Chapter 3.

Problems in Elasticity

3.1 Introduction
As pointed out in Section 1.1, the approaches in widespread use for determining the influence of
applied loads on elastic bodies are the mechanics of materials or elementary theory (also known as
technical theory) and the theory of elasticity. Both must rely on the conditions of equilibrium and
make use of a relationship between stress and strain that is usually considered to be associated with
elastic materials. The essential difference between these methods lies in the extent to which the strain
is described and in the types of simplifications employed.
The mechanics of materials approach uses an assumed deformation mode or strain distribution in the
body as a whole and hence yields the average stress at a section under a given loading. Moreover, it
usually treats separately each simple type of complex loading, for example, axial centric, bending, or
torsion. Although of practical importance, the formulas of the mechanics of materials are best suited
for relatively slender members and are derived on the basis of very restrictive conditions. On the
other hand, the method of elasticity does not rely on a prescribed deformation mode and deals with
the general equations to be satisfied by a body in equilibrium under any external force system.
The theory of elasticity is preferred when critical design constraints such as minimum weight,
minimum cost, or high reliability dictate more exact treatment or when prior experience is limited and
intuition does not serve adequately to supply the needed simplifications with any degree of assurance.
If properly applied, the theory of elasticity should yield solutions more closely approximating the
actual distribution of strain, stress, and displacement. Thus, elasticity theory provides a check on the
limitations of the mechanics of materials solutions. We emphasize, however, that both techniques
cited are approximations of nature, each of considerable value and each supplementing the other. The
influences of material anisotropy, the extent to which boundary conditions depart from reality, and
numerous other factors all contribute to error.
In this chapter, we present the applied theory of elasticity, emphasizing physical significance and
employing engineering notations in Cartesian and polar coordinates. The main purpose here is to give
the reader a clear and basic understanding of methods for solving typical problems in elasticity. The
high localized stresses created by abrupt changes in cross section, as well as the high stresses
produced by concentrated loads and reactions, are treated. Our analysis is carried out for isotropic
and linearly elastic materials under ordinary and elevated temperatures. The later chapters include
solutions by the theory of elasticity on bending of beams, noncircular torsion, and various
axisymmetrically loaded structural and machine components, plates, and shells.
3.2 Fundamental Principles of Analysis
To ascertain the distribution of stress, strain, and displacement within an elastic body subject to a
prescribed system of forces requires consideration of a number of conditions relating to certain
physical laws, material properties, and geometry. These fundamental principles of analysis, also
called the three aspects of solid mechanics problems, summarized in Section 1.3, are conditions of
equilibrium, material behavior or stress–strain relations, and conditions of compatibility.
In addition, the stress, strain, and displacement fields must be such as to satisfy the boundary
conditions for a particular problem. If the problem is dynamic, the equations of equilibrium become
the more general conservation of momentum; conservation of energy may be a further requirement.
Three-Dimensional Problems
The conditions described, and stated mathematically in the previous chapters, are used to derive the
equations of elasticity. In the case of a three-dimensional problem in elasticity, it is required that the
following 15 quantities be ascertained: six stress components, six strain components, and three
displacement components. These components must satisfy 15 governing equations throughout the body
in addition to the boundary conditions: three equations of equilibrium, six stress–strain relations, and
six strain–displacement relations. Note that the equations of compatibility are derived from the
strain–displacement relations, which are already included in the preceding description. Thus, if the
15 expressions are satisfied, the equations of compatibility will also be satisfied. Three-dimensional
problems in elasticity are often very complex. It may not always be possible to use the direct method
of solution in treating the general equations and given boundary conditions. Only a useful indirect
method of solution will be presented in Sections 6.4 and 6.5.
Two-Dimensional Problems
In many engineering applications, ample justification may be found for simplifying assumptions with
respect to the state of strain and stress. Of special importance, because of the resulting decrease in
complexity, are those reducing a three-dimensional problem to one involving only two dimensions. In
this regard, we discuss throughout the text various plane strain and plane stress problems.
This chapter is subdivided into two parts. In Part A, derivations of the governing differential
equations and various approaches for solution of two-dimensional problems in Cartesian and polar
coordinates are considered. Part B treats stress concentrations in members whose cross sections
manifest pronounced changes and cases of load application over small areas.
Part A—Formulation and Methods of Solution
3.3 Plane Strain Problems
Consider a long prismatic member subject to lateral loading (for example, a cylinder under pressure),
held between fixed, smooth, rigid planes (Fig. 3.1). Assume the external force to be functions of the x
and y coordinates only. As a consequence, we expect all cross sections to experience identical
deformation, including those sections near the ends. The frictionless nature of the end constraint
permits x, y deformation but precludes z displacement; that is, w = 0 at z = ±L/2. Considerations of
symmetry dictate that w must also be zero at midspan. Symmetry arguments can again be used to infer
that w = 0 at ±L/4, and so on, until every cross section is taken into account. For the case described,
the strain depends on x and y only:

(3.1)

(3.2)
Figure 3.1. Plane strain in a cylindrical body.
The latter expressions depend on ∂u/∂z and ∂v/∂z vanishing, since w and its derivatives are zero. A
state of plane strain has thus been described wherein each point remains within its transverse plane,
following application of the load. We next develop the equations governing the behavior of bodies
under plane strain.
Substitution of εz = γyz = γxz = 0 into Eq. (2.36) provides the following stress–strain relationships:

(3.3)
and

(3.4)
Because σz is not contained in the other governing expressions for plane strain, it is determined
independently by applying Eq. (3.4). The strain–stress relations, Eqs. (2.34), for this case become

(3.5)
Inasmuch as these stress components are functions of x and y only, the first two equations of (1.14)
yield the following equations of equilibrium of plane strain:

(3.6)
The third equation of (1.14) is satisfied if Fz = 0. In the case of plane strain, therefore, no body force
in the axial direction can exist.
A similar restriction is imposed on the surface forces. That is, plane strain will result in a prismatic
body if the surface forces px and py are each functions of x and y and pz = 0. On the lateral surface, n
= 0 (Fig. 3.2). The boundary conditions, from the first two equations of (1.41), are thus given by

(3.7)
Figure 3.2. Surface forces.

Clearly, the last equation of (1.48) is also satisfied.

In the case of a plane strain problem, therefore, eight quantities, σx, σy, τxy, εx, εy, γxy, u and v, must
be determined so as to satisfy Eqs. (3.1), (3.3), and (3.6) and the boundary conditions (3.7). How
eight governing equations, (3.1), (3.3), and (3.6), may be reduced to three is now discussed.
Three expressions for two-dimensional strain at a point [Eq. (3.1)] are functions of only two
displacements, u and v, and therefore a compatibility relationship exists among the strains [Eq.
(2.11)]:

(3.8)
This equation must be satisfied for the strain components to be related to the displacements as in Eqs.
(3.1). The condition as expressed by Eq. (3.8) may be transformed into one involving components of
stress by substituting the strain–stress relations and employing the equations of equilibrium.
Performing the operations indicated, using Eqs. (3.5) and (3.8), we have

(a)
Next, the first and second equations of (3.6) are differentiated with respect to x and y, respectively,
and added to yield

Finally, substitution of this into Eq. (a) results in

 (3.9)
This is the equation of compatibility in terms of stress.
We now have three expressions, Eqs. (3.6) and (3.9), in terms of three unknown quantities: σx, σy,
and τxy. This set of equations, together with the boundary conditions (3.7), is used in the solution of
plane strain problems. For a given situation, after determining the stress, Eqs. (3.5) and (3.1) yield
the strain and displacement, respectively. In Section 3.6, Eqs. (3.6) and (3.9) will further be reduced
to one equation containing a single variable.
3.4 Plane Stress Problems
In many problems of practical importance, the stress condition is one of plane stress. The basic
definition of this state of stress was given in Section 1.8. In this section we present the governing
equations for the solution of plane stress problems.
To exemplify the case of plane stress, consider a thin plate, as in Fig. 3.3, wherein the loading is
uniformly distributed over the thickness, parallel to the plane of the plate. This geometry contrasts
with that of the long prism previously discussed, which is in a state of plane strain. To arrive at
tentative conclusions with regard to the stress within the plate, consider the fact that σz, yxz, and τyz
are zero on both faces of the plate. Because the plate is thin, the stress distribution may be very
closely approximated by assuming that the foregoing is likewise true throughout the plate.
Figure 3.3. Thin plate under plane stress.

