SYLLABUS

• UNIT I ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS

Radiation from antenna, Basic antenna parameters – Radiation pattern,
Radiation intensity, Beam area, Beam solid angle, Band width, Beam width,
Directivity, Gain, Antenna aperture, Effective height, Effective aperture,
Radiation Resistance, Input Impedance. Matching – Baluns, Polarization,
Polarization mismatch, Antenna noise temperature, Radiation from Half wave
dipole, Folded dipole.
• UNIT II ANTENNA ARRAYS
Antenna Arrays, Expression for electric field from two element and N element
Array: Broad-side array and End-Fire array - Pattern Multiplication- Concept of
Adaptive array and Binomial array.
 SYLLABUