i

Workshop Manual

Name:

Roll number:

Indian Institute of Technology Goa

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Contents

Sr. No. Chapter

1. Fitting
2. Drilling
3. Lathe
4. Grinding
5. Milling
6. Turning
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1. Fitting

The term fitting is related to assembly of parts, after bringing the dimension or shape to the
required size or form, to secure the necessary fit. The operations required for the same are
usually carried out on a work bench, hence the term bench work is also added with the name
fitting. The bench work and fitting play an important role in Engineering. Although in today's
industries most of the work is done by automatic machines which produces the jobs with good
accuracy but still it (job) requires some hand operations called fitting operations. The person
working in the fitting shop is called Fitter.

Fitting tools:
Fitting shop tools are classified as below:
1. Work holding devices/ Clamping tools
2. Measuring tools
3. Marking tools
4. Cutting tools

Work holding devices /Clamping tools:

1.1.1 Work bench

A fitting process can be done at various places, but most of the important operations of fitting
are generally carried out on a table called work bench as shown in Fig. 1.1. The work bench
is a strong, heavy and rigid table made up of hard wood.

Fig. 1.1 Work bench with bench vice

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The size of the work bench required is about 150 to 180 cm length, nearly 90 cm width and
approximately 76 to 84 cm height.

1.1.2 Bench vice

Bench vice, as shown in Fig. 1.2, is firmly fixed to the bench with the help of nuts and bolts. It
consists of a Cast Iron body and jaws. Two jaw plates are fitted on both the jaws. The holding
surface of the jaw plates is knurled in order to increase the gripping. Jaw plates are made up of
carbon steel and are wear resistant. One jaw is fixed to the body and the second slides on a
square threaded screw with the help of a handle. The jaws are opened up to required length;
job is placed in the two jaws and is fully tightened with the help of handle. Handle is used to
move the movable jaw.

Fig. 1.2 Bench vice

1.1.3 V block
V-block and V-block with clamp are shown in Fig. 1.3. In V block, V grooves are provided to
hold the round objects longitudinally. The screw of the clamp applies the holding pressure.
When the handle is rotated, there is movement in the screw.

Measuring tools
1.2.1 Steel rule
Figure 1.4 shows the typical steel rule. These are made up of stainless steel and are available
in many sizes ranging from 1/2 ft. to 2 ft. These are marked in inches or millimetres. The edges
of steel rule should be protected from rough handling.
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Fig. 1.3 V-block and V-block with clamp

Fig. 1.4 Steel rule

1.2.2 Calipers
Different types of calipers are shown in Fig. 1.5. These are generally used to measure the inside
or outside diameters. Different types are:
i. Outside caliper: It is used to measure the outside dimensions.
ii. Inside caliper: It is used to measure the inside dimensions.
iii. Spring caliper: Spring is provided to apply the pressure and lock nut is provided to lock any
desired position.
iv. Hermaphrodite, Jenny or Odd leg Caliper: One leg is bent at the tip inwardly and the other
has a straight pointed end. It is used to scribe lines parallel to the straight edges.

1.2.3 Vernier caliper

Vernier caliper is as shown in Fig. 1.6. It is used for measuring the outer dimensions of round,
flat, square components and also the inner size of the holes and bore. A narrow blade is used
to measure the depth of bar slots etc. The reading accuracy in metric system is 0.02 mm and
British system it is 0.001. It is made of stainless steel.
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Outside spring callipers Inside spring Odd leg calipers

callipers
Fig. 1.5 Calipers

Fig.1.6 Vernier caliper

Marking tools

1.3.1 Surface plate

Surface plate is as shown in Fig. 1.7. It is used for testing the flatness, trueness of the surfaces.
It is made up of grey cast iron or graphite. Its upper face is planed to form a very smooth
surface. It is also used in scribing work. While not in use, it should be covered with a wooden
cover.
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Fig. 1.7 Surface plate

Angle plate
Angle plate is as shown in Fig. 1.8. It is made up of cast iron in different sizes; it has two planed
surfaces at right angles to each other and has various slots in each surface to hold the work by
means of bolts and clamps. Never do hammering on the angle plate to fasten (lighten) the nuts
and bolts.

Fig. 1.8 Angle plate

1.3.3 Scriber and surface gauge

Scriber and surface gauge are as shown in Fig. 1.9 and Fig. 1.10 respectively. It consists of a
cast iron bass on the centre of which a steel rod is fixed vertically. Scriber is made up of high
carbon steel and is hardened from the front edge. It is used for locating the centres of round
bars or for marking of the lines.

Fig. 1.9 Scriber tools

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Fig. 1.10 Surface gauge

1.3.4 Punches

Punches are used for marking purposes. Dot punch (Fig. 1.11) is used for marking dotted line
and Centre punch (Fig. 1.12) is used to mark the centre of hole before drilling. Punches are
made up of high carbon steel or high speed steels. One end is sharpened. Hammering is done
on the second end while working. For dot punch, angle of the punching end is 60 degree while
in centre punch; angle of punching end is 90 degree.

Fig. 1.11 Dot punch

Fig. 1.12 Centre punch

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1.3.5 Try- square

It is used for checking squareness of two surfaces. It consists of a blade made up of steel, which
is attached to a base at 90 degree as shown in Fig. 1.13. The base is made up of cast iron or
steel. It is also used to mark the right angles and measuring straightness of surfaces. Never use
try square as a hammer.

Fig. 1.13 Try square

1.3.6 Vernier height gauge

A Vernier height gauge and graduation on it are shown in Fig. 1.14 and Fig. 1.15 respectively.
The Vernier height gauge consists of a heavy base, a graduated beam, a sliding head with
Vernier sliding jaws holding the scriber and a fine adjustment clamp. It is similar to large
Vernier calipers in construction, except that it consists of a heavy base which allows the gauge
to stand upright instead of a fixed jaw in a Vernier. The movable jaw of Vernier height gauge
consists of a projection or extension which is levelled to sharp edge for scribing lines at any
required height.

