Computer Networking:

A computer network is a system that connects numerous independent computers in order to

share information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and other different
devices allows users to communicate more easily.
A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked
together. A network connection can be established using either cable or wireless media.
Hardware and software are used to connect computers and tools in any network.
A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers, networking hardware,
personal computers, and other specialized or general-purpose hosts can all be nodes in a
computer network. Hostnames and network addresses are used to identify them.
Criteria of good network:

1. Performance: It can be measured in many ways, including transmit time and response
time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The
performance of the network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users,
the type of medium & hardware
2. Reliability: In the addition to accuracy is measured by frequency of failure, the time it
takes a link to recover from failure, and the network’s robustness in catastrophe.  
3. Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures
for recovery from breaches and data loss.  

Goal Of Networking:

 Programs do not have to execute on a single system because of resource and load sharing.
 Reduced costs – Multiple machines can share printers, tape drives, and other peripherals.
 Reliability – If one machine fails, another can take its place.
 Scalability (it’s simple to add more processors or computers)
 Communication and mail (people living apart can work together)
 Information Access (remote information access, access to the internet, e-mail, video
conferencing, and online shopping)
 Entertainment that is interactive (online games, videos, etc.)
 Social Networking

Types of Networks

Division based on the communication medium 

 Wired Network: As we all know, “wired” refers to any physical medium made up of
cables. Copper wire, twisted pair, or fiber optic cables are all options. A wired network
employs wires to link devices to the Internet or another network, such as laptops or desktop
PCs.

 Wireless Network: “Wireless” means without wire, media that is made up of

electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared waves. Antennas or sensors will be present
on all wireless devices. Cellular phones, wireless sensors, TV remotes, satellite disc
 receivers, and laptops with WLAN cards are all examples of wireless devices. For data or
voice communication, a wireless network uses radio frequency waves rather than wires.

Division based on area covered

 Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that covers an area of around 10
kilometres. For example, a college network or an office network. Depending upon the
needs of the organization, a LAN can be a single office, building, or Campus. We can have
two PCs and one printer in-home office, or it can extend throughout a company and include
audio and video devices. Each host in LAN has an identifier, an address that defines hists in
LAN. A packet sent by the host to another host carries both the source host’s and the
destination host’s address.

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MAN refers to a network that covers an entire city.
For example: consider the cable television network.

 Wide Area Network (WAN): WAN refers to a network that connects countries or

continents. For example, the Internet allows users to access a distributed system called
www from anywhere around the globe. WAN interconnects connecting devices such as
switches, routers, or modems. A LAN is normally privately owned by an organization that
uses it. We see two distinct examples of WANs today: point-to-point WANs and Switched
WANs 
          Point To Point: Connects two connecting devices through transmission media. 
          Switched: A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.

Based on types of communication 

 Point To Point networks: Point-to-Point networking is a type of data networking that

establishes a direct link between two networking nodes.
A direct link between two devices, such as a computer and a printer, is known as a point-to-
point connection.
 Multipoint: is the one in which more than two specific devices share links. In the
multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spartailly or
temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. 
 Broadcast networks: In broadcast networks, a signal method in which numerous parties
can hear a single sender. Radio stations are an excellent illustration of the “Broadcast
Network” in everyday life. The radio station is a sender of data/signal in this scenario, and
data is only intended to travel in one direction. Away from the radio transmission tower, to
be precise.

Based on the type of architecture 

 P2P Networks: Computers with similar capabilities and configurations are referred to as
peers.
“Peer to Peer” is the abbreviation for “peer to peer.” The “peers” in a peer-to-peer network
are computer systems that are connected to each other over the Internet. Without the use of
a central server, files can be shared directly between systems on the network.
 Client-Server Networks: Each computer or process on the network is either a client or a
server in a client-server architecture (client/server). The client asks for services from the
server, which the server provides. Servers are high-performance computers or processes
that manage disc drives (file servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic (network
servers)

 Hybrid Networks: The hybrid model refers to a network that uses a combination of client-
server and peer-to-peer architecture. E.g.: Torrent.

Network Topology

1. Bus Topology: Every computer and network device is connected to a single cable in a

bus topology network. Linear Bus topology is defined as having exactly two terminals.
Advantages
 Installation is simple.
 Compared to mesh, star, and tree topologies, the bus utilizes less cabling.
Disadvantages
 Difficulty in reconfiguring and isolating faults.
 A bus cable malfunction or break interrupts all communication.

