (A
New Theory of Urban Design, ANTUD)

The question of how to create a socially supportive semilattice-like city

has been approached by Alexander and his colleagues through various
efforts. Here, I will limit the investigation to internal development of
work by Alexander and his colleagues at the Center of Environmental
Structure in Berkeley.3 It is relevant to note that while another book by
Alexander and colleagues, A Pattern Language (APL), is not part of the
main investigation here, there are a few points that will help to illustrate
the progression from urban critique to the development of an urban
design theory based on patterns, or A Pattern Language (APL) that was
published in 1977. Three points are of relevance here: The city as a
system; connections in the structure of the city and environment; and
the quality of these structures and connections.

This article will focus mostly on A New Theory of Urban Design

(ANTUD) which deals with organic city design, planning issues, and
urban and building design. ANTUD was published 22 years after
ACNT and 10 years after APL. We will also briefly look at A City is
Not a Tree (ACNT) to A New Theory of Urban Design (ANTUD) and

3
A) Alexander, C. Hirshen, S., Ishikawa, S., Coffin, C., and Angel, S. Houses
Generated by Patterns. CES 1969. (Peru UN Project.) B) Alexander, C. and Center
for Environmental Structure. ‘The Grass Roots Housing Process.’ Draft, 1973.
C) Alexander, C., Davis, H., Martinez, J., and Corner. D. The Production of Houses,
1985.

126
the relationship of the two quotes at the beginning of the article, one
from 1965, and the other from 1987. What ideas and concepts were
continued? What ideas and concepts were developed, modified, or
changed? What are completely new ideas or developments? And
finally, what are the new questions, coming out of the new work?

Let us start with the question ‘what has changed in urban design and
what is completely new?’ By far the largest change/new development in
urban design thinking by Alexander and CES is the shift from
structure, structural analysis and modernist critique to process,
constructive urban design, and an active urban design theory and
practical approach for the 21 st century. From this single fact alone we
can incorporate other relevant questions and issues, such as:

a. Use and development of the concepts of artificial and natural

city
b. Use and development of the concepts of tree and semi-lattice
c. Emphasis on connections and relations that are needed to create
a healthy environments and social situations with life (quality
of the connections)
d. Use and development of psychological concepts in relation to
complexity
e. Change and transformations from critical to structural issues
and to process and dynamics
f. Emphasis on actual design, development and building of urban
areas and neighborhoods
g. Emphasis on generative and regenerative processes
h. The absence of explicit patterns and pattern language

A New Theory of Urban Design (Urban Process)

With the formulation and publication of A New Theory of Urban

Design in 1987, we can observe several new developments in urban
criticism and expression. First, there is a continuation from structural
analysis to the active development and design of urban space that tries

127
to avoid the limitations of tree-like simplicity in urban design and
building design. Second, there is a shift and extension from structure to
process and dynamics, which helps to define an appropriate way of
making connections. Third, there is a strong inclusion of the age-old
understanding of the city as an organic city with an organic process.

The venerable cities of the past, such as Venice or Amsterdam,

convey a feeling of wholeness, an organic unity that surfaces in every
detail, large and small, in restaurants, shops, public gardens, even in
balconies and ornaments. But this sense of wholeness is lacking in
modern urban design, indeed with architects absorbed in problems of
individual structures, and city planners preoccupied with local
ordinances.(ANTUD)

Here we can see how the notion of a natural city vs. an artificial city is
extended to wholeness in the structure of the city noting the organic
unity that is missing in modern cities. And while the notion of organic
unity starts with Plato and continues with Alberti and others, it is the
modern understanding that was influenced by Alfred North Whitehead
in Process and Reality. Whitehead emphasizes connections as reality
defining (Whitehead 1978). It can be argued that this idea was
continued in mathematical form as semilattice in ACNT by Chris
Alexander and advanced in ANTUD as system, structure, and most
importantly, as ‘growing structure’ and ‘growing whole.’

The important question then is what this new theory is made of and
how it can be considered a modern and contemporary organic urban
theory (without losing the qualities of previous theories of organic
development). The simple answer is in the method applied. In order to
discover the principles, laws, and rules that are necessary for creating a
growing whole in the city, the authors developed a set of ideas and
principles and proposed a set of seven systemic rules that embody the
theory on a practical level.

But before we get to the practical level, it is important to give structure

to the seven detailed rules of urban growth with the ideas of a growing

128
whole (chapter 1) and the overriding rule (chapter 2). These two meta-
rules clearly emphasize process-oriented principles and systems of
rules in which the urban structure emerges from individual and
connected acts of design and construction rather than large-scale
planning.

The Idea of a Growing Whole

In the book A New Theory of Urban Design, the process of achieving

wholeness in the structure of the city starts with the idea of a ‘growing
whole.’ The idea of a growing whole is based on observations and
detailed analysis of traditional cities and also captures a more
traditional understanding of the organic city with regard to the kind of
detailed qualities that we admire in these cities, such as Venice,
Amsterdam and Motovun (in Istria). In addition, the new aspect of this
idea is the emphasis on process, in which the whole is an ever-changing
and adapting quality in the process of organic growth captured in four
fundamental features of organic growth:

First, the whole grows piecemeal, bit by bit.

Second, the whole is unpredictable. When it starts coming in to

being, it is not yet clear, how it will continue, or where it will
end, because only the interaction of the growth, with the
whole’s own laws, can suggest its continuation and its end.

Third, the whole is coherent. It is truly whole, not fragmented,

and its parts are also whole, related like the parts of a dream,
to one another, in surprising and complex ways.

Fourth, the whole is full of feeling, always. This happens

because the wholeness itself touches touches us, reaches the
deepest levels in us, has the power to move us, to bring us to
tears, to make us happy. (ANTUD)

129
The Overriding Rule

The overriding rule gives singular purpose to the set of seven detailed
rules:

1. Wholeness or coherence, is an objective condition of spatial

configurationsm which occurs to a greater or lesser degree in
any given part of space, and can be measured.
2. The structure which produces wholeness, is always specific to
its circumstances, and therefore never has exactly the same
form twice.
3. The condition of wholeness is always produced by the same,
well defined process. This process works incrementally, by
gradually producing a structure defined as “the field of
centers,” in space.
4. The field of centers is produced by the incremental creation of
centers, one by one, under a very special condition. (ANTUD)

The following rules were formulated through the process of

creating a connected structure during urban growth: As one center
X is produced, so, simultaneously other centers must also be
produced, at three well defined levels:

i. Larger than X. At least one other center must be produced at a

scale larger than X, and in such a way that X is part of this
larger center, and helps to support it.

j. The same size as X. Other centers must be produced at the

same size as X, and adjacent to X, so that there is no “negative
space” left near X.

k. Smaller than X. Still other centers must be produced at a scale

smaller than X, and in such a way that they help to support the
existence of X. (ANTUD)

This all sounds very good, but it is also hard to understand because the
concepts of center or wholeness in cities can only be defined
recursively, which means that the understanding of these concepts is

130
itself a learning process. In order to understand how to apply a single
overarching rule, a set of sub-rules for a particular kind of urban area
has been researched and developed. So, in principle, one could apply
the single rule through particular sub-rules for urban development,
urban design, and urban architecture.

Let us emphasize one more time that the one encompassing rule
requires that every act of construction, every increment of growth in the
city, works toward the creation of wholeness. It is the reality of each
piece of construction that has to show understanding and application of
this one rule.

The seven intermediate rules (each intermediate rule is itself a system

made up of several sub-rules) help to make the one rule realistic and
feasible to implement in a day to day urban design and building
process.

1. Piecemeal growth

This rule, or system of rules establishes the piecemeal character of

growth as a necessary precondition of wholeness. It does so by
defining the small size of the building increments. The rule is
necessary simple because wholeness is too complicated to be built
up in large lumps. The grain of development must be small enough
to allow room and time for wholeness to develop. In order to
guarantee the piecemeal nature of the growth, this rule is made
precise by three sub-rules.

a. The first sub-rule says that no building may be too large.

b. The second sub-rule guarantees a reasonable mixture of building

sizes.

c. The third sub-rule requires a reasonable distribution of functions.

131
2. The growth of larger wholes

Every Building must help to to form at least one larger whole in the
city, which is both larger and more significant than itself. Everyone
managing a project must clearly identify which of the larger
emerging wholes this project is trying to help, and how it will help
to generate them.

This rule is partially based on a study about the historic growth of

the town of Motovun in Istria. (Funke, W., Heinrich, T., Neis, H.,
Urban Design Report, Technical University Darmstadt 1974)

3. Visions

This rule defines the content and character of the individual

increments. The rule requires that the increments arise from a
vision of what is needed to heal the existing structure, and not from
an intellectually formed concept.

Every project must first be experienced, and then expressed, as a

vision which can be seen in the inner eye (literally). It must have
this quality so strongly that it also can also be communicated to
others, and felt by others, as a vision. (ANTUD)

4. The basic rule of positive urban open space

Once a vision has defined the life and activity which is to occur in
some new increment of growth, this vision must be embodied in a
physical design. To make this design whole, it is absolutely
necessary that the space created by the buildings have a positive
character. The rule says simply: Every building must create
coherent and well-shaped public space next to it. To delineate this
idea, we have formulated a set of rules which identify five types of
exterior spaces and the necessary relationships between these
elements. The five elements are pedestrian space, buildings,
gardens, streets, and parking.

132
5. Layout of large buildings

It might be a little surprising that the layout or design of large

buildings (4-6 stories) are part of this set of principles and rules
because in today’s world urban design is quite often considered
design of cities without the design of buildings. However, in
this theory they are widely relevant because of their huge
impact on the city as a whole: The entrances, the main
circulation, the main division of the buildings into parts, its
interior open spaces.... are all coherent and consistent with the
position of the building in the street and in the neighborhood
(ANTUD). This principle has 25 rules in sequence, which
outline how to design a building that augments overall city
structure.

6. Construction

Rules for building construction are important to outline here

because the formation of buildings is essential to the wholeness
of the city. The rule deals with two levels of structure: first, the
structural system of buildings in structural bays and the
flexibility of structural bay subdivision; and second, the
exterior appearance of buildings and their relation to each other
in their construction material and details.

7. Formation of centers

The principle, or system of rules for the formation of centers

(and field of centers) addresses the geometry of all shapes
within the process of creating larger wholes at all scale levels.
It is the closest to the principle of the overriding rule addressed
in chapter 2. The rule says: Every whole must be a “center” in
itself, and must also produce a field of centers around it
(ANTUD).

133
of this kind of generative urban development in a simplified version.
The important takeaway is the notion that the design process unfolds so
that a series of relatively small, piece-meal interventions, aggregate into
a structured whole. From a small kernel develops an entire district. For
a fuller understanding of these sequences and application of rules we
recommend to have a closer look at the book A New Theory of Urban
Design.

Design for a new University of Oregon Campus in Portland

One project that was carried out more recently in 2011 in a similar
fashion as the San Francisco Waterfront Project was the design
proposal for a new University of Oregon Urban Campus in Portland.
The proposed location was on an existing post office distribution and
sorting site in northwest downtown Portland at the end of the North
Park Blocks. This project was carried out as a Master Thesis Studio,
“Generative Architecture and Urban Design for a New University of
Oregon Urban Campus in Portland,” at the University of Oregon
Portland 2010-11 by professor Hajo Neis and his students.

We executed a comparable unfolding process with similar rules to

develop this urban project. However, in this project we were able to
work with newer digital technologies, which made the documentation
process faster and easier to follow than in the San Francisco project,
which was purely based on hand drawing techniques and hand model
building. That said, the notion of an unfolding whole is retained, and
once again, small, incremental development yields a surprisingly rich
urban district.

On the next page we show a selection of figure-ground illustrations that

explain part of the sequence.

135
to be practical in the examples of the two projects: first, the original
project of the San Francisco Waterfront in 1987 and a more recent
project in Portland in 2011. Other projects that have been undertaken
by CES on a practical level include the ‘New Town Guasare’ Project in
Venezuela, a neighborhood in Colombia, and others. 4

While the intellectual journey from urban critique to environmental

structure to urban design process has affected the discourse and
practice in the field of urban design and urbanism, the initial discussion
and progress caused by A New Theory of Urban Design as theory and
practice requires a more all embracing contemporary view for solving
current urban problems in the world.

Here we are starting to look at (re)generative process and design in the

city, or the (Re)Generative City, a perspective that emphasizes the
recurrent efforts to maintain, rebuild, restructure, strengthen and
rejuvenate the city for its continuing survival, resilience, and prosperity
in the circle of ecological life. The concept of regenerative process and
design can be seen as a new or renewed emphasis in the overall
discourse of sustainability, that departs from other major directions in
sustainability in a progressive way by emphasizing and entering into a
holistic approach to life on earth and the city.

The article ‘A City is Not a Tree’ may be understood in this context as

an important starting point of an intellectual development that is by far
not over and complete yet and needs to be continued in the area of
regenerative urban process and life, urban design and urban
architecture with more practical project applications and theoretical
experiments in different kinds of large scale urban projects and
development.

4
Plan for New Town Guasare –Venezuela. (Comprehensive Urban Design and Building
Project with numerous integrated urban and building growth simulations – Overall
project developed with Kevin Lynch). Report Alexander and CES 1983/84. See also:
Alexander, C. The Nature of Order. Book Three: A Vision of a Living World. Center for
Environmental Structure, Berkeley, 2005.

137
REFERENCES

Alexander, C. (1965). “A city is not a tree.” Paper presented at the

Architectural Forum.
Alexander, C., Ishikawa, S., & Silverstein, M. (1977). A pattern language:
Towns, buildings, construction. New York: Oxford University Press.
Alexander, C., Anninou, A., Neis, H. (1982) “Wholeness in the structure of the
city.” Architecture in Greece 16. Athens, pp. 124-129. (Greek with
English summary)
Alexander, C., Anninou, A., Neis, H. (1982) “The San Francisco waterfront
project.” Architecture in Greece 16. Athens, pp. 159-167. (Greek with
English summary)
Alexander, C., Neis, H. Anninou, A., King, I. (1987). A New theory of urban
design. New York: Oxford University Press.
Alexander, C. (2005). The nature of order: an essay on the art of building and
the nature of the universe. Berkeley, CA: Center for Environmental
Structure.
Alexander, C., Neis, H., & Moore-Alexander, M. (2012). The battle for the life
and beauty of the earth: a struggle between two world-systems. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Funke, W., Heinrich, T., Neis, H. ‘Study of Regional Development in Istria
and the Town of Motovun.’ TH Darmstadt, 1973/74)
Neis, H. (2010-11) “(Re)Generative Architecture and Urban Design for a New
University of Oregon Urban Campus in Portland”. UO Master Thesis
Studio UO Portland 2010-2011 (Thesis Design Studio Report,
Professor Hajo Neis).
Whitehead, A. N. (1978) Process and reality (Free Press, New York).
Whitehead, A. N. (1985) Symbolism: its meaning and effect (Fordham
University Press, New York).

Illustrations
Illustration 1 from the article ‘A City is not a Tree’ in 1965: Comparing Tree
and Semilattice

Illustration 2: Initial Evolution of the San Francisco Waterfront Project in a

sequence of generative steps and a view of the completed evolution in model.

Illustrations 3: Evolution of the University of Oregon New Urban Campus

Project Proposal in a sequence of generative steps and final completed
model.

138
 Cha
pte
r9

Al
exa
nde
randEme
rgi
ng‘Image
soft heCi
ty’
:
OnFor
m,Met
aphorandTh e
ory

De
ll
éOde
ley
e1

1. Introduction: Images of the City

In my introductory class to urban design for architecture and planning

students, I often begin with a mini-workshop on the role of the senses
in appreciating places, including activities that involve student teams in
using all their senses to explore spaces on campus and the adjoining
neighbourhood. Subsequent sessions then introduce them to a range of
formalised approaches developed by key contributors to urban design
‘theory’ (I explain why ’frameworks’ is more appropriate) – followed
by a visit to conduct an urban analysis for their project brief. Like other
educators, I have to choose how to present these concepts and thinkers
– primarily as individuals? or as movements / themes? I integrate both,
setting out the historical to modernist movements following Knox
(2011) but using my own informal categorisations of contextual
methodological strands that have developed within the post-modern
period, to link comparable ideas and approaches together.

I characterise these crudely as:

s The ‘Contextual Morphologists’ (Sitte 1898, ‘contextual city

planning’; Conzenian / British urban morphology; Italian and
French morphological schools, McGlynn and Samuels 2000
‘funnel and sieve’, etc.)
1
Anglia Ruskin University, Chelmsford, UK

139
 s The ‘Functional-Aesthetic Reactionaries’ (Jacobs, 1961 'The
death and life of great American cities’; Lynch, 1960 ‘Image of
the city’ and 1981 ‘Good city form’; Cullen 1962 ‘Townscape’;
Alexander 1960 ‘Notes on the synthesis of form’ and 1965 ‘A
city is not a tree’)

s The ‘Urban Humanists’ (Gehl 1971, ‘Life between buildings’;

Alexander 1979; Alexander, Ishikawa et al 1977, 1980, 1987'
‘timeless way/patterns/ Oregon/new theory’; Bentley et al
1985, ‘Responsive environments’; Tibbalds, 1992 ‘People-
friendly towns’)

s The ‘Spatial Configurists’ (Hillier and Leaman, 1976 ’space

syntax’; Hillier and Hanson, 1984 ‘Social logic of space’;
Hillier 1996, ‘Space is the machine’)

s The ‘Typological Urbanists’ (R. Krier 1979, ‘Urban space’, L.

Krier 1989, Poundbury; Bentley 1999, ‘Urban
transformations’; CNU/Calthorpe 1993/Katz 1994/Duany et al,
2002, ‘New Urbanism’; Alexander 2002-5 ‘The nature of
order’)

s The ‘Complex Urban-Physicists’ (Batty and Longley 1996;

Allen 1997, Batty 2007, Bettencourt, 2013)

Other characterisations exist (See Attoe and Logan, 1989; Gauthier and
Galliland's 2006 urban morphology-based scheme; Cuthbert 2008
critiques) – but neither this informal listing nor the named contributors
are meant to be definitive or exhaustive, they are merely presented to
the students as an introduction. Nor is it an entirely linear
categorisation, though there are clear sequential influences for example,
from Lynch’s earlier image-ability elements and good city dimensions
into Bentley et al’s responsive environments methodology – and
similarly, from urban morphology’s levels of resolution into CNU’s
Smartcode. These and other influences (e.g. city is not a tree’ insights
for later ‘permeability’/connected street principles) and shared concerns
by key contributors about addressing modernist deficiencies are

140
highlighted to students within an overarching narrative demonstrating
connections between many of the ideas, in spite of the disparate
methods.

Interestingly, Alexander’s work spans three of these categories,

beginning with his ‘A city is not a tree' essay, amongst other contem-
poraneous reactions to Modernist outcomes (drawing upon contextual
sensibilities). These essentially challenged the then prevailing
interpretation of ‘form follows function’, in arguing that neither the
resulting form, nor functions were working as they should. Though this
thread continued in Alexander’s patternist trilogy, the emphases shifted
in my view, to a more humanist focus – on learning from past solutions
to recurring problems – and developing participatory processes to
involve users, not only in professional projects, but also empowering
them to initiate their own projects using this toolkit of ‘patterns’. The
notion of a latticed network persisted in the relationships he and his
colleagues posited between the identified patterns. Readers may be
surprised to see Alexander’s ‘nature of order’ volumes included as
‘typological urbanism’ alongside new urbanism. My rationale is that
they each recognise ‘types’ – of habitat/location, form, geometrical
structure, and/or process, as a basis for urban coding (form-based or
generative).

Nonetheless, there is a significant level of overlap between these

informal categories –and my listing is just one of various thematic
categories that contemporary urban design conceptualisations could be
organised into. This notion of overlapping, non-discrete sets was itself a
key aspect of Alexander’s argument, which we’ll revisit next.

2. Alexander’s Image of the City and Early Responses

Alexander’s now classic essay (1965) has arguably been as

misunderstood as it has been cited. In terms of context, it is worth
remembering Jane Jacobs' prescient claim (1961) that cities were
problems in ‘organised complexity’. Alexander’s use of his

141
mathematical background prior to entering the architectural field, was
evident in his 1960 notes on the synthesis of form PhD thesis. His
essay shifted focus to the analysis of what he considered a tacit
assumption underlying city planning and design processes –i.e. that it is
(or should be) hierarchically structured and segregated both in terms of
its movement system and its component districts (equivalent to
mathematically abstract ‘tree-like’ structures).

Alexander argued that the consequence of these implicit ‘top-down’

assumptions in the artificial (modern) city, were disconnections
between the ‘branches’/ routes and neighbourhoods having only
restricted, sequential links through the trunk. And that the actual,
‘bottom-up’ overlapping connections existing between routes and
districts in natural, (traditional) cities resulted in semi-latticed/
networked relationship structures – generating the complexity missing
from new towns.