Fig. 1.14 Height gauge

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Fig. 1.15 Graduations on vernier height gauge

*Note:

*
Method of marking
Marking means setting out dimensions with the help of a working drawing or directly
transferring them from a similar part. The procedure of marking is as follows:
1. The surface to be marked is coated with the paste of chalk or red lead and allowed to dry.
2. Then the work is held in a holding device depending upon shape and size. If it is flat, use
surface plate, if it is round use V block and clamp, else use angle plate etc.
3. Lines in horizontal direction are scribed by means of a surface gauge. Lines at right angles
can be drawn by turning the work through 90 degree and then using the scriber. If true surface
is available, try square can also be used.
4. The centre on the end of a round bar can be located by using an odd leg caliper, surface
gauge etc.
5. The circles and arcs on a flat surface are marked by means of a divider.
6. After the scribing work is over, indentations on the surface are made using dot punch and
hammer.

Cutting tools
1.4.1 Hacksaw
Hacksaw is used for cutting of rods, bars, pipes, flats etc. It consists of a frame, which is made
from mild steel. The blade is placed inside the frame and is tightened with the help of a flange
nut. The blade is made up of high carbon steel or high speed steel. The points of the teeth are
bent in a zig-zag fashion, to cut a wide groove and prevent the body of the blade from rubbing
or jamming in the saw cut. The teeth of the blades are generally forward cut so in the case,
pressure is applied in the forward direction only. Fixed frame and adjustable frame hacksaw
are as shown in Fig. 1.16 and Fig. 1.17 respectively.
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Fig. 1.16 Fixed frame hacksaw

Fig. 1.17 Adjustable frame hacksaw

Depending upon the direction of cut, blades are classified as:

1. Forward cut
2. Backward cut
Depending upon the pitch of the teeth (Distance between the two consecutive teeth) blades are
classified as:
1. Coarse (8-14 teeth per Inch)
2. Medium (16-20 teeth per inch)
3. Fine (24-32 teeth per inch)
1.1.2 Files
Files are multi-point cutting tools. It is used to remove the material by rubbing it on the metals.
Nomenclature of a File is as shown in Fig. 1.18.
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Fig. 1.18 Nomenclature of a File

Files are available in a number of sizes, shapes and degree of coarseness.

Classification of files
 On the basis of length
( 4”,6”,8”,12” )
 On the basis of grade:
 Rough (R)(20 teeth per inch)
 Bastard (B)(30 teeth per inch)
 Second cut (Sc) (40 teeth per inch)
 Smooth file (S)(50 teeth per inch)
 Dead smooth (DS)(100 teeth per inch)
Rough and bastard files are the big cut files. When the material removal is more, these files are
used. These files have bigger cut but the surface produced is rough. Dead smooth and smooth
files have smaller teeth and used for finishing work. Second cut file has degree of finish in
between bastard and smooth file.
 On the basis of number of cuts:
 Single cut files
 Double cut files
 Rasp files
Single cut, double cut and rasp file are as shown in Fig. 1.19, Fig. 1.20 and Fig. 1.21
respectively.

Fig. 1.19 Single cut file

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Fig. 1.20 Double cut file

Fig. 1.21 Rasp cut file

In single cut files the teeth are cut in parallel rows at an angle of 60 degree to the face. Another
row of teeth is added in opposite direction in case of double cut files. Material removal is more
in case of double cut files.
 On the basis of shape and size:
The length of the files varies from 4' to 14'. The various shapes of cross-section available are
hand file, flat file, triangular, round; square, half round, knife-edge, pillar, needle and mill file.
 Flat file (Fig. 1.22): This file has parallel edges for about two-thirds of the length and
then it tapers in width and thickness. The faces are double cut while the edges are single
cut.

Fig. 1.22 Flat file

 Hand file (Fig. 1.23): For a hand file the width is constant throughout, but the thickness
tapers as given in flat file. Both faces are double cut and one edge is single cut. The
remaining edge is kept uncut in order to use for filing a right-angled corner on one side
only.

Fig. 1.23 Hand file

 Square file (Fig. 1.24): It has a square cross-section. It is parallel for two-thirds of its
length and then tapers towards the tip. It is double cut on all sides. It is used for filing
square corners and slots.
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Fig. 1.24 Square file

 Triangular file (Fig. 1.25): It has width either parallel throughout or up to middle and
then tapered towards the tip. Its section is triangular (equilateral) and the three faces are
double cut and the edges single cut. It is used for filing square shoulders or corners and
for sharpening wood working saws.

Fig. 1.25 Triangular file

 Round file (Fig. 1.26): It has round cross-section. It carries single cut teeth all round its
surface. It is normally made tapered towards the tip and is frequently known as rat-tail
file. Parallel round files having same diameter throughout the length are also available.
The round files are used for opening out holes, producing round corners, round-ended
slots etc.

Fig. 1.26 Round file

 Half-round file (Fig. 1.27): Its cross-section is not a true half circle but is only about
one-third of a circle. The width of the file is either parallel throughout or up to middle
and then tapered towards the tip. The flat side of this file is always a double cut and
curved side has single cut. It is used for filing curved surfaces.

Fig. 1.27 Half round file

 Knife edge file (Fig. 1.28): It has a width tapered like a knife blade and it is also tapered
towards the tip and thickness. It carries double cut teeth on the two broad faces and single
cut teeth on the edge. It is used for finishing sharp corners of grooves and slots.
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Fig. 1.28 Knife edge file

 Needle file (Fig. 1.29): These are thin small files having a parallel tang and a thin, narrow
and pointed blade made in different shapes of its cross-section to suit the particular need
of the work. These are available in sizes from 100 mm to 200 mm of various shapes and
cuts. These files are used for filing very thin and delicate work.

Fig. 1.29 Needle file

Methods of filing
The following are the two commonly used methods of filing:
 Cross-filing
 Draw filing
Cross – filing:
This method as shown in Fig. 1.30 is used for efficient removal of maximum amount of metal in the
shortest possible time. It may be noted that the file must remain horizontal throughout the stroke (long,
slow and steady) with pressure only applied on the forward motion.