2. Ring Topology: The topology is named ring topology because one computer is

connected to another, with the final one being connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors
for each device. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction. Each ring incorporates a
repeater. 
Advantages
 Data transmission is relatively straightforward because packets only move in one direction.
 There is no requirement for a central controller to manage communication between nodes.
 Easy installation & Reconfiguration
 Simplified Faulty connections
Disadvantages
 In a Unidirectional Ring, a data packet must traverse through all nodes.
 All computers must be turned on in order for them to connect with one another.
 3. Star Topology: Each device in a star topology has a dedicated point-to-point link to a
central controller, which is commonly referred to as the HUB. There is no direct connection
between the devices. Traffic between the devices is not allowed in this topology. As an
exchange, the controller is used.
Advantages
 When attaching or disconnecting devices, there are no network interruptions.
 It’s simple to set up and configure.
 Identifying and isolating faults is simple.
 Less Expensive than mesh 
 Easy to install & configure
Disadvantages
 Nodes attached to the hub, switch, or concentrator is failed if they fail.
 Because of the expense of the hubs, it is more expensive than linear bus topologies.
 More cable required compared to bus or ring 
 Too much dependency on Hub
  Example: Used in high-speed LANs
 4. Mesh Topology: Every device in a mesh topology has dedicated point-to-point
connectivity to every other device. The term “dedicated” refers to the fact that the link
exclusively transports data between the two devices it links. To connect n devices, a fully
connected mesh network contains n *(n-1)/2 physical channels.
Advantages
 Data can be sent from multiple devices at the same time. This topology can handle a lot of
traffic.
 Even if one of the connections fails, a backup is always available. As a result, data transit is
unaffected.
 Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages
 Point to Point links make fault transmission & fault isolation easy 
Disadvantages
 The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports that are necessary.
 The sheer bulk of wiring can be greater than the available space can accommodate.
 It is difficult to install and reconfigure.
     Example:  connection of telephone regional office in which each regional office needs to
be connected to every other regional office. 

5. Tree Topology: The topology of a tree is similar to that of a star. Nodes in a tree, like
those in a star, are connected to a central hub that manages network traffic. It has a root
node, which is connected to all other nodes, producing a hierarchy. Hierarchical topology is
another name for it. The number of Star networks is connected via Bus in Tree Topology.
Advantages
 Network expansion is both possible and simple.
 We partition the entire network into pieces (star networks) that are easier to manage and
maintain.
 Other segments are unaffected if one segment is damaged.
Disadvantages
 Tree topology relies largely on the main bus cable because of its basic structure, and if it
fails, the entire network is handicapped.
 Maintenance becomes more challenging when more nodes and segments are added.
 Networking Devices 

Basic hardware interconnecting network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs),
Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers, are used in all networks. In addition, a mechanism
for connecting these building parts is necessary, which is usually galvanic cable and optical
cable are less popular (“optical fiber”) The following are the network devices:
 NIC (Network Interface Card): A network card, often known as a network adapter or
NIC (network interface card), is computer hardware that enables computers to communicate
via a network. It offers physical access to networking media, and, in many cases, MAC
addresses serve as a low-level addressing scheme. Each network interface card has a
distinct identifier. This is stored on a chip that is attached to the card.
 Repeater: A repeater is an electrical device that receives a signal, cleans it of unwanted
noise, regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level or to the opposite side of an
obstruction, allowing the signal to travel greater distances without degradation. In the
majority of twisted pair Ethernet networks, Repeaters are necessary for cable lengths longer
than 100 meters in some systems. Repeaters are based on physics.
 Hub: A hub is a device that joins together many twisted pairs or fiber optic Ethernet
devices to give the illusion as a formation of a single network segment. The device can be
visualized as a multiport repeater. A network hub is a relatively simple broadcast device.
Any packet entering any port is regenerated and broadcast out on all other ports, and hubs
do not control any of the traffic that passes through them. Packet collisions occur as a result
of every packet being sent out through all other ports, substantially impeding the smooth
flow of communication.
 Bridges: Bridges broadcast data to all the ports but not on the one that received the
transmission. Bridges, on the other hand, learn which MAC addresses are reachable through
specific ports rather than copying messages to all ports as hubs do. Once a port and an
address are associated, the bridge will only transport traffic for that address to that port.
 Switches: A switch differs from a hub in that it only forwards frames to the ports that are
participating in the communication, rather than all of the ports that are connected. The
 collision domain is broken by a switch, yet the switch depicts itself as a broadcast domain.
Frame forwarding decisions are made by switches based on MAC addresses.
 Routers: Routers are networking devices that use headers and forwarding tables to find the
optimal way to forward data packets between networks. A router is a computer networking
device that links two or more computer networks and selectively exchanges data packets
between them. A router can use address information in each data packet to determine if the
source and destination are on the same network or if the data packet has to be transported
between networks. When numerous routers are deployed in a wide collection of
interconnected networks, the routers share target system addresses so that each router can
develop a table displaying the preferred pathways between any two systems on the
associated networks.
 Gateways: To provide system compatibility, a gateway may contain devices such as
protocol translators, impedance matching devices, rate converters, fault isolators, or signal
translators. It also necessitates the development of administrative procedures that are
acceptable to both networks. By completing the necessary protocol conversions, a protocol
translation/mapping gateway joins networks that use distinct network protocol
technologies.