We shall, as a condition of the problem, take the body force Fz = 0 and Fx and Fy each to be functions
of x and y only. As a consequence of the preceding, the stress is specified by

(a)
The nonzero stress components remain constant over the thickness of the plate and are functions of x
and y only. This situation describes a state of plane stress. Equations (1.14) and (1.48), together with
this combination of stress, again reduce to the forms found in Section 3.3. Thus, Eqs. (3.6) and (3.7)
describe the equations of equilibrium and the boundary conditions in this case, as in the case of plane
strain.
Substitution of Eq. (a) into Eq. (2.34) yields the following stress–strain relations for plane stress:
 (3.10)
and

(3.11a)
Solving for σx + σy from the sum of the first two of Eqs. (3.10) and inserting the result into Eq.
(3.11a), we obtain

(3.11b)
Equations (3.11) define the out-of-plane principal strain in terms of the in-plane stresses (σx, σy) or
strains (εx, εy).
Because εz is not contained in the other governing expressions for plane stress, it can be obtained
independently from Eqs. (3.11); then εz = ∂w/∂z may be applied to yield w. That is, only u and v are
considered as independent variables in the governing equations. In the case of plane stress, therefore,
the basic strain–displacement relations are again given by Eqs. (3.1). Exclusion from Eq. (2.4) of εz =
∂w/∂z makes the plane stress equations approximate, as is demonstrated in the section that follows.
The governing equations of plane stress will now be reduced, as in the case of plane strain, to three
equations involving stress components only. Since Eqs. (3.1) apply to plane strain and plane stress,
the compatibility condition represented by Eq. (3.8) applies in both cases. The latter expression may
be written as follows, substituting strains from Eqs. (3.10) and employing Eqs. (3.6):

(3.12)
This equation of compatibility, together with the equations of equilibrium, represents a useful form
of the governing equations for problems of plane stress.
Stress–Strain Relations for Orthotropic Materials
Three-dimensional stress–strain relations for orthotropic materials in terms of orthotropic moduli of
elasticity and orthotropic Poisson’s ratios were developed in Section 2.11. Now consider an
orthotropic member with orthotropic axes x, y, z subjected to state of stress relative to the xy plane.
Thus, for the orthotropic material in state of plane stress, introducing Eqs. (a) into Eqs. (2.42), we
obtain the strain–stress relations:
 (3.13)
and

(3.14)
It is recalled that Ex, Ey, denote the orthotropic moduli of elasticity, Gxy the orthotropic shear
modulus of elasticity, and vxy, vxz, vyz are the orthotropic Poisson ratios. Through the inversion of
Eqs. (3.13), the stress–strain relations are found as

(3.15)
Having the preceding equations, the plane stress orthotropic problems are treated similarly to plane
stress problems for isotropic materials.
3.5 Comparison of Two-Dimensional Isotropic Problems
To summarize the two-dimensional situations discussed, the equations of equilibrium [Eqs. (3.6)],
together with those of compatibility [Eq. (3.9) for plane strain and Eq. (3.12) for plane stress] and the
boundary conditions [Eqs. (3.7)], provide a system of equations sufficient for determination of the
complete stress distribution. It can be shown that a solution satisfying all these equations is, for a
given problem, unique [Ref. 3.1]. That is, it is the only solution to the problem.
In the absence of body forces or in the case of constant body forces, the compatibility equations for
plane strain and plane stress are the same. In these cases, the equations governing the distribution of
stress do not contain the elastic constants. Given identical geometry and loading, a bar of steel and
one of Lucite should thus display identical stress distributions. This characteristic is important in that
any convenient isotropic material may be used to substitute for the actual material, as, for example, in
photoelastic studies.
It is of interest to note that by comparing Eqs. (3.5) with Eqs. (3.10) we can form Table 3.1, which
facilitates the conversion of a plane stress solution into a plane strain solution, and vice versa. For
instance, conditions of plane stress and plane strain prevail in a narrow beam and a very wide beam,
respectively. Hence, in a result pertaining to a thin beam, EI would become EI/(1 – v2) for the case of
a wide beam. The stiffness in the latter case is, for v = 0.3, about 10% greater owing to the prevention
of sidewise displacement (Secs. 5.2 and 13.4).
Table 3.1. Conversion between Plane Stress and Plane Strain Solutions

3.6 Airy’s Stress Function

The preceding sections demonstrated that the solution of two-dimensional problems in elasticity
requires integration of the differential equations of equilibrium [Eqs. (3.6)], together with the
compatibility equation [Eq. (3.9) or (3.12)] and the boundary conditions [Eqs. (3.7)]. In the event that
the body forces Fx and Fy are negligible, these equations reduce to

(a)

(b)
together with the boundary conditions (3.7). The equations of equilibrium are identically satisfied by
the stress function, Φ(x, y), introduced by G. B. Airy, related to the stresses as follows:

(3.16)
Substitution of (3.16) into the compatibility equation, Eq. (b), yields

(3.17)
What has been accomplished is the formulation of a two-dimensional problem in which body forces
are absent, in such a way as to require the solution of a single biharmonic equation, which must of
course satisfy the boundary conditions.
It should be noted that in the case of plane stress we have σz = τxz = τyz = 0 and σx, σy, and τxy
independent of z. As a consequence, γxz = γyz = 0, and εx, εy, εz, and γxy are independent of z. In
accordance with the foregoing, from Eq. (2.12), it is seen that in addition to Eq. (3.17), the following
compatibility equations also hold:

(c)
Clearly, these additional conditions will not be satisfied in a case of plane stress by a solution of Eq.
(3.17) alone. Therefore, such a solution of a plane stress problem has an approximate character.
However, it can be shown that for thin plates the error introduced is negligibly small.
Generalized Plane Strain Problems
It is also important to note that if the ends of the cylinder shown in Fig. 3.1 are free to expand, we
may assume the longitudinal strain εz to be a constant. Such a state may be called that of generalized
plane strain. Therefore, we now have

(3.18)
and

(3.19)
Introducing Eqs. (3.18) into Eq. (3.8) and simplifying, we again obtain Eq. (3.17) as the governing
differential equation. Having determined σx and σy, the constant value of εz can be found from the
condition that the resultant force in the z direction acting on the ends of the cylinder is zero. That is,

(d)
where σz is given by Eq. (3.19). A detailed discussion of pressured thick-cylinders is given in
Section 8.2.
3.7 Solution of Elasticity Problems
Unfortunately, solving directly the equations of elasticity derived may be a formidable task, and it is
often advisable to attempt a solution by an indirect method: the inverse or semi-inverse method. The
inverse method requires examination of the assumed solutions with a view toward finding one that
will satisfy the governing equations and boundary conditions. The semi-inverse method requires the
assumption of a partial solution formed by expressing stress, strain, displacement, or stress function
in terms of known or undetermined coefficients. The governing equations are thus rendered more
manageable.
It is important to note that the preceding assumptions, based on the mechanics of a particular problem,
are subject to later verification. This is in contrast with the mechanics of materials approach, in
which analytical verification does not occur. The applications of indirect and direct methods are
found in examples to follow and in Chapters 5, 6, and 8.
A number of problems may be solved by using a linear combination of polynomials in x and y and
undetermined coefficients of the stress function Clearly, an assumed polynomial form must satisfy the
biharmonic equation and must be of second degree or higher in order to yield a nonzero stress
solution of Eq. (3.16), as described in the following paragraphs. In general, finding the desirable
polynomial form is laborious and requires a systematic approach [Refs. 3.2 and 3.3]. The Fourier
series, indispensible in the analytical treatment of many problems in the field of applied mechanics,
is also often employed (Secs. 10.10 and 13.7).
Another way to overcome the difficulty involved in the solution of Eq. (3.17) is to use the method of
finite differences. Here the governing equation is replaced by series of finite difference equations
(Sec. 7.3), which relate the stress function at stations that are removed from one another by finite
distances. These equations, although not exact, frequently lead to solutions that are close to the exact
solution. The results obtained are, however, applicable only to specific numerical problems.
Polynomial Solutions
An elementary approach to obtaining solutions of the biharmonic equation uses polynomial functions
of various degree with their coefficients adjusted so that ∇4Φ = 0 is satisfied. A brief discussion of
this procedure follows.
A polynomial of the second degree,

(3.20)
satisfies Eq. (3.14). The associated stresses are

All three stress components are constant throughout the body. For a rectangular plate (Fig. 3.4a), it is
apparent that the foregoing may be adapted to represent simple tension (c2 ≠ 0), double tension (c2 ≠
0, a2 ≠ 0), or pure shear (b2 ≠ 0).
A polynomial of the third degree

(3.21)
Figure 3.4. Stress fields of (a) Eq. (3.20) and (b) Eq. (3.21).

fulfills Eq. (3.17). It leads to stresses

For a3 = b3 = c3 = 0, these expressions reduce to

representing the case of pure bending of the rectangular plate (Fig. 3.4b).
A polynomial of the fourth degree,

(3.22)
satisfies Eq. (3.17) if e4 = –(2c4 + a4). The corresponding stresses are

A polynomial of the fifth degree

(3.23)
fulfills Eq. (3.17) provided that
(3a5 + 2c5 + e5)x + (b5 + 2d5 + 3f5)y = 0
It follows that

The components of stress are then

Problems of practical importance may be solved by combining functions (3.20) through (3.23), as
required. With experience, the analyst begins to understand the types of stress distributions arising
from a variety of polynomials.

