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EPS 3101: GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING LECTURE NOTES

Course Introduction

Increasing complexities of modern life have placed new responsibilities on the

students. They need skills and competencies to help them deal with a number of life
challenges. The skills and competencies they need relate to understanding of the self,
developing themselves socially and emotionally, enhancing academic abilities,
mastering of information available and skills of seeking out adequate information
needed to progress in their chosen careers. Developing these skills and competencies
among students requires new capabilities among teachers. So that they may provide
guidance and counseling to them. Generally, some schools in Uganda provide a well-
organized guidance service in the school. Guidance and counseling services are not
an optional service, they are part and parcel of the overall education process.
Provision of organized guidance services in the school demands that teachers and
other staff also play their role in this team venture. This course is designed with the
following:

• To sensitize student-teachers towards need and importance of guidance and

counseling
• To develop caring attitude and concern for children/students
• To identify the areas/situations that need guidance and counseling
• To develop competencies to help students resolve their social, emotional,
academic and career problems to achieve optimum potential
• To acquaint oneself with different techniques of guidance and counseling to
deal with student problems
• To design, plan and execute guidance program in school

• To promote inclusive learning environment in school

The Meaning of Guidance

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The term “Guidance” has been defined in various ways by

different scholars. Literally guidance means ‗to direct‘, ‗to point
out‘, to show the path‘.
Therefore, in a layman definition Guidance simply means showing or pointing the way
to be followed.
It is the assistance or help rendered by a more experienced person to a less
experiences person to solve certain major problems. i.e. educational, vocational,
personal etc.
Guidance is a service designed to help one individual or group of individuals in
making necessary adjustment to environment whether that be within the school
or outside it.
"Guidance is the process of assisting the individual to choose, to prepare, to enter
upon and progress in course of action pertaining to the educational, vocational,
recreational and community services.
Guidance is a process of helping individuals through their own efforts to discover
and develop their potentialities both for personal happiness and social usefulness.

According to Patterson (1973) guidance refers to a broad area of educational

activities and services aimed at assisting individuals in making and carrying out
adequate plans and achieving satisfactory adjustment.
Generally; Guidance: Is the process of helping an individual to gain self-
understanding, self- direction, and to adjust maximally to the environment (Biswalo,
1996). This help is designed to assist people in deciding where they want to go, what
they want to do, how to get to their destination, and how to solve problems arising
in their life.
Guidance is an umbrella term embracing counseling services, appraisal services,
information services, referral services, research and evaluation services, all of which
help an individual to grow in self-understanding and consequently in making wise
decisions for best adjustment, Sima (2006).
Guidance as a concept as well as a process

According to Arbuckle et al. (1966) Guidance is a concept as well as a process.

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As a concept guidance is concerned with the optimal development of the individual.

As a process guidance helps the individual in self-understanding (understanding

one‘s strengths & limitations) and in self-direction (ability to solve problems, make
choices and decision on one‘s own).

The Meaning of Counselling

Despite the fact that the terms guidance and counseling are used interchangeably,
but both terms have different meaning. In a family, parents counsel their children,
doctors counsel patients, lawyers to clients and teachers to students.
Counseling is a mutual relationship between a counselor who is a professionally
trained helper, and a client who is a consumer of counseling services.
Counseling is a professional relationship between a counselor who is professionally
trained and a client (counselee) who is seeking help to resolve a problem. (Okech and
Ngumba 1991)
Counseling is a face-face relationship between a client and a counselor in a
confidential setting.
Counseling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between two people who
approach a mutually defined problem, with mutual consideration of each other to the
end that the younger or less mature or more troubled of the two is aided to a self-
determined resolution to his problem
CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELING:
According to the British Association for Counseling and Psychotherapy (BACP) 2002,
the definition of Counseling emphasizes many features of counseling such as:
• Counseling takes place in the confidential environment

• Counseling is a two-way process.

• Counseling is the private relationship

• There is a mutual relationship between the two individuals mutual respect

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between the two

• Counseling is a professional relationship i.e. one of the two must be trained

to assist the other
• Counseling does not involve giving advice
• Counseling is non-hierarchical relationship

Basic principles of guidance and

counseling
Principles of Guidance

Guidance is based upon the following principles.

1. Holistic development of individual: Guidance needs to be provided in the context

of total development of personality. Guidance deals with the development of the
whole person. It does not only focus on the learner’s academic achievement. But
should also focus on different aspects such as social and physical aspects (Thungu
et. al. (2010).
2. Recognition of individual differences and dignity: Each individual is different from
every other individual. Each individual is the combination of characteristics which
provides uniqueness to each person. The dignity of the individual is supreme. The
respect for others should come naturally and should not be affected by titles, sex,
age or appearance.

3. Guidance is concerned with Individual behavioral Processes. It helps the individual

gain better control over his/her own behavior such as likes, dislikes, tendencies and
weaknesses. In this principle the guidance worker uses tools such as: personal
interviews, counseling relationship, test interpretation sessions.
4. Guidance Relies on Cooperation, Not on Compulsion (Force). Client should not be
forced. The client should consent by either explicitly asking for help or implicitly
hinting, suggesting or signifying that he needs help. Forced guidance may lead to
stubbornness or lack of cooperation.
5. Guidance is a Continuous and a Sequential Educational Process. Guidance is a
lifelong process; begins at home goes on to school and into the society. (Parents →

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Teachers → Community). Parents, teachers, and community have a role to play in

guiding the individual to acquire the right behavior and values.
6. Guidance should be oriented towards a single goal. Guidance given at home
should be in harmony with what the teachers and society provide. If parents advocate
obedience at home, then teachers should advocate obedience at school as well.
PRINCIPLES OF COUNSELING

Counseling is based on a number of principles. These principles are:

1) Counseling is a process. It is necessary for the counselor to understand that

counseling is a process and a slow process. Failure to understand this will result in
annoyance and disappointment.

2) Counseling is for all. Especially in the school situation counseling is meant for all
the students and not only for those who are facing problems or other exceptional
students. As we have already discussed in the school situation counseling is more
developmental and preventive than remedial in nature.

3) Counseling is based on certain fundamental assumptions.

a) Every individual in this world is capable of taking responsibilities for him/herself.

b) Every individual has a right to choose his/her own path, based on the principles of
democracy.

4) Counselor does not deprive the right of self-choice but simply facilitates choice.
The counselor should give due respect to the individual and accept him/her as he/she
is.

5) Counseling is not advice giving.

6) Counseling is not thinking for the client, but thinking with the client.

Counseling is for enabling the client to do judicious thinking.

7) Counseling is not problem solving. The counselor simply assists the person to find
solution on his/her own.

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8) Counseling is not interviewing but conversing with the client in order to help
him/her develop self-understanding.

9) The counselor should determine individual differences and provide for them.

10) The counselor has to prepare the client to open to criticism including self criticism.

11) The counselor acts as a facilitator or catalyst only. He/she creates an atmosphere
which is permissive and non-threatening, through his/her warm and accepting
relationship with the client which helps the client to explore himself/herself and
understand himself/herself better.

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

1. Both are a process (gradual/ongoing)

2. Both help an individual to change/ keep to the right path
3. Both promote self-direction and growth
4. Both involve an interaction between two or more people
5. Both promote the well-being of an individual

Differences between Guidance and Counselling

Guidance Counseling
It is a continuous Process (a life-long Not necessarily continuous process
process) from cradle to death through
early childhood, adolescence, adulthood,
and even in old age. Guidance begins at
home goes on to school and into the
society. (Parents → Teachers →
Community)
Involves giving advice and direction Don’t involve advice and direction
Maintain hierarchical relationship (top- Maintain the mutual relationship
down relationship) e.g. i.e. two-way traffic relationship
teacher/students,
doctor/patient, parent/child

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Can be done in public or confidential Done in confidential settings

settings
Voluntary or Involuntary Process Voluntary Proces Relies
Cooperatio s. Not on o
n, (Force). n
Compulsio
n
It is both generalized and specialized Specialized service
service. Generalized service because
everyone- teachers, tutors, advisers,
deans, parents- play part in the program.
A service meant for everyone.
It is a specialized service because
qualified personnel such as counselors,
psychiatrists, psychologists join hands to
help the individual to get out of his/her
problems
Have ready-made solutions No ready-made solutions. The
client knows what is best for him
and the counselor is the catalyst in
the process
of growth
It is broader than Counseling. It is a It is a specified service.
generic term which embraces counseling,
information
services, appraisal services etc
Guidance is a proactive service or Counseling is a reactive service. It
preventive assumes that the problems already
Services exist.

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NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE

I. To help students know themselves better

II. To give students information that will help them to succeed in life
III. To assist students in planning for educational and vocational choices
IV. To help students so that they can solve their problems
V. To encourage students, develop special abilities and right attitudes
VI. To establish mutual understanding between teachers and students
Guidance is helpful not only for student and teacher in an educational institution but
also to the parents, administrators, planners and community members.
THE PURPOSE OF COUNSELING
Many consider counseling a panacea for all ills, which is not true. Individuals have
wide ranging and many a time unrealistic expectation regarding counseling. This in
turn leads to disappointment. The reason for this state of affairs is lack of proper
understanding as to what exactly are the goals of counseling. Some of the major
purposes of counseling generally accepted by counselors are given below:
1) Achievement of positive mental health
An individual is said to have positive mental health when he/she is able to relate
meaningfully with others and lead a fulfilling life. He/she is able to love and be loved.
One purpose of counseling is to help the individual to attain this state.
2) Problem resolution
Another purpose of counseling is to help the individual to come out of a difficult
situation or problem. It must be remembered that the individual is only assisted and
finds his/her own solution for the problems.
3) Counseling for decision-making
Ability to make right and timely decisions is crucial for success in life. One major goal
of counseling is to make the individual capable of making independent decisions.
Counselor may assist the individual by providing necessary information or clarifying
the counselee’s goals, etc. but the decision should be taken by the counselee
himself/herself.
4) Improving personal effectiveness

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An effective person is one who is able to control impulses, think in creative ways and
has the competence to recognize, define and solve problems. It can be seen that these
different goals are not exclusive. These are all interdependent and overlapping.
5) Helping to change
For development, change is always necessary. Counseling helps individuals to make
changes in their attitudes, perceptions or personality.
6) Behavior modification
Another aim of counseling is to help in modifying the behavior. Removal of undesirable
behavior or self-defeating behavior and learning desirable behavior is considered
necessary for attaining effectiveness and good adjustment. The behaviorally oriented
7. Helps in building hope within the client.