In several respects, the essay provided an alternative set of supporting

arguments for Jacob’s (1961) earlier identification of rigid zoning as a
key problem and her recommendations for mixed use districts and
multi-use sidewalks. Alexander’s use of sets and critique of discrete/
subsumed sets in contrast to ‘overlapping’ sets was also prescient, a
feature of the essay that to my awareness, has not been highlighted, is
how this foreshadowed the outlines of ‘fuzzy sets’ from the mid-1960s
by Lotfi Zadeh based on addressing the problems created by ‘crisp’
sharply bounded, ‘either-or’ categories. (Zadeh, 1984) and subsequent
development by the 1990s, of ‘fuzzy logic / algorithms’ and theory of
fuzzy systems now used in a wide range of applications, from control
systems to digital signalling and smart machines (Kosko, 1993; McNeil
& Freiberger, 1994).

However, Alexander’s contention that humans are inherently prone to

decompose complex realities into neatly ordered, simplistic sub-units,
while plausible, seems a generalisation that could be further probed.
My argument is that while simplification does occur, various cultures

142
around the world managed to develop means to avoid this trap
collectively in their towns, so we’ve had ‘help’ in coming to our current
predicament. Obvious candidates include the rise of reductionist
approaches in science – but also in my view, a misapplication of
evolutionary ideas (to hierarchical social organisation) through
pervasive metaphorical thinking. More on this later.

A number of Alexander’s premises or conclusions were rejected by

some critics. Karp and Karp (1967) argued that tree-like thinking was
something of a ‘red-herring’ as no one claimed cities were trees. They
then proffered the view that while one part of the city (its movement
system / road layout, albeit with one-way traffic) could be perceived as
having a tree structure – this, like the analogy of the human circulation
system, was also a false analogy, based on views of sectional ‘slices’
through dead organisms. They contrasted such sections to the whole
circulation system in a living organism which they considered more of
a ‘net’ – arguing that the ‘tree’ view was simply a folded net.

The rest of their argument both extends this metaphor to the organs /
cell tissue in organisms, while recognising its limits in terms of organic
proportional scaling with growth –deemed problematic in the case of
cities, where people, not cells, are the functional units. The role of the
car in temporarily extending the scale of a human and the extent of
their movement was then used to argue for the relative presence /
absence of ‘tension’ in different social classes in terms of the conditions
in where they could afford to live, and effects of subsequent efforts to
regenerate declining urban areas.

While this line of argument appears to start with an interesting point

relating trees to nets, it then initially seems to diverge into other issues.
However, on further reading and reflection, they appear in my view to
be (indirectly) exploring the issue of how physical /abstract structures
relate to, and influence social organisation and dynamics of urban
decline and regeneration.

143
In ‘a city is not a semi-lattice either’, Harary and Rockey (1976)
acknowledged the value of Alexander’s original graph theoretic
analytical approach, while taking issue with his conclusions of all
natural cities having a semi-latticed structure. This was based on their
view that the essay firstly, confused concrete with abstract complexity –
secondly, that it did not identify the role of culture/ social organisation
as providing a stable structure to human societal dynamics that enliven
cities beyond physical attributes –and finally, that it did not sufficiently
define mathematically, his use of the ‘tree’ and ‘semi-lattice’ terms.

While the first and third points are debatable, their second point
dovetails with the suggestion I will make here – that particular
evolutionary assumptions about social organisation are implicit in ‘tree-
like’ thinking on cities. The evidence for this is more recent, and could
not have been known by Alexander at the time the essay was written.
However, it does lend some support to his (more generalised) view of a
tendency to oversimplify complex realities.

3. Tree-like Assumptions? – Hierarchical Social Evolutionary Ideas

So why has abstract ‘tree-like’ thinking been so entrenched? – is it

inborn, or imbibed through the educational or other prevailing cultural
systems?

The problem of consciously designing cities (i.e. large scale spatial

organisation) as opposed to organic growth, may perhaps be considered
to share features with the problem in the information sciences –of how
to organise information (knowledge organisation). Robinson &
McGuire (2010) argue that the approach prevalent in Western thought,
based on ‘mutually exclusive conceptual categories’ originating from
Aristotle –has generated ‘tree-like’ hierarchical models. This strict
placement, of entities sharing characteristics into the same category, is
the basis of traditional set theory. They summarise the argument
initially proposed by Deleuze & Guatarri (1976) that this hierarchic
intellectual model constrained thinking patterns in certain ways. And

144
that it influenced the nineteenth century expansion in scientific
Linnaean taxonomic and bibliographic classification systems, which
relied on this Aristotelian model of ‘arborescent’ (tree-like) knowledge
organisation. According to Robinson & McGuire (2010, p.4-5):

This model is characterised by vertical and fixed linkages, and

binary choices, and by the linking of elements only of the same
general nature…A concept must typically fit into one and only
one place in a classification scheme, and the hierarchical
divisions must be made by a single criterion, and must be
mutually exclusive (Langridge 1992, Olsen 1999). All items
with any particular characteristic are distinguished from all
others of the same kind. "Tree logic" is therefore "a form of
cognition in which information, ideas, people and institutions
are ordered hierarchically according to predecessors and
roots... Thus tree order … offers a taxonomy of forms within a
category" (Cavenagh 2007, page 44)’

Evolutionary assumptions drawing upon this logic have had a profound

influence on ethnographic, anthropological and historical analyses and
interpretations. The linear idea of social history since the nineteenth
century, underlaid the 1960s notion of “general and specific evolution”.
This aimed to solve the problem of linking the universal and particular
by combining global and local aspects of history, society, and culture.
The evolutionary trajectory of ‘band – tribe – chiefdom – state’, has
also been very influential since 1962 - casting societies with less social
hierarchy and political centralisation as being less developed
(Bondarenko, 2007, 2011).

A “multilinear evolution” concept, posited that in different

environments, cultures can evolve differentially – albeit with the state
(defined by Weber as based on a bureaucracy) still at the apex of social
evolution. ‘Stateless’ societies were still viewed as evidence of lower
attainment along the linear trajectory towards statehood. The more
recent multi-linear view is that societies are not on a single trajectory

145
but follow a diversity of evolutionary tracks - with neither the band,
tribe, chiefdom, nor state, being inferior or superior to another: rather,
they are just initially and essentially different (Bondarenko, 2007,
2011). And recent research has been used by Taylor (2012) in
defending Jacobs (1969) thesis – and proposing (controversially) that
contrary to the tendency to conflate the state with cities (i.e. as city-
states) it is more likely that cities preceded the emergence of states.

4. On Form - The ‘Urban Revolution’ and Social Organisation

Max Weber’s five criteria of urbanism which influenced many

subsequent urban geographers, was based on Western classical
sociology and included: complete autonomy (i.e. a city-state),
autocephaly, marketplaces, and fortifications. He was aware of the
narrowness of his indicators and the fact that it necessarily excluded
from urban status, a wide range of settlements traditionally classed as
towns, or cities that lacked the main features of European cities.
Sociologist, William Munro (1926; cited in Wheatley, 1971) adopted
Weber’s definition and established criteria which were influential for
over 25 years:

“Offhand one might say that it (the city) is a large body of

people living in a relatively small area. That however, would be
a very inadequate definition, for it would convey no intimation
of the fact that the city has a peculiar legal status, a distinct
governmental organisation, a highly complicated economic
structure, and a host of special problems which do not arise
when an equal number of people live less compactly together. A
comprehensive definition of the modern city must indicate that it
is a legal, political, economic and social unit all rolled into
one.”

There were a proliferation of post-war definitions relating to early

cities, but the most widely cited, put forward by the archaeologist V.
Gordon Childe in his influential (1950) paper proposed 10 criteria as
supposedly underlying the ‘Urban Revolution’:

146
 1. Large numbers of people concentrated in a limited area;
2. Elite control of peasant-created food surplus and its
‘redistribution’
3. Hierarchical social organisation;
4. Emergence of exact and predictive sciences;
5. Residence-based, rather than kinship-based, group members
6. Craft specialisation;
7. Social-surplus concentrated in monumental, public architecture
8. The use of writing;
9. Naturalistic art;
10. Long-distance foreign trade

These are more descriptive than explanatory, and also characterise a

particular range of cultural contexts. Childe was thus, unable to
establish functional relations between these criteria – some of which
are either of doubtful generative significance in urbanisation, or are not
specific to cities – especially naturalistic art, foreign trade, social
hierarchy, monumental architecture and writing (Wheatley, 1971).

So what is an ‘urban’ settlement or ‘city’? And how can we identify a

representative range of ancient and traditional forms of urbanity to
learn from? About the only factor that is agreed upon is that, a larger
areal extent and population size (i.e. population growth and increasing
scale) tends to distinguish a ‘rural’ settlement, from an ‘urban’ town or
city – the thresholds being subject to debate and regional contexts.

The mainstream sociological and archaeological definitions however,

included other attributes such as; subsistence intensification, social
stratification (hierarchy), centralisation of power, literacy, and citadels
enclosing imposing public monuments, treasuries or food surpluses.

For our purposes, here, it was the underlying assumptions about the
role of social hierarchy in defining the urban, that are most pertinent to
Alexander’s critique of tree-like abstract structures in ‘The City is not a
tree’. On the one hand, built form is often considered to reflect in some

147
way, their respective societies, and on the other hand, to influence
society itself - a view summarised in Winston Churchill’s often-quoted
statement that ‘we shape our buildings and afterwards, our buildings
shape us’2

5. Non-Hierarchical Complex Organisation?

Despite there being no single, agreed definition of the ‘urban’,

archaeologists have tended to consider changes in the size, distribution
and integration of populations forming hierarchical patterns, as
indicating the evolution of a settlement from pre-urban to urban status.
This urbanity has commonly been linked with a ‘state-level’ society
(Patch, 1991).

For instance, due to many African settlements not fitting early 20th
century models of the city, which defined cities in terms of specific
traits, the impressive scale of precolonial African towns was attributed
to external influences in the second millennium A.D. Despite the
tenacious grip that this model has held on popular views of the African
past, archaeological evidence accumulated in recent decades is
beginning to dispel the myth of a city-less precolonial Africa. (Munroe,
2011).

Archaeological excavations and investigations into urban prehistory

over the past twenty-five years in the Middle Niger at Jenné-jeno
(Mali) led by a team of archaeologists, Susan and Roderick McIntosh
(1999) - show the extent to which some early non-western examples
did not conform to the expectations of urban archaeologists elsewhere
around the world. It has implications for the preconditions of pre-
industrial urbanism anywhere – the African data has encouraged
researchers in northern China and in Mesopotamia to reconsider their
own discoveries in a different perspective.
2
Speech to the House of Commons (October 28, 1943), on plans for the rebuilding of
the Chamber (destroyed during the blitz), in Winston S. Churchill (2003), Never Give
In! : The best of Winston Churchill’s Speeches (2003), Hyperion, New York, p. 358

148
Susan McIntosh (1999) describes how, initial settlements (c. 250 BCE)
within the Inland Niger Delta (IND) in the Western Sudan displayed
rapid population growth during centuries-long occupation of multiple,
high density settlement clusters, of a central mound between 20-80
hectares in area, surrounded by medium and small mounds within
200m – the total area in the vicinity of Jenné-jeno for instance,
exceeding 100 hectares within a millennium - likely population of over
20,000 by c. 800 C.E. (McIntosh, 2000). This distribution of
settlements in tight clusters is very interesting, the main point being the
maintenance of spatial boundaries (reflecting a measure of
independence from and resistance to the centre) together with close
proximity (indicating that serious conflict or hostilities between the
mound settlements were not a determining spatial factor). In her
words:

“Jenné-Jeno challenges us to make room in our explanatory

schemata for a population of over 11,000 packed onto more than
130 hectares of tell surface within a 12 km 2 area that apparently
did not do any of the following:… display obvious wealth
differentials; develop a settlement pattern reflecting increasing
centralised organisation; or develop a settlement pattern
consistent with high levels of inter-site conflict.” (1999:77; My
emphasis.)

Issues relating to the organisation of these sites, which are as large and
heterogeneous as many in Mesopotamia, central Mexico or the Andes,
but with no evidence of kings or power elite, throw up questions of
definition, distinctiveness and authority. What significance should be
given to the particularly dispersed / clustered form of these early towns,
or from the lack of monumental architecture 3 at an obviously wealthy,
densely populated site such as Jenné-Jeno? Such urban complexes or
‘componential-cities’ with large specialist populations involved in
3
Taylor (2012) controversially uses Jacobs and the findings of urban archaeologists
including the McIntosh’s to replace the standard content-based/ ‘monumentality’
definition of cities with a process-based ‘city-ness’ definition. City-ness is a relational,
network approach to cities (a communicative ‘central flow theory’) opposed to the
object-focus of Christaller’s (1966) ‘central place theory’.

149
sophisticated trade networks, covered impressive areas – more than 50
sq. km (with up to 22,000 people in 1100 CE) in the case of the entire
Jenné-Jeno complex at its peak.

The combined attributes of such evidence of non-aggregation

(clustering) and absence of power elites and of coercive control,
required functional analyses (e.g. reconstructing eco-dynamics of the
human landscape, application of the rank-size rule 4) as well as
investigating rules of inter-ethnic relations and the persistent oral
traditions that pervade towns/villages in today’s Middle Niger, in order
to assess levels of urbanism and extrapolate a possible socio-economic
bases for the past. ‘Cognitive archaeology’ since the 1990’s, combines
hard physical data methods with cross-cultural insights into ideology,
symbols and social formations of reality, for testing past ways of
thought as inferred from material artefacts (McIntosh, 2000)

Based on Carol Crumley's introducing the conception of a

“heterarchy”5 into settlement archaeology (1979; 144“… as the
relation of elements to one another when they are unranked or …
possess the potential for being ranked in a number of different ways”)
urban archaeologists (Crumley et al, 1995) thus posited ‘heterarchies’
(horizontally structured societies) to explain how these complex
polities and urban settlements emerged and thrived, and the
4
Based on recognising that cities do not exist in isolation, but perform specialised
roles within a broader hinterland. Geographers had noted an inverse relation between
the ranks and sizes of settlements in urban systems (when plotted, a descending
logarithmic straight line results). The rank-size distribution implying few cities with
large populations and many with small populations is thought to represent either an
underlying ‘minimal cost and optimal efficiency’ mechanism, or, an inherent stochastic
process in systems growth. For more recent work, see Batty 2011, ‘Defining City Size’,
Editorial in Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, Vol.38, pp753-756
and And Bettencourt (2013) Origins of scaling in cities. SCIENCE, pp1438-41
5
A term coined by McCulloch, Warren S. (1945), A heterarchy of values determined by
the topology of neural nets. Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 7: pp 89-93.
"Heterarchy [is the] form of organization resembling a network or fishnet" while
"[h]ierarchy [is the] form of organization resembling a pyramid" (web cybernetics &
systems dictionary, 2004: quoted in Bondarenko, 2007)

150
mechanisms used to maintain a dispersed distribution of power to resist
centralising tendencies. Heterarchy implies a more egalitarian or
overlapping socio-political structure, in which each element retains
some measure of independence in decision-making within the
community.

Such examples of alternative pathways to complexity, have shown that

the prevailing neo-evolutionist view of complex socio-spatial
organisation (as being necessarily based on elements such as
hierarchical social structures, centralised or ‘compact’ cities with
citadels for an economic or political elite which controls labour, etc.)
are inadequate to describe the full range of dense, complex urban
polities, in places as diverse as west Africa, northern China (Shang),
southeast Asia (Harappa) and to a lesser degree in late Uruk
Mesopotamia. The need for urban historical analyses to be based on
archaeological evidence, instead of reliance on social-evolutionary
theorisation about human development has been highlighted by
Pauketat (2007). According to Clarke6 (1979).

“The multiplicity of urban forms and functions represents a

multidimensional structure which, while it may be collapsed
into one dimension, arranged linearly and dichotomised
endlessly, can only be done so with great arbitrariness and
loss of information, to produce a classification useful only for
limited purposes”…. “Complex systems cannot be specified by
laundry lists of attributes, whether physical or organisational,
any more than a watch can be understood from a list of its
parts.”

Research adopting a functional model of the city has forced us to see

cities as more than a simple collection of traits. According to this
model, urban centers are differentiated from, but closely integrated
6
Quoted in McIntosh, S.K and McIntosh, R.J (1995) ‘Cities Without Citadels:
Understanding Urban Origins Along the Middle Niger’, in T. Shaw, P. Sinclair, B
Andah and A. Okpoko (Eds.) ‘The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns’,
Routledge, One world archaeology series 20, London/New York.

151
with, their rural communities. Cities are thus settlements that provide
specialized services to a broader hinterland. The key issue, therefore, is
not what a city is, but what a city does for rural communities within its
sphere of influence. (Munroe, 2011)

As indicated earlier, there appears to be an evolution-theory influence

underlying mainstream perceptions of hierarchic structure as being the
most developed form of organisational and/or social organisation. The
ubiquity of centralised, hierarchical diagrams in organisational
management has tended to reflect such un/conscious tree-like
assumptions, until fairly recently – and arguably still predominates
compared to more recently advocated, flatter or networked structures
(Wang, 2010) The heterarchical concept, as opposed to hierarchy and
centralisation, has been of increasing usefulness in the archaeology of
complex society – and has influenced more recent post-modernist
models of business organisation –see for instance, Chakravarthy and
Henderson (2007) whose influential paper argued for heterarchical
strategies. This concept has also since been integrated with concepts of
‘networked’ structures.

6. On Conceptual Metaphors

The pervasive nature of our reliance on metaphor was highlighted in a

‘ground-breaking’ book by Lakoff and Johnson, (1980). In it they
outlined a number of evidenced claims:

Firstly, that metaphors are not simply rhetorical or poetic flourishes.

They structure not only particular literary genres, but our everyday
language usage – and moreover, they are not just linguistic devices, but
fundamentally influence our thoughts, actions and experiences.

152
A metaphor essentially frames our
understanding and experience of one type of
object / situation, in terms of another one.
They posit that our conceptual system, which
we tend to be unconscious of, is primarily
metaphorical. For instance, in Western
culture, arguments are framed in terms of
battle / war, such that elements of argument
and the act, are expressed using the
vocabulary of war; e.g. ‘Her claims are
indefensible’, ‘I demolished her argument’,
‘If I use that strategy, he'll wipe me out’, ‘He Early cover of Jane Jacobs'
shot down all of your arguments’. A culture book (depicting a modern city
as a tree cut off from its roots)
that frames argument as a dance would have
a different concept of it. (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980). Types of
metaphor range from structural, to orientational (linking a set of
conceptual values [good/bad] in terms of spatial orientation [up/down]),
and ontological (entity/ substance), etc.

Secondly, they claim that conceptual metaphors are culturally

systematic in the way they coherently shape patterns of our thoughts
and actions –even though for example, the ‘Theories as buildings’
metaphor does not ordinarily use all parts of a building to frame the
concept of theory. So we say; ‘Is that the foundation for your theory?’
‘The theory needs more support’. ‘So far she has put together only the
framework of the theory’. But not (in ordinary language usage); ‘Her
theory has lots of little rooms and long, winding corridors’. ‘Complex
theories usually have problems with the plumbing’. (Lakoff and
Johnson, 1980)

So metaphors are partial, figurative, mappings embedding the deep

values of a culture. They do this by highlighting (valourising) some
features and hiding (downplaying) others. Thirdly, by being initially
grounded directly or indirectly, in our individual/ societal experiences,
metaphors help us understand challenging domains of experience in

153
terms of others that are clearer to us. This involves the need for
conceptually categorising natural experiential domains (the body; its
interactions with the environment and with other people). Lakoff and
Johnson’s contention that mapping these domains leads to
overlapping/fuzzy categories rather than crisp/discrete ones – in which
understanding / meaning occurs as a whole (gestalt) experience, also
seems to echo Alexander’s essay stance concerning traditional
movement and spatial structures in the city. My suggestion is that
hierarchic and evolutionary based assumptions probably underlie his
identified tree-like metaphorical conceptualisation of cities.

7. On Theory – Emerging Images of the City?

Returning to the list presented at the beginning of this essay – of

thematic categories I use to introduce contemporary contextual urban
design ideas to my students, one might ask how such a categorisation
(or other variants) might be extended, given our current increasing
fixation with ‘future cities’? – What images of the city are emerging? –
And will the shortcomings of previous utopian / futurist visions be
avoided?

