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INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

Course Outline
I. Fundamental / Basic Concepts
II. Examples of Mathematical Systems
III. Groups and Subgroups
IV. Rings
V. Fields

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Sets, functions, relations
DEFINITION:
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. It is denoted
by a capital letters A, B, C, …, Z. Each object is called members/elements
denoted by numbers, small letters or figures which may represent the
elements of a set. Each element is separated by a comma and enclosed with
a braces { }. A set is well-defined since we can be able to determine
whether or not an object is an element / belongs to a given set or not.

Example: 1. The collection of the richest man → This is not a well-defined

set since we cannot be able to determine the exact element because it is
not stated if it is in the Philippines or in the world.
2. The collection of top 5 students per section for grade 8 in
OLPCC JHS Department → a well-defined set since we can be able to determine
whether or not an element belongs to the given set.

Methods of Describing a Set

A. Statement form – used to describe sets in sentence form.
Examples: A = set of vowels, B = set of Natural numbers
B. Roster / Tabular method – is used to define / describe a set by
listing / enumerating its elements, separated by a comma and
enclosed by a braces.
Examples: A = {a, e, i, o, u}, B = {1,2,3,4,…}
C. Rule / Defining method (Set-builder notation)- is used to define /
describe a set by describing its elements in a conventional way.
Examples: A = {x / x is an English Alphabet}.
B = {x / x ∈ N}
Illustrative examples:
ROSTER METHOD RULE METHOD
1. A = {1,3,5,7,…, x} 1. A = {x / x is an odd
number}
2. B = {a, e, i, o, u} 2. B = {x / x is a vowel}
3. C = {1,2,3,4,5,…, 14} 3. C = {x / x is a natural
number less than 15}
4. D = {3 ,6, 9, 12, …, x} 4. D = {x / x is a multiple
of 3}
 Note: In set A, all odd numbers are its elements / members. In symbol,
we write 1 ϵ A, read as “one is an element of A” since 1 is an odd
number while 2 ∉ A, read as “two is not an element of A” since 2 is not
an odd number.
Important sets of Real Numbers

Natural numbers:
– N = {0,1,2,3, …}
Integers
– Z = {…, -2,-1,0,1,2, …}
Positive integers
– Z+ = {1,2, 3.…}
Rational numbers
– Q = {p/q | p Z, q Z, q 0}
Real numbers
– R
Exercises:
A. Which of the following are well defined sets? Why?
1. The collection of Mathematics Books in the library.
2. The collection of beautiful students in the school.
3. The collection of prime numbers.
4. The collection of the greatest NBA players in the 90’s.
5.The collection of the set of even numbers less than 30.

B. Write the given sets using Roster / Tabular method.

1. A = {x / x is a province in Region II}
2. B = {x / x is an even number}
3. D = set of basketball team in the PBA.
4. F = {x / x is a perfect square less than 256}
5. I = {x / x is a senator in the Philippines}

KINDS OF SETS
There are 12 common kinds of sets that will be essential in
performing operations of sets. These are the following:
1. Finite set → A set is finite if it contains only a limited or countable
number of elements.
2. Infinite set → A set is infinite if it contains only an unlimited or
uncountable number of elements.
3. Universal set → A universal set (denoted by U), is the totality of
all observation/objects under certain condition or situation.
4. Equal sets → Two sets are equal if they have exactly the same
elements.
5. Equivalent sets → Two sets are equivalent if they have the same number
of elements.
6. Joint sets → Two sets are joint sets if they contain at least one
common element.
7. Disjoint sets → Two sets are disjoint if they have no common element.
8. Empty / Null set → Set A is a null set / empty set if it contains no
element.
 9. Proper subset → Set A is a proper subset of B if every element of set
A belongs to set B.
10. Improper subset → Set A is an improper subset of set B if set A
is equal to set B or if set A is a null set.

Cardinality
Definition: Let S be a set. If there are exactly n distinct elements in S, where n is a nonnegative integer,
we say S is a finite set and that n is the cardinality of S. The cardinality of S is denoted by | S |.
Examples:
• V={1 2 3 4 5}
|V|=5
• A={1,2,3,4, …, 20}
|A| =20

• ||=0

11. Unit set (Singleton set) → a set with only one element.
12. Power set → refers to the subsets of a set.

Examples:

• Assume an empty set Φ

• What is the power set of Φ ? P(Φ) = { Φ }
• What is the cardinality of P(Φ) ? |P(Φ)| = 1.
• Assume set {1}
• P( {1} ) = { , {1} }
• |P({1})| = 2

• Assume {1,2}
• P( {1,2} ) = { , {1}, {2}, {1,2} }
• |P({1,2} )| = 4

• Assume {1,2,3}
• P({1,2,3}) = {, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3} }
• |P({1,2,3} | = 8

• If S is a set with |S| = n then | P(S) | = 2n

Note: Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same members. That
is,

A = B if and only if ((x ∈ A) ⇔ (x ∈ B)).