Aims and objectives of guidance and counseling

Guidance and counseling services are guided by a number of aims and objectives
which can be summarized as;

1. The need to achieve self-acceptance through guiding and counseling, the

individual should know oneself and accept his or her weakness
2. To achieve self-control i.e. the individual should be able to attain the ability to
cope with the difficulty and changing situation
3. Total development i.e. the individual should be able to attain growth and
abilities in all areas (physically socially, morally, spiritually, economically etc)
4. Achieving competence. I.e. the individual should be able to solve his/her
problem successfully and make relevant decisions.
5. Pathological analysis, i.e. individuals should be able to identify their problems
and solve them
6. Waste and stagnation, i.e. the individual should be able to check against and
make use of available resources adequately.
7. Behavior change, ie each individual should be able to change the behavior to
those which are productive.
ASSUMPTIONS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

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If guidance and counseling services in schools are to useful, there are several
assumptions around them namely;

• The teachers who offer them are professionally trained.

• The client is willing to listen and accept
• The counselor knows how to approach the situation
• It isn’t compulsory to expose the client to guidance and counseling
• Everybody needs the services of guidance and counseling
• It should be unique to each individual
COMPONENTS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING SERVICES.

The school is expected to provide more than just teaching and instruction. A
school guidance program includes all those activities other than instructional
which are carried out to render assistance to pupils in their educational,
vocational, personal development and adjustment. The fundamental aim of
guidance program being the maximum development of the child, all guidance
program must be geared toward attainment of the goal. Guidance services can
assist the pupils in knowing themselves-their potentialities and limitations,
making appropriate choices in educational, vocational and other fields. The
areas of guidance are very vast. The following are some of the important areas
of guidance in schools:
Personal Guidance

Students face many personal problems related to themselves, their parents

and family, friends and teachers, etc. They often have memories related to
home or family which creates feeling of disappointment in them. If their
parents are expecting too much of them it leaves them with a feeling of
incompetence and insecurity leading poor self-concept and self esteem. The
objectives of personal guidance are to help the individual in his/her physical,
emotional, social, rural and spiritual development.
The aims and objectives of personal guidance are:
• To assist the individual in understanding himself/herself.
• To assist the individual involving the personal problems.

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• To assist the individual in taking independent decisions and judgment.

• To assist the individual to view the world and the social environment in right
perspective.
• To assist the individual in making sound adjustments to different problems
confronted in life.
Scope personal guidance
It includes
• The need to overcome superiority or inferiority complex
• The need to overcome stress (stress management)
• The need for adequate information about health for disease control i.e. washing
hands, sleeping in mosquito net etc
• The need for self-control and self-management i.e. time management, self-
regulation, setting personal priorities
• The need and importance of leisure and recreation

Personal guidance is necessary at all stages of life. At primary school level

opportunities should be given to students for their self expression. Personal
guidance at this stage deals with the problems related to feeling of insecurity,
social acceptance, discipline etc.

At the secondary school level, the students have more intricate personal
problems. During the secondary school level, adolescent students due to
peculiar physical, emotional and social developments undergo noticeable
changes in their attitude and behavior. Personal guidance at this level should
therefore focus on personal and social adjustment. Personal guidance at the
tertiary stage aims at helping them view life in relation to reality. The scope of
personal guidance at this level is very wider.

Educational Guidance:

If one closely examines the problems of young pupils in schools and colleges,
one would exactly realize the need of educational guidance. Educational

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problems head the needs of students‘problems. So education is an important

guidance area.

Educational guidance is related to every aspect of education school / colleges,

the curriculum, the methods of instruction, other curricular activities,
disciplines etc. Educational guidance is the assistance given to the individual
(i) to understand his/her potentialities (ii) have a clear cut idea of the different
educational opportunities and their requirements (iii) to make wise choices as
regards to school, colleges, the course : curricular and extracurricular.

Some of the aims and objectives of educational guidance are:

• To assist the pupil to understand him/herself i.e. to understand his/her

potentialities, strength and limitations.

• To help the child make educational plans consist with his/her abilities,
interests and goals.

• To enable the student to know detail about the subject and courses
offered.

• To assist the student in making satisfactory progress in various school/

college subjects.

• To help the child to adjust with the schools, its rules, regulations, social
life connected with it.

• To help the child in developing good study habits.

• To help the child to participate in out of class educational activities in

which he can develop leadership and other social qualities.
Scope of educational Guidance
The following should be done under educational guidance and counseling;
• Knowledge of the abilities and interests of the individual.
• Knowledge and information about choices for courses, subjects and programs.
• They need information about administration requirements.
• Help students to improve their study skills.

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• The need for preparation and passing exams i.e. how to answer questions,
dangers of cheating etc
• Information about study and financial opportunities e.g. scholarship
• The information about curriculum structure of an institution.

At t primary school level, guidance program must help the children to make
good beginning, to plan intelligently, to get the best out of their education and
prepare them for secondary schools. Educational guidance needs to be used
in diagnosing difficulties, in identifying the special needs of children.

At the secondary school level, educational guidance should help the students
to understand themselves better, to understand different aspects of the
school, to select appropriate courses to get information about different
educational opportunities, to develop good study habits. The students should
be helped to be acquainted with the vocational implications of various school
subjects.

Educational guidance at the tertiary level must oriented students about

purpose and scope of higher studies and helps them to stimulate their studies.
Each college/ university must have a guidance unit with due provision of
guidance services.

Vocational Guidance:

Due to advancement in science and technology and consequent charges in

industry and occupations have been emerged. There are thousands of
specialized jobs/ occupations. In this context, there is a great need for
vocational guidance.

Vocational guidance is a process of assisting the individual to choose an

occupation, prepare for it, enter upon it and progress in it. It is concerned

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primarily with helping individuals make decisions and choices involved in

planning a future and building a career. The purpose behind assisting the
youth to choose, prepare, enter and progress in a vocation is the optimum
growth of the individual.

Some of the aims and objectives of vocational guidance are:

• Assisting pupil to discover his/her own abilities and skills to feet them
into general requirements of the occupation under consideration.

• Helping the individual to develop an attitude towards work that will

dignify whatever type of occupation s/he may wish to enter.

• Assisting the individual to think critically about various types of

occupations and to learn a technique for analyzing information about
vocations.

• Assisting pupils to secure relevant information about the facilities

offered by various educational institutions engaging in vocational
training.

At primary school level, orientation to vocation can be initiated at this. At this

level, some qualities and skills which have grater vocational significance
namely; love and respect for manual work (ii) training in use of hands (iii) spirit
of cooperative work (iii) sharing (vi) appreciation for all works (vii) good
interpersonal relationship are to be developed.

At the secondary school level, vocational guidance should help the students to
know themselves, to know the world of work, to develop employment
readiness to develop decision making rules.

At the higher education level, it should be more formal one. The objectives of
guidance at this level are to help the students to get information about
different career, training facilities, apprenticeship etc.

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Avocational Guidance
The individual student spends only a small portion of his time i.e. 4 t0 6 hours per day
in school. The rest of the time needs to be effectively managed and utilized by the
child for his/her progress and development. Avocational guidance helps the child to
judiciously utilize the leisure time. The other co-curricular activities play an important
role in all-round development of the child .But many parents; teachers and children
put secondary importance to these activities. The students need to be properly guided
for effective participation in varied types of avocational pursuits so that they are able
to shape their interpersonal behavior in desirable direction and widen their outlook.

Social Guidance:

We are social animals. But social relationships constitute a problem area for
most of the students. School/educational institution is a miniature society and
pupil from different socio- economic status, linguistic and socio-cultural
background read there. Students sometimes may face problems in adjustment
and social relationship. It is very important that the students to be helped in
acquiring in feeling of security and being accepted by the group in developing
social relationship and in becoming tolerant towards others. This is the task of
social guidance. Formally social guidance can be given by educational
institutions whereas informal guidance may be provided by Family, religious
institutions, Media etc.
Pastoral and moral guidance and counseling services.
Moral values occupy an important place in our life. Sometimes due to influence
of diverse factors students tell lies and indulge in undesirable practices. Moral
guidance helps in bringing these students in to proper track and help in their
all round development.
The focus of this service is to develop and promote spiritual and moral services in
schools. Therefore the service involves areas like;
• The need to develop the attitude towards others despite of our differences.
• The need for prayers and worship of God

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• The need to develop altruistic behavior/ pro-social behaviors.

