DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY

College Of Engineering
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Control engineering and Maintenance of
Machinery Module
Instructors Assigned courses Combiner
Dejene W. Maintenance of
machinery
Solomon A. Introduction to
mechatronics
Samueal K. Refrigeration and
air conditioning
Yonas A. Instrumentation and
measurement

Date 11/07/2015
 Control and Maintenance of machinery module

1. Introduction
If there is manufacturing of goods, there is production process. Each means of production is
closely related to failure of component due to wear and tear. If proper action against cause of
failure of equipment is not taken there would be breakdown in the production process or total
stoppage of production. So there must be permanent necessity that all means of production be
chucked served and tended in order to give the full function and we call that maintenance
Maintenance may be defined as ensuring a means of production continues to function to
accomplish what the user wants to do (preserved in its existing state or must continue to function
the desired state).
In the past, the typical size of a maintenance group in a manufacturing establishment varied from
5 to 10% of the operating force. Today, the proportional size of the maintenance effort compared
to the operating group has increased significantly, and this increase is expected to continue. The
prime factor behind this trend is the tendency in industry to increase the mechanization and
automation of many processes. Consequently, this means lesser need for operators but greater
requirement for maintenance personnel.
Types of Maintenance
Run to Failure Maintenance (RTF) :-The required repair, replacement, or restore
action performed on a machine or a facility after the occurrence of a failure in order to
bring this machine or facility to at least its minimum acceptable condition.
Preventive Maintenance (PM) :- It is a set of activities that are performed on plant
equipment, machinery, and systems before the occurrence of a failure in order to protect
them and to prevent or eliminate any degradation in their operating conditions.
Corrective Maintenance (CM):-is carried out after breakdown of equipment or fall
below acceptable operation condition.
It is considered if failure has maximum disturbance and cost impact
Improvement Maintenance (IM) :-It aims at reducing or eliminating entirely the need
for maintenance
Predictive Maintenance (PDM) :-Predictive maintenance is a set of activities that detect
changes in the physical condition of equipment (signs of failure) in order to carry out the
appropriate maintenance work.

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2. Fundamental Theory of damage

Damages are causes for the loss of functionability of a means of production. Thus damages are
the reasons for the existence of a maintenance organization.
Types of damage
a) Wear
It is removal of particles from the surface of two mating parts due to friction, that leads undesired
change in shape of equipment.
For the formation of wear there must be;
 Two mating bodies.
 Normal force.
 Relative motion.
 Environmental condition.
i. Surface fatigue wear mechanisms :-This is due to the action of repeated stresses in
or below the surfaces, and leads to generation and propagation of cracks.
ii. Abrasive wear :-assumes one of from the mating part is hard and the other is soft and
penetration of the softest material by the hardest material asperities.
iii. Adhesive wear :-are initiated by the interfacial adhesive junctions (atomic structures
to hold themselves together and form surface bonds with other surfaces) and then
material transferred due to adhesive joint which leads to rupture.
iv. Tribo-chemical wear
v. Rolling fatigue wear
 Wear related to intermediate media may be solid friction (no intermediate material)
liquid friction (mating bodies separated by intermediate material, mostly lubricant)or
mixed friction.
b) Corrosion
It is the destruction or deterioration of materials by chemical or electrochemical reaction with
the environment.

i. Surface corrosion :-uniform corrosion on the entire surface

ii. Pitting corrosion:- small size surface pits are covered with corrosion
products

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iii. Galvanic corrosion:- corrosion electron flow between two dissimilar

material
iv. Crevice corrosion:- corrosion around bolts, nuts, scratches etc.
v. Micro-biological corrosion:- due fungi that grow in a certain area
vi. Inter and trans crystalline corrosion:- corrosion occur at/cross the grain
boundaries.
c) Fatigue
Is failure of material under fluctuating stress repeated large number of times.it begins
with hair line crack and develop to cause failure.

3. Typical damages of machine parts

a) Gear damages
Gear failure occurs when any one or both of the following has occurred:
 One or more teeth have broken away.
 Teeth are so badly damaged or worn-out
Modes of failure
 Abrasive, Corrosive, Pitting, Scoring
b) Bearing damages
Most bearings failures can be attributed to one or more of the following causes;

 Misalignment
 Incorrect shaft and housing fit
 Inadequate lubrication
 Vibration
 Transportation, handling
Load condition
Radial load, axial load, combined radial and axial
Modes of failure

 Fatigue, Wear, Corrosion, Erosion, Deformation, Fracture

c) Shaft damage

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Load condition
Tension, Compression, Bending , Torsion or any combination of the above loads
Modes of failure

 due to wear, Fatigue, misalignment, corrosion, creep, brittle fracture

d) Friction Surfaces damages
Friction surfaces such as clutches and brakes usually fail by wear and or deformation.
Modes of failure

 Spotting, scoring, buckling, grooving, fading, bonding etc.

4. Determination of state of damage

State of damage is simply undesired deviation from the required state fixed in the design
procedures. Knowledge of determination of state of damage is essential for setting the date and
kind of maintenance

Phases of Damage
Wear-in/burn in: After commissioning of equipment there is a period of time during which
various pairs are subjected to large tribological stresses. This often produces excessive wear. For
example, gears during the wear-in (running-in) stage of operation may produce an abnormal
amount of fatigue wear particles (pitting). This is caused by abnormal contact stresses between
gear teeth caused by asperities and teeth surface irregularities, which are the results of machining
process (design or manufacturing errors).
Random/useful life: Random failures occur in the mid-life of the equipment and are caused by
overloads or under-designed components, deficient lubrication, contamination, corrosion, etc.
These types of failure are difficult to predict.
Wear-out: Wear-out (degradation) failures are caused by fatigue (both high and low cycle),
corrosion, erosion, or by design (planned obsolescence).

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Measuring Values for the State of Damage

 Direct measured quantities: - The direct measuring technique determines the difference
between the initial state and the state after wear process. The measurements taken can be
direct linear, volumetric or mass quantities.

In Direct measured quantities:- During the operation of a machine or part, certain signals
(diagnostic parameters) are produced that provide some information regarding the state of the
machine.
Potential and functional failure (P-F curve)
The P-F curve is employed to show;
 where failure in the equipment starts to occurs;
 where equipment condition deteriorates to the point at which the failure can be
detected;
 Where the equipment has failed indicating functional failure.

Condition monitoring techniques

a) Dynamic monitoring: detects potential failures which cause emission of abnormal

energy in the form of waves such as vibration and noise.
b) Particle monitoring: detects potential failures which cause particles of different sizes
and shapes (wear particles and corrosion particles) to be released into the environment in
which the component is operating.

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c) Chemical monitoring: detects potential failures which cause traceable quantities of

chemical elements to be released in to the environment.
Some of the techniques are: Atomic emission spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence
spectroscopy, Infrared spectroscopy, Electro-chemical corrosion monitoring, Exhaust
emission analyzers colour indicator, etc.
d) Physical effects monitoring: includes changes in the physical appearance/structure of
equipment and detects potential failures in the form of cracks, wear, corrosion, etc.
e) Electrical Effects Monitoring: look for changes in resistance, conductivity, power
factor, breaker timing.
f) Lubricant monitoring: it is examination of the oil and any particles.
g) Thermal monitoring:
Depending on how the monitoring is done, condition monitoring techniques can be classified as:
 On-load monitoring techniques: mostly carried out without interruption of
operation
 Off-load monitoring techniques: require shutdown of the unit.

5. Elements of maintenance
a) Attendance (Operation):-is the right way of avoiding mal-operation which
influences the damages and indirectly the maintenance. It includes;

 Proper use of operating instructions.

 Proper use of service instructions.
 Following proper maintenance procedures and instructions.
 Proper attendance avoids subjective damages and minimizes objective damages.

b) Servicing:-Servicing of a machine is important in decelerating wear of damage of

machine parts.
Important measures to be taken are:
i. Cleaning
ii. Lubricating
iii. Adjusting

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c) Repair:-is the totality of measures of restoration with the aim of determined final state,
or quality, or condition of equipment. It is unscheduled and emergency type in nature.
It is carried out when defect/problem is reported during preventive maintenance schedule.

6. Decision making
Maintenance is the combination of all technical and administrative actions, including supervision
and action indented to retain the machine or restore it to a state in which it can perform a
required function. Effective maintenance ultimately aims to determine suitable action‟s that can
keep machine performance at acceptable level and extend the life cycle of the machine. Different
types of maintenance alternatives have been proposed to achieve the ultimate goal. Selection of a
suitable maintenance policy becomes a crucial decision making process to obtain high levels of
success in manufacturing industry.
However, a maintenance policy implemented in a similar machine but in different
manufacturing environments may not produce similar results because of various operating
factors.
Decision making is selection of appropriate maintenance strategy for a particular or group of
machine. Decision making in maintenance selection is often accompanied by diverse constraints,
includes operator safety, government regulation, resource limitation and budget.

Influencing factors in decision making

 Cause of failure
 Failure with respect to time
 Cost
 Maintainability

Considerations in Decision making

 Safety (health effect)
 Environmental effect
 Operational effect

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7. Reliability, Maintainability and Availability

Reliability
Reliability is the probability of an item to perform a required function under stated conditions for
a specified period of time.
Availability
Availability is a measure of the degree to which an item is in operable state and can be
committed at the start of a mission. Availability as measured by the user is a function of how
often failures occur and corrective maintenance is required, how often preventative maintenance
is performed, how quickly indicated failures can be isolated and repaired, how quickly
preventive maintenance tasks can be performed, and how long logistics support delays contribute
to down time.
Maintainability
Maintainability is the ability of an item to be retained/restored to a specified condition when
maintenance is performed by personnel having specified skill levels, using prescribed procedures
and resources.

Factors involved in achieving good reliability and maintainability

Machine design and manufacturing: wrong manufacturing procedures, design deficiencies

(tolerances, clearances, fits, strengths, rigidity) manufacturing deficiencies (residual stresses,
surface finishes, stress concentrations).
Material: inadequate material properties, wrong material selection criteria, mismatch of material
properties with environment, wrong combination of materials, surface treatment and hardness.
Human: inadequate training, inexperience with a new type of system, incorrect operation of the
system.
Methods: incorrect specification, lack of quality control, inadequate manufacturing methods,
inadequate design methods, inadequate maintenance methods, incorrect operating procedures,
incorrect handling, (damage during transport).
Cost: emphasis on cost at the expense of quality of design and manufacturing.

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Time: wrong timing of maintenance activities. In addition to the above factors failure can be
caused by other factors, like environmental condition, radiation, noise, etc.

