THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF HEALTH AND SAFETY

Health and safety at work is based on an understanding of the causes of

accidents and other events at the workplace which lead to harm to workers and others who may
be close by.
The Multi-Disciplinary Nature of Health and Safety
Workplace health and safety practice brings together knowledge from
many different disciplines. Some health and safety topics are simple to understand; others are
technical and require specialist knowledge. Sometimes the practical solution to a health and safety
problem is straightforward; at other times the solution is complicated and demanding and
requires the correct application of technical knowledge and thinking. In order to fully understand a
health and safety issue you need to be familiar with the:
• Technical background to the issue and have the relevant knowledge.
• Standards that may apply to the workplace and to the specific health and safety issue under
consideration.
• Possible strengths and weaknesses of the various options available to solve the problem.
The study of health and safety therefore involves many different subjects including the sciences
(chemistry, physics and biology), engineering, psychology, sociology and the law.
Obstacles to Good Standards of Health and Safety
There are many barriers to good standards of health and safety in a workplace:
• Complexity - workplaces can be complicated areas, involving the co-ordination of many people
performing many different activities. Finding a solution to a specific health and safety problem or
issue can be complex, requiring extensive background knowledge and an awareness of the
possible consequences of the various courses of action that are available.

• Conflicting demands - there are often competing and conflicting demands placed upon people
and organizations. A common conflict of interest is that between the need to supply a product or a
service at an appropriate speed so as to make a profit, and the need to do so safely and without
risk to people’s health. Another conflict can be created by the need to complete different types of
standards at the same time, e.g. health and safety law as well as environmental protection law.

• Behavioral issues - good health and safety practice also

depends upon the perfect behavior of individuals, and people
sometimes do not behave in ideal way. The solution to a health
and safety problem usually requires a worker to carry out their
job in a particular way. For example, a worker on a construction
site should wear a hard hat to protect himself from falling
objects. But people are not robots; they do not behave as they
are supposed to all the time. Workers sometimes make mistakes Figure 1- Behavioral issues - a worker
(they do the wrong thing thinking that it is the right thing to do). ignores safety precautions
Sometimes they deliberately do the wrong thing, knowing that it
is wrong, but doing it anyway. The fact that health and safety standards are affected by worker
behavior can be a significant barrier to maintaining good standards in a workplace.
The term Health and Safety is generally used to mean an employer should:
• Promote and maintain the mental, physical and social well-being of employees
 • Protect employees and others affected by an organisation’s activities to harm from
risk
• Establish a management framework to implement policies and achieve continual
improvement in health and safety
The differences between Safety and Health
Health: the condition of body or mind Safety: not being exposed to danger or risks.
Ex; Slips, trips, falls Ex; Exposure to hazardous chemicals
Falls from height Exposure to asbestos, dusts, etc.
Struck by vehicles Repetitive strain injuries
Contact with electricity
Contact with moving parts

MEANINGS AND DISTINCTION

Health
Absence of disease or ill-health is called “health”. Health relates to the physical
condition of both body and mind, of all people at the workplace.
Safety
Absence of risk of serious personal injury.
Welfare
Provision of basic facilities such as toilet facilities, hand wash stations, changing rooms,
rest rooms and places where food can be prepared and eaten in relatively conditions,
and drinking water and basic first-aid provision.
Environment
The surroundings in which an organization operates including air, land and water and
living organisms.
Environmental Protection
Prevention of damage to air, land, water and living organisms
Environmental protection has two types:
− The workplace environment, which relates to the general conditions in the immediate
area of the workplace itself – for example, levels of lighting, noise, heat, etc.
− The external environment, which relates to pollution of, or damage to, the air, land,
water and living creatures outside of the workplace, insofar as they may be affected by
workplace activities.
Accidents and Other Events
 Incident - An event that gave rise to an accident or had the potential to lead to an
accident
Accident - an unplanned or unwanted event which leads to injury, damage or loss.
Near miss - an unplanned or unwanted event that had the potential to lead to injury,
damage or loss (but did not, in fact, do so).
Occupational accident: an occurrence arising out of, or in the course of, work, which
results in fatal or non-fatal injury.
Commuting accident: an accident resulting in death or personal injury occurring on the
direct way between the place of work and:
(i) the worker's principal or secondary residence; or
(ii) the place where the worker usually takes a meal; or
(iii) the place where the worker usually receives his or her remuneration.
Dangerous occurrences: A near miss with serious injury potential
Occupational disease: Any disease contracted as a result of an exposure to risk factors
arising from work activity e.g. occupational cancer arising from exposure to asbestos in
the workplace.