• The need for love of each other or appreciating people’s problems.
Telling lies, indulging in antisocial acts, being fascinated by heterosexual
relationships, and trying to dodge the adults in family and also undisciplined
behavior in school can be avoided by guidance

Health Guidance:

Health is regarded as the wealth. Total health i.e. preventive and curative is
the goal of health guidance. The health guidance may be a cooperative effort
of Principal, Doctors, Counselor/psychologist, Teachers, Students and
parents. For promoting preventive care the conditions of school hostel,
canteen needs to be checked. Similarly health education through formal
classes and information is essential in school education stages. In the present
day the concern of health guidance also pertains to guidance in HIV/AIDs.

Orientation Guidance and Counseling Services

The focus is to help the leaner adjust to the new environment and cope well with the
old environment. The services include;

Information about the rules and regulations of the institution/ school

They need to know the various geographical locations of various units e.g.
library, sickbay, head teachers’ office etc.
Information about culture of the place.
To learn and know the ways of behaviors in a certain society.
Career guidance and counseling

Leisure – time guidance :

Guidance for leisure is basically a part of personal guidance. the individual

should know how to utilize his/her leisure time fruitfully. leisure generally

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refers to free time a person at his disposal. leisure in modern time is available
to those who are technically trained and efficient. But, unfortunately most of
us do not know how to utilize the leisure time. That is why guidance for leisure
is necessary.

Leisure can be fruitfully utilized for two purposes. First of all Leisure provides
us time for personal development. One can increase his efficiency by utilizing
his leisure time.

The second use of leisure is that it helps the individual to be more productive
by getting the necessary rest and recreation. Jones divides leisure time
activities into four groups.
1. Escape activities
2. General culture or appreciation activities.
3. Creative activities and
4. Service activities

It has also been suggested that individuals should spend their leisure time in
social welfare activities. For professional growth are must take active interest
in the professional society of his profession.
PLACEMENT SERVICE
This service is applied in three areas or types of guidance ie personal, educational
and vocational.
The service;
• Renders assistance to pupils to find themselves rightly placed at home, in the
school and in the society as a whole.
• Helps students get admitted in the right type of school
• Prepares students for the right type of job
• Making sure students have
A right type of company of friends
A friendly atmosphere around them
A place in their peer groups, liked by their parents, teachers

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Vocational/Career Guidance
Vocational guidance is the assistance given to students in choosing and preparing for
a suitable vocation. It is concerned primarily with helping individuals make decision
and choices involved in planning future and a career decision and choices necessary
in effecting satisfactory vocational adjustment.

Career guidance is defined as a set of multiple processes, techniques or services

designed to assist an individual to understand and to act on self-knowledge and
knowledge of opportunities in work, education and leisure and to develop the decision
making skills by which to create and manage his or her own career development.

Career counseling is also referred to as helping to bring about self-understanding,

understanding of the career concerns involved and behavioral options available.
Career counseling also means a verbal process in which a professional counselor and
counselee are in a dynamic collaborative relationship to solve career problems.
According to UNESCO (2002), career counseling consists of four elements,
a) Helping individuals to gain greater self-awareness in areas such as interest, values,
abilities and personality style;
b) Connecting students to resources so that they can become more knowledgeable
about jobs and occupations;
c) Engaging students in the decision making process in order that they can choose a
career path that is well suited to their own interests, abilities values and personality
style; and
d) Assisting individuals to be active managers of their career paths (including
managing career transitions and balancing various life roles) as well as becoming
lifelong learners in the sense of professional development over the life span.
Aims and Objectives of Vocational/career Guidance according to
• Assisting a learner to discover his own abilities and skills and to fit them into
general requirements of the occupation under consideration.

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• Assisting the learner to evaluate his own capabilities and interests with regard
to their worth to him and to society.
• Helping the individual develop a positive attitude towards work.
• Assisting the learner to secure the necessary information about the facilities
offered by various educational institutions engaging in vocational training.
• Providing information for the learner about admission requirements, the length
of training, and the cost of attending any institution of higher learning
• Giving assistance during school years so that the individual will be able to
adjust on the job work conditions and to other workers.
• Helping the learner realize that success is purchased at the price of effort, and
that satisfaction on the job derives from doing his work competently.
Need of Vocational/ career Guidance
Wrong profession and economic & psychic loss: If an individual stays in a wrong
profession for a long time, then he suffers economically, & psychologically. i.e., there
is a financial loss to him as well to the organization. The individual is not happy. He is
frustrated. His family life is affected.

Economic advantages: Vocational guidance provides many economic advantages to

the employers. Their problems are fewer because the workers enjoy job satisfaction.

Health Point of View: It is needed from the point of view of health of the workers. If
the profession is such where health of worker breaks down, production suffers and
morale of workers goes down.
Personal and social Values: There are large numbers of personal and social values of
vocational guidance. Learning a side financial consideration, the workers happiness,
his personal development, his value as a social unit and his contributions to human
welfare are all involved, Right vocational guidance helps us achieve that.
Maximum utilization of human potentialities: We are truly benefited if the human
potentialities are utilized of the maximum with the help of vocational guidance.
Career counselors therefore look at the following
• Where information about schools and vocations can be found.
• Description of work

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• Work conditions
• Required education, knowledge, abilities and skills
• Entry and average income in the occupation
• Where the more information about an occupation can be obtained
• What are the possibilities of finding a job in region where a client lives
• What is the future outlook of the occupation a client is interested in?

The kind of occupational information which students should know

1. Employment prospects
Are the employment prospects for this occupation expanding or diminishing?
2. Nature of Work
What are the pleasant or unpleasant things workers have to do? What
tools, equipment, or materials, are used? What are the hours of work? Are
there any shifts?
3. Work Environment
Is it hot, cold, humid, dry, wet, dirty, noisy, etc.?
4. Qualifications
What are the academic and/or physical qualifications?
5. Aptitudes
What are the I.Q. and other special aptitudes needed?

6. Interests
What are the interests of people who succeed in this particular occupation?
7. Legal and professional
Is a licence or certificate required?
8. Preparation
What kind of education and training is needed?

9. Entrance
Is it by examination, by application and interview, or by capital investment?

10. Likes or dislikes

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What are the likes and dislikes of the job?

11. Advancement
What proportion of workers advance? And to what positions?
12. Earnings
What are the earnings per month and year? How are wages paid?

Factors that influence career choice of secondary school students in Uganda

❖ Family back ground:

o Whether one’s parents are alive or dead

o Family socio-economic status

o Number of brothers and sisters the one possessed

o Sibling position and rivalry (competition)

o Parental expectations and biases e.g. the second chance hypothesis)

❖ School Background

o Type of school attended: rural or urban, public or private

o Quality and type of teachers available

o School’s rating in terms of availability of resources

o Range of school subjects offered

o Hobbies while in school

o Curriculum

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❖ Community/Cultural Influences

o Sex-role expectations of candidate’s community and culture (e.g.

impact on marriage prospects)
o Religious background and expectation (obedience to religious prophecy
and dreams)

o Popular trade or business or occupations in one’s community or locality

o The geography and location and location of one’s community (e.g. near
the lake region)
o Government/public policies: policies relating youth employment,
labour market trends, general apathy out-right pessimism among
youth, high youth unemployment rate etc
❖ Influence of Peers and Significant others

o Opinions of friends and peers about subjects or disciplines of study

that are “valuable”, “prestigious”, “hotly on demand” and “paying”
o Opinions of significant others about professional courses one can do well
in
o Occupational fields that are considerable familiar or known to one’
significant others such as one’s elder brothers, sisters, cousins, and
in-laws as well as the factor of peer comparison and imitation
❖ Economic Constraints and Considerations

o Family economics, constraints and considerations

o Availability of scholarships or loans for training in a given area of study

o Urge for immediate and concrete rewards in a given individual e.g.

some good students do opt to go into business rather than university

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education in search for quick money and financial independence

❖ Age consideration

o Chronological Age; since certain occupations impose age limits for

intending new recruits
o Social age; e.g. age of retirement consideration can discourage an
individual from opting for further studies
❖ Public Image of the Course/Occupation

o The marketability value of graduating in a given course of study

o Leading courses at the time the decision is being made

o Status and prospects of known graduates in the course area in question

o Tight get-keeping effect in certain occupations. How easy it is to get

admission into the course concerned
o Length of training required for graduation and qualification in the course
concerned

❖ Information Availability

o Level of access to vocational information on nature of life in different

occupations
o The individual’s prejudice about nature of life and success in various
occupations
❖ Personality characteristics

o One’s sef-concept and self-esteem

o One’s needs and values

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o One’s occupational self-concepts

o One’s ability to take risks in exploring new fields of study

o One’s endurance limits to wait to get admitted into one’s programme of

choice

o One’s ability to delay gratification and clear image of a possible self

(a self one would like to become)
o One’s physical attributes such as assets, and handicaps

o One’s ability to postpone gratification in search of long range advantages

o The factor of emotional stability such as ability to stand by one’s

vocational decision

o Role Perception: how an individual perceives himself.

❖ Educational background

o One’s academic qualifications such as the one’s academic

achievements in high school in relation to admission requirements in
different areas of study
o Level of facility in science and arts subjects: an either/or; or a both-and
candidate?

o The crisis of multi-potentiality

APPROACHES TO GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

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There are majorly four approaches to guidance and counseling: directive, non-
directive, self-management and eclectic approach.

1. Directive approach:
The main exponent of this approach was E.G. Williamson. It is also known counselor
centered counseling. The counselor directs the client to take steps in order to restore
his/her conflicts. It is based on the assumption that the client cannot solve or deal
with his own problems or challenges due to lack of information. the counselor plays
an important role; he/she tries to direct the thinking of the client, interpreting and
advising. Williamson outlined six steps under directive approach:
Analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counseling and follow-up.