Example 3.1. Stress Distribution in a Cantilever Beam

A narrow cantilever of rectangular cross section is loaded by a concentrated force at its free end
of such magnitude that the beam weight may be neglected (Fig. 3.5a). Determine the stress
distribution in the beam.
Figure 3.5. Example 3.1. (a) End-loaded cantilever beam; (b) stress distribution away from
ends.
Solution
The situation described may be regarded as a case of plane stress provided that the beam
thickness t is small relative to the beam depth 2h.
The following boundary conditions are consistent with the coordinate system in Fig. 3.5a:

(a)
These conditions simply express the fact that the top and bottom edges of the beam are not loaded.
In addition to Eq. (a), it is necessary, on the basis of zero external loading in the x direction at x =
0, that σx = 0 along the vertical surface at x = 0. Finally, the applied load P must be equal to the
resultant of the shearing forces distributed across the free end:

(b)
The negative sign agrees with the convention for stress discussed in Section 1.5.
For purposes of illustration, three approaches are employed to determine the distribution of stress
within the beam.
Method 1. Inasmuch as the bending moment varies linearly with x and σx at any section depends
on y, it is reasonable to assume a general expression of the form

(c)
in which c1 represents a constant. Integrating twice with respect to y,

(d)
where f1(x) and f2(x) are functions of x to be determined. Introducing the Φ thus obtained into Eq.
(3.17), we have

Since the second term is independent of y, a solution exists for all x and y provided that d4f1/dx4 =
0 and d4f2/dx4 = 0, which, upon integrating, leads to
f1(x) = c2x3 + c3x2 + c4x + c5
f2(x) = c6x3 + c7x2 + c8x + c9
where c2, c3,..., are constants of integration. Substitution of f1(x) and f2(x) into Eq. (d) gives

Expressions for σy and τxy follow from Eq. (3.16):

(e)
At this point, we are prepared to apply the boundary conditions. Substituting Eqs. (a) into (e), we
obtain c2 = c3 = c6 = c7 = 0 and . The final condition, Eq. (b), may now be written as

from which

where is the moment of inertia of the cross section about the neutral axis. From Eqs. (c)
and (e), together with the values of the constants, the stresses are found to be

(3.24)
The distribution of these stresses at sections away from the ends is shown in Fig. 3.5b.
Method 2. Beginning with bending moments Mz = Px, we may assume a stress field similar to that
for the case of pure bending:

(f)
Equation of compatibility (3.12) is satisfied by these stresses. On the basis of Eqs. (f), the
equations of equilibrium lead to

(g)
From the second expression, τxy can depend only on y. The first equation of (g) together with Eqs.
(f) yields
 from which

Here c is determined on the basis of (τxy)y+±h = 0: c = –Ph2/2I. The resulting expression for τxy
satisfies Eq. (b) and is identical with the result previously obtained.
Method 3. The problem may be treated by superimposing the polynomials Φ2 and Φ4,
a2 = c 2 = a4 = b4 = c 4 = e 4 = 0
Thus,

The corresponding stress components are

It is seen that the foregoing satisfies the second condition of Eqs. (a). The first of Eqs. (a) leads to
d4 = –2b2/h2. We then obtain

which when substituted into condition (b) results in b2 = –3P/4ht = Ph2/2I. As before, τxy is as
given in Eqs. (3.24).
Comments
Observe that the stress distribution obtained is the same as that found by employing the
elementary theory. If the boundary forces result in a stress distribution as indicated in Fig. 3.5b,
the solution is exact. Otherwise, the solution is not exact. In any case, however, recall that Saint-
Venant’s principle permits us to regard the result as quite accurate for sections away from the
ends.
Section 5.4 illustrates the determination of the displacement field after derivation of the
curvature–moment relation.

3.8 Thermal Stresses

Consider the consequences of increasing or decreasing the uniform temperature of an entirely
unconstrained elastic body. The resultant expansion or contraction occurs in such a way as to cause a
cubic element of the solid to remain cubic, while experiencing changes of length on each of its sides.
Normal strains occur in each direction unaccompanied by normal stresses. In addition, there are
neither shear strains nor shear stresses. If the body is heated in such a way as to produce a nonuniform
temperature field, or if the thermal expansions are prohibited from taking place freely because of
restrictions placed on the boundary even if the temperature is uniform, or if the material exhibits
anisotropy in a uniform temperature field, thermal stresses will occur. The effects of such stresses can
be severe, especially since the most adverse thermal environments are often associated with design
requirements involving unusually stringent constraints as to weight and volume. This is especially
true in aerospace applications but is of considerable importance, too, in many everyday machine
design applications.
Equations of Thermoelasticity
Solution of thermal stress problems requires reformulation of the stress–strain relationships
accomplished by superposition of the strain attributable to stress and that due to temperature. For a
change in temperature T(x, y), the change of length, δL, of a small linear element of length L in an
unconstrained body is δL = αLT. Here α, usually a positive number, is termed the coefficient of linear
thermal expansion. The thermal strain εt associated with the free expansion at a point is then

(3.25)
The total x and y strains, εx and εy, are obtained by adding to the thermal strains of the type described,
the strains due to stress resulting from external forces:

(3.26a)
In terms of strain components, these expressions become

(3.26b)
Because free thermal expansion results in no angular distortion in an isotropic material, the shearing
strain is unaffected, as indicated. Equations (3.26) represent modified strain–stress relations for
plane stress. Similar expressions may be written for the case of plane strain. The differential
equations of equilibrium (3.6) are based on purely mechanical considerations and are unchanged for
thermoelasticity. The same is true of the strain–displacement relations (2.3) and the compatibility
equation (3.8), which are geometrical in character. Thus, for given boundary conditions (expressed
either as surface forces or displacements) and temperature distribution, thermoelasticity and ordinary
elasticity differ only to the extent of the strain–stress relationship.
By substituting the strains given by Eq. (3.26a) into the equation of compatibility (3.8), employing Eq.
(3.6) as well, and neglecting body forces, a compatibility equation is derived in terms of stress:
 (3.27)
Introducing Eq. (3.16), we now have

(3.28)
This expression is valid for plane strain or plane stress provided that the body forces are negligible.
It has been implicit in treating the matter of thermoelasticity as a superposition problem that the
distribution of stress or strain plays a negligible role in influencing the temperature field [Refs. 3.4
and 3.5]. This lack of coupling enables the temperature field to be determined independently of any
consideration of stress or strain. If the effect of the temperature distribution on material properties
cannot be disregarded, the equations become coupled and analytical solutions are significantly more
complex, occupying an area of considerable interest and importance. Numerical solutions can,
however, be obtained in a relatively simple manner through the use of finite difference methods.

Example 3.2. Thermal Stress and Strain in a Beam

A rectangular beam of small thickness t, depth 2h, and length 2L is subjected to an arbitrary
variation of temperature throughout its depth, T = T(y). Determine the distribution of stress and
strain for the case in which (a) the beam is entirely free of surface forces (Fig. 3.6a) and (b) the
beam is held by rigid walls that prevent the x-directed displacement only (Fig. 3.6b).
Figure 3.6. Example 3.2. Rectangular beam in plane thermal stress: (a) unsupported; (b)
placed between two rigid walls.

Solution
The beam geometry indicates a problem of plane stress. We begin with the assumptions

(a)
Direct substitution of Eqs. (a) into Eqs. (3.6) indicates that the equations of equilibrium are
satisfied. Equations (a) reduce the compatibility equation (3.27) to the form

(b)
from which

(c)
 where c1 and c2 are constants of integration. The requirement that faces y = ±h be free of surface
forces is obviously fulfilled by Eq. (b).
a. The boundary conditions at the end faces are satisfied by determining the constants that assume
zero resultant force and moment at x = ±L:

(d)
Substituting Eq. (c) into Eqs. (d), it is found that and .
The normal stress, upon substituting the values of the constants obtained, together with the
moment of inertia I = 2h3t/3 and area A = 2ht, into Eq. (c), is thus

(3.29)
The corresponding strains are

(e)
The displacements can readily be determined from Eqs. (3.1).
From Eq. (3.29), observe that the temperature distribution for T = constant results in zero
stress, as expected. Of course, the strains (e) and the displacements will, in this case, not be
zero. It is also noted that when the temperature is symmetrical about the midsurface (y = 0),
that is, T(y) = T(–y), the final integral in Eq. (3.29) vanishes. For an antisymmetrical
temperature distribution about the mid-surface, T(y) = –T(–y), and the first integral in Eq.
(3.29) is zero.
b. For the situation described, εx = 0 for all y. With σy = τxy = 0 and Eq. (c), Eqs. (3.26a) lead to
c1 = c2 = 0, regardless of how T varies with y. Thus,

(3.30)
and

(f)
Comment
Note that the axial stress obtained here can be large even for modest temperature changes, as can
be verified by substituting properties of a given material.

3.9 Basic Relations in Polar Coordinates

Geometrical considerations related either to the loading or to the boundary of a loaded system often
make it preferable to employ polar coordinates rather than the Cartesian system used exclusively thus
far. In general, polar coordinates are used advantageously where a degree of axial symmetry exists.
Examples include a cylinder, a disk, a wedge, a curved beam, and a large thin plate containing a
circular hole.
The polar coordinate system (r, θ) and the Cartesian system (x, y) are related by the following
expressions (Fig. 3.7a):

(a)
Figure 3.7. (a) Polar coordinates; (b) stress element in polar coordinates.

These equations yield

(b)
Any derivatives with respect to x and y in the Cartesian system may be transformed into derivatives
with respect to r and θ by applying the chain rule:

(c)
Relations governing properties at a point not containing any derivatives are not affected by the
curvilinear nature of the coordinates, as is observed next.
Equations of Equilibrium
Consider the state of stress on an infinitesimal element abcd of unit thickness described by polar
coordinates (Fig. 3.7b). The r and θ-directed body forces are denoted by Fr and Fθ. Equilibrium of
radial forces requires that
Inasmuch as dθ is small, sin(dθ/2) may be replaced by dθ/2 and cos(dθ/2) by 1. Additional
simplication is achieved by dropping terms containing higher-order infinitesimals. A similar analysis
may be performed for the tangential direction. When both equilibrium equations are divided by r dr
dθ, the results are

(3.31)
In the absence of body forces, Eqs. (3.31) are satisfied by a stress function Φ(r, θ) for which the
stress components in the radial and tangential directions are given by

(3.32)
Strain–Displacement Relations
Consider now the deformation of the infinitesimal element abcd, denoting the r and θ displacements
by u and v, respectively. The general deformation experienced by an element may be regarded as
composed of (1) a change in length of the sides, as in Figs. 3.8a and b, and (2) rotation of the sides, as
in Figs. 3.8c and d.
Figure 3.8. Deformation and displacement of an element in polar coordinates.