The Whole-life Equipment Failure Profile: (The Bathtub Curve)

A Wear-in/burn in/early failure:

The decreasing failure rate that is known as early failures or infant mortality is usually related to
manufacture and quality assurance. Inadequate processes, inadequate handling methods, wrong
startup & installation are reasons for burn-in failures.
B Random/useful life: Random failures occur in the mid-life of the equipment and are difficult
to predict. Low safety factors and higher random stress than expected are common reasons for
random failure.
C Wear-out: Wear-out (degradation) failures are caused by fatigue (both high and low cycle),
corrosion, erosion, or by design (planned obsolescence).

Fig.7. 1 bathtub curve

Failure Rate and Mean Time between Failures

Failure Rate: For a stated period in the life of an item, the ratio of the total number of failures to
the total cumulative observed time is defined as the failure rate.

Mean Time between Failures: For a stated period in the life of an item, the mean value of the
length of time between consecutive failures computed as the ratio of the total cumulative
observed time to the total number of failures is defined as the MTBF.

Assume a batch of N items out of which a number k have failed at time t. The total cumulative
time T can be evaluated in one of the following ways.

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If it is assumed that each failure is replaced as it occurs,

T = Nt
If items are not replaced as they fail, for non-replacement condition the cumulative time is given
by
T = t1+ t2+ t 3+……..tk+ (N- k) t

Failure rate (λ) = )

Mean Time between Failures (MTBF) =

System reliability and Method of determining system reliability

System reliability stands for the reliability of a system consisting of two or more components. It
is difficult to estimate the reliability of the system composing of many elements. Following
approach is used to determine the reliability of a system.
1. Reliability of sub-systems and individual components of the system is determined.
2. Manner in which sub-systems and components are arranged in the system is identified. That is,
logical manner in which elements are arranged is represented in a block diagram.
3. Based on the manner in which the sub-systems are connected in the system, the probability
rules are applied to find the system reliability.
The probability survival or reliability of an item until time t for failure rate λ is;
R(t) =

Types of configurations

Series configuration:-In series configuration, elements or components are arranged in a

series and for the successful operation of the system it is necessary that all „n‟ units function
satisfactorily.

Fig. 7.2 series configuration

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Where, P(S) is system reliability, P(X1) is the reliability of the first unit, P(X2) is reliability of
the second unit and so on .
Parallel configuration: In parallel configuration elements or components are arranged in a
parallel and satisfactory functioning of any one of the elements leads the successful operation of
the system.

Fig. 7.3 parallel configuration

Mixed configuration: in practice, the components of a system are not connected in simple
series or parallel manner .

Fig. 7.4 mixed configuration

Redundancy: is a simple method for improving the reliability of a system when the element
reliability cannot be increased. Successful operation of one of the elements is required for the
success of the system; deliberate use of both elements increases the probability of success of the
system causing the system to be redundant.

Fig. 7.5 a) unit redundancy Fig. 7.5 b) component redundancy

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8. Maintenance planning and organization of maintenance

resources
Maintenance planning is the task of organizing resources to carry out a job satisfactorily at
reasonable cost within a specified period of time.
Maintenance planning protects investment on machinery, plant and buildings through adequate
maintenance, there by maximizing plant utilization with minimum downtime and elongating the
useful life of equipment.
Maintenance planning and scheduling process depends on the combination of number of human
resources, tools, parts, equipment that requires maintenance, data about the task to be performed
and permission to this occurrence.
Good maintenance planning ensures right distribution of technical information, minimizes waste
of spares and materials, maximize labor utilization and can help in establishing proper safety
system.
Factors that should be considered in selecting appropriate maintenance policy or program;
 Item type: simple replaceable items, complex replaceable items, non-replaceable items
 Production pattern
 Nature of the process
 Failure characteristics
 Economic factors: consequences of failure cost of replacement, monitoring cost, etc.
 Safety factors
In maintenance planning, in setting a reasonable and appropriate maintenance policy, the
following guidelines should be considered.
1) Fixed time replacement policy:-the failure of the item is clearly time dependent, and the total
costs of such replacement are substantially less than those of failure replacement repair. it is
usually most suitable for low cost simple replaceable items
2) Condition based maintenance policy:- is usually most effective for high cost complex
replaceable items.
3) Designing out: - it is considered for all high cost maintenance items, replaceable or non-
replaceable.
4) Operated to failure: - is effective, if there is no design out or preventive maintenance policy

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Maintenance workload
Deterministic work load: which can be planned and scheduled in the long term (preventive
maintenance)
Probabilistic load: those which can be scheduled only in the short term (Corrective and
emergency maintenance)

Administrative Structure
Maintenance administrative structure is based on division of the work into specialization.

Main function of the maintenance manager and engineers may include;

 Set maintenance objectives and determine maintenance policy.
 Assist with technical advice and decision making.
 Assist with medium term work planning and scheduling.
 Look after day to day personnel problems.
The function of a maintenance department as regards the probabilistic workload is to locate the
malfunction, diagnose the fault, prescribe the action to correct the malfunction, decide on the
work priority, plan the resources necessary to undertake the work, schedule the work, issue job
instructions, check that the work is satisfactory and so on.

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9. Spares inventory control

The objective of spare parts inventory management is to make available to maintenance with the
right spare part, at the right place, at the right time, in the right quantity, at the right price, and at
the lowest total cost.

Spare part inventory can be insurance inventory (Items which are unlikely ever to be used, but
which are bought as an insurance against failure), manually controlled inventory (Items of low
usage rate) and automatically controlled inventory (Items of high usage rate).

Simple Economic Order Quantity

The simple Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) determines the size of replenishment order which
minimizes the sum of holding and re ordering costs. EOQ is a trading firm which orders a good
to store up stocks.
Assume that stack is re ordered at regular intervals, the lead time between order and delivery is
negligible, stock is not allowed to go negative, constant rate of demand per unit, the;

EOQ = √

Where, q demand per unit time

a ordering cost
b holding cost per item per unit time

10. Network Analysis for the Planning and Control of

Maintenance Work
Network analysis is a technique used for planning and controlling maintenance works. It is also
used for resource optimization and minimizes time.
The overall procedure as applied to maintenance activities, networking has four stages Stage
1) Logic Diagram Preparation Stage
Schedule of work listing, all the jobs linked to the shutdown and startup is the central activity
of this stage
2) Activity Duration Determination Stage

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At this stage the duration for an activity is established.

3) Network Analysis Stage
At this stage, the duration of each activity is added to the logic diagram from which the
shutdown duration and degree of criticality of the activities within the network are
determined.

4) Management Applications

11. Reconditioning of equipment

Reconditioning of equipment a systematic planned activity designed to restore an equipment to

its original performance condition.
Reconditioning plays a significant role in maintenance of equipment, particularly in development
countries where increasing cost of spares makes the acquisition of new equipment difficult. The
need for reconditioning arises from aging machinery with rapidly decreasing reliability and high
risk of failure, increasing in cost of new equipment, lack of adequate foreign exchange.
Reconditioning process involves shedding of existing machine component wise, cleaning of
equipment parts, hardening, grinding and scrapping, removal of slackness due to wear and so on.
Maintenance management should remedy to reconditioning if the following situations arise.
a) Whenever the machine is imported, reconditioning is made compulsory for ensuring
economy in consumption of spare parts.
b) Supply of machines/spares is unreliable
c) Equipment/part manufacture is discontinued and hence no supply is possible
d) Replacement of machine is costly and new machine introduces compatibility problem
with existing set up
e) Original equipment is a special purpose machine and cannot be reordered

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Introduction to Mechatronics
Mechatronics field consists of the synergistic integration of three distinct traditional engineering
fields for system level design processes. results in much greater flexibility, easy redesign and
reprogramming,

System modelling used to represent the behavior of a real system by mathematical equations,
such equations representing the relationship between the inputs and outputs from the system.

Feedback system has an input from sensors and then compare this data with what the output
should be and provide the appropriate response

Open loop system the output from the system has no effect on the input signal. Simple, Low
cost, Good reliability, inaccurate.

Close loop system output does have an effect on the input signal, modifying it to maintain an
output signal at the required value. relatively accurate, more complex, costly, greater number of
components

Actuators:-Elements of control systems Responsible for transforming the output of a

microprocessor or control system into a controlling action.

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Types of actuators in mechatronics engineering

1. Fluid power actuators ( pneumatics and hydraulics)

2. Electrical and electronics actuators
3. Mechanical actuators
Hydraulic System Components

Pneumatic system components

Valves:- are used with hydraulic and pneumatic systems to direct and regulate the fluid flow.

Valve symbols :- the squares indicates switching positions and the Arrow-headed lines indicate
the directions of flow in each of the positions.

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Two position two port valve

Electrical relay :- electrically operated switches where changing a current in one electric circuit
switches a current on or off in another circuit.

Solenoid an electric coil when a current passes through it produces a magnetic field.

Semiconductor are not good conductors nor good insulators , electrons are able to flow only
under special conditions. Where the ability conduct improved by “Doping”.

N-type semiconductor form by introducing an impurity atom such Phosphorus into the
crystalline structure of These atoms have five outer electrons this results leaving one “free
electron” and it becomes a “donors”.

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P-type semiconductor formed when Aluminum, Boron have only three valence electrons are
introduced to silicon atom which giving the semiconductor material an abundance of positively
charged carriers known as holes and it becomes an “Acceptors”.

When a P types semiconductor fused with N type semiconductor free electrons from the donor
begin to migrate across the junction to fill up the holes in the P-type material. It creates an
electrically equilibrium area at the point of contact named as depletion region.

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PN- junction diode a semiconductor device which allow passing current through itself in one
direction only.

If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it
can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy.

By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from
the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased.

Rectifiers are devices which converts an alternating voltage (AC) into a continuous voltage
(DC)

Half wave rectifiers

Full wave rectifiers

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Bipolar junction transistors

three terminal active devices act as either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a
small signal voltage. It can be used for “switching” (digital electronics) or “amplification”
(analogue electronics).

Field effect transistors

Three terminal device No PN-junctions within the main current carrying path, The current path
called the “channel” which made of either a P-type or an N-type

1. Junction field effect transistor

has a narrow piece of high resistivity semiconductor material forming a “Channel” of either N-
type or P-type silicon

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2. Metal Oxide field Effect semiconductor

“Metal Oxide” Gate electrode which is electrically insulated from the main semiconductor,
voltage controlled field effect transistor

Digital logic devices are realized by complex networks of transistors on an integrated circuit
(IC). As compare to the analog devices the encounter Higher security , Negligible or zero
distortion due to noise during transmission, The rate of transmission is higher ,Multidirectional
transmission concurrently and longer distance transmission is possible.