Advantages/merits of directive approach

1. It is less time consuming; hence this method can be adopted when an early solution
is required.
2. This approach is suitable for clients that are less matured and less intelligent.
3. It is the best where the client cannot analyze his/her own problem or
challenges/issues.
4. In this approach the counselor becomes readily available to help the client.

Demerits/disadvantages of directive approach

1. The client does not become dependent on the counselor.
2. The personal autonomy and integrity of the client is not respected.
3. It may not help the client to develop any attitude through his/her own experiences
4. The counselor does not help the client to learn how to deal similar future challenges

2. Non-Directive approach
The chief exponent of this approach was Carl Rogers. This approach is the reverse to
directive approach. It is also called client-centered approach. In this approach, the
client is the pivot pf the whole counseling process. The main function of the counselor

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is to create an environment in which the client can work on his/her challenges/issues

at hand.
Carl Rogers gave the following steps during non-directive approach:
Defining the problem situation
• Free expression of feeling
• Development of insight
• Classification of positive and negative feelings
• Termination of counseling situation

Merits/advantages of non-directive approach

1. It helps the client to become independent and self-reliant to attain the ability for
self-direction.
2. It helps the client to attain emotional integrity thus helps to reach his full growth.
3. It helps to attain more sustainable adjustment to his/her situation
4. This approach leaves its impressions for a long period.

Demerits/disadvantages of non-directive approach

1. it is usually time consuming.
2. it is not suitable for less intelligent and less matured clients.
3. it may not possible in schools where the counselor has to attend to many clients.
Differences between directive and non-directive approach to counseling
Directive approach Non-directive approach

Counselor oriented Client oriented

Counselor suggests the solutions Client finds his/her solutions

Emphasis is on the problem Emphasis is on the individual

Counselor plays an active role Client plays an active role

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Aims at solving immediate Aims at self analysis and dealing with

problem/challenges new problems

Help is offered by a counselor to take Client takes his/her own decisions

decisions

Methodology is direct and persuasive Methodology is indirect

3. Eclectic approach to counseling

The chief advocate of this approach as Thorne. It involves selecting, reconciling, and
choosing appropriate aspects or methods from various sources or theories. It is
neither counselor centered nor client centered but a combination of both. In this
approach, the counselor is neither too active nor too passive but follows a middle
course. This approach of borrowing from different approaches/theories is the one
called Eclectic.

4. Self management approach

The basic assumption in this approach is that the client should be given more
responsibility for counseling outcome. The client has to play a more a active role in
solving his/her problem

TYPES OF GUIDANCE: INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP

Individual guidance:

Individual guidance is tailored to an individual. It is advice, strategy or planning

designed for a singular person or thing and their unique situation. This is in
contrast to general guidance which is frequently based on demographic
information such as age or income or meant for the general population. The
most common reference to individual guidance is in reference to children or

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students. This is ideally the role of guidance, educational or career counselors.

Individual guidance can be used to refer to any advice, usually professional

advice, given to a person based on their unique circumstances. This could
include legal services, career counseling, financial planning, medical or
psychological advice or a number of other areas where a trained professional
is looked to for direction in a given area.

Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance:

Group refers to collection of people, interaction between individuals,
development of shared perceptions, the development of affective ties and the
development of interdependence of roles. For example many students and
teacher/teachers at one school may gather together to form a group.

Group guidance encompasses those activities of guidance which are carried

on in a group situation to assist its members to have experiences desirable or
even necessary for making - appropriate decisions in the prevailing contexts.
In a more specific term, it is guiding the individual in a group situation. Group
could be of any type ,but for guidance purposes a group should have a common
goal. Just collection of individual may not be called a group for organizing
guidance activities. Selection of group members will have to depend on
sharing a common problem, volunteering to be members and willingness to
group activities.

Jones, A.J. (1951) defines group guidance as any group enterprise or activity
in which the primary purpose is to assist each individual in the group to solve
his problems and to make his adjustment‘.

Group guidance is used to address the developmental needs of a functional

group consisting of a number of students to implement program that would
benefit them at all time. Students in group with common problems and
concerns are helped in groups i.e. small or large. In other words, if guidance is

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to be available to all, it should be planned in groups.

Some of the objectives of group guidance are:

1. To help people in identifying common problems, analyze them and

find relevant solutions

2. To place a wide range of information before people with common

problems which could be useful for them for finding solutions?

3. To provide a platform where people with common problems could

interact with each other and could be benefited by each other‘s
perspectives, ideas and experiences

4. To help in creating an atmosphere where people could get an

opportunity to express themselves and in the process analyze
themselves.

Organization of Group Guidance Activities:

Planning of group guidance activity may focus the following points.

1. Need Assessment: The need assessment must be done to find

out the common problems of individuals in the group. This can be
done by administering questionnaire, checklists and interview.

2. Determining size of the group and time, venue for group

activities: Depending upon the group activity the size of the
group should be fixed. The size should be approachable and
manageable. The venue should be selected taking in to account
the group selected for activity.

3. Selection of members and role specifications: The participants

selection for group guidance activity is also very important. The
students for example should be communicated about their roles
in group activities.

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4. Orientation of Members: The group goals should be clarified. It

should be stated in clear, objective and measurable terms.

5. Monitoring of activities and evaluation of outcomes: If we want

to conduct the activities purposefully, it should be properly
monitored taking into account the goal/s. Feedback about activity
needs to be collected from participants.

Some of the common group guidance activities are: Class talk, career talk,
displays and exhibitions.

Techniques of Group Guidance:

A number of techniques are used in organizing group guidance.

Group Discussion: For example at senior secondary stage students should

have knowledge about different career. A group discussion may be organized
in the school. For organization of the group discussion proper room/hall, group
and relevant topic and expert/resource person should be selected. The group
discussion will be useful only if the members participate effectively without
the fear and all the members have the opportunity to participate. But the
effectiveness of the group discussion depends upon the facilitator and the
group selected.

Problem solving: For solving individual as well as common problems, problem

solving can be applied as a technique. It comprises of the following steps;

Existence of common problem

Focused description of the problem

Initiation of action for solving problem based on relevant facts

Analysis of problem in the light of data collected

Listing of possible solutions and Evaluation of them

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Acceptance of degree of acceptance of solution in the group

Role play: In small group role playing can be adopted as a technique of

guidance. Role playing is a method where real life situations are simulated by
group members/participants. This provides new insight, intuitions, skills and
understanding of opposing viewpoints. The role playing may comprise of the
following steps;

Existence of common problem

Orientation of group to role playing and the problem

Assigning of roles

Preparation of other members/audience to observe

intelligently

Assessing the role play concluding session

and feed back

Other methods like case study and socio-metric technique can be used as group
guidance technique.

Advantages of Group guidance:

Some of the advantages of group guidance are as follows:

Inspires learning and understanding: Interaction in group setting

inspires learning and understanding of students. The student learns
from other member of group.

Saves time and effort: Group guidance technique can save time and
effort of both the counselor and students. The time saved can be used
for the more difficult and complex problems of students.

Improvement of student’s attitude and behavior

Development of wholesome and helpful awareness of unrecognized

needs and problems of student/s

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Limitations of Group Guidance:

Group guidance though serves a useful purpose, but they cannot be taken as
a substitute for individual counseling. Group activities serve many of the
objectives of the school guidance program, but not all of these. Further
students may feel hesitant to come out with their personal problems in the
group. So, in these cases group guidance cannot be of help.

Group guidance activities serve useful purposes specially saving in time and
effort. While organizing these activities, some problems that a counselor may
face are mentioned below:

A rigid type of administration is often a major cause of trouble. Generally, when

the counselor asks for time in the time table for conducting these guidance
activities, he/she may get a discouraging reply, the time table is already full.
No periods are free. So the counselor is left with no other choice than to take
the substitute management period.

Lack of cooperation on part of the administration as well as the staff members

may also create problems in organizing such activities. Teacher may feel this
as an addition burden. Lack of adequate funds is another problem.

THEORIES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Holland’s Theory of Career Development:

Holland’s theory proposes that people match their skills and personality to a work
environment that is similar, and that most people want to work with an environment
of people like them. The theory divides both personalities and workplaces into six
basic categorizations, which form a hexagon in a specific order.

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• Realistic people like working with their hands, tools and machines, and view
themselves as practical, reliable mechanically-inclined workers. They’re often
drawn to careers in engineering, mechanics, agriculture and other hands-on
areas.
• Investigative people like to explore and solve problems by researching new
ideas, completing experiments and reviewing data. Careers in this category
include science, engineering and research and development.
• Artistic individuals are drawn to express themselves by creating and
designing things or through performance. They’re artists, musicians, writers,
actors and graphic designers, and find themselves in fields promoting the
creative arts.
• Social people are focused on helping others, whether through teaching,
training, service or applied care, all with the focus being on working with
other people. Careers include health care, social work, teachers and customer
service.
• Enterprising people are leaders who are drawn to influence and encourage
others, providing direction and planning. They often end up in business,
politics, entrepreneurship, management and sales.
• Conventional individuals like working with data and numbers in a set
procedural way; they’re methodical, thorough and pay attention to detail.
Career areas include accounting, economics, clerical work and information
management.

Holland’s theory assumes that people of one personality type will want to work in a
field and environment that’s similar to their personality type. Those who follow this
plan are more likely to be satisfied with their career and be successful in it. Those
who end up with their personality mismatched to their work will not be as motivated,
nor as successful.

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Donald Super's career developmental theory

Donald Super’s “Life Span, Life Space” theory proposes that a person’s self-concept
– how they view themselves, how they think they are viewed and how they want to
be viewed – is the main force behind career and development choices. It identifies a
set of development stages, identified roughly by age ranges, through which
individuals move: growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance/management,
disengagement.