In the analysis that follows, the small angle approximation sin θ ≈ θ is employed, and arcs ab and cd
are regarded as straight lines. Referring to Fig. 3.8a, it is observed that a u displacement of side ab
results in both radial and tangential strain. The radial strain εr, the deformation per unit length of side
ad, is associated only with the u displacement:

(3.33a)
The tangential strain owing to u, the deformation per unit length of ab, is

(d)
Clearly, a v displacement of element abcd (Fig. 3.8b) also produces a tangential strain,

(e)
since the increase in length of ab is (∂v/∂θ)dθ. The resultant tangential strain, combining Eqs. (d) and
(e), is

(3.33b)
Figure 3.8c shows the angle of rotation eb′f of side a′b′ due to a u displacement. The associated strain
is

(f)
The rotation of side bc associated with a v displacement alone is shown in Fig. 3.8d. Since an initial
rotation of b″ through an angle v/r has occurred, the relative rotation gb″ h of side bc is

(g)
The sum of Eqs. (f) and (g) provides the total shearing strain

(3.33c)
The strain–displacement relationships in polar coordinates are thus given by Eqs. (3.33).
Hooke’s Law
To write Hooke’s law in polar coordinates, we need only replace subscripts x with r and y with θ in
the appropriate Cartesian equations. In the case of plane stress, from Eqs. (3.10) we have
 (3.34)
For plane strain, Eqs. (3.5) lead to

(3.35)
Transformation Equations
Replacement of the subscripts x′ with r and y′ with θ in Eqs. (1.17) results in

(3.36)
We can also express σx, τxy, and σy in terms of σr, τrθ, and σθ (Problem 3.26) by replacing θ with –θ
in Eqs. (1.17). Thus,

(3.37)
Similar transformation equations may also be written for the strains and εr, γrθ, and εθ.
Compatibility Equation
It can be shown that Eqs. (3.33) result in the following form of the equation of compatibility:

(3.38)
To arrive at a compatibility equation expressed in terms of the stress function Φ, it is necessary to
evaluate the partial derivatives ∂2Φ/∂x2 and ∂2Φ/∂y2 in terms of r and θ by means of the chain rule
together with Eqs. (a). These derivatives lead to the Laplacian operator:
 (3.39)
The equation of compatibility in alternative form is thus

(3.40)
For the axisymmetrical, zero body force case, the compatibility equation is, from Eq. (3.9) [referring
to (3.39)],

(3.41)
The remaining relationships appropriate to two-dimensional elasticity are found in a manner similar
to that outlined in the foregoing discussion.

Example 3.3. State of Stress in a Plate in Tension

A large thin plate is subjected to uniform tensile stress σo at its ends, as shown in Fig. 3.9.
Determine the field of stress existing within the plate.
Figure 3.9. Example 3.3. A plate in uniaxial tension.

Solution
For purposes of this analysis, it will prove convenient to locate the origin of coordinate axes at
the center of the plate as shown. The state of stress in the plate is expressed by

The stress function, Φ = σoy2/2, satisfies the biharmonic equation, Eq. (3.17). The geometry
suggests polar form. The stress function Φ may be transformed by substituting y = r sin θ, with the
following result:

(h)
The stresses in the plate now follow from Eqs. (h) and (3.32):
 (3.42)
Clearly, substitution of σy = τxy = 0 could have led directly to the foregoing result, using the
transformation expressions of stress, Eqs. (3.36).

Part B—Stress Concentrations

3.10 Stresses Due to Concentrated Loads
Let us now consider a concentrated force P or F acting at the vertex of a very large or semi-infinite
wedge (Fig. 3.10). The load distribution along the thickness (z direction) is uniform. The thickness of
the wedge is taken as unity, so P or F is the load per unit thickness. In such situations, it is
convenient to use polar coordinates and the semi-inverse method.
Figure 3.10. Wedge of unit thickness subjected to a concentrated load per unit thickness: (a)
knife edge or pivot; (b) wedge cantilever.

In actuality, the concentrated load is assumed to be a theoretical line load and will be spread over an
area of small finite width. Plastic deformation may occur locally. Thus, the solutions that follow are
not valid in the immediate vicinity of the application of load.
Compression of a Wedge (Fig. 3.10a)
Assume the stress function

(a)
where c is a constant. It can be verified that Eq. (a) satisfies Eq. (3.40) and compatibility is ensured.
For equilibrium, the stresses from Eqs. (3.32) are

(b)
The force resultant acting on a cylindrical surface of small radius, shown by the dashed lines in Fig.
3.10a, must balance P. The boundary conditions are therefore expressed by
 (c)

(d)
Conditions (c) are fulfilled by the last two of Eqs. (b). Substituting the first of Eqs. (b) into condition
(d) results in

Integrating and solving for c: c = –1/(2α + sin 2α). The stress distribution in the knife edge is
therefore

(3.43)
This solution is due to J. H. Mitchell [Ref. 3.6].
The distribution of the normal stresses σx over any cross section m – n perpendicular to the axis of
symmetry of the wedge is not uniform (Fig. 3.10a). Applying Eq. (3.37) and substituting r = L/cos θ
in Eq. (3.43), we have

(3.44)
The foregoing shows that the stresses increase as L decreases. Observe also that the normal stress is
maximum at the center of the cross section (θ = 0) and minimum at θ = α. The difference between the
maximum and minimum stress, Δσx, is from Eq. (3.44),

(e)
For instance, if α = 10°, Δσx = –0.172P/L is about 6% of the average normal stress calculated from
the elementary formula (σx)elem = –P/A = –P/2L tan α = –2.836P/L. For larger angles, the difference
is greater; the error in the mechanics of materials solution increases (Prob. 3.31). It may be
demonstrated that the stress distribution over the cross section approaches uniformity as the taper of
the wedge diminishes. Analogous conclusions may also be drawn for a conical bar. Note that Eqs.
(3.43) can be applied as well for the uniaxial tension of tapered members by assigning σr a positive
value.
Bending of a Wedge (Fig. 3.10b)
We now employ Φ = cFrθ1 sin θ1, with θ1 measured from the line of action of the force. The
equilibrium condition is
from which, after integration, c = –1/(2α – sin 2α). Thus, by replacing θ1 with 90° – θ, we have

(3.45)
It is seen that if θ1 is larger than π/2, the radial stress is positive, that is, tension exists. Because sin θ
= y/r, cos θ = x/r, and , the normal and shearing stresses at a point over any cross
section m – n, using Eqs. (3.37) and (3.45), may be expressed as

(3.46)
Using Eqs. (3.46), it can be shown that (Prob. 3.33) across a transverse section x = L of the wedge:
σx is a maximum for θ = ±30°, σy is a maximum for θ = ±60°, and τxy is a maximum for θ = ±45°.
To compare the results given by Eqs. (3.46) with the results given by the elementary formulas for
stress, consider the series

It follows that, for small angle α, we can disregard all but the first two terms of this series to obtain

(f)
By introducing the moment of inertia of the cross section m – n, , and Eq. (f), we find
from Eqs. (3.46) that

(g)
For small values of α, the factor in the bracket is approximately equal to unity. The expression for σx
then coincides with that given by the flexure formula, –My/I, of the mechanics of materials. In the
elementary theory, the lateral stress σy given by the second of Eqs. (3.46) is ignored. The maximum
shearing stress τxy obtained from Eq. (g) is twice as great as the shearing stress calculated from
VQ/Ib of the elementary theory and occurs at the extreme fibers (at points m and n) rather than the
neutral axis of the rectangular cross section.
In the case of loading in both compression and bending, superposition of the effects of P and F results
in the following expression for combined stress in a pivot or in a wedge–cantilever:

(3.47)
The foregoing provides the local stresses at the support of a beam of narrow rectangular cross
section.
Concentrated Load on a Straight Boundary (Fig. 3.11a)
Figure 3.11. (a) Concentrated load on a straight boundary of a large plate; (b) a circle of
constant radial stress.

By setting α = π/2 in Eq. (3.43), the result

(3.48)
is an expression for radial stress distribution in a very large plate (semi-infinite solid) under normal
load at its horizontal surface. For a circle of any diameter d with center on the x axis and tangent to
the y axis, as shown in Fig. 3.11b, we have, for point A of the circle, d · cos θ = r. Equation (3.48)
then becomes

(3.49)
We thus observe that, except for the point of load application, the stress is the same at all points on
the circle.
The stress components in Cartesian coordinates may be obtained readily by following a procedure
similar to that described previously for a wedge:
 (3.50)
The state of stress is shown on a properly oriented element in Fig. 3.11a.
3.11 Stress Distribution Near Concentrated Load Acting on a Beam
The elastic flexure formula for beams gives satisfactory results only at some distance away from the
point of load application. Near this point, however, there is a significant perturbation in stress
distribution, which is very important. In the case of a beam of narrow rectangular cross section, these
irregularities can be studied by using the equations developed in Section 3.10.
Consider the case of a simply supported beam of depth h, length L, and width b, loaded at the
midspan (Fig. 3.12a). The origin of coordinates is taken to be the center of the beam, with x the axial
axis as shown in the figure. Both force P and the supporting reactions are applied along lines across
the width of the beam. The bending stress distribution, using the flexure formula, is expressed by

Figure 3.12. Beam subjected to a concentrated load P at the midspan.

where I = bh3/12 is the moment of inertia of the cross section. The stress at the loaded section is
obtained by substituting x = 0 into the preceding equation:

(a)
To obtain the total stress along section AB, we apply the superposition of the bending stress
distribution and stresses created by the line load, given by Eq. (3.48) for a semi-infinite plate.
Observe that the radial pressure distribution created by a line load over quadrant ab of cylindrical
surface abc at point A (Fig. 3.12b) produces a horizontal force

