Course Code : EXT-504

Course Title : Research Methodology in Extension

Course Credits: 3(2+1)
PG Level

Credits: 3(2+1)
Course Code: EXT-504
Title: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN EXTENSION
WHY THIS COURSE?
Growth of any discipline is directly proportional to the creation of knowledge in that
discipline. Extension research is the backbone of extension discipline. Extension research
is a unique social science inquiry where research ideas are gathered from the field
problems and put through a systematic cycle of objective investigations that result in
significant solutions. Apart from developing theories and models that advance scientific
knowledge, extension research should also provide new insights for improving extension
policy and practice. As extension is a field oriented discipline seeking to improve the
welfare of its stakeholders, the extension professionals require critical competencies in
conducting empirical research for developing sound extension models, methods and tools.

AIM OF THIS COURSE

This course aimed to create a workforce which has sound fundamental knowledge and
critical competencies in planning, conducting and applying behavioural research for
developing quality extension models, methods and tools.

The course is organized as follows:

No Block Units
s
1 Introduction to 1. Nature of Behavioural Research
behavioural research 2. The Behavioural Research Process
2 Steps in behavioural 1. Formulating a Research Problem
research process 2. Reviewing the Literature
3. Identifying Variables and Hypotheses
4. Formulating Research Designs, Methods and
Tools
5. Selecting Sample
6. Collecting Data
7. Analysing and Interpreting the Data
8. Reporting and Evaluating Research

LEARNING OUTCOMES
- Understand the concepts, paradigms, approaches and strategies of behavioural
research
- Enable to choose research design, methods and tools suitable for the research
problem
- Design research instruments skilfully and conduct research in an objective
andunbiased way
- Analyse the data through appropriate analytical methods and tools and
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 derivemeaningful interpretations

BLOCK 1: INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOURAL RESEARCH

Unit 1: Nature of Behavioural Research

Methods of knowing; Science and scientific method; Behavioural research – Concept,
aim, goals and objectives; Characteristics and Paradigms of research; Types of
behavioural research based on applications, objectives and inquiry; Types of knowledge
generated through research – historical, axiological, theoretical and conceptual
knowledge, prior research studies, reviews and academic debate; Role of behavioural
research in extension; Careers in behavioural research

Unit 2: The Behavioural Research Process

Basic steps in behavioural research – Formulating a Research Problem; Reviewing the

Literature; Identifying the variables and hypotheses; Formulating research designs,
methods and tools; Selecting sample; Collecting data; Analyzing and Interpreting the Data;
Reporting and Evaluating Research; Skills needed to design and conduct research; Writing
research proposals

BLOCK 2: STEPS IN BEHAVIOURAL RESEARCH PROCESS

Unit 1: Formulating a Research Problem

The research problem and research topic - definitions; Importance of formulating a
research problem; Sources of research problems; Characteristics of a good research
problem; Research problems in quantitative and qualitative research; Steps in formulating
a research problem; Strategies for writing research problem statement; Research purpose
statement; Research questions – Types , Criteria for selecting research questions,
techniques for narrowing a problem into a research question; Objectives - Meaning, types
and criteria for judging the objectives

Unit 2: Reviewing the Literature

Review-meaning and importance; Types of literature review – Context, Historical,

Integrative, methodological, self-study and theoretical; Literature review for quantitative
and qualitative studies; Steps in conducting literature review – Identify key terms, locate
literature, critical evaluation and selection; organising literature and writing literature
review

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Unit 3: Identifying Variables and Hypotheses

Developing theoretical, conceptual, empirical frameworks; Approaches for identifying

concepts, constructs and variables; Role of theory in behavioural research; Steps in
identifying variables – Domain, Concepts, Constructs, Dimensions; Indicators; Variables,
Definitions, premises, propositions and hypotheses; Techniques of identifying concepts,
constructs and variables - Types of concepts; Types of variables –causal relationship,
the study design; and the unit of measurement; Types of definitions-Types of propositions
and hypotheses. Characteristics of good hypotheses; Measurement – Meaning, levels of
measurement – nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio; Criteria for choosing measurement
levels for variables

Unit 4: Formulating Research Designs, Methods and Tools

Research designs – Definition, purpose and functions; Research Design as Variance

Control
- MAXMINCON Principle; Criteria for selecting a suitable Research Design;
Classification of research designs: Quantitative designs - experimental, descriptive,
comparative, correlational, survey, ex-post facto and secondary data analysis; Qualitative
designs - ethnographic, grounded theory, phenomenological and Narrative research;
Mixed method designs – Action research design; Translational research; Elements of
research design - Research strategies, Extent of researcher interference, Study setting,
Unit of analysis and Time horizon. Sources of errors while specifying research designs.
Internal and external validity; Choosing right research design; Triangulation -
Importance in behavioural research, Types of triangulation. Research methods:
Designing research Instruments – questionnaires, interview schedules; tests – knowledge
tests, behaviour performance tests; scales – scales and indexes, checklists, focus groups;
Steps in developing and using research methods and tools; participatory rural appraisal.

Unit 5: Selecting Sample

Sampling - population, element, sample, sampling unit, and subject; Sampling strategies
for quantitative and qualitative research; Principles of sampling; Factors affecting the
inferences drawn from a sample; Types of sampling, Methods of drawing a random
sample, Sampling with or without replacement, Types of sampling - Probability Sampling
- Simple random sampling, Cluster sampling, Systematic sampling, Stratified random
sampling and Unequal probability Sampling; Non-probability Sampling - Reliance of
available subjects, Purposive or judgmental sampling, accidental sampling, expert
sampling, Snowball sampling, and Quota sampling; Sample size requirements for
quantitative and qualitative studies. Methods for estimating sample size; Generalisation
– Importance, Types of generalisations

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Unit 6: Collecting Data

The process of collecting data – Selection, training, supervision, and evaluation of field
investigators; Online data collection; Errors and biases during data collection. Testing
goodness of measures through item analysis - Reliability and validity; Types of validity –
Content validity: Face and content validity, Criterion-related validity: concurrent and
predictive validity, Construct validity: convergent, and discriminant validity, factorial
validity, and nomological validity; Types of reliability – Test-Retest, Parallel forms,
Inter- item consistency reliability, Split-half reliability. Factors affecting the validity and
reliability of research instruments, Strategies for enhancing validity and reliability of
measures. Validity and reliability in qualitative research

Unit 7: Analyzing and Interpreting the Data

Data coding, exploration and editing; Methods of data processing in quantitative and
qualitative studies; Quantitative data analysis - parametric and non-parametric statistical
analyses; Parametric analysis – Descriptive and inferential statistics, Hypothesis testing
- Type I and Type II errors. Concepts in hypothesis testing - Effect Size, α, β, and Power,
P Value; Multivariate data analysis – regression, factor analysis, cluster analysis, logistic
regression and structural equation modelling. Guidelines for choosing appropriate
statistical analysis; Statistical packages for data analysis; Methods of interpreting data
and drawing inferences - The Ladder of Inference; Methods of communicating and
displaying analysed data.

Unit 8: Reporting and Evaluating Research

Writing reports and research publications; Evaluation Methodology

PRACTICALS
1. Selecting a research problem and writing problem statement
2. Narrowing down research problem to purpose, research questions and objectives
3. Choosing, evaluating and reviewing research literature
4. Selection of variables through construct conceptualisation and defining variables
5. Choosing research design based on research problem
6. Choosing right sampling method and estimating sample size
7. Developing research methods and tools – questionnaires, interview schedule,
check lists and focus group guides
8. Writing a research proposal
9. Field data collection using research methods and tools
10. Testing reliability and validity of research instruments
11. Hands on experience in using SPSS for coding, data exploration, editing,
analysis and interpretation Formulation of secondary tables based on objectives
of research.
12. Writing report, writing of thesis and research articles and Presentation of reports

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 TEACHING METHODS/ACTIVITIES
- Lecture cum discussion
- Class exercises
- Assignment(Reading/Writing)
- Student’s Book/Publication Review
- Student presentation
- Group Work
- Research Report

RESOURCES
Babbie E. 2008. The basics of social research. 4th ed. Belmont, CA, USA; Thompson
Wordsworth.
Creswell JW. 2009. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. Third edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Creswell JW. 2012. Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research. Fourth edition. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Kerlinger FN and Lee HB. 2000. Foundations of Behavioral Research. Orlando, FL: Harcourt
College Publishers.
Kumar R. 2014. Research Methodology: A Step-‐by-‐Step Guide for Beginners.
Fourth.Edition. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.
Malhotra NK. 2010. Marketing research: An applied orientation. Sixth Edition. UpperSaddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
NeumanWL. 2006. Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.
Toronto: Pearson.
Sekaran U and Bougie R. 2013.Research Methods for Business A Skill-Building
Approach. 6th Edition, Wiley, New York.
Sendhil R, Kumar A, Singh S, Verma A, Venkatesh K and Gupta V. 2017. Data Analysis Tools
and Approaches (DATA) in Agricultural Sciences.e-Compendium of Training-cum-
Workshop organised at the ICAR-IIWBR during March 22-24, 2017. pp 1-126.
Sivakumar PS, Sontakki BS, Sulaiman RV, Saravanan R and Mittal N. (eds). 2017. Good
Practices in Agricultural extension Research. Manual on Good Practices in
Extension Research and Evaluation. Agricultural Extension in South Asia. Centre for
research on innovation and science and policy (CRISP), Hyderabad. India.
Sivakumar PS and Sulaiman RV. 2015. Extension Research in India-Current Status and Future
Strategies. AESA Working Paper 2.Agricultural Extension in
South Asia.http://www.aesanetwork.org/aesa-working-paper-2-on-extension-
research-in-india- current-status-and-future-strategies-p-sethurman-sivakumar-and-
rasheed-sulaiman-v- december-2015/

6
BLOCK 1: INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOURAL RESEARCH
Unit 1: Nature of Behavioural Research
Methods of knowing; Science and scientific method; Behavioural research – Concept,
aim, goals and objectives; Characteristics and Paradigms of research;
Science: A body of knowledge – Verified knowledge. Method / study / approach leads to
systematic knowledge about how things operate
- As a method it uses observation and
re observation to yield principles & theories
- Future predictions based on observation of past facts
Methods of knowing
• Method of tenacity – Hold firmly on truth, frequent repetition of such truths seems to
enhance its validity
• Method of authority – Holds on established beliefs – If bible says its true – An idea
has with tradition / public sanction
• Method of priori ( Intuition) – Agree with reason – Accept by intuition
• Method of science – Common for all – verifiable - self correlation
Behavioural Research is a part of the research, which studies human behaviour as a part of the
society. It is to find explanation to understand the unexplained social phenomena to clarify
doubts and correct the misconceived facts of social life. Behavioral research is a way to
examine and understand individual and social behavior through measurement and
interpretation.
Behavioral and social sciences research helps predict, prevent, and manage illness — in
individuals and in whole populations. This research also helps people change their behaviors,
understand treatments, and learn how to stick with them. Society’s role is significant, too:
access to health care affects decision making and behavior.
Behavioral research bridges both quantitative and qualitative research to quantify human
behavior, collect new data, and systematically compare treatment and control conditions on
human behavior and choice. Behavioral experiments in labs (or "lab-in-the-field") present a
task in which one must participate and place money on one’s beliefs and preferences. Placing
money one one's beliefs simulates economic realities outside of the lab. What is unique to
behavioral research is a view that behavior is what it is, with some behaviors easier to “capture”
than are others. Datasets that have been created by companies to make sense of their operations
can be expanded with new variables that were not before considered to be of value (thoughts,
feelings, perceptions), including information on motivation and engagement over time, as HR
departments have been increasingly deploying in “People Analytics.”