The key to this theory is the identification of roles an individual might have at any
point in this cycle – for example, a working woman may be a manager, wife, mother
and student, all at the same time – and how the changing prioritization of these
roles controls one’s motivations. The theory also links the work-life balance
together, since one’s self-concept is considered within the context of all of one’s
roles, not just professional ones.

According to Donald Super, career patterns are determined by socioeconomic

factors, mental and physical abilities, personal characteristics and the opportunities
to which persons are exposed. People seek career satisfaction through work roles in
which they can express themselves and implement and develop their self-concepts.
Career maturity, a main concept in Super's theory, is manifested in the successful
accomplishment of age and stage developmental tasks across the life span.
Self-concept is an underlying factor in Super's model: "...vocational self-concept
develops through physical and mental growth, observations of work, identification
with working adults, general environment, and general experiences....As experiences
become broader in relation to awareness of world of work, the more sophisticated
vocational self-concept is formed"

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Super's contribution was the formalization of stages and developmental tasks

over the life span:

STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS

Growth Birth to 14 or 15 Form self-concept, develop capacity, attitudes,

interests, and needs, and form a general
understanding of the world of work.

Exploratory 15-24 "Try out" through classes, work experience,

hobbies. Collect relevant information. Tentative
choice and related skill development.

Establishment 25-44 Entry skill building and stabilization through work

experience.

Maintenance 45-64 Continual adjustment process to improve

position.

Decline 65+ Reduced output, prepare for retirement.

People change with time and experience, and progress through the following
vocational development stages:

VOCATIONAL AGES GENERAL

CHARACTERISTICS/DEVELOPMENTAL
TASKS

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Crystallization 14-18 Developing and planning a tentative vocational

goal.

Specification 18-21 Firming the vocational goal.

Implementation 21-24 Training for and obtaining employment.

Stabilization 24-35 Working and confirming career choice.

Consolidation 35+ Advancement in career.

Although Super originally presented the stages and tasks in a sequential manner, he
later added that we cycle and recycle throughout our life span as we adapt to
changes in ourselves as well as to the trends in the work place. Understanding
these ages and related stages of career development helps the facilitator select
appropriate responses and activities.
'Super and Thompson (1979) identified six factors in vocational maturity:

1. Awareness of the need to plan ahead

2. Decision-making skills
3. Knowledge and use of information resources
4. General career information
5. General world of work information, and
6. Detailed information about occupations of preference.

Super also looked at the different roles we play during our lifetimes and the relative
importance we give to those roles at different times in our lives.

BASIC TEACHERS COMPETENCES/ QUALITIES OF A GOOD COUNSELOR

Guidance and counseling service is not easy and therefore not everybody can be a
good counselor. Therefore we need to develop certain basic attributes /qualities/

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characteristics. According to Patton 1996, certain desired qualities that one must
develop include;

Empathy ; having feeling for others. Therefore it is the ability to appreciate other
people’s problems/ situations (put you in some one’s shoes.)

Self disclosure (transparency) that is the ability and willingness to reveal to the client
the problem and its nature, therefore the counselor should help the client to feel
comfortable about the problem and how it relates to other people.

Genuiness (prefinity) the ability to demonstrate consistence between what you say
and do. Therefore the counselor should endeavor to be a good role model to the client.

Emotional stability.I.e. the ability to handle the client without losing your temper like
crying. A counselor should be firm therefore a counselor should be tolerant and
patient without showing any element of disappointment.

Ability to keep clients’ information Confidential; the practice of keeping information

about the client’s secrets to the counselor. The identity of the client shouldn’t be
revealed. Counselors who are trustworthy safeguard their clients’ communications
and never let their clients regret having shared information with them.

Self awareness and understanding. The counselor should be aware of; his needs,
his motivation for helping, his feelings, and personal strength, limitations and coping
skills.

Competent. This is the ability to have the necessary information, knowledge, and
skills to be of help. Competent counselors are able to work with a greater variety of
clients and a wide range of problems.

Unconditional positive regard: an expression of caring and nurturance as well as

acceptance. It includes conveying warmth and respect.

Acceptance; being non judgemental.Accepting the client for who s/he is and in
his/her current situation.

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Sensitivity to and understanding of racial, ethnic, and cultural factors in self and
others.
Awareness of one’s own ethnic and cultural heritage and how they shape one’s
worldview contributes to one’s effectiveness as a counselor

Other characteristics/attributes of a good counselor

include::
• A good listener & good communicator
• Respectful to other person‘s feelings & point of view.

• Kind, caring and understanding

• Relaxed and calm

Circumstances that may dictate the counselor to breach confidentiality

It is unethical to reveal client’s information except in certain situations where the
counselor can be forced to breach confidentiality.
i. On the client’s consent

ii. When the client’s intention may cause/result harm to

self or others
iii. When the client’s intention may endanger the life
of the society
iv. When the client needs hospitalization

v.When the law requires doing so. When the client has committed crime e.g.
raping, or when the client under 16 years presenting to you a case of rape
(because it is illegal action).

IMPORTANT TEACHER ACTIVITIES IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING.

The guidance and counseling practice of the teacher/counselor requires that the
teacher/counselor performs many activities which include;

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Generates background information about the client, the family, hobbies,

aspirations religions, strength and weaknesses
Generate information about opportunities and conditions available outside the
school e.g. employment, scholarships, location of important places etc
Disseminate relevant information to the students
Promote consultations with students and other people.
Conduct psychological assessment to determine certain traits in the leaner’s
i.e. personality, self concept.
Conduct research
Keep records and train them in keeping records for them selves
Other roles & functions of a school counselor

Counselor is a specialist in education. A school Counselor ‘s responsibilities

can be classified into a) Diagnostic, b) therapeutic c) Evaluation and Research
with specialized services and skills. A counselor is selected by virtue of
interest, training, experience and competence.
The specific functions of a school counselor are:

Orientation of Students
Student appraisal
Educational and Occupational information service
Holding counseling interviews
• Placement
• Research and Evaluation

The Counselor:
Designs and initiates a comprehensive career development program Involve
teachers, students, parents, community resources.
Plans students competencies for use in the classroom
Assist students in career selection; prepare them to progress in it.

The counselor acts as a facilitator. The Counselor need to keep up-to-date

information regarding new career trends and to participate in professional

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experiences to improve their skills.

THE COUNSELING PROCESS

Counseling is a process. It means that Counseling involves a sequence of

identifiable events spread over a period of time. The time taken, the sequence
of events, and dynamics involved, the nature and extent of exploration, differ
from individual to individual. However there are certain basic stages, which
form the essentials of counseling processes.

The process of counseling comprises of certain concepts, they are as follows:

Readiness:
The counselees are of two types i.e. one who seeks assistance voluntarily and
the other who are referred. The Counseling presupposes a desire on the part
of the counselee that makes him come for the assistance. This desire is
referred to as readiness.

Counter Will:
People experience difficulty in asking for help and accepting it, because they
are reluctant to face the consequences of change or an admission of
inadequacy of failure. The negative feeling that holds back one from seeking
help is referred to, as counter will.
Case History:
Case History is a systematic collection of facts about the counselee‘s past and
present life. However focus of attention varies from case to case.
Rapport :
It is a warm friendly and understanding atmosphere created by the counselor,
which is catalytical in the formation of an effective counseling relationship.
Warmth of relationship and feeling of trust, which grows out of unconditional
acceptance are important in contributing to the establishment of rapport.

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Transference:
It refers to the counselor transferring emotions originally felt towards someone
early in life. The counselee is encouraged to express his/her feelings and
emotions freely. The counselor acknowledges these feelings and handles in a
therapeutic way.

Counter Transference:
This occurs when counselor project their unresolved conflicts upon the
counselee. When counselor feels uncomfortable and experience feelings of
anger, resentment or become overemotional. This is unhealthy.

Resistance:
It refers to counselee‘s move to oppose the counselor‘s attempt to work
towards set goals. This influences counseling outcome positively. Resistance
ranges from open hostility to passively resistant behavior like being late for an
appointment

STAGES OF THE COUNSELING PROCESS:

Just like in the case of a bread baker who must follow some steps in baking bread,
so is the case of a counsellor who must follow a process in order to solve the
problem of a client. Process in counselling is defined as series of stages gone
through by the counsellor to help the client understand and or solve a problem.
The process of arriving at a solution may take some time (sessions) before the
desired goal is achieved. A process is an identifiable sequence of events taking place
over time e.g. Process of human development from birth to death.

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Stages of Counseling Process

The counselling process is a planned, structured dialogue between a counsellor and

a client.

It is a cooperative process in which a trained professional helps a person called the

client to identify sources of difficulties or concerns that he or she is experiencing.
Together they develop ways to deal with and overcome these problems so that
person has new skills and increased understanding of themselves and others.

For example, students in a college or university may be anxious about how to study
in university, lack of clarity on educational or career direction, have difficulty living
with a room-mate of another race or religion, have concerns with self-esteem,
feelings with being “stressed out”, difficulties in romantic relationships and so forth.

Step 1: Relationship Building /Rapport Building

The first step involves building a relationship and focuses on engaging clients to
explore issue that directly affect them. The first interview is important because the
client is reading the verbal and nonverbal messages and make inferences about the
counselor and the counseling situation. Is the counselor able to empathize with the
client? Does the client view the counselor as genuine?

Some Non-Helpful Behaviors

There are several non-helpful behaviors that a counsellor may engage in and the
common among them include:

 Advice Giving

 Lecturing

 Excessive Questioning

 Storytelling

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 Asking “Why?”

