36  Applied Optics

PROBLEM 1.11  A ruby laser emits 0.1 J pulses of light of wavelength 720 nm. How many
minimum number of Cr+++ ions are there in ruby?
Solution  Given
E = 0.1 J,
l = 720 nm = 7.2  10–7 m
The number of Cr+++ ions participating in laser action is given by
E El
N= =
hn hc
0.1 × 7.2 × 10 −7
=
  6.62 × 10 −34 × 3 × 108
  = 3.625  1017

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS

1.1 What is laser?

Ans LASER stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. It is a device
used to produce very intense, narrow coherent and monochromatic source of light.
1.2 What is difference between mercury source and laser source?
Ans Mercury source produces light emitting in all directions while laser source produces light
emitting only in one direction. Light from mercury source when passes through grating
produces line spectrum while light from laser source produces spots.
In mercury source only up to second order maxima is observed; while the laser source,
higher order maxima is observed.
1.3 Explain the difference between temporal and spatial coherence.
Ans The difference between temporal and spatial coherence is given as:
Temporal coherence Spatial coherence
Temporal coherence is called longitudinal Spatial coherence is also called lateral or
coherence. Two waves emanating from the transverse coherence. This refers to the lateral
source when propagates initially have zero distance between the two waves coming out
phase difference and maintain up to certain of the source. Two waves coming out of the
distance, then phase difference increases as the source with some lateral distance will be in
distance increases. Beyond a certain distance phase as they emanate from the source. As the
Ic (temporal coherence difference length) from waves travel away from the source, the lateral
the first location, the two waves go completely distance between two waves increases. The
out of phase. This phenomenon is called phase difference will be maintained up to a
temporal coherence. certain distance at which the lateral distance
is lt (spatial coherence length). This is called
spatial coherence.
 Fundamentals of Laser  37

1.4 In terms of quantum picture, when a light beam is said to be perfectly coherent?
Ans When all the constituent photons of a light beam have the same energy, the same direction
of momentum and identical polarization, the light beam is said to be perfectly coherent.
1.5 What do you understand by a metastable state?
Ans Normally, the mean life of excited atoms before the spontaneous emission is about 10–8 s.
However, for some excited states, this mean life is perhaps as much as 105 times longer.
We call such long-lived states metastable; they occupy an important role in laser action.
1.6 What is wavelength of laser light from: (i) Ruby laser and (ii) He–Ne laser?
How are the two lasers different?
Ans (i) Ruby laser—694.3 nm (ii) He–Ne laser—632.8 nm.
Ruby laser is a three-level laser and has pulsed output, whereas He–Ne laser is a four‑level
laser and has continuous output.
1.7 Which is better laser either ruby or He–Ne laser? Why?
Ans He–Ne laser. The output of ruby laser is in the form of pulses. He–Ne laser is better than
Ruby laser as:
(i) it has continuous output.
(ii) being a four-level laser, laser action is fast.
(iii) its active material is relatively cheap.
1.8 What is population inversion? How is it achieved?
Ans Population inversion is the non-equilibrium condition of a material where the number of
atoms in the upper energy level exceeds the number of atoms in the lower energy level.
Population inversion is achieved by pumping energy from some external sources.
1.9 Explain why laser action cannot occur without population inversion between atomic
levels.
Ans When light propagates through the material, a photon may get absorbed by hitting an
atom in the lower level or may stimulate an excited atom in the upper level. Laser light is
produced by the later process which will dominate only when the number of atoms in the
upper level is more than that of in the lower level or when population inversion is there. If
population inversion is not there, the material will absorb light rather than emitting light.
1.10 What is an active medium?
Ans A medium in which population inversion is achieved for laser action is called an active
medium.
1.11 What is an optical resonator?
Ans It is a pair of reflecting surfaces (mirrors), of which one is being a perfect reflector and the
other being a partial reflector. It is used for amplification of photons thereby producing an
intense and highly coherent output.
1.12 What is the role of helium gas in He–Ne lasing?
Ans In He–Ne laser, helium serves as a buffer gas and helps in the excitation of neon atoms.
Since He-atoms are much lighter than Ne-atoms, electrons transfer energy more readily
to He-atoms. The excited He-atoms in turn transfer their energy to Ne-atoms.
38  Applied Optics