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Characteristics and Paradigms of research
The Structure of Scientific Revolution he defined research paradigm as “an integrated cluster
of substantive concepts, variables and problems attached with corresponding methodological
approaches and tools”
Ontology and research paradigms
The ontology is the reality of knowledge that exist and that the research wants to seek. For each
research paradigm there is an ontological view that the researcher seeks through research.
Monism, pluralism, idealism, dualism, materialism are some of the ontological views that one
can follow. The ontology cannot be reached without knowing the epistemology of research. In
pure sciences for example, the scientist will use a real reality as an ontological view and to
know that real reality the scientist will use objectivity as an epistemological stance, quantitative
methods as the methodology and hence the scientist is using positivism as the paradigm to find
answers to the research questions.
Reality of real reality is totally an objective way to find answers to the research questions.
While interpretivism, constructivism, and pragmatism paradigms have relativism as
ontological approach.
Epistemology and research paradigms
Epistemology is the philosophical view to seek the reality. It paves the way to find the truth
that is ontology. Epistemology and ontology are weaved together and none is possible without
each other. Realism, rationalism, relativism, and irrationalism are some of the epistemology
that are out there. Epistemology and ontology are like nail and hammer none can work without
each other. If you want to know the reality you should use an epistemology to get the answer.
In each research paradigm there are some epistemology the researcher can choose one that suits
the research question.
Methodology and research paradigms
The methodology can be quantitative or qualitative and within each of these methodology there
are several research techniques. In pure sciences quantitative research methodology is
commonly used. In social sciences qualitative research methodology is more common in use.
As a combination of both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies there is mixed-
method methodology that is more adaptable and in use in both pure sciences and social
sciences.
For a positivist, quantitative research methodology is more suitable and for a interpretivist
qualitative and mixed-method approaches are more common to be used. In interpretivism and
pragmatism statistical inquiry or analysis is not always required.
One very important point o be considered here is that once you decide about either one of the
ontology, epistemology, or methodology of the research you are bound to choose the other two
from some restricted choices. The reason being that you cannot apply subjective epistemology
to positivism or qualitative methodology to objective inquiry. This also reveals how all three
are connected to each other and combined they form a research paradigm. 8

Although ontology, epistemology, and methodology have a relationship with the research
paradigm but as a student you should know the difference between all of them. You cannot call
quantitative approach a paradigm, it is a methodology or approach to research. A research
paradigm is a worldview about conducting research. Research paradigm however provides the
students an idea to choose methods and research design. The research paradigm is the one that
addresses what should be the method to follow for the research and not the other way around.
Types of behavioural research based on applications, objectives and inquiry;
1. Fundamental research – deals with fundamental principles of sociology, conducted
for verification of old theories or establishment of new one. Discovering universal laws,
technologies Eg.Discovery of nitrogen
2. Applied research – deals with the possibilities of application of the results of the
fundamental research to social problems. Eg. Development of the processes of
manufacturing N fertilisers
3. Adaptive Research – on farm research – Determination of dose,time, methods of
application for different crops in different farming situations
4. Action Research – to find out whether or not certain activities actually lead to the
results that were anticipated

Types of knowledge generated through research – historical, axiological, theoretical and

conceptual knowledge, prior research studies, reviews and academic debate;

Role of behavioural research in extension; Careers in behavioural research

Agricultural extension practice must adapt to ongoing updates to scientific knowledge, R&D, 9
as well as the stakeholders and agents that influence farmer decisions. The psychosocial
component of extension is an important, but often overlooked, area for skill development.
Extension officers are required to carry out various social processes, including relationship and
consensus building, mediation and conflict management, coordination of groups, interpersonal
and intercultural communication, and horizontal teaching and learning. The benefits of having
strong interpersonal skills are important beyond agricultural extension – they are a critical
competency for the modern workforce. Given that psychosocial, human-centred skills and
abilities are a core component of extension practice, it is imperative that extension training is
in line with the requirements of the role. The field of behavioural science has been a useful
inclusion in designing and delivering training that meets the needs of extension officers.
Behavioural science is the science of human decision making and behaviour, and draws upon
a range of interconnected fields including psychology, sociology, behavioural economics and
marketing.
The incorporation of behavioural science into extension training can help extension officers
understand the broad range of factors impacting farmers’ decision making and behaviour, and
equip them with the skills to enhance the quality of their relationships and psychosocial
processes.

10
Unit 2: The Behavioural Research Process
Basic steps in behavioural research – Formulating a Research Problem;
Steps Involved in Conducting a Behavioral Research Study
1. Formulate a research question
1. Conduct reconnaissance observations
2. Construct an ethogram
3. Choose a sampling method
4. Collect data
5. Analyze data -run statistical analysis
6. Interpret and communicate results
7. Formulate new research question based on results

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
An adequate statement of the research problem is one of the most important parts of the
research. Different researchers are likely to generate a variety of researchable problems from
the same situation since there are many research issues that can arise out of a general problem
situation. Your research will be able to pursue only one in depth.
Formulating the research problem allows you to make clear, both to yourself and the reader,
what the purpose of your research is. Subsequent elaboration of method should be oriented to
providing information to address that problem. The problem statement is therefore a very
important device for keeping you on track with your research. It is also one means by which
your research will be evaluated - does the research address the problem as stated
Reviewing the Literature; Identifying the variables and hypotheses; Formulating
research designs, methods and tools; Selecting sample; Collecting data; Analyzing and
Interpreting the Data; Reporting and Evaluating Research;
A literature review is a summary of the published work in a field of study. This can be a section
of a larger paper or article, or can be the focus of an entire paper.
A variable is a measurable representation of an abstract construct.
Hypothesis is the pre-assumptive statement of a proposition or a reasonable guess based upon
the available evidences, which the researcher seeks to prove through his study.
Research design
It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research
problem. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing
the data. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints.
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:
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(i) The means of obtaining information;
(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(iii) The objective of the problem to be studied;
 (iv) The nature of the problem to be studied; and
(v) The availability of time and money for the research work.
Data collection
Primary data: Are those which are collected Secondary data: Are those which have been
a fresh and for the first time and thus collected by someone else and which
happen to be original in character have already been passed through the
statistical process
Observation method: 1. Structured and Publications of Central, state , local
Unstructured, 2. Participated and Non- government.
participant observation 3. Controlled and • Books, Magazines, Newspaper
Uncontrolled. • Reports & publications of industry ,bank,
stock exchange
Interviews • Technical and trade
journals
Questionnaire • Reports by research scholars, Universities,
economist
• Public Records

Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task
remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. As a matter of fact even
the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted research study, and the most
striking generalizations and findings are of little value unless they are effectively
communicated to others.
The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others.
Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. All this explains the
significance of writing research report. There are people who do not consider writing of report
as an integral part of the research process. But the general opinion is in favour of treating the
presentation of research results or the writing of report as part and parcel of the research project.
Writing of report is the last step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat
different from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research. This task should be
accomplished by the researcher with utmost care; he may seek the assistance and guidance of
experts for the purpose
Methods of behavioural research
• Qualitative method
• Qualitative
• Experimental-Manipulating variables
• Field study
• Evolutionary History of every problem
• Comparative
12
• Case study
• Interview
• Survey research
• Questionnaire methods
• Sample method
• Interdisciplinary method
• Public opinion poll
• Historical research
• Descriptive research *variables are not manipulable, already occured

13
Skills needed to design and conduct research; Writing research proposals
Skills needed to design and conduct research
Creativity: The first step in research is developing a topic or a plan for exploring a problem,
and creativity is fundamental to this effort. As members of our university’s Student
Undergraduate Research Council, we constantly come across prospective undergraduate
researchers who don’t know where to begin. Students in all disciplines are unsure, even lost,
as to how they should start deciding upon a research topic. Creativity is an essential trait that
undergraduate researchers should seek to develop and utilize within their research experience.
Judgement: Undergraduate researchers also should consider and study the importance of good
judgment as it applies to ethical dilemmas in research. Failure to exercise good ethical
judgments can seriously jeopardize the careers and integrity of not only the student researchers,
but also of their mentors, colleagues, and possibly even their college or university.
Communication: The set of skills necessary to develop and maintain an effective relationship
between an undergraduate researcher and his or her faculty mentor.
Organization: Well-honed organizational skills facilitate effective research and good science,
as well as allowing students to balance classes, studying, research, socializing, hobbies, and
maintaining a healthy lifestyle much easier. Keeping an organized journal or lab notebook of
all work is critical for analyzing data, generating new ideas or proposals, or determining the
next step in a project.
Persistence: It is the drive to never give up. But it is important to realize that persistence
involves facing failure. Failure could involve coming up with a bad research design, not
anticipating future roadblocks, or not knowing every detail of a proposed research project
Writing Research Proposal
The proposal will be 10-12 pages single-spaced, excluding references and appendices. You can
select any research problem of your choice for this proposal, but preferably in the positivist
tradition of inquiry. However, the proposed research must be original (i.e., not something you
are doing for another class or another professor), must examine a real problem (i.e., not a
hypothetical or “toy” problem), and must be of at least a conference-level quality. Your
proposal must include five sections: (1) research problem and significance, (2) literature
review, (3) theory and hypotheses, (4) research methods, and (5) research plan. Data collection
or analysis is not necessary. But if you want to do an interpretive research project instead, then
some data collection and analysis will be needed (and the above structure will also change –
talk to me about these changes). Project deliverables are due throughout the course of the
semester, as we cover corresponding topics in class. This will allow me to give you early
feedback and correct problems well before the final due date. Note that intermediate
deliverables are not graded, only your final proposal will be graded. You will also present your
final proposal during the last week of class in a 15-20 minute formal presentation (plus a 5
minute question/answer session), as you would typically do at an academic conference.

14
BLOCK 2: STEPS IN BEHAVIOURAL RESEARCH PROCESS
Unit 1: Formulating a Research Problem
The research problem and research topic - definitions; Importance of formulating a
research problem; Sources of research problems; Characteristics of a good research
problem; Research problems in quantitative and qualitative research; Steps in
formulating a research problem; Strategies for writing research problem statement;
Educational research starts with the selection of a problem. Following are the fields in which
one may look for problems for research:
a. The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies are the obvious sources.
b. Social developments and technological changes are constantly bringing forth new
opportunities for research.
c. Records of previous research should also be consulted. This includes encyclopaedia of
educational research, dissertations and similar publications.
d. Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with the faculty members and
fellow
scholars and students will suggest many stimulating problems to be solved.
e. Consultation with an expert, researcher supervisor, researcher guide or a senior scholar
will
also be helpful.