This means that, to prove that two sets are equal, you have to do two
things:
(i) show that any element of A lies in B;
(ii) show that any element of B lies in A.
Of course, (i) means that A ⊆ B (that is, A is a subset of B), while
(ii) means that B ⊆ A. So, we can re-write our rule:

A ⊆ B if and only if ((x ∈ A) ⇒ (x ∈ B)),

A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

From two sets A and B we can build new ones:

union: A∪B = {x: x ∈ A or x ∈ B};

intersection: A∩B = {x: x ∈ A and x ∈ B;

difference: A\B = {x: x ∈ A and x ∉ B};

 symmetric difference: A ∆ B = (A\B) ∪(B\A).

Example:
You are given two sets, A and B, which are defined as:
A = {2, 4, 6, 8}
B = {2, 5, 7, 8}
Find out the symmetric difference B ∆ A.

Solution:
Symmetric difference of B with respect to A is defined as:
B ∆ A = (B U A) – (B ∩ A)
(B U A) = {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
(B ∩ A) = {2, 8}
B ∆ A = (B U A) – (B ∩ A) = {4, 5, 6, 7}
This is the symmetric difference of B with respect to A.

EXERCISES: Given U = {i, l, o, v, e, m, a, t, h}, A = {m, a, t, h}, B =

{e, m, a, t, h},
C = {l, o, v, e, m, a, t, h}, and D = {v, m, a, t}. Find the following
sets.
1. A U B 2. B U C 3. C U D
4. A ∩ B 5. B ∩ C 6. C ∩ D
7. A – B 8. B – C 9. C – D
10. A ∆ B 11. B ∆ C 12. C ∆ D
13. (A U B)- (A ∩ B) 14. (A - B) ∩ (B - C) 15. (A ∆ B) U (C ∆ D)

CARTESIAN PRODUCT
Definition: The cartesian product of two sets X and Y, denoted by X
x Y, is defined as the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) such that x ϵ X and
y ϵ Y. In set notation, this can be written as follows:

X x Y = {(x,y)/x ϵ X and y ϵ Y}

Example: Let X = {1,2,3} and Y = {a,b}. Then

X x Y = {(1,a),(1,b),(2,a),(2,b),(3,a),(3,c)}
Y x X = {(a,1),(b,1),(a,2),(b,2),(3,a),(3,b)}

Note: X x Y ≠ Y x X
 From this definition, the product R x R, where R is the set of
real numbers, may geometrically represented as the Cartesian plane of
analytic geometry. On the other hand, Z x Z, where Z is the set of integers,
is represented in the plane by the set of all points having integers as
coordinates.

Cardinality of the Cartesian product

• |S x T| = |S| * |T|.
Example:
• A= {John, Peter, Mike}
• B ={Jane, Ann, Laura}
• A x B= {(John, Jane),(John, Ann) , (John, Laura), (Peter, Jane),
(Peter, Ann) , (Peter, Laura) , (Mike, Jane) , (Mike, Ann) , (Mike,
Laura)}
• |A x B| = 9
• |A|=3, |B|=3 → |A||B|= 9

• Definition: A subset of the Cartesian product A x B is called a

relation from the set A to the set B.
EXERCISES:
1. Let A = {1,3,5} and B = {2,4,6}. Write out all elements of the
following product sets:
a) A x A b) B x B c) A x B d) B x A
2. What set of points in the plane corresponds to the set
Z* x Z*, where Z* is the set of nonnegative integers, that is, Z*
= {0,1,2,3,4,5,. . .}.

Algebraic Structures
Algebraic structures are systems with objects and operations, and the
rules or properties governing those operations, which can be used to
calculate and solve equations. The objects are often rational numbers and
the operations are usually addition, subtraction, division, and
multiplication.
In other areas of mathematics, however, different objects or operations
may be used to solve different kinds of equations.
Important concepts in the study of algebraic structure include comparing
processes, doing and undoing, equivalence, and properties of systems.
REALATIONS & FUNCTIONS
EXERCISES:
Binary Operation
Definition: A binary operation  on a set S is a function mapping S x S
into S. For each (a,b)  S x S, the element of S assigned for this
ordered pair will be denoted by a  b.
Example 1
The usual addition + is a binary operation on the set R. The usual
multiplication  is another binary operation on R.

Example 2
Matrix addition + is not a binary operation on the set of all matrices
since A + B is not defined for matrices having different number of rows
or columns.
Closure; Induced Operation
Definition: Let  be a binary operation on S and let H be a subset of S.
The subset H is closed under  if for a, b  H we also have a  b  H. In
this case, the binary operation on H given by restricting  to H is the
induced operation of  on H.
The definition of a binary operation  on S implies closure of S under 
Example 1
The usual addition + on the set R of real numbers does not induce a
binary operation on the set R * of nonzero real numbers because 1  R * and –
1  R * but 1 + (- 1) = 0  R * . Thus R * is not closed under  .
Example 2
Let + and * be the usual binary operations of addition and
 
multiplication on the set Z, and let H = n2 n  Z + . H is not closed under
addition since 12 = 1 and 22 = 4 but 1 + 4 = 5  H. H is closed under
multiplication since if r and s are elements of H then there must be
integers n and m in Z + such that r = n2 and s = m2, and rs = n2m2 = (nm)2.
We may invent binary operations which are not familiar additions,
subtractions, or the like.
Example 3