(b)
and a vertical force

(c)
applied at A (Fig. 3.12c). In the case of a beam (Fig. 3.12a), the latter force is balanced by the
supporting reactions that give rise to the bending stresses [Eq. (a)]. On the other hand, the horizontal
forces create tensile stresses at the midsection of the beam of

(d)
as well as bending stresses of

(e)
Here Ph/2π is the bending moment of forces P/π about the point 0.
Combining the stresses of Eqs. (d) and (e) with the bending stress given by Eq. (a), we obtain the
axial normal stress distribution over beam cross section AB:

(3.51)
At point B(0, h/2), the tensile stress is

(3.52)
The second term represents a correction to the simple beam formula owing to the presence of the line
load. It is observed that for short beams this stress is of considerable magnitude. The axial normal
stresses at other points in the midsection are determined in a like manner.
The foregoing procedure leads to the poorest accuracy for point B, the point of maximum tensile
stress. A better approximation [see Ref. 3.7] of this stress is given by

(3.53)
Another more detailed study demonstrates that the local stresses decrease very rapidly with increase
of the distance (x) from the point of load application. At a distance equal to the depth of the beam,
they are usually negligible. Furthermore, along the loaded section, the normal stress σx does not obey
a linear law.
In the preceding discussion, the disturbance caused by the reactions at the ends of the beam, which are
also applied as line loads, are not taken into account. To determine the radial stress distribution at the
supports of the beam of narrow rectangular cross section, Eq. (3.47) can be used. Clearly, for the
beam under consideration, we use F = 0 and replace P by P/2 in this expression.
3.12 Stress Concentration Factors
The discussion in Section 3.10 shows that, for situations in which the cross section of a load-carrying
member varies gradually, reasonably accurate results can be expected if we apply equations derived
on the basis of constant section. On the other hand, where abrupt changes in the cross section exist,
the mechanics of materials approach cannot predict the high values of stress that actually exist. The
condition referred to occurs in such frequently encountered configurations as holes, notches, and
fillets. While the stresses in these regions can in some cases (for example, Fig. 3.13) be analyzed by
applying the theory of elasticity, it is more usual to rely on experimental techniques and, in particular,
photoelastic methods. The finite element method (Chap. 7) is very efficient for this purpose.
Figure 3.13. Circular hole in a plate subjected to uniaxial tension: (a) tangential stress
distribution for θ = ±π/2; (b) tangential stress distribution along periphery of the hole.

It is to be noted that irregularities in stress distribution associated with abrupt changes in cross
section are of practical importance in the design of machine elements subject to variable external
forces and stress reversal. Under the action of stress reversal, progressive cracks (Sec. 4.4) are
likely to start at certain points at which the stress is far above the average value. The majority of
fractures in machine elements in service can be attributed to such progressive cracks.
A geometric or theoretical stress concentration factor K is used to relate the maximum stress at the
discontinuity to the nominal stress. The factor is defined by

(3.54)
In the foregoing, the nominal stress is the stress that occurs if the abrupt change in the cross section
did not exist or had no influence on stress distribution. It is important that a stress concentration factor
is applied to the stress computed for the net or reduced cross section. Equation (3.54) is valid as long
as computed values of maximum stress do not exceed the proportional limit of the material.
We note that for ductile materials statically loaded beyond the yield point, the stress concentration
factors decrease to a value approaching unity because of the redistribution of stress around a
discontinuity. That is, the effect of an abrupt change in geometry is nullified, and σmax = σnom, or K =
1; a nearly uniform stress distribution exists across the net section. This is referred to as a fully
plastic condition (Chap. 12). Therefore, the stress-concentration factor is of no significance in design
of a ductile material under static loading. However, for dynamic (such as repeated, impact, or
thermal) loading, even a ductile material may fail as a result of propagation of cracks originating at
points of high stress. So, the presence of stress concentration in the case of dynamic loading must not
be ignored, regardless of whether the material is brittle or ductile. More is said about this in Chapter
4.
Circular Hole in a Large Plate in Simple Tension
The theory of elasticity can be applied to evaluate the stress concentration associated with some
incomplex geometric configurations under static loadings. One solution is that of a large, thin plate
containing a small circular hole of radius a subjected to a tension (Fig. 3.13a). In the following, we
determine the field of stress and compare it with those of Example 3.3.
The boundary conditions appropriate to the circumference of the hole are

(a)
For large distances away from the origin, we set σr, σθ, and τrθ equal to the values found for a solid
plate in Example 3.3. Thus, from Eq. (3.42), for r = ∞,

(b)
For this case, we assume a stress function analogous to Eq. (h) of Example 3.3,

(c)
in which f1 and f2 are yet to be determined. Substituting Eq. (c) into the biharmonic equation (3.40)
and noting the validity of the resulting expression for all θ, we have

(d)

(e)
The solutions of Eqs. (d) and (e) are (Prob. 3.35)

(f)

(g)
where the c’s are the constants of integration. The stress function is then obtained by introducing Eqs.
(f) and (g) into (c). By substituting Φ into Eq. (3.32), the stresses are found to be

(h)
The absence of c4 indicates that it has no influence on the solution.
According to the boundary conditions (b), c1 = c6 = 0 in Eq. (h), because as r → ∞, the stresses must
assume finite values. Then, according to the conditions (a), the equations (h) yield

Also, from Eqs. (b) and (h) we have

Solving the preceding five expressions, we obtain c2 = σo/4, c3 = –a2σo/2, c5 = –σo/4, c7 = –a4σo/4,
and c8 = a2σo/2. The determination of the stress distribution in a large plate containing a small
circular hole is completed by substituting these constants into Eq. (h):

(3.55a)

(3.55b)

(3.55c)
The tangential stress distribution along the edge of the hole, r = a, is shown in Fig. 3.13b using Eq.
(3.55b). We observe from the figure that

The latter indicates that there exists a small area experiencing compressive stress. On the other hand,
from Eq. (3.42), for θ = ±π/2, (σθ)max = σo. The stress concentration factor, defined as the ratio of the
maximum stress at the hole to the nominal stress σo, is therefore K = 3σo/σo = 3.
To depict the variation of σr(r, π/2) and σθ(r, π/2) over the distance from the origin, dimensionless
stresses are plotted against the dimensionless radius in Fig. 3.14. The shearing stress τrθ(r, π/2) = 0.
At a distance of twice the diameter of the hole, that is, r = 4a, we obtain σθ ≈ 1.037σo and σr ≈
0.088σo. Similarly, at a distance r = 9a, we have σθ ≈ 1.006σo and σr ≈ 0.018σo, as is observed in the
figure. Thus, simple tension prevails at a distance of approximately nine radii; the hole has a local
effect on the distribution of stress. This is a verification of Saint-Venant’s principle.
Figure 3.14. Graph of tangential and radial stresses for θ = π/2 versus the distance from the
center of the plate shown in Fig. 3.13a.

Circular Hole in a Large Plate in Biaxial Stresses

The results expressed by Eqs. (3.55) are applied, together with the method of superposition, to the
case of biaxial loading. Distributions of maximum stress σθ(r, π/2), obtained in this way (Prob. 3.36),
are given in Fig. 3.15. Such conditions of stress concentration occur in a thin-walled spherical
pressure vessel with a small circular hole (Fig. 3.15a) and in the torsion of a thin-walled circular
tube with a small circular hole (Fig. 3.15b).
Figure 3.15. Tangential stress distribution for θ = ±π/2 in the plate with the circular hole subject
to biaxial stresses: (a) uniform tension; (b) pure shear.

Elliptic Hole in a Large Plate in Tension

Several simple geometries of practical importance were the subject of stress concentration
determination by Inglis and Neuber on the basis of mathematical analysis discussed in the preceding.
We note that a similar concentration of stress is caused by a small elliptic hole in a thin, large plate
(Fig. 3.16). It can be shown that stress concentration factor at the ends of the major axis of the hole is
given by

(3.56)
Figure 3.16. Elliptical hole in a plate under uniaxial tension.
The maximum tensile stress is thus

(3.57)
where a is the half-width of the ellipse and b is the half-height.
Clearly, the stress increases with the ratio b/a. In the limit, as a → 0, the ellipse becomes a narrow
crack of length 2b, and a very high stress concentration is produced; material will yield plastically
around the ends of the crack or the crack will propagate. To prevent such spreading, holes may be
drilled at the ends of the crack to effectively increase the radii to correspond to a smaller b/a. Thus, a
high stress concentration is replaced by a relatively smaller one. When the hole is a circle, a = b and
K = 3.
Graphs for Stress Concentration Factors
Technical literature contains an abundance of specialized information on stress concentration factors
in the form of graphs, tables, and formulas.* Values of the calculated stress concentration factors for
bars with fillets, holes, and grooves under axial, bending, or torsion loading may be obtained from the
diagram (a nomograph) given by Neuber (1958). The best source book on stress-concentration
factors is Peterson [Ref. 3.8], which compiles the theoretical and experimental results of many
researchers into useful design charts. Some examples of most commonly used graphs for stress
concentration factors for a variety of geometries are provided in Appendix D. Observe that these
charts indicate the advisability of streamlining junctures and transitions of portions that make up a
member; that is, stress concentration can be reduced in intensity by properly proportioning the parts.
Large fillet radii help at reentrant corners. There are many other well-established techniques for
smoothing out the stress distribution in a part and thus reducing the stress-concentration factor.