Criteria for good research problem.

a. Novelty. The problem should be sufficiently original so tht it does not involve duplication.
b. Interesting. The problem should be interesting for the investigator himself. If the problem
seems to him dull and boring, there is little hope that he would do justice to it.
c. Importance. It should be significant enough. If it is not worthwhile, it would be in vain. It
should add to the development of education as a discipline.
d. Feasibility. The problem should be feasible or suitable for the researcher. He should
possess the necessary competence, knowledge and understanding. He should be skillful
enough to develop, administer and interpret the necessary data gathering devices and
procedures. He should have good knowledge of necessary statistical techniques.
e. Availability of data. The researcher should ensure the availability of valid and reliable data
gathering devices and procedures. Only then will be he able to arrive at dependable
conclusions.
f. Availability of cooperation. Researcher must be sure that he will get all possible
cooperation from spheres he is going to collect data.
g. Availability of guidance. Researcher should select a problem where he could get guidance.
Research purpose statement; Research questions – Types, Criteria for selecting research
questions, techniques for narrowing a problem into a research question;
15
A research question is the main focus of a research project. By definition, this is the question
around which you’ll center your research writing.
Good research question should be:
• Clear and easy to understand without the need for additional explanation
• Relevant to your field of study
• Arguable and open for debate, not acceptable as fast
• Focused enough so you can answer it thoroughly and concisely in fewest words possible
• Feasible enough to answer with practical constraint and timeframe Complex that it
requires synthesizing, analysis of ideas, and sources and citation before arrive to an
answer
A research question may be around an issue that you’re either curious or passionate about. In
some cases, your instructor may give you a topic for your research project.
Types of research questions
1. Exploratory
2. Interpretive
3. Predictive
4. Quantitative
5. Relationship
6. Comparative
7. Descriptive

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Objectives - Meaning, types and criteria for judging the objectives
Objectives are expression of ends towards which our efforts are directed. An objective is that
which a person/group sets before itself as a condition to be attained.
Levels of objectives
• Fundamental objectives – raising the std of living of people
• General objectives – More defenate – ways and means of achieving higher std of living
• Working objectives – specific subject matter approach – Audience –whom you want to
change? Type of change K/S/A? Content or message you want to inculcate
Criteria for judging the objectives:
➢ Can they be defined in terms of behavioural change in people?
➢ Are they achievable?
➢ Are they specific?
➢ Are they consistent and worded clearly?
➢ Are they limited in number?
➢ Can they be measured or evaluated?
➢ Can they be achieved in limiited time?
➢ Can they be achieved in limited cost?

17
Unit 2: Reviewing the Literature
Review-meaning and importance; Types of literature review – Context, Historical,
Integrative, methodological, self-study and theoretical; Literature review for quantitative
and qualitative studies; Steps in conducting literature review – Identify key terms, locate
literature, critical evaluation and selection; organising literature and writing literature
review
A literature review is a summary of the published work in a field of study. This can be a section
of a larger paper or article, or can be the focus of an entire paper. Literature reviews show that
you have examined the breadth of knowledge and can justify your thesis or research questions.
They are also valuable tools for other researchers who need to find a summary of that field of
knowledge
The purpose of a literature review is three-fold:
(1) to survey the current state of knowledge in the area of inquiry,
(2) to identify key authors, articles, theories, and findings in that area, and
(3) to identify gaps in knowledge in that research area.
Literature reviews should be reasonably complete, and not restricted to a few journals, a few
years, or a specific methodology. Reviewed articles may be
summarized in the form of tables, and can be further structured using organizing frameworks
such as a concept matrix.
A well-conducted literature review should indicate
• whether the initial research questions have already been addressed in the literature
(which would obviate the need to study them again),
• whether there are newer or more interesting research questions available, and
• whether the original research questions should be modified or changed in light of
findings of the literature review.
The review can also provide some intuitions or potential answers to the questions of interest
and/or help identify theories that have previously been used to address similar questions.
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted
with the selected problem.
He may review two types of literature—
• the conceptual literature concerning the concepts and theories, and
• the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are
similar to the one proposed.
The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what data and other materials are
available for operational purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his own research
problem in a meaningful context. 18

After this the researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms i.e., to put
the problem in as specific terms as possible.
For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings,
government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier
studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library
will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
Types of literature reviews
Argumentative Review
This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply
imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The
purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the
value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration
control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important
form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are
used to to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.
Integrative Review Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes
representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and
perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address
related or identical hypotheses. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as
primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication.
Historical Review Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical reviews
are focused on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first
time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution
within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context
to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for
future research.
Methodological Review A review does not always focus on what someone said [content],
but how they said it [method of analysis]. This approach provides a framework of
understanding at different levels (i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches
and data collection and analysis techniques), enables researchers to draw on a wide variety of
knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the
areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration,
sampling, interviewing, data collection and data analysis, and helps highlight many ethical
issues which we should be aware of and consider as we go through our study.
Systematic Review This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a
clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to
identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyse data from
the studies that are included in the review. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical
question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to
B?" 19

Theoretical Review The purpose of this form is to concretely examine the corpus of theory
that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical
literature review help establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to
what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be
tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that
current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of
analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.
Steps in conducting literature review –
1. Identify key terms,
2. Locate literature,
3. critical evaluation and selection
4. organising literature and
5. writing literature review

20
Unit 3: Identifying Variables and Hypotheses
Developing theoretical, conceptual, empirical frameworks; Approaches for identifying
concepts, constructs and variables;
Although research can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory, most scientific research tend
to be of the explanatory type in that they search for potential explanations of observed natural
or social phenomena. Explanations require development of concepts or generalizable
properties or characteristics associated with objects, events, or people. While objects such as a
person, a firm, or a car are not concepts, their specific characteristics or behavior such as a
person’s attitude toward immigrants, a firm’s capacity for innovation, and a car’s weight can
be viewed as concepts.
Knowingly or unknowingly, we use different kinds of concepts in our everyday
conversations. Some of these concepts have been developed over time through our shared
language. Sometimes, we borrow concepts from other disciplines or languages to explain a
phenomenon of interest. For instance, the idea of gravitation borrowed from physics can be
used in business to describe why people tend to “gravitate” to their preferred shopping
destinations. Likewise, the concept of distance can be used to explain the degree of social
separation between two otherwise collocated individuals. Sometimes, we create our own
concepts to describe a unique characteristic not described in prior research. For instance,
technostress is a new concept referring to the mental stress one may face when asked to learn
a new technology.

Concepts may also have progressive levels of abstraction. Some concepts such as a
person’s weight are precise and objective, while other concepts such as a person’s personality
may be more abstract and difficult to visualize. A construct is an abstract concept that is
21
specifically chosen (or “created”) to explain a given phenomenon. A construct may be a simple
concept, such as a person’s weight, or a combination of a set of related concepts such as a
person’s communication skill, which may consist of several underlying concepts such as the
person’s vocabulary, syntax, and spelling. The former instance (weight) is a unidimensional
construct, while the latter (communication skill) is a multi-dimensional construct (i.e., it
consists of multiple underlying concepts). The distinction between constructs and concepts are
clearer in multi-dimensional constructs, where the higher order abstraction is called a construct
and the lower order abstractions are called concepts. However, this distinction tends to blur in
the case of unidimensional constructs.
Constructs used for scientific research must have precise and clear definitions that
others can use to understand exactly what it means and what it does not mean. For instance, a
seemingly simple construct such as income may refer to monthly or annual income, before-tax
or after-tax income, and personal or family income, and is therefore neither precise nor clear.
There are two types of definitions: dictionary definitions and operational definitions. In the
more familiar dictionary definition, a construct is often defined in terms of a synonym. For
instance, attitude may be defined as a disposition, a feeling, or an affect, and affect in turn is
defined as an attitude. Such definitions of a circular nature are not particularly useful in
scientific research for elaborating the meaning and content of that construct. Scientific research
requires operational definitions that define constructs in terms of how they will be
empirically measured. For instance, the operational definition of a construct such as
temperature must specify whether we plan to measure temperature in Celsius, Fahrenheit, or
Kelvin scale. A construct such as income should be defined in terms of whether we are
interested in monthly or annual income, before-tax or after-tax income, and personal or family
income. One can imagine that constructs such as learning, personality, and intelligence can be
quite hard to define operationally.
Role of theory in behavioural research
Theories are explanations of a natural or social behavior, event, or phenomenon. More
formally, a scientific theory is a system of constructs (concepts) and propositions (relationships
between those constructs) that collectively presents a logical, systematic, and coherent
explanation of a phenomenon of interest within some assumptions and boundary conditions
(Bacharach 1989).
Theories should explain why things happen, rather than just describe or predict. Note that it is
possible to predict events or behaviors using a set of predictors, without necessarily explaining
why such events are taking place. For instance, market analysts predict fluctuations in the stock
market based on market announcements, earnings reports of major companies, and new data
from the Federal Reserve and other agencies, based on previously observed correlations .
Prediction requires only correlations. In contrast, explanations require causations , or
understanding of cause-effect relationships. Establishing causation requires three conditions:
(1) correlations between two constructs, (2) temporal precedence (the cause must precede the
effect in time), and (3) rejection of alternative hypotheses (through testing). Scientific theories
are different from theological, philosophical, or other explanations in that scientific theories
can be empirically tested using scientific methods.
Explanations can be idiographic or nomothetic. Idiographic explanations are those that explain
a single situation or event in idiosyncratic detail. For example, you did poorly on an exam
22
because: (1) you forgot that you had an exam on that day, (2) you arrived late to the exam due
to a traffic jam, (3) you panicked midway through the exam, (4) you had to work late the
previous evening and could not study for the exam, or even (5) your dog ate your text book.
The explanations may be detailed, accurate, and valid, but they may not apply to other similar
situations, even involving the same person, and are hence not generalizable. In contrast,
nomothetic explanations seek to explain a class of situations or events rather than a specific
situation or event. For example, students who do poorly in exams do so because they did not
spend adequate time preparing for exams or that they suffer from nervousness, attention-deficit,
or some other medical disorder. Because nomothetic explanations are designed to be
generalizable across situations, events, or people, they tend to be less precise, less complete,
and less detailed. However, they explain economically, using only a few explanatory variables.
Because theories are also intended to serve as generalized explanations for patterns of events,
behaviors, or phenomena, theoretical explanations are generally nomothetic in nature.
While understanding theories, it is also important to understand what theory is not. Theory is
not data, facts, typologies, taxonomies, or empirical findings. A collection of facts is not a
theory, just as a pile of stones is not a house. Likewise, a collection of constructs (e.g., a
typology of constructs) is not a theory, because theories must go well beyond constructs to
include propositions, explanations, and boundary conditions. Data, facts, and findings operate
at the empirical or observational level, while theories operate at a conceptual level and are
based on logic rather than observations.
There are many benefits to using theories in research. First, theories provide the underlying
logic of the occurrence of natural or social phenomenon by explaining what are the key drivers
and key outcomes of the target phenomenon and why, and what underlying processes are
responsible driving that phenomenon. Second, they aid in sense-making by helping us
synthesize prior empirical findings within a theoretical framework and reconcile contradictory
findings by discovering contingent factors influencing the relationship between two constructs
in different studies. Third, theories provide guidance for future research by helping identify
constructs and relationships that are worthy of further research. Fourth, theories can contribute
to cumulative knowledge building by bridging gaps between other theories and by causing
existing theories to be re-evaluated in a new light.
However, theories can also have their own share of limitations. As simplified explanations of
reality, theories may not always provide adequate explanations of the phenomenon of interest
based on a limited set of constructs and relationships. Theories are designed to be simple and
parsimonious explanations, while reality may be significantly more complex. Furthermore,
theories may impose blinders or limit researchers’ “range of vision,” causing them to miss out
on important concepts that are not defined by the theory.