Fig. 1.30 Cross-filing

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Draw-filling:
This method as shown in Fig. 1.31 is used to remove file marks and for finishing operations. Here, the
file is gripped as close to the work as possible between two hands. In this filing method, a fine cut file
with a flat face should be used.

Fig. 1.31 Draw- filling

File card
It is a device fashioned like a wire brush used to clean dirt and chips from the teeth of a file as
shown in Fig. 1.32. When particles of metal clog the teeth, the file is said to be pinned (a
condition that causes scratching of the surface of the work piece). Files therefore, require
cleaning by means of a File card or by dislodging the material between the teeth by means of
a piece of soft iron, copper, brass, tin plate etc. which are sharpened at the end. Hardened steel
should never be used.

Fig. 1.32 File card

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Experiment 1: Square cutting

Aim: To make a Square fit from the given Aluminium pieces.

Material required Aluminium plate of size 50× 50 × 5 mm – 1 Nos

Tools required
1. Try square
2. Scriber
3. Odd leg calliper
3. Hack saw Frame
4. Blades (12 TPI)
5. Rough file
6. Smooth file
7. Square file
8. Dot punch
9. Ball peen hammer
10. Steel Rule
Sequence of operations:
1. Filing
2. Marking
3. Punching
4. Sawing
5. Filing
6. Finishing
Procedure:
1. The given aluminum flat piece is checked for given dimensions.
2. One edge of given is filed to straightness with rough and smooth files and checked with try
square.
3. An adjacent is also filed such that is square to first edge and checked with try square.
4. Wet chalk is applied on one side of the flat and dried for making.
5. Lines are marked according to given figure, using odd leg caliper and steel rule.
6. Using the dot punch, punches are made along the marked lines.
7. The excess materials removed from the remaining two edges with try square level up to half
of the marked dots.
8. Finally burs are removed by the filling on the surface of the fitted job.
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Precautions:
1. The perpendicularity of face end edges is checked perfectly by using try square.
2. Finishing is given by using only with smooth files.
3. Marking is done without parallax error

Drawing:
 17

2. Drilling

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid
materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-point. The drill bit is pressed
against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per
minute (rpm). This forces the cutting edge against the work-piece, cutting off chips from the
hole as it is drilled.
Bench Top Drilling machine Specification
Practical height adjustment via toothed rack with easy to operate crank.
Powerful, long-lasting direct current motor. Spindle drive
via triple belt pulley with the advantage of roughly 6 times
the torque in the lower rotational speed range. Practical drill
depth indicator with adjustable limit stop. Drill spindle with
precision bearing. Spindle head with 1/2" thread for the
corresponding chuck (industrial quality). Spindle with
additional fit for steel collets NO 28 200. Ideal for jig
boring with the compound table KT 150.
Technical specifications:
230 Volt. Spindle rotational speeds 1,080 - 2,400 and
4,500rpm. Sliding sleeve stroke 63mm. Height adjustment
via crank 70mm. Throat 140mm. Usable table surface 200
x 200mm. Column 45 x 500mm. Tool holder up to 10mm.
Drilling performance in steel 10mm. Weight approx. 10kg.
NO 28 124

1. Practical height adjustment via toothed rack with side crank.

2. Stable, strongly ribbed plane-milled worktable with two T-slots.
3. Practical drill depth indicator with adjustable limit stop.
4. Ideal for jig drilling with the KT 150.

Collet set for drill press TBH

Triple slit and hardened. 1 each of 2.35 - 3 - 3.2 - 4 - 5 and 6
mm. With collet closure nut (M 17) Neatly packed in wooden
box with sliding lid.
NO 28 200
T-nut set for PRIMUS vices
2 T-nuts, screws and the necessary accessories. For fixing to the
drill tables of: BFB 2000, KT 150 and bench drill press TBH.
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Experiment 2: Drilling
Aim: To drill two hole of 3.5 mm diameter in work piece.

Tools required
1. Drill machine setup
2. Drill bit (diameter 3.5 mm)
Precautions:
1. Avoid Baggy Clothing. Loose sleeves, jewellery and hair can be a hazard when you are
operating a power drill.
2. Secure Your Work Piece.
3. Drill pilot holes in case of larger hole.
4. Properly Set the Drill Bit.
5. Use a Enter Punch to Start Holes.
6. Apply Proper Pressure to the Drill.
Drawing:
 3. Lathe
Lathe and different parts of lathe
A lathe is a machine tool which rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform various operations
such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation with tools that are applied to the
workpiece to create an object which has symmetry about an axis of rotation. Lathes are used in
woodturning, metalworking, metal spinning, and glass working. Lathes can be used to shape
pottery, the best-known design being the potter's wheel. Most suitably equipped metalworking
lathes can also be used to produce most solids of revolution, plane surfaces and screw threads
or helices. Ornamental lathes can produce three-dimensional solids of incredible complexity.
The material can be held in place by either one or two centres, at least one of which can be
moved horizontally to accommodate varying material lengths. Other work holding methods
include clamping the work about the axis of rotation using a chuck or collet, or to a faceplate,
using clamps or dogs. Examples of objects that can be produced on a lathe include candlestick
holders, cue sticks, table legs, bowls, baseball bats, musical instruments (especially wood wind
instruments), crank shafts and cam shafts.