Work-Related Ill-Health
"Any illness, disability or other physical problem which affects a person and is caused by
their working conditions”
Work-related ill-health may be either physiological or psychological:
• Physiological problems are those diseases or injuries suffered as a result of long-term
exposure to dangerous substances in the workplace (such as various types of dust or
fumes) or to damaging working practices (such as repetitive movements or excessive
noise).
• Psychological problems are usually related to stress and include such illnesses as
depression. Stress may be created by short-term or longer-term exposure to particular
pressures at the workplace, including excessive demands on performance or bullying.
Why might the management of an organisation not consider health and safety to be a
priority?
Ans: Because
• Competes with other business aims
– Requires time and resources
• Seen as a “cost” to business
– Ignorance of true costs of injury/illness
• Ignorance of legal duties
• Ignorance of hazards
Hazards and Risks
Hazard:
A hazard is an article, substance or situation that has the potential to cause harm or
damage.
Not all hazards will cause harm all of the time. It depends upon circumstances. Typical
workplace hazards include:
▪ Working at heights
▪ Noise
▪ Electricity
▪ Machinery
▪ Chemicals
▪ Poor lighting
▪ Manual handling
▪ Cluttered walkways
▪ Fire

Risk:
A risk is the likelihood of harm occurring. The degree of risk depends upon the likelihood
of harm happening and the severity of the outcome i.e. type of injury, numbers
involved, etc.

REVISION QUESTION
1. What two types of hazard are there?
Answer: Unsafe conditions and unsafe acts.
Unsafe Condition - A condition in the work place that is likely to cause property
damage or injury.
Unsafe Act - A task or activity that is conducted in a manner that may threaten
the health or safety of workers
2. What factors are assessed in determining the magnitude of a risk?
Answer: The number of people likely to be affected by the harm from a hazard,
and the severity of the harm that may be suffered.
➢ How much of a chemical is present in an environmental medium (e.g., soil,
water, air),
➢ How much contact (exposure) a person or ecological receptor has with the
contaminated environmental medium, and.
➢ The inherent toxicity of the chemical.
REASONS FOR MAINTAINING AND PROMOTING GOOD STANDARDS
OF HEALTH AND SAFETY
OR THE MORAL, LEGAL AND ECONOMIC REASONS FOR HEALTH AND
SAFETY
The three main reasons why an organization has to manage health and safety are:
moral, social (or legal) and economic.
➢ The moral (societal) reason relates to the moral duty that one person has to another.
Many people are killed, injured or made sick by their work. This is morally
unacceptable, and society as a whole demands that people are safe whilst at work.

➢ The social (or legal) reason relates to the framework of laws that govern the conduct
of businesses and organizations. An employer has a duty to provide a safe place of
work, safe plant and equipment, safe systems of work, adequate training and
supervision, and competent employees.

➢ The economic reason relates to the fact that accidents and ill-health cost money.
When an accident occurs there will be direct and indirect costs associated with that
event. Some of these losses can be insured against; many of them will be uninsured.

Size of the Problem

The following global statistics have been published by the International Labor
Organization (ILO) as part of their Safe-Work programme (the actual figures are
unimportant – it is simply to show the scale of the problem):
• There are 270 million occupational accidents and 160 million occupational diseases
each year.
• Around 2 million people die every year from occupational accidents and
occupational diseases.
• 4% of the world’s gross domestic product is lost each year through the cost of injury,
death, absence, etc.
• There are around 355,000 on-the-job fatalities each year – half of these occur in
agriculture. Other high-risk sectors are construction and fishing industries.
Direct and Indirect Costs
• Direct costs - the measurable costs arising directly from the accident. Ex; sick pay,
repairs or replacement of damaged equipment and buildings, etc.