1.13 Do you think energy conservation is violated in laser action?

Ans No. Energy conservation is not violated in laser. In a laser, we only multiply the number
of coherent photons through stimulated emission. The process of stimulated emission
takes place only after obtaining “population inversion” in the active medium. Population
inversion is achieved through suitable “pumping” process. The energy spent in pumping
is recovered through laser emission.
1.14 Why is it necessary to use a narrow tube in a He–Ne laser?
Ans A narrow discharge tube is necessary for the rapid deexcitation of atoms by collision
with the walls. With a tube of large diameter, the probability of collisions of atoms with
the walls decreases and less atoms are available at the ground level for further excitation.
This can cease the laser action in due course.
1.15 Can we obtain light amplification in the absence of stimulated emission?
Ans No, only in the case of stimulated emission, we can obtain photons of same phase, energy,
frequency, and state of polarization which travel parallel to each other. They constitute
the coherent radiation which superimpose to produce radiation of very high intensity.
1.16 Why are lasers uniquely hazardous?
Ans The characteristics of laser light contribute to hazard:
•• Laser light can be emitted in a tight beam that does not grow in size at a distance
from the laser. This means that the same degree of hazard can be presented both
close to and fro from the laser.
•• The eye can focus a laser beam to a very small, intense spot on its retina, which
can result in a burn or blind spot.
1.17 A laser essentially a converter of energy. Explain.
Ans In laser, we simply multiply the number of coherent photons through stimulated emission.
The atoms of laser medium are first pumped to high energy levels and then the same
energy is obtained as a beam of coherent photons.
1.18 Why helium is used in a He–Ne laser?
Ans Neon atoms are much heavier than helium atom. So, it is not possible to excite neon atom
efficiently by means of collision with electrons generated from electric discharge in the
mixture of neon and helium. At the same time, the possibility of transfer of energy of an
accelerated electron through the collision with helium atom is maximum because they are
light in weight.
  There are metastable states of helium atom that are almost identical with two energy
states of neon atom. So, at first the energy of an accelerated electron is transferred in
helium atom through inelastic collision, then that energy is transferred to neon atom via
resonance transfer of energy. So, the excitation is transferred to neon via helium atom.
Helium atom acts as a carrier of excitation.
1.19 Explain the concept of negative temperature in connection with the operation of a laser.
Ans If N1 be the number of atoms in higher energy state E1 and N0 be that in the ground state,
then according to Boltzmann’s law at thermal equilibrium N1 = N0e–E1/kBT.
From this relation it is evident that N1 > N0 if T is negative. Again if N1 > N0, then we say
that population inversion has occurred in the medium. That is why the state of population
 Fundamentals of Laser  39

inversion is sometimes referred to as negative temperature state. It does not mean that
temperature below 0 K is attainable. It simply means that population inversion is obtained
at ordinary temperature.
1.20 State whether a laser is an amplifier or an oscillator?
Ans The mirror in a resonator provides positive feedback to the photons amplified in the active
medium. In analogy with electronic oscillator (in which a part of the output voltage is
feedback to the input in proper phase i.e., positive feedback), the laser is an amplifier.
1.21 A laser beam shows high degree of directionality and monochromaticity why?
Ans An incident photon stimulates an atom in the metastable state to emit a photon of same
energy, i.e., frequency, phase and direction by transition from higher energy state (E2) to
lower energy state (E1), so that hn = E2 – E1. Also the imperfection, thermal distortion and
scattering which are present in a solid state laser are totally absent in a gas laser. Since
the frequency, phase and direction of the stimulated photon are the same as that of the
stimulating photon, laser beam shows high degree of directionality and monochromaticity.

EXERCISES

Theoretical Questions
1.1 Explain the terms spontaneous emission, stimulated emission and absorption radiation.
Obtain a relation between transition probability of spontaneous and stimulated emission.
[Bundelkhand University, 2010, 2011]
1.2 Distinguish between spontaneous and stimulated emissions.
1.3 Explain the terms:
(a) Stimulated absorption
(b) Spontaneous emission
(c) Stimulated emission
1.4 What are stimulated and spontaneous emission processes? Which one, out of these,
is maximized in case of laser action? Given suitable justification to your answer.
1.5 Define the term spatial and temporal coherence. [Avadh University, 2013]
1.6 Discuss temporal coherence and spatial coherence. Explain them with the help of suitable
experiments. [Bundelkhand University, 2008]
1.7 Differentiate between spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.
[Bundelkhad University, 2014]
1.8 Explain the characteristics of laser beam. [Kanpur University, 2013]
1.9 Distinguish between spontaneous and stimulated emission. What is the population
inversion? [Bundelkhand University, 2005]
1.10 Explain briefly the basic principle of a LASER.
[Bundelkhand University, 2006, 2009, 2011]
1.11 Derive relation between the Einstein’s A and B coefficients in context to laser system.
[Agra University, 2006; Bundelkhad University, 2007]
40  Applied Optics