The Bed :
The lathe bed is a mounting and aligning surface for the other machine components. Viewed
from the operating position in front of the machine, the headstock is mounted on the left end
of the bed and the tailstock on the right. The bed must be bolted to a base to provide a rigid and
stable platform. The bed ways are a precision surface (or surfaces) on which the carriage slides
left and right during machining operations. The ways are machined straight and flat and are
either bolted to the top of the bed or are an integrally machined part of the bed.
Headstock:
The headstock holds the spindle and drive mechanism for turning the work piece. The spindle
is a precision shaft and bearing arrangement rotated directly by a motor or through a motor-
driven belt. Gears or sliding pulleys mounted at the rear of the headstock allow spindle speed
adjustment. A work piece is held in the spindle for turning or drilling by a jawed chuck or a
spring collet system. Large, unusual shaped, or otherwise difficult to hold pieces, can be
attached to the spindle with a face plate, drive dogs and special clamps.
Tailstock:
The tailstock supports long work that would otherwise sag or flex too much to allow foraccurate
machining. Without a tailstock, long pieces cannot be turned straight and will invariably have
ataper. Some tailstocks can be intentionally misaligned to accurately cut a taper if needed. The
tailstock has a centering device pressed into a shallow, specially drilled hole in the end of the
work piece. Thecenter can be either "live" or "dead." Live centers have a bearing, allowing the
center to rotate along withthe work piece. Dead centers do not rotate and must be lubricated to
prevent overheating due to frictionwith the work piece. Instead of a center, a drill chuck can be
mounted in the tailstock.
Carriage:
The carriage provides mounting and motion control components for tooling. The
carriagemoves left and right, either through manual operation of a hand wheel, or it can be
driven by a leadscrew. At the base of a carriage is a saddle that mates and aligns with the bed
ways. The cross-slide,compound rest and tool holder are mounted to the top of the carriage.
Some carriages are equipped with arotating turret to allow a variety of tools to be used in
succession for multi-step operations.
Cross Slide:
The cross-slide is mounted to the top of the carriage to provide movement perpendicular tothe
length of the bed for facing cuts. An additional motion assembly, the compound rest, with
anadjustable angle, is often added to the top of the cross slide for angular cuts. The cutting tools
that do theactual metal removal during turning are mounted in an adjustable tool holder
clamped to the compoundrest.
Lead Screw:
The lead screw provides automatic feed and makes thread cutting possible. It is aprecision-
threaded shaft, driven by gears as the headstock turns. It passes through the front of the
carriageapron and is supported at the tailstock end by a bearing bracket. Controls in the apron
engage a lead nutto drive the carriage as the lead screw turns.
 Z-axis and X-axis with recirculating ball spindles and two powerful step motors.
Control unit for connecting to PC or laptop with activation of the main spindle and the
step motors. Including user-friendly and WINDOWS® compatible software (see
description below).

High quality RÖHM precision 3-jaw lathe chuck. Witt

Ø 100mm. Powerful condenser motor with 550W.
Multiple steel holder with height-adjustable holder
elements. Step motor 1.8A for travel distance 70mm.
Recirculating ball spindle for the X-axis with 2.0mm
inclination. Recirculating ball spindle for the Z-axis
with 4mm inclination. Step motor 1.8A for travel
distance 300mm.

CNC control of Z-axis and X-axis enables precise turning, facing and longitudinal turning of steel
and non-ferrous metal.

Axes drive with powerful step motors and recirculating ball spindles (no backlash). For facing and
longitudinal turning, for turning balls, radii and any freely formed contours made of steel and non-ferrous
metal. Work piece machining is effected automatically by software and can be reproduced as often as
required.

Otherwise the mechanical design is almost identical to the proven PROXXON lathe PD 400: Solid, cross-
braced cast iron bed with ground and wide legged prism guide for apron and tailstock ensure vibration-free
working and optimum precision. High quality 3-jaw lathe chuck (Ø 100mm). 6 spindle speeds (80 -
2,800/min) are provided via belt drive. Including rotating centre MK 2 and tailstock chuck. With quick-
change tool post with 2 holders (with stop and height adjustability).

Complete with recirculating ball spindles, powerful step motors and the required limit switches, the
CNC control unit, all necessary connecting cables and WINDOWS® compatible software on CD-ROM.
 NO 24 500

Double roller bearing recirculating ball spindle paired with powerful step motor driven in micro-
step guarantee high machining precision and repeat accuracy.

PROXXON CAD/CAM software for WINDOWS®

Brief description of software and hardware:

The software is harmonized with mechanics, motors and
the control unit of the CNC machine, thus offering the
optimum performance.

The CNC control unit controls the step motors of the

machine. The PC software provides the machine with the
geometry information for travel of the tools (via RS 232
interface). This means that the control unit is the
interface between software and the mechanics of the
machine.

Powerful micro processors and accordingly dimensioned step motors and phases ensure that the motors
always provide enough power for any machining processes. Two freely usable output relays in the
casing of the control unit provide facilities for control of additional functions, e.g. a working lamp.
Including connection cables with suitable plugs and built-in power supply for connection to 220 - 240V.

Simple creation of work piece geometry

The CAD window is displayed when the
programme starts. The work piece contour is
created in the familiar WINDOWS®
environment. Numerous auxiliary aids help
during programme operation, which supports
both coordinate entry (absolute and relative) in
addition to mouse use.

Technology information is allocated to every

drawing element. This makes, for example,
different processing speeds and manual tool
replacement possible.
Read-in of existing files in .dxf format is possible
as well.

Automatic generation of CAM data

The finished drawing of the tool is converted, by a mouse click, into the instruction set for the machine.
So, machining can be started immediately. The instruction set generated in this way is in accordance
with DIN/ISO 66025 and can be manually edited and exported. Conversely, the system also permits
importing or complete self writing of data sets.

CNC simulation
If requested, the travel distances of the tool are simulated in the graphic window. In this way, faults
in the programming can be recognised in time.

Manual work
The handwheels are replaced with the step motors of the CNC machine. Nevertheless, manual machining
is possible with the help of cursor buttons, since the step motors can be operated manually.

Software installation
The PC software is supplied on a CD ROM. The problem-free installation is effected under WINDOWS®
as usual.

Note:
PC or laptop are not part of the scope of delivery. Minimum requirements for the hardware: Pentium
processor with 400
MHz frequency (or comparable), high-quality graphic card (64 MB RAM) and at least 40 MB free hard
disc storage.