AND, OR, XOR, NOT (inverter), NAND, and NOR

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Decoders device selection components in a computer bus system, give logic 1 output in response
to a unique address in the bus

Gated latch :- a basic memory which can store binary data in computer system

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Computer bus systems

Address bus :- to address devices and memory

Control bus :- to indicate read or a write

Data bus :- carries the data

CPU write operation steps

 CPU places the address of the I/O device on the address bus

 CPU places the data on the data

 CPU turns on the OUT signal

 When I/O device is ready signal is dropped,

CPU read operation steps

 CPU places the address of the I/O device on the address bus

 CPU turns on the IN signal

 CPU reads the data on the data bus

 When the CPU is done it drops the IN signal, and CPU goes on with other operations.

Embedded computer is a computer which uses only the necessary hardware and software
components and it is much more smaller than a non-embedded computer , such as desktop
pc.

 The embedded computer has just enough resources for the application.
 used in real-time applications.
 not general purpose computing machines
 dedicated to specific tasks.
 do not store general purpose programs
 size of the embedded computer is typically required to be very small.
Parts of a microcontroller

 Microprocessor
 Memory
 Input output ports

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 Bus

Forms of memory units in microcontrollers

ROM For data that is stored permanently programmed during the manufacture No data can then
be written into this memory

PROM ROM chips that can be programmed by the user. memory cell has a fusible link which
keeps its memory at 0. The 0 is permanently changed to 1 by sending a current through the fuse
to open it permanently

EPROM ROMs that can be programmed and their contents altered. circuits, cells, which can
store charge.

EEPROM is similar to EPROM. Erasure is by applying a relatively high voltage rather than
using ultraviolet light.

RAM Temporary data, i.e. data currently being operated on, is stored in a read/ write memory
referred to as a random-access memory (RAM).

Criteria‟s for selecting a microcontroller

 Number of I/O ports

 Interface required
 Memory requirement
 Processing speed

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Programmable logic controller

de-facto standard computer platform used in industrial control, factory automation, automated
machine and process control applications.

digital electronic device that uses a programmable memory to store instructions and to
implement functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic in order to
control machines and processes

PLC supports the following input and output units

 digital input and output modules,

 analog input and output modules,
 counter and timer module,
 Serial communication module,
 communication network interface modules (i.e., DeviceNet, CAN,ProfiBus),
 servo and stepper motor control module,

PLC advantages over general purpose computers

 PLCs have modular design. we can add a different I/O interface module and modify the

software.

 PLCs have a rugged design suitable for harsh industrial environments

 Programming of PLCs is mostly done using ladder logic diagrams which are understood

by millions of technicians in the field.

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Hardware components of a PLC

1. rack(s) with slots: a backplane for the communication bus,

2. a power supply module,

3. and a CPU module

4. as many I/O modules as needed by specific application

Opto-isolated Discrete Input and Output Modules in PLC

In order to electrically isolate the PLC hardware from the high voltage levels of the I/O devices,

the interface with the I/O devices are provided through optically coupled switching devices,
namely LEDs, phototransistors, and phototriacs.

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Types of PLC programming languages

1. Ladder logic diagrams (LLD) which emulate the same structure of the hard-wired relay logic
diagrams.

2. Boolean language is a statement list and is similar to BASIC programming language.

3. Flowchart language uses graphical blocks.

LLD is still the dominant language.

The logic operators and statements supported by most PLC ladder logic programs include

1. logic functions: AND, OR, NOT,

2. shift functions: left shift, right shift,

3. math functions : add, subtract, multiply, divide, sin, cos,

4. software implemented timer and counter functions,

5. software implemented flip-flops,

6. conditional blocks (similar to if-else),

7. loops (do-while, while, for loops).,

8. functions (subroutines),

9. interrupt service routines to be executed on interrupt inputs.

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Refrigeration and Air conditioning

PART ONE: REFRIGERATION
1. Basic Refrigeration Cycle and Concepts
1.1. Introduction
The American Society of Heating, Air conditioning and Refrigerating Engineers (ASHARE)
defines refrigeration as the science of providing and maintaining temperatures below the
immediate surrounding temperatures. Thus it is a process of removing heat from a medium. In
other words, the term “refrigeration” is used to denote maintenance of a system or body at a
temperature lower than that of its surroundings. In other words it is the process of cooling a
substance below the initial temperature of the substance.
1.2. Importance of Refrigeration in Dairy Industry
Refrigeration is a basic requirement for the processing and storage of milk and milk products as
majority of dairy products are perishable in nature. The need of refrigeration is indicated below.
 Chilling of milk at producers’ level by employing bulk milk coolers and at milk chilling
centers is the first requirement in dairy industry. Immediate cooling of milk to about 2-
3ºC is very important to reduce the multiplications of micro-organisms and to get low
bacterial count in the milk and milk products.
 Processing of milk using either batch pasteurizer or HTST plant requires chilled water
or any other cooling medium for cooling of milk.
 Manufacture of many products requires refrigeration. E.g. butter, ice-cream etc.
 Storage of milk and milk products requires maintaining low temperature in the cold
storages depending on the type of product to be stored. E.g. milk is stored at around 3-4
ºC while ice-cream is stored at -30 ºC temperature.
 Transportation of many products requires refrigerated vehicles to maintain the quality
of products.
 Low temperature storage is required for distribution of products as well as at the
consumers’ level.
1.3. Methods of Refrigeration
1.3.1 Natural methods

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 Use of water: If a material is cooled below the initial temperature by using water, the
process is called refrigeration. This method has limitations as desired value of low
temperature water may not be available and it is not possible to reduce the temperature
of the product/material to a required level.
 Use of water added with salt: When salts ( e.g. sodium chloride) are added in water,
the temperature of the water falls and if this salt water is used for cooling , the process
is called refrigeration. This is not practical as the drop in temperature is very small.
 Use of naturally harvested ice: If naturally available ice is used for cooling, the
process is called natural refrigeration. But, ice is not available every place and it cannot
meet the requirement of low temperature.
 Use of ice and salt mixture: When salts (e.g. sodium chloride) are mixed in ice, it is
possible to achieve temperature below 0 ºC. In many towns, ice-cream is made using
hand freezers employing ice and salt mixture for freezing of ice-cream.
 Evaporative cooling with water: When ambient air passes through a spray of water or
a wet grass pad, evaporation of part of water takes place by using sensible heat of the
same air. As the sensible heat of the air decreases, the dry bulb temperature of the air
decreases. The vapor produced due to evaporation of water goes with the air and hence
total enthalpy of the air remains constant. This process is called adiabatic process. This
method of air cooling is more effective when the relative humidity of the air is less. This
principle of air cooling is employed in air coolers/dessert coolers.
1.3.2 Artificial methods
The artificial method of refrigeration, which is known as vapor compression refrigeration
system, is commonly used in dairy plants, food factories, air conditioning systems etc. The basic
working principle is the same in all such systems. It may be house hold freeze, small capacity
air conditioner or a big capacity refrigeration plant of any dairy/food factory.
1.4. Unit of Refrigeration
Capacity of refrigeration system is expressed as ton of refrigeration (TR). A ton of refrigeration
is defined as the quantity of heat to be removed in order to form one ton (2000 lbs.) of ice at 0
ºC in 24 hrs, from liquid water at 0 ºC. This is equivalent to 12600 kJ/h or 210 kJ/min or 3.5
kJ/s (3.5 kW).
1 TR = 12600 kJ/h or 210 kJ/min or 3.5 kW.

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NB: The capacity of refrigeration plant required in any dairy/food plant can be estimated based
on the cooling load requirement of the plant.

2. Elementary Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle

2.1 Introduction
The principle of refrigeration is based on second law of thermodynamics. It states that heat
does not flow from a low temperature body to a high temperature body without the help of an
external work. In refrigeration process, since the heat has to be transferred from a low
temperature body to a high temperature body some external work has to be done according to
the second law of thermodynamics as shown in (Fig. 2.1).This external work is done by means
of compressor.

2.1 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System

The vapor compression refrigeration system is widely used in commercial and domestic
refrigeration and air conditioning plants. The working fluid called refrigerant completes its
function upon evaporation during which it absorbs the heat in an amount equivalent to its
refrigerating effect. Vapor compression refrigeration system using ammonia as refrigerant is
widely used in India for industrial refrigeration, air conditioning and cold storages.
Refrigeration is very essential requirement for low temperature storage of different food and
dairy products. Refrigeration is also very essential for cold chain of handling many agricultural
produce especially fruits and vegetables.

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Vapor compression system mainly consists of compressor, condenser, receiver, expansion valve
and evaporator. The refrigeration system is an enclosed gas tight system of tubes and
equipment. It is so constructed that a control quality of refrigerant flows (due to expansion
valve) from one necessary steps to another at definite and predetermined pressure. A block
diagram of a vapor compression refrigeration system is shown in Fig. 2.1. The liquid
refrigerant absorbs the heat from a zone of low pressure (evaporator) by means of its
evaporation. The heat is dissipated in a zone of higher pressure (condenser) by means of
condensation. The refrigerant like ammonia, R-22 etc. absorbs the heat at evaporator through
evaporation. The compressor pumps the vapor refrigerant and the pressure of the refrigerant
vapor is raised to a level so that it can be condensed at normal temperature of the cooling
medium. Thus, four fundamental steps which are required to complete the mechanical cycles
are as under.
 Evaporation: The first step in the refrigeration cycle is the evaporation of liquid
refrigerant. It is during this phase that the actual work of refrigeration is performed.
The equipment in which the evaporation takes place is called the evaporator or cooling
coil. NB: The evaporator is the cooling element of the system.
 Compression: The gas received from the evaporator is compressed by reciprocating
compressor. It has two functions: To draw the cold vapor from the evaporator to
maintain a pressure in evaporator sufficiently low to achieve the desired evaporating
temperature; and To compress the vapor refrigerant and to deliver the compressed gas
into the condenser where it can be liquefied at ordinary temperature by means of
cooling water or air depending on the type of condenser.
 Condensation: The purpose of the condensation is to provide a means by which the
vapor rejects the heat absorbed at the evaporator as well as the heat of compression.
The condenser is an arrangement of the pipe and tube possessing high heat condensing
properties and so constructed as to allow for the entrance and exist of the refrigerant.
These pipes or tubes are exposed to a cooling media (water or air) which absorbs the
heat from refrigerant.
 Pressure reduction or Expansion: The refrigerant is in liquid stage under high
pressure in the receiver and it is ready for re-use in the evaporator where much lower
pressure is maintained. Some means of retaining of pressure difference is required. This
is done by arranging a throttling device in the line between receiver and evaporator.