23
Steps in identifying variables – Domain, Concepts, Constructs, Dimensions; Indicators;
A theory is a simplified representation of a limited part of the reality
Units of theory
(i) Domain – Specific area of the reality
(ii) Concepts – Abstraction of observed aspects
(iii) Variables – Empirical form of concept
(iv) Definitions – Theoretical and operational
(v) Premises – Assumptions
(vi) Propositions and hypotheses- conjectural relationships
Definitions, premises, propositions and hypotheses; Techniques of identifying concepts,
constructs and variables - Types of concepts; Types of variables –causal relationship, the
study design; and the unit of measurement; Types of definitions-Types of propositions
and hypotheses. Characteristics of good hypotheses;
Variable and its types
A variable is a measurable representation of an abstract construct.
Depending on their intended use, variables may be classified as independent,
dependent, moderating, mediating, or control variables. Variables that explain other variables
are called independent variables, those that are explained by other variables are dependent
variables, those that are explained by independent variables while also explaining dependent
variables are mediating variables (or intermediate variables), and those that influence the
relationship between independent and dependent variables are called moderating variables.
As an example, if we state that higher intelligence causes improved learning among students,
then intelligence is an independent variable and learning is a dependent variable. There may be
other extraneous variables that are not pertinent to explaining a given dependent variable, but
may have some impact on the dependent variable. These variables must be controlled for in a
scientific study, and are therefore called control variables.
Concepts
•An empirically observable manifestation of a concept
•Symbol or label which can take different values for different objects depending on the extent
to which the property specified by a concept is present in different objects
• An abstract concept refers to two or more events (e.g., temperature, human capital
investment). A concrete concept refers to a specific event (e.g., temperature of the sun,
years of formal education).
• Concepts can be measured either quantitatively or qualitatively. There is no
epistemological reason to suspect that either type of measurement is more or less
24
scientific, objective, or valid.
 • Concepts can be measured at the nominal level, indicating no inherent ranking (e.g.,
male, female; Christian, Hindu, Muslim, Jewish), the ordinal level, indicating ranking
without a continuous ordering (e.g., large, medium, small), the interval level, indicating
ranking with a continuous ordering, with no known zero-state (e.g, attitudes about
same-sex marriage expressed on a 1-7 response scale), or the ratio level, indicating
continuous ordered ranking with a known zero point (e.g., age in years).
Premise
A premise is a statement in an argument that provides reason or support for the conclusion.
There can be one or many premises in a single argument. A conclusion is a statement in an
argument that indicates of what the arguer is trying to convince the reader/listener.
Definition and Types
Construct can be measured, it must be defined. Researchers develop two kinds of definitions:
• Theoretical Definitions
• Operational Definitions
Theoretical Definitions: Theoretical definitions are basic dictionary definitions. They are
frequently called constitutive or conceptual definitions. A theoretical definition gives meaning
to the concept or construct under investigation. It should distinguish it from all other concepts
or constructs. A theoretical definition assumes both knowledge and acceptance of the theories
it depends upon. For example, a theoretical definition for the concept "customer satisfaction"
is often defined as the degree to which a customer's experience with a product or service
conforms to his or her expectations and the ideal experience.
Operational Definitions: Operational definitions define an object, event, variable, concept, or
construct in terms of the specific processes, tests, and measurements used to determine its
presence or quantity. Operational definitions transform theoretical definitions into observable
events. This is because an operational definition states which characteristics will be measured
in the assignment of a value to the concept or construct under study. Operational definitions
form the basis for the research questions, hypotheses, and the theories associated with the
research. If a researcher is concerned about levels of brand satisfaction, the researcher could
ask customers to rate their experiences with this brand and competitive brands on a five-point
scale: Very Satisfied, Satisfied, Neutral, Dissatisfied, and Very Dissatisfied
Proposition and Types
A proposition is a tentative and conjectural relationship between constructs that is stated in a
declarative form.
An example of a proposition is: “An increase in student intelligence causes an increase in their
academic achievement.” This declarative statement does not have to be true, but must be
empirically testable using data, so that we can judge whether it is true or false. Propositions are
generally derived based on logic (deduction) or empirical observations (induction).

25
Formulation of hypothesis.
Educational research should make the use of carefully formulated hypothesis. This may be
formally stated or implied.
Hypothesis. Hypothesis is the pre-assumptive statement of a proposition or a reasonable guess
based upon the available evidences, which the researcher seeks to prove through his study.
Importance of hypothesis.
1. It provides direction to the researcher. It defines what is relevant and what is irrelevant.
2. It sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects of the situation which are relevant from
the stand point of the problem at hand.
3. It is a guide to the thinking process of discovery. It is the investigator’s eye – a sort of
guiding light in the world of darkness.
4. It focuses research. Without it research would be like a random and aimless wandering.
5. It prevents blind research. It also prevents indiscriminate gathering of data which may 26
turn out to be irrelevant.
6. It places clear and specific goals before us. These clear and specific goals provide the
investigator basis for selecting samples and research procedures.
 7. It serves the function of linking together related facts and information and organizing
them into one comprehensible whole.
8. It enables the investigator to understand with greater clarity his problem as well as the
data which bear on it.
9. It serves as a framework for drawing conclusions.

Types of hypothesis. According to B. W. Tuckman following are the forms of hypothesis:

a. Question form. A hypothesis stated as a question represents the simplest level of empirical
observations. It fails to fit most definitions of hypothesis. It frequently appears in the lists.
There are cases of simple investigation which can be adequately implemented by raising a
question, rather than dichotomizing the hypothesis forms into acceptable/rejectable
categories.
b. Declarative statements. A hypothesis developed as a declarative statement provides an
anticipated relationship or difference between variables. Such a hypothesis developer has
examined existing evidence which led him to believe that a difference may be anticipated as
additional evidence. It is merely a declaration of the independent variables effect on the
criterion variable.
c. Directional hypothesis. A directional hypothesis connotes an expected direction in the
relationship or difference between variables. This type of hypothesis developer appears more
certain of anticipated evidence. If seeking a tenable hypothesis is the general interest of the
researcher, this hypothesis is less safe than others because it reveals two possible conditions.
First that the problem of seeking relationship between variables is so obvious that additional
evidence is scarcely needed. Secondly, researcher has examined the variables very
thoroughly and the available evidence supports the statement of a particular anticipated
outcome.
d. Non-directional / Null-hypothesis. This hypothesis is stated in the null form which is an
assertion that no relationship no difference exists between or among the variables. Null
hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis testable within the framework of probability theory. It is
a non-directional form of hypothesis.
Important conditions for formulating hypothesis.
Following are some important points for formulating hypothesis:
a. Richness of background knowledge. A researcher may deduce hypothesis inductively after
making observations of behaviour, noticing of trends or probable relationships. For example, a
classroom teacher daily observes student behaviour. On the basis of his experience and his
knowledge of behaviour in school situation, teacher may attempt to relate the behaviour of
students to his own, to his teaching methods, to changes in the school environment and so on.
From these observations, relationships, the teacher may inductively formulate a hypothesis
that attempts to explain in such relationships.
b. Versatility of intellect. Hypothesis is also derived from deductive reasoning from a theory.
27
Such hypotheses are called deductive hypotheses. A researcher may begin his study by
selecting one of the theories in his own area of interest. After selecting the particular theory,
the researcher proceeds to derive a hypothesis from his theory.
c. Analogy with other situations. Analogy with other situations also leads the researcher to
clues that he might find useful in the formulation of hypothesis and for finding solutions to
the problems. Suppose a new situation resembles an old situation in regard to factor ‘x’.
This will greatly help the researcher to deal with factor ‘y’ and ‘z’.
d. Conversation and consultation. At times conversation and consultation with colleagues
and experts from different fields is also helpful in formulating important and useful
hypothesis.

28
Measurement – Meaning, levels of measurement – nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio;
Criteria for choosing measurement levels for variables
Measurement means the assignments of numbers to objects or persons to represent
quantities of their attributes. The assignment of numbers is done according to some
rule. The attribute of person could include his income, preference, religion, social
class, attitude etc. Similarly we measure a product's speed, colour, size, flavour etc. It
is the characteristic of the buyer or the product which is measured and not, the person
or product itself. There are four types of scales used in marketing research to measure
attitude towards a particular product/service. These are as follows:
1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale
1 Nominal Scale: In this type of measurement numbers are used to label persons,
objects or events. For example, the variable sex may be categorized as male or
female. One may assign a number 1 to male and 0 to female. It only helps us to
identify that whenever number 1 is used we are talking about males and 0 in
case of females. Similarly if the units in the population is to be classified
according to religion viz. Hindu, Muslin, Sikh and Christian; one may label
Hindu as 101, Muslim as 102, Sikh as 103 and Christian as 104. The numbers,
here, have no meaning in the sense that the category which is assigned a higher
number is in no way more important (or bigger) than the category which is
assigned a lower number.
The classification to identify objects, events and person is also done on the basis
of the letters of English alphabets. Using the example mentioned in the
preceding paragraph one could have labeled males as A and females as B.
Similar procedure may be used for another type of classification. However, the
classification should be done in such a way that groups are mutually exclusive
and collectively exhaustive.
The only mathematical operation performed on nominally measured data is the
count in each category. Numbers assigned to represent categories (e.g. 1 for
male and 0 for female) cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided. We
can only say (if sample comprises of 100 respondents) that there are 70 males
and 30 females. Also we can say that the sample comprises of say 40% Hindus,
20% Sikhs, 30% Muslims and 10% Christians. The statistical procedures
applicable for nominal scale measurement are Mode and Chi-Square.
2. Ordinal Scale: A significant amount of consumer oriented research relies on
ordinal measurement. Here numbers, letters or any other symbols are used to
rank items. Ordinal scale tells us whether an object or event has more or less of
a characteristic than some other object or event. Unfortunately this scale doesnot
indicate how much more and how much less we have of the characteristics 29 the
objects or events pocess. For example, we may be examining the marks in
Marketing for 60 students in a class. Assume that the highest score in the class is
92, the second highest 63 and the third highest 60. We rank the person getting
92 marks as 1, 63 marks as 2 and 60 marks as 3. However the difference
between the marks of first and second rank is not the same as the difference in
the marks of students obtaining second and third rank.
The common mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division cannot be used with ranked data. However, statistical procedure
based on interpretation of "greater than" or "less than" are permissible: The
statistical methods applicable with ordinal data are percentiles, median and rank
order correlation.
The ordinal scale measurement is of higher level than the nominal scale
measurement. i.e. to say the ordinal scale data can also be converted into
nominal scale data and thus will pocess all the properties of nominal scale data.
As an example assume that 107 consumers are divided according to their income
and the classification is as given below:

Monthly Income
No. of Consumers (Rs.)
(Rs.)
Less than 5000 20
5001 - 8000 30
8001 - 11000 25
11001 - 13000 20
13001 and above 12
TOTAL 107

A consumer having an income of Rs. 7500 will be ranked higher than the one
having income of less than Rs. 5000 (Ordinal scale data). However, the sample of
107 consumers can be classified into 5 income categories to be labeled as A for
less than Rs.5000, B for 5001-8000, C for 8001-11,000, D for 11001-13,000 and
B for 13001 and above (nominal scale data). A consumer having a monthly
income of Rs.12, 000 will belong to category D.
3. Interval Scale: Interval scale responses are more powerful than ordinal scale responses.
They not only pocess the properties of ordinal and nominal scale measurement but also the
strength of the equality of differences between ranks. For example, the consumers may be
asked the following question. How important is price to you while buying furniture? One may
note that very important is assigned a number (1), important as (2) and so on and lastly very
unimportant is assigned a number (5). What is assumed here is that the respondent is able to
30
reply on a continuum scale and the difference between any two responses can be meaningfully
interpreted,
The general mathematical form of interval scale is given by the equation.
Y = a+ bX
The statistical procedure applicable in this case are range, mean, standard deviation and product
moment correlation. However, all the statistical procedures applicable for ordinal
and nominal scale measurements can also be used in this case.
4 Ratio Scale: Ratio scale measurements are the most powerful measurement
discussed so far as they pocess all the properties of the measurement scales
which we have discussed .Ratios of the numbers on these scales have meaningful
interpretation. They possess an unambiguous starting point. The mathematical
form of the measurement is written as
Y=bX
The examples of ratio scale measurement are Income, Distance travelled from
home to workplace, Height, Weight, Density etc. The statistical methods
applicable for this type of measurement are geometric mean, harmonic mean,
coefficient of variation etc. Also all the statistical procedures, described for the
remaining type of measurements are also applicable under this case.
As mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, the methods of analysis for data
depends upon the type of measurements used to measure it. The table below
gives the permissible statistics to be used under different types of measurement.
Table 1: Scales ox1f Measurement
Scale Permissible Statistics
Nominal Mode
Median
Ordinal Percentile
Rank Order Correlation
Mean
Interval Average deviation
Standard deviation
Geometric Mean
Ratio
Harmonic mean

31
Unit 4: Formulating Research Designs, Methods and Tools

Research designs – Definition, purpose and functions

The Planned sequence of the entire process involved in conducting a research study. (by Miller)
Research Design is:
• A framework for the research plan of action.
• A master plan that specifies the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing
the needed information
• A strategy for how the data collected and interpreted.
PURPOSES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
• It provides the scheme for answering research question.
• It maintains control to avoid bias that may affect the outcomes.
• It organize the study in a certain way defending the advantages of doing while being
aware and caution about potential disadvantages .
Functions of research design
• As a Blue Print Perhaps the most important function of research designs is that they
provide the researcher with a blueprint for studying social questions. Without adequate
drawings and plans, a homebuilder would become burdened with insurmountable
problems such as where to place the foundation, what kinds and qualities of materials
to use, how many workers are required, how large should the home be, and so on. By
the same token, a social researcher faces comparable obstacles if he commences his
study without some kind of research plan. To minimize hi< research problems, there
are several decisions he should make before beginning his project.
• Directional Function Research designs dictate boundaries of research activity and
enable the investigator to channel his energies in specific directions. Without the
delineation of research boundaries and/or objectives, a researcher's activities in a single
project could be virtually endless. Many professors directing the work of their graduate
students are probably familiar with the problem of dealing with the loose ends of an
improperly planned research project. With clear research objectives in view, however,
investigators can proceed systematically towards the achievement of certain goals. The
structure provided by the research plan enables the investigator to reach closure and
consider any given project completed.
• Anticipatory Function A third function of a research design is that it enables the
investigator to anticipate potential problems in the implementation of the study. It is
customary for researchers to review current literature central to the topic under
investigation. In the course of the literature review, they may learn about new or
alternative approaches to their problems
Research Design as Variance Control- MAXMINCON Principle
Maximize the systematic variance under study (pro's and cons of demonstrations).
Minimize the error variance (two sources - individual and measurement).
Control extraneous systematic variance.
1. Homogenize sample (loss of external validity).
2. Random assignment.
3. Build into the design (as control variable).
4. Matching (see Weiss example).
32
Criteria for selecting a suitable Research Design
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts bemused.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
areas objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the
data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a
good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

Classification of research designs:

Quantitative designs - experimental, descriptive, comparative, correlational, survey, ex-
post facto and secondary data analysis;
Quantitative research
everything that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the questions that
you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined It is more appropriate to determine the extent
of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying the variation.
Experimental research design
It is designed to assess the effect of one particular variable on a phenomenon by keeping the
other variables constant or controlled.
Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and psychology,
physics, chemistry, biology and medicine, etc.
Descriptive research design
Descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied, which has an
impact of the lives of
the people it deals with.
• Discovering new meaning,
• Describing what exists,
• Determining the frequency with which something occurs, and categorizing
information.
Comparative research design
Correlational research design
Correlational research refers to the systematic investigation or statistical study of relationships
among two or more variables, without necessarily determining cause and effect.
For example, to test the hypothesis “Listening to music lowers blood pressure levels” there are
2 ways of conducting research
• Experimental – group samples and make one group listen to music and then compare
the Bp levels
Survey – ask people how they feel? How often they listen? And then compare 33
Survey
• A survey refers to research where data is gathered from an entire population or a very
large sample in order to comprehend the opinions on a particular matter. In the modern
society, surveys are often used in politics and marketing.
• For example, Imagine where an SAUs or Research Organization wishes to understand
the opinions of farmers on their latest technology.
Ex-post facto research design
• Ex post facto design is a quasi-experimental study examining how an independent
variable, present prior to the study in the participants, affects a dependent variable.
• A quasi-experimental study simply means participants are not randomly assigned.
• Ex post facto research is ideal for conducting social research when is not possible or
acceptable to manipulate the characteristics of human participants
Secondary data analysis
Secondary data analysis involves a researcher using the information that someone else has
gathered for his or her own purposes. Researchers leverage secondary data analysis in an
attempt to answer a new research question, or to examine an alternative perspective on the
original question of a previous study.

Qualitative designs - ethnographic, grounded theory, phenomenological and Narrative

research;
The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research.
This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process.
It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without
quantifying it.
Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude.
Ethnographic studies
Ethnographic studies involve the collection and analysis of data about cultural groups. Agar
(1986) described ethnography as “encountering alien worlds and making sense of them” (p.
12). He further stated that ethnographers try to show how actions in one world make sense from
the point of view of another world. Cameron (1990) wrote that ethnography means “learning
from people” (p. 5). According to Leininger (1985), ethnography can be defined as “the
systematic process of observing, detailing, describing, documenting, and analyzing the
lifeways or particular patterns of a culture (or subculture) in order to grasp the lifeways or
patterns of the people in their familiar environment” (p. 35). In ethnographic research, the
researcher frequently lives with the people and becomes a part of their culture. The researcher
explores with the people their rituals and customs. An entire cultural group may be studied or
a subgroup in the culture. The term culture may be used in the broad sense to mean an entire
tribe of Indians, for example, or in a more narrow sense to mean one nursing care unit.
Grounded theory
Grounded theory is a qualitative research approach developed by two sociologists, Glaser and
Strauss (1967). Grounded theory studies are studies in which data are collected and analyzed
and then a theory is developed that is grounded in the data. Some of the terms used by Glaser
and Strauss are difficult for nurses to understand. Leininger (1985) wrote that in 1980 she began
to translate their terms into what she called “standard English.” The grounded theory method
uses both an inductive and a deductive approach to theory development. According to Field
and Morse (1985), “constructs and concepts are grounded in the data and hypotheses are tested
as they arise from the research” (p. 23). These authors argued that given the state of
development of nursing theories, theory generation is more critical than theory testing for 34the
development of nursing knowledge.
Phenomenological studies
Phenomenological studies examine human experiences through the descriptions provided by
the people involved. These experiences are called lived experiences. The goal of
phenomenological studies is to describe the meaning that experiences hold for each subject.
This type of research is used to study areas in which there is little knowledge (Donalek, 2004).
In phenomenological research, respondents are asked to describe their experiences as they
perceive them. They may write about their experiences, but information is generally obtained
through interviews.
Narrative research;
Narrative is used to describe a variety of ways humans perform the “telling of events” Narrative
is not just a way of describing events, but is a part of the events. The retelling merges events
with reality, however “true” or “accurate” they may be. Narrative accounts detail unique
experiences and perceptions pertaining to various aspects of humanity and culture. Narrative
can provide insight on human interaction, social moral conduct, perceived role

Mixed method designs – Action research design; Translational research

Mixed-method research designs combine multiple research methods to create the best path for
a specific research project. This type of research can include both qualitative and quantitative
research methods.
Action research design
Research aimed at generating qualitative and quantitative knowledge on the development
process and performance of a single or combination of interventions, which can be used to
modify the interventions, and/or identify context specific adoption factors that can be used to
scale out/up best practices

It is a special type of research which is carried out by launching project, in the field for finding
out workable solution to the problems.

The important aspect of action research is that it adopts itself to the changes that takes place in
the community.
STEPS
• Analyze the problem with local people and decide on the objectives.
• Take appropriate action in situation and implement it with local participation.
• Monitoring and evaluation of the results with local people
• Identify constraints and suggest measures to improve upon the situation.

Translational research
Translational research seeks to produce more meaningful, applicable results that directly
benefit human health. The goal of translational research is to translate (move) basic science
discoveries more quickly and efficiently into practice.

Elements of research design

• Purpose statement
• Data collection techniques
• Methods of research data analysis
• Type of research methodologies
• Possible obstacles to the research
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• Settings for research study
• Time of the research study
• Analysis measurement
Research strategies
Research Strategy is a step-by-step plan of action that gives direction to your thoughts and
efforts, enabling you to conduct research systematically and on schedule to produce quality
results and detailed reporting. This enables one to stay focused, reduce frustration, enhance
quality and most importantly, save time and resources. The Research Strategy is the nuts and
bolts of your application, describing the rationale for your research and the experiments you
will do to accomplish your desired goals.
Extent of researcher interference
The extent of interference by the researcher with the normal flow of work at the workplace has
a direct effect on whether the study performed is causal or correlational. A correlational study
is carried out in the natural environment of the corporation with minimal interference by the
researcher with the normal flow of work.
In studies carried out to determine cause-and-effect relationships, the investigator attempts to
adjust specific variables in order to study the outcomes of such manipulation on the dependent
variable of interest. Put simply, the researcher intentionally changes certain variables in the
setting and disrupts the events as they normally happen in the business.
Study setting
Correlational research is carried out in noncontrived settings (normal settings), as opposed to
most causal studies are carried out in contrived settings.
Unit of analysis
The unit of analysis means the degree of aggregation of the data gathered through the
subsequent data analysis.
▪ Individual
▪ Dyads
▪ Groups
▪ Organizations
▪ Cultures

Time horizon.
Cross-Sectional Studies: A study can be carried out in which data are collected only once,
perhaps during a period of days or weeks or months, to be able to answer a research question.
Longitudinal Studies: Researching people or phenomena at several point in time to be able to
answer the research question. Due to the fact that data are collected at two different points in
time, the study is not cross-sectional kind, but is carried longitudinally across a period of
time. Longitudinal studies take a longer period and energy and cost a lot more than cross-
sectional studies. Having said that, well-planned longitudinal studies can help you to recognize
cause-and-effect relationships.

