MATHEMATICS AS A

TOOL
DATA MANAGEMENT

Mathematics in the Modern

World
o Compare the forms (textual, tabular, and
graphical) of data.
o Identify the essential parts of a table and
describe the different kinds of graphs for data
presentation.
o Draw the graph/table to present the data.
o Analyze and interpret thedata presented in a
graph/table.

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o Perform operations on mathematical
expressions correctly.
o Perform operations on mathematical
expressions correctly.
o Articulate the importance ofmathematics in
one’s life.
o Express appreciation for mathematics as a
human endeavor.
o Support the use of mathematics in various
aspects and endeavors in life.

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 TOPIC OUTLINE
• Classification and Organization of
Data
• Measure of Central Tendency
• Measure of Dispersion
• Symmetric and Asymmetric
Distributions
• Presentation and Interpretation
of Data

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 Categorical date are nominal and ordinal scales with continuous
GATHERING AND data are ratio and interval scales. Nominal scale consists of a finite
set of possible values having no particular order. (gender, mode of
ORGANIZING DATA transportation, nationality, occupation, civil status)
Ordinal scale is a set of possible values having a specific
order(temperature, tons of garbage, number of arrests, income and
The data(Asaad, 2004) are the age.
quantities (numbers) or
qualities (attributes)measured
or observed.
A variable refers to a property that can take on different
values or categories which can not be predicted with
certainty.
Independent variables- X which are also called explanatory
variable(nominal or ordinal)
Dependent Variable- Y which are also called the response
variables
READ MORE Control Variables-the Z variables, can be also classified as
qualitative and quantitative variable
 Is one that can be measured and ordered according to quantity
GATHERING AND
Is one simply used as labels to distinguish one group from another
ORGANIZING DATA
Includes finite or countably finite

The data(Asaad, 2004) are the Covers the values in an interval of real number line.
quantities (numbers) or
qualities (attributes)measured
or observed.
Uses statements with numerals in order to describe the
data for the concrete information and in expository form
Tabular Presentation
Uses statistical table to directly display the quantities or
values collected as data
Graphical Presentation
Illustrates data in a form of graphs aiding readers to
READ MORE understand the text easily.
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
NOMINAL EXAMPLES
(1) What is your civil status?
❑ Single
GATHERING AND ❑ Married
ORGANIZING DATA ❑ Separated
❑ Annulled

The data(Asaad, 2004) are the (2) Where do you live?

quantities (numbers) or ❑ Caloocan
qualities (attributes)measured ❑ Las Piñas
❑ Makati
or observed.
❑ Malabon
❑ Mandaluyong
❑ Manila
❑ Marikina
❑ Muntinlupa
❑ Parañaque
❑ Pasay
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❑ Pasig
❑ Quezon City
❑ San Juan
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
ORDINAL EXAMPLES

GATHERING AND
(1) How satisfied are you with our food service?
ORGANIZING DATA ❑ Extremely Satisfied
❑ Very Satisfied
❑ Satisfied
The data(Asaad, 2004) are the ❑ Dissatisfied
quantities (numbers) or ❑ Very Dissatisfied
qualities (attributes)measured
❑ Extremely Dissatisfied
(2) What is your level of anxiety?
or observed.
❑ Low
❑ Average
❑ High

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 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
INTERVAL AND RATIO
EXAMPLES
GATHERING AND
Interval
ORGANIZING DATA - Temperature

The data(Asaad, 2004) are the Ratio

quantities (numbers) or - Speed
qualities (attributes)measured
- Height
- Weight
or observed.

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 YOUR TURN
A. Determine if the following is qualitative or quantitative:
GATHERING AND 1. movie genre
ORGANIZING DATA 2. soda
3. age
4. amount found on electricity bill
The data(Asaad, 2004) are the 5. number of absences in class
quantities (numbers) or
qualities (attributes)measured
or observed.