Alexander’s insights from the city essay have been subsequently

reaffirmed by the originators of a range of contemporary postmodernist
urban design approaches – ranging from his own ‘Pattern Language’
popular with environmentalists, self-builders and enormously
influential in software programming – to methods promoted within the
mainstream industry such as ’Space Syntax’ axial mapping software
(Hillier and Hanson, 1984) the ‘Responsive Environments’
methodology (Bentley et al, 1985), ‘New Urbanist’ form-based coding
(CNU, 2013) transcribed as ‘Design Codes’ in the UK using other
perspectives and methods over the years. While these highlight the
limitations of modernist-derived movement patterns such as rigid road
hierarchies, disconnected estates and cul-de-sacs, the language used in
their analyses, did not explicitly connect with Alexander’s critique of
abstract, ‘tree-like’ movement and spatial structures. And little or no

154
attempt seems to have been made (prior to this volume of essays) to
explicitly link it to contemporary urban planning, design, and transport
–nor to situate it within the inter-disciplinary currents of more recent
urban studies and emerging ideas about cities - despite anecdotal
comments about its influence.

There appear to be several reasons for this; firstly, Alexander’s use of

mathematical constructs and language in design fields where most
practitioners were perhaps unable to rigorously critique his use of these
bases; While this may be partly due to the particular use of set and
graph theory, it is curious that space syntax, the methodology closest to
Alexander’s in its focus on abstract structure –and which had itself,
begun with some graph analyses, albeit then moved into a more axial
approach, seems not to have viewed the essay as a precursor to its own
concerns at the time.

Secondly, Alexander’s own subsequent abandonment of explicit

mathematical approaches in his later, more qualitative critiques of
architectural practice, meant his own work moved in other directions
and he did not make explicit connections himself, with this earlier
article nor with his PhD (‘Notes on the Synthesis of Form’) - another
seminal text which helped spawn the ‘design methods’ movement -
even if conceptually, comparable themes were being pursued.

This disconnection between the essay’s key message, and development

of disparate postmodern urban design approaches, (which did not seem
to link with, or build upon the existing) meant that its implications did
not quickly percolate into the mainstream of design practice in the UK
– nor necessarily translate into urban and transport planning guidance
or assumptions.

The first Essex Design Guide in 1973 produced early contextualised

advice and CABE (late 1990s-2010) in the UK commissioned useful
practice guidance aimed at distilling key urban design approaches into
overarching principles for architects, planners, urban designers,

155
developers and clients in the UK development industry. 7 Despite the
campaigning of UK organisations such as the urban design alliance, the
Urban Design Group, etc, it was not until 2007 and probably due to
CABE’s influence, that new urban design based national guidance for
residential roads (Manual for Streets vol.1) was published –followed by
comparable new guidance for non-residential roads in 2010 (Manual
for Streets vol.2).

This belated recognition of the overlapping issues linking

road/transport design and urban design, is a step in the right direction
(albeit more than 50 years after Jacobs, 42 years after Alexander and
over 20 years after Bentley et al’s & other urban design
recommendations). If as suggested by Paynter (1989; 369 quoted in
McIntosh, 1999) we need to view complexity as “the degree of internal
differentiation (horizontal as well as vertical) and the intricacy of
relations within a system”, then our challenge going forward, is to
better understand and represent the characteristic nature of
differentiation and relations within types of cities.

I will end with a number of questions arising from my main argument.

Given the projections that the greatest rates of urbanisation will be in
the ‘global South’ –what are the implications for a need to analyse a
wider range of past cultural examples of generative urban forms?

And if conceptual metaphors are indeed a central inescapable aspect of

our thinking, how could we exploit these in explicit and progressive
ways? What alternative conceptual metaphors could also be influencing
urban design to ensure greater urban variety and resilience? Should
‘smart’ technology be the over-riding driver in planning our future
cities? How could the ‘soft computing’ principles of ‘fuzzy language
algorithms’ (Zadeh, 1984) on which smart systems are based (Kosko,
1993; McNeil & Freiberger, 1994) also be harnessed within urban
7
Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment, set up by the 1997 Labour
Government, but no longer publicly funded, and now merged with the Design Council
as Design

156
design to facilitate the over-lapping movement and spatial relationships
advocated by Alexander in his essay? Only time will tell. Clearly we
have much more to do over the next 50 years.

REFERENCES

Allen, Peter M. (1997) Cities and Regions as Self-Organizing Systems: Models

of Complexity, Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam.
Alexander, Christopher (1965) “A City is Not a Tree”, Architectural Forum,
122(1) pp 58–61 and 122(2) (1965) pp58–62. Available at:
www.rudi.net/bookshelf/classics/city/alexander/alexander1.html
(accessed 19 September 2015).
Alexander, C., Ishikawa, S., Silverstein, M., Jacobson, M., Fiksdahl-King, I.
and Angel, S. (1977) A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings,
Construction, Oxford University Press, New York.,.
Alexander, Christopher (2003) The Nature of Order: Vol.1 Phenomenon of
Life, Centre for Environmental Structure, Berkeley, California
Attoe, Wayne L.and Logan, Donn (1989) American Urban Architecture:
Catalysts in the Design of Cities, University of California Press,
Berkley, LA.
Batty, Michael (2007), Cities and Complexity: Understanding Cities with
Cellular Automata, Agent based Models & Fractals, MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA
Batty, Michael and Longley, Paul (1994) Fractal Cities: A Geometry of Form
and Function, Academic Press, London.
Bentley, I.; Alcock, A.; Murrain, P.; MsGlynn, S. and Smith, G., (1985)
Responsive Environments: A Manual for Designers, Architectural Press,
Oxford.
Bentley, Ian (1999) Urban Transformations: People, Place and Power,
Routledge, London.
Bettencourt, Luis M.A. (2013) “The Kind of Problem a City is”, Santa Fe
Institute (SFI) Working Paper, 2013-03-008, available at:
www.santafe.edu/media/workingpapers/13-03-008.pdf [accessed: 30-
09-15)

157
Bondarenko, Dmitri M. (2007) “Approaching "complexity" in anthropology
and complexity studies”, in Emergence: Complexity & Organization
(E:CO) Vol. 9 No. 3, 62-74
Bondarenko, Dmitri M. (2011) “Alternative Pathways of Social Evolution and
Basic Principles of Culture Organization”, Lecture, Archaeology
Seminar Series, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University on
November 8.
Calthorpe, Peter (1993) The Next American Metropolis: Ecology, Community
and the American Dream, Princeton Architectural Press, New York.
Cavenagh, A. (2007) Sociology in the age of the Internet, McGraw Hill / Open
University Press, Maidenhead (cited in Robinson & McGuire, 2010)
Chakravarthy, Bala and Henderson, James (2007) “From a Hierarchy to a
Heterarchy of Strategies: Adapting to a Changing Context”,
Management Decision, 45 (642-652)
Childe, V. Gordon “The Urban Revolution,” Town Planning Review, Vol.21,
No.1, Dept. of Civic Design, University Of Liverpool, 1950, pp9-16.
Clarke, D.L. (1979) “Towns in the Development of Early Civilisations’ in
Analytical Archaeologist, D.L. Clarke (Ed.), Academic Press, New
York,
Congress for the New Urbanism (CNU); Talen, Emily Eds. (2013) Charter of
the New Urbanism, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Education, New York.
Collins George R. and Crasemann Collins, Christiane (2006) Camillo Sitte:
The Birth of Modern City Planning, Translated 1889 Austrian Edition
of his City Planning According to Artistic Principles, Dover
Architecture, London.
Crumley, Carole L.; Levy, Janet E. & Ehrenreich, Robert M. (Eds,) 1995
“Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies”, Archaeological
Papers of the American Anthropological Association, no.6, Arlington,
VA.
Cullen, Gordon (1971) The Concise Townscape, Butterworth, London
Cuthbert Alexander R. (2007) “Urban design: requiem for an era – review and
critique of the last 50 years”, Urban Design International (2007) 12,
pp177–223.
Deleuze, G. & Guattari, F. (1976) Rhizome: Introduction, Minuit, Paris.
Duany, Andres and Talen, Emily (2002) “Transect Planning”, Journal of
American Planning Association, Vol 68, No.3, pp 245-66

158
Gehl, Jan (1987) Life Between Buildings, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
[Originally published in 1971 by Arkitektens Forlag, the Danish
Architectural Press, Copenhagen]
Gauthier, P. and Gilliland, J. (2006) “Mapping Urban Morphology: A
Classification Scheme for Interpreting Contributions to the Study of
Urban Form,” in Urban Morphology, Vol. 10, Issue 1, pg 41-50
Hillier, Bill and Leaman, Adrian (1976) “Space Syntax”, Environment and
Planning B, 3(2): pp147–185.
Hillier, Bill and Hanson, Julienne (1984) The Social Logic of Space,
Cambridge University Press, London
Jacobs, Jane (1961) The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Vintage
Books, New York
Jacobs, Jane (1969) The Economy of Cities, New York: Vintage
Katz, Peter (1994) ‘The New Urbanism: Towards an Architecture of
Community’, McGraw-Hill, New York
Karp, Mort and Karp, Eleanor (1967) “Who Ever said the City was a Tree?”,
Landscape, Vol.17, Issue 1, pp29-33.
Kosko, Bart (1994) Fuzzy Thinking: The New Science of Fuzzy Logic,
Flamingo, London.
Knox, Paul L. (2011) “Cities and Design”, Routledge Critical Introductions to
Urbanism and the City, Routledge, New York.
Krier, Rob (1979) Urban Space, New York: Rizzoli.
Krier, Leon (1998) Architecture: Choice or Fate, Andreas Papadakis Publisher,
Windsor, England
Lakoff, George and Johnson, Mark (1980) ‘Metaphors We Live By, University
of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Langridge, D.W. (1992) Classification: its kinds, systems, elements and
applications, London: Bowker‐ Saur (cited in Robinson & McGuire,
2010)
Lynch, Kevin (1960 ) The Image of the City, MIT Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts
Lynch, Kevin (1981) Theory of Good City Form, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
Makse, Hernán, A; Havlin, Shlomo and Stanley, H. Eugene (2002) “Modelling
Urban Growth Patterns”, in Nature 377, 19 October, pp 608 – 612
McGlynn, Sue & Samuels, Ivor (2000) “The funnel, the sieve and the
template: towards an operational urban morphology”, Urban

159
 Morphology 4(2) pp.79-89
McIntosh, Roderick J. (2000) “Clustered Cities of the Middle Niger:
Alternative Routes to Authority in Prehistory”, in D.M. Anderson and
R. Rathbone (Eds.) Africa’s Urban Past, James Currey and Heinemann,
Oxford/Portsmouth, New Hampshire,
McIntosh, Roderick J. (1999) ‘Western Representations of Urbanism and
Invisible African Towns’, in Susan K McIntosh (Ed.), Beyond
Chiefdoms: Pathways to Complexity in Africa, New Directions in
Archaeology Series, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
McIntosh, Susan K ‘Modelling Political Organisation in Large Scale
Settlement Clusters: A Case Study from the Inland Niger Delta’, in
‘Beyond Chiefdoms’, Ibid.
McNeil, Daniel and Freiberger, Paul, (1994) ‘Fuzzy Logic’, Firestone, New
York,
Minett, John (N.D) ‘As the City is not a Tree... it should not be designed as a
System: A critique of design theory and method as presently applied to
city design’ at: http://www.rudi.net/books/202 [Originally published as
'If the City is not a Tree, nor is it a System' in Planning Outlook New
Series, Vol 16, Spring 1975, 4 -18]
Monroe, J. Cameron (2011) ‘Urbanism on West Africa’s Slave Coast:
Archaeology sheds new light on cities in the era of the Atlantic slave
trade’, American scientist, Sept-Oct, Vol 99, No 5, p400
Munro, William B. (1926) ‘The Government of American Cities’, Macmillan
and Co., New York, cited in Paul Wheatley, (1971) ‘The Pivot of the
Four Quarters: A Preliminary Inquiry into Origins and Character of the
Ancient Chinese City’, Aldine Publishing Company, Chicago., p.372-3.
Odeleye, Delle (2015) ‘Review of Knowing Our Future’. KronoScope: Journal
for the Study of Time (International Society for the Study of Time)
15:2.
Odeleye, Dellé (2009) ‘Beyond the Spatial Dimension in Urban Design:
Towards a Conceptual Model of MasterSteps in Time’, in Urban Design
Research: Method and Application, Proceedings of the International
Conference 3-4 December, Aboutorabi, M and Wesener, A (Eds.),
Birmingham City University, UK
Odeleye, Dellé (2007) 'Towards a Neo-Geomantic Language of Place? Chaos,
Complexity and Implicate Order in Urban Design', PhD Thesis, Joint
Centre for Urban Design (JCUD), Oxford Brookes University

160
Olson, H. (1999), “Exclusivity, teleology and hierarchy: our Aristotelian
legacy,” Knowledge Organisation, 26(2), 65‐
73 (cited in Robinson &
McGuire, 2010)
Patch, Diana C. (1991) The Origin and early Development of Urbanism in
Ancient Egypt: A Regional Study, Phd thesis, University of
Pennsylvania, Ann Arbor, USA

Pauketat, Timothy R. (2007) “Chiefdoms and Other Archaeological

Delusions”. Issues in Eastern Woodlands Archaeology. Lanham, MD:
AltaMira.
Paynter, R. (1989) “The Archaeology of Equality & Inequality”, Annual
Review of Anthropology 18: pp369-99
Ramirez, Juan A. (2000) ‘The Beehive Metaphor: From Gaudi to Le
Corbusier’, Reaktion Books
Robinson, Lyn & McGuire, Mike (2010) “The Rhizome and the Tree:
Changing Metaphors for Information Organisation”. Journal of
Documentation, 66(4), 604-613. available at:
http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/3115/1/rhizome%20and%20tree.pdf
[accessed: 30-12-2015]
Taylor, Peter J. (2012) “Extraordinary Cities: Early ‘City-ness’ and the Origins
of Agriculture & States”, International Journal of Urban and Regional
Research, Vol. 36, Issue 3, 415–447.
Tibbalds, Francis (1992) ‘Making People-Friendly Towns’, Longman, Essex
Wang, Fengbin (2010) ‘The Evolution of Hierarchy toward Heterarchy: A
Case Study on Baosteel’s Managerial Systems’, Frontiers of Business
Research in China, December, Vol 4, Issue 4, pp 515-540.
Watts, D.J. and Strogatz, S.H. (1998) "Collective Dynamics of 'Small-World'
Networks", Nature, Vol.393, 440-442.
Wheatley, Paul (1971) ‘The Pivot of the Four Quarters: A Preliminary Inquiry
into the Origins and Character of the Ancient Chinese City’, Aldine
Publishing Company, Chicago.
Zadeh, Lotfi (1984) ‘Coping with the imprecision of the real world’, Interview
in Communications of the ACM, Vol. 27: pp304-311

161
162
 Cha
pte
r10

Th eCi
tyandtheGri
d:
Bui
ldingBeaut
yatLarg
eScal
e

S
erg
ioPo
rta1,
Yoda
nRo
fè,
2
Ma
riaPi
aVi
dol
i
3

1. Introduction.

The enduring popularity of “A City is not a Tree” (Alexander, 1965) for

scholars in different areas of knowledge does not seem to show signs of
receding. Quite on the contrary, a quick search on Google Scholar
reveals that its annual rate of citations in the past five years is about 3.5
times that of the overall period since its first publication in 1965. In this
paper Alexander proposes a focus on the complex nature of cities that,
along the same line of Jacobs’ chapter 22 of “The Death and Life of
Great American Cities”, entitled “The kind of problem a city is”
(Jacobs, 1961), challenges to the heart the conventional approach to
urban planning and design. This challenge is all the more relevant
today, when the call for a profound renovation of the foundations of the
discipline comes not just by planning scholars, but also governmental
and educational bodies (Bothwell, 2004; Farrell, 2014; U.N., 2015;
UN-HABITAT, 2009). The urgency of this problem is obvious in an age

1
Urban Design Studies Unit, Department of Architecture, University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow UK.
2
Desert Urban Planning and Architecture, Switzerland Institute for Dryland
Environmental and Energy Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev IL.
3
Urban Design Studies Unit, Department of Architecture, University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow UK.

163
characterized by both unprecedented urbanization, predominantly
involving the poorest parts of human population in the weakest
planning systems (UN-DESA, 2014), and the unprecedented impact of
human activities on the fundamental forces of nature (Steffen,
Broadgate, Deutsch, Gaffney, & Ludwig, 2015). In the light of our
failure in the post-WWII urbanization of the Global North, the question
is simple: can we planners help at all with the urbanization of the
Global South, which occurs far faster and at a larger scale? How can
we become part of the solution, rather than the problem? In a rapidly
urbanizing world, patronizing a niche cannot suffice; we need a new
mainstream, one that works.

One way of seeking a route out from the current disciplinary cul-de-sac
is by re-framing the organic analogy of cities as living organisms.
Notwithstanding the countless references to nature that have permeated
the culture of cities since Plato some twenty-four centuries ago
(Marshall, 2008; Steadman, 2008), we planners have mostly
approached the analogy with an inspirational attitude, seeking
inspiration from nature’s visible forms rather than from the structures
and processes through which such forms come to existence; in fact, a
plain biomorphic attitude. On closer inspection, this biomorphic
attitude is just the simplest expression of a larger developmental
approach to cities, as opposed to a truly evolutionary one (Mike Batty
& Marshall, 2009). In evolutionary biology two different processes of
form generation are clearly distinguished: ontogeny (where form is
generated by “morphogenesis”), which characterizes individuals along
their life-long (intra-generational) trajectory from the cradle to the
grave; and phylogeny (where form is generated by “evolution”), which
characterizes a population of individuals along an open-ended, long-
term (inter-generational) trajectory. The two types of change are
profoundly different, with different forces at work; primary
evolutionary forces like mutation, natural selection and genetic drift
operate only at the population (phylogenetic) level, while entirely
different forces, for example nutritional or cultural, are at work on the
development of individuals. Confusing the two would lead straight into

164
a Lamarckian4 dead-end, which is in fact where we planners have been
for decades, and still largely remain. Planners have always found it
rewarding to interpret cities as individual organisms because in such
developmental analogy they could act in the role of God (or Nature): if
a perfect adulthood exists for our cities, planners are the ones who
know how it looks like and how to achieve it by comprehensively
engineering all factors involved along the way. A paradoxical outcome
indeed, for a way of thinking inspired by nature: in fact a rather
mechanistic approach to a phenomenon—that of the city—of
enormous, almost unconceivable complexity.

Historically planners have practiced the biomorphic/developmental

analogy with nature predominantly as a source of pure inspiration
(therefore, more appropriately, as a metaphor), rather than as a matter
of rigorous investigation. That was functional to the establishment of
urban planning as a discipline in the first half of the past century. The
recovery from it though, is certainly needed if planners are to do their
part for a sustainable future. However, that will never come painlessly.
In all evidence, working in a truly evolutionary perspective requires re-
thinking the object of our investigation, shifting from the good city
form to the process that generates it and the role that certain spatial
features play in such process: effectively, it requires a new science of
cities (Michael Batty, 2008). That, in turn, entails a different way of
conceiving our position as part of an ecological process of urban
evolution, which goes together with a different configuration of the
practices around which our discipline is conventionally shaped (C.
Holling & Orians, 1971; C. S. Holling & Goldberg, 1971). That may
include, for example, realizing masterplans that are resilient and
adaptive, or building regulations that do not inhibit informal
4
Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) was among the first to propose, at the dawn of
the XIXth Century, that the diversity of life is not the outcome of an act of creation, but
rather the result of adaptive change over time combined with environmental pressure.
His theory, however, failed in explaining how evolution works, because he thought that
all happened at the level of the single organism. For him, it was the individual body
that would respond to the environment by developing and adapting during its lifetime,
and the acquired characters would be passed on to the descendants. His observation
was right, but his explanation was to be rapidly disproved and ultimately dismissed.

165
participation (Duany, 2013; Feliciotti, Romice, & Porta, 2015; Sergio
Porta & Romice, 2014).

The discussion of the organic analogy clarifies that the current call for a
disciplinary re-foundation can only be laid out on the ground that
Alexander anticipated in “A City is not a Tree”, that of the city as a
complex whole that is configured to respect and support the structure of
urban life, and therefore to serve it, by sharing with it the generative
principles of biologic evolution. Alexander has devoted his life to
progressively clarifying such principles in the inanimate world of
construction; he ultimately re-framed the conflict between the
mechanistic/conventional and the human/living systems of space
production in terms of the irreconcilable “battle” between, respectively,
“System B” and “System A” (Alexander, Neis, & Moore-Alexander,
2012). In this light, the problem of a new discipline is one of
establishing System A as the new normal, or, in short, that of System A
at the large scale. Alexander acknowledges that this is, unfortunately,
an unresolved matter. In a recent paper presented at the Pursuit of
Pattern Languages for Societal Change conference of Krems in 2015,
we have treated this problem, concluding that, rather than a
compromise between System A and System B, we should seek a deeper
understanding of the way System A works in the long term or, really,
re-frame System A in an evolutionary perspective (Sergio Porta, Rofè,
& Vidoli, in print).