Sources of errors while specifying research designs.

Two types
errors related to improper selection of respondents
population specification error
sampling errors
selection errors
36
frame errors
survey non-response errors
Errors related to accuracy of responses
non-response errors
surrogate information errors
measurement errors from interviewers
measurement errors from questions
measurement errors from respondents

Internal and external validity

Internal validity: Internal validity refers to absence of systematic error that causes the study
findings (parameter estimates) to differ from the true values as defined in the study objectives.
Systematic error can result from inaccurate measurements of study variables, nonuniform
recruitment or retention of study participants, or comparisons of groups that differ in unknown
but important characteristics. Thus, internal validity concerns bias in estimates for the target
population specified in the study objectives.
External validity External validity refers to the extent to which a study's findings apply to
populations other than the one that was being investigate. Generalizability to populations
beyond the target population for which the study was designed and/or beyond the
circumstances implicit in the study is a matter of scientific inference, rather than a technical or
statistical question (see Rothman and Greenland). Therefore external validity is probably better
considered in relation to causal inference and interpretation of study results. (Rothman and
Greenland regard "external validity" as a misnomer, preferring to draw the distinction between
validity and generalizability.)

Choosing right research design

1. Step 1: Consider your aims and approach

2. Step 2: Choose a type of research design
3. Step 3: Identify your population and sampling method
4. Step 4: Choose your data collection methods
5. Step 5: Plan your data collection procedures
6. Step 6: Decide on your data analysis strategies

Triangulation - Importance in behavioural research,.

triangulation refers to the application and combination of several research methods in the
study of the same phenomenon. By combining multiple observers, theories, methods, and
empirical materials, researchers hope to overcome the weakness or intrinsic biases and the
problems that come from single method, single-observer, and single-theory studies.

Types of triangulations
Denzin (2006) identified four basic types of triangulations

• Data triangulation: involves time, space, and persons.

• Investigator triangulation: involves multiple researchers in an investigation.
• Theory triangulation: involves using more than one theoretical scheme in the
interpretation of the phenomenon.
• Methodological triangulation: involves using more than one method to gather data,
such as interviews, observations, questionnaires and documents. 37
Research methods: Designing research Instruments – questionnaires, interview schedules
Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among observed phenomena.

Research commonly refers to a search for knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic

investigation for some pertinent information on a specific topic.

According to Webster's Dictionary, research is careful or diligent search; studious inquiry;

usually critical and thorough investigation or experimentation ; aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical
application of such new or revised theories or laws.

The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered yet.

Questionnaires
• A questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by using a form
which the respondent fills in by himself.
• It consists of some questions printed or typed in a definite order.
• These forms are actually mailed to the respondent who was expected to read and
understand the questions and reply to them by writing the relevant answers in the spaces
provided.
• Ideally, speaking respondent must answer to a verbal stimulus and give a written or
verbal response.
• Its purpose is to collect information from the respondents who are scattered over a vast
area.
Interview schedules
• A schedule is a structure of a set of questions on a given topic which are asked by the
interviewer or investigator personally.
• The order of questions, the language of the questions and the arrangement of parts of
the schedule are not changed.
• However, the investigator can explain the questions if the respondent faces any
difficulty.
• It contains direct questions as well as questions in tabular form.

Tests
A test is a set of questions, each of which has a correct answer, to which the people respond.

Knowledge tests
Knowledge test is one of the sound tool to assess the knowledge of various stakeholders like
customers, farmers, students etc. The methodology behind development of knowledge test is
very important for social science research.
Knowledge test score used as aa variable to test its relationship with other variables.
Steps
• Item collection
• Screening out of statements after consultation with experts
• Item analysis based on
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• Item difficulty
• Item discrimination
• Point biserial correlation co-efficient
Behaviour performance tests
Behavioral assessment is a structured study and analysis of a person’s behavior using various
methods like interviews, direct supervision, and self-observation. It refers to the process of
observing, explaining, and predicting human behavior with the help of new-age digital tools.
Behavioral tests evaluate behavioral competencies. Behavioral competencies comprise
knowledge, skills, and personality traits in an individual. Such competencies are critical
elements of a job that are evident in the workplace’s behavior and observable. Behavioral
competencies vary across job roles and levels. Each behavioral competency can be gauged
through a unique combination of behavioral tests, the outcomes of which can work wonders
when it comes to workforce planning.

Scales – scales and indexes, checklists, focus groups

Scales
The scale is a concept, device or procedure used in arranging, measuring or quantifying events,
objects or phenomenon in any sequence.
Gehlbach and Brinkworth (2011) synthesize several known survey design practices and created
a new rigorous and reliable process to design survey scales. This process relies on both potential
survey participants as well as experts in the field as an effort to reduce measurement effort and
increase the validity of new survey scales. The six-step process is as follows:
Step 1: Literature review
Step 2: Interviews and focus groups with potential respondents
Step 3: Synthesise the literature review with interview-focus group data
Step 4: Preliminary item development.
Step 5: Expert validation of preliminary items.
Step 6: Cognitive pretesting interviews

Indexes
An index is a way of compiling one score from a variety of questions or statements that
represents a belief, feeling, or attitude.
Indexes are very useful in quantitative social science research because they provide a
researcher a way to create a composite measure that summarizes responses for multiple rank-
ordered related questions or statements. In doing so, this composite measure gives the
researcher data about a research participant's view on a certain belief, attitude, or experience

Steps in developing and using research methods and tools

1. Step 1: Identify the Problem. ...

2. Step 2: Review the Literature. ...
3. Step 3: Clarify the Problem. ...
4. Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts. ...
5. Step 5: Define the Population. ...
6. Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan. ...
7. Step 7: Collect Data. ...
8. Step 8: Analyze the Data
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Participatory rural appraisal
"Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) recently renamed Participatory Learning for Action
(PLA), is a methodological approach that is used to enable farmers to analyse their own
situation and to develop a common perspective on natural resource management and
agriculture at village level.

40
Unit 5: Selecting Sample

Sampling - population, element, sample, sampling unit, and subject

Population (or) universe:
• Population is defined as the collection of aggregate (usually large) of individuals (or) the
totalling of observations.
• According to Young Pv., The entire group from which a sample is chosen is universe or
population.
Sample:
• Sample is a part of a population, consisting of one or more sampling units selected and
examined as representative of the whole.
Sampling:
• Sampling is defined as the process of selecting the sample from the population.
Sampling Unit:
• If a population is sub-divided in some parts, then these parts are called sample units.
Sampling Frame:
• The description of all the sampling units is called a sampling frame.

Sampling strategies for quantitative and qualitative research

It include probability and non probability sampling which is mentioned in upcoming topics.

Principles of sampling
1. Selection of sample must be systematic and objective manner
2. Sample unit must be clearly define and easily identifiable
3. Sample units must be independent of each other
4. Same units of sample must be used through out the study
5. The selection process must be on sound criteria.
6. It should avoid error, bias

Factors affecting the inferences drawn from a sample

Homogeneity (or) Heterogeneity of the Universe:
• If there is more homogeneity in the universe a small size sample is sufficient, but if the
universe is heterogeneous, that is units are more dissimilar the sample has to be larger in size.
Nature of study:
• If an intensive study is to be made continuing for a pretty long time, large ample is unfit for
the purpose, as it will require very large finance and other resources.
Practical consideration:
• Availability of time, finance and trained workers are some o consideration in deciding the
size of the sample.
• But one should remember that these considerations could not be taken at the cost of accuracy.
Because that amount spend on representative sample is purely waste.
Standard of accuracy:
• It is generally considered that larger the size of the sample, greater is the standard of accuracy
or representativeness. Although, this is not true in all cases. A small but well selected sample
may give better results than a large sample.
Size of questionnaire (or) schedule:
• Larger the size of the schedule, more complicated the questions to be asked, smaller is to be
41
the size for proper administration.
Nature of cases to be contacted: If the cases are geographically scattered, a small sample is
more suitable. On other hand, if the refused rate is likely heavy or losses of cases likely to be
Suite big a larger sample has to be selected.

Type of sampling used: If absolute random sampling has been used a much larger sample is
required. On other hand if stratified sample has been selected, reliability can be achieved in a
much smaller size.

Methods of drawing a random sample

Lottery method: All the iteams of the population are numbered on separate slips of paper of
the same size, shape or colour. They are folded and mixed up in a container. The required
number of slips are selected at random for the desire sample size.
Random number table: A random number table is so constructed that all digits 0 to 9 appear
in independent of each other with equal frequency. If we have to select a sample from
population of size N= 100, then the numbers can be combined three bt three to give the numbers
from 001 to 100.
Sampling with or without replacement
Simple random sampling without replacement: In this method the population elements can
enter the sample only once (i.e) the units once selected is not returned to the population before
the next draw.
Simple random sampling with replacement: In this method the population units may enter
the sample more than once. Simple random sampling may be with or without replacement.

Types of sampling
Probability Sampling
• In this method the size of the parent population or universe from which the sample is
drawn must be known to the investigator.
• Probability sample provides for calculating the standard error of the distribution.
Simple random Sampling
It is also known as unrestricted random sample.
• It may be defined as a probability sampling method in which each element in the population
has an equal and independent chance of being selected.
• This sampling method is bias free, thus the sample has a high probability of being
representative of the population.
• One of the major disadvantage of SRS is that it does ensure that the element which exist in
small numbers in the population will be included in the given sample.

Cluster sampling
This also a sort of random sampling procedure . But in cluster sampling the sampling units are
not individual elements of the universe, but groups of the elements.

• For example, a researcher wants to study the problems of rural school-going children and
wants a sample of 10 percent children from the rural schools in
the district. The researcher may select at random 10 percent of the rural schools (clusters) in
the district and then use as sample all the children attending those schools.

Systematic sampling
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• This is a non-random sampling method in which every nth element is chosen from a
list of numbered elements. Thus, every element does not have a chance of being drawn
once the starting point is selected.
 • The starting point is often chosen randomly and sometimes changed several times
during the selection process to improve the chances of representativeness, especially in
ordered list.

• This method is easier, faster and less expensive to carry out, particularly with a large
population. But it is potentially a biased sampling method.
• It is also called Quasi-random sampling.

Stratified random sampling

Of all the methods of sampling the procedure commonly used in surveys is stratified sampling.
This technique is mainly used to reduce the population heterogeneity and to increase the
efficiency of the estimates. Stratification means division into groups. In this method the
population is divided into a number of subgroups or strata. The strata should be so formed that
each stratum is homogeneous as far as possible. Then from each stratum a simple random
sample may be selected and these are combined together to form the required sample from the
population.