Internet:

The internet is a larger network that allows computer networks controlled by enterprises,
governments, colleges, and other organizations all over the world to communicate with one
another. As a result, there are a tangle of cables, computers, data centers, routers, servers,
repeaters, satellites, and wi-fi towers that allow digital data to go around the world.
The Internet is a vast network of networks that functions as a networking infrastructure. It
links millions of computers throughout the world, creating a network in which any
computer can talk with any other computer as long as they are both linked to the Internet.
The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that communicate and share
information using a standardized Internet Protocol Suite.

Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter):

1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the
length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to
be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes
weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port
device. 
2. Hub –  A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming
from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects
different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices.  
In other words, the collision domain  of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. 
Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads
to inefficiencies and wastage. 
 
 Types of Hub 

 Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their own power supply and can clean, boost,
and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring
center. These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub :- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from
the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting
them and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub :- It works like active hubs and includes remote management capabilities.
They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to
monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination. It
is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single
input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
Types of Bridges 
 Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware
of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e.
bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the source
station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the frame by
sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire
network using all possible paths to the destination.
4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency (a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data
link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which
makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good
packets selectively to the correct port only.  In other words, the switch divides the collision
domain of hosts, but broadcast domain  remains the same. 
  
5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs
and WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they
make decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts
connected through it.
 
   
 
6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks
together that may work upon different networking models. They basically work as the
messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another
system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers. Gateway is also called a
protocol converter. 
7. Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of
both bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working
as a router, it is capable of routing packets across networks, and working as the bridge, it is
capable of filtering local area network traffic. 
8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the
computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN.  It has a unique
id that is written on the chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts
as an interface between the computer and router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device
which means that it works on both physical and data link layer of the network model.  

Node is a device or application that works as a connection point for a network connection.
Moreover, it can transmit the information, receive, send, and store the given information.
Nodes are used in almost every field where devices or computers need to connect with the
internet.

Functions of Node in Computer Network:

The function of the nodes in a computer network can occur in two types, as mentioned below.

 As a node that works like a router so that the information can transmit easily. With the help
of safe commissioning services, the devices can securely connect with the network. Then it
can keep the required device connected with the network of all the types.
 It can also work as the end device that has the endpoints for the network transmission. Here it
interacts with the router when it transfers the data. And it does not transfer any data to other
network devices. Also, its primary device can be disabled to minimize the power.
What Is a Host?

A host (or network host) is a device that links with other hosts on a network. It can either
be a client or a server that sends and receives applications, services, or data. Hosts have their
unique IP address on a TCP/IP network, consisting of the device’s local number and the
network number it belongs to.

Types of IT hosts
The term host is used in several other areas within information technology (IT), carrying a
slightly different meaning depending on the context.

Web host. For companies or individuals with a website, a host is a web server that stores and
transmits the data for one or more websites. Host can also refer to the service provider that
leases this infrastructure, which is known as hosting.

Cloud host. A cloud host is based on cloud computing technologies that allow a number of
servers to act as one system in which website performance can be guaranteed by multiple
machines. It often includes a network of servers pulling from different data centers in
different locations. Cloud hosts operate as a service that allows clients to buy as much of the
service as they need

Virtual host. The term virtual host has two uses. One refers to the technology used to run
multiple domains or applications on a single physical server, and the second refers to
companies that sell virtual infrastructure services.

Remote host. In this context, a remote host is in a different physical location than the user
accessed using a private network or the internet, which provides users with remote access.
Examples include servers that can be logged into remotely or a host computer for a remote
desktop.

Network software:
Network software is an umbrella term used to describe a wide range of software that
streamlines the operations, design, monitoring, and implementation of computer networks.
 
Network software is a fundamental element for any networking system. It helps
administrators and security personnel reduce network complexities, and manage, monitor,
and better control network traffic. Network software plays a crucial role in managing a
network infrastructure and simplifying IT operations by facilitating communication, security,
content, and data sharing.