• Indirect costs - those which arise indirectly as a consequence of the event. Indirect
costs are often difficult to quantify precisely and may be hard to identify. In certain
circumstances they may be extremely high. Ex; business interruption, loss of orders,
Loss of goodwill of customers etc.

Hidden Costs of Accidents

• Accident investigation • Loss of reputation
• Payments to injured person • Damage repair
• Payments non productive time • Replacement plant
• Replacement labour • Compensation
• Training • Legal fees
• Business interruption • Insurance

Insurance, Costs and Liabilities

➢ Employers usually take out insurance to cover themselves against potential losses caused by
such events as fire and theft. In many countries, employers are also required by law to have
insurance against certain types of liability. However, many of the costs involved in respect
of accidents at work are not covered by insurance.
➢ Uninsured costs include all indirect costs as well as those relating to loss of production as a
result of many types of incident. In addition, the insurance to cover loss in respect of certain
events may be void where it may be shown that the employer has not taken adequate
precautions to prevent the incident. It has been estimated that uninsured losses were
between 8 and 36 times greater than insured losses.

Fault and No-Fault Compensation Systems

➢ In many countries around the world, the principle way that a worker has to claim
compensation in the case of a workplace inquiry is to use the Courts. This “tort” based
system is essentially adversarial and requires that someone else is blamed for causing the
inquiry. In most instances it is the employer who is blamed and therefore found to be at
fault. This is the principal compensation mechanism used in the UK and the USA.
➢ In other countries a no-fault compensation system is in operation. In these countries there
is no requirement to blame employers or employees in order for compensation to be
awarded. Instead a panel of experts make a decision on whether compensation should be
awarded. The system is non-adversarial and does not involve lawyers or the courts in most
instances. These no-fault compensation systems are operated in, for example, New Zealand
and Sweden.
The Need to Provide a Safe Place of Work, Safe Plant and
Equipment, Safe Systems of Work, Training and Supervision,
and Competent Workers
The legal responsibility for health and safety at work rests primarily on the employer. The
employer has a duty to provide the following:
• Safe Place of Work
The employer creates the place of work, which should be reasonably safe and without risk to
health. What is considered “reasonable” may vary with the type of work. The employer should
also provide safe access to and from the workplace.
• Safe Plant and Equipment
All the machinery, tools, plant and equipment used by employees at work should be reasonably
safe and without health risk. Exactly what this means will depend on the type of work being
carried out. The greater the risk involved, the greater the care that must be taken. The need to
inspect, service, repair and replace machinery in a steel-making factory would be far greater
than that which would apply in an office, where a very simple inspection regime might be
sufficient.
• Safe Systems of Work
There should be recognized procedures for the safe conduct of all work activities. These
procedures should cover all foreseeable possibilities, e.g. the operation of drilling equipment in
different types of weather, rather than just a set of rules which ensure safety when the weather
is good. Procedures should cover the routine day-to-day activities of the organization and the
non-routine, occasional or one-off activities, as well as any foreseeable emergencies that might
arise.
• Training, Supervision and Competency of Staff
Workers must be able to carry out the necessary procedures. Employers have a duty to provide
appropriate training so that workers are aware of the hazards and risks inherent in their work,
the safe systems of work and the emergency procedures. This training might be reinforced by
the provision of information and instruction. Employers should supervise workers to ensure
that they are carrying out their work with minimal risk to themselves and others. This does not
mean that supervisors have to stand and watch every worker at all times, but it does require
the provision of adequate levels of supervision. Finally, an employer should ensure that all
workers, supervisors and managers are competent.