Technical data:

Power supply 220 - 240V / 50/60Hz

Drive Condenser motor with 550W
Spindle Recirculating ball spindle with 2.0mm
drive inclination, flank diameter 8mm.
X-axis Step motor with 1.8A and 50Ncm dwell moment;
travel distance: approx. 70mm
Recirculating ball spindle with 4.0mm
Spindle
inclination, flank diameter 12mm.
drive
Step motor with 1.8A und 50Ncm dwell moment;
Z-axis
travel distance: approx. 300mm
6 spindle revolutions 80 - 160 - 330 - 660 - 1,400 - 2,800/min
Selectable with switch (two-stage) and by placing drive belt.
Control of via CNC control unit (included in scope of delivery)
step motors

Software on CD-ROM, installation under Windows 98,

Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7
Drive connection via RS 232 interface (or: use of a USB adapter), connecting cables to PC included
in scope of delivery
Sizes Machine: L 900 x W 400 x H 300mm
Control unit: L 450 x W 270 x H 60mm
Total weight Machine: approx. 45kg / Control unit: approx. 4kg
Computer with software
RS 232 interface
MCS-
multicontroller
Step motor (X-
axis) Step motor
(Z-axis) Switch
X-axis
Switch Z-axis
Thread cutting device for the lathe PD 400/CNC

A complete attachment kit with rotary

encoder for the main spindle, belt pulleys,
synchronous belts and all required accessory
parts.

The software of the PD 400/CNC has already

been programmed accordingly: Available now
are the standard male threads M 1 to M 42.
Special threads of any type (e.g. inch threads)
can be manufactured as well with different
pitches and thread depths. Including detailed
assembly instructions.

NO 24 506

More accessories for precision lathe PD 400/CNC

Self-centering 3-jaw chuck

Identical to the lathe chuck of lathe PD 400. Capacity through reversing
chucks 3 – 100mm
NO 24 407

Self-centering 4-jaw chuck

The jaws are not independently adjustable, i.e. they are self-centering. High
accuracy. Chuck diameter 100mm.

NO 24 408

Collet attachment with collets for PD 400

For accurate use on round components. One hardened collet each hardened collet 2 - 3 -
4 - 5 - 6 - 8 - 10 - 12 and 14mm are included. Concentric accuracy better than
0.02mm, much better than a chuck. One soft collet for making a custom size
yourself. The included collet attachment is mounted in the place of the
headstock chuck. Supplied in a wooden box.

NO 24 419 complete

Tool post
Including two holders. Provides quick tool changes with easy height adjustment. For
turning tools 10 x 10mm.

NO 24 415

Individual quick-change holder

Fits the tool post of PD 400.

NO 24 416

Die holder for round die.

For threads M 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 8 and 10.
With holder Ø 10mm for mounting in the tailstock drill chuck of the lathe.
The holder is held by hand while cutting the threads. Neatly packed in
wooden box with sliding lid.

NO 24 082

Cutting tools of high quality cobalt HSS steel,

ground. Five piece set
One each roughing out, parting, finishing cut, left and right cutter. Comes in
wooden box with sliding lid. 10 x 10 x 80mm.

NO 24 550

Three piece thread cutting set

One cutter for external thread , one for internal thread (both ground to 60°, metric),
one general cutting . Supplied in wooden box with sliding lid. 10 x 10 x 80mm.

NO 24 552
 Cutter set with tungsten inserts
Three holders (90mm long):
for roughing out;
for longitudinal work;
for 90mm boring bar, holes from 12mm.
Standard tungsten inserts, 55°, plated (commercially available version).
Three additional inserts securing screw and key TX 8 are included. 10 x
10mm.

NO 24 556 complete

Experiment 3: Turning
Aim: To make 4 mm step turning from 5mm rod.
Material required: 5 mm rod
Tools required
1. Cutting tool
2. Tool post key
3. Chuck key
4. Odd leg calliper or Vernier calliper
Procedure:
1. Mount the tool on tool post and work piece on chuck.
2. Check that tool tip should touch the centre of rod.
3. Do facing operation to get smooth surface.
4. Measure the distance need for turning and mark.
5. Give proper feed as per instruction and after each pass check the diameter.
Precautions:
1. Operator should always be sure that all guards are in place before running the lathe
machine.
2. Always clamp the work and tool properly with the correct size of work and tool holding
the device.
3. Always keep the lathe machine clear of tools.
4. Machine should be stopped before making measurements or adjustments on the
workpiece.
5. Wear an apron or a properly fitted shop coat. Goggles should also be used to avoid chip
particles contact with human body.
6. One should remove necktie, wrist watch and jewelry while working on the machine.
 7. One should not operate the lathe until he knows the proper procedure to operate.
8. One should check the work frequently when the workpiece is being machined.
9. One should check the faceplate or chuck by hand to be sure that there is no danger of
the work striking any part of the lathe.
10. Stop the machine and remove chips with pliers. One should not touch remove the chips
by hand because they will be hot.

Drawing:
 4. Grinding

A grinding machine, often shortened to grinder, is any of various power tools or machine tools used for
grinding, which is a type of machining using an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool. Each grain of abrasive
on the wheel's surface cuts a small chip from the workpiece via shear deformation.

For 50mm discs and brushes. With electronic speed control from 8 to 24m/sec

The slim housing facilitates the grinding of long workpieces and includes an adapter to connect a
vacuum cleaner to the unit.

The tool rests and eye guards are both adjustable. A spindle lock eases the changing of wheels and discs.
Supplied with a
50 x 13mm corundum (grade N) and silicon carbide (soft compound) wheel for general grinding/sharpening
and hard materials respectively. The right hand spindle accepts the polishing arbor, which is supplied as
standard equipment.

Technical data:
230V. 3,000 - 9,000rpm. Wheels 50 x 13 x 12.7mm. Grinding speed 8 - 24m/sec. Weight approx. 1,200g.
Size approx.
250 x 130 x 100mm.

NO 28 030
Polishing set
Steel wire brush for de-rusting and cleaning steel and non-ferrous
metals. Brass wire brush to polish non-ferrous metals and precious
metals. Felt wheel is used on painted surfaces and the chamois and
cotton wheels provide a high gloss finish on non-ferrous metals and
precious metals.

NO 28 312 Complete set

Spare discs for the SP/E and BSG 220 (50 x 13mm) Corundum (grade N).
With 12.7mm bore.

NO 28 308

Silicon carbide.
With 12.7mm bore. Soft compound for very hard materials.