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 YOUR TURN
C. Determine if the following is nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio:
1. IQ scores
GATHERING AND 2. Earthquake intensity scale
3. Seasons in the Philippines
ORGANIZING DATA 4. ASEAN countries
5. Monthly expenses
The data(Asaad, 2004) are the 6. Commuting times during peak hours
quantities (numbers) or 7. Number of local channels
qualities (attributes)measured 8. Satisfaction levels
or observed. 9. Zip codes
10. Number of people dining in Mang Inasal at 1:00 p.m.

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MEASURES OF Statistics involves the collection, organization, summarization,
presentation, and interpretation of data. The branch of mathematics
CENTRAL that involves the collection of organization, summarization, and
presentation of data is called descriptivestatistics. The branchthat
TENDENCY interprets, and draws conclusions from the data is called inferential
Numerical data is everywhere statistics.

and everyday more data is

being generated. It is
important for us to have a
working knowledge of basic
statistical concepts and tools A measure of central tendency is a summary measure that
so that we can use this data attempts to describe a whole set of data with a single value that
correctly and optimally. A lot of represents the middle or center of data set.Most commonly
usedmeasures of centraltendency or type of averages are arithmetic
data in in raw, - that is not
mean, median and mode.
been processed for use yet.
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MEASURES OF The arithmetic mean or just simply mean is the sum of the
value of each observation in a data set divided by the
CENTRAL number of observations. The traditional symbol used to
TENDENCY indicate a summation is the Greek letter sigma , Σ . Thus, the
Numerical data is everywhere notation Σ x, called summation notation, denotes the sum of
and everyday more data is all numbers in a given set .
being generated. It is The definition is the same for both the sample (portion of
important for us to have a
the whole population) and population (is a collection of all
working knowledge of basic
possible observations under a particular study), although
statistical concepts and tools
we use differentsymbol to refer to each. The sample mean
so that we can use this data
The symbol for the sample mean is x bar ( x´ ) , and
correctly and optimally. A lot of
data in in raw, - that is not for the population mean is the

been processed for use yet. Greek letter mu (µ).

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MEASURES OF The mean of n is the sum of the numbers divided by

CENTRAL n .
The mean score of a sample ´x,, or any other measure
TENDENCY based on a sample data is called
Numerical data is everywhere
statistic. And any measurable characteristic of a
and everyday more data is
populationniscalled parameter. The mean of a
being generated. It is
important for us to have a population μ , is a parameter.
working knowledge of basic
statistical concepts and tools
so that we can use this data
correctly and optimally. A lot of
data in in raw, - that is not
been processed for use yet.
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 Examples:
Six friends in a Mathematics in the
Modern World class of 25
studentsreceived test grades of 92 ,
84 , 65 , 76 , 88 , and 90 .
Σ𝑥 92+84+65+76+88+90
=
𝑛 𝑛
a. Find the mean of these test scores.
b. Is the mean computed, a statistic
or a parameter? Why?
 Examples: Jeffrey has been working on
programing and updating a Web site
The daily wages of 10 employees of for this company for the past 24
Home depot are :₱ 500,₱ 750 , ₱ months. The following numbers
430, ₱ 630, represent the number of hours
Jeffrey has work on this Website for
₱ 450, ₱ 440, ₱ 700, ₱ 350, each of the past 7 months: 24,
25,31,50,53,66,78. What is the
₱ 580, P 630 mean number of hours that Jeffrey
a. Find the mean of the daily salaries of the
worked on this Web site each
employees.
b. Is the mean computed, a statistic or a month?
parameter? Why?
 Examples:

The daily wages of 10 employees of

Home depot are :₱ 500,₱ 750 , ₱
430, ₱ 630,
₱ 450, ₱ 440, ₱ 700, ₱ 350,
₱ 580, P 630
a. Find the mean of the daily salaries of the
employees.
b. Is the mean computed, a statistic or a
parameter? Why?
MEASURES OF The median is the middle number of
CENTRAL the mean of the two middle numbers in
TENDENCY a list of numbers that have been
Numerical data is everywhere arrange in numerical order from
and everyday more data is
being generated. It is
smallest to largest or largest to
important for us to have a smallest. Any list of numbers arranged
working knowledge of basic in numerical order from smallest to
statistical concepts and tools
so that we can use this data
largest or largest to smallest is a
correctly and optimally. A lot of ranked list.
data in in raw, - that is not
been processed for use yet.
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MEASURES OF
CENTRAL Median
TENDENCY The median of a ranked list of n numbers is :
Numerical data is everywhere
and everyday more data is
▪ The middle number if n is odd
being generated. It is ▪ The mean of two middle numbers if n
important for us to have a is even
working knowledge of basic
statistical concepts and tools
so that we can use this data
correctly and optimally. A lot of
data in in raw, - that is not
been processed for use yet.
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 Examples:
Solution
•The list 4, 8,1,4,9,21,12 contains 7
Find the median of the data in numbers. The median of a list with an odd
number of entries is found by ranking the
the following lists. numbers and finding the middle number.
Ranking the numbers from smallest to
a. 4, 8,1,4,9,21,12 largest gives
1, 4, 8,9, 12, 14,21
b. 46, 23, 92, 89,77, 108 The middle number is 9. Thus 9 is the
median.
•The list 46, 23, 92, 89,77, 108 contains 6
numbers. The median of the list of data
with an even number of entries is found by
ranking the numbers and computing the
mean of the two middle numbers. Ranking
the numbers from smallest to largest gives
23, 46, 77, 89, 92, 108
 Examples: The scores in a quiz of nine students in
MMW class are : 2, 4, 10, 7, 8, 0,5, 8,
and 2.
Find the median of the data in the
following :

a. A sample of senior citizens in Lingayen,

Pangasinan receiving Social Security
payments revealed these monthly benefits :
₱ 3400 , ₱ 2000 , ₱ 4000 ,₱ 4300
, ₱ 2500 ,₱ 3600 , ₱ 3500 , ₱ 5000 .
MEASURES OF The mode is another measure of type of
CENTRAL average. The value of the observation that
appears most frequently. Some lists of numbers
TENDENCY do not have a mode. For instance, 1, 6,
Numerical data is everywhere
8,10,32,15,49, each of number occurs exactly
and everyday more data is
once. Because no number occurs more often than
being generated. It is
important for us to have a
the other numbers, there is no mode.
working knowledge of basic
A list of numerical data can have more than
statistical concepts and tools one mode. For instance, in the list 4, 2 6, 2, 7,
so that we can use this data 9, 2, 4, 9, 8, 9, 7, the numbers 2 and 9 occurs
correctly and optimally. A lot of three times . Thus 2 and 9 are both modes of
data in in raw, - that is not the data .
been processed for use yet.
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 Examples:
Your turn
Solution
•In the list 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14,
15, 21, the number 15 occurs
Find the mode of the data more often that the other
in the following lists. numbers. Thus 15 is the mode.

Each of the number in the list 2,5,

a. 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23 occurs only once.
21 Because no number occurs more
b. 2,5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23 often than others, there is no
mode.
MEASURES OF The mean, median , and mode are
all averages; however, they are
CENTRAL generally not equal. The mean of a set
TENDENCY of data is most sensitive of the
Numerical data is everywhere
and everyday more data is averages. A change of the numbers
being generated. It is changes the mean, and the mean can
important for us to have a
be changed drastically by changing an
working knowledge of basic
statistical concepts and tools extreme value.
so that we can use this data In contrast, the median and the mode
correctly and optimally. A lot of
of a set of data are usually not changed
data in in raw, - that is not
been processed for use yet.
by changing an extreme value.
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 In letters 1 to 5. Find the mean, the median, and the
MEASURES OF mode(s), if any, for the given data.
Round noninteger means to the nearest tenth.
CENTRAL MEAN MEDIAN MODE
TENDENCY 2,7, 5, 7,14
Numerical data is everywhere
and everyday more data is
being generated. It is
8, 3,3, 17, 9,22, 19
important for us to have a
working knowledge of basic
11, 8, 2,5, 17,39, 52, 42
statistical concepts and tools
so that we can use this data
correctly and optimally. A lot of 101,88, 74, 60,12, 94,
data in in raw, - that is not 74,85
been processed for use yet.
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Frequency Distribution Tabular Form