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This throttling maintains a higher pressure on one side and allows a lower pressure
condition to exist on the other side when flow of refrigerant occurs.
NB: The throttling device is often referred to as an expansion valve but its real
purpose is to achieve pressure reduction so as to lower the boiling point of the
liquid refrigerant.
The major components required in the system to accomplish the above four operations are:
 Evaporator
 Compressor
 Condenser
 Receiver and
 Expansion valve.
2.2. Co-Efficient of Performance (C.O.P.)
The performance of the refrigeration system is expressed as C.O.P. which is the ratio of
refrigerating effect produced to the work of compression. The cooling effect (output of the
system) is produced at the evaporator and the refrigerant is compressed by the compressor
using the electrical power (input to the system). The various aspects associated with
performance of the system are discussed in some another lesson. Higher C.O.P. is always
desirable in order to get more cooling effect with less energy input.
C.O.P=Refrigeration effect, (kJ/h)/ Work of compression, (kJ/h)

3. Theoretical and Actual Cycle, Performance of

Refrigeration Cycle
3.1. Introduction
A working cycle of VCR system is represented in P-H diagram in Fig2.1. The processes of
evaporation (4-1) and condensation (2-3) are treated as isothermal processes. The expansion
process (3-4) is a constant enthalpy process; while compression process (1-2) is an isentropic
process. Based on the operating condition evaporating cycle can be presented on the P-H
diagram to obtain values of refrigerating effect, work of compression to calculate the theoretical
process of the plant. The operating condition of the plant varies depending upon the
temperature requirement as well the temperature of cooling medium available at condenser.
3.2. Actual Cycle
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The actual cycle deviates slightly due to pressure drop caused by friction in piping and valves.
In addition to this there will be heat loss or gain depending on the temperature difference
between the refrigerant and the surrounding. Further compression will be poly-tropic due to
friction and heat transfer instead of isentropic. The actual VCR cycle is depicted in fig. 3.1. It is
clear from the both actual and theoretical cycles that little pressure drop takes place when
refrigerant pass through the evaporator (From 4-a). The processes 6-7 and 7-1 are depicting
superheating of suction vapor inside the evaporator and outside the evaporator respectively;
whereas the processes 6-7 and 7’-1 are showing the pressure drop in line and wire drawing
effect pressure drop inside the compressor valve respectively. The processes 2-3 and 3-2’ are
the pressure drop in compressor discharge valve and delivery line respectively. Processes 2-5 is
de-superheating of gas in condenser and 5-6 is sub cooling of liquid in condenser.

Fig. 4.1 Actual vapor compression refrigeration cycle on P-H diagram

4.5 Factors Affecting the Performance of Refrigeration Plant
The COP of a vapor compression refrigeration plant is mainly affected by operating conditions
of the plant as well as maintenance aspects of the plant. The operating conditions of the
refrigeration plant play very important role on the performance of the refrigeration system.
The important factors, which are affecting the performance of vapor compression refrigeration
system, are listed below.
 Evaporating temperature
 Condensing temperature

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 Sub-cooling of liquid refrigerant

 Super heating of suction gas
 Heat transfer at evaporator condenser
 Presence of non-condensable gases in the system
 Volumetric efficiency of compressor
 Multi- stage compression and throttling system
 Design of plant components
 Maintenance of the plant

4. Definition and Classification of Refrigerants

4.1 Introduction
Any substance that absorbs heat through evaporation is known as refrigerant. It is a medium of
heat transfer which absorbs heat by evaporation at low temperature and gives up heat by
condensing at high temperature and pressure. Broader definition includes secondary cooling
mediums like cold water, brine solutions Widest applications at present are ammonia or
halocarbons.
4.2. Desirable Characteristics of Refrigerants
1. Non poisonous
2. Non corrosive
3. Non inflammable
4. Leaks easily detectable
5. Low boiling point
6. Stable gas
7. Suitable latent heat
8. Low specific volume
4.3. Thermodynamics of refrigerant
 Normal boiling point: should be low at atmospheric pressure

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 Freezing point: should be low

 Evaporations & condensing: should be +ve and as near to atmospheric pressure
 Critical temperature & pressure: should be high
 Latent heat: should be high
 Specific heat: low for liquid, high for vapor
 Specific volume: low for vapor
4.4. Physical properties of refrigerant
 Dielectric strength : high for use in hermetic compression
 Thermal conductivity : should be high
 Viscosity : should be low
 Leak tendency : detection of leak should be easy
 Flammability: should not be flammable within range of conditions of operation. Nh3
flammable between 16 to 27% in air
4.5. Chemical property of refrigerant
 Toxicity : should not be toxic
 Corrosion properties: should not react in the commonly used metals and materials
4.6. Classification of Refrigerants (NRSC, USA)
 Group-1: safest: R-11, R-12, R-22, R-744(co2), R-500, R-502
 Group-2: toxic& slightly inflammable: R-717, R-764(so2), R-113
 Group-3: inflammable: R-600(butane),R-170(ethane),R-290(propane)
4.7. Color Code for the Cylinders & Composition
 R-717: (SHINY) Silver NH3
 R-11: ORANGE: (CCL3F) Trichloromonofluoro Methane
 R-12: WHITE: (CCL2F2) Dichlorodifluoromethane
 R-22: GREEN : (CHCL F2) Monochlorodi Fluoromethane
5. Main Components of Refrigeration System
5.1. Compressor
The compressor is referred as the heart of the vapor compression refrigeration system. The
function of compressor is to suck the refrigerant gas from low pressure side and to compress it
to discharge pressure so that condensation of gas can be done either by water or air at ordinary

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room temperature. The compressor also keeps low pressure in the evaporator for efficient
evaporation of the refrigerant. There are three main groups of compressors.
1. Reciprocating compressor: the reciprocating compressor consists of a piston moving
back and forth in the cylinder with suction and discharge valve arranged to allow
pumping to take place.
2. Rotary compressor: the rotary and centrifugal compressors have rotating members but
the rotary compressor has a positive displacement where as a centrifugal compressors
draws the vapor and discharges it at high pressure by centrifugal force.
3. Centrifugal compressor: the rotary and centrifugal compressors have rotating
members but the rotary compressor has a positive displacement where as a centrifugal
compressors draws the vapor and discharges it at high pressure by centrifugal force.
5.2. Condenser
Condenser is a heat exchanger in which heat transfer from refrigerant to a cooling medium
takes place. The heat from the system is rejected either to atmosphere air or to the water used
as cooling medium. The water used as cooling medium which in term rejects the heat to the
atmosphere. For the steady state operation, heat rejected in the condenser is the sum of heat
absorbed by the evaporator and heat equivalent of work supplied to the compressor. On
account of heat transfer in the condenser refrigerant passing through it is first de superheated
and then condensed and may be little sub-cooled. Thus, the function of the condenser is to
convert superheated refrigerant vapor into liquid refrigerant. The cooling medium used may be
air, water or combination of air and water depending on the type of condenser employed in the
refrigeration system.
Types of Condenser
There are three types of condensers commonly used in vapor compression refrigeration system.
1. Air cooled condenser
2. water cooled condenser
5.3. Receiver, Expansion Valves and Evaporators
The total refrigerant charge required in a refrigeration system depends on operating loads,
type of components and distance between the components etc. The quantity of refrigerant in
the system must be adequate at all the times so that liquid refrigerant enters the expansion
valve. Over charge in the refrigeration system may also cause reduction in the efficiency due to
accumulation of liquid refrigerant in the condenser.

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Receivers
The receiver has to play very important to evacuate the part of the system for maintenance and
repair. The size of the receiver should be such that it can hold the entire charge of the
refrigerant with 1/4 volume available for expansion and safety. It means that receiver should
never be more than 80% full during pumping down of refrigerant in the receiver.
Expansion Values
The functions expansion devices are listed below.
 It reduces the pressure of the refrigerant coming from the condenser as per the
requirement of the system.
 It regulates the flow of the refrigerant as per the load on the evaporator.
Evaporators
The evaporator is a heat exchanger where the actual cooling effect is produced. The evaporator
receives the low pressure refrigerant from the expansion valve and brings the material to be
cooled in contact with the surface of the evaporator. The refrigerant absorbs the heat from the
materials to be cooled (air/water/milk/any other material). The refrigerant takes up its latent
heat from the load and becomes vapor. The refrigerant vapor produced in the evaporator is
pumped by the compressor and low pressure is maintained to maintained low evaporating
temperature. The evaporators are fabricated from different materials having various designs
depending on the requirement of cooling the product or material. The following factors are to
be considered in the design of the evaporators.
6. Simple Absorption Refrigeration System
6.1. Introduction
The Refrigeration by mechanical vapor compression system is an efficient method. But, the
energy input is the shaft work, which is a high – grade energy (One that can be easily
converted to other forms) and therefore very expensive. And the work required is relatively
large because of compression of the vapors which undergo large changes in specific volumes. If
same gas is available in liquid form, to pump that to higher pressure, the energy required is
less. Hence in order to achieve this, the system designed is called Absorption Refrigeration
system, in which the refrigerant vapor is dissolved in an inert liquid at the same pressure as the
evaporator and the solution so formed is pumped to a container at condenser pressure. This
liquid which is practically incompressible and undergoes very little change, in specific volume,

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requires very little work in raising its pressure. After raising the pressure, the refrigerant is
separated from the solution by heating, and increasing the temperature.
6.2. Absorbent Refrigerant
 Water Ammonia
 Lithium bromide Water
6.3. Simple Absorption Refrigeration System
The essential components are: an Evaporator, an absorber, a generator, a condenser, an
expansion value, a pump and a reducing value.

Fig. 6.1 Vapor compression and vapor absorption system

7. Practical Vapor Absorption System

7.1. Introduction
To improve the above simple system, especially to prevent water going along with ammonia
vapors into condenser, to get more economy of heat, certain changes are made. Analyser and
Rectifier are added to reduce the passage of water into condenser.
Analyzer: Analyser is usually an arrangement of trays and may be an integral part of the
generator itself. Here, both the strong solutions from absorber and aqua from rectifier are
dropped and allowed to flow on the trays and then get exposed and cooled. This partial cooling
condenses water vapor and only ammonia vapor leaves at the top.

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Rectifier: Rectifier is a double pipe, shell and coil or shell and tube type of vapor cooler. It is
usually water cooled. Cooling is just sufficient to remove all the water and leave only ammonia
vapors in the condenser. Temp is almost 100 – 120ºC.
Heat Exchanger: This is located between absorber and generator, and serves to cool the weak
aqua by heating the strong aqua. Double pipe system is used in small system, while shell and
tube is used in large system. This will reduce the amount of heat added in the generator and
decrease the amount of heat rejected in the absorber. The sizes of the generator and absorber
will also be reduced.