 Asking “How did that make you feel?”

Some steps for Relationship Building for the Counsellor

 Introduce yourself

 Invite client to sit down

 Ensure client is comfortable

 Address the client by name

 Invite social conversation to reduce anxiety

 Watch for nonverbal behavior as signs of client’s emotional state

 Invite client to describe his or her reason for coming to talk

 Allow client time to respond

 show that you are interested in the person

The central task of the counselor in this stage is to allay the client‘s fears and
encourage self-disclosure. Attending paying careful attention to the client‘s
words and actions. Counselor observes clients behavior for indications of
content and feeling not expressed in verbal message. It is the first contact
between the client and the counselor, but it remains important throughout the
counseling process. In this stage, clients are helped to articulate their personal
concerns and to place those concerns in a context so that the counselor can
understand the personal meanings and significance the client attaches to
them. The main aim of this stage is promote trust in the client. The following
characteristics describe the helping relationship.
Empathy - Understanding others experience as if it were yours.

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Genuineness - Being natural, consistent in behavior and

dependable in the relationship.
Unconditional positive regard - Caring without condition
Concreteness - Using clear language to describe the client‘s situation.

Step 2: Problem Assessment/ Identifying the nature of the presenting problem

While the counselor and the client are in the process of establishing a relationship,
a second process is taking place, i.e. problem assessment. This step involves the
collection and classification of information about the client’s life situation and
reasons for seeking counseling

Step 3: Goal setting/ Formulation of Counseling Goals

Like any other activity, counseling must have a focus. Goals are the results or
outcomes that client wants to achieve at the end of counselling. Sometimes, you
hear both counselor and client complain that the counseling session is going
nowhere. This is where goals play an important role in giving direction. The client
articulates where they want their counseling journey to take them. Client role as one
of driving the bus. Enhances sense of ownership and motivation factors important in
the change process. Well identified goals help create a roadmap and means to
evaluate.

Guidelines for setting goals

Goals should be selected and defined with care. Below are some guidelines for goal
selection that can be used with students: Goals should relate to the desired end or
ends sought by the student. Goals should be defined in explicit and measurable
terms. Goals should be feasible. Goals should be within the range of the counsellor’s
knowledge and skills. Goals should be stated in positive terms that emphasize
growth. Goals should be consistent with the school’s mission and school health
policy.

Step 4: intervention and problem solving

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Begins as soon as goals are established – there is plan for how to achieve them.
Action is directed in accordance with new perspective. Collaboratively established
plan works best. Educational information is given to the client regarding options, and
advantages/disadvantages for each option.

Step 5: Termination and Follow up or Referral

For the beginning counselor, it is difficult to think of terminating the counseling

process, as they are more concerned with beginning the counseling process.
However, all counseling successful termination. aims towards Terminating the
counseling process will have to be conducted with sensitivity with the client
knowing that it will have to end. Counselor always mindful of avoiding fostering
dependency and is aware of own needs.

Preparation for termination begins long before. Open door / plan for possibility of
future need. Termination considered not just at end of successful relationship, but
also is considered when it seems counseling is not being helpful. Think of this as a
means of empowering client. Role to review progress, create closure in client
counselor

THE BASIC SKILLS USED DURING COUNSELING:

Attending: It is the act of truly focusing on the other person. It involves

consciously making ourselves aware of what the other person is saying and of
what they are trying to communicate to us. While using the attending skill, the
counselor is guided by what Gerald Egan termed as SOLER. It’s an acronym
stands for: S - Sit squarely O – Openness L – Leaning E - Eye contact R –
Relax
Listening - It is the process of hearing the other person. During listening it is
important to show that the counselor is listening through the ‗minimal
prompts such as head nods, yes, no etc.
They indicate that ‗I am with you‘. Overuse of these should be avoided.

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Aspects of Listening

• Linguistic aspects - words, phrases, figures of speech

• Paralinguistic aspects - timing, volume, tone pitch, ‗ums‘ and ‗errs‘,

fluency
• Non-Verbal aspects: facial expression, gestures, touch, body position,
and proximity to the counselor, body movement and eye contact.

Observing Body Messages

Non-verbal aspects of communication refer to body language. The way the
client expresses through the use of their body. They offer clues about the
client‘s internal status beyond the words. Morris calls it ‗Man Watching‘. Body
language depends on context in which it occurs, the nature of the relationship,
individual‘s personal style, personality of the person. Therefore avoid
assuming what person is saying with their body languages.

Listening Blocks
Attraction: Attention is focused on what you are feeling rather than
what client is saying.
Physical condition: Sick/tired, without realizing it you tune out certain
things client is saying.

Preoccupied with you own concerns.

Over-eagerness: Listen to only a part and respond.

Similarity of Problems: Same as your own problem. Your mind wanders.
Differences: Different experiences of yours and client.

Noise in the background can also be a block to effective listening.

Things that Impede proper Communication

with the client

• Counselor ‘s predispositions

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• Premature advice

• Excessive questioning

• Story telling
Giving lectures
Self-disclosure: The counselor reveals something about his or her personal life to
the client to make then realize that he is not the only one who has been afflicted
(troubled) by the problem at hand. Never give false disclosure.
A way in which people let them-selves be known to others. Care should be taken such
that the counselor doesn’t burden the clients with their problems. Eg Alice, at one
stage in my life I lost a scholarship too and found it a very scary and difficult time.
Though clearly our experiences differ, I think I do have some idea of what you are
going through. The following can be done in self-disclosure
• Talking about oneself not third parties known to the client
• Talking about past experiences
• Being to the point
• Being sensitive to client’s reaction
• Sharing personal experiences sparingly
• Being sensitive to counselor-client differences

Empathy: The counsellor feels with the client as he/she endeavors to get out of
the problem.
Reflection of feelings: Emotional responses by the counselor.
Paraphrasing: The counselor listens to a short session of the conversation
and says the same thing in different words in short. He chooses/selects those
ideas and feelings which seem most important and relevant and feeds them
back to the client in a more organized form.
Rephrasing the client’s response using the counselor’s own choice of words.
Rephrasing of the client’s message neither adds to nor detracts from the client’s
meaning Eg.
Client: It is going to be a little tricky to leave work early tomorrow in order to go to the
interview.

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Counselor: You are not sure about leaving work in order to try to get a new job.
Like reflection, paraphrasing focuses on some aspects of the client’s message and
communicates that the counselor understands. It also helps the client to hear his/her
own message as someone else heard it.
Summarizing skill: The counselor summarizes what the client has said. The
counselor can summarize the client’s story if he/she notices that the client is
repeating what has already been said, if the session is going nowhere/ if the
counselor is stuck, at the start of the proceeding session, at the end of the
session. The summary should be precise and spot on.

Immediacy or Direct mutual communication: Talking about the here and now of the
interpersonal relationship.

Minimal Encouragers: Small indicators which show the client that the

counselor is listening and encouraging him or her to continue talking, e.g. wow! Ok!
Yes, oh! So, then!
Confrontation: Responsible unmasking of the discrepancies, distortions, smoke
screens and play games in order to hide from self-understanding and positive
change in behavior.

Questioning: Questions are used to draw out more information from the client. These
may involve both pen & closed questions: Example of open question; would you
explain more about your problem with your wife. However, there are several types of
questions.

Open-ended questions:
Open questions promote discovery and stimulate thinking. They are useful to
help the other person to start talking about a topic, outline a situation, give a
broad description of what happened and how he or she reacted.

There are three broad types of open question:

Clarifying question

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―What specifically does that mean to you?‖

―Can I make sure I understand that…?‖
―If I hear correctly, what you are saying is…‖

Creative questions
―How have you seen others handle similar situations?‖ ―What do you think
about…?‖ ―Would you like to talk more about it?‖ I‘d be interested in hearing more‖

-What would be your approach if there were no constraints?‖

Process questions
―What would you like to get from this session?‖
―What do I need to communicate to ensure everyone understands your role?‖
―What authority do you think you need to complete this task?‖

Closed questions
Closed questions are those that lead to either ‗yes‘ or ‗no‘. They are useful in
checking facts quickly but can lead to a one- sided conversation. Examples
are:
‗Have you been shopping recently?‘

‗Is there enough money in the bank?‘

‗Have you done this sort of work before?‘

A closed question can be useful lead into open questions once an area to
explore has been identified.

Less useful questions

Certain types of questions are less useful. Try not to use them - these include:
Leading questions (―I assume you…‖)
Hypothetical questions (―If you were in my place….‖) Multiple

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questions.

Probing:
The purpose of probing is to get information, broaden decisions and
understand reasons and motivations. Do not over use ‗why‘. It causes people
to become defensive.

―In what way would this help achieve greater customer satisfaction?‖

―What other aspects of this should be considered?‖

―How would you involve others in accomplishing this plan?

Probing helps in getting to the heart of a topic, checking information and filling
in details.
Probing can be a reflective question, useful for gaining a clearer
understanding, revealing more information or uncovering feelings.

Note: There are three types of probes: statement probe, request probe, and question
probe
for example:

―You say you were pleased….‖

―Incompetent….‖
―You say he reacted to this, How did he react….?‖

Silence.
This provides time to the client to talk. It can communicate counselor’s needs and
expectation to the client e.g. if a counselor keeps quite, the message is I want you to
talk. Silence can yield some anxiety and overly long silences can have undesirable
effect of inducing extreme self-consciousness and anxiety in a client. So, silence can
be thought of as 5-10- second pauses in conversation. These poses have several
potential effects
• They can be an invitation to continue discussion

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• They can encourage the client to focus on self-exploration

MEDIA OF COUNSELING
FACE -TO –FACE:

It is the most common medium for counseling. In individual counseling it is a one- on

-one interaction. It involves a two way process between the counselor and the client.
It is suitable for informing, guidance and counseling clients.