Unequal probability Sampling

In simple random sampling, the probability that each unit will be sampled is the same.
Sometimes, estimates can be improved by varying the probabilities with which units are
sampled.
For example, we want to estimate the number of job openings in a city by sampling firms in
that city. Many of the firms in the city are small firms. If one uses s.r.s, size of a firm is not
taken into consideration and a typical sample will consist of mostly small firms. However, the
number of job openings is heavily influenced by large firms.
Thus, we should be able to improve the estimate of number of job openings by giving the large
firms a greater chance to appear in the sample, for example, with probability proportional to
size or proportional to some other relevant aspects.

Non-probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure in which there is no way of assessing the
probability of the elements of population being included in the sample. In this type of sampling,
items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher instead of using the techniques
of random sampling.

Reliance of available subjects

relying on available subjects is a risky model that requires a great deal of caution on the part
of the researcher. Since it entails sampling passersby or individuals with whom researchers
randomly come into contact, it is sometimes referred to as a convenience sample because it
does not allow the researcher to have any control over the representativeness of the sample.

Purposive or judgmental sampling,

It is also a non-random sampling method in which the sample is arbitrarily selected because
characteristics which they possess are deemed important for the research.
• In purposive sampling, the investigator has some belief that the sample being selected is
typical of the population or is a very good representative of the population. This is also known
as judgment sampling.
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• For studying attitude of the people towards the national issues, a sample of journalists,
teachers and legislators may be chosen, which is an example of purposive sampling.
• Purposive sampling is a popular method for student research project.
Accidental sampling
Accidental sampling is the least rigorous of all sampling procedures. With accidental sampling,
whichever subjects happen to be available comprise the sample. May “sidewalk” interviewed
are examples of accidental sampling. Other examples of accidental sampling include
using as the sample the first 100 people in the telephone book who happen to answer the
phone, interviewing the first 50 people encountered at a shopping mall who are willing to be
interviewed, and using students in ones own classroom.
An accidental sample is quite likely to be biased. However, the degree and nature of the biases
are usually unknown and cannot be assessed.

Expert sampling
Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of persons with known or demonstrable
experience and expertise in some area. Often, we convene such a sample under the auspices of
a “panel of experts.” There are actually two reasons you might do expert sampling. First,
because it would be the best way to elicit the views of persons who have specific expertise. In
this case, expert sampling is essentially just a specific subcase of purposive sampling. But the
other reason you might use expert sampling is to provide evidence for the validity of another
sampling approach you’ve chosen. For instance, let’s say you do modal instance sampling and
are concerned that the criteria you used for defining the modal instance are subject to criticism.
You might convene an expert panel consisting of persons with acknowledged experience and
insight into that field or topic and ask them to examine your modal definitions and comment
on their appropriateness and validity. The advantage of doing this is that you aren’t out on your
own trying to defend your decisions – you have some acknowledged experts to back you. The
disadvantage is that even the experts can be, and often are, wrong.

Snowball sampling
This is essentially a sociometric sampling technique for study of small groups.
• The method is suitable for study of social change, diffusion of information, network analysis,
decision-making etc. among specific segments of society or social organizations. The method
is convenient for a small sample.

Quota sampling
• In this method, the elements of the sample are selected until the same proportion of
selected characteristics which exist in the population is reached.
• The main difference between quota sampling and proportionate stratified random
sampling is that in the former the final selection of individuals, is not random, whereas
in the latter the final selection of individuals is random.

• This method is convenient, less costly and can include the individuals from different
strata of population. But quota sampling being a non- random, potentially biased
sampling method, can lead to large sampling error.

Sample size requirements for quantitative and qualitative studies.

In designing a sample survey the crucial problem is to determine the sample size. Too small a
sample will increase the error in estimating population parameters and too large a sample will
increase the cost of the survey. Hence, an optimum sample size should be determined to strike
a balance between the accuracy in estimation and the cost.
44
The determination of sample size needs some basic information. The information required
includes the variance, sample design, precision needed and the confidence coefficient. The
sample size determination is influenced by practicability also. The practicability includes
resources, time and availability of required number of units.

Methods for estimating sample size

Once the sample has been taken, the next step is to estimate the parameters of the population.
The main parameters of interest are the mean, proportion and variance.
Usually, the estimates are based on simple arithmetic means of the observed
values in the sample. There are two more importent methods, yiz., the ratio method
of estimation and the regression method of estimation. The latter two methods can
be used only when ancillary information is available.

Generalisation – Importance, Types of generalisations

45
Unit 6: Collecting Data

The process of collecting data – Selection, training, supervision, and evaluation of field
investigators;

Online data collection

The online data collected through by sending emails, texts etc (usually interviews conducted
online) is known as online data collection. The advantage of online data collection is that the
survey respondents are given ample time to respond to the questionnaire or the survey.
Here are the steps that you need to follow for accurate online data collection:
Select the right data source
Establish a sufficient revert time
Customize your survey or questionnaire
Be careful when requesting sensitive data
Displaying data online
online data collection has become a more favorable process in recent times. Advantages like,
it’s less time to consume, more accurate and authentic make it a more reliable choice.
Remember, a good research panel always helps to yield a good data.
Errors and biases during data collection.
Sampling error
The errors which arise due to the use of sampling surveys are known as the sampling
errors.
Two types of sampling errors
Biased Errors- Due to selection of sampling techniques; size of the sample.
Unbiased Errors / Random sampling errors- Differences between the members of
the population included or not included.
Non-sampling errors
Non-sampling errors refers to biases and mistakes in selection of sample.
• CAUSES FOR NON-SAMPLING ERRORS
• Sampling operations
• Inadequate of response
• Misunderstanding the concept
• Lack of knowledge
• Concealment of the truth.
• Loaded questions
• Processing errors
• Sample size

Testing goodness of measures through item analysis - Reliability and validity

RELIABILITY refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same individuals when re-
examined with test on different occasions, or with different sets of equivalent, or under variable
examining conditions.
According to ―Kerlinger‖ validity is the ability of measuring instrument to measure what it is
purported to measure.
Types of validity
Content validity:
When the content of the items individually and as a whole are relevant to the test, it represents
46
content validity According to Anastasi (1968) content validity involves essentially the
systematic examination of the test content to determine whether it covers a representative
sample of the behaviour domain to be measured. In fact, content validity is the degree to which
a test measures an intended content area.

Face validity
• Infers that a test is valid by definition
• It is clear that the test measures what it is supposed to measure
• It’s similar to content validity, but face validity is a more informal and
subjective assessment

Criterion-related validity
Concurrent validity
In this method a test is correlated with' a criterion which is available at the percent time. Scores
on newly constructed intelligence test may be correlated with scopes obtained on an already
standardized test of intelligence. The resulting coefficient of correlation shall be an indicator
of concurrent validity (Singh, 1997).
Predictive validity
Predictive validity may be defined as the degree to which measure predicts second future
measure (Sproull, 1988).In predictive validity, test is correlated against the criterion to be made
available sometimes in future. In this method, test scores are obtained and then line gap of
months or years is allowed to elapse, after which the criterion scores (a second measure) are
obtained. Subsequently, the test scores and the criterion scores are correlated and obtained
correlation becomes the index of predictive validity.
Construct validity
Constructs can be characteristics of individuals, such as intelligence, obesity, job satisfaction,
or depression; they can also be broader concepts applied to organizations or social groups, such
as gender equality, corporate social responsibility, or freedom of speech.

Convergent, and discriminant validity,

Convergent validity is a subtype of construct validity. Construct validity is an indication of
how well a test measures the concept it was designed to measure.
Convergent validity is a bit more nuanced, in that it measures whether constructs that
theoretically should be related to each other are, in fact, related to each other.
For example, the scores of two tests, one measuring self-esteem and the other measuring
extroversion, are likely to be correlated—individuals scoring high in self-esteem are more
likely to score high in extroversion. These two tests would then have high convergent validity.
Discriminant validity is a subtype of construct validity. In other words, it shows you how well
a test measures the concept it was designed to measure.

Discriminant validity specifically measures whether constructs that theoretically should not be
related to each other are, in fact, unrelated.

• Convergent validity shows you whether two tests that should be highly related to each
other are indeed related.

• Discriminant validity shows you whether two tests that should not be highly related
to each other are, indeed, unrelated.
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Factorial validity

Factor validity is the degree to which the covariance of measured items matches the real
covariance or behaviors in real life. It is a type of validity which is the degree to which a test
is measuring what it is intended to.

For example, a test that asks a student questions about French movies is not a valid measure of
the student's mathematical abilities. This would be an invalid measurement. Factor validity is
related to context validity which is how well do the questionnaire items represent the construct
being researched. Factor analysis is used to test the factor validity of a measure or
questionnaire. Correlations between responses are clustered together by groupings of items in
the measurement.

Nomological validity

Nomological validity refers to the degree to which predictions in a formal theoretical network
containing a construct of interest are confirmed. In one sense, the difference between predictive
and nomological validity is one of degree and not kind. Predictive validity entails the
relationship of measures of a variable to a single antecedent or consequent. Nomological
validity, in contrast, involves many antecedents and/or consequents in a complex system.

Test-Retest reliability;
In this method, a single form of the test is administered twice on the same sample with a
reasonable time gap, say a fortnight. This yields two independent sets of scores. The correlation
between the two sets of scores gives the value of the reliability coefficient, which is also known
temporal stability coefficient.

Parallel forms
Parallel forms reliability (also called equivalent forms reliability) uses one set of questions
divided into two equivalent sets (“forms”), where both sets contain questions that measure the
same construct, knowledge or skill. The two sets of questions are given to the same sample of
people within a short period of time and an estimate of reliability is calculated from the two
sets.

Interitem consistency reliability

Inter-item reliability refers to the extent of consistency between multiple items measuring the
same construct. Personality questionnaires for example often consist of multiple items that tell
you something about the extraversion or confidence of participants. These items are summed
up to a total score. When researchers sum up the answers of participants to receive a single
score, they have to be certain that all items measure the same construct (for example
extraversion). To check to what extent items are in accordance with each other, the item-total
correlation can be computed for each combination of items. This is the correlation between an
item and the rest of all items combined. Each item on the measurement instrument should
correlate with the remaining items.

Split-half reliability.
This method indicates homogeneity of the test. The most common is the split –half methods,
48
in which a test is divided in two halves.
One half (one set) contains the odd numbered items (1,3,5,7,etc) and the other half (other set)
the even - numbered items (2,4,6,8,etc). A test should however, not be divided into first-half
and second-half of the items. A single administrations of the two sets of items to a sample of
respondents, yields two Sets of score.
A positive and significant correlation between the two sets of scores indicates that the test is
reliable.

Factors affecting the validity

Environmental factors: Some environmental factors such as room temperature, lighting and
noice can influence the error rate
Research factors: The researcher can influence the results of the study in many ways
Instrumentation factors: An inadequate sampling of items is the other common source of
instrumentation errors.
Subject factors: Any changing physical, emotional or psychological state of the subject could
introduce error in to the measurement process.

Factors affecting the reliability

• Time interval between testing
• Condition under which measure
• Length of test
• Difficulty of the test

Strategies for enhancing validity and reliability of measures.