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PART TWO: AIR CONDITIONING

1. Introduction to Air Conditioning
1.1. Introduction
Air-conditioning signifies the control of an atmospheric environment either for human or to
carry out industrial or scientific process efficiently. The purpose of air-conditioning is to supply
sufficient volume of clean air having a specific amount of water vapor and at a required
temperature within a selected space. The space may be a small compartment such as a research
laboratory, computer laboratory or big area like cinema hall, shopping Centre, airport etc.
Thus, air conditioning refers the control of temperature, relative humidity, quality of air and
distribution of air depending upon the application of air conditioning. The environmental air
conditioned in terms of temperature, humidity, purity of air results in greater comfort to
occupants when applied to public places, offices and factories. Air conditioning designed for
industrial purpose has several benefits including better control of product quality and
efficiency.
1.2. Classification
The air-conditioning systems are broadly classified into two groups.
1. Comfort air-conditioning
2. Industrial air-conditioning.
Air-conditioning system for human comfort provides an environment which is comfortable to
the majority of the occupants. The comfort air-conditioning systems are subdivided into three
groups.
a. Summer air -conditioning
The initial quality of air decides the way of treatment of the air to condition the air for human
comfort. The processes involved in treatment of air for air conditioning varies from place to
place depending on the environmental quality of air. In many places, summer air-conditioning
requires to reduce the sensible heat and water vapor of the air by dehumidifying.
b. Winter air-conditioning
In winter, it is necessary to increase the sensible heat and water vapor content of the air by
heating and humidification.

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c. Year-round air-conditioning
This system provides the control of temperature and humidity of air throughout the year when
the atmospheric conditions are changing as per the season.
Industrial air-conditioning provides air at required temperature and relative humidity to
perform a specific industrial process successfully. The design conditions for industrial air
conditioning are not based on the comfort feeling of the human beings but on the requirement
of the industrial process.
NB: To understand the fundamentals of air conditioning, the basic knowledge of psychrometry
is very essential.
2. Psychrometry
2.1. Introduction
The science dealing with properties of air and vapor mixture is known as psychrometry. The
knowledge of fundamental laws of gaseous mixture is necessary for understanding of
psychrometry. The content of the water vapor in air is one of the factors responsible comfort
air - conditioning. The subject of psychrometry is also important in many unit operations
where air is used in the process. A few unit operations, where the knowledge of psychrometry is
very essential for better understanding of the process, are listed below.
 Air heating system for spray drying plant.
 Performance evaluation of cooling tower.
 Performance evaluation of evaporative condenser.
 Evaporative cooling using water.
 Energy analysis casein or other types of dryers.
 The properties of mixtures of air and water vapor are discussed in this lesson.
2.2. Psychrometry Properties
The definitions of different psychrometric properties of air are given below:
a) Dry air: The dry air is considered as a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen and small
percentages of other gases. The volumetric composition of air is 79% nitrogen and 21 %
oxygen and the molecular weight of dry air is taken as 29 approximately.

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b) Moist air: It is a mixture of dry air and water vapor. The quantity of water vapor present in
the air depends upon the temperature of the air and its quantity may change from zero to
maximum (the maximum amount depends on saturation condition).
c) Water vapor: The moisture present in the form of vapor is known as water vapor. The
relative humidity of air is an important factor in all air-conditioning systems. The
environmental (mixture of air and water vapor) is said to be saturated when it contains
maximum amount of water vapor that it can hold at the prevailing temperature. If the
temperature of mixture of air and water vapor is above the saturation temperature of the water
vapor, the vapor is called superheated vapor.
d) Dry bulb temperature: The temperature of air measured by ordinary thermometer is
known as dry bulb temperature (dbt).
e) Wet-bulb temperature: The temperature measured by the thermometer when its bulb is
covered with wet cloth and is exposed to a current of moving air is known as wet bulb
temperature (wbt). The difference between the dry bulb and wet bulb temperature is known as
wet bulb depression (wbd). Wet bulb depression becomes zero when the air is fully saturated.
f) Dew Point temperature: The temperature of the air is reduced by continuous cooling than
the water vapor in the air will start condensing at a particular temperature. The temperature at
which the· condensing starts is known as Dew point temperature. Dew point temperature is
equal to the steam table saturation temperature corresponding to the actual partial pressure of
the water vapor in the air. The difference between dry bulb temperature and dew point
temperature is known as dew point depression (dpd).
g) Specific humidity (humidity ratio): It is defined as the mass of water vapor present per kg
of dry air. It is expressed as g/kg dry air or kg/ kg dry air.
h) Absolute humidity: The weight of water vapor present in unit volume of air is known as
absolute humidity.
i) Degree of Saturation: The degree of saturation is defined as the ratio of mass of water
vapor associated with unit mass of dry air to mass of water vapor associated with unit mass of
dry air saturated at the same temperature.
j) Relative humidity: The relative humidity is defined as the ratio of actual mass of water
vapor in a given volume to the mass of water vapor if the air is fully saturated at the same
temperature.

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k) Sensible heat of air: The quantity of heat which can be measured by measuring the dry
bulb temperature of the air is known as sensible heat of the air.
l) Total heat of air: The total heat of the humid air is the sum of the sensible heat of the dry
air and sensible and latent heat of water vapor associated with dry air.
m) Humid specific volume: The volume of the air per kg of dry air in the mixture is known as
humid specific volume of the air. It is expressed as m3/kg dry air.
2.3. Psychrometric Chart And Its Application
It is necessary to study the various psychrometric relations in order to understand the
psychrometric chart.
2.3.1. Psychrometric Chart
Psychrometric chart shows the inter-relation of all the important properties of air. Using the
chart, it is easy to obtained psychrometric properties of air and it helps to decide the various
processes to be followed to achieve required quality of air. It saves lot of time and labor
required for calculation of different properties of air and such values can be directly read from
the chart.
Standard psychrometric charts are bounded by the dry-bulb temperature line (abscissa) and the
vapor pressure or humidity ratio (ordinate). The left hand side of the psychrometric chart is
bounded by the saturation line.

Fig.2.1. shows the schematic of a psychrometric chart.

Psychrometric charts are readily available for standard barometric pressure of 101.325 kPa at
sea level and for normal temperatures (0-50oC). ASHRAE has also developed psychrometric
charts for other temperatures and barometric pressures. The constructional procedure is of

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psychrometric chart is based on the calculations for relative humidity, enthalpy, specific
humidity etc. under different conditions using various psychrometric relations.
The actual psychrometric chart is depicted in Fig. 1.2. It is necessary to know to parameters to
locate the quality of air on psychrometric chart. After locating the point of quality, many other
properties can be easily obtained from the chart. In majority of situations, dbt and wbt of the air
are measured to find the location of the point on the psychrometric chart. If dbt and % Relative
Humidity (RH) are known, then also it is possible to locate the point on the chart to read other
properties of air.

Fig. 1.3 Psychrometric chart

2.3.2. How to Use the Psychrometric Chart?
Suppose, when the quality of air is measured by using dry bulb thermometer and wet bulb
thermometer, the values obtained are: dbt = 22oC and RH = 30%. This point is located on
psychrometric chart as indicated below and the values of specific humidity, relative humidity,
enthalpy and dew point temperature are as under.
 Specific humidity = 5 g/kg dry air
 Specific volume = 0.843m3/kg
 Enthalpy = 34.8 kJ/kg dry air
 Partial pressure of water vapor of the air = 12.75 mm of Hg

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The above values obtained from psychrometric chart can be also calculated by using various
pychrometric relations. By knowing any two of the parameters the quality of the air can be
located and all other parameters found out from the Psychrometric chart in the similar manner.

Fig. 1.4 Psychrometric chart reading

2.4. Psychrometric Processes
It is necessary to carry out various processes on air in order to get the required quality of air.
The quality of ambient air varies throughout the year and by employing one or combination of
processes, it is possible to get required conditions of the air.
 Sensible Heating of Air
Heating of air without addition or subtraction of water vapor of the air is termed as sensible
heating of the air. The sensible heating can be achieved by passing the air over heating coil like
electric resistance heating coils or steam coils.
NB: The efficiency of the heating coil is better with lower bypass factor. Lower by-pass factor
of heating coil is desirable to achieve higher efficiency of the coil.
 Sensible Cooling of Air
Cooling of air without addition or subtraction of water vapor of the air is termed as sensible
cooling of the air. Sensible cooling of air can be achieved by passing the air over a cooling coil
like evaporating coil of the refrigeration cycle or secondary chilled water/brine coil.
 Dehumidification of Air by Cooling
The removal of water vapor from the air is known as dehumidification of air. The
dehumidification of air is achieved if the air is cooled below the dew point temperature of the
air. Large scale dehumidification of air can be achieved by passing the air over a cooling coil
maintained well below the dew point temperature of the air. The water vapor present in the air

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condenses over the surface of the cooling coil. The ambient air at point 1(t1, ω1, h1) is passed
over the cooling coil which is maintained at the surface temperature of t4 (point 4). First, the air
reaches to dew point temperature (t2) and finally comes out from the cooling coil at point 3 (t3,
ω3, h3).
 Adiabatic Chemical Dehumidification of the Air
When humid air is passed through the solid absorbent bed or through the spray of liquid
absorbent, part of water vapor will be absorbed and the water vapor content of the air
decreases. The latent heat of the vapor is liberated resulting into increase in dbt of the air
without any change in total enthalpy of the air. This method of dehumidification is economical
for small size dehumidification of air and the change in humidity required is smaller.
 Adiabatic Humidification of Air
Adiabatic humidification of air can be achieved by passing the air through the spray of water.
When the air is passing through the spray of water, a part of water will be evaporated by using
the sensible heat of the air. During this process, the specific humidity of the air increases and
enthalpy of the air does not change. The latent heat required to evaporate the water is taken
from the atmosphere of the area resulting into the decrease in the dbt of the air without any
change in total enthalpy of the air. This method of humidification is economical for small size
humidification of air and the change in humidity required is smaller.
 Mixing of Air
When two air streams having different psychrometric property are mixed together, the quality
of resultant air can be obtained by taking heat and moisture balance.
3. Air Conditioning system
3.1. Introduction
As discussed earlier, air conditioning refers the control of environmental condition of the air in
terms of temperature, humidity, distribution of air and purity of air depending on the use of the
air conditioning. The design of air conditioning system is very difficult task as it involves the
knowledge of variation of environmental conditions in different seasons, psychrometric
processes, design of air handling system, load calculations, economic considerations etc. One
type of system designed for specific place may not be suitable at some another place.
3.2. Requirement for Comfort Air Conditioning
The following are the important requirements for the comfort feeling of occupant.