NO 28 310

Experiment 4: Grinding
Aim: To grind rod to make taper and chamfering/fillet.
Tools required
1. Grinding setup
2. Safety glass
3. Gloves
Procedure:
1. Grind the turned part to fit into the hole in plate.
2. Grind the 4 corner of plate (chamfering/fillet).
Precautions:
1. Wear goggles for all grinding machine operations.
2. Check grinding wheels for cracks before mounting.
3. Never operate grinding wheels at speeds in excess of the recommended speed.
4. Never adjust the workpiece or work mounting devices when the machine is operating
 5. Do not exceed recommended depth of cut for the grinding wheel or machine.
6. Remove workpiece from grinding wheel before turning machine off.
7. Use proper wheel guards on all grinding machines.
Drawing:
 5. Milling
Milling is the machining process of using rotary cutters to remove material from a workpiece
by advancing (or feeding) the cutter into the workpiece at a certain direction. The cutter may
also be held at an angle relative to the axis of the tool. Milling covers a wide variety of different
operations and machines, on scales from small individual parts to large, heavy-duty gang
milling operations. It is one of the most commonly used processes for machining custom parts
to precise tolerances.

With brushless direct drive: Quiet and vibration-free with high precision (accuracy 0.05mm).
Variable speed pre-selection from 200 - 4,000rpm with digit speed display.
With double roller bearing recirculating ball spindles at all 3 axes and 3 powerful step motors for
driving compound table and milling head.
Large travel distances: X-axis: approx. 290mm, Y-axis: approx. 100mm, Z-axis: approx. 200mm.
Stable column with dovetail slideway.
Including user-friendly software. Runs under WINDOWS® (see description below).

Thanks to CNC control of 3 tool axes machining of steel and non-ferrous metals is possible in all
dimensions. This also applies to larger work pieces!
Axes drive with recirculating ball spindles (no backlash) and powerful step motors. Otherwise the
mechanical design is almost identical to the miller FF 500/BL: Solid, flat-milled compound table in
steel with 3 continuous T-slots for size 8 standard T-nuts. Base of vibration-damping cast steel.
Stable column with dovetail slideway. Milling head can be pivoted to the left and right by 90°, with
powerful, quiet and shock-free running condenser motor. Poly V-belt drive for 6 spindle speeds (180
- 2,500/min). Additional sleeve feed (30mm) using drilling lever with scale ring (1 graduation line =
1mm). Work piece fixing using steel collets.

Complete with CNC control unit, CNC programme software, all connecting cables, one each multiple
range standard type ER 20 collets (DIN 6499-B) 6 - 8 - 10 and 12mm and detailed manual.
NO 24 360

Note:
Since the mechanical design of the FF 500/BL-CNC is almost identical to the FF 500/BL, the
accessories supplied for it can be used without restriction. This also applies to the dividing
attachment UT 400/CNC for the 4th axis!

Brushless motor with sophisticated control for high torque, even in the lower speed range.
4-digit speed display for optimum machining.
Milling head with aluminium base can be rotated to the left and right by 90° (with degree
graduation).
Solid plane-milled steel compound table (400 x 125mm) with 3 T-slots.
Step motor for Y-axis (travel distance approx.100mm).
Step motor for X-axis (travel distance approx. 290mm).
Stable column with dovetail slideway.
Step motor for Z-axis mounted in column (travel distance approx. 200mm).
 PROXXON CAD/CAM software for WINDOWS®
Brief description of software and hardware:
The software is harmonized with mechanics, motors and the
control unit of the CNC machine, thus offering the optimum
performance.

The CNC control unit controls the step motors of the machine.
The PC software provides the machine with the geometry
information for travel of the tools (via RS 232 interface). This
means that the control unit is the interface between software and the mechanics of the machine.

Powerful micro processors and accordingly dimensioned step motors and phases ensure that the
motors always provide enough power for any machining processes. Two freely usable output relays
in the casing of the control unit provide facilities for control of additional functions, e.g. a working
lamp. Including connection cables with suitable plugs and built-in power supply for connection to
220 - 240V.

Simple creation of work piece geometry

The CAD window is displayed when the
programme
starts. The work piece contour is created
in the familiar WINDOWS® environment.
Numerous auxiliary aids help during
programme operation, which supports
both coordinate entry (absolute and
relative) in addition to mouse use.

Technology information is allocated to

every drawing element. This makes, for
example, different processing speeds and manual tool replacement possible.
Read-in of existing files in .dxf format is possible as well.

Automatic generation of CAM data

The finished drawing of the tool is converted, by a mouse click, into the instruction set for the

machine. So, machining can be started immediately. The instruction set generated in this way is in

accordance with DIN/ISO 66025 and can be manually edited and exported. Conversely, the system

also permits importing or complete self writing of data sets.

CNC simulation
If requested, the travel distances of the tool are simulated in the graphic window. In this way, faults
in the programming can be recognised in time.

Manual work
The handwheels are replaced with the step motors of the CNC machine. Nevertheless, manual
machining is possible with the help of cursor buttons, since the step motors can be operated
manually.
Software installation
The PC software is supplied on a CD ROM. The problem-free installation is effected under
WINDOWS® as usual.

Note:
PC or laptop are not part of the scope of delivery. Minimum requirements for the hardware:
Pentium processor with 400 MHz frequency (or comparable), high-quality graphic card (64 MB RAM)
and at least 40 MB free hard disc storage.