More specifically, we found that what really defines System A is its

capacity to generate beauty in the land, and that the fundamental factor
characterizing System A’s is the amount of life that is generated into the
process of making. We then observed, by looking at practical cases of
beauty generation at small and large scale, that life occurs in
fundamentally different ways depending on the timeframe of the
process itself: in the short-term cycle of project change (sub-
generational), life comes through coordinated activities of observation,
interaction, and co-action, all based on the involvement—in various
different ways—of the community of the builders (end-users, suppliers,

166
planning officers, developers, technicians, designers…); on the other
hand, in the longer-term cycle of urban change (super-generational),
life gradually spreads through the process by the countless
uncoordinated—or better self-organized—interventions of individual
citizens, groups or organizations, each pursuing their own mission,
project or interest. We termed this latter bottom-up form of change
“informal participation”. Alexander as first acknowledged in “A City
is not a Tree” the existence of “informal” decision making as a second
semi-lattice-shaped structure operating within the tree-shaped structure
of formal administrative and executive control: this informal line of
control“varies from week to week, even from hour to hour, as one
problem replaces another. Nobody's sphere of influence is entirely
under the control of any one superior; each person is under different
influences as the problems change” (Alexander, 1965, p. 4). Moving
this reflection one step further, in fact beyond public policy and into the
broader domain of social interaction, we identified informal
participation as a primary evolutionary force in urban change and the
fundamental driver of System A at large scale. Planners—we concluded
—hold a crucial role in this framework: the burden is on them to define
and set in place, in the design phase, the spatial structure that supports
and enhances the occurrence of informal participation over the whole
post-design phase, in fact over the entire duration of the place’s
successive evolution in time.

The way Alexander uses the term “morphogenesis” (Alexander, 2004)

to identify the process of beauty generation that is typical of System A,
elsewhere called “living process” or “life preserving transformation”
(Alexander, 2003), is technically precise: in fact it refers to the process
of natural growth of individual living organisms (a tree, a shellfish, a
human being) that is so defined in evolutionary biology; in Alexander’s
own words: “the emergence of a new structure in nature, is brought
about, always, by a sequence of transformations which act on the
whole, and in which each step emerges as a discernible and continuous
result from the immediately preceding whole” (ibidem, p. 19).
Alexander refers to morphogenesis in direct opposition to the

167
“mechanistic” or “artificial” process that characterizes System B; in
this respect, his reflection remains very far from the simplistic
formalisms of the biomorphic approach and at the same time firmly
internal to the developmental interpretation of the analogy with nature.
Nowhere in his writings the distinction—fundamental in evolutionary
biology—between development and evolution, plays any role in
addressing the problem of how living structures (and therefore beauty)
are generated in the short as opposed to the long-term timeframe of the
process. We argue that this distinction is crucial to capture the nature of
the process that generates beauty in the long-term processes of change
by informal participation, or the way System A works at the large scale
of the city.

In this paper, we build on those foundations and move on to shed some

light on the spatial structure that planners should attend to in the design
phase, and how they can do so in practice. We address this problem as
the “problem of the grid”, after Leslie Martin’s article entitled “The
Grid as a Generator” (1972). This work was firstly published seven
years after “A City is not a Tree” as part of a book that Martin co-edited
with Lionel March (Martin & March, 1972). The article has been re-
printed in several occasions including recently a special issue of
Architectural Research Quarterly dedicated to Leslie Martin’s memory
just after his death in July 2000, where it is celebrated as Martin’s
“greatest piece of writing” (ARQ_Editors, 2000, p. 291), and the
“Urban Design Reader” edited by Tiesdell and Carmona (2007). At
least part of the resurgence of interest in Martin’s article is probably
due to the current popularity of the mechanistic vs. organic controversy
in planning, of which it certainly was an early precursor. The reason
why we find it relevant in this context is that this article is largely
dedicated to a long confutation of Alexander’s “A City is not a Tree”,
nevertheless ending up into unwillingly proving it by demonstrating a
point that Alexander would have in fact entirely supported: that the
most traditional model of planning cities at large scale, that of
parcelling the land into a geometrical grid of orthogonal streets, does
not prevent, but may even favour, the generation over time of complex

168
and vital urban environments. That is of utmost relevance for our
purpose here, in that we might be able to show that a rather
conventional planning system, one that is relatively light and
straightforward, is in fact perfectly capable to express System A’s core
constituency. In other words, it looks like there might be something
there that can drive us towards a “System A at large scale” that is not
confined within an academic reserve, that in fact has long been
mainstream in pre-modernist urban planning and design, and could
pave the way to reinstating System A as the future mainstream of a
truly sustainable discipline.

2. The Problem of the Grid

That Alexander is against the grid is apparently common knowledge.

Indeed, the continuous references throughout his work to the naturally
“generated” as opposed to the mechanistically “fabricated”
(Alexander, 2003, pp. 182-185), makes this conclusion an easy take for
the reader, one that immediately slips into the assumption that
Alexander’s agenda is essentially anti-planning altogether. Yet, we hope
to demonstrate that a slightly closer look at his written work is
sufficient to demonstrate that such conclusions are both fundamentally
wrong. This misunderstanding has been there since the early days of
Alexander’s research, significantly contributing to establish the
generally accepted assumption that Alexander’s approach to a more
human system of space production, later termed “System A”, might be
quite a good idea, but is inherently impractical at the large scale.

Perhaps one of the earliest and most influential examples of that

misunderstanding is exactly Martin’s “The Grid as a Generator”. The
importance of Martin’s position in generating and establishing this
misinterpretation of Alexander’s thought is proportional to his
relevance in the world of architecture, at least in the UK, in the whole
post-war period up to his death. The stature of his figure is well
portrayed by the introductory editorial of ARQ’s special issue: “Leslie
Martin, who died in July, once bestrode the world of architectural

169
practice, research and education like a Colossus. His buildings were
written about by the young Aldo Rossi in Casabella, he held
professorships at Cambridge and elsewhere and he established the
Centre for Land Use and Built-form Studies (later renamed in his
honour). He was one of the judges of the Sydney Opera House
competition, he was architect of arguably the most successful and best
loved post-War public building in Britain and he shaped the form that
architectural education in Britain has taken for over forty years”
(ARQ_Editors, 2000, p. 291). Less than one year later, on the same
journal, Kenneth Frampton wrote of his “exceptional leadership
lasting […] for nearly fifty years from the mid-’30s onwards. He was, I
often think, with all his strengths and weaknesses, the Gropius of our
time” (Frampton, 2001, p. 12).

The feeling, mentioned above, that System B is leading both our cities
and the planning profession towards disastrous failure, is not anything
new by any means. It is in fact where Martin starts from in “The Grid
as a Generator” (Martin, 1972). Martin acknowledges that “The
activity called city planning, or urban design, or just planning, is being
sharply questioned. […]. The attack is more fundamental: what is
being questioned is the adequacy of the assumptions on which planning
doctrine is based.” (ibidem, p. 6). Those assumptions, according to
Martin, can be summarized in “two powerful lines of thought: […] the
doctrine of the visually ordered city [and the] doctrine of the
statistically ordered city” (ibidem, pp. 6-7). The former draws back to
Camillo Sitte and has to do with the idea that cities are a total work of
civic art which, as such; in this approach “The planner then is the
inspired artist expressing in the total city plan the ambitions of a
society” (ibidem, p. 6). The latter embodies a view of the city as a
mechanism that, in principle, statistical sciences and industrial
organization could understand, predict and reduce to perfect
functioning; planners are here the masters of urban science, those
providing the rigorous knowledge and firm guidance that is required for
the endeavour. Conventional planning is a form of combination of both
these two approaches. Against this vision of planning—Martin’s

170
argument continues—sharp criticism was being raised from a point of
view that intended cities as natural organisms. According to that line of
thought, the increasing failure of city planning was due to its
artificiality, or its difficulties to acknowledge and understand the inner
natural principles of cities. Martin mentions as champions of this city-
as-organism counter-approach Jane Jacobs’ “Death and life…” (1961),
and in fact Christopher Alexander’s “A City is not a Tree” (1965). And
there is where things start becoming tricky.

Martin spends a few pages of his paper to explain why Alexander was
wrong in blaming grid planned cities as artificial, which in fact he
never did, and equally Jane Jacobs was wrong in pretending that
“elaborate patterns of living can never develop within a preconceived
and artificial framework” (Martin, 1972, p. 9), which in fact she never
stated. In Martin’s view, the natural city advocated by Jacobs and
Alexander is “organic” first and foremost in its visible shape, i.e. it
looks curvilinear on a map, or in any case ordered in a non-Euclidean
geometric way; in particular, it is curvilinear in the form of its street
layout, as opposed to that of the artificial city, which is gridded; the
grid pattern of the street layout would per-se manifest the artificiality of
the city. Needless to say, Martin’s criticism operates entirely within a
biomorphic interpretation of the organic analogy that is his own much
more than his alleged opponents’. The organic city of Alexander (as
well as, though less rigorously expressed, in Jane Jacobs), is one where
the physical units in which life occurs have a structure that is not made
of separated and rigidly hierarchical parts (the “tree” structure), but
rather of parts which are overlapping and interconnected (the
“semilattice” structure). Both Jacobs and Alexander, however, do refer
primarily to the structure of urban life, not that of urban spaces. The
physical structure of cities that works well according to organic
principles is one that does not prevent, but actually enhances, the
cyclical overlapping of life units. Quarters, estates, playgrounds, shops,
street types, pocket gardens, benches, newspaper racks, anything
physical that in one form or another, at any scale, hosts definable units
of life, cannot be separated in dedicated physical elements and set apart

171
from each other: quite on the contrary, those physical units must be
closely integrated in space so that life units can overlap and find their
most appropriate spatial environment as they emerge and change in
time. That has nothing to do in principle with one particular street
layout model, be it gridded or curvilinear. In fact, three out of four of
the historical cases that Alexander quotes as exemplary “natural cities”
are manifestly gridded (Fig.1), while four out of the nine “artificial”
cases presented in “A city is Not a Tree” — namely Columbia,
Greenbelt, Greater London Plan and Mesa City — exhibit a curvilinear
and seemingly organic street layout.

Figure 1. Three out of four of the examples cited by Alexander in his “A City is not a
Tree” as “natural cities” show a neat Euclidean grid-iron layout, with Siena being the
only curvilinear case.

As for Jane Jacobs, the area of New York she has continuously referred
to as an example of beautiful organic environment, the one where she
has been living for long time, Greenwich Village, is a quarter of
Manhattan, a notorious example of rigidly grid-shaped street layout.

Alexander goes straight to this point when commenting the curvilinear

Mesa City project designed by Paolo Soleri: “The organic shapes of
Mesa City lead us, at a careless glance, to believe that it is a richer
structure than our more obviously rigid examples. But when we look at
it in detail we find precisely the same principle of organization.”

172
(Alexander, 1965, caption of fig.4). That is, in fact, what the “tree” and
the “semilattice” structures are, in Alexander’s mind: principles of
organization, not physical forms. They are, as he put it right at the
outset of his paper, abstract structures. Moreover, it is precisely the
simplistic translation of one abstract structure into an aesthetic feature,
especially as applied to representations in plan, that characterizes
modern planning and makes it artificial and unsuitable to urban life.

Undoubtedly, Martin posed in his criticism a rather “careless glance” at

Alexander’s “A City is not a Tree”. However, every cloud has a silver
lining. In his attempt to disprove what he thought were Jacobs and
Alexander’s flaws, he devoted the rest of his paper to a brilliant
demonstration of the benefits of the grid as a principle of planned and
nevertheless evolutionary urban development. His point is that planned
spatial structures can offer a valuable substrate to the “spontaneous”
occurrence of urban life; or, as he sharply put it, that: “an artificial
frame of some kind does not exclude the possibility of an organic
development.” (Martin, 1972, p. 8). Indeed, Martin goes further in his
argument, sustaining that “an ‘organic’ growth, without the structuring
element of some kind of framework, is chaos. And […] it is only
through the understanding of that structuring framework that we can
open up the range of choices and opportunities for future
development.” (ibidem, p. 9). Because it would be difficult to find
better words than Martin’s to describe this essential concept, we quote
him extensively: “Many towns of course grew up organically by
accretion. Others, and they are numerous and just as flourishing, were
established with a preconceived framework as a basis. Both are built
up ultimately from a range of fairly simple formal situations: the grid
of streets, the plots which this pattern creates and the building
arrangements that are placed on these. The whole pattern of social
behaviour has been elaborated within a limited number of
arrangements of this kind and this is true of the organic as well as the
constructed town. […]. The grid of streets and plots from which a city
is composed, is like a net placed or thrown upon the ground. This might
be called the framework of urbanisation. That framework remains the

173
controlling factor of the way we build whether it is artificial, regular
and preconceived, or organic and distorted by historical accident or
accretion. And the way we build may either limit or open up new
possibilities in the way in which we choose to live. The understanding
of the way the scale and pattern of this framework, net or grid affects
the possible building arrangements on the land within it, is
fundamental to any reconsideration of the structure of existing towns. It
is equally important in relation to any consideration of the developing
metropolitan regions outside existing towns. The pattern of the grid of
roads in a town or region is a kind of playboard that sets out the rules
of the game. The rules outline the kind of game; but the players should
have the opportunity to use to the full their individual skills whilst
playing it.” (ibidem, pp. 9-10).

In the rest of his paper, Martin goes deep into the description of three
exemplary grids, those of Savannah, Chicago and Manhattan, and the
way change occurred over all of them in different ways at all scales
creating amazing diversity and ultimately successful cities over
generations. His account of this change sits entirely in urban
morphology, with reference to one of the founding fathers of this field,
M.R.G. Conzen (which is highly unusual for urban planners). Urban
morphology is in fact the branch of urban studies that deals specifically
with the form of the city and the way it changes in time. That the same
Manhattan which was portrayed by Alexander as an exemplary case of
natural city was also one of the cases which Martin picked up to
demonstrate that the “artificial” city can work just as well, should have
suggested Martin that there might have been something wrong in his
interpretation of Alexander. And it is a fact that Alexander’s successive
work has many times and very clearly touched the subtle interplay that
a living process needs between a rigid—or indeed even “brutal”—
geometry and the “natural” formation of centres around it, see for
example (Alexander, 1987, pp. 162-170; 2003, pp. 401-412). That is
not secondary: in fact, it is our opinion that Martin’s demonstration of
the potential of the grid to support organic life-enhancing patterns of
change in the long term is fully aligned with Alexander’s demonstration

174
of the semilattice structure of natural cities. They are the same thing,
and are in fact demonstrated by the same case, that of Manhattan.

Naturally, this is not to say that any grid would per se be conducive to a
well functioning, adaptive and resilient urban system. Certainly, a
wealth of literature has explored what are the structural properties of
urban street layout that make it similar to complex systems in nature,
such as cross-scale self-similarity, or the ability to show high local
clustering as well as high global connectivity (Zhang & Li, 2012). And
we have shown that after WWII modernist planning principles have
generated out-of-scale grids coupled with hierarchically separated
background “neighbourhood”, which inhibit the principles of a resilient
structure (S. Porta, Romice, Maxwell, Russell, & Baird, 2014). The
point that both Alexander and Martin have shown is that the
coexistence of rapidly evolving small-scale urban elements and a long-
term large-scale structure is the foundation of a resilient city, and that a
good, well-proportioned and interconnected street grid can be such
structure. Martin’s criticism actually proves Alexander’s point in “A
city is not a Tree” more than anything else; moreover, it gives a solid
ground to our search of how System A can work in the long term, hence
at the large scale, at the same time shaping the future mainstream in
urban planning.

6. Conclusions.

The discussion of the paradoxical case of Leslie Martin’s criticism of

Alexander’s “A City is not a Tree” in his 1971 paper entitled “The Grid
as a Generator” has brought us to establish a point that is important in
our exploration of a way to make System A working at large scale and
at the same time be mainstream in urban planning. The point is: a
“natural” city, a city that is supportive of human life, a city that is
resilient and adaptive to ever-changing surrounding conditions, in short
a System A city, is not a city that replicates the exterior appearance of a
natural organism, but one that replicates its inner structure. This
structure is first and foremost organizational, in that it has to do with

175
the way its parts are related to each other at all scales. It is this
organization, at this level, that Alexander refers to when talking of a
semi-lattice structure as characteristic of “natural” or “generated” cities,
as opposed to “artificial” or “fabricated”. Importantly, this has nothing
to do with one particular shape of the city, be it in plan or elevation, or
in the street layout or buildings.

In particular, a System A street layout may be curvilinear or Euclidean,

that does not matter. What matters is that the street layout, and indeed
the whole organization of blocks, plots, buildings, public spaces and in
short of urban space, does not establish barriers that separate from one
another the spots in the land where life takes place, or the urban
components at different scales. That is important because life in cities
changes continuously, in a way that naturally overlaps in space in
unpredictable ways, and therefore it must be allowed to “flow”
unconstrained over the spatial substrate of the urban system and across
its various scales. This idea, far from being just a notional descriptive
observation, is commonplace in the sciences of complex networks
(Boccaletti, Latora, Moreno, Chavez, & Hwang, 2006), and defines the
core of what a living system is well beyond the boundaries of urban
design and planning. In system theory for example, inner
interconnectedness has long been recognized as the universal property
of complex systems—both natural and human, and both societal and
urban—that essentially enables the system’s dynamic interactions
across scales and ultimately its evolution in time (Gunderson &
Holling, 2002). The essential opposition between the fluid spatial
boundaries of urban social communities and the fixed geography of
“neighbourhoods” in modern planning theory is the heart of
Alexander’s argument in “A City is not a Tree”; interestingly, he
illustrates this point on the basis of an early work of a sociologist, Ruth
Glass (Glass, 2013, c.1948), who about two decades later would
significantly contribute to the discussion of the social implications of
urban regeneration by pioneering the debate on “gentrification” (Glass,
1964). However, the profound implications of neighbourhoods as
essentially social constructs whose boundaries naturally overlap in

176
space and continuously changes both in space and time – an
understanding that Alexander articulated as early as fifty years ago –
have gone entirely ignored within the planning community to date.

Alexander himself has spent considerable effort in his later production

in the exploration of what are the founding rules of the semi-lattice
structure he proposed in “A City is not a Tree”, and crucially that of the
process that generates it. That opens up an entirely new front for this
discussion: if beauty does not come by-design, but rather by a natural
process of “morphogenesis”, how can we reconcile this principle with
the notion of an initial planned layout, for example one that establishes
a geometric grid in the land? This is a controversial point that can be
resolved only in a truly evolutionary perspective. At a closer look, far
from being contradictory, the combined presence of a deeper permanent
structure and an endlessly diverse visible superstructure, or of
“diversity and unity” (Savage, 1963, p. 3), is the tangible universal
signature of biological evolution. This structure in cities may well
emerge spontaneously at inception, but when the size of the settlement
increases beyond that of a village it is very likely that at least in part its
growth is planned. Planning in cities is always part of the overall
evolutionary process, not distinct and certainly not opposed to it. In
cities of foundation, the whole city can start off according to a plan, and
certain mixture of originally planned and originally “spontaneous”
areas is what we see on the ground almost without exception in all large
cities of our time. Nevertheless, what really counts is not how cities
started off, or what their design phase was. What really counts is what
occurs to cities after their initial design, the evolutionary process that
changes both the grids and the “organic” urban fabrics bit by bit,
endlessly, in time. The primary force that animates this process is the
informal participation of individuals, groups and organization to the
shaping of change. As long as the initial structure is such—no matter if
planned or not—that it supports and fosters informal participation as
well as protecting the land, the conditions for a long-term unfolding
process of beauty generation to start and flourish are set. That is a
System A at large-scale perspective, one that is fit to become

177
mainstream in the next generation of sustainable and resilient urban
planning.

REFERENCES

Alexander, C. (1965). A city is not a tree. Paper presented at the

Architectural Forum.

Alexander, C. (1987). A New theory of urban design. New York:

Oxford University Press.

Alexander, C. (2003). The nature of order: an essay on the art of

building and the nature of the universe. Book 2: The process of
creating life. Berkeley, CA: Center for Environmental
Structure.

Alexander, C. (2004). Sustainability and morphogenesis: The birth of a

living world. Paper presented at the Schumacher Lecture,
Bristol, UK.

Alexander, C., Neis, H., & Moore-Alexander, M. (2012). The battle for
the life and beauty of the earth : a struggle between two world-
systems. New York: Oxford University Press.

ARQ_Editors. (2000). A model for us all. Architectural Research

Quarterly, 4, 291-292. doi:10.1017/S1359135500000373

Batty, M. (2008). The size, scale, and shape of cities. science,

319(5864), 769-771.