It is a group of data into categories showing

the number of observations in each of the
non-overlapping classes.

Mutually Exclusive &

Exhaustive
 Constructing Frequency Distribution

Grouped Frequency

Categorical Frequency

Grouped Frequency Distribution

Determining Class Interval

 Categorical Frequency

It is used to organized nominal-level or ordinal-level type of

data.

Examples:
Gender Political affiliation
Business type Year level
Example 1

Twenty applicants were given a performance evaluation

appraisal. The data set is

High High High Low Average

Average Low Average Average Average
Low Average Average High High
Low Low Average High High

Construct a frequency for the data.

 Step 1

Construct a table.

Class Tally Frequency Percent

High
Average
Low
Step 2

Tally the raw data.

Class Tally Frequency Percent

High IIII-II
Average IIII-III
Low IIII

High High High Low Average

Average Low Average Average Average
Low Average Average High High
Low Low Average High High
Step 3

Convert the tallied data into numerical frequencies.

Class Tally Frequency

High IIII-II 7
Average IIII-III 8
Low IIII 5
Step 4
Determine the percentage.

Class Tally Frequency Percent

High IIII-II 7 35
Average IIII-III 8 40
Low IIII 5 25

Frequency of
Percentage Formula:
the class
f
% = ×100%
n Total number
Percentage of values
 Determining Class Interval

Rule: 2k ≥ n
R a ng e
S u g g e s t e d C l a s s Interval=
1+ 3.322 (logarithm of total frequencise)
 Example 2
Suppose a researcher wished to do a study on the
monthly salary of young professionals of selected
companies in Makati City. The research first
would have to collect the data by asking each
young professional about his monthly salary. The
data collected in original form is called raw data.
In this case, the data are

17,400 32,400 20,200 21,300 26,200 22,750 24,600 27,300 23,500 29,500
14,000 30,500 17,950 20,250 24,750 21,750 23,700 26,500 22,900 27,500
15,500 30,700 18,400 20,400 25,000 21,900 23,850 26,800 23,000 27,800
17,300 32,100 20,000 21,000 26,100 22,600 24,500 27,000 23,400 29,300
15,700 30,700 18,700 20,500 25,150 21,900 24,100 26,900 23,200 27,900
14,300 30,650 18,350 20,300 25,000 21,800 23,700 26,500 22,900 27,600
17,001 30,750 18,800 20,800 26,000 22,000 24,300 27,000 23,400 27,900
17,800 33,500 20,250 21,600 26,300 22,800 24,700 27,400 23,700 30,400
 Example 2

Construct a frequency distribution using Rule 1 and

determine the following

Range Percentage

Interval Midpoints

Class limits Cumulative frequencies

Relative frequencies
 Step 1

Arrange the raw data in ascending or descending order.

14,000 17,950 20,250 21,750 22,900 23,700 24,750 26,500 27,500 30,500
14,300 18,350 20,300 21,800 22,900 23,700 25,000 26,500 27,600 30,650
15,500 18,400 20,400 21,900 23,000 23,850 25,000 26,800 27,800 30,700
15,700 18,700 20,500 21,900 23,200 24,100 25,150 26,900 27,900 30,700
17,001 18,800 20,800 22,000 23,400 24,300 26,000 27,000 27,900 30,750
17,300 20,000 21,000 22,600 23,400 24,500 26,100 27,000 29,300 32,100
17,400 20,200 21,300 22,750 23,500 24,600 26,200 27,300 29,500 32,400
17,800 20,250 21,600 22,800 23,700 24,700 26,300 27,400 30,400 33,500
Step 2

Determine the classes

□ Find the Highest Value (HV) and Lowest Value (LV)

in the data set.