Benefits of Good Health and Safety Practice

1. Increased levels of compliance
2. Improved production
3. Improved staff morale
4. Improved company reputation
5. Reduced accidents
6. Reduced ill health
7. Reduced damage to equipment
8. Reduced staff complaints
9. Reduced staff turnover
10. Reduced insurance premiums
11. Reduced fines and compensation claims
Health and Safety Law
Law: A rule of human conduct imposed upon and enforced.
Purposes of Law:
• Control of anti social behaviour
• Regulate relationships
• Resolution of conflict
• Setting standards of behaviour

Frameworks for Regulating Health and Safety

1. Prescriptive
2. Goal Setting
The European (Goal setting)
The American (Prescriptive)
The International Labour Organisation

Enforcement of Health & Safety

Informal:
• Verbal and Written Advise
Formal:
• Issuing legal mandates to comply with the law and put right the breach
• Issuing legal mandates to stop dangerous activities immediately
• Prosecution with the intent of punishing the company or individual which
can lead to fines and/or imprisonment
• Issuing a caution (warning), that can be used in evidence at a later date,
often for minor repeat offences

Implementation of Legislation
• Differences in legislative systems
• Different powers granted to the Enforcing Authority
• Funding, number and authority of Enforcing Authority
• The ability and knowledge of Enforcing Authorities
• Different penalties for breaches
• Religious beliefs and cultural issues
• Level of reporting to Enforcing Authorities
• Public reaction and interest
• Political pressure
Sources of Information
External
• Government organizations e.g. Enforcing Authorities
• National safety organizations / Professional Institutions
• Various Standards Organization such as ISO and British Standards Institute (BSI)
• Suppliers and manufacturers
• Consultants and specialists
• Insurance Companies and workers unions

Internal
• Risk assessments
• Inspection reports
• Accident/incident records
• Medical reports
• Safety representatives
• Safety committee reports
• Company safety policy
• Maintenance reports

Safety Management Systems

• HSEG 65, 2003: ‘Successful Health and Safety Management Systems’.
• (HSE) ILO-OSH, 2001: Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health Management
Systems.
• (ILO) OHSAS 18001, 2015: Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems
(BSI)
ILO-OSH, 2001 (ILO):
 Here we discuss the elements of the model described in ILO-OSH 2001 for the
development and maintenance of effective systems and procedures.
Policy:
A health and safety policy sets out your general approach to health and safety. It
explains how you, as an employer, will manage health and safety in your business. It
should clearly say who does what, when and how. If you have five or more employees,
you must write your policy down.
Organising:
There should be a framework of roles and responsibilities for health and safety, with
duties placed upon individuals throughout the organisation, from senior management
down to the shop floor. This will include organisational duties which may be required by
law, as well as appointing specialist staff.
Planning and Implementation:
This refers to the detailed specification of health and safety standards to be applied in
all areas and aspects of work, and the measures taken to ensure that they are carried
out. Central to this idea is the concept of risk assessment. On the basis of the risk
assessment, specific systems of work and protective measures should be identified and
implemented.
Evaluation:
Evaluation basically means monitoring, measuring and reviewing performance. It is not
enough simply to put the systems and measures in place. Management must ensure
they are working effectively and this can only be determined by holding some form of
systematic review. The implementation of the health and safety policy should be
monitored on a regular basis by collecting information about accidents and other
incidences.
Action for Improvement:
 Any defects identified by the review process must be set right as soon as possible by
making whatever adjustments are necessary to the policy, organisation and
arrangements for implementation.
Auditing:
This refers to the process of collecting independent information on the efficiency,
effectiveness and reliability of the total safety system in the organisation. Crucially, it
reflects the need to ensure that all aspects of the system remain appropriate in the light
of current developments in the field – in relation to both legislation and good health and
safety practice. Thus, it is necessary to obtain information and advice from outside the
organisation about these matters and to integrate this with the further development of
internal systems and procedures.
Continual Improvement:
Arrangements need to be made for the continual improvement of all the elements of
the OSH management system. As well as taking account of internal data sources (from
e.g. results of performance measurements, accident investigations etc.), the
performance of the organisation should be compared with others in order to benchmark
progress.