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i. Oxygen level
ii. Heat removal
iii. Moisture control
iv. Air distribution
v. Quality of air
3.3. Design of Air Conditioning System
Air conditioning system is defined as an assembly of different components (heating, humidifier,
dehumidifier, cooling etc) used to produce required condition of air within a required space or
building. The air conditioning systems are mainly classified as
(i) Central air conditioning system
(ii) Unitary air conditioning system.
The central air conditioning system consists of several components grouped together in one
central room and conditioned air is distributed in air conditioned rooms using air carrying duct.
3.4. The central air conditioning system requires the following components.
i. Sensible cooling coil
ii. Cooling & dehumidifying coil
iii. Heating coil
iv. Air cleaning equipment
v. Humidifier
vi. Blower and motor
vii. Control devices
4. Cooling Load Calculations
4.1. Introduction
It is necessary to select the capacity of refrigeration plant for the cold storage to maintain
required storage temperature in the cold storage. Under capacity plant, may load to higher
temperature of cold storage than required while over capacity may lead to higher initial cost of
the refrigeration system. The capacity of the refrigeration plant should be such that it can take
care of all the heat load of the cold storage. It is also necessary to reduce cold storage load in
order to reduce the energy cost for the operation of refrigeration plant. The various factors
contributing the total load of the cold storage are:

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 Wall Gain Load: he heat flow rate by conduction through the walls ceiling & floor of
the cold storage from outside to inside is called wall gain load.
 Air Change Load: This is the amount of heat carried by the air when cold storage door
is opened and part of cold air is replaced by outside warmer air. The air change load
depends on the number of air changes occurring in the cold storage, enthalpy of outside
air and inside air. The measurement of amount of air changed due to door opening is
difficult and hence air change factor is used to estimate the amount of air changed.
 Product Load: It is necessary to cool the product from initial temperature to the
storage temperature. The amount of heat to be removed from the product to lower the
temperature of the product from initial temperature to storage temperature is called
product load. It is also necessary to estimate the heat load for cooling of the packaging
material along with the product as specific heat of product and material is different.
5. Fundamentals Duct System Design
5.1. Introduction
 The chief requirements of an air conditioning duct system are:
 It should convey specified rates of air flow to prescribed locations
 It should be economical in combined initial cost, fan operating cost and cost of building
space
 It should not transmit or generate objectionable noise
 Generally at the time of designing an air conditioning duct system, the required airflow
rates are known from load calculations.
 The location of fans and air outlets are fixed initially. The duct layout is then made taking
into account the space available and ease of construction.
 In principle, required amount of air can be conveyed through the air conditioning ducts by a
number of combinations.
 However, for a given system, only one set results in the optimum design.
 Hence, it is essential to identify the relevant design parameters and then optimize the
design.
5.2. General rules for duct design
 Air should be conveyed as directly as possible to save space, power and material

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 Sudden changes in directions should be avoided. When not possible to avoid sudden
changes, turning vanes should be used to reduce pressure loss
 Diverging sections should be gradual. Angle of divergence ≤ 20o
 Aspect ratio should be as close to 1.0 as possible. Normally, it should not exceed 4
 Air velocities should be within permissible limits to reduce noise and vibration
 Duct material should be as smooth as possible to reduce frictional losses
5.3. Classification of duct systems
1. Low pressure systems: Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static pressure ≤ 5 cm H2O (g)
2. medium pressure systems: Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static pressure ≤ 15 cm H2O (g)
3. High pressure systems: Velocity > 10 m/s, static pressure 15<p ≤ 25 cm H2O (g)
NB: High velocities in the ducts results in:
 Smaller ducts and hence, lower initial cost and lower space requirement
 Higher pressure drop and hence larger fan power consumption
 Increased noise and hence a need for noise attenuation
NB: Recommended air velocities depend mainly on the application and the noise criteria.
Typical recommended velocities are:
 Residences: 3 m/s to 5 m/s
 Theatres: 4 to 6.5 m/s
 Restaurants: 7.5 m/s to 10 m/s
NB: If nothing is specified, then a velocity of 5 to 8 m/s is used for main ducts and a velocity of
4 to 6 m/s is used for the branches. The allowable air velocities can be as high as 30 m/s in
ships and aircrafts to reduce the space requirement.
Typical Air Velocities for Ducts

5.4. Purpose of Duct Design

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From load and psychometric calculations the required supply airflow rates to each conditioned
space are known. From the building layout and the location of the supply fan, the length of each
duct run is known.
The purpose of the duct design is to select suitable dimensions of duct for each run and then to
select a fan, which can provide the required supply airflow rate to each conditioned zone.
5.4.1. Commonly used duct design methods
Most commonly used methods for simpler lay-outs
 Velocity method
 Equal Friction Method
 Static Regain method

Fig 5.1: Typical air conditioning duct lay-out

Velocity method
The various steps involved in this method are:
 Select suitable velocities in the main and branch ducts
 Find the diameters of main and branch ducts from airflow rates and velocities for
circular ducts. For rectangular ducts, find the cross-sectional area from flow rate and
velocity, and then by fixing the aspect ratio, find the two sides of the rectangular duct
 From the velocities and duct dimensions obtained in the previous step, find the
frictional pressure drop for main and branch ducts using friction chart or equation.
 From the duct layout, dimensions and airflow rates, find the dynamic pressure losses for
all the bends and fittings
 Select a fan that can provide sufficient FTP for the index run
 Balancing dampers have to be installed in each run. The damper in the index run is left
completely open, while the other dampers are throttled to reduce the flow rate to the
required design values.

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 The velocity method is one of the simplest ways of designing the duct system for both
supply and return air.
 However, the application of this method requires selection of suitable velocities in
different duct runs, which requires experience.
 Wrong selection of velocities can lead to very large ducts, which, occupy large building
space and increases the cost, or very small ducts which lead to large pressure drop and
hence necessitates the selection of a large fan leading to higher fan cost and running
cost.
 In addition, the method is not very efficient as it requires partial closing of all the
dampers except the one in the index run, so that the total pressure drop in each run will
be same.
Equal friction method
 In this method the frictional pressure drop per unit length in the main and branch ducts
(ΔPf/L) are kept same, i.e.

NB: Stepwise procedure for designing the duct system is as follows:

 Select a suitable frictional pressure drop per unit length (Δpf/L) so that the combined
initial and running costs are minimized.
 Then the equivalent diameter of the main duct (A) is obtained from the selected value of
(Δpf/L) and the airflow rate. Airflow rate in the main duct is equal to the sum total of
airflow rates to all the conditioned zones, i.e.,

 From the airflow rate and (Δpf/L) the equivalent diameter of the main duct (Deq,A) can
be obtained either from the friction chart or using the frictional pressure drop equation,
i.e.,

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 Since the frictional pressure drop per unit length is same for all the duct runs, the
equivalent diameters of the other duct runs, B to I are obtained from the equation:

 If the ducts are rectangular, then the two sides of the rectangular duct of each run are
obtained from the equivalent diameter of that run and by fixing aspect ratio as explained
earlier. Thus the dimensions of all the duct runs can be obtained. The velocity of air
through each duct is obtained from the volumetric flow rate and the cross-sectional
area.
 Next from the dimensions of the ducts in each run, the total frictional pressure drop of
that run is obtained by multiplying the frictional pressure drop per unit length and the
length, i.e.,

 Next the dynamic pressure losses in each duct run are obtained based on the type of
bends or fittings used in that run.
 Next the total pressure drop in each duct run is obtained by summing up the frictional
and dynamic losses of that run, i.e.

 Next the fan is selected to suit the index run with the highest pressure loss. Dampers
are installed in all the duct runs to balance the total pressure loss.
6. Cold Storage Design: Types of Cold Storage and Types of
Loads
6.1. Introduction
The basic purpose of cold storage is to store the perishable food products at optimum
temperature to enhance the self-life of the products. In dairy plants, cold storages are required
for storage of milk, butter, cheese, ice-cream etc. The condition of storage in these cold storages
is different depending upon the nature of the product. For example, ice-cream is stored at - 25

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ºC while milk is stored at 3-4 ºC. Similarly, many fruits and vegetables are also stored in cold
storages.
6.2 Types of Cold Storages
Cold storages are classified in different ways as indicated below.
6.2.1 Classification based on the use of cold store
 Milk cold storage
 Cheese cold storage
 Butter cold storage
 Potato cold storage etc.
The storage conditions to be maintained as well as method of storage for these cold storages
vary depending on the optimum storage conditions required for different products. For
example, cheddar cheese is stored at around 10ºC and 90% relative humidity for ripening of
cheese. Appropriate method of storage of product is very important aspect. Racks are required
to keep cheese blocks in the cold storages.
6.2.2 Classification based on operating temperature of cold storage
 Cold storage maintained above 0 ºC
 Cold storage maintained below 0 ºC
Milk cold storage is maintained above ºC while ice-cream cold storage is maintained below 0ºC.
Product load is one of the factors for estimation of cold storage load. It is necessary to calculate
heat to be removed from the product when a part of water gets frozen at storage temperature of
the product. The design of evaporator, air circulation, expansion valve etc. will be different in
these cold storages. The thickness of insulation required for low temperature cold storage will
be more to reduce the wall gain load.
6.2.3 Classification based on the construction
 Constructed cold storage
 Walk in cold storage
Mostly cold storage is constructed in dairy building as per the design and layout of the dairy
plant. The cold storage is generally constructed by civil work and insulated either by
Thermocol sheets or PUF panels.
6.3 Types of Loads in Cold Storages
It is basic requirement to know the types of loads in the specific cold storage in order to find
the capacity of the refrigeration system for the cold storage. It is necessary not only to cool the
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product to the storage temperature but also to meet the cooling load due to various heat
infiltrations taking place in the cold storage. Broadly, the total load is divided into two
categories as under.
6.3.1 Sensible heat load
 Heat flow through walls, ceilings, floor, doors (structural heat gain).
 Heat gain from infiltration of air due to door openings and movement of products
through opening provided in the walls. For example, crates of milk enter in the milk
cold storage through a gap provided in the wall using conveyer. This load is kept
minimum by using appropriate strips of flexible plastic sheets to reduce the exchange of
air.
 Heat received by workers working in cold storage. Though, it is very small as number
of persons working in the cold storage is very few. This load is very important in air
conditioning system as it is for providing comfort to large number of occupant.
 Heat load due to lighting and other motors used in the cold storage.
6.3.2 Latent heat load
 Latent heat load from infiltration of air.
 Latent heat load from occupancy.
 Latent heat generated from the stored products.
Based on the above heat load, the actual amount of heat flow rate is calculated in order to find
total load to decide the capacity of evaporator of the refrigeration plant. The method of load
calculation is described in above discussion.