GROUP FACE –TO- FACE COUNSELING:

The counseling is done in a group which can consist of three to twelve

members/clients. The skills in group counseling are just the same as those in a one
–to- one counseling.

TELEPHONE COUNSELING

Besides face-to-face counseling, there is telephone counseling which is referred to

as one-to-one communication.

COUNSELING BY LETTER

This is where counseling is carried out by correspondence.

COUNSELING BY BROAD CASTING;

Counseling by broad casting done via radio and TV station programs.

ON LINE COUNSELING:
Online counseling refers to the provision of professional mental health counseling
services concerns via the internet. Online counseling is simply communicating with a
qualified, professional counselor/therapist by email or chat through your computer,
instead of having to make a visit to your counselor ‘s office; you can receive the same

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professional care in the comfort of your own home.

Services are typically offered via email, real time chat and video conferencing. Some
clients use online counseling in conjunction with traditional psychotherapy, and
others use it as an occasional check-in tool for their lives.

Whether you choose only a few email exchanges or on ongoing dialogue with
the counselor over time, you have the opportunity to share your concerns, pose
questions, and gain further insight into the problems you are addressing.

Advantages of using Online Counseling

• Convenient - any time, any place, whatever suits you
• Flexible - you control everything; receive help when you want it
• Can deal with embarrassing issues without having to see anyone

• Your anonymity is protected

• Get to the root of the problem quicker as writing lets you get in touch
with your feelings
• More cost and time effective as you can deal with more issues in a
session

• No need to take time off work

• Receive specialized help no matter where you live in the world.

Disadvantages of on line Counseling or Therapy

Counseling online carries many disadvantages as compared to traditional, face-to-

face counseling.

Lack of Visual and Verbal Cues

It can be difficult enough to understand exactly what someone is saying in a
face-to-face setting, but stripped of the kinds of visual and auditory verbal
cues which we take for granted when communicating in person the struggle to

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understand takes on a whole new dimension. Part of the beauty of the English
language is that the same statement an take on a whole range of subtle
meanings: but without that grin or frown that raised eyebrow, that softened
voice or dead-pan delivery, figuring out which meaning a person intends can
be a real challenge.

The lack of visual cues is also especially important for clients who would like
to discuss a visible physical disability and would like their counselor to be able
to see exactly what they are talking about.
Lack of Physical Presence
The lack of a physical presence of another person in the same room may make
some people feel less emotionally intimate and less comforted in times of
distress.

Asynchronous Nature of Email and other on-line modalities

It can be frustrating to have to wait for the counselor to reply when using email
and other forms of communication that are asynchronous (meaning that two
people are writing at different times, as opposed to conversing in real time).

Urgency
In a similar vein, the inevitable time delay associated with email exchanges
precludes the kind of urgent attention (or even emergency response) which is
possible in a face-to-face setting

No Regular Appointment Times

Just as the freedom to work without fixed appointment times can be an
advantage for some clients, the absence of the structure which fixed
appointments provide can be a disadvantage for others. Many clients prefer
the structure of having to attend a session at the same time every week.

Computer concerns
Relying on computers as a communications medium can bring technology into
the foreground of the counseling process as an unwelcome participant.

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Equipment and Internet Service Failures

Hardware or software failure or internet service failure can impact the online
availability of both counselor and client. Ideally, the technology becomes
‗transparent‘, so it simply serves as a tool for communication, without
requiring attention in and of itself. In practice, however, even the best
technological tools sometimes require attention, and it can be frustrating it
this occurs during a counseling exchange.

Confidentiality and Privacy in Shared Environments

Using computers at work, in an internet cafe or public library, or any other
environment where other people have access to the same equipment
introduces particular pitfalls for confidentiality and privacy in email counseling.

Of course, there are things that the face to face counseling covers that the e-
therapy lacks. We are talking of the Non-verbal communication that is missing
when the screen separates people. Also, it may happen that a person needs
to be physically comforted when being in a counseling session and we cannot
do that on-line. Being aware of those disadvantages, we as professionals, face
our role with all our heart and seriousness so as to make the best out of all the
strengths of the online counseling.

THEORIES OF COUNSELING

What is a theory?

A theory is a set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that explains

or predicts events or situations by specifying relations among variables.

A theory presents a systematic way of understanding events, behaviors and/or

situations.

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A theory can also be explained as an attempt to organize and integrate knowledge

and to answer the question ‘why’. A good theory normally organizes knowledge in
such a way that we are able basing on the explanations given to predict the
occurrence of certain event or behavior.

A good theory has a set of postulates or assumptions. These state the basis or the
premise of the field with which the theory is concerned.

A theory also has a set of definitions. These definitions relate the concepts to
observational data and hence make possible the study of such concepts in an
experiment.

Different people are confronted with different problems which need different
solutions. Therefore, different theories have been advanced to explain these
situations. These theories are important for four main reasons.

I. They help us to understand human beings or behavior.

II. To identify what needs to be achieved.
III. To guide beliefs and practices of counselors
IV. The theories can help to identify the appropriate plan/ strategy of handling the
problem.

Among such theories include;

Psychoanalytic theory / Psycho-analysis (by Sigmund Freud)

The original so called ―taking therapy involves analyzing the root causes of
behavior and feelings by exploring the unconscious mind and the conscious
mind & relation of it. Many theories and therapies have evolved from the
original Freudian psychoanalysis which utilizes free association, dreams and
transference, as well other strategies to help the client know the functions of
their own minds. Psychoanalysis ‘was developed in the late 19th century by
Sigmund Friend. His therapy explores the dynamic workings of a mind
understood to consists of three parts. The hedonistic id, the rational ego and
the moral superego, Freud maintained that the condition of the unconscious

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mind is profoundly influenced by childhood experiences. So in addition to

dealing with the defense mechanisms used by an overburdened ego, his
therapy addresses fixations and other issues by probing deeply into client‘s
youth.

The theory suggests that;

1. People are characterized or fond of seeking gratification and avoiding pain

2. Human beings are biological creatures born with unconscious or natural drives
3. Human beings are born evil or selfish
4. Personality is a strong dominant force in people’s behavior
5. Child hood experiences can influence people’s behaviors.
6. Behavior fluctuates according to the dominant level of the mind i.e., id, ego and
superego
Therefore, counseling should;

▪ Help the client understand his/her behavior.

▪ The counselor should help the client to discover why he/she behaves that way.
▪ Counseling should stress the importance of free association.
▪ Counseling should use/ employ several techniques such as; Transference,
Counter transference, Referral, Dream interpretation.
Determinants of human behavior
Human behavior is determined by three things:
Irrational forces

Unconscious motivation

Biological make up or drive

Goals of the psychoanalysis

The goals of psychoanalysis are:

To make the unconscious conscious

To strive to probe into the deeper part of the psyche.

To get the issues that were not resolved during cognitive development.

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To understand and experience the issues and to bring change in the

character.

Principles of psychoanalysis:

The general principles are:

Help the person to tell his or her story.

Establish a solid working alliance

Deal with resistance

Gather background information and history.

Select the problem or issue to be worked on explore the precipitating

events.

Collaborate with the client to form a diagnosis and treatment plan.

Increase the client‘s awareness regarding defensiveness.

deal with resistance to interventions.

Explore the client‘s transference.

Examine how the past is impacting the present.

Help the client behave more effectively.

Provide feedback and confront discrepancies.
Negotiate with the client regarding home work assignments

The major therapeutic techniques under psychoanalysis

Maintaining the analytic framework,

Free association: The client explains a problem. Give him/her a

chair and tell to close his/her eyes and say many things freely
without thinking the environment.
Pick out few stories about the past and the current life.

The counselor should listen very attentively with “Third Ear” which
is the professional listening, interpreting and summarization of the

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information.
Interpretation Method: To point out and explain to the client the
meaning in the story of the client picked through narrating this story
and come up with the meaning. E.g. You said that they hate you.
Why do you think they do so.
Dream analysis Method: The counselor must be trained in dream
analysis and connect the problem with the dream she had.
Analysis of resistance: This may be keeping quite/no response of
the client. The counselor must be trained to understand
resistance/silence.
BEHAVIORAL THEORY (by Skinner, Watson, Pavlov)

The theory advances or believes that;

✓ Human beings are born neither good nor bad

✓ Behavior is a function of the environment
✓ To understand people well, we should focus on their observable behaviors.
✓ Most behaviors are leant from the environment and can also change with the
environment.
✓ Behaviors can also be influenced by social learning principles.
✓ We tend to repeat behaviors which we find satisfying to us/ pleasing to us.
✓ Bad behaviors can be perpetuated/ promoted by reinforcement
Therefore, guidance and counseling services/ practices should;

➢ Be a process of helping people to behave and solve their problems within a

context.
➢ Counseling services should be to help a client achieve his/her goal.
➢ The counselor should be willing to help the client achieve that goal.
➢ Counseling techniques should employ varieties of counseling which include;
Operant leaning (reinforcing good behavior) Modeling (be a role model),
Cognitive learning (use of the mind), Emotional learning (relaxing the mind and
the muscle),Systematic desensitization (gradual expose of the client to the
feared stimulus), flooding.

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RATIONAL EMMOTIVE BEHAVIORAL THEORY/THERAPY REBT by Albert Ellis)

It advances that human beings are born with the capacity to think.