Technical data:
Power supply 230V / 50/60Hz
Drive Brushless motor with 400W
Spindle drive Recirculating ball spindle with 4.0mm inclination,
X-axis flank diameter 12mm.
Step motor with 2.2A und 1.27Nm dwell moment;
travel distance: approx. 290mm
Spindle drive Recirculating ball spindle with 4.0mm inclination,
Y-axis flank diameter 12mm.
Step motor with 2.2A and 1.27Nm dwell moment;
travel distance: approx. 100mm
Spindle drive Recirculating ball spindle with 4.0mm inclination,
Z-axis flank diameter 12mm.
Step motor with 2.2A and 1.27Nm dwell moment;
travel distance: approx. 200mm
Spindle revolutions Variable speed pre-selection from 200 - 4,000rpm.
Control of step via CNC control unit (included in scope of delivery)
motors
Software on CD-ROM, installation under Windows 98,
Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7
Drive connection via RS 232 interface (or: use of a USB adapter), connecting cables to PC included in scope
of delivery
Sizes Machine: work table 370 x 350mm, table 400 x 125mm, total height
approx. 780mm
Control unit: L 450 x W 270 x H 60 mm
Total weight Machine: approx. 50kg / Control unit: approx. 4kg
 Experiment 3: Milling
Aim: To make slot on work piece.
Tools required
1. Cutting tool
Procedure:
1. Mount the tool and work piese properly.
2. Mark the slot position.
3. Position the tool where slot to be made.
4. Apply depth of cut and feed as per instruction.
Precautions:
1. Avoid Baggy Clothing. Loose sleeves, jewellery and hair can be a hazard when you are
operating a power drill.
2. Secure Your Work Piece.
3. Properly Set the illing tool.
4. Apply Proper feed and depth of cut.
Drawing:
 6. Welding

Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins different
metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler
metal. The fusion of metal takes place by means of heat. The heat may be generated either from
combustion of gases, electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical reaction. Welding provides
a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the components. It is therefore
usually accompanied by post weld heat treatment for most of the critical components. The
welding is widely used as a fabrication and repairing process in industries. Some of the typical
applications of welding include the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels, automobile bodies,
off-shore platform, bridges, welded pipes, sealing of nuclear fuel and explosives, etc.

Most of the metals and alloys can be welded by one type of welding process or the other.
However, some are easier to weld than others. To compare this ease in welding term
‘weldability’ is often used. The weldability may be defined as property of a metal which
indicates the ease with which it can be welded with other similar or dissimilar metals. For
welding the edges of joining surfaces of metals are prepared first.

Welding processes are broadly classified as given below,

Gas welding
1. Oxy-acetylene 2. Air-acetylene 3. Oxy-hydrogen
Arc welding
1. Carbon arc 2. Plasma arc 3. Submerged arc
4. Metal arc 5. Electro-slag 6. Flux-cored arc
7. Gas metal arc (MIG) 8. Gas tungsten arc (TIG) 9. Atomic-hydrogen arc
Resistance welding
1. Butt 2. Projection 3. Spot
4. Percussion 5. Seam
Thermit welding
Solid state welding
1. Friction 2. Explosive 3. Ultrasonic
4. Diffusion
Newer welding
1. Electron-beam 2. Laser
Welding joints: Some common welding joints such as Butt and fillet are shown in Fig. 3.1 and
Fig. 3.2 respectively. Welding joints are of generally of two major kinds namely lap joint and
butt joint. The main types are described as under:

Fig. 6.1 Butt weld Fig. 6.2 Fillet weld

Lap weld joint

Single-Lap Joint: This joint, made by overlapping the edges of the plate, is not recommended
for most work. The single lap has very little resistance to bending. It can be used satisfactorily
for joining two cylinders that fit inside one another.
Double-Lap Joint: This is stronger than the single-lap joint but has the disadvantage that it
requires twice as much welding.
Tee Fillet Weld: This type of joint, although widely used, should not be employed if an
alternative design is possible
Butt weld joint
Single-Vee Butt Weld: It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the vee depends
upon the technique being used, the plates being spaced approximately 3.2 mm.
Double-Vee Butt Weld: It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the welding can be
performed on both sides of the plate. The top vee angle is either 60° or 80°, while the bottom
angle is 80°, depending on the technique being used.

Welding Positions: There are four types of welding positions, which are given as-
a. Flat or down hand position
b. Horizontal position
c. Vertical position
d. Overhead position
They are represented in Fig. 3.3.
Flat or Down-hand Welding Position
The flat position or down hand position is one in which the welding is performed from the
upper side of the joint and the face of the weld is approximately horizontal.
Horizontal Welding Position
In horizontal position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical and the deposited weld head is
horizontal. This position of welding is most commonly used in welding vessels and reservoirs.
Vertical Welding Position
In vertical position, the plane of the work-piece is vertical and the weld is deposited upon a
vertical surface. It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in this position due to the effect of
the force of gravity on the molten metal.
Overhead Welding Position
The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the vertical position. Here
the pull of gravity against the molten metal is much greater.

Flat Horizontal

Vertical Overhead
Fig. 6.3 Welding Positions
Arc welding processes

The process, in which an electric arc between an electrode and a work-piece or between two
electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is called an arc welding process. The basic principle
of arc welding is shown in Fig.3.4. However, the basic elements involved in arc welding
process are shown in Fig. 3.5. Most of these processes use some shielding gas while others
employ coatings or fluxes to prevent the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere.

Fig. 6.4 Basic principle of arc welding

Fig. 6.5 Basic elements of arc welding

Arc Welding Equipment

Arc welding equipment, setup and related tools and accessories are shown in Figure. However
some common tools of arc welding are shown separately through Figure. Few of the important
components of arc welding setup are described as under.
Arc welding power source
Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for electric arc welding, each
having its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually obtained from generators
driven by electric motor or if no electricity is available by internal combustion engines. For AC
welding supply, transformers are predominantly used for almost all Arc-welding where mains
electricity supply is available. They have to step down the usual supply voltage (200-400 volts)
to the normal open circuit welding voltage (50-90 volts). The following factors influence the
selection of a power source:
a. Type of electrodes to be used and metals to be welded
b. Available power source (AC or DC)
c. Required output
d. Duty cycle
e. Efficiency
f. Initial costs and running costs
g. Available floor space
h. Versatility of equipment
Welding cables
Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source through the
electrode holder, the arc, the work piece and back to the welding power source. These are
insulated copper or aluminum cables.
Electrode holder
Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and conducting current to it. It is
shown in Fig. 3.6. These are usually matched to the size of the lead, which in turn matched to
the amperage output of the arc welder. Electrode holders are available in sizes that range from
150 to 500 Amps.
 Fig. 6.6 Electrode Holder