Batty, M., & Marshall, S. (2009). The Evolution of Cities: Geddes,

Abercrombie, and the New Physicalism. Town Planning
Review, 79(Centenary Edition). doi:10.3828/tpr.2009.12

Boccaletti, S., Latora, V., Moreno, Y., Chavez, M., & Hwang, D. U.
(2006). Complex networks: Structure and dynamics. 424(Issues
4–5), 175–308. doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2005.10.009

Bothwell, S. E. (2004). Windsor Forum on Design Education: Toward

an Ideal Curriculum to Reform Architectural Education, Vero

178
 Beach, Florida, April 12-14, 2002: New Urban Press.

Carmona, M., & Tiesdell, S. (2007). Urban design reader. Amsterdam ;

Boston, MA: Architectural Press.

Duany, A. (2013). Lean Urbanism. DPArquitectura(1), 8-13.

Farrell, T. (2014). The Farrell Review of Architecture and the Built

Environment. London: London: Farrells Retrieved from
http://www.farrellreview.co.uk.

Feliciotti, A., Romice, O., & Porta, S. (2015). Masterplanning for

change: lessons and directions. Paper presented at the 29th
Annual AESOP 2015 Congress, Prague, Czech Republic.

Frampton, K. (2001). On Leslie Martin. arq: architectural research

quarterly, 5(01), 11-12.

Glass, R. (1964). Introduction to London: Aspects of Change Centre for

Urban Studies. London [reprinted in Glass R, 1989 Cliches of
Urban Doom (Blackwell, Oxford) pp 132^ 158].

Glass, R. (2013, c.1948). The social background of a plan: a study of

Middlesbrough (Vol. 10): Routledge.

Gunderson, L. H., & Holling, C. S. (Eds.). (2002). Panarchy:

understanding transformations in human and natural systems.
Washington D.C.: Island press.

Holling, C., & Orians, G. (1971). Toward an urban ecology. Bulletin of

the Ecological Society of America, 2-6.

Holling, C. S., & Goldberg, M. A. (1971). Ecology and planning.

Journal of the american Institute of Planners, 37(4), 221-230.

Jacobs, J. (1961). The death and life of great American cities: Random
House LLC.

Marshall, S. (2008). Cities Design and Evolution: Routledge.

Martin, L. (1972). The Grid as a Generator. In L. Martin & L. March

(Eds.), Urban Space and Structures (pp. 6-27). Cambridge:

179
 University Press.

Martin, L., & March, L. (1972). Urban space and structures (Vol. 1).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Porta, S., Rofè, Y., & Vidoli, M. (in print). The production of cities:
Christopher Alexander and the problem of “System A” at large
scale

. Paper presented at the Pursuit of Pattern Language for Societal

Change - PURPLSOC, Krems, AU.

Porta, S., & Romice, O. (2014). Plot-Based Urbanism Towards Time

Consciousness in Place Making. In C. S. Mäckler, Wolfgang
(Ed.), New Civic Art (pp. 82-111). Sulgen, CH: Verlag Niggli.

Porta, S., Romice, O., Maxwell, J. A., Russell, P., & Baird, D. (2014).
Alterations in scale: Patterns of change in main street networks
across time and space. Urban Studies, 51(16), 3383-3400.
doi:10.1177/0042098013519833

Savage, J. M. (1963). Evolution. New York: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston.

Steadman, P. (2008). The Evolution of Designs: Biological analogy in

architecture and the applied arts: Routledge.

Steffen, W., Broadgate, W., Deutsch, L., Gaffney, O., & Ludwig, C.
(2015). The trajectory of the Anthropocene: The Great
Acceleration. The Anthropocene Review, 1-18.
doi:10.1177/2053019614564785

U.N. (2015). 2015 Time for global action for people and planet. Goal
11: Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.
Retrieved from
http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/cities/

UN-DESA. (2014). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision,

Highlights. Retrieved from
http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-
Highlights.pdf.

180
UN-HABITAT. (2009). Global report on human settlements 2009:
Planning sustainable cities: Earthscan: for UN-Habitat.

Zhang, H., & Li, Z. (2012). Fractality and self-similarity in the

structure of road networks. Annals of the Association of
American geographers, 102(2), 350-365.

181
182
 I
IIREMI
NISCENCES
Onthei
mpac to
f“ACityisNotaTre
e,
”
andi
tsr
ela
tio
nt oc
oll
eagues
'lat
erwork

183
184
 Cha
pte
r11

Aseri
esofshort
c
ont
emporaryreminis
cences
bycol
lea
guesandt he
oris
ts

Robe
rtCa
mpbe
ll
Ar
chi
te
ctur
eCr
it
ic(
Bos
tonGl
obe
)

Christopher Alexander, whom I know only slightly, has had an

enormous critical influence on my life and work, and I think that’s true
of a whole generation of people. For me it began on the second floor of
the library of the Graduate School of Design at Harvard, when I was
looking for something else, and I ran across an essay by this person
Christopher Alexander, called "A City is Not a Tree."

That was a landmark moment in my development as a thinker and as an

architect. It really blew away what were the foundational principles of
the education at Harvard in those days, and it established in me an
interest in actually looking at the world – not looking at set of
preconceived abstract mechanical ideas that were supposed to replace
the existing world.

I will try to describe it, although the diagrams could describe it better.
The easiest way to think about “A City is Not a Tree” is with
transportation. Here's your house, on a little street – think of it as a
tree, your hose is a leaf at the end, and then a little branch comes down,
and meets a bigger branch, then a bigger branch, then a bigger branch –
and finally you're on the Interstate. And there's been no way to move
laterally through that system. You can only come and collect at the
trunk of the tree or the Interstate. That was a planning principle that
you will see exemplified in the British New Towns, after World War

185
Two, and many other examples of Modernist planning. This was a
rationalized scheme. They say, we have a community sized enough for
an elementary school, and then we'll have five of those that will be big
enough for a high school, and five of those that will be big enough for a
downtown, and so on.

Chris, being a mathematician, used the term semilattice – essentially a

complex kind of network, with diagonal and lateral connections
through the system, following the way that people really live.

My next contact was a book called The Oregon Experiment, which

again blew me away. I remember talking to Oxford University Press
about it, and they had no idea what they had. I said “you'll still be
selling this book at the turn of the century – we are already some years
after that now, and the book came out in the 1970s.

The Oregon Experiment posits the idea of growth by gradual accretion.

That's certainly one of the many ideas that I took out of it. You don't
master-plan the world and build it; the world grows by accretions. And
then each new accretion that you add to the existing fabric, has
something to relate to.

I understand they still use it as a planning guide at the University of

Oregon – I was out there about ten years ago and I was told they were
still using it.

And then came what I think was Chris' masterpiece, and the one book
you should read, if you read only one book: A Pattern Language. I
regret to inform you that it's longer than War and Peace, at 1,171
pages! But luckily it's not a narrative, so you don't have to read from
the beginning to the end – you can dip in anywhere.

Chris is someone that I would characterize as one of a trio, and the

other two are Vincent Scully, and Jane Jacobs. They all share the same
quality, which is a distrust of the intellectual abstract Platonic idea of

186
the world. They are people who go out, and look, and draw their
conclusions, and write them down, and go home. They don't spend any
time at all worrying about where they belong in the “firmament” of
intellectual ideas and theories and movements in architecture, because
they're not interested.

I think this amounts to a movement, and all three of them have now
won [the Vincent Scully Prize]. They all have a different way of
looking at the world – a way that I think is much more appropriate.

The last experience with Chris before I actually met him was a lecture
he gave at Harvard on Persian and Turkish carpets. It was not a topic
that I thought I had any interest in at all. And again I came away with
an idea that had never occurred to me before, that has been rooted in
my mind ever since. A large pattern, like that pattern of the carpet, is
made up of smaller patterns, each of which is complete in itself. This
is a simple idea, but when you see these examples of, “yes, it's done
this way and no, it's not done that way” – you realize right away the
logic of that. And then you can translate that into city planning.

The city is a whole, but each part of it is a whole.

(From the Vincent Scully Prize roundtable discussion at the National

Building Museum, Washington, D.C. 2009.)

Br
uceF
.Donne
ll
y
Ac
ces
sPl
ace
s

On May 29, 1974, when I was ten years old, three men who were
members of the Black Muslim group of Cleveland, Ohio, kidnapped
Andrew (“School Boy”) Jackson, a drug dealer and pimp of young
girls. They drove around to his bars and to his home in East Cleveland,
gathering money and valuables. Leaving his home near midnight, the
group was approached by a police car. Jackson broke free of the group

187
and ran to the car for safety, and meanwhile, the kidnappers became
trapped. They tried to flee south on Mt. Union, but they were bottled in
to a little enclave of four streets. They holed up in a house owned by a
family named O'Brien. A SWAT team was called.

I heard the noise in my back bedroom, which faced the back yards of
the houses on Mt. Union. I looked toward what turned out to be
gunfire, decided to get my parents, and turned on my light. A police
sharpshooter fired a bullet that neatly pierced the window glass and
shattered my bedroom light.

Before it was over, five people were shot, including a friend of mine:
trapped in a bullet-ridden house on a street that wasn't quite a dead end,
but certainly was cut off from the area.

Some months later, my father gave me a copy of "A City is Not a Tree"
to read. I'd been studying sets in school, and was curious about
architecture and what we'd later call "urbanism." I read about a street
corner with a newspaper box, just like the one near my house. I read
about overlapping sets, just like I was learning about in school. And I
saw pictures and diagrams of dead-end branches. It all clicked: the
horrible "projects," the isolation, the kidnappers trapped, crime . . . and
the supposedly beautiful ideas of pristine new cities.

I realized people had friends, and those friends knew friends, but not
everyone knew everyone else. Whom you knew was constrained by
where you were. I put police presence and control together, and safety,
but also hatred between blacks (Jackson and the Black Muslims) and
between blacks and whites (O'Briens).

I had never thought of a city as a tree before, but I never realized it was
a place, either. A few months after the crime, I thought for the first time
about how streets worked as a technology. It was also the first time I
ever really understood how the Jewish ghettos worked.* But more than
that, it was the first time that I understood how urban systems

188
controlled who could know whom. In retrospect, it was the first time
that I really learned to think as an urbanist.

*I am Jewish, despite my surname.

Bi
llHi
ll
ier
Cha
irmanoft
heBar
tlet
tScho
olo
fGr
adua
teS
tudi
es
Uni
vers
it
yCol
le
geLondon

“A City is Not a Tree” pointed clearly to a change in the way we need

to think about cities -- not as assemblies of one-off components that are
hierarchically sorted, but as systems with global properties that
manifest at local places. That, for me, is also the key insight and power
of Space Syntax as a methodology.

I like to think that space syntax analysis – of cities for example – makes
the structures of highly complex objects intuitively clear, and so can
inform design. But the structures come from the objects themselves,
rather than from a branch of mathematics. This possibility seemed to be
implied – though not stated – by “A city is not a tree.”

In a sense, The Social Logic of Space was an attempt to go on from “A

city is not a tree” in the light of Chris’s illuminating critique of human
thinking in the paper – getting rid of the dominance of hierarchical
thinking was the key idea.

Cha
rle
sJe
ncks
La
nds
capeAr
chi
te
cta
ndThe
ori
st
Ka
rlKr
opf
Ur
bani
sta
ndThe
ori
st

At a time of increasing concern over the adequacy of design methods,

“A City is not a Tree” broke open and reoriented the debate. It also

189
represented a fundamental change in Christopher Alexander's thinking.
While retaining the mathematical foundation underlying his Notes on
the Synthesis of Form, “A City is not a Tree” takes it in a very different
direction. Where the one seeks a crystalline logic to arrive at the notion
of 'fitness' between form and programme, the other points to a
fundamental ambiguity and overlap in the relation of form to its uses.
The one is an extreme extension of Modernist rationalism, the other a
reaction against it.

Fr
edKe
nt
Pr
esi
dent
,Pr
oje
ctf
orPub
licS
pac
es

Christopher Alexander has been a sleeping giant for far too long. His
elucidation 50 years ago of the growing formal/controlling excesses of
the design community including architects, landscape architects,
landscape urbanists, traffic engineers, planners and even urban
designers that was and is continuing today, was extraordinary. He saw a
trend emerging that has taken hold in every city everywhere. If we had
listened to him and the other prophets of that time we would be living
in a very different world. We view his era as the foundation of thinking
on public spaces and "Placemaking". There were others that were his
peers that collectively added to this issues he spoke to so many years
ago. They included Jane Jacobs, William "Holly" Whyte, Donald
Appleyard, Margaret Mead, Alan Jacobs, Jan Gehl, Clare Cooper
Marcus, and Galen Crantz, all of whom stand out as significant leaders.
With such a stellar cast of great writers and thinkers, what happened
and why it was also put into hibernation, needs to be better understood.

We are convinced that these eminent thinkers got undermined by a

force of individual, silo-defined agendas developed by the different
disciplines mentioned above. They defined their agendas to support
their purpose to create jobs and grow their impact on what they thought
was critical to their future – agendas that they could impose on the
unsuspecting public. Each discipline became its own audience.

190
The outcome has been a reaffirmation of Alexander's conflict between
organic growth and control, where control has permeated government
as well as the universities as "the" way to build communities of the
future.

The only problem is, that is not the way many people are beginning to
see what the future needs. They are becoming part of a major
international force to bring back the "informal, community led"
outcomes that historically defined cities around the world. One key
force is the rise of innovation districts that have become a mantra for
cities trying to jump start economic development in their city. But
along with that is a growing movement back to more dynamic
environments in which people can influence and share ownership not
only with their work, but where they live. Thus, Innovation requires
Placemaking to fulfill these newly defined needs. By combining
innovation and place into a synergistically powerful combination,
communities are adapting this same formula to other kinds of HUBS
such as cultural, transportation, market, and even neighborhoods.

Why did we have to wait 50 years to bring about that shift?

My view is that the academic world retreated into more and more
abstract research, where intellectual endeavors disconnected real life
and its implications from academic pursuits. It allowed researchers to
pursue pure topics, unaffected by complicated everyday life.

Through this re-emergence of Place Thinking, Placemaking, Place

Governance, and Place led development that works with and through
communities, we are seeing the massive reawakening of research,
community organizing, and activation on many levels occurring all
around the world. Many people are also seeing the connection between
global climate change and place, offering as an important pathway out
of a future of incredible despair and ruin.

191
El
iza
bet
hPl
ate
r-Zy
ber
k
Co
-fo
unde
r,Co
ngr
essf
ort
heNe
wUr
bani
sm

Christopher Alexander has always been a part of our professional and

academic life. I was actually surprised to note that A Pattern Language
came out in 1977, because somehow I thought it was there before I
even started being an architect in the earlier 1970s. And the reason I
think it seemed that way is that it has always felt that Christopher
Alexander's presence has been in the background, supporting us, as he
said himself in his own words. His writings and lectures really have
been a bulkhead for practice for many of us, and a kind of safe haven –
by his very thorough examination of how people use buildings, and
how one might design, incorporating that kind of analysis.

And this was of course at a time, which continues, when architects

were expected to tell the user how to live in buildings of designs that
have never heretofore existed. This is still being very much promoted
in our profession. So he gave us the cover, in a sense. And when I say
us, I mean of course Andrés [Duany] and myself, in our practice, and
the New Urbanists as a whole. He gave us the courage to buck the
dominant professional and academic trends, and the inclination to focus
beyond the individual building, on placemaking that might in fact
please its users. That was a kind of radical idea!

Chris' scholarship in fact has been his criticism. By his proposals, he

has been implicating and critiquing contemporary practice.

(From the Vincent Scully Prize roundtable discussion at the National

Building Museum, Washington, D.C. 2009.)

192
Wi
tol
dRy
bcz
yns
ki
Aut
hora
ndt
heo
ris
t

I want to mention A New Theory of Urban Design, which is not as well

known as A Pattern Language although it should be. It’s a preposterous
title, of course, as Alexander himself admits, but it’s a wonderful book.
It’s wonderful because, like all his books, you hear the voice of the man
when you read it. It’s a sane voice – he’s explaining how things work,
and at the same time he’s teaching you things. Through the book you
feel you have a connection with the author. Alexander’s books deal
with theory, but they’re written in a way that is very much alive.

(From the Vincent Scully Prize roundtable discussion at the National

Building Museum, Washington, D.C. 2009.)

J
ohnWor
thi
ngt
on
Collabor ativeUr bani
st
Director, the Academy of Urbanism
Patron, Urban Design Group

Chris Alexander from his publications and teaching of the 1960’s and
70’s is arguably as well known and discussed as any architect of the
second half of the twentieth century. Notes of the Synthesis of Form
(1964) and later A Pattern Language became a part of every
architectural student’s essential reading. Chris, though passionate about
making and building, paradoxically, was outside the world of
professional architects.

Alexander’s insights, like Kahn’s designs, have been an influence

throughout my professional life. As a student at the Architectural
Association (1960-64) I was already interested in collaborative working
and the process of briefing in design. The publication of Community
and Privacy with Serge Chermayeff (1963); his dissertation findings,
Notes on the Synthesis of Form (1964); and the seminal essay “A City

193
is not a Tree” (1965) hastened my desire to study further in the States.
A Harkness Fellowship (1965-7) was the opportunity to explore the
interaction between briefing and design, Initially with Kahn in his
Masters studio at Penn (University of Pennsylvania) and then to the
West Coast and Berkeley with Chris. Every afternoon with a small
group we struggled, taking the clarity of individual patterns, to create a
coherent form for a Californian Barn. Berkeley was in ferment: flower
power, civil liberties, and within the faculty, the disparate voices of
those such as Horst Rittel (“Wicked problems,” his paper published
with Churchman, 1967), Ezra Ehrenkranz (“California Schools
System”) and Mel Webber (“Urban Place and the Non-Place Urban
Realm,” 1963).

Returning to England, my focus was less on a desire to design

buildings, and more on what to build and the planning and use of space.
With Frank Duffy, who had followed me on a Harkness Fellowship to
Berkeley and stayed on to complete his PhD at Princeton, we
established an outpost of JFN, a New York firm of Space Planners
(1969) and we founded DEGW in 1973. Alexander’s work and the
American experience stayed with us as we proceeded to build a global
practice integrating spatial and organisational demands from the scale
of the chair to the city, with design for change as its focus (Design for
Change: The Architecture of DEGW, Birkhauser 1998).

As the director of the Institute of Advanced Architectural Studies

(IoAAS) at the University of York and Professor of Architecture (1993-
97) I was again reminded of Chris. The computing department looked
on Alexander’s work with reverence, and we found a common interest
in briefing. During this period Chris spent time in the UK and was
involved with the Prince of Wales’s Institute of Architecture and
Summer School, and over a five year period, designed and built the
West Dean visitor centre. Meanwhile his links with the mainstream
professional and academic communities were tenuous.

In 2011 the Urban Design Group awarded Chris their lifetime

194
achievement award, reflecting his work on A Pattern Language (1979)
and A New Theory of Urban Design (1987). This was a brave move as
Chris had moved forward from the work of that period. He was
increasingly interested in the process of making (e.g. the Eishin College
Campus, near Tokyo) and the nature of the forces that shape a
collaborative process of design integrated with constructing – a period
poetically described in The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth:
A Struggle between Two World Systems (OUP 2012).

In 2012 I had the opportunity to spend time with Chris, and I

recognised how much he still had to offer, but I also realized how much
he was now an outsider. As past President of the Urban Design Group
(1989-91) and a current Patron I was asked to invite Chris to give the
UDG annual Kevin Lynch lecture, in recognition of his lifetime
achievement. He was hesitant initially but agreed to do an evening in
conversation with myself. The three of us, including his wife Maggie,
had a delightful day together, a good lunch and time to walk the
grounds at West Dean. Making and the process of collaboration
absorbed the day. Patterns were mostly relegated to an earlier era.
Sitting having tea on the centre’s terrace and listening to the enthusiasm
of the families around us who entered our discussion, was a delight. He
was humble in his responses and generous in his praise of those who
worked with him.

On the evening of the presentation, we had a packed hall eager to hear a

continuation of discussion of A Pattern Language. The story of Eishin,
with the rejection of all that the current construction system stood for,
made the professionals in the audience feel uncomfortable and
threatened. The younger generation was happy to be in the presence of
a celebrity.

In this world of paradox (as Charles Handy observed in 1994) Chris’s

philosophy of the organic, open, overlapping and ambiguous world, is
of its time. The ubiquitous technology and apps can now achieve the
vision we struggled to describe, 45 years ago at Berkeley. We were

195
searching for a pattern language to make a self-regulating, better city.

Chris and Maggie at West Dean Visitor Center in 2012. Photo by the author.