❖ They are both rational and irrational

❖ They are born with a capacity to think
❖ People possess high degree of suggestibility. We can plan what to do, how to
do it and we won’t do it.
❖ People behave in the deliberate and irrational ways due to the assumptions
they have all about life.
Therefore, counseling services should;

▪ help the client to develop the ability to think objectively.

▪ Maximize the client’s intellectual power to remove illogical thinking.

▪ Help the client to appreciate his problem by using the ABC formula. (Actual
problem, belief about the problem, consequence of belief)

HUMANISTIC THEORY/ CLIENT /PERSON CENTERED THEORY. (Pioneers are

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers)

The theory proposes/ believes that;

• The world is as an individual perceives it.

• People have rights to their opinions
• People struggle to achieve their goals/ self actualization.
• People are unique and their problems are felt with their uniqueness
• A human being is made up of three individuals / persons;
Organism i.e. what a person is, Self concept; i.e. what one thinks
of one self, Phenomenology i.e. what one does. Therefore, the
role of counselling should be to;
• Identify the capabilities of individuals and help them along those
capabilities.
• Counselling should focus on helping the client to develop self-
understanding.

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Counselling should actually influence the positive environment of the client through
advice

Person-Centered Theory

Person-centered theory has become one of the most popular theories of counseling
and therapy since it developed in the 1940s. It was first labeled nondirective by its
originator, Carl Rogers. The theory offered a distinct alternative to the behavioral
and psychoanalytic theories that dominated psychology at the time. Rogers later
broadened the concepts of the process and renamed it client-centered to de-
emphasize the nondirective nature and emphasize a full understanding of all the
client's dimensions. The person-centered concept evolved as issues relating to
equality of participants in the relationship and a focus on the positive health of
people became significant issues as opposed to a more unhealthy client status.

Person-centered theory makes possible the expansion of helping situations.

Originally developed as an individual process, it has since become a major group
theory. This group focus has expanded into concepts popular in education. Rogers'
most recent work emphasized the same concepts as ways of dealing with
international conflict resolution in an emphasis on promoting world peace.

Person-centered theory places great emphasis on the individual's ability to move in

positive directions. Practitioners of the theory have a belief in the trustworthiness of
individuals and in their innate ability to move toward self-actualization and health
when the proper conditions are in place. Tied to these beliefs is the confidence that
individuals also have the inner resources to move themselves in such positive
directions. Finally, a core concept in the theory states that individuals perceive the
world in a unique phenomenological way so that no two people's perceptions of the
world are the same.

The perception of clients as competent, trustworthy, and forward-moving people

who have their own unique view of the world places great confidence in the
individual's ability to control his/her own positive change. This confidence in the
client directs the counselor to provide the conditions for that change. Specifically,

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there are three basic conditions needed to support an individual's natural inclination
for positive growth: a genuine relationship with a relatively congruent individual,
acceptance and caring from the counselor, and an accurate understanding on the
part of the counselor of the client's phenomenological world.

Clients who are provided with these growth conditions will realize their actualizing
tendencies for growth. They will explore their difficulties and natural competencies
in this productive environment, which will then lead to a clearer picture of
themselves and their potential. As clients' pictures of themselves become more
accurate, they become better able to act in ways that are most in line with their true
self (congruence). This in turn will lead to more self-confidence, self-understanding,
and better choices.

The role of the counselor in person-centered theory is primarily to promote the

conditions for change rather than do things to bring about specific changes.
Counselors and therapists are expected to maintain a genuine human relationship in
which they provide unconditional positive regard to their clients. This demonstrates
their faith in clients and support of the process. Much of the work of the person-
centered counselor revolves around developing an accurate empathic understanding
of a client, conveying that understanding to the person, and working with him to
expand and clarify the understanding and its impact on the client's choices and
actions.

Rogers' work initiated much research on the helping relationship and client gain.
The use of taping and transcriptions to evaluate the necessary conditions of
counseling and psychotherapy received emphasis from research on this theory. A
great deal of innovative research in the area of clinical growth was also produced in
the development of this theory. However, much of this theory has been integrated
into the overall body of the theory, and relatively little research is currently being
done in the area. Calls are being made for potential expansion of the theory and
research into its future development. Person-centered counseling and
psychotherapy has given much to the field, and professionals continue to emphasize

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the need for growth of the theory rather than a stagnant use of the theory's many
positive contributions.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

The moral principles most often cited in relation to ethical practices of

counselors include the following:
Veracity or telling truth
Justice or fairness
Non-maleficence or doing no harm
Beneficence or doing good
Autonomy or respecting free choice
Fidelity or keeping promises

Every profession has got its ethics to guide its work and so does counseling.
Hanington (1995) proposes some ethical guidelines.

Confidentiality the practice of keeping information from or and about the client.

Autonomy; the respect for the client’s rights to be self governing or to be left alone
i.e. no interference in the affairs of the client.

Beneficence. The practice/ readiness of being committed to the client’s wellbeing

i.e. use your competence and ability to help the client achieve/ solve her problem.

Non maleficence; the practice of avoiding, causing any harm to a client.

Justice; be fair or impartial to all clients regardless of other factors such as religion,
tribe, sex, political party etc.

Self respect; the practice of promoting self-knowledge self-care of yourself

(counselor) e.g. seek better techniques/ skills of counseling, relax, consult

Training; a counselor must be professionally trained/ registered with official authority

of counseling.

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Criminal liability; avoid being involved in criminal activities e.g. theft, murder

BARRIERS TO COUNSELING
There is a general misconception that guidance and counseling is all about giving
advice and so it can be done by anyone. With this guidance and counseling is facing
a number of challenges.

School counselors are not necessarily being qualified in the field of guidance and
counseling. Teachers from non-counseling background without proper training in
counseling are given the responsibility of being school counselors. Since they are not
trained, they don’t possess the necessary qualities and skills to carry out counseling.

Due to the lack of manpower and expertise, very frequently, teachers appointed as
counselors are involved in a number of activities teaching, organizing events,
disciplining students, investigating cases among others and this leaves no time or less
time for counseling.
The physical space and materials provided in schools are not enough.
Counselors complain about lack of rooms set aside for counseling and so students
fear seeking for help in the open.
Big enrollments in schools limit counseling. Schools are crowded with students and
teachers and yet it is one teacher or two appointed as counselors. So the over
whelming number of students limits counseling. This is because the counselor-
student ratio is high yet a case for Uganda there is no critical mass of counselors
trained so far to handle all students in schools..

Crowded curriculums in schools. There are a number of activities in schools of which

teachers too are engaged. Counseling not being examinable in schools and not being
compulsory is often forgotten.

Poor attitude of students, parents and teacher/counselors about counseling. Because

of stigma, people fear seeking for counseling in fear of being labeled as being mentally
unstable.

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Ignorance about the existence of these services. People have a number of problems
but the way they are brought up and cultural orientations limit their ability to seek for
counseling. They are also ignorant about the existence of these services .

There are concerns in regards to counselors’ assessment tools. There are a variety of
challenges faced by people which need diagnostic measures but there is a big
challenge that counselors are not well trained in the use of the tools and more likely
can give a wrong diagnosis and treatment to the clients.

Financial challenges. Counseling services come with a fee. People who may have
wanted the service fear because of financial constraints.
Situations when confidentiality may be compromised

1) if you ask me to speak with someone else for you or give them
information you wish them to have

2) If I feel that you or someone else may being danger or in need or

protection,

3) If a court orders the release of information,

4) If required by law, as in cases of child abuse.

5) To consult with another professional person in confidence to try

to find solutions or answers for you.

Need for ethical codes:

Ethical codes help professionalize and Protect an association by government
and promote stability within the profession. The need for ethical cods are:

To control internal disagreement.

To protect practitioners from the public
To protect client from incompetent counselors.

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Especially in mal practice issues. Clients can also use such ethical codes to
evaluate questionable treatment from the counselors.

Ethical Issues that influence counseling Practice

Client Welfare: Client needs come before counselor needs and

the counselor needs to act in the clients best interest.

Informed Consent Counselors need to inform clients as to the

nature of counseling and answer questions so that the client
can make an informed decision.

Confidentiality: Clients must be able to feel safe within the

therapeutic relationship for counseling to be most effective.
What the client says stays in the session unless the client is
threatening harm to self or others.

Issues that may affect the counseling relationship with the client
Dual Relationships: When a counselor has more than one relationship
with a client (e.g. The counselor is a friend and the counselor).

Sexual Relationships: Professional organizations strongly prohibit

sexual relationships with clients and in some states it is a criminal
offense.

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PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING.

Some problems of the clients are complex and difficult to describe which makes the
work of a counselor challenging. Therefore, to overcome such difficult problems,
counselors need to employ services called psychological testing. It refers to the
administration of psychological tests to one person or a group of people to examine
specific areas of functioning. This involves administering tests, inventories and/or
checklists in accordance with their particular procedures, scoring these tests and
presenting the results.

Psychological testing can also be defined as an objective and standardized measure

of a sample of behavior.

Psychological testing helps in many ways such as; Diagnosis of the problem of the
client, classification, prediction, scholarship award.

Psychological testing uses an instrument/ tool/ advice called psychological test.

Psychological test is a tool which contains a set of questions that measure a particular
trait in a human being which are related to the client’s problem.

Most psychological tests are standardized i.e., they have been tried, tested, and
approved by many experts with a high level of validity and reliability.

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It’s therefore imperative for a counselor to know how to use these instruments and to
interpret their scores. There are many psychological tests which measure different
traits such as; Aptitude tests i.e., tests that determine the future potential of an
individual when not exposed to learning; personality tests, interest tests, intelligence
tests; achievement tests.

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