1.12 In comparison to ordinary light, give the uses of laser.

[Bundelkhand University, 2009]
1.13 What is laser? Write its principle. In the state of thermal equilibrium, derive relations
between Einstien’s A and B coefficients. [Agra University, 2011, 2013]
1.14 State the important characteristics and uses of a laser beam.
1.15 Explain the characteristics of a laser beam.
1.16 Explain the following typical characteristics of laser:
(a) Coherence
(b) Divergence
(c) Monochromaticity
1.17 What are Einstein’s coefficients? Derive Einstein relation. Give physical significance of
Einstein’s coefficients.
1.18 Derive relation between probabilities of spontaneous and stimulated emissions in terms
of Einsteins coefficients.
1.19 What do you understand by population inversion? How is it achieved?
1.20 Describe the various methods to achieve population inversion relating to lasers.
1.21 What do you mean by pumping? Describe in brief the various types of pumping.
1.22 Differentiate between three level and four level systems for lasing action.
1.23 Can we have two-level laser? Justify you answer.
1.24 Describe in brief the basic components of a laser.
1.25 Explain the terms:
(a) Metastable state
(b) Population inversion
(c) Pumping
(d) Optical cavity
1.26 Write short note on:
(a) Ruby laser       [Agra University, 2008; Bundelkhad University, 2013]
(b) Applications of lasers [Avadh University, 2013]
1.27 Define population inversion. How is this condition achieved in a laser?
[Avadh University, 2013]
1.28 What is nonlinear polarization? Why did it assume importance after the advent of laser?
[Bundelkhand University, 2010, 2012]
1.29 Explain the spontaneous and stimulated emissions. Discuss the construction and working
of a ruby laser. [Agra University, 2009]
1.30 Describe the construction and working of a ruby laser.
1.31 Describe with diagram the construction and working of a He–Ne laser. Mention its uses.
Why is it superior to ruby laser?
1.32 Light from an ordinary light source is incoherent, whereas from a laser coherent. Why?
1.33 Explain the structure and operation of Nd:YAG laser.
 Fundamentals of Laser  41

1.34 Explain laser. Describe the construction and working of Nd:YAG laser with a suitable
energy level diagram.
1.35 Explain the construction and working of CO2 laser.
1.36 Describe a semiconductor laser with neat diagram.
1.37 Describe the construction and working of a semiconductor laser. List out its merits and
demerits.
1.38 Mention some important applications of lasers.

Numerical Problems
1.1 Calculate the energy and momentum of a photon of a laser beam of wavelength 6328 Å.
[Ans  E = 3.143  10–19 J, p = 1.0477  10–27 kg-m/s]
1.2 A laser beam of wavelength 6328 Å from He–Ne laser can be focused on an area equal
to the square of its wavelength, i.e. l2. If the laser radiates energy at the rate of 10 MW,
find the intensity of focused beam. [Ans  I = 2.5 10–16 W/m2]
1.3 A transition between the energy levels E2 and E1 produces a light of wavelength 632.8 nm.
Calculate the energy of the emitted photons. [Ans  1.96 eV]
1.4 Calculate the population of two states in He–Ne laser that produces light of wavelengths
700 nm at 27ºC. [Ans  N2/N1 = 5.9 × 10–29]
1.5 A semiconductor heterojunction laser is grown with GaAsP active region layer with lattice
constant 0.56 nm. Assume that laser transition occurs from the bottom of conduction band
involving band energy gap 1.85 eV. Determine wavelength of laser emitted.
[Ans  l = 670 nm]
1.6 The ratio of population inversion of two energy levels out of which upper one corresponds
to a metastable state is 1.059  10–30. Find the wavelength of light emitted at 330 K.
[Ans  l = 632 nm]
1.7 The coherence length for sodium D-2 line is 2.5 cm. Deduce the coherence time and the
purity factor (l for D-2 line = 6000 Å). [Avadh University, 2013]
1.8 A certain ruby laser emits 1.00 J pulses of light whose wavelength is 694 nm. What is the
minimum number of Cr+3 ions in the ruby? [Ans  3.49 × 1018 ions]
1.9 The sodium line at l = 5890 Å produced a low pressure discharge, has a Doppler width
of 0.0194 Å. Calculate (a) the frequency of the light, (b) the line width in Hz, and (c) the
coherence length in cm.
[Ans  (a) 5.0934 × 1014 Hz, (b) 1.678 × 109 Hz, and (c) 5.72 cm]
1.10 Imagine that we chop a continuous laser beam (assumed to be perfectly monochromatic
l0 = 623.8 nm) into 0.1 ns pulses using some sort of shutter. Computer the resultant line
width (l), band width (n) and coherence length (L).
[Ans  (l) = 0.13 Å, n = 1010 Hz and L = 3 cm]
1.11 Find the ratio of population of the two energy states of the ruby laser, the transition
between which is responsible for the emission of photons of wavelength 694.3 nm.
Assume the ambient temperature as 27 K. [Ans  6.82 × 10–31]
42  Applied Optics

