I.

Anthropology is a social science that studies human societies and cultures, past and
present. Anthropologists seek to understand the diversity of human experience,
including how societies are organized, how people make sense of their world, and how
they interact with each other and with their environment.
The fields of Anthropology:
1. Social anthropology: studies of social patterns and practices and cultural variation develop
across different societies.
2. Cultural Anthropology: studies cultural variations across different societies and examine
the need to understand each culture in its own context.
3. Archaeology: studies of human societies through their material remains, such as artifacts,
buildings, and landscapes.
4. Linguistic Anthropology: studies human language and discourse, and its role in shaping
human culture and social interaction.
5. Biological/ Physical Anthropology: studies the origin of humans as well as the interplay
between social factors and the processes of human evolution, adaptation, and variation
over time.
6. Applied Anthropology: applies anthropological methods and theories to solve practical
problems, such as development projects, health programs, and environmental
conservation.
Anthropologists often work across subfields and draw on different methodologies to gain a
comprehensive understanding of human cultures and societies.
Perspective in Culture
 Cultural Materialism: This theoretical perspective, associated with anthropologist Marvin
Harris, emphasizes the material and economic factors that underlie cultural practices and
social behavior. Cultural materialists argue that cultural practices and beliefs are ultimately
driven by material factors such as food production, technology, and the distribution of
resources.
Influential anthropologists and their perspectives:
1. Franz Boas: Boas is often referred to as the "father of American anthropology." He is known
for his emphasis on cultural relativism, which is the idea that one should not judge other
cultures by the standards of one's own culture. Boas also emphasized the importance of
fieldwork in anthropology and conducted research on the cultures of indigenous peoples in
North America.
2. Clifford Geertz: Geertz was a cultural anthropologist who is known for his emphasis on the
role of symbols in culture. He argued that culture is a system of symbols that people use to
make sense of the world around them, and that anthropologists should study these
symbols to gain a deep understanding of a culture.
3. Marcel Mauss: Mauss was a French anthropologist who is known for his work on gift
exchange. He argued that gift exchange is a social practice that creates and reinforces social
bonds between individuals and groups.
4. Bronislaw Malinowski: Malinowski was a British anthropologist who is known for his
emphasis on participant observation. He argued that anthropologists should live among the
people they are studying in order to gain a deep understanding of their culture.
5. Edward Said: Said was a Palestinian-American anthropologist who is known for his work on
Orientalism. He argued that Western scholars have constructed a distorted view of the
"Orient" that reinforces Western colonialism and imperialism.
 II. Sociology is the scientific study of human society, social behavior, and social interaction.
Sociologists use a variety of research methods, including surveys, experiments,
fieldwork, and statistical analysis, to study human behavior and society.
Some of the major areas of study within sociology include:
1. Social Stratification: The study of how social inequality is structured and maintained in
society, including economic inequality, racial and ethnic inequality, and gender inequality.
2. Social Institutions: The study of the major social institutions that shape human behavior
and interaction, such as family, education, religion, and the economy.
3. Social Change: The study of how societies change over time, including processes of
modernization, globalization, and social movements.
4. Social Psychology: studies how social processes and structures shape individual behavior,
attitudes, and beliefs.
5. Human ecology is an interdisciplinary field that studies the interactions between humans
and their environment.
6. Applied sociology is the practical application of sociological theories, concepts, and
research methods to address social problems and improve social conditions.
Sociologists use a variety of research methods to study these subfields, including quantitative and
qualitative research methods, surveys, interviews, and observational studies. They seek to
understand the patterns and structures that underlie social behavior, and how these patterns and
structures shape individual and collective action.
Influential sociologists throughout history with their own unique perspectives and contributions
to the field of sociology:
1. Emile Durkheim: (1858-1917) said that society is composed of harmonious elements such
as individuals, organizations, and social institutions. These elements must perform their
role in the society to function effectively. (Dysfunction – will occur if these elements are not
in the state of equilibrium.
2. Max Weber: (1864-1920) he believed that individuals are motivated by a variety of factors,
including economic, cultural, and political influences. He emphasized the importance of
understanding the social and historical context in which individuals and societies exist.
3. Karl Marx: (1818-1883) he believed that social inequality is the result of class struggle, with
the ruling class oppressing the working class. He emphasized the importance of economic
and political power in shaping social relations and argued that social change is driven by
conflict between social classes.
4. W.E.B. Du Bois: (1868-1963) he emphasized the importance of studying race and racism in
society, and he believed that racism was a fundamental feature of American society.
5. Pierre Bourdieu: (1930-2002) he believed that social class and cultural background play a
significant role in determining an individual's life chances. He emphasized the importance
of studying the social structures and cultural practices that shape social behavior.
6. George Herbert Mead: (1863-1931) introduced the concept of symbolic interactionism –
society can be seen in a micro-level that focuses on the relationship s of individuals within a
society primarily centers in their communication both language and symbols.
7. Herbert Spencer: (1820-1903) describe the emerging societies as societies of survival and
primarily based on the concept of natural law that members of each society must learn to
adapt to their surroundings to outlast the prevailing conditions present in their
environment.
 III. Political Science is a social science that studies the theory and practice of politics and
government. It examines political institutions, processes, and behavior at the local,
national, and international levels, and seeks to understand how power is exercised and
distributed in society. Political scientists use a variety of theoretical perspectives to
study politics and government to provide a comprehensive understanding of the
structures, processes, and behavior of political systems and institutions, and to shed
light on the complex dynamics of power and decision-making in society.