Example 3.4. Stresses at the Groove in a Circular Shaft

A circular shaft of diameter D with a circumferential circular groove (of diameter d and radius r)
is subjected to axial force P, bending moment M, and torque T (Fig. 3.17). Determine the
maximum principal stress.
Figure 3.17. Example 3.4. A grooved circular shaft with combined loadings.
 Solution
For the loading described, the principal stresses occur at a point at the root of the notch, which,
from Eq. (1.20), are given by

(i)
where σx and τxy represent the normal and shear stresses in the reduced cross section of the shaft,
respectively. We have

or

(j)
Here Ka, Kb, and Kt denote the stress concentration factors for axial force, bending moment, and
torque, respectively. These factors are determined from Figures D.5, D.7, and D.6, respectively.
Thus, given a set of shaft dimensions and the loading, formulas (i) and (j) lead to the value of the
maximum principal stress σ1 (see Problem 3.46).
In addition, note that a shear force V may also act on the shaft, as in Fig. 5.11 (Chap. 5). For
slender members, however, this shear contributes very little to the deflection (Sec. 5.4) and to the
maximum stress.

3.13 Contact Stresses

Application of a load over a small area of contact results in unusually high stresses. Situations of this
nature are found on a microscopic scale whenever force is transmitted through bodies in contact.
There are important practical cases when the geometry of the contacting bodies results in large
stresses, disregarding the stresses associated with the asperities found on any nominally smooth
surface. The original analysis of elastic contact stresses, by H. Hertz, was published in 1881. In his
honor, the stresses at the mating surfaces of curved bodies in compression are called Hertz contact
stresses, or simply referred to as the contact stresses. The Hertz problem relates to the stresses
owing to the contact of a sphere on a plane, a sphere on a sphere, a cylinder on a cylinder, and the
like. The practical implications with respect to ball and roller bearings, locomotive wheels, valve
tappets, gear teeth, pin joints in linkages, cams, push rod mechanisms, and numerous machine
components are apparent.
Consider, in this regard, the contact without deformation of two bodies having spherical surfaces of
radii r1 and r2, in the vicinity of contact. If now a collinear pair of forces F acts to press the bodies
together, deformation will occur, and the point of contact will be replaced by a small area of contact.
The first steps taken toward the solution of this problem are the determination of the size and shape of
the contact area as well as the distribution of normal pressure acting on the area. The stresses and
deformations resulting from the interfacial pressure are then evaluated.
The following basic assumptions are generally made in the solution of the contact problem:
1. The contacting bodies are isotropic and elastic.
2. The contact areas are essentially flat and small relative to the radii of curvature of the undeformed
bodies in the vicinity of the interface.
3. The contacting bodies are perfectly smooth, and therefore only normal pressures need be taken into
account.
The foregoing set of assumptions enables an elastic analysis to be conducted. Without going into the
derivations, we shall, in the following sections, introduce some of the results.* It is important to note
that, in all instances, the contact pressure varies from zero at the side of the contact area to a
maximum value po at its center.

3.14 Spherical and Cylindrical Contacts

In this section, maximum contact pressure and deflection of two bodies held in contact by normal
forces to the area of contact will be discussed. The deflection is the relative displacement δ of
centers of the two bodies. It represents the sum of the deflections of the two bodies as they approach
each other.
Two Spheres in Contact
The contact area and corresponding stress distribution between two spheres, loaded with a force F, is
illustrated in Fig. 3.18. Observe that the contact pressure within each sphere has a semi-elliptical
distribution. It varies from 0 at the side of the contact area to a maximum value po on the load axis z at
its center. Here a is the radius of the circular contact area (πa2). Because of forces F, the contact
pressure is distributed over a small circular area of radius a given by
Figure 3.18. (a) Spherical surfaces of two members held in contact by force F; (b) contact stress
distribution. Note: The contact area is a circle of radius a.

(3.58)
where Ei, ri, and vi (with i = 1, 2) are respective moduli of elasticity, radii, and Poisson’s ratios of
the spheres.
For simplicity, Poisson’s ratios v1 and v2 will be taken as 0.3 in the following equations. In so doing,
Eq. (3.58) becomes

(3.59)
The force F causing the contact pressure acts in the direction of the normal axis, perpendicular to the
tangent plane passing through the contact area. The maximum contact pressure is found to be

(3.60)
This is the maximum principal stress owing to the fact that at the center of the contact area, material is
compressed not only in the normal direction but also in the lateral directions. The relationship
between the force of contact F and the relative displacement of the centers of the two elastic spheres,
owing to local deformation, is

(3.61)
In the special case of a sphere of radius r contacting a body of the same material but having a flat
surface (Fig. 3.19a), substitution of r1 = r, r2 = ∞ and E1 = E2 = E into Eqs. (3.59) through (3.61)
leads to

(3.62)
Figure 3.19. Contact load: (a) in sphere on a plane; (b) in ball in a spherical seat.

For the case of a sphere in a spherical seat of the same material (Fig. 3.19b), substituting r2 = –r2
and E1 = E2 = E in Eqs. (3.59) through (3.61), we obtain

(3.63)
Two Parallel Cylinders in Contact
Figure 3.20a shows the contact area and corresponding stress distribution between two spheres,
loaded with a force F. It is seen from the figure that the contact pressure within each cylinder has a
semi-elliptical distribution; it varies from 0 at the side of the contact area to the largest value po at its
center. The quantity a represents the half-width of a narrow rectangular contact area (2aL). Note that
the maximum contact pressure po occurs on the load axis z.
Figure 3.20. Contact load: (a) in two cylindrical rollers; (b) in cylinder on a plane.

The maximum contact pressure is given by

(3.64)
where

(3.65)
In this expression, Ei(νi) and ri, with i = 1, 2, are the moduli of elasticity (Poisson’s ratio) of the two
rollers and the corresponding radii, respectively. If the cylinders have the same elastic modulus E
and Poisson’s ratio v = 0.3, these expressions reduce to

(3.66)
Figure 3.20b depicts the special case of contact between a circular cylinder of radius r and a flat
surface, both bodies of the same material. After rearranging the terms and taking r1 = r and r2 = ∞ in
Eqs. (3.66), we have

(3.67)
In Table 3.2, the preceding and some additional results are presented as an aid in solving problems.
Table 3.2. Maximum Pressure Po and Deflection δ of Two Bodies in Contact

3.15 Contact Stress Distribution

The material along the axis compressed in the z direction tends to expand in the x and y directions.
But, the surrounding material does not permit this expansion. Thus, the compressive stresses are
produced in the x and y directions. The maximum stresses occur along the load axis z, and they are the
principal stresses, as shown in Fig. 3.21. These and the maximum shearing stresses are given in terms
of the maximum contact pressure po by the following equations [Ref. 3.14].
Figure 3.21. Principal stresses below the surface along the load axis z.
Two Spheres in Contact (Figure 3.18a)

(3.68a)

(3.68b)
We have τxy = 0 and

(3.68c)
Figure 3.22a shows a plot of the preceding equations.
Figure 3.22. Stresses below the surface along the load axis (for v = 0.3): (a) two spheres; (b) two
parallel cylinders. Note: All normal stresses are compressive stresses.

Two Parallel Cylinders in Contact (Figure 3.20a)

(3.69a)

(3.69b)
 (3.69c)

(3.69d)
A plot of Eqs. (3.69a–c) and the second of Eqs. (3.69d) is given in Fig. 3.22b.
For each case, observe how principal stress decreases below the surface. Figure 3.22 also illustrates
how the shearing stress reaches a maximum value slightly below the surface and decreases. The
maximum shear stresses act on the planes bisecting the planes of maximum and minimum principal
stresses (Sec. 1.15). As already pointed out, all stresses considered in this section exist along the
load axis z. The states of stress off the z axis are not required for design purposes, because the
maxima occur on the z axis.

Example 3.5. Cam and Follower

A camshaft and follower of an intermittent motion mechanism is illustrated in Fig. 3.23. For the
position depicted, the cam exerts a force Fmax on the follower. Determine (a) the maximum stress
at the contact line between the cam and follower; (b) the deflection. Data: Fmax = 8 kN, rc = 40
mm, Df = L = 35 mm, E = 200 GPa, and σyp = 510 MPa. Assumptions: The material of all parts is
hardened on the surface. Frictional forces can be omitted. The rotational speed is slow so that the
loading is considered static.
Figure 3.23. Example 3.5. Schematic representation of camshaft and follower.

Solution
Formulas on the second column of case A of Table 3.2 apply. We begin by calculating the half-
width a of the contact patch. Inasmuch as E1 = E2 = E and Δ = 2/E, hence,

Introducing the given numerical values results in

a. The largest contact pressure is therefore

 b. The deflection δ of the cam and follower at the line of contact is given by

Inserting the given data,

Comments
The maximum contact stress is calculated to be smaller than the yield strength of 510 MPa; the
design is satisfactory. Deflection obtained between the cam and the follower is very small and
does not affect the performance of the mechanism.