Network software offers useful benefits to organizations. It has become an important tool in
facilitating round-the-clock communication and allowing an uninterrupted exchange of
information. One of the most significant advantages of network software is its direct
correlation with productivity. The centralized nature of network software increases the
productivity of the complete system. This helps reduce end-user technical support problems.
  
For example, if an end user accidentally damages their computer, the chances of losing data
are reduced substantially as all its data is already shared on the network. Another key benefit
of network software is its ability to enable programmatic management of network resources.
This eliminates the need for manual processes, thereby providing a dynamic and efficient
network configuration to work with.

Functions of network software

 User management allows administrators to add or remove users from the network. This is
particularly useful when hiring or relieving
 File management lets administrators decide the location of data storage and control user
access to that data.
 Access enables users to enjoy uninterrupted access to network resources.
 Network security systems assist administrators in looking after security and preventing data
breaches.

Network layer design issues:

The network layer comes with some design issues they are described as follows:
1. Store and Forward packet switching:
The host sends the packet to the nearest router. This packet is stored there until it has fully
arrived once the link is fully processed by verifying the checksum then it is forwarded to the
next router till it reaches the destination. This mechanism is called “Store and Forward packet
switching.”
2. Services provided to Transport Layer:
Through the network/transport layer interface, the network layer transfers it’s services to the
transport layer. These services are described below.
But before providing these services to the transfer layer following goals must be kept in mind
:-
 Offering services must not depend on router technology.
 The transport layer needs to be protected from the type, number and topology of the available
router.
 The network addresses for the transport layer should use uniform numbering pattern also at
LAN and WAN connections.
Based on the connections there are 2 types of services provided :
 Connectionless – The routing and insertion of packets into subnet is done individually. No
added setup is required.
 Connection-Oriented – Subnet must offer reliable service and all the packets must be
transmitted over a single route.
3. Implementation of Connectionless Service:
Packet are termed as “datagrams” and corresponding subnet as “datagram subnets”. When the
message size that has to be transmitted is 4 times the size of the packet, then the network
layer divides into 4 packets and transmits each packet to router via. a few protocol.Each data
packet has destination address and is routed independently irrespective of the packets.
 4. Implementation of Connection Oriented service:
To use a connection-oriented service, first we establishes a connection, use it and then release
it. In connection-oriented services, the data packets are delivered to the receiver in the same
order in which they have been sent by the sender.
It can be done in either two ways :
 Circuit Switched Connection – A dedicated physical path or a circuit is established between
the communicating nodes and then data stream is transferred.
 Virtual Circuit Switched Connection – The data stream is transferred over a packet
switched network, in such a way that it seems to the user that there is a dedicated path from
the sender to the receiver. A virtual path is established here.

Network Protocol:
A network protocol is an accepted set of rules that govern data communication between
different devices in the network. It determines what is being communicated, how it is being
communicated, and when it is being communicated. It permits connected devices to
communicate with each other, irrespective of internal and structural differences.

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular communication protocol which is

used for communicating over a network. It divides any message into series of packets that are
sent from source to destination and there it gets reassembled at the destination.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is mostly used with
TCP. The IP addresses in packets help in routing them through different nodes in a network
until it reaches the destination system. TCP/IP is the most popular protocol connecting the
networks.
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a substitute communication protocol to Transmission
Control Protocol implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating and low-latency linking
between different applications.
4. Post office Protocol (POP): POP3 is designed for receiving incoming E-mails.
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is designed to send and distribute outgoing E-
Mail.
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP allows users to transfer files from one machine to another.
Types of files may include program files, multimedia files, text files, and documents, etc.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext among
two or more systems. HTML tags are used for creating links. These links may be in any form
like text or images. HTTP is designed on Client-server principles which allow a client system
for establishing a connection with the server machine for making a request. The server
acknowledges the request initiated by the client and responds accordingly.
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is abbreviated as Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to secure the communication among two
computers one using the browser and other fetching data from web server. HTTP is used for
transferring data between the client browser (request) and the web server (response) in the
hypertext format, same in case of HTTPS except that the transferring of data is done in an
encrypted format. So it can be said that https thwart hackers from interpretation or
modification of data throughout the transfer of packets.
9. Telnet: Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another. The
connecting process here is termed as remote login. The system which requests for connection
is the local computer, and the system which accepts the connection is the remote computer.
10. Gopher: Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for searching, retrieving as well as
displaying documents from isolated sites. Gopher also works on the client/server principle.