On Z + , we may define a binary operation  by a  b equals the smaller of a

and b, or the common value if a = b. Thus 4  7 = 4; 8  5 = 5; and 7  7 =
7.
Example 4

On Z + , we may define a binary operation  by a  b = a. Thus 3  4 = 3; 5  9

= 5; and 6  6 = 6
Example 5

On Z + , we may define a binary operation Ñ by a Ñ b = (a  b) + 3, where 

is defined in Example 3. Thus 2 Ñ 3 = 5; 5 Ñ 7 = 8; and 8 Ñ 4 = 7.

Commutative Operation
Definition: a binary operation  on a set S is commutative if a  b = b  a
for all a, b  S
Example 1
The binary operation  in Example 3 is commutative since a  b = b  a for
all a, b  Z + .
Example 2
The binary operation  in Example 4 is not commutative because 4  5 = 4
but 5  4 = 5.
Associative Operation
Definition: A binary operation  on a set S is associative if (a  b)  c =
a  (b  c) for all a, b, c  S.
Which of examples 3, 4, and 5 are associative?
Exercises
Determine whether the binary operation  defined is commutative and/or
associative.
1.  defined on Z by a  b = a – b
2.  defined on Q by a  b = ab + 1
3.  defined on Q by a  b = ab/2

4.  defined on Z + by a  b = 2ab

5.  defined on Z + by a  b = ab

Two Conditions for a Binary Operation

To define a binary operation  on a set S we must be sure that
1. exactly one element is assigned to each possible ordered pair of
elements of S,
2. for each ordered pair of elements of S, the element assigned to it
is again in S.
Example 1

On Q+ , let a  b = a/b. Both Conditions 1 and 2 are satisfied, therefore

 is a binary operation on Q+ .
Example 2

On Z + , let a  b = a/b. Condition 2 fails because 2  5 is not in Z + . Thus

 is not a binary operation on Z + , since Z + is not closed under  .
Exercises
Determine whether the definition of  does give a binary operation on
the set. In the event that  is not a binary operation, state whether
Condition 1, Condition 2, or both are violated.

1. On Z + , define  by a  b = a – b
2. On Z + , define  by a  b = ab
3. On R, define  by a  b = a – b
4. On Z + , define  by a  b = c where c is the smallest integer greater
than a and b.
5. On Z + , define  by a  b = c where c is at least 5 more than a + b.
6. On Z + , define  by a  b = c where c is the largest integer less than
the product of a and b

Properties with Respect to Binary Operations

Let  be a binary operation defined in the set S. For any a and b
in S,
1. Closure: a  b = c  S
2. Commutative: a  b = b  a
3. Associative: a  (b  c) = (a  b)  c
4. Left-Distributive: Let • be another operation in S, a • (b  c) = (a • b)
 (a • c)
Right-Distributive: (b • c)  a = (b • a)  (c • a)
5. Existence of an identity: For any a  S, there exists e  S such that
a e = e a = a
6. Existence of an inverse: There exists w  S such that a  w = w  a = e
for every a  S.

Example: Let # be defined in Z as follows

a # b = a + 2b, where a, b  Z.
The set Z is closed with respect to # since the sum and product of
any two integers is also an integer. (The closure of Z with respect to #
follows from the closure of Z with respect to addition and
multiplication)
# is not commutative since 2 # 3 = 2 + 2(3) = 8 but 3 # 2 = 3 + 2(2)
= 7.
Exercise:
Verify associativity of # in Z.
Verify left and right distributivity of # over + , where + is defined as
a # b = 2a + b.

Existence of an identity: a# e = a e# a = a
a + 2e = a e + 2a = a
2e = 0 e = -a
e = 0

∴Identity does not exist since it is not unique

Inverse does not exist since identity does not exist.

Exercises
1. Let D be the symbol for the binary operation greatest common
factor. Find
a. 6D21 b. 24D60 c. 48D30 d. 13d35
2. Consider the operation S defined on the set of real numbers where
aSb is the smaller of a and b. Is S commutative? Associative?
Prove/disprove that S is left-distributive over addition.
Prove/disprove that S is right distributive over multiplication.
3. For the set of real numbers, define two binary operations, ¨ and ©
as follows
a © b = 2ab and a ¨ b = a + b – 2
a. Prove/disprove that © is commutative/associative.
b. Prove/disprove that ¨ is commutative/associative.
c. Find the identity with respect to and ¨ if each exists.
d. Find the inverse for each element with respect to © and ¨ if each
exists.
e. Prove/disprove that © is left-distributive over ¨ .

PREPARED BY:
GILBERT B. MACARUBBO, DME
MATH 302 PROF.