3.16 General Contact

Consider now two rigid bodies of equal elastic moduli E, compressed by force F (Fig. 3.24). The
load lies along the axis passing through the centers of the bodies and through the point of contact and
is perpendicular to the plane tangent to both bodies at the point of contact. The minimum and
maximum radii of curvature of the surface of the upper body are r1 and ; those of the lower body are
r2 and at the point of contact. Thus, 1/r1, , 1/r2, and are the principal curvatures. The sign
convention of the curvature is such that it is positive if the corresponding center of curvature is
inside the body. If the center of the curvature is outside the body, the curvature is negative. (For
example, in Fig. 3.25a, r1, are positive, while r2, are negative.)
Figure 3.24. Curved surfaces of different radii of two bodies compressed by forces F.
Let θ be the angle between the normal planes in which radii r1 and r2 lie. Subsequent to loading, the
area of contact will be an ellipse with semiaxes a and b (Table C.1). The maximum contact pressure
is

(3.70)
In this expression the semiaxes are given by

(3.71)
Here

(3.72)
The constants ca and cb are read in Table 3.3. The first column of the table lists values of α,
calculated from

(3.73)
Table 3.3. Factors for Use in Eqs. (3.71)
where

(3.74)
By applying Eq. (3.70), many problems of practical importance may be treated, for example, contact
stresses in ball bearings (Fig. 3.25a), contact stresses between a cylindrical wheel and a rail (Fig.
3.25b), and contact stresses in cam and pushrod mechanisms.
Figure 3.25. Contact load: (a) in a single-row ball bearing; (b) in a cylindrical wheel and rail.
 Example 3.6. Steel Railway Car Wheel
A railway car wheel rolls on a rail. Both rail and wheel are made of steel for which E = 210 GPa
and v = 0.3. The wheel has a radius of r1 = 0.4 m, and the cross radius of the rail top surface is r2
= 0.3 m (Fig. 3.25b). Determine the size of the contact area and the maximum contact pressure,
given a compression load of F = 90 kN.
Solution
For the situation described, 1/r′1 = 1/r′2 = 0, and, because the axes of the members are mutually
perpendicular, θ = π/2. The first of Eqs. (3.72) and Eqs. (3.74) reduce to

(3.75)
The proper sign in B must be chosen so that its values are positive. Now Eq. (3.73) has the form

(3.76)
Substituting the given numerical values into Eqs. (3.75), (3.76), and the second of (3.72), we
obtain

Corresponding to this value of α interpolating in Table 3.3, we have

The semiaxes of the elliptical contact are found by applying Eqs. (3.71):

The maximum contact pressure, or maximum principal stress, is thus

Comment
A hardened steel material is capable of resisting this or somewhat higher stress levels for the
body geometries and loading conditions described in this section.

References
3.1. SOKOLNIKOFF, I. S., Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 2nd ed., Krieger, Melbourne, Fla.,
 1986.
3.2. TIMOSHENKO, S. P., and GOODIER, J. N., Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1970, Chaps. 3 and 4.
3.3. NEOU, C. Y., Direct method of determining Airy polynomial stress functions, J. Appl. Mech.
24/3, 387, 1957.
3.4. BOLEY, B. A., and WEINER, J.H., Theory of Thermal Stresses, Wiley, Hoboken, N. J., 1960,
Chap. 2: reprinted, R. E. Krieger, Melbourne, Fla., 1985.
3.5. NOWACKI, W., Thermoelasticity, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1963.
3.6. MITCHELL, J. N., The Collected Mathematical Works of J. H. and A. G. M. Mitchell, P.
Nordhoff, Ltd., Groningen, Holland, 1964.
3.7. TIMOSHENKO, S. P., and GOODIER, J.N., Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1970, Sec. 40.
3.8. PETERSON, R. E., Stress Concentration Factors, Wiley, Hoboken, N. J., 1974.
3.9. INGLIS, C. E., Stresses in the plate due to presence of cracks and sharp corners, Trans. Inst.
Naval Arch., 60, 219, 1913.
3.10. NEUBER, H. P., Kerbspannungslehre, 2nd ed., Springer, New York, 1958.
3.11. NEUBER, H. P., Research on the distribution of tension in notched construction parts. WADD
Rept. 60-906, Jan. 1961.
3.12. TIMOSHENKO, S. P., and GOODIER, J. N., Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1970, Sec. 35.
3.13. YOUNG, W. C., Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
1989, Sec. 2.10 and Table 37.
3.14. UGURAL, A. C., Mechanical Design: An Integrated Approach, McGraw-Hill, New York,
2004, Chap. 3.
3.15. FLUGGE, W., ed., Handbook of Engineering Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1908,
Chap. 42.
3.16. HERTZ, H., Contact of elastic solids; in Miscellaneous Papers, P. Lenard, ed., MacMillan,
London, pp. 146–162, 1892.
3.17. FAUPEL, J. H., and FISHER, F. E., Engineering Design, 2nd ed., Wiley, Hoboken, N. J., 1981,
Chap. 11.
3.18. BORESI, A. P., and SCHMIDT, R. J., Advanced Mechanics of Materials, 6th ed., Wiley,
Hoboken, N. J., 2003, Chap. 18.
3.19. TIMOSHENKO, S. P., and GOODIER, J. N., Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1970, Chap. 12.
Problems
Sections 3.1 through 3.8
3.1. A stress distribution is given by
 (a)
where the p and c’s are constants. (a) Verify that this field represents a solution for a thin
plate of thickness t (Fig. P3.1); (b) obtain the corresponding stress function; (c) find the
resultant normal and shearing boundary forces (Py and Vx) along edges y = 0 and y = b of the
plate.
Figure P3.1.

3.2. If the stress field given by Eq. (a) of Prob. 3.1 acts in the thin plate shown in Fig. P3.1 and p
is a known constant, determine the c’s so that edges x = ±a are free of shearing stress and no
normal stress acts on edge x = a.
3.3. In bending of a rectangular plate (Fig. P3.3), the state of stress is expressed by

Figure P3.3.

(a) What conditions among the constants (the c’s) make the preceding expressions possible?
Body forces may be neglected. (b) Draw a sketch showing the boundary stresses on the plate.
3.4. Given the following stress field within a structural member,

where a and b are constants, determine whether this stress distribution represents a solution
for a plane strain problem. The body forces are omitted.
3.5. Determine whether the following stress functions satisfy the conditions of compatibility for a
two-dimensional problem:

(a)
 (b)
Here a, b, c, and d are constants. Also obtain the stress fields that arise from Φ1 and Φ2.
3.6. Figure P3.6 shows a long, thin steel plate of thickness t, width 2h, and length 2a. The plate is
subjected to loads that produce the uniform stresses σo at the ends. The edges at y = ±h are
placed between the two rigid walls. Show that, by using an inverse method, the displacements
are expressed by

3.7. Determine whether the following stress distribution is a valid solution for a two-dimensional
problem:

where a is a constant. Body forces may be neglected.

3.8. The strain distribution in a thin plate has the form

in which a is a small constant. Show whether this strain field is a valid solution of an
elasticity problem. Body forces may be disregarded.
3.9. The components of the displacement of a thin plate (Fig. P3.9) are given by

Figure P3.6.

Figure P3.9.

Here c is a constant and v represents Poisson’s ratio. Determine the stresses σx, σy, and τxy.
Draw a sketch showing the boundary stresses on the plate.
3.10. Consider a rectangular plate with sides a and b of thickness t (Fig. P3.10). (a) Determine the
stresses σx, σy, and τxy for the stress function Φ = px3y, where p is a constant. (b) Draw a
sketch showing the boundary stresses on the plate. (c) Find the resultant normal and shearing
boundary forces (Px, Py, Vx, and Vy) along all edges of the plate.
 Figure P3.10.

3.11. Redo Prob. 3.10 for the case of a square plate of side dimensions a and

where p is a constant.
3.12. Resolve Prob. 3.10 a and b for the stress function of the form

where p represents a constant.

3.13. A vertical force P per unit thickness is applied on the horizontal boundary of a semi-infinite
solid plate of unit thickness (Fig. 3.11a). Show that the stress function Φ = –(P/π)y tan–1 (y/x)
results in the following stress field within the plate:

Also plot the resulting stress distribution for σx and τxy at a constant depth L below the
boundary.
3.14. The thin cantilever shown in Fig. P3.14 is subjected to uniform shearing stress τo along its
upper surface (y = +h), while surfaces y = –h and x = L are free of stress. Determine whether
the Airy stress function

Figure P3.14.

satisfies the required conditions for this problem.

Figure P3.15.

3.15. Figure P3.15 shows a thin cantilever beam of unit thickness carrying a uniform load of
intensity p per unit length. Assume that the stress function is expressed by
 Φ = ax2 + bx2y + cy3 + dy5 + ex2y3
in which a,..., e are constants. Determine (a) the requirements on a,..., e so that Φ is
biharmonic; (b) the stresses σx, σy, and τxy.
3.16. Consider a thin square plate with sides a. For a stress function ,
determine the stress field and sketch it along the boundaries of the plate. Here p represents a
uniformly distributed loading per unit length. Note that the origin of the x, y coordinate system
is located at the lower-left corner of the plate.
3.17. Consider a thin cantilever loaded as shown in Fig. P3.17. Assume that the bending stress is
given by

(P3.17)
Figure P3.17.

and σz = τxz = τyz = 0. Determine the stress components σy and τxy as functions of x and y.
3.18. Show that for the case of plane stress, in the absence of body forces, the equations of
equilibrium may be expressed in terms of displacements u and v as follows:

(P3.18)
[Hint: Substitute Eqs. (3.10) together with (2.3) into (3.6).]
3.19. Determine whether the following compatible stress field is possible within an elastic
uniformly loaded cantilever beam (Fig. P3.17):

(P3.19)

Here I = 2th3/3 and the body forces are omitted. Given p = 10 kN/m, L = 2 m, h = 100 mm, t =
40 mm, v = 0.3, and E = 200 GPa, calculate the magnitude and direction of the maximum
 principal strain at point Q.
3.20. A prismatic bar is restrained in the x (axial) and y directions but free to expand in z
direction. Determine the stresses and strains in the bar for a temperature rise of T1 degrees.
3.21. Under free thermal expansion, the strain components within a given elastic solid are εx = εy =
εz = αT and γxy = γyz = γxz = 0. Show that the temperature field associated with this condition
is of the form
αT = c1x + c2y + c3z + c4
in which the c’s are constants.
3.22. Redo Prob. 3.6 adding a temperature change T1, with all other conditions remaining
unchanged.
3.23. Determine the axial force Px and moment Mz that the walls in Fig. 3.6b apply to the beam for
T = a1y + a2, where a1 and a2 are constant.
3.24. A copper tube of 800-mm2 cross-sectional area is held at both ends as in Fig. P3.24. If at
20°C no axial force Px exists in the tube, what will Px be when the temperature rises to
120°C? Let E = 120 GPa and α = 16.8 × 10–6per °C.
Figure P3.24.