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Instrumentation and measurement

Chapter one

Introduction to measurement and instrumentation

1.1 INTRODUCTION
A measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to a physical variable. A measurement
system is a tool used for quantifying the measured variable. A measurement system is used to
extend the abilities of the human senses that, while they can detect and recognize different
degrees of roughness, length, sound, color, and smell, are limited and relative; they are not
very adept(skillful) at assigning specific values to sensed variables.
 Most measurement systems may be divided into four parts,

1. Sensor–transducer stage,

2. Signal-conditioning

3. Output stage, and

4. Feedback-control stage.

a. Sensor–transducer stage
 A sensor is a physical element that employs some natural phenomenon to sense the
variable being measured.
 Sensor: A device that receives and responds to stimulus or a signal(Example Atomic
force microscope )
 Cantilever beam= Sensor
 Natural phenomenon= Deflection
 A variable measured=The height of the surface

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 A transducer: - a device that converts a signal form to another form. Transducers are
energy converters or modifiers. Atomic-force microscope with sensor and transducer
stages
b. The signal-conditioning stage:- takes the transducer signal and modifies it to a desired
magnitude. Optional intermediate stage perform tasks such as increasing the magnitude of
the signal by amplification, filtering (removing portions of the signal), or providing
mechanical or optical linkage between the transducer and the output stage.
c. Output stage: - The goal of a measurement system is to convert the sensed information into
a form that can be easily quantified. Example, The liquid-in-glass bulb thermometer. The
liquid in the bulb acts as the sensor. By forcing the expanding liquid into a narrow capillary,
this measurement system transforms thermal information into a mechanical displacement.
The bulb‟s internal capillary design acts as a transducer.

The output stage indicates or records the value measured. This might be a simple readout display, a
marked scale, or even a recording device such as a computer disk drive.

d. The feedback-control stage contains a controller that interprets the measured signal and
makes a decision regarding the control of the process. Example: thermostat furnace.

1.2 Static characteristics of instruments

a. The sensitivity of an instrument: - is the ratio of the linear movement of the pointer on an
analog instrument to the change in the measured variable causing this motion. Ability of an
instrument to detect small changes in a quantity being measured.
b. Range:-A calibration applies known inputs ranging from the minimum to the maximum
values for which the measurement system is to be used. These limits define the operating
range of the system.
c. Threshold and Resolution: - Threshold is the minimum input required to produce a small
but definite change when the input is increased gradually from a zero value. Resolution is the
minimum input required to produce a small but definite change when the input is increased
gradually from a non-zero value. However complicated a transducer may be, it can‟t be used
to indicate a value less than its resolution.
d. Accuracy: - degree of agreement between the measured value and the true value. Often
quoted as a percentage of the full-scale (f.s.) reading of an instrument. A 100-kPa pressure
gage having an accuracy of 1 percent would be accurate within±1 kPa over the entire range
of the gage.
e. Precision, repeatability, or reproducibility: - Ability of an instrument to reproduce a
certain reading with a given accuracy. Degree of agreement among repeated values.
Maximum deviation of the readings from the mean, expressed as a percentage of full scale
reading.
f. Hysteresis:-Hysteresis error refers to differences between an upscale sequential test and a
downscale sequential test.The hysteresis error of the system is estimated by its uncertainty.

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Causes of hysteresis are Mechanical friction, Elastic deformation, Magnetic effects and
Thermal effects
Passive instruments:-Output is entirely produced by the quantity being measured. Example:
passive pressure gauge
Active instruments:-the quantity being measured simply modulates the magnitude of some
external power source. Example: Petrol tank level indicator.
An analogue instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the quantity being
measured changes. The output can have an infinite number of values within the range that the
instrument is designed to measure. Example:-The deflection-type of pressure gauge
A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so can only have a finite
number of values. Example: Revolution counter
1.3 Calibration of measuring instruments
Calibration
 Consists of comparing the output of the instrument under test against the output of an
instrument of known accuracy when the same input (the measured quantity) is applied to
both instruments.
 Ensures that the measuring accuracy of all instruments used in a measurement system is
known over the whole measurement range, provided that the calibrated instruments and
sensors are used in environmental conditions that are the same as those under which they
were calibrated.
 For use of instruments and sensors different environmental conditions, appropriate
correction has to be made
Instruments used as a standard in calibration procedures are usually chosen to be of greater
inherent accuracy than the process instruments that they are used to calibrate
Example: dead weight pressure gauge
 Calibration chain and traceability

1.4 Errors during the measurement process

Errors in measurement systems during the measurement process, due to later corruption of
the measurement signal by induced noise during transfer of the signal from the point of
measurement to some other point, To reduce the incidence of errors arising during the

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measurement process is to identify all error sources can and looking for ways to eliminate or
at least reduce the magnitude of errors.
Errors arising during the measurement process systematic errors and random errors.
1. Systematic errors: - Systematic errors describe errors in the output readings of a
measurement system that are consistently on one side of the correct reading, i.e. either all
the errors are positive
or they are all negative.
 are due to factors inherent in the manufacture of the instrument
 Arising out of tolerances in the components of the instrument.
 Arise due to wear in instrument components over a period
of time.
 are introduced either by the effect of environmental disturbances

2. Random Errors: - are usually observed as small perturbations of the measurement either
side of the correct value, i.e. positive errors and negative errors occur in approximately
equal numbers for a series of measurements made of the same constant quantity. Therefore,
random errors can largely be eliminated by calculating the average of a number of
repeated measurements, provided that the measured quantity remains constant during the
process of taking the repeated measurements. The degree of confidence in the calculated
mean/median values can be quantified by calculating the standard deviation or variance of
the data, these being parameters that describe how the measurements are distributed about
the mean value/median

Chapter two

Position/displacement/proximity Sensors

2.1 INTRODUCTION

A Proximity sensor is a sensor that is able to detect the presence or absence of an object without any
physical contact. Typical applications include the detection, position, inspection and counting on
automatic machines and manufacturing systems. Used in machinery: packaging, production, molding,
metal working and food processing.

a. LVDT
Working principle of LVDT

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Why Use An LVDT?

 High Resolution
 Unlimited Mechanical Life
 Single Axis Sensitivity
 Environmentally Robust
 Environmentally Robust
 Null Point Repeatability
b. Optical Encoders
Encoders are a form of digital optical sensor, which include a coded disc with information
contained in a series of concentric tracks, which are read by photo-sensors to give a measure
of angular position. Optical encoders are used to measure displacement and derive speed.
The accuracy of the measurement depends on the number of tracks (or bits). For the four-bit
encoder the resolution is 22.5°, or 16 unique positions. Increasing this to five bits would give
a resolution of 11.25°and so on.
c. The Reed switch sensor: - Reed switches consist of two small ferromagnetic reeds
hermetically closed in a glass tube. The reeds are thin and flexible, and because they are
ferromagnetic they become magnetized in the presence of a magnetic field
When a magnet is brought close to the glass tube, the reeds move together and make contact
and the switch is turned on. The reeds open again when the magnet is removed. Reed
switches are common in alarm systems, for example, in door frames. When the door is closed
the magnet keeps the switch on. When the door is opened the alarm system senses the broken
contact and goes off.
d. Resistive Potentiometer:- A Resistive Potentiometer is a mechanically driven variable
resistor. It consists of a wire-wound fixed resistor and a wiper arm that slides over it and in
so doing taps a different segment of the resistor

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e. Capacitive Proximity Sensors:- Capacitive proximity switches will sense metal as well as
nonmetallic materials such as paper, glass, liquids, and cloth.

 The sensing surface of a capacitive sensor is formed by two concentrically shaped metal
electrodes of an unwound capacitor.
 When an object nears the sensing surface it enters the electrostatic field of the
electrodes and changes the capacitance in an oscillator circuit.
 The oscillator begins oscillating.
 The trigger circuit reads the oscillator‟s amplitude and when it reaches a specific
level the output state of the sensor changes.

 The plates of a charged parallel plate capacitor carry equal but opposite charge spread
evenly over the surfaces of the plates.
 The electric field lines start from the higher voltage potential charged plate and end at the
lower voltage potential charged plate.
 A basic capacitive sensor is anything metal or a conductor and detects anything that is
conductive or has a dielectric constant different from air.
 Three basic implementations for capacitive sensing:
 Proximity/gesture recognition,
 Liquid level sensing, and
 Material analysis is displayed below.

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f. Inductive Proximity Sensors:- Inductive proximity sensors enable the detection, without
contact, of metal objects at distances of up to 60 mm. Their range of applications is very
extensive and includes : the monitoring of machine parts (cams, mechanical stops, etc.),
monitoring the flow of metal parts, counting, etc.
Inductive proximity sensors are generally constructed with four main elements:
a. A coil and ferrite core assembly;
b. An oscillator;
c. A convertor/trigger circuit (detector) and;
d. An output device.

 When a metal object is placed within the magnetic field generated by the sensor, the
resulting currents induced form an additional load and the oscillation ceases. The
convertor/trigger circuit rectifies the AC sine wave signal to DC, compares the level
against a preset reference, and actuates the sensor output if a target is present. This causes
the output driver to operate and, depending on the sensor type, a NO, NC or NO + NC
(complementary) output signal is produced.

g. Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors: - Ultrasonic proximity sensors use a transducer to send and
receive high frequency sound signals. When a target enters the beam the sound is reflected
back to the switch, causing it to energize or de-energize the output circuit.
 Operating principle: - A piezoelectric ceramic disk is mounted in the sensor surface. It
can transmit and receive high-frequency pulses. A high frequency voltage is applied to
the disk, causing it to vibrate at the same frequency. The vibrating disk produces high-
frequency sound waves. When transmitted pulses strike a sound-reflecting object, echoes
are produced. The duration of the reflected pulse is evaluated at the transducer. When
the target enters the preset operating range, the output of the switch changes state.When
the target leaves the preset operating range, the output returns to its original state.

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 The emitted pulse is actually a set of 30 pulses at amplitude of 200 Kvolts. The echo can
be in micro-volts. The time interval between the transmitted signal and the echo is
directly proportional to the distance between the object and sensor.

h. Optical proximity sensors:- Based on a reflecting light usually infrared. Performance

depends on surface size and material of the object.

Chapter 3

FORCE MEASUREMENT

3.1 classifications

A force measurement system is made up of a transducer and associated instrumentation. The

transducer is subjected to the force to be measured, and some resultant change in the element is
measured by the associated instrumentation. The instrumentation may power the transducer in some
way and also may process the output from the transducer before it is shown on an indicator to be read
by the user.