196
I
V DI
ALOGUE

197
198
 Cha
pte
r12

Ne
wSc
ienc
e..
.Ne
wAr
chi
tec
tur
e?
Aconv
e r
sat
ionaboutge
ome t
ry,
lif
e,
a
ndt hechal
le
ngesofthef
utur
e

Chri
sto
pherAlex
anderandMic
hae
lMehaffy
Cente
rforEnvi
ronme
ntal
Str
uct
ure(
2003)

NOTE: The following interview first appeared in the web journal

Katarxis 3 (www.katarxis3.com) which also has a wealth of other
essays, interviews and photographs. The interview was conducted in
2002, and it provides more context for Alexander's work after “A City
is Not a Tree”.

Michael Mehaffy: We’re seeing some astonishing things coming out

of the sciences just now. Geometry seems to be the hot topic - the
complex structure of proteins, the unfolding processes of embryology,
the distribution of large-scale structures in the cosmos, and so on. And
there has been more confirmation of the fantastic notion that life itself
is a certain kind of geometric structure. From there it does not seem
too big a leap to the assertion that consciousness, and the conscious
experience of quality and value, are rooted in geometric structure as
well. Certainly recent work in the neurosciences seems to suggest this.

Of course, you have been arguing something like this for years, and
developing it as the basis for a more advanced architecture. You have
criticized the kind of abstract expressionism that has bogged down
modernism at the level of sculpture, and you have argued for a much
broader and more adaptive architecture, one more rooted in the
geometries of human life. The new sciences seem to us to provide a lot
of fresh evidence for your assertions, and to point the way to some very

199
promising new tools for evaluating and perfecting the qualities of a
built environment, along the lines you have suggested.

You recently said you find these new geometrical insights of science
very promising and exciting. What is it that you think is most exciting
about these new developments from your point of view?

Christopher Alexander: It's the idea that, instead of talking about

architecture in traditional terms, which invite all the criticism about
romanticism and about being buried in the past - all of this actually just
being replaced by an emerging body of fact which establishes the
substantial nature of these claims.

You know, up until about 1600 it was essentially religious authority that
held sway, and one did what that tradition said to do. And people were
comfortable with that, and there wasn't much need to be questioning it.

Around the time of Descartes and Newton, something else happens -

the authority that comes from things is the observations of our own
senses. We're going to pay attention to what we can see and what we
can identify and what we can know. And the criterion for knowing it is,
that whatever we hold to be true can be put in some kind of
experimental form, that another person can then be convinced of. And
that unless something meets the standard of being sharable in that kind
of sense, it isn't going to pass muster.

Now that's an incredibly powerful thing that's been running now for
about 400 years. It's really swept the world. And it has made the world
what we know it to be today. But the thing is, value has not been
included in this approach.

So you've got all this stuff which has this wonderful way of being
shared, by observation, experiment, you own eyes, your own fingers,
and so forth. But all the matters of value that we're fundamentally
concerned with as architects - they slip through the net, they're just not

200
dealt with. They're all seen as arbitrary.

Now, if we successfully put forth the idea that value can be discovered
through an experimental procedure which gets results, which helps
people to reach agreement, and therefore is sharable, this suddenly puts
value in and among that huge movement that began around 1600.
Where suddenly, we're looking at an understanding of things that can
come from fairly simple experiments that we do by examining
ourselves, and our reactions to things, but in a very special way.

So I do think that the new scientific developments which have

occurred, the whole slew of things in computer science, simulations,
generativity, complexity theory, of course - all fascinating, all very
important, because it provides foundations for those sorts of things as
well. But the real crux of it is arriving at a sharable method.

And so I think this issue about the scientific cauldron which is capable
of giving birth to this material is a phenomenally powerful thing.

MM: And historic?

CA: And it is historic, yes.

MM: You speak in a very direct and personal way, and as you said
recently, that is the essence of science - the ideas and the discoveries
of what works. You can put all the window-dressing and the other parts
on it, but that's not the science.

CA: My interest is in buildings. And I'm a scientist insofar as I try to

understand what's going on in buildings, in a reproducible, accurate
fashion, and try to tell the truth about it. I'd say that the principal thing
that has helped me to thread my way through this rather incredible briar
patch is trying to tell the truth about what is really going on - when
you're in a building, when you go into a building, when you come out
of a building, when you use a building, when you look at a building,

201
when you look out the window of the building, and so forth.

And I'd say that the biggest problem with 20th century architecture was
that architects became involved in a huge lie. Essentially what
happened at the beginning of the 20th century was really a legacy of the
19th. New forms of production began to be visible. And in some
fashion artists and architects were invited to become front men for this
very serious economic and industrial transformation.

I don't think they knew what was happening. That is, I don't think in
most cases there was anything cynical about this. But they were
actually in effect bought out. So that the heroes of, let's say, the first
half of the 20th century - Le Corbusier, Mies Van Der Rohe, Gropius
even - a very nice man, by the way - were brought on board in effect to
say, OK, here's all this stuff happening, what can you do with it? Let's
prove that it's really a wonderful world we're going towards. And
instead of reflecting on questions about, well, what was it that was
going to be wonderful about this world - from the very beginning, the
architects became visual spokesmen, in a way to try to prove that
everything was really OK. Not only that it was really OK, but
somehow magic.

You know, there was this phrase, elan vital, which was bandied about a
lot in the middle years of the century, and in the early years of the
century as well - of, there's something incredible happening here, we're
part of it, we're reaching forward. But all of this was really image
factory stuff. And what they didn't know about the late 20th century
was only known to a few visionaries like Orwell and others who could
actually see really what was going on.

I don't think this is a very flattering view, and I suppose architects

would reject it, angrily. But I do think it's true.

MM: It's essentially a program of apology for industrialism?

202
CA: Glorification, of something that is inherently not glorifiable. And
it's really very very similar to the ads we see on TV every day now,
except this was being done with architectural imagery, and with
buildings. And the architects are busy, right to this day, still trying to
perpetuate that process that they successfully did in the 20th Century.

MM: In the book you speak about the Cartesian world view, the
mechanistic world view, and how it is, at least for you - and you've
made parallels to others - giving way to another world view, a world
view of process and of complexity. Are your critics trying to
understand you in terms of one world view, and you're speaking from
another?

CA: I actually don't think it's as deep as that. I think they know they're
not doing very good work - especially the mainstream architects. And
they don't really know what to do about it.

Going back to your other question - you know, I'm still really working
at the question you asked me about science. The first rule of any
scientific effort is observation. You know, you have to see what's going
on and tell the truth about it, and not get hoodwinked by
preconceptions. And so in that sense of course what I did was very
deeply rooted in science, and in my scientific training. And it was the
intellectual struggle that I have had to go through over these 25 or 27
years of writing this book [The Nature of Order], because the things
that it seems to me necessary to conclude as one studies what is really
true are staggering. I mean they are completely inconsistent with the
scientific world picture that we have believed in certainly the 20th
century. And so especially for me, given the fact that I came from a
scientific background at Cambridge, I had the most incredible difficulty
actually writing this stuff down.

So gradually then, things arose out of that which I suppose people may
claim kinship of all sorts.

203
There are so many major unsolved problems, which have reached
similar conclusions for parallel reasons. Wholeness in quantum
mechanics, for example, or unfolding of geometry in embryology. So
you have lots and lots of things which have reached surprisingly similar
conclusions, for very different reasons, just because people facing
scientific problems in these different fields somehow seem to be
coming up against a brick wall. Same one. And that I think is due to
the fact that the world picture we've had doesn't support reality very
well.

MM: And do you think that those people in those other fields are also
changing their world view, in a parallel way to what you have
discovered?

CA: I think so, yes, I think that's quite true. And I think that actually
very similar problems have arisen in physics. [David] Bohm1 faced
tremendous difficulties - I mean, even though he probably was the
person who made the single biggest contribution to understanding of
what's really going on in some of the perennial puzzles of quantum
mechanics - they wouldn't even let him lecture at Berkeley the last time
they tried to get him here. And Brian Goodwin for instance, in biology
- absolutely on the forefront of this kind of thinking.

I think there are dangers in all this - I don't like "woo-woo" land at all.

MM: And you have been accused of being "new age" and so on.

CA: Yes, for example, right. And so in some ways I quite deeply
regret having had to write the book that I've written. You know,
because it has a taint, almost.

MM: Simply because it's against the current world picture?

CA: It's partly that, for sure - but the ground is so treacherous. If you
just take the subject of wholeness, for example - good lord, it is

204
difficult. It's really difficult to get a strong firm grip on the concept, on
the structure that it has, even how to talk about it clearly. There are
peculiar things like self-reference in the logic of how you have to talk
about it, that are very uncomfortable, for somebody who is used to
normal scientific thought.

If we're just talking as architects, and we're talking about a particular

room, let's say, and we're trying to figure out how to build the windows
in that room, so as to make the room as good as possible... Now, the
thing that's going to get us furthest in making that attempt is
painstaking observation of our feelings as we are in the room, whether
let's say the room is unfinished or something, whatever state it's in, and
we're trying to guess what kind of window is going to have this effect.
And whether we do it through mockups in the full size or whether we
make models or we even try little sketches or whatever it is we're
doing. But what we're trying to read is what depth of feeling comes
into being because of the window being such and such a size, shape,
position, and so forth. Now, this is hard work, very hard work.

MM: The core task is to figure out how to make beautiful places. And
the other parallels in science are a supplement to the core task, more a
reinforcement, or an echo if you will, of what that is?

CA: Right, yes exactly. It's partially even - you might almost call it a
political effort. Because I think that this very bad form of architecture
that has existed is vulnerable to this particular attack. And the reason is
quite simple. You see, the thing is, the modernists really - because
they've got their head in the sand to cover up the traces of what was
begun so many decades ago, and was essentially founded in really
untruths, they have to keep saying, "I don't want to know the facts, I've
just got to keep going with this thing that we're all supposed to be
doing." So they're all very vulnerable to the question about, well look,
there actually are scientific ways of asking about these things and
studying them. But if an architect of the modernistic persuasion is so
vulnerable in his actions or his thoughts or his work that he can't dare to

205
consider this possibility, then that will very quickly become very visible
as a huge weakness.

MM: One of the goals of this issue of Katarxis is to explore the

relationship with the Classicists. As we were talking before about
alliances, is there a way that we could have an alliance, in spite of
whatever differences there might be?

CA: Well, by an odd coincidence, I wrote something about this for the
[TradArch, U. Miami] listserv. I agree with you that it is a necessary
alliance. I really agree with that completely. I don't have any doubt
about it. And I think the same goes for the New Urbanism.

MM: Yes. Andres Duany, who you know very well, said that Leon
Krier's influence was a revelation for him, a formative moment. And I
know that Andres is also sympathetic to the idea of "organic" order.
And he once told me that something you said to him was the basis for
"everything we're doing now."

So that was one of the questions I wanted to ask you too - what's your
advice for the New Urbanists? It relates to the one about Classicism,
because that's such a strong strain within the New Urbanism.

CA: Right. I think that many of the people who are involved in the
CNU actually have not understood the problems that the developer
represents, and what has got to be done in order to change that
situation. It's very very serious.

I find that one actually much easier to talk about than the Classical
issue.

I feel emotional sympathy for the Classicists. You know, in reading the
pages of TradArch, there's something so nice about the way they talk to
each other and the way they like to talk about buildings. There's
something very warm-hearted about it, which I find extremely moving.

206
But I get off the bus when I have to start thinking about - well, I don't
want to put Doric columns in the jungle, you know.

You know, in the history of modern architecture, there was a refrain

that kept coming back, which was such and such is not honest -
copying things from other times and places is not honest. And you may
be surprised to hear that I completely agree with that. Although I think
what architects did with this idea was crazy, because or course it
became a mad rush toward newness for its own sake.

But it is undoubtedly true that in each era, forms must arise that come
from the technology and economics and social circumstances of that
era. So that if one sets out a program where you're essentially sort of
copying old forms in any version, you're liable to be in a hell of a lot of
trouble. And I think that trouble is evident. I think that to some extent
it explains the slight smirk of discomfort that people have when they're
looking at not only Classicist buildings, but what you might call
developer kitsch. I mean, there's a lot of developers who certainly
clearly understand that people do not want glass and aluminum houses.
But they don't know what to do about it, so you get your - whatever -
your Cape Cod, you know, lookalike, and all these different things.

So what I'm really saying is, developers have in effect got this problem,
just like Classicists have got this problem. I mean, developers have
other problems too, but I'm just saying this is not peculiar to people
with a classical bent.

And I think that it is necessary to spend time - I would say major

amounts of time - thinking only about form and geometry. Thinking
about the language of form that is appropriate now. That we can use.
And this doesn't merely mean, OK, we're going to have some
generating system which is magically going to put things in our hands.
I think that's a fallacy actually. Because although certainly nobody
believes in generating systems more strongly than I do, but some
aspects of the generating system actually have to specify geometrical

207
organization.

And if we're not constantly thinking about, OK, here's such and such
kind of a building, and here we are in 2004, what is a really
comfortable and right kind of form for such a building. And how do we
do it? And then of course, what's the generative process which will
produce endless buildings of that kind, in that sort of sensible manner.

The Classicists, interestingly, have absolutely no problem doing those

kind of exercises. That is, they spend a huge amount of time teaching
people simply how to draw buildings that are good, in organization,
shape, proportion and so on and so forth. And actually I don't believe it
can be done any other way - except that I don't believe one wants to
be using only classical forms for that purpose.

But when I say, I don't think one can do it any other way - you know, I
think there's a lot of very intelligent people, who would love it if
somehow one didn't actually have to make that artistic commitment, or
take on that artistic act. And if somehow, from some sort of scrambled
mélange of systems or dynamic variables, or whatever, that the form is
going to give itself. And sort of come without the artistic commitment
to it. And I don't have any problem with that thesis if it was true. That
is, if you could do it. But I don't think one can do it. I don't think it
works.

MM: No matter what system, don't you need the human being there to
say what is their feeling at any given point in time, and whether that is
true for them?

CA: Oh, certainly, absolutely you need that. No question about that.

I mean a very significant and interesting issue has to do with roofs.

You know, 1965, 1970 it was completely taboo to use a pitched roof.
There was quite a struggle - I played some role in that struggle myself,
and I remember all the humorous episodes involved in trying to get

208
students to say, yes, actually I can make a pitched roof, and think well
of myself. But in fact I think that the pendulum has swung too far in
that direction. I mean, it's one thing in a snow and ice climate, where
you've got real problems with large amounts of snow sitting on roofs,
causing snow load and all other kinds of problems. But in many of the
world's climates, that's really not a fundamental problem. And also the
waterproofing methods that we have now are so incredible compared
with those from earlier times, that you don't necessarily have to have a
roof that will literally let the water run off and shed itself.

So I don't think there's anything wrong with building pitched roofs. But
actually what I've gradually come to find is that the buildings with flat
roofs is a bit more comfortable in terms of seeming to reflect the
ordinariness of everyday life. And pitched roofs are OK, they're
sometimes unbelievably beautiful - but also sometimes, a little bit on
the cute side. And it's not that easy to avoid that. And I find it curious
that in an odd sense, a flat roof may be more suitable - leave things
alone a little better, and so forth.

It's very difficult to define this, but there's something there that makes
sense out of technology, that makes sense out of very vague, large-scale
feeling of a certain kind of site, or certain kinds of neighborhoods, and
leaves things alone better, and is actually, in an odd sense, more
structure-preserving to the earth. Now this is not a universal rule by
any means, but I'm -

MM: It's an exception to the usual classical approach?

CA: Well, definitely that. And it means that you're actually on your
mettle, if you can even get an answer to this problem. You know,
because you're thinking about stuff - my gosh, there certainly is no
pre-cooked answer in history to be found to this. And it's a hell of a
tough question.

Or another example, it's in Book 3 of The Nature of Order. We were

209
suddenly faced with the issue of building marble floors for the Megaron
in Athens, which is a huge concert hall. And the floors we were asked
to do were about two acres in size. Very large concourses. And to do
the kinds of intricate patterns of the kind that [the owner] specifically
wanted in two acres, it looked as though there were likely to be 400,000
pieces. Now, just to cut 400,000 pieces of marble is an incredible
problem in itself - let alone assembling it. On top of all that, we had
to put that floor in - we were given two months to do it. So we set out
a way of using a water jet cutter, prefabricating pieces, creating
circumstances where you could both do mockups while you were
developing the floor, then you could do them again in the actual place.

MM: Computer-controlled?

CA: Yes, exactly. All of this sort of thing. Well, it really changes the
result. That is, if you compare that with the kind of floors that were
built in Italy in the 12th century, they're really different. And it's not, I
don't think, all that helpful to say it's vaguely classical in feeling -
actually it's not. But I mean somebody who is persuaded by Classicism
might say, "well anyway, you know, the reason these floors are nice is
because they vaguely resemble that sort of thing." But actually I think
the reason that they're nice is that they have that living structure which
I've written so much about, in a demonstrable fashion.

And that that's really what the people who have immersed themselves
in classicism - that's really why they're doing it, because they have a
passion for buildings, they don't know how to get that result, without
emulating those ancient types. It really is not a harmful thing to do, but
it isn't the best way to do it.

MM: Right. I thought your paper [“Classicism and the Many

Cultures”] did a good job of discussing the fact that tradition is really a
much wider thing than Classicism, and you have different traditions all
over the planet, and you have, you know, us in our day, able to make
our own tradition. And tradition isn't at all something that's frozen in

210
time.

CA: Right. This business about finding a language of form which

comes out of a technology, out of a technique, and out of the feelings
that exist in our environment, is really the core of the matter. And
although the modernists have – it's weird, because actually they would
probably subscribe to a great deal of what I've just said. But what they
actually do with it is so peculiar and often offensive.

MM: And they were embracing a form of industrialization that was -

how would you characterize it? Inhuman?

CA: Well, it was really limited. It really was the first few decades of
industrialization. And the things that were being mass-produced, and
what could be done by mass production, were very limited. But more
important, you know, all of that mass production stuff came from
Taylor. And there are serious social problems. In other words, it came
from something that's actually quite gruesome, humanly speaking. I'm
just talking about the production techniques.

MM: I wanted to ask you what you think is happening to technology

today, particularly computers, and the potential to create a more human
kind of technology at this point.

CA: Well, it's positive. You know there's all these kind of one-off
assembly lines now. Special purpose, car manufacturer, furniture
manufacturer, and so forth.

MM: Cabbage patch dolls, where each doll is different, to take a trivial
example.

CA: Yes, that's right. But still, nevertheless it's interesting. But the
trouble is that even the people that I think are the most far-sighted and
the most intelligent in dealing with that stuff are completely, I'd say
almost 100 percent trapped in the notion of combinations. Of

211
recombination and recombination of components.

MM: The reductive technology in the early industrial period which still
very much grips us? Pulling things apart and putting them together in
little bitty pieces instead of trying to create wholes?

CA: Right. And of course what happens in the biological world is that
the wholes come about by differentiation - not by assembly. And
that's an entirely different class of things.

MM: That's a crucial point, isn't it?

CA: Yes, very very - absolutely crucial. And probably - it's probably
the single most serious issue, because without that you just cannot get
there. And yet so much of the definition of an architect, the definition
of a contractor and of a subcontractor, and all these things - they're all
virtually assumed to be playing some role in the assembly process.
And the idea that all these folks might be playing roles in a
differentiation process, and that it really and truly was that, is just I
think almost out of reach at the moment. And I think it's one of my
biggest aims in the Nature of Order is to show what this means, that it
is feasible, to set it up as a model of our profession, what we must do.

MM: Something else I wanted to ask you about is that in our current
view, everything is personal taste. And anyone who suggests otherwise
is a dictator. And you certainly have had that allegation.

CA: Oh, yes!

MM: Right. And so, to go down the path of saying, well wait a
minute, everything isn't personal taste, is very frightening. Are we
heading towards, you know, something where our freedom is going to
be taken away? I mean it's terra incognita.

CA: Yes, it's a complex subject. Actually, it's ironic - in a way, it's

212
quite peculiar, because probably of all living architects, I'm probably
the one who's most catholic. So, it's quite a stretch to do that, and yet
it's very effective.

MM: And there's a related concept I wanted to ask you about, and that
is that tradition implies authority. Tradition in the broad sense, not just
tradition in the Classicist sense of following a historic pattern.

CA: Right. One of the things which I am trying to do in Book 3 is, in

effect, say look, there's this family of forms, this idea of living
structure. It does seem to me quite plain that we must draw our
material from that family. And if you go outside that family, you're
going to continue to devastate the earth.

OK, so now let's just think about some numbers for a minute. Because
that statement can have a lot of different interpretations.

One interpretation, an extreme one, is that for any given problem,

there's only one solution. I mean, I've been accused of saying that,
which I've certainly never said. The second, slightly more
sophisticated version of that is, that as you're wending your way
through the path of a design process or a building process, there's only
one best step to take at any given moment. Also not something I've
said. But of course if those things were actually said, it would indeed
be frightening, because it would have a sort of deterministic quality
which would be actually quite strange and I think uncomfortable, for
anybody that was doing anything.