Sections 3.9 through 3.11

3.25. Show that the case of a concentrated load on a straight boundary (Fig. 3.11a) is represented
by the stress function

and derive Eqs. (3.48) from the result.

3.26. Verify that Eqs. (3.37) are determined from the equilibrium of forces acting on the elements
shown in Fig. P3.26.
Figure P3.26.
3.27. Demonstrate that the biharmonic equation ∇4Φ = 0 in polar coordinates can be written as

3.28. Show that the compatibility equation in polar coordinates, for the axisym-metrical problem
of thermal elasticity, is given by

(P3.28)
3.29. Assume that moment M acts in the plane and at the vertex of the wedge–cantilever shown in
Fig. P3.29. Given a stress function

(P3.29a)
Figure P3.29.

determine (a) whether Φ satisfies the condition of compatibility; (b) the stress components σr,
σθ, and τrθ; and (c) whether the expressions

(P3.29b)
represent the stress field in a semi-infinite plate (that is, for α = π/2).
3.30. Referring to Fig. P3.30, verify the results given by Eqs. (b) and (c) of Section 3.11.
Figure P3.30.

3.31. Consider the pivot of unit thickness subject to force P per unit thickness at its vertex (Fig.
3.10a). Determine the maximum values of σx and τxy on a plane a distance L from the apex
through the use of σr given by Eq. (3.43) and the formulas of the elementary theory: (a) take α
 = 15°; (b) take α = 60°. Compare the results given by the two approaches.
3.32. Solve Prob. 3.31 for α = 30°.
3.33. Redo Prob. 3.31 in its entirety for the wedge–cantilever shown in Fig. 3.10b.
3.34. A uniformly distributed load of intensity p is applied over a short distance on the straight
edge of a large plate (Fig. P3.34). Determine stresses σx, σy, and τxy in terms of p, θ1, and θ2,
as required. [Hint: Let dP = pdy denote the load acting on an infinitesimal length dy = rd
θ/cos θ (from geometry) and hence dP = prd θ/cos θ. Substitute this into Eqs. (3.50) and
integrate the resulting expressions.]
Figure P3.34.

Sections 3.12 through 3.16

3.35. Verify the result given by Eqs. (f) and (g) of Section 3.12 (a) by rewriting Eqs. (d) and (e) in
the following forms, respectively,

(P3.35)
and by integrating (P3.35); (b) by expanding Eqs. (d) and (e), setting t = In r, and thereby
transforming the resulting expressions into two ordinary differential equations with constant
coefficients.
3.36. Verify the results given in Fig. 3.15 by employing Eq. (3.55b) and the method of
superposition.
3.37. A 20-mm-thick steel bar with a slot (25-mm radii at ends) is subjected to an axial load P, as
shown in Fig. P3.37. What is the maximum stress for P = 180 kN? Use Fig. D.8B to estimate
the value of the K.
Figure P3.37.

3.38. What is the full-fillet radius r and width d of the steel plate with D/d = 1.5 in tension (Fig.
P3.38)? Use a maximum allowable stress of 130 MPa and an allowable nominal stress in the
 reduced section of 80 MPa.
Figure P3.38.

3.39. For the 20-mm-thick full-filleted steel bar (σyp = 250 MPa) shown in Fig. P3.38, given the
ratio of r/d = 0.15, find the maximum axial load P that can be applied without causing
permanent deformation.
3.40. As seen in Fig. P3.40, a stepped shaft ABC with built-in end at A carries the torques TB and
TC sections B and C. Based on a stress concentration factor K = 1.6, determine the maximum
shearing stress in the shaft. Given: d1 = 50 mm, d2 = 40 mm, TB = 3 kN · m, and TC = 1 kN · m.
Figure P3.40.

3.41. Figure 3.17 illustrates a circular shaft consisting of diameters D and d and a groove of radius
r carries a torque T with M = 0 and P = 0. What is the minimum yield strength in shear
required for the shaft material? Given: D = 40 mm, d = 35 mm, r = 2 mm, and T = 100 N · m.
3.42. A circular shaft having diameters D and d and a groove of radius r (see Fig. 3.17, with M =
0 and P = 0) is made of steel with the allowable shear stress τall. Find the maximum torque T
that can be transmitted by the shaft. Given: D = 40 mm, d = 16 mm, r = 8 mm, and τall = 250
MPa.
3.43. For a flat bar consisting of two portions, both 10-mm thick, and respectively 25-mm and
37.5-mm wide, connected by fillets of radius r = 5 mm (see Fig. D.1), determine the largest
axial load P that can be supported by the bar. Given: σyp = 210 MPa and a factor of safety of
n = 1.4.
Figure P3.44.

3.44. Figure P3.44 depicts a filleted cantilever spring. Find the largest bending stress for two
cases: (a) the fillet radius is r = 5 mm; (b) the fillet radius is r = 10 mm. Given: b = 12 mm
and P = 400 N.
3.45. A thin-walled circular cylindrical vessel of diameter d and wall thickness t is subjected to
internal pressure p (see Table 1.1). Given a small circular hole in the vessel wall, show that
the maximum tangential and axial stresses at the hole are σθ = 5pd/4t and σa = pd/4t,
respectively.
3.46. The shaft shown in Fig. 3.17 has the following dimensions: r = 20 mm, d = 400 mm, and D =
440 mm. The shaft is subjected simultaneously to a torque T = 20 kN · m, a bending moment M
= 10 kN · m, and an axial force P = 50 kN. Calculate at the root of the notch (a) the maximum
principal stress, (b) the maximum shear stress, and (c) the octahedral stresses.
3.47. Redo Prob. 3.46 for r = 10 mm, d = 250 mm, D = 500 mm, T = 5 kN · m, M = 20 kN · m, and
P = 0.
3.48. A 50-mm-diameter ball is pressed into a spherical seat of diameter 75 mm by a force of 500
N. The material is steel (E = 200 GPa, ν = 0.3). Calculate (a) the radius of the contact area,
(b) the maximum contact pressure, and (c) the relative displacement of the centers of the ball
and seat.
3.49. Calculate the maximum contact pressure po in Prob. 3.48 for the cases when the 50-mm-
diameter ball is pressed against (a) a flat surface and (b) an identical ball.
3.50. Calculate the maximum pressure between a steel wheel of radius r1 = 400 mm and a steel
rail of crown radius of the head r2 = 250 mm (Fig. 3.25b) for P = 4 kN. Use E = 200 GPa and
ν = 0.3.
3.51. A concentrated load of 2.5 kN at the center of a deep steel beam is applied through a 10-mm-
diameter steel rod laid across the 100-mm beam width. Compute the maximum contact
pressure and the width of the contact between rod and beam surface. Use E = 200 GPa and ν =
0.3.
3.52. Two identical 400-mm-diameter steel rollers of a rolling mill are pressed together with a
force of 2 MN/m. Using E = 200 GPa and ν = 0.25, compute the maximum contact pressure
and width of contact.
3.53. Determine the size of the contact area and the maximum pressure between two circular
cylinders with mutually perpendicular axes. Denote by r1 and r2 the radii of the cylinders. Use
r1 = 500 mm, r2 = 200 mm, F = 5 kN, E = 210 GPa, and ν = 0.25.
3.54. Solve Prob. 3.53 for the case of two cylinders of equal radii, r1 = r2 = 200 mm.
3.55. Two 340-mm-diameter balls of a rolling mill are pressed together with a force of 400 N.
Calculate (a) the half-width of contact, (b) the maximum contact pressure, (c) the maximum
principal stresses and shear stress in the center of the contact area. Assumption: Both balls
are made of steel of E = 210 GPa and ν = 0.3.
3.56. A 16-mm-diameter cylindrical roller runs on the inside of a ring of inner diameter 100 mm.
Determine (a) the width a of the contact area, (b) the maximum contact pressure. Given: The
roller load is F = 240 kN per meter of axial length. Assumption: Both roller and ring are
made of steel having E = 210 GPa and ν = 0.3.
3.57. It is seen in Fig. P3.25b, a wheel of radius r1 = 480 mm and a rail of crown radius of the
head r2 = 340 mm. Calculate the maximum contact pressure po between the members. Given:
 Contact force F = 4 kN. Assumption: Both roller and ring are made of steel having E = 210
GPa and ν = 0.3.
3.58. Determine the maximum pressure at the contact point between the outer race and a ball in the
single-row ball bearing assembly shown in Fig. 3.25a. The ball diameter is 50 mm; the radius
of the grooves, 30 mm; the diameter of the outer race, 250 mm; and the highest compressive
force on the ball, F = 1.8 kN. Take E = 200 GPa and ν = 0.3.
3.59. Redo Prob. 3.58 for a ball diameter of 40 mm and a groove radius of 22 mm. Assume the
remaining data to be unchanged.