The main subfields within political science include:

1. Political Theory and Philosophy: studies of political ideas and concepts, such as justice,
democracy, power, and freedom. Political theorists analyze the philosophical foundations
of politics and explore different ways of organizing and governing society.
2. Comparative Politics: compares different political systems and institutions across countries
and regions. Comparative politics seeks to understand how political institutions, culture,
and history shape political outcomes, such as elections, policy outcomes, and regime
change.
3. International Relations: focuses on the study of politics among sovereign states and non-
state actors in the international system. International relations scholars examine issues
such as war and peace, globalization, economic development, and international
cooperation.
4. Public Administration and Policy: This subfield focuses on the study of the management
and organization of public sector institutions. Public administrators examine issues such as
bureaucracy, policy implementation, and public service provision.
5. Political economy is a field of study that examines the interplay between politics and
economics. It seeks to understand how political institutions, policies, and power relations
shape economic outcomes, and how economic forces, in turn, shape political decision-
making.
6. Political Methodology: This subfield focuses on the development of quantitative and
qualitative research methods to study political phenomena. Political methodologists
develop and apply statistical techniques, surveys, experiments, and other research tools to
analyze political data and test theories.

The major perspectives used by political scientists:

 Institutionalism: This perspective emphasizes the importance of political institutions, such
as legislatures, courts, and bureaucracies, in shaping political outcomes. Institutionalists
argue that political behavior is influenced by the rules and norms that govern political
institutions.
 Liberalism: This perspective emphasizes individual freedom and the protection of individual
rights. Liberals typically support limited government intervention in the economy and
support social and political reforms that promote equality and justice.
 Conservatism: This perspective emphasizes tradition, order, and stability. Conservatives
typically support limited government intervention in the economy and oppose social and
political reforms that challenge traditional social norms and values.
  Socialism: This perspective emphasizes collective ownership and control of the means of
production. Socialists typically support a strong government role in the economy and
advocate for social and economic equality.
 Libertarianism: This perspective emphasizes individual freedom and limited government
intervention in both economic and social affairs. Libertarians believe that individuals should
be free to make their own choices and that the government should be limited to protecting
individual rights.
 Feminism: This perspective emphasizes the importance of gender equality and seeks to
challenge patriarchal structures and norms. Feminists advocate for policies that promote
gender equality in areas such as education, the workplace, and politics.

Influential political scientists with their own unique perspectives and contributions to the field
of political science:
1. Niccolò Machiavelli: Machiavelli believed that rulers should be ruthless and pragmatic, and
that the end justifies the means. He is best known for his book "The Prince," which
emphasizes the importance of political power and the use of force to maintain it.
2. Thomas Hobbes: he believed that human beings are naturally self-interested and
competitive, and that life in a state of nature would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and
short." Hobbes argued that a strong central government is necessary to prevent chaos and
violence, and that individuals should be willing to give up some of their freedom in
exchange for protection and security.
3. John Locke: believed in the natural rights of individuals, including the right to life, liberty,
and property. Locke argued that government exists to protect these rights, and that
individuals have the right to overthrow a government that fails to do so.
4. Karl Marx: Marx is best known for his theories of communism and socialism. He believed
that social inequality is the result of class struggle, with the ruling class oppressing the
working class. Marx emphasized the importance of economic and political power in shaping
social relations and argued that social change is driven by conflict between social classes.
5. Hannah Arendt: she emphasized the importance of individual freedom and political action,
and argued that totalitarianism is a threat to both. Arendt believed that individuals have
the power to shape the course of history through their actions, and that democratic
institutions are essential for protecting individual rights and freedoms.