1. Conduct a pilot test, trying out a questionnaire or other research instruments on a small
group.
2. Use multiple measures.
3. Ensure variability that there is in your measures.
4. Write good items.
5. Get your respondents to take your questions seriously.
6. Be certain to consider face and content validity by choosing reasonable terms and that
cover a broad range of issues reflecting the conceptual variables.
7. Use existing measures.

Validity and reliability in qualitative research

Validity in qualitative research means “appropriateness” of the tools, processes, and data.
Whether the research question is valid for the desired outcome, the choice of methodology is
appropriate for answering the research question, the design is valid for the methodology, the
sampling and data analysis is appropriate, and finally the results and conclusions are valid for
the sample and context.
In quantitative research, reliability refers to exact replicability of the processes and the results.
In qualitative research with diverse paradigms, such definition of reliability is challenging and
epistemologically counter-intuitive. Hence, the essence of reliability for qualitative research
lies with consistency. A margin of variability for results is tolerated in qualitative research
provided the methodology and epistemological logistics consistently yield data that are
ontologically similar but may differ in richness and ambience within similar dimensions.

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Unit 7: Analyzing and Interpreting the Data

Data coding, exploration, and editing, Methods of data processing in quantitative and
qualitative studies;
After collecting data, it has to be processed and analyzed according to the original plan and
purpose of the research. At various stages in the process of the survey, errors can creep in.
During processing of the data the aim should be to minimize these errors.
Editing of data: This is the first step in data processing. The idea is to eliminate any errors in
the data. It involves careful scrutiny of filled in questionnaires or schedules to ensure that the
data is accurate, consistent with other facts, uniformly entered and complete and have been
well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation. The following are the points to take into
consideration when editing the data
Completeness: Check that all questions are answered adequately. Check all 10statements and
mark. If a single question is omitted it may lead to grave mistake which the researcher may not
understand at the time of interpretation
Accuracy: Many times the questions are not answered accurately. So the researcher has to
correct such inaccuracies.
Coding of data: Coding means classification of answers to a question into meaningful
categories which helps to observe its pattern. The whole point of coding is to summarize the
data e.g. 1 for male and 2 for female
Classification of data: after editing and coding is over, the process of classifying or grouping
or clubbing of data starts. Classification is done naturally according to similarities of replies.
Classification may be quantitative e.g age group 20-35, 36-50 or qualitative e.g. very efficient,
efficient inefficient, very inefficient
Tabulation of the data: according to L.R. Corner, tabulation is the orderly and systematic
presentation of numerical data in a form designed to elucidate the problem under consideration.
It is also the basis for statistical computations.
Computer processing: Computers can process large volumes of data with greater speed and
accuracy. Proper statistical packages need to be used for proper results

Quantitative data analysis - parametric and non-parametric statistical analyses

Parametric test: Parametric tests are those statistical tests that assume the data
approximately follows a normal distribution, amongst other assumptions (examples include
z-test, t-test, ANOVA).
Important note — the assumption is that the data of the whole population follows a normal
distribution, not the sample data that working with.
Non-parametric test: In many real-life problems particularly in Social and
Behavioural Sciences where the requirement of parametric tests cannot be
satisfied, that is, neither one can know the form of population nor the
observations measured in quantitative form. In such situations, the parametric
tests are not applicable. Thus, statisticians discovered various tests and
methods which are independent of population distribution and also applicable
when the observations are not measured in numerical scale that is in ordinal
scale or nominal scale. These tests are known as “Non-parametric tests” or
“Distribution Free Tests”.

Parametric analysis – Descriptive and inferential statistics

Percentage analysis: the simplest analysis is to work out the percentage of different items50of
a sample table and then interpret.
Statistical Analysis: this is the most useful, meaningful, scientific, and accepted method of
analysis of data. Statistical methods should be used in extension only when there is absolute
necessity. Statistical methods help to find out the hidden facts from the data e.g. using the
Mean, standard deviation.
Cross tabulation: this part of analysis finds out the relationships among different variables
which will give meaningful beginning of the study. The similarities, differences, correlations,
cause and effect, positive or negative association between different variables, used in the study
should be looked into from the data found in small tables. So cross tabulation is putting one
variable in rows and another variable in columns and finding out the positive or negative
association. Cross tabulation provides the possibility of studying the data from as many angles
as possible to discover more and new things which will be useful in drawing conclusions.
Graphs and pictures
In this method the individual values of the two variables are plotted on a graph paper. Inference
can be made by examining the direction and the closeness of the curves on whether they are
moving in the same direction or opposite direction
Descriptive statistics:
Range: This is the difference between your largest observed value and the smallest observed
value.
Inter-quartile range (IQR) = upper quartile (Q3) - lower quartile (Q1) (see under
Averages and Percentiles)
i.e. it is the middle 50% of the distribution
Normal Distribution: If your data is normally distributed tit will cluster around a central point
in a symmetrical pattern.
When the values of that distribution are plotted against the frequency of their occurrence - the
shape will appear as a 'bell curve'. The bell curve is a symmetric distribution with the highest
frequencies clustered around the mid-point and with the tails falling off evenly to infinity on
either side.
Varience: The Variance is the average of the squared differences from the Mean - and is part
of working out the standard deviation.
Standard Deviation: The Standard Deviation is a measure of how spread out the values in
your distribution are.
It tells us how widely dispersed the values are around the Mean, that is how far away are
they from the Mean.

Inferential statistics

Inferential statistics can be defined as a field of statistics that uses analytical tools for drawing
conclusions about a population by examining random samples. The goal of inferential statistics
is to make generalizations about a population. In inferential statistics, a statistic is taken from
the sample data (e.g., the sample mean) that used to make inferences about the population
parameter (e.g., the population mean).
Types of inferential statistics :
1) Hypothesis testing: Z test, T test, F test, ANOVA test, Wilcoxen signed rank test, Mann-
Whiteny U test
2) Regression analysis: Linear, Nominal, Logistic and Ordinal regression 51
Parametric or standard tests. e.g. t-test, z-test, and F-test
t-test: t-test is a parametric test (see under samples and population) that can tell you how
significant the differences are between the means of two groups are, e.g. did the differences
just occur by chance or is there a real difference?
A large t-score indicates that the groups are different.
A small t-score indicates that the groups are similar.
z-test: A z test is a test that is used to check if the means of two populations are different or
not provided the data follows a normal distribution. For this purpose, the null hypothesis and
the alternative hypothesis must be set up and the value of the z test statistic must be calculated.
The decision criterion is based on the z critical value.
F- test: F test is statistics is a test that is performed on an f distribution. A two-tailed f test is
used to check whether the variances of the two given samples (or populations) are equal or not.
However, if an f test checks whether one population variance is either greater than or lesser
than the other, it becomes a one-tailed hypothesis f test.

Hypothesis testing - Type I and Type II errors.

Hypothesis: a statement made regarding the population characteristic (parameter) is known as
HYPOTHESIS. The correctness of the statement (hypothesis) is as TEST OF
SIGNIFICANCE.
The starting point in statistical tests is the statement of NULL HYPOTHESIS. A null
hypothesis may state that there is no significant difference or association between variables. It
concerns a judgment as to whether apparent differences or relationships are true differences or
relationships, or whether they merely arise due to sampling error

Type I error: A type I error, also known as an error of the first kind, occurs when the null
hypothesis (H0 ) is true, but is rejected.
➢ A type I error may be compared with a so called false positive.
Type II error: Type II error, also known as an error of the second kind, occurs when the null
hypothesis is false, but erroneously fails to be rejected.
➢ Type II error means accepting the hypothesis which should have been rejected.

A statement made regarding the population characteristic (parameter) is known as

HYPOTHESIS. The correctness of the statement (hypothesis) is as TEST OF
SIGNIFICANCE.

The starting point in statistical tests is the statement of NULL HYPOTHESIS. A null
hypothesis may state that there is no significant difference or association between variables. It
concerns a judgment as to whether apparent differences or relationships are true differences or
relationships, or whether they merely arise due to sampling error

Concepts in hypothesis testing - Effect Size, α, β, and Power, P Value;

Multivariate data analysis :

Multivariate data analysis is a type of statistical analysis that involves more than two dependent
variables, resulting in a single outcome. Many problems in the world can be practical examples
of multivariate equations as whatever happens in the world happens due to multiple reasons.
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Regression:
Regression is defined as a statistical method that helps us to analyze and understand the
relationship between two or more variables of interest. The process that is adapted to
perform regression analysis helps to understand which factors are important, which factors
can be ignored, and how they are influencing each other.

Factor analysis
Factor analysis provides an approach that reduces a set of variables into one or more underlying
variables.
Factor analysis is a generic name given to a class of techniques whose purpose is data reduction
and summarisation. Very often market researchers are overwhelmed by the plethora of data.
Factor analysis comes to their rescue in reducing the number of variables. Factor analysis does
not entail partitioning the data matrix into criterion and predictor subsets; rather interest is
centred on relationships involving the whole set of variables.

Cluster analysis:
Cluster analysis: foundations rely on one of the most fundamental, simple and very often
unnoticed ways (or methods) of understanding and learning, which is grouping “objects” into
“similar” groups. This process includes a number of different algorithms and methods to make
clusters of a similar kind. It is also a part of data management in statistical analysis.

Logistic regression
Logistic regression is a statistical analysis method to predict a binary outcome, such as yes or
no, based on prior observations of a data set.
In many ways logistic regression is like ordinary regression. It requires a dependent variable,
y, and one or more independent variables.
Logistic regression can be used to model situations in which the dependent variable, y, may
only assume two discrete values, such as 0 and 1.

Structural equation modelling

Structural equation modeling is a multivariate statistical analysis technique that is used to
analyze structural relationships. This technique is the combination of factor
analysis and multiple regression analysis, and it is used to analyze the structural relationship
between measured variables and latent constructs.

Guidelines for choosing appropriate statistical analysis;

Statistical packages for data analysis

Data Analytics and Reporting with IBM SPSS
SPSS is a comprehensive and flexible statistical analysis and data management solution. SPSS
can take data from almost any type of file and use them to generate tabulated reports, charts,
and plots of distributions and trends, descriptive statistics, and conduct complex statistical
analyses. SPSS is available from several platforms; Windows, Macintosh, and the UNIX
systems.

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Methods of interpreting data and drawing

inferences - The Ladder of Inference

The Ladder of Inference describes the thinking process that we go through, usually without
realizing it, to get from a fact to a decision or action. The thinking stages can be seen as rungs
on a ladder

Methods of communicating and displaying analysed data.

here are four ways of communicating and displaying the analysed data. These are:

• text;
• tables;
• graphs; and
• statistical measures.

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Unit 8: Reporting and Evaluating Research

Writing reports and research publications-Evaluation Methodology

Report writing is the oral or written presentation of the evidence and the findings in such detail
form as to be understood by the reader and as to enable him verify the validity of the report and
the validity of conclusions.
Critical elements of a report
➢ Initial Pages
➢ The title page or cover page
➢ Acknowledgment
➢ Contents
➢ Executive summary
➢ Introduction
➢ Objectives of the study
➢ Research Methodology
➢ Measurement
➢ Conclusions, Abstract, Reference section and appendices
➢ Results and Discussions

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