HV = 33,500 and LV = 14,000

□ Find the Range

Range = HV – LV = 33,500 – 14,000 = 19,500

or
□ Determine the number of classes
using 2K ≥ n Rule
 Determining the Number of Classes

2k ≥ n (2 raised to the power of k.)

□ When k = 6
?
≤
2 ≥n
k ⟶2 80
6 ≤
⟶64 80

□ When k = 7
?
2k ≥ n ⟶27 ≥ 80 ⟶128 ≥ 80

Thus, the recommended no. of classes is 7.

 Determine the Class Interval (width)

R a ng e
S u g g e s t e d C l a s s Interval=
1+ 3.322 (logarithm of total frequencise)

≈ 2.66
Thus, the interval is 3.
 Step 2 (continuation)
Select a starting point for the lowest class limit

14,000

14,000 17,950 20,250 21,750 22,900 23,700 24,750 26,500 27,500 30,500
14,300 18,350 20,300 21,800 22,900 23,700 25,000 26,500 27,600 30,650
15,500 18,400 20,400 21,900 23,000 23,850 25,000 26,800 27,800 30,700
15,700 18,700 20,500 21,900 23,200 24,100 25,150 26,900 27,900 30,700
17,001 18,800 20,800 22,000 23,400 24,300 26,000 27,000 27,900 30,750
17,300 20,000 21,000 22,600 23,400 24,500 26,100 27,000 29,300 32,100
17,400 20,200 21,300 22,750 23,500 24,600 26,200 27,300 29,500 32,400
17,800 20,250 21,600 22,800 23,700 24,700 26,300 27,400 30,400 33,500
 Grouped Frequency Distribution

It is used when the range of the data set is large.

The data are grouped into classes

□ Categorical

□ Interval or Ratio

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Step 2 (continuation)

Determine Lower and Upper class limits

Class Limits
14,000 17,000
17,000 20,000
Lower 20,000 23,000 Upper
Limit 23,000 26,000
Limit
26,000 29,000
29,000 32,000
32,000 35,000
Step 3

Convert the tallied data to numerical frequencies

Class
ClassLimits
Limits Tally Frequency
Frequency
14,000 17,000 IIII
IIII 4
4
17,000 20,000 IIII-IIII 10
IIII-IIII
IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII-I 10
21
20,000 23,000 IIII-IIII-IIII-III
IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII-I 18
21
23,000 26,000 IIII-IIII-IIII-I 16
IIII-IIII-IIII-III
IIII-III III 18
8
26,000 29,000 IIII-IIII-IIII-I 3
16
29,000 32,000 IIII-III 8
32,000 35,000 III 3
 Step 4
Determine the relative frequency (rf)
Class Limits Frequency Relative Frequency
14,000 17,000 4 0.05
17,000 20,000 10 0.12
20,000 23,000 21 0.26
23,000 26,000 18 0.23
26,000 29,000 16 0.20
29,000 32,000 8 0.10
32,000 35,000
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
3 0.04
Total 80 1.00

3 ÷ 80 ≈ 0.04
 Step 5
Determine the percentage
Class Limits Frequency Percentage
14,000 17,000 4 5
17,000 20,000 10 12
20,000 23,000 21 26
23,000 26,000 18 23
26,000 29,000 16 20
29,000 32,000 8 10
32,000 35,000
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
3 4
Total 80 100

(3 ÷80) × 100% ≈ 4%
Step 6

Determine the cumulative frequencies (cf)