The real situation is quite different from that. I've got an appendix in
Book 3, where I discuss the number of possible configurations, how
many of those are living structures. And all of this is quite difficult to
make estimates of. But the numbers are fascinating because they're so
utterly, absurdly gigantic. If you take a sort of middle-size building, a
few stories high, and you say, OK, how many possible arrangements
are there within the volume of that building and its immediately

213
surrounding open space. Now the number that you come up with is one
of those numbers that looks deceptive, it's something like 10 to the 10th
to the 17th. I mean, it is a number so utterly insanely huge, that's the
number of all possible configurations within that sort of volume.

So then you say, alright, well now how many of those are probably
living structures? Can one make an estimate? And that number is an
infinitely small fraction of the first number that I just told you. But
even though you have to divide that number by 10 to the godzillion, to
get down to the living structures, when you try to estimate this out -
the number of living structures is still utterly gigantic beyond measure.
Far, far larger than the number of seconds since the universe began, or
the number of particles in the universe.

So that what you have to realize as an architect, thinking about

generative theories, and thinking about unfolding... suppose that you're
in a process and at a given moment, there might be, let's say a thousand
things that you could do, and let's say that there's a hundred sensible
things to do. And you're going to take steps over and over and over
again over a period of a year, let's say. So you're going to make these
kinds of choices, and you're going to have the opportunity for a
hundred choices, twenty thousand times.

So that any idea that this is deterministic, or that this really putting you
in a bind because it's authoritarian or it's under control, or it's whatever
- is just actually the sheerest nonsense.

You know, I've known quite a few traditional craftsmen, in real

traditions, in different societies and different cultures. I've never met a
person who was in one of those traditions, who felt themselves to be in
a bind, who felt themselves to be locked into something, who felt
themselves to be under authority. Of course what they actually feel is
free. Because they know what to do, and therefore they can do
whatever they want.

214
So that this whole discussion about totalitarianism - what it really
boils down to is the contrast between freedom to be arbitrary, as
opposed to freedom to be appropriate. And if - of course if you want
to have freedom to be arbitrary, that's one thing. And much of what
we've got going on in the world of architecture today is based on that
supposition. If you want to be appropriate, you can still do a million
different things, but being appropriate is going to guide you, and that is
what is going to tell you what to do.

MM: We talked a little bit about tradition and traditional cultures, and
you addressed that in your paper on TradArch. And I wanted to touch
on what you think is happening globally right now, with other
traditions, and where that's all heading and should be heading. I'm
thinking in particular of the idea that there is a huge reaction to the
western modernist tradition around the world. And some of it is
obviously murderous and horrendous and evil, and some of it is
understandable, and something that we should perhaps pay more
attention to.

CA: You mean 9/11? Oh, I think so. I think that there are two, kind of
parallel courses. Of course, one of them is, that we've got this really
incredible economic dichotomy. We've got five billion people who
have a small income, and about one billion people who have what we
consider a normal income, but it's actually a huge income by
comparison. And of course it's absolutely inevitable that that is going
to lead to consequences - which I've actually been waiting for since
the middle of the twentieth century. So I wasn't particularly surprised
by this event.

But I think that there's a second aspect which you essentially just
alluded to very clearly. And that that of course is people feel that their
birthright is being taken away from them. And that provokes a lot more
anger than just being poor. Actually it's far more serious. And I don't
think it's exaggerating at all to say that these things are manifest in
what is called terrorism. And they need to be dealt with. I've done my

215
best to build in a number of different cultures, and to try to get
somewhere close to cultural reality, in a pretty wide range of places.
And occasionally, I've been successful.

I remember, when we did the project in Peru. I think there were 15

architects from different countries in the UN, site of the competition,
and then there were 15 Peruvian architects, designing these houses for
Peruvian families of low income. And the judges, who were largely
Peruvian, actually concluded that we had done a better job than the
Peruvian architects, by - you know, I don't know if you know the
history –

MM: I recall that you studied very carefully the way those people
lived.

CA: Well, yeah, we - absolutely, we became members of families.

And so, you know, we really immersed ourselves in it.

MM: And isn't that the distinguishing feature of a human architecture?

It isn't simply a form that is a piece of art that everyone should admire,
it's something that addresses everything about a culture and their lives
and the way they live?

CA: Yes, I think so. Actually one of the things I'm very proud of is
that during the 70's and 80's I had students coming, you know, from
India, from Japan, from Latin America, from the Soviet Union, every
country you can imagine almost. And what was incredible was, they
came to me to find out what it meant to be Chinese, or Indian, or
Alaskan, or Greek. And what was so incredible was that because this
process that you're talking about has gone so far, that there's - at least at
that time - relatively little sympathy for it quite often at home. So for
instance, in Greece, they don't want to know what it means to be Greek.
Or in China, in fact, by the time the 80's rolled around, they started
dismantling their respect for ancient Chinese culture completely, and
trying to build - trying or actually succeeding, in building western

216
monstrosities.

MM: Right. The towers in the park, the Radiant City all over.

CA: Yes. Right. I think it has begun to change. And of course one of
the parts of the world where it has actually changed most dramatically
is in the Islamic countries - partly as the result of the Aga Khan's
program. And partly for reasons I think that are different from that,
possibly related to the whole apparent conflict between Islam and
Christianity. You know, whether it's in Turkey or Iran or Jordan or
Egypt, people have begun to repudiate the stuff that has been thrown at
them. And I'd say it's probably made more progress in those countries
than anywhere else on earth. And that's a very very important thing.

MM: In talking about what is happening around the world today and
about human culture, of course one cannot separate what is happening
in the natural environment. How do you think architecture must
address the problem of the natural environment?

CA: I believe that the whole idea about the natural environment has
been turned on its head actually in a very strange way. For about a
quarter of a century, people have been in effect obsessed with saving
the environment - which is of course a very sensible thing to do when
it's being ravaged and destroyed.

But the real problem is that we won't be OK, in terms of building or in

terms of nature or anything else, until we learn how to make nature.

There's nothing irreverent about saying that. What we think of as

nature is a particular kind of structure. We feel tuned to it and we love
it, and I think if one has a sort of romantic feeling about it, or a
historical feeling about it, or emotional feeling about it, it kind of gets
focused on bushes, water, sky, trees, the animal kingdom and so forth.
And no one really stops to say, well, what is it about that stuff - why do
we love that so? Why are we singling it out in that way?

217
Now all of what we call nature is marked by the way that the whole
system keeps on differentiating itself and unfolding and adapting, so
that every piece of it is adapted in some utterly incredible way to the
things that are immediately near it or the things that are somewhat
further away.

It sounds a bit abstract when I say that. But really that is the crux of the
problem. Because in the artifacts that we produce - and I'm not only
speaking of buildings here - we have no clue how to do this.

We don't know how to do it actually any longer even on a farm. At one

time farmers took it for granted that they knew how to create versions
of nature-structure. But the farms that have grown up in the last 50 or
60 years have really abandoned that, and have essentially been
commercialized - going to massive production techniques which are
very largely damaging. And the key thing again is that even these
farmers no longer know how to create this intricately beautiful, infinite
adaptive system, which gives us joy, pleasure, comfort, relaxation,
wisdom, and so on, even when we rarely come in contact with it.

So, people who built buildings certainly used to know how to do this
kind of thing at one time. There really was an era when buildings were
very gently inserted into nature, and whether people were making
towns, or villages, or fields, or simply looking after the forest or the
ocean, they were always making nature.

Today, if you say to somebody, we should be making nature, it has a

completely zany kind of ring. Because starting around 1970 there was
this - I wouldn't call it a movement, really, it was just an inclination of
people, who were so sick of Skidmore Owings and Merrill and things
like that, that they started wanting to make organic shapes. And so one
started to see hexagonal houses - god knows why people thought that
was organic, maybe because of bees or something - Buckminster Fuller
domes, hippie buildings, made of earth and sticks, that kind of thing. I

218
think the majority of people didn't really like the products of this kind
of thinking. And in fact it never really went anywhere. But when you
talk about nature, and trying to make things that are related to nature,
that stuff is one of the things that comes to mind.

Making nature is really an incredibly different thing.

At the Monterey Aquarium, there's an artificial beach. It's very very

amazing. It's entirely indoors; it's like a cross-section through a beach,
it has the water, they have a wave-making thing. And then it has the
sand going up and the little dunes and then the big dunes and all that.

The fascinating thing is that all the animals stay there. I mean they
actually can escape. But it's so perfectly tuned to the realities of what
such a beach is and what it does for its inhabitants and so on, that all of
the various creatures - of course they vary across the cross-section - are
basically OK, and want to be there, and recognize it and are part of it. I
remember when I first saw that thing, I was absolutely staggered that
anybody knew enough to do that. And in fact I visited again a few
months ago, and I had exactly the same feeling.

So going back to the question - because your question as you first

posed it has to do with, well what do you think about forests and
animals and whatever, all being desecrated, unfortunately.

But the idea that one has to actually be in the position of those people
who made that tiny little beach in Monterey aquarium - I think that
penny has really not dropped. But it is beginning to drop among what
let's call ecological souls - people who like dealing with water and
plants and natural cycle and that sort of thing. And that's becoming
quite good, and there's a lot of careful attention to it.

But the thing is, that what has not happened, is that people understand
that the same attitude precisely goes, must go, into the making of
buildings, or a wall, or a window, or anything else.

219
And if you say, well that sounds fine, but what does it really mean, how
do you actually do that? - the whole of architecture opens up before
you.

Now earlier we talked about the traditional architecture enthusiasts,

Classicists and all of that. And I told you then that I was somewhat
uncomfortable with that.

The reason is that although I think for the very very large part their
hearts are in the right place, and so indeed are the New Urbanists, and
various other kinds of people... all doing their best to think about better
ways of building and so forth....

But the idea that a building when correctly made is going to be given
the kind of structure that makes us practically fall on our knees when
we see it in a fir tree or in a bit of moss - that has actually not
materialized. Because of course the processes needed to do it are so
remote from the processes that are currently available, in contracts, and
in production of materials, and in - well every aspect, almost, of the
way that architecture is done. So that it is a very far reach indeed to
reach towards that, very difficult to think about.

But as we now are beginning to have this genuinely scientific theory of

what architecture is and what to do, then that will be obvious to us, and
that's what we'll be doing. And we won't have to worry about Doric
columns, or classically proportioned windows, or any of a very many
many other kinds of things that are like that.

Now, the idea that it's actually possible to make a building or parts of a
building that really and truly have that sort of resonance, is stunning
and fascinating and fabulous. It does require paying attention to
absolutely different sorts of structures. It does not require getting into
weird kinds of geometry, which is what I alluded to a moment ago -
which is what people think of when they start talking about "well we've

220
got to make buildings like nature." Because it doesn't mean "like
nature" in some simple-minded geometric way - it has curvy shapes,
and therefore we should have curvy buildings, or any of that.

It has to do with the grain of the adaptation. All the different structures.

And I am quite certain that as one learns how to do that, discovers how
to do it, discovers what it really means, the so-called "classical" shapes
- and I'm now using it in a very much more embracing sense, I'm not
just talking about sort of Greco-Roman heritage, I'm talking about all of
what we know as traditional shapes - will turn out to be the kinds of
things that you have to do to make well-adapted space. So that all of it
has to do with nature. All of it has to do with "being-nature". Of
course once one has that perspective, there's no need to seek union
between buildings - i.e. bricks, mortar, concrete, wood, glass, and so
on - and on the other hand, chlorophyll, cell structures, flowing sap,
hydrology and so on. Because it is actually all governed in the same
way.

So really, in a way the answer to your question that I would like to give
is, it isn't a question of finding a union. The union will follow
automatically, if we get inside from underneath and come up inside the
glove. And actually know what it is. Then we'll be doing it. Whether
we're doing it, you know, in planting a rose bush outside a window, or
in dealing with a patch of grass, or in laying up a certain kind of wall
in a completely new and previously unknown technique.

MM: We were talking before about the idea of what happened around
1600; we've had this historic period for 400 years that has been
marvelous in many ways, it's created this incredible abundance and so
on. But it's also done something rather horrendous, in creating a
relationship with nature - "nature" in the broadest scientific sense - that
nature is something that's dead, essentially. That's been a very powerful
illusion, a very productive and useful illusion, but still an illusion.

221
CA: The thing that I'm struggling with is, trying to elucidate what it
really means to make nature when, for example, you're building a
building. I mean it is of course connected with what you just said.
What I'm concerned about is that this can so easily become a kind of
mantra without having a substantial enough content.

Let me give an example of an exercise one might give to a student,

perhaps. If you say to a student, OK, I want you now to draw an
abstract drawing which has the character of nature. An abstract
drawing of - actually could be almost anything. So it might be a frieze
running around a room. It might be of a plan of a couple of rooms in a
very small house. It could be a wall with a bottom and a top, or
whatever. And if you simply say to that student, please draw this so
that it has the character of nature, and can you do that, and do you
know how to do that - my experience is that students have a very great
difficulty doing that kind of things. Because essentially they don't
understand what the question really means. And so there'll be various
attempts, different things will be tried. It'll be - OK, what about
organic shapes, will that get what the professor wants? Or it could be
tried, what about integrating it with rock gardens and water, is that what
he's talking about? Or, it could be is it sustainable in it's, you know, a
piece of sustainable ecology? Or then we can obviously go in for the
weird shape thing.

But of course all of these will be wrong. And actually even the better
of them will have only a little bit that is actually true and worth holding
onto, in guiding the students' pencil as this person who is trying to draw
something which actually is a part of nature, which has the character of
nature.

This is something that is actually really quite clear, and if we were

sitting together, I could draw you something in a couple of moments
that would be like that. But its main feature would be that it has this
peculiar and distinguishable structure. And that gradually, what
happens is, you learn, somehow in your bones, to do that - that is to

222
shape things that way, and not some other way. And it really is a
morphological characteristic.

You know, the Bauhaus had as part of their original curriculum,

exercises which had to do with just drawing the shape of certain things.
And one later I think began to be a bit doubtful about those, that they
were too formalistic, and so on. But actually this activity that I am
describing might be taken also as very formal, formalistic even,
because it does have to do with, well what kind of shapes are actually,
recognizably, natural in that sense. And it's a knack about how to do
that. It's a knack of course that can be learned. It can be learned, and it
must be learned by observation. You have to try to do it, and then find
out what it is about it that you can't do and then try again and keep on
until actually you are drawing stuff that is like that.

I remember when I was about 30, I began to notice that some of

Wright's plans had this quality in them. I didn't know what it was at
that time, I just noticed that they had a very soft and gentle quality, in
the bones of the drawing. And that was actually probably about as
close as any of the so-called modern group of architects ever actually
came. But it was fascinating, because I realized that I was looking at
something that I could recognize, didn't really know how to produce,
didn't even have a name for it, had never in my studies ever been given
by anybody some sort of notion that would enable me to name it,
recognize it, talk about it, emulate it.

And unfortunately, for example, with CNU - which I think is

fascinating, because this is such a powerful movement, and it's just sort
of taken hold in a good way, I mean it's great really that so many people
are enthusiastic. So I'm proud of them, because they've really done
something to help change things. But when you say, well, what are the
rules that they actually live by? I'm talking about "live by" when
they're shaping something, modeling it, drawing it, planning it,
building it, and so forth - the concepts that they are living by there are
not those which I've just been speaking about, having to do with

223
whether you're making part of nature. They're actually something
highly artificial, and in fact, some of those folks I think pride
themselves on being quite deliberate creators of artifice. Because they
almost enjoy the fact that the man-made artifice is something in its own
right and of wonder and so on, and then they say, well, that's what we
are trying to do. And we're trying to discover the old rules about that
artifice.

But this knowledge about making something so that it is nature, is a

much deeper thing than that. And it needs to be understood differently,
and it needs to be practiced differently. And once you can do it, you
don't make that many mistakes. So I think that if we recognize that it is
primarily a morphological issue, and that it is not the morphology that
has been traditionally associated with nature by architects - you know,
all those examples I gave a minute ago. But it is a morphological
awareness that we need to develop, and it could be developed.

MM: One of the criticisms of new urbanism is that it does not account
enough for process. It tends to be designed all-of-a-piece, and as you
put it, master planned through the conventional developer process. And
that process is the characteristic of the natural morphology you spoke
of? That's how it arises - through the process?

CA: Absolutely. Completely, and that is the fundamental aspect of it.

And it actually cannot be faked. You cannot produce it any other way.

I remember when I was at Berkeley, sometimes my colleagues would

get mad at me because I said I didn't want to come to juries, I didn't like
them, and I thought that they were the work of the devil! (Laughs). Of
course the reason is that if you believe in what you're seeing or
attempting to do in a typical jury and so on, that's completely at odds
with those sort of processes, so you will never be able to get it by that
form of teaching. So it actually is a very bad thing to do, and a very
unfortunate thing that has been inculcated in schools. And yet for
instance, they have, you know, all the vocabulary about the parti - and

224
the very terminology there is dead wrong, and supports just the
whimsicalities of the Beaux Arts, not that they were terribly bad, but
they're certainly not about nature in the sense that we're talking about.

But it is a really massive task to replace those concepts with concepts

that are nature-oriented and that are profound.

One of the difficulties, I think, in these last decades, has been that the
people who liked ecology or who wanted to take seriously those sort of
things, were always in a funny sense on the periphery in architecture
schools. And they were always vaguely looked down on by the people
who had all this stuff about the Beaux Arts and so forth, because it
wasn't sufficiently morphological. Now, you see, it's funny there
because actually I think that criticism was correct. But I don't believe
that what the Beaux Arts had to offer was correct. But the more general
statement that the morphology is the foundation of the whole thing - it
has to be.

MM: The result was incorrect. But it so happens that the process that
the Beaux Arts people were assuming was also incorrect?

CA: Absolutely. The Beaux Arts people were right in saying, "look,
really, morphology is everything. Don't try to be an architect and not
deal with morphology." As you say they had a very peculiar and very
narrow view of morphology. But the problem is that the ecologically
minded people of our time, even though one might want to embrace
them and say, you're brethren, you're trying to do the same thing I'm
trying to do and so on, but actually they are not dealing with
morphology sufficiently. Therefore, in a certain sense they're not even
allowed into the dialogue very much.

So that if there's a group which is sort of NU based, and then ecologists

come along, and say we like you, we like what you're doing and so
forth - but actually the ecologically minded person hasn't got the
vocabulary of morphs, of shapes and forms and the generation of

225
shapes and forms, just happens to know a great deal about plants and
animals and insects and water and so forth. But that isn't far enough to
achieve the kind of thing I'm speaking about at all. Because until you
can say, no, look, let me hold your hand and show you how to move the
pencil here - and this is the kind of thing which is for real, and is
actually making nature when one is in the sphere of buildings, this is a
different activity. And once that becomes crystal clear, then everything
will change.

And I am extremely much hoping that these interviews and what this
interview is about will help to make that change. Are there things you
would like me to speak about that I haven't gone to?

MM: I would like to relate this idea back to the idea that nature is
something much broader than the woods and the foxes and so on and so
forth. It is the structure of things, in the broadest sense. And we have
an understanding of that structure of things that is really revolutionizing
the way we've looked at the world in the last 400 years.

CA: Yes.

MM: And I personally think, and I think the other three [editors of
Katarxis] feel the same way, that this is an incredibly powerful tool to
use as a critique of what's been happening, and a recognition that there
has to be that process, that hand, that goes through the iterations, goes
through the process of creating the structure. Instead of taking an
abstract structure - as you put it in A City is Not A Tree so beautifully
- a simple mental structure that you begin with, and you pretty much
end with.

CA: If one takes seriously the idea that it all resides in process - and
that that's not just an empty phrase, but really, the kind of morphology
that we're referring to here as nature, is produced only when certain
kinds of processes go forward, they've got definite sequences, they

226
unfold in certain ways, and so on - if you take all that seriously, then
you would expect in a sense never again to see an architectural studio
where students try to lay out an entire urban design project or a
subdivision.

Instead what would be mandatory and natural, is that every student

would be struggling with a generative process, the class would be
struggling with simulations, where everything is going forward step by
step. And the question is whether the regulation of those processes that
go forward step by step leads to coherent and beautiful results. And
that's a very concrete thing.

It just at one stroke would say, OK, we're going to stop 500 classes in
different architecture schools in the world today, and we're going to
replace them with that today. Of course the same thing can be said
about engineering structure, about the plan of a house, it can be said
about anything. But it's particularly vivid and clear, because one can
certainly imagine simulations in which step-by-step processes can be
tackled by a group of students, and you can either get chaos or you can
get good results, you can get in-between results. And to get really
profound results, and to ask, well, what processes will achieve that,
then you say, well, we've got this class, and these people are putting
buildings one by one, bringing them in balsa wood or in cardboard or in
whatever, on this group model. And we're going to keep doing this
class until they've come up with something which is as good as the
Piazza del Duomo in Florence.