1.12 Calculate the energy difference in eV between the two energy levels of Ne atoms of
He–Ne gas laser, the transitions between which results in the emission of a light of
wavelength 632.8 nm. Also, estimate the number of photons emitted per second, if the
optical power output is 1 mW. [Ans  3.182 × 1015]
1.13 A laser beam having a wavelength of 400 nm and an aperture of 0.25 cm is sent to identity
an object. Calculate the angular spread and area of spread of the beam. Given the distance
between the laser source and the object as 10 km. [Ans  1.6 × 10–4 rad, 2.56 m2]
1.14 A laser beam has a power of 10 mW. It has an aperture of 5 mm and wavelength of
2500 Å. A beam is focused with a lens of focal length 5 cm. Calculate the area of spread
and intensity of image. [Ans  6.25 × 10–12, 1.6 × 109 W/m2]
1.15 For a ruby laser, the output beam spot diameter are 1 mm and 3 mm at 3 m and 6 m
distances from the laser. Calculate the angle of divergence. [Ans  0.33 × 10–3 rad]
1.16 In a He–Ne laser, the two plane mirrors forming the resonant cavity are placed at 0.8 m
apart. What is the mode of separation of longitudinal cavity in terms of frequency?
[Ans  187.5 MHz]

Multiple Choice Questions

1.1 The most important characteristic of a laser is
(a) polarization (b) coherence
(c) high intensity (d) directionality
1.2 The intensity of a laser beam does not decrease with distance is accordance with the in-
verse square law because
(a) the laser light is monochromatic
(b) the laser light is very intense
(c) the laser light is very directional
(d) the laser light obeys Planck’s law
1.3 For a laser beaml = 4400 Å and coherence time = 4  10–5 s, the coherence length
will be
(a) 12 km (b) 1.2 km
(c) 0.12 km (d) 0.012 km
1.4 In a laser beam minimum angular divergence depends on
(a) wavelength l only (b) diameter of mirror D only
(c) both l and D (d) alignment of mirrors only
1.5 The wavelengths produced by a He–Ne laser correspond to transition in
(a) both helium and neon (b) helium
(c) neon (d) neither helium nor neon
1.6 The term ‘population inversion’ means
(a) population of the ionised state is maximum
(b) population of the lowest state is maximum
(c) population of the lower level is more than that of the higher level
(d) population of the higher level is more than that of the lower level
 Fundamentals of Laser  43

1.7 A laser operates at a frequency of 3  1014 Hz and has an aperture of 10–2 m. The angular
spread will be
(a) 10–2 rad (b) 10–3 rad
(c) 10–4 rad (d) 10–5 rad
1.8 The function of He atoms in the He–Ne laser is
(a) to quench the neon atoms
(b) to provide energy to the neon atoms
(c) to make neon atoms inactive
(d) none of the above
1.9 Which of the following characteristics is not associated with a laser light
(a) coherence (b) brightness
(c) polarization (d) birefringes
1.10 In ruby laser, the rod is surrounded by a helical photographic flash lamp filled with
(a) cromium (b) aluminium
(c) xenon (d) neon
1.11 Who invented semiconductor laser?
(a) Albert Einstein (b) T.H. Maiman
(c) Ali Javan (d) Robert Hall
1.12 If the coherence time is 10–8 s, the coherence length will be
(a) 3 cm (b) 3 m
(c) 30 cm (d) 30 m
[Agra University, 2006, 2013]
1.13 In an atomic system if there are N1 atoms in the ground state and N2 atoms in the excited
energy state, then the condition for laser action is
(a) N1 < N2 (b) N1 > N2
(c) N1 = N2 (d) N2 = 0
[Agra University, 2013]
1.14 When we say population inversion occurred between two energy levels, then which
statement is correct?
(a) Upper and lower energy levels have equal population
(b) Upper energy level has smaller population than the lower energy level
(c) Upper energy level has more population than lower energy level
(d) None of these
[Agra University, 2006]
1.15 The basic of LASER is
(a) Absorption (b) Spontaneous emission
(c) Stimulated emission (d) Scattering
[Agra University, 2008; Bundelkhand University, 2009]
1.16 The ratio of He–Ne ions in gas laser is
(a) 5 : 2 (b) 1 : 4
(c) 10 : 1 (d) 1 : 10
[Agra University, 2010, 2012]
44  Applied Optics

1.17 The purity of a spectral line is

l L
(a) Q = (b) Q =
nL l
l2
(c) Q = ct (d) Q =
4L
[Bundelkhand University, 2005, 2009]
1.18 The half width of a spectral line is
(a) l = lL (b) l = l2L
l l2
(c) l = (d) l =
L 4l
[Bundelkhand University, 2006]

Answers
1.1 (b) 1.2 (c) 1.3 (a) 1.4 (c) 1.5 (c) 1.6 (d) 1.7 (c) 1.8 (b)
1.9 (d) 1.10 (c) 1.11 (d) 1.12 (b) 1.13 (a) 1.14 (c) 1.15 (c) 1.16 (c)
1.17 (b) 1.18 (d)