Class
ClassLimits
Limits f cf Found by
14,000 17,000 44 4
4 4
17,000 20,000 10
10 14
14 4 + 10
20,000 23,000 21
21 35
35 4 + 10 +21
23,000 26,000 18
18 53
53 4 + 10 +21+18
26,000 29,000 16
16 69
69 4 + 10 +21+18+16
29,000 32,000 88 77
77 4 + 10 +21+18+16+8
32,000 35,000 3
3 80
80 4 + 10 +21+18+16+8+3
Total 80
Step 6

Determine the midpoints (X)

Class
ClassLimits
Limits f X Found by
14,000 17,000 4
4 15,500
15,500 (14,000 + 17,000) 2
17,000 20,000 10
10 18,500
18,500 (17,000 + 20,000) 2
20,000 23,000 21
21 21,500
21,500 (20,000 + 23,000) 2
23,000 26,000 18
18 24,500
24,500 (23,000 + 26,000) 2
26,000 29,000 16
16 27,500
27,500 (26,000 + 29,000) 2
29,000 32,000 8
8 30,500
30,500 (29,000 + 32,000) 2
32,000 35,000 3
3 33,500
33,500 (32,000 + 35,000) 2
Total 80
 Example 3
SJS Travel Agency, a nationwide local
travel agency, offers special rates on
summer period. The owner wants
additional information on the ages of
those people taking travel tours. A
random sample of 50 customers taking
travel tours last summer revealed these
ages.
18 29 42 57 61 67 37 49 53 47
24 34 45 58 63 70 39 51 54 48
28 36 46 60 66 72 40 52 56 49
19 31 44 58 62 68 38 50 54 48
27 36 46 59 64 72 39 51 55 48
Construct a frequency distribution using Rule 2.
Step 1

Arrange the raw data in ascending or descending order.

18 29 37 42 47 49 53 57 61 67
19 31 38 44 48 50 54 58 62 68
24 34 39 45 48 51 54 58 63 70
27 36 39 46 48 51 55 59 64 74
28 36 40 46 49 52 56 60 66 77
Step 2

Determine the classes

□ Find the Highest Value (HV) and Lowest Value (LV)

in the data set.

HV = 77 and LV = 18

□ Find the Range

Range = HV – LV = 77 – 18 = 59

□ Determine the number of classes using

R a ng e
S u g g e s te d C l a s s Interval=
1+ 3.322 (logarithm of total frequencise)
 Determine the Class Interval (width)
R a ng e
S u g g e s t e d C l a s s Interval=
1+ 3.322 (logarithm of total frequencise)

77- 1 8
=
1 + 3.3 2 2(lo g 5 0)

59
=
1 + 3.322 (1.69897000)

59
=
6 .6 4 3 9 7 8 3 5

=8.88 9

Thus, the interval is 9.

 Step 2 (continuation)

Determine Lower and Upper class limits

Class Limits
18 < 27
27 < 36
Lower 36 < 45 Upper
Limit 45 < 54
Limit
54 < 63
63 < 72
72 < 81
Step 3

Convert the tallied data to numerical frequencies

Class Limits Tally Frequency

18 < 27 III 3
27 < 36 IIII 5
36 < 45 IIII-IIII 9
45 < 54 IIII-IIII-IIII 14
54 < 63 IIII-IIII-I 11
63 < 72 IIII-I 6
72 < 81 III 2
 Step 4
Determine the relative frequency (rf)
Class Limits Frequency Relative Frequency
18 < 27 3 0.05
27 < 36 5 0.11
36 < 45 9 0.20
45 < 54 14 0.29
54 < 63 11 0.21
63 < 72 6 0.10
72 < 81 2 0.04
Total 50 1.00

2 50 ≈ 0.04
 Step 5
Determine the percentage
Class Limits Frequency Percentage
18 < 27 3 6
27 < 36 5 10
36 < 45 9 18
45 < 54 14 28
54 < 63 11 22
63 < 72 6 12
72 < 81 2 4
Total 50 100

(2 ÷50) × 100% = 4
 Graphing Frequency Distribution

Histogram

Frequency Polygon

Cumulative Frequency or Ogive

 Example 4

Given the data below.