Welding Electrodes
An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without coatings. An arc is
set up between electrode and workpiece. Welding electrodes are classified into following types-
(i) Consumable Electrodes
(a) Bare Electrodes
(b) Coated Electrodes
(ii) Non-consumable Electrodes
(a) Carbon or Graphite Electrodes
(b) Tungsten Electrodes
Consumable electrode is made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this electrode
starts melting when arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece. Thus consumable
electrode itself acts as a filler metal. Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy wire without
any flux coating on them. Coated electrodes have flux coating which starts melting as soon as
an electric arc is struck. This coating on melting performs many functions like prevention of
joint from atmospheric contamination, arc stabilizers etc.
Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon, pure
tungsten or alloy tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding. But
practically, the electrode length goes on decreasing with the passage of time, because of
oxidation and vaporization of the electrode material during welding. The materials of non-
consumable electrodes are usually copper coated carbon or graphite, pure tungsten, thoriated
or zirconiated tungsten.
Chipping hammer: Chipping Hammer as shown in Fig. 3.7 is used to remove the slag by
striking.
Wire brush: Wire brush as shown in Fig. 3.8 is used to clean the surface to be weld.
Hand screen: Hand screen as shown in Fig. 3.9 used for protection of eyes and supervision
of weld bead.
Protective clothing: Operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to keep away the
exposure of direct heat to the body.

Fig. 3.7 Chipping Hammer Fig. 3.8 Wire Brush

Fig. 3.9 Welding hand screen

Safety Recommendations for arc Welding

The beginner in the field of arc welding must go through and become familiar with these
general safety recommendations which are given as below.
1. The body or the frame of the welding machine shall be efficiently earthed. Pipe lines
containing gases or inflammable liquids or conduits carrying electrical conductors shall
not be used for a ground return circuit All earth connections shall be mechanically strong
and electrically adequate for the required current.
2. Welding arc in addition to being a source of infra-red and ultra-violet light also;
consequently, the operator must use either helmet or a hand-shield fitted with a special filter
glass to protect eyes
3. Excess ultra-violet light can cause an effect similar to sunburn on the skin of the welder
4. The welder’s body and clothing are protected from radiation and burns caused by sparks and
flying globules of molten metal with the help of the following:
 Gloves protect the hands of a welder.
 Leather or asbestos apron is very useful to protect welder’s clothes and his trunk
and thighs while seated he is doing welding.
  For overhead welding, some form of protection for the head is required
 Leather skull cap or peaked cap will do the needful.
 Leather jackets and leather leggings are also available as clothes for body
protection.
5. Welding equipment shall be inspected periodically and maintained in safe working order at
all times.
6. Arc welding machines should be of suitable quality.
7. All parts of welding set shall be suitably enclosed and protected to meet the usual service
conditions.
 Experiment 1: Butt joint
Aim: To make a Butt joint using the given two M.S pieces by arc welding
Material required:
 Mild steel plate of size 100 × 50 × 50 mm – 2 Nos
 Welding Electrodes: M.S. Electrodes 3.1 mm × 350 mm
 Welding equipment: Air cooled transformer voltage – 80-600 V 3 phase supply, amps upto
350 amps

Tools required
1. Rough and smooth files

2. Protractor

3. Arc welding machine (transformer type)

4. Mild steel electrode and electrode holder

5. Ground clamp

6. Tongs

7. Face shield

8. Apron

9. Chipping hammer

Sequence of operations:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square leveling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning
Procedure:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the two pieces overlapped
one over the other as shown in drawing.
3. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is set to be a proper
value.
4. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
5. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and the work pieces are tack-
welded at both the ends and at the centre of the joint.
6. The alignment of the lap joint is checked and the tack-welded pieces are required.
7. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
8. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.
Drawing
 Experiment 2: Lap joint

Aim: To make a lap joint using the given two M.S pieces by arc welding
Material required:
 Mild steel plate of size 100 × 50 × 50 mm – 2 Nos
 Welding Electrodes: M.S. Electrodes 3.1 mm × 350 mm
 Welding equipment: Air cooled transformer voltage – 80-600 V 3 phase supply, amps upto
350 amps

Tools required
1. Rough and smooth files

2. Protractor

3. Arc welding machine (transformer type)

4. Mild steel electrode and electrode holder

5. Ground clamp

6. Tongs

7. Face shield

8. Apron

9. Chipping hammer

Sequence of operations:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square levelling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning
Procedure:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the two pieces overlapped one
over the other as shown in drawing.
3. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to be a proper
value.
4. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
5. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and the work pieces are tack-
welded at both the ends and at the centre of the joint.
6. The alignment of the lap joint is checked and the tack-welded pieces are required.
7. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
8. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.

Drawing
 Experiment 3: Corner joint

Aim: To make a Butt joint using the given two M.S pieces by arc welding
Material required:
 Mild steel plate of size 100 × 50 × 50 mm – 2 Nos

 Welding Electrodes: M.S. Electrodes 3.1 mm × 350 mm

 Welding equipment: Air cooled transformer voltage – 80-600 V 3 phase supply, amps upto
350 amps

Tools required
1. Rough and smooth files

2. Protractor

3. Arc welding machine (transformer type)

4. Mild steel electrode and electrode holder

5. Ground clamp

6. Tongs

7. Face shield

8. Apron

9. Chipping hammer

Sequence of operations:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square levelling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning
Procedure:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the two pieces overlapped one
over the other as shown in drawing.
3. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is set to be a proper
value.
4. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
5. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and the work pieces are tack-
welded at both the ends and at the centre of the joint.
6. The alignment of the lap joint is checked and the tack-welded pieces are required.
7. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
8. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.

Drawing:
FURTHER READING
1. Elements of Workshop Technology (Vol. 1-2), S.K. Hajra Choudhury and A.K.
Hajra Choudhury, Media Promoters and Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2010.
2. Workshop Technology (Pt. 1), W.A.J. Chapman, CBS Publishers &
Distributors Pvt. Ltd., 2001.
3. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, S. Kalpakjian, Pearson
Education India, 2013.