3.2 Elastic transducers

a) A Spring system
 The relationship between force and displacement X is linear.

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b) Circular cylinder
The force is applied to the end of the cylinder and the deformation is measured as the
difference between the uncompressed and compressed length. The material which exhibits a
linear relationship b/n the stress force and strain (the output) with low hysteresis and creep in
the working range is used.
E.g. Tool Steel, stainless steel, aluminum, beryllium copper. All elastic devices work based
on distortion, but the method of measuring the distortion of the elastic element varies
considerably.

c) Proving Ring
The diameter of the ring changes when the force is applied along the diameter.
3.3 Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges
A strain gauge is a long length of conducting wire.It is attached in a zigzag pattern on the
surface of a membrane that under goes a strain.
Principle
 Resistance of the conductor changes when the conductor is subjected to a stain.
 The fractional change in resistance is linearly related to applied strain given below.
 The constant of proportionality is known as „sensitivity factor‟ or „K factor‟ of „gage
factor.‟2 < K < 4

 A typical strain gauge produces a very low change in resistance when strained. In order to
convert the small change resistance in to a usable electrical signal, the strain gauges are
connected in to a Wheatstone bridge configuration with a voltage excitation source.
TYPES OF STRAINGAUGE LOAD CELLS
 Beam type load cell
 Pillar type load cell
 Ring type load cell
3.4 Piezoelectric crystal force transducers

A piezoelectric material produces an electric charge when a mechanical stress is applied (the substance
is squeezed or stretched).Conversely a mechanical deformation is produced when electric field is
applied.

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 Piezoelectric accelerometer: - The active element of an accelerometer is a piezoelectric material. A

force applied perpendicular to the disk causes a charge production and a voltage at the electrodes.

The sensing element of a piezoelectric accelerometer consists of two major parts: Piezo-ceramic
material and Seismic mass. One side of the piezoelectric material is connected to a rigid post at the
sensor base. The so -called seismic mass is attached to the other side. When the accelerometer is
subjected to vibration, a force is generated which acts on the piezoelectric element

3.5 HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC LOAD CELLS

 Hydraulic load cell:- Applied force tends to compress the liquid(oil) with in the
cylinder.The generated pressure is directly proportional to the applied force=PA
 Pneumatic load cell:- Force balance principle. Force is applied on one side of a piston or
a diaphragm and is balanced by pneumatic pressure on the other side. This counteracting
pressure is proportional to the force and is displayed on a pressure dial. Used to measure
relatively small weights in industries.

CHAPTER 4

Temperature Measurement

4.1 Classification
a) Bimetallic thermometers :-
Two dissimilar metals are bonded by brazing or welding. Invar (nickel-steel) –low
thermal expansion. Brass or stainless steel-high thermal expansion. Combined thickness
of strips:0.01 to 0.3 mm. A temperature change causes differential expansion.
Temperature change is estimated from measured deflection. Temperature range: -75 0c to
550 oc.
b) Thermocouple Thermometer
See beck effect
 When two conductors made of dissimilar metals are connected forming two junctions and
the two junctions are exposed to two different temperatures, a net thermal EMF is
produced.
 The thermoelectric EMF generated, in fact, is due to the combination of two effects:
Peltier effect and Thomson effect.
Peltier effect
When an electric current flows through a junction of two dissimilar metals, a change in
temperature will be observed at the junction.
Thomson effect
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 An EMF exists between any two points of a conductor which are at different
temperatures.
 The net emf value depends on the materials used and the temperature difference between
hot and cold junctions.The emf generated is approximately expressed using the following
empirical relationship:Where
 T1and T2 are hot and cold junction temperature in K.
 C1 and C2 are constants depending upon the materials.
 The temperature-emf data must be based on experiment. The results are highly
reproducible and hence provide a reliable method of measuring the temperature.
c) Electrical Resistance Thermometers
In some conductors and semiconductors, electrical resistance changes in reproducible
manner with temperature. This behavior forms the basis for temperature measurement.
Most commonly used RTDs are 100 W or 1000W platinum RTDs. sometimes referred to
ass PRTs(platinum resistance thermo meters)
 Pt 100 RTD has a resistance of 100W at 0oc.
 Positive temperature coefficient (a) value at 0 0C.
 A 100 W PRT will change in resistance 0.385 W every 1 0C change in temperature.
b. Thermistors: are made of semi-conductor material. They are highly sensitive. They have
both negative and positive thermal coefficients.

Chapter 5

Pressure measurement

5.1 classifications

a) Dead weight pressure gauge tester

Pressure gauges need to be calibrated periodically for safety and efficiency.Dead weight
testers provide calibration based on first principle.
Oil pressure=Weight of piston and platform+weigths

Effective area of piston

b) U tube manometer
Tubes must be vertical. A pressure difference between the two limbs causes the manometric liquid to
shift position. The change in position (displacement) can be used to indicate the pressure.
Limited to low pressure measurement (near atmospheric pressure).

c) Diaphragm-type transducer
Pressure signal is converted to displacement. The diaphragm (thin metal disc) acts as a spring element
that under goes a displacement under the action of the pressure. One side of the disc is exposed to the
pressure to be measured, other side is exposed to atmospheric or reference pressure. Distortion of the
diaphragm is transmitted to the gauge dial by linkage connected to the center of the diaphragm.

d) Bellow –type transducer

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The bellow is one piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit that has deep folds formed from very thin –
walled tubing. Pressure signal is converted to displacement. The working principle is similar to
diaphragm type transducer.

e) Bourdon Tube
The bourdon tube consists of thin walled tube having two long flat sides and two short round sides. The
tube is bent lengthwise into an arc of a circle of 270 to 300 0 Pressure applied causes the flat sections to
deform into elliptical shape. This change in cross-section causes the tube to straighten slightly. The tube
straightens out with the increasing pressure, moving the pointer via mechanical links. Within limits, the
movement of the tip of the tube can then be used to position a pointer to indicate the value of the
applied internal pressure. It measures static pressure.

f) Variable capacitance transducer

It consists of two flexible conductive plates and dielectric fluid. As pressure increases, the
flexible conductive plates will move further apart, changing the capacitance of the
transducer. This change in capacitance is measurable and is proportional to the change in
pressure.it is used for measurement of high pressure Rages from 1,000 to 20,000 bar.

g) Bridgman gauge
Principle:-Resistance of an electrical conductor undergoes a change when subjected to a bulk
compression (volume compression).

5.2 Measurement of low pressure.

McLeod vacuum gauge

A special mercury-in-glass manometer was described by McLeod in 1874 for the precise determination
of very low absolute pressures of permanent gases. It covers the vacuum ranging between 1 to 10-6 torr.

Chapter 6

FLOW MEASUREMENT

6.1 classifications
a) Positive displacement flow meter

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They are volumetric flow measurement instruments that measure flow by passing a precise volume of
fluid with each revolution. They are precision instruments whose internal moving components are
hydraulically locked in tandem with the volume of fluid moving through the flow meter.
Advantage:-intermittent flows, very low flow rates, and liquids of almost any viscosity can be measured
a. The PD meter instantly moves when there is fluid motion, and instantly stops when the
fluid motion stops.
b. Not affected by the liquid’s viscosity, density or the turbulence in the pipe.
c. All incompressible fluids will occupy the same volume and there is no need to correct the
meter’s output to compensate for these factors.
d. Each measured volume of fluid is uniquely separated from the next by a frictionless liquid
seal
The oval –gear positive displacement flow meter
 Fluid is displaced from the inlet side of the flow meter to the outlet side using a series of
compartments of known volume.
 The number of compartments of fluid that have been transferred are counted to determine the
total; volume that has passed through the flow meter, and if time is also measured then volumetric
flow rate can be measured.
 Accuracy +0.5% for liquids and +1% for gases
 Drawbacks
Moving parts wear with time.
Fluids should be free of solid particles so as to reduce wear.
Application
Oval gear flow meter is mainly used for high value liquids such as oil, chemical etc.
Main applications include unloading, transfer and consumption monitoring.
b) Orifice meter
 The orifice plate is circular plate with a hole at the center. Most commonly used obstruction
type flow meter d1 and d2 are the diameters of the pipe line and the orifice opening
respectively. Pressure tappings are normally taken at distance d1 and 0.5d1 upstream and
downstream the orifice respectively. However, actual flow rate is less than the ideal flow rate.
 Reasons
 The assumptions of frictionless flow are not always valid.
 The most important point is that ,the minimum flow area is not the orifice area A2 ,but
it occurs at some distance from the orifice plate ,known as the vena contracta ,and
 we are taking a pressure tapping around that point in order to obtain the maximum
pressure drop. Hence, a correction factor (discharge coefficient ,Cd) needs to be
considered.
c) Venturi meter
It is designed that the change in the flow path is gradual as a result; there is no permanent
pressure drop in the flow path. The discharge coefficient Cd varies between 0.95 and 0.98
The construction also provides high mechanical strength for the meter.
Major disadvantage –high cost of the meter.

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d) Flow nozzle
Flow nozzle is comprised off between orifice plate and venturi meter.

e) Variable area flow meter(Rota meter)

Two essential parts: float and a tapered tube in which float is free to move.
Fluids flow upward through the gap between tube and the float.
Fluid will alter the position of the float in the tapered tube.
Principle: position of the float is proportional to the volumetric flow rate. As the float moves up or down
there is change in the gap, as a result, changing the area of the orifice. The float settles down at a
position, where an upward thrust, created by the pressure drop across the orifice, is balances by the
downward force due to the gravity. The position of the float is calibrated with the flow rate.
A change in flow rate upsets this balance of forces. the float then move up and down ,changing the
annular area until it again reaches a position where the forces are in equilibrium.
f) Pitot Tube

g) Turbine flow mete

 A multi bladed rotor is placed in the flow and it rotates as fluid passes through it.

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 Speed of the rotor is proportional to the velocity of the fluid flowing through the meter .
 The rotor‟s speed is detected using a proximity sensor
 Average velocity of fluid is measured.
 Since the pipe diameter is known, volumetric flow rate can be determined.

h) Electromagnetic flow meter

Faraday’s law
When a conductor moves perpendicular to the magnetic field, voltage is induced cross tube conductor
and is proportional to its velocity.

In flow measurement, the conductor is fluid being metered, while the induced voltage is measured using
electrodes on the pipe wall. Flow velocity as low as 10-6m/sec can be measured.
Suitable for measurement of velocity of conducting (Mercury) and weakly conducting (water) liquid.
Advantages
 It causes no obstruction to flow path.
 It gives complete linear output in form of voltage.
 The output is unaffected by changes in pressure, temperature and viscosity of the fluid.
 Reverse flow can also be measured.

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