Class Limits
Class Limits X
X ff cf
cf
14 16 15
15 4
4 4
4
17 19 18 9 13
20 22 18
21 9
16 13
29
23 25 24
21 23
16 52
29
26 28 27 17 69
29 31 24
30 23
8 52
77
32 34 33
27 3
17 80
69
30 8 77
33 3 80

Construct a histogram and frequency polygon

 Histogram

A graph in which the classes are marked on the horizontal axis

(x-axis) and the class frequencies on the vertical axis (y-axis).

Midpoints
 Frequency Polygon

A graph that displays the data using points which are

connected by lines.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Midpoints
 Population vs Sample

A graph that displays the cumulative frequencies for the

classes in a frequency distribution.

Upper Class
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
Boundaries
 Other Types of Graphs/Charts

Pareto Chart

Bar Chart (Bar Graph)

Pie Chart (Circle Graph)

Time Series Graph

Pictograph

Scatter Plot
 Example 4

Using the information in the table

below about the favorite snacks of
870 consumers, construct a pareto
chart, bar chart, and pie chart.

Products Sales
Junk Foods 135
Candy 250
Ice Cream 185
Chocolate 210
Others 90
 Pareto Chart

It represent a frequency distribution for a categorical data (or

nominal-level) & frequencies are displayed by the heights of
vertical bars, which are arranged in order from highest to
lowest.
 Bar Chart (Bar Graph)

The bases of the rectangles are arbitrary intervals whose

centers are the codes. The height of each rectangle represents
the frequency of that category. It is also applicable for
categorical data (or nominal-level).
 Pie Chart (Circle Graph)
A circle divided into portions that represent the relative
frequencies (or percentages) of the data belonging to different
categories. The data in a pie chart should be categorical or
nominal-level.
 Time-Series Graph

It represents data that occur over specific period of time

under observation.

It shows for a trend or pattern on the increase or decrease

over the period of time.
 Example 5

Using the information in the table

below about the dollar to peso
exchange rate from January to
December of 2016, construct a time
series graph.

Month Jan Feb March April May June

Peso/US Dollar 41 42 43 46 44 45
Exchange Rate
Month July August Sept Oct Nov Dec
Peso/US Dollar 43 42 45 44 45 43
Exchange Rate
Solution
 Pictograph

It immediately suggests the nature of the data being shown.

It is a combination of the attention-getting quality and the

accuracy of the bar chart.

Appropriate pictures arranged in a row (sometimes in a

column) present the quantities for comparison.
 Example 6

The VSAS Realty Inc. is a real estate

who develops household in Rizal
province. The information in the
table show the number of house
construction from 2013 to 2017.
Construct a pictograph.

Year 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

No. of Houses 400 250 600 550 700
Solution
800
700
600
No. of houses 500
400
300
200
100
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Year

Legend: = 100 houses

 Scatter Plot

It used to examine possible relationships between two

numerical variables.

The two variables are plot in x-axis and y-axis.

 Example 7

The owner of a chain of halo-halo stores would like to study

the effect of atmospheric temperature on sales during the
summer season. A random sample of 12 days is selected
with the results given as follows:
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Temperature (°F) 79 76 78 84 90 83 93 94 97 85 88 82
Total Sales 147 143 147 168 206 155 192 211 209 187 200 150
Solution
 Guidelines for Developing Graphs/Charts

□ The graph or chart should include a title.

□ The scales for all axes should be included.

□ The scale on the y-axis should start at zero.

□ The graph or chart should not disfigure the data.

□ The x-axis and y-axis should be properly labeled.

□ The graph or chart should not contain unnecessary

decorations.

□ The simplest possible graph or chart should be used for

any data set.
20K+
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Consulting Services Success Strategy Project Analysis

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