And then you've finally got a process which is actually going

somewhere.

v v v

227
228
 Appe
ndi
x:Aut
horBi
ogr
aphi
es

Christopher Alexander is one of the seminal figures of 20 th Century

design theory, and an author of highly influential works including
Notes on the Synthesis of Form, A Pattern Language, The Timeless Way
of Building, A New Theory of Urban Design, and The Nature of Order.
He has also designed and built many structures as a practicing architect
and contractor. As a teenager he received a prestigious scholarship to
study physics and chemistry at Trinity College, Cambridge, and he
subsequently earned degrees in architecture and mathematics at
Cambridge before earning the first Ph.D. in architecture ever granted at
Harvard University. He was later elected a Fellow at Harvard
University, and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences. He is the recipient of many other honors including the first
AIA Gold Medal for Architectural Research, and the Vincent Scully
Prize of the National Building Museum (USA).

Dr. Alexander's work has proven surprisingly influential in many fields

outside of architecture, including computer science, sociology, biology
and others. In computer software his work spawned the pattern
language movement, producing well-known innovations such as design
patterns, wiki and Wikipedia, and later, Agile methodology.

Dr. Alexander is currently Emeritus Professor at the University of

California at Berkeley, where he served in a long and distinguished
teaching career. He was the recipient of the Association of Collegiate
Schools of Architecture (ACSA) Distinguished Professor Award in both
1986 and 1987. His latest book is The Battle for the Life and Beauty of
the Earth, a case study of the Eishin School project which he completed
with his colleague and co-author Hans Joachim Neis. That project won
the Best Building in Japan award by the Japan Institute of Architects in
1985.

229
Michael Batty is Bartlett Professor of Planning at University College
London where he is Chair of the Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis
(CASA). His research group is working on simulating long term
structural change and dynamics in cities as well as their visualisation.
He has worked on computer models of cities and their visualisation
since the 1970s, and he has published several books including Cities
and Complexity (MIT Press, 2005) which won the Alonso Prize of the
Regional Science Association in 2011, and most recently The New
Science of Cities (MIT Press, 2013). Dr. Batty is also editor of the
journal Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design.

Prior to his current position, Dr. Batty was Professor of City Planning
and Dean at the University of Wales at Cardiff and then Director of the
National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis at the State
University of New York at Buffalo. He is a Fellow of the British
Academy (FBA), the Academy of Social Sciences (FAcSS) and the
Royal Society (FRS), was awarded the CBE in the Queen’s Birthday
Honours in 2004 and is the 2013 recipient of the Lauréat Prix
International de Géographie Vautrin Lud. Most recently he received the
Founders Medal of the Royal Geographical Society for his work on the
science of cities.

Luís M.A. Bettencourt is a Professor of Complex Systems at the Santa

Fe Institute.

Dr. Bettencourt was originally trained as a theoretical physicist and

obtained his PhD from Imperial College, University of London, for
research in statistical and high-energy physics models of the early
Universe. Afterwards he followed his passion for better understanding
human social life and its transformative potential. He has worked
extensively on cities and urbanization with an emphasis on creating
new theoretical interdisciplinary synthesis that describe them in
quantitative and predictive ways, informed by the growing availability
of empirical data worldwide. His research interests also deal with

230
issues of innovation and sustainability in developing human societies,
the dynamics of infectious diseases and general mechanisms for
information processing in complex systems. His research has brought
new perspectives into how we view human social life in cities and the
processes of urbanization and human development and has been
featured extensively in the scientific literature and by the media.

Robert Campbell is architecture critic for the Boston Globe, and

winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Criticism. For eight years, he wrote a
regular column, “Critique,” for the magazine Architectural Record.
With photographer Peter Vanderwarker, he is the author of Cityscapes
of Boston: An American City Through Time, of which the Chicago
Tribune wrote that it “belongs on the bookshelf of anyone who cares
about the fate of the American city.”

Mr. Campbell has been in private practice as an architect since 1975 as

a consultant to cultural institutions and cities. Repeat clients have
included the Boston Symphony Orchestra and its Tanglewood Music
Center, the San Francisco Planning Department, the American
Academy of Arts & Sciences, and the Isabella Stewart Gardner
Museum. He is a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects, a
Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a former
artist-in-residence at the American Academy in Rome. He received the
2004 Award of Honor of the Boston Society of Architects, “in
recognition of outstanding contributions to architecture and to the
profession.”

Howard Davis is Professor of Architecture at the University of Oregon

and co-director of the Collaborative for Inclusive Urbanism. He is co-
author, with Christopher Alexander and others, of The Production of
Houses, and author of The Culture of Building and of Living Over the
Store: Architecture and Local Urban Life.

Professor Davis has a particular interest in the cultural and geographic

contexts of building, and his current research and teaching are

231
concerned with the relationships between architectural and urban space
and the small-scale urban economy. His work has a particular emphasis
on the city as a locus of production and manufacture, as a vehicle to
furthering understandings of the city as a complex adaptive system, and
of expanding definitions of urban sustainability to fully incorporate
social and economic factors.

Professor Davis is currently doing research work in Portland, Oregon

and in London, where he is associated with the Space Syntax group at
the Bartlett School of Architecture. He was a founding co-editor of
Buildings & Landscapes, the journal of the Vernacular Architecture
Forum. He has been on several editorial boards of professional
journals, and is a frequent participant in conferences about urban form
and the cultural contexts of building. His book The Culture of Building
was named Best Work in Architecture and Urban Studies by the
Association of American Publishers. He was also awarded the
Distinguished Professorship of the Association of Collegiate Schools of
Architecture as well as the Thomas F. Herman Teaching Award of the
University of Oregon.

Jaap Dawson is a practicing architect and educator who has spent his
life trying to discover how to build physical spaces that reflect our own
inner space. His search led him through English and Spanish literature
at Cornell and pedagogy and depth-psychology at Union Theological
Seminary and Columbia.

After moving to the Netherlands, the home of his maternal ancestors,

Dr. Dawson studied architecture and taught for 30 years at the
Technische Universiteit Delft. He continues to read, write, and design.

Bruce Donnelly, AICP is a planner and strategic urban consultant

based in Cleveland, Ohio. He has worked extensively with Andres
Duany and the Center for Advanced Transect Studies, contributing to
several projects, including the development and implementation of their
open-source development code, the SmartCode. He has also worked on

232
a “generative module” for the SmartCode that would incorporate
Christopher Alexander's ideas on generativity and pattern languages.

Mr. Donnelly has written a chapter for the forthcoming The Transect,
edited by Brian Falk of the Center for Applied Transect Studies, and
contributed a chapter to Landscape Urbanism and its Discontents:
Dissimulating the Sustainable City edited by Emily Talen and Andres
Duany (New Society). His Viewpoint piece, “Foot Logic,” appears in
the September 2015 issue of the Journal of Urbanism (Routledge).

Bill Hillier is Professor of Architectural and Urban Morphology in the

University of London, Chairman of the Bartlett School of Graduate
Studies, and Director of the Space Syntax Laboratory in University
College London.

As the pioneer of the methods for the analysis of spatial patterns known
as ‘space syntax’, Dr. Hillier is the author of The Social Logic of Space
(Cambridge University Press, 1984, 1990) which presents a general
theory of how people relate to space in built environments, Space is the
Machine (CUP 1996), which reports a substantial body of research built
on that theory, and a large number of articles concerned with different
aspects of space and how it works. He has also written extensively on
other aspects of the theory of architecture. He holds a DSc (higher
doctorate) from the University of London.

Charles Jencks is a widely influential architecture theorist and critic,

landscape architect and designer. His books on the history and
criticism of modernism and postmodernism are widely read in
architectural circles. He studied under the influential architectural
historians Sigfried Giedion and Reyner Banham.

Dr. Jencks studied English literature at Harvard University and later

earned a Master of Arts degree in architecture from the Harvard
Graduate School of Design. He earned a PhD in Architectural History
from University College London.

233
Bin Jiang is Professor in GeoInformatics and Computational
Geography at University of Gävle, Sweden. He is also affiliated to
Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) at Stockholm via KTH Research
School.

Dr. Jiang worked in the past with The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University and the University College London’s Centre for Advanced
Spatial Analysis. He is the founding chair of the International
Cartographic Association Commission on Geospatial Analysis and
Modeling. He is the major coordinator of the Nordic Network in
Geographic Information Science. He was formerly Associate Editor of
international journal Computer, Environment and Urban Systems
(2009-2014), and is currently Academic Editor of open access journal
PLOS ONE, and Associate Editor of Cartographica. His research
interests center on geospatial analysis and modeling of fractal urban
structure and nonlinear dynamics, e.g., topological analysis, scaling
hierarchy, and agent-based modeling applied to streets, towns, cities,
and geospatial big data. Inspired by Christopher Alexander’s masterful
work, he has developed a mathematical model of beauty, which helps
address why a design is beautiful, and can actually help to quantify how
beautiful the design is.

Fred Kent is President of Project for Public Spaces, and a leading

authority on revitalizing city spaces. He is widely recognized as one of
the foremost thinkers in livability, smart growth and the future of the
city. As founder and president of Project for Public Spaces, he is known
throughout the world as a dynamic speaker and prolific ideas man.
Traveling over 150,000 miles each year, Fred offers technical
assistance to communities and gives major talks across North America
and internationally. Each year, he and the PPS staff give presentations
or train more than 10,000 people in Placemaking techniques. Since
1975, Fred has worked on hundreds of projects, including Bryant Park,
Rockefeller Center, and Times Square in New York City; Discovery
Green in Houston, TX; Campus Martius in Detroit, MI; Main Street in
Littleton, NH; Granville Island in Vancouver, BC, Canada; and a City-

234
Wide Placemaking Campaign in Chicago, IL. In addition to projects,
Fred has led trainings across the world for audiences such as the Urban
Redevelopment Agency and the National Parks Board in Singapore,
representatives from the City of Hong Kong, the Ministry of
Environment in Norway, the leading Dutch transportation organization
in the Netherlands, Greenspace in Scotland, UK, numerous
transportation professionals from US State DOTs, and thousands of
community and neighborhood groups across the US.

Before founding PPS, Fred studied with Margaret Mead and worked
with William H. Whyte on the Street Life Project, assisting in
observations and film analysis of corporate plazas, urban streets, parks
and other open spaces in New York City. The research resulted in the
now classic, The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces, published in 1980,
which laid out conclusions based on decades of meticulous observation
and documentation of human behavior in the urban environment. In
1968, Fred founded the Academy for Black and Latin Education
(ABLE), a street academy for high school dropouts. In 1970, and again
in 1990, Fred was the coordinator and chairman of New York City’s
Earth Day.

Most recently, Fred has led some of the largest projects at PPS
including Cape Town Waterfront, Crystal City in Alexandria, VA.,
Museumplein in Amsterdam, Downtown Detroit, Harvard University’s
main plaza, and Harvard Square for Cambridge and Harvard. He is also
overseeing major projects with Southwest Airlines as part of the Heart
of the Community campaign. A recent partnership between PPS, UN
Habitat, and The Ax:son Johnson Foundation has resulted in a global
campaign (The Future of Places) and the establishment of a
Placemaking Leadership Council (600+ members) aimed at bringing
Placemaking to countries around the world. Fred has also been
intimately involved with the expansion of Placemaking into a global
agenda, helping to achieve a level of international engagement that
rivals other major international development efforts. With over 150,000
people around the world following the work of PPS through emails,

235
Twitter and Facebook, he has witnessed interest in Placemaking grow
exponentially.

Michael Mehaffy is Executive Director of the Sustasis Foundation and

editor for Sustasis Press. He is a former student and colleague of
Christopher Alexander, and an associate at the Center for Environ-
mental Structure, the research and practice center where Dr. Alexander
and colleagues developed A Pattern Language, The Nature of Order,
and other landmark works.

Dr. Mehaffy is also an author, researcher, educator, and practitioner in

urban design and strategic urban development, with an international
practice based in Portland, Oregon. He has held teaching and/or
research appointments at six graduate institutions in five countries, and
he is on the editorial boards of two international journals of urban
design. He is also on the boards of four NGOs in sustainable
development and livability, including the Portland-based Sustasis
Foundation, and the London-based International Network for
Traditional Building, Architecture and Urbanism, a patronage of the
Prince of Wales, where he is Chair of its international body, the
INTBAU College of Chapters. He is also a prolific contributor to
professional and trade journals including Urban Land, Metropolis, The
Atlantic's CityLab, Traditional Building, and many others. He is a
popular lecturer and has been interviewed by publications and media
outlets as diverse as Newsweek, The Wall Street Journal, The Guardian,
The Atlantic, Mother Jones, Voice of America, and many others.

Dr. Mehaffy is author or contributing author of over twenty books,

including Design for a Living Planet and Urban Form and Greenhouse
Gas Emissions. He holds a Ph.D. in architecture from Delft University
of Technology.

Hans Joachim Neis is a Professor of Architecture and Director of the

Architecture Program at the University of Oregon in Portland. He also
directs the Portland Urban Architecture Research Laboratory (PUARL).

236
He is a long-time colleague of Christopher Alexander, and collaborator
on the award-winning Eishin School project near Tokyo, Japan. He is
also co-author, with Christopher and Maggie Alexander, of the book
The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth, a case study of the
Eishin project, and also A New Theory of Urban Design, with
Christopher Alexander, Artemis Anninou and Ingrid King.

Dr. Neis previously taught at the University of Applied Science in

Frankfurt, Germany, and the University of California at Berkeley, as
well as being awarded the DAAD visiting professorship at Technical
University of Dresden. He was also a tutor for the Prince of Wales
Urban Design Task Force Program. He is a founding member of the
architectural organization ‘School of Seeing.’ As a professional, he is
practicing architecture, urban design and planning internationally,
mostly in Germany, Japan and the US.

Dr. Neis earned his Ph.D. at the University of California at Berkeley,

where he studied and worked with Christopher Alexander. He also
studied at Technical University of Darmstadt with Thomas Sieverts.
Together with Christopher Alexander he is a founding member of the
Building Process Area of Emphasis at the University of California,
which he taught from 1990-2000. Every two years he conducts the
popular ‘International Pattern Language Conference.’

Dellé Odeleye is is Course Leader of the MSc Urban Design at Anglia

Ruskin University. She earned her Ph.D. at Oxford Brookes University,
following a town planning MPhil at the Bartlett, UCL and a BArch in
architecture from Cardiff.

Dr. Odeleye is on the Steering Group of the ‘Changing Chelmsford’

initiative, involving the Academy of Urbanism, the RSA, County &
City Councils and university. It has pioneered an informal, open-ended,
approach to creatively engaging key stakeholders and local
communities about the future of the city - influencing decisions on key
buildings and challenging spaces. This experiment in collaborative

237
urbanism has generated a community-led, Chelmsford Ideas Festival
and a creative ‘Ideas Hub’ (with a programme of community
workshops, and start-up co-working spaces) established within the city
centre. These are seeding new, self-organising, local organisations and
initiatives.

Dr. Odeleye previously worked in the private, third and public sectors –
initially as an architect, then as a community planner, and as a principal
planner in local government, in the policy & projects team responsible
for planning the Wembley regeneration area. She was seconded to the
Greater London Authority (GLA) with responsibility for formulating
the urban design & sustainable construction policies in the first London
Plan (Regional Spatial Strategy). She was part of the first Mayor of
London’s Task Group on Sustainable Construction for major
development projects.

Dr. Odeleye's research interests include sustainable urban design, the

complexity implications of time and space concepts underlying the
planning of indigenous settlements, and the spatial justice outcomes of
urban regeneration projects.

Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk a professor and former dean of the

University of Miami School of Architecture, where she has taught since
1979. She received her undergraduate degree in architecture and urban
planning from Princeton University and her Master’s of Architecture
from the Yale School of Architecture. She is a founder of the Congress
for the New Urbanism, and a founding principal of Duany Plater-
Zyberk & Company, Town Planners and Architects (DPZ). DPZ is a
leader in the movement called the New Urbanism, which seeks to end
suburban sprawl and urban disinvestment. The firm’s award winning
method of integrating master planning with design codes and
regulations is being applied in over 200 regions, towns and cities
throughout North America as well as in Europe and Asia. She co-
authored the book Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the
Decline of the American Dream, and The New Civic Art.

238
Sergio Porta is Professor of Urban Design and former Head of School
at the Department of Architecture, University of Strathclyde, and head
of the Urban Design Studies Unit. He conducts joint research on street
networks and spatial centrality, urban evolution and morphometrics, the
“400 metre rule”, “plot-based urbanism,” resilience in urban design and
masterplanning for change.

Dr. Porta has authored dozens of articles on peer reviewed journals

such as Nature Scientific Reports, European Physical Journal, Urban
Studies, Urban Design International, Progress in Planning, International
Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, Environment and Planning
B, Environment and Planning A and others. His research in the work of
Christopher Alexander has led to ongoing experiments in "Construction
& Therapy", where the involvement of end-users throughout three
phases (Land Exploration, Pattern Language, Conception and
Construction) is a crucial step towards "healing the people and healing
the land". He sits in the editorial boards of leading international
journals like Environment and Planning B, Urban Design International
and Urban Studies Research. He is member of the Environmental
Structure Research Group and the Academy of Urbanism.

Yodan Rofé is a Senior Lecturer of Urban Planning and Design at Ben-

Gurion University in Israel, founder and former Board Member of the
Movement for Israeli Urbanism (MIU). A graduate in Environmental
Design from Belzalel Academy of Art and Design in Jerusalem, he
completed his Masters in Architecture and his Ph.D in City and
Regional Planning at the University of California at Berkeley. After
post-doctoral study as Lady Davis Fellow at the Faculty of Architecture
and Urban Planning at the Technion, he served for 5 years as Head of
Urban Design Section at Israel Ministry of Construction and Housing.

Dr. Rofé's research interests include urban form and movement,

accessibility and equity, cognition and feeling in the built environment
and urban public space and street design. Together with Allan Jacobs

239
and Elizabeth Macdonald he wrote The Boulevard Book: History,
evolution, design of multi-way boulevards, published by MIT Press. His
recently published papers reflect the full variety of these interests.

Witold Rybczynski is Emeritus Professor of Urbanism at the

University of Pennsylvania, and an acclaimed author of books
including Home, The Most Beautiful House in the World, City Life, and
A Clearing in the Distance. He has written for The Atlantic, The New
Yorker, The New York Review of Books, and The New York Times. He
has also served as architecture critic for Saturday Night, Wigwag, and
Slate. From 2004 to 2012 he served on the U. S. Commission of Fine
Arts.

Mr. Rybczynski first attracted wide attention with the publication in

1980 of his first book, Paper Heroes. “Appropriate technology” (AT),
of which he is hailed as one of the founding fathers, is described by the
architect as “part lay religion, part protest movement, and part
economic theory.” AT has as its aim the humanization of technology,
which includes adapting methods of industrialization to the particular
countries to be developed. He has designed and built houses as a
registered architect, as well as doing practical experiments in low-cost
housing, which took him to Mexico, Nigeria, India, the Philippines, and
China. He studied architecture at McGill University in Montreal, where
he also taught for twenty years.

Mariapia Vidoli is a Ph.D. student at the Urban Design Studies Unit

(UDSU) of the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow. Her
undergraduate work in Italy was in philosophy. Her research centers
upon movement and therapy, applied to a new form of live-build
construction process inspired by the work of Christopher Alexander,
and called “Costruction and Therapy”.

John Worthington, MBE is co-Founder of the London-based

international architecture firm DEGW; Director of the Academy of
Urbanism (2009- 15); Past President (1989-91) and current Patron of

240
the Urban Design Group. He is currently a Commissioner of the
Independent Transport Commission, leading the review of the spatial
impact of High Speed Rail.

Mr. Worthington studied at the Architectural Association, London

(1960-64) and subsequently as a Harkness Fellow at the University of
Pennsylvania and UC Berkeley. Previous positions include Professor
of Architecture and Director of the Institute of Advanced Architectural
Studies at the University of York (1993-7) Visiting Professor Chalmers
University of Technology, Gothenburg (1999-2002); the University of
Sheffield (1998-2008) and Professorial Fellow at the University of
Melbourne (2006-2010). He was chairman of the Rotterdam High Rise
Commission (2001-2004) and chair of the City of Dublin Urbanism
Advisory Panel (2001- 2011), from 2003-7 he was chairman of
CABE/RIBA Building Futures and from 2004-9 a Board member for
London Thames Gateway Development Corporation (2004-9).

Mr. Worthington's recent publications include Reinventing the

Workplace (2nd Edition, Architectural Press 2006, co-author with
Alistair Blyth) and Managing the Brief for Better Design (2nd Edition,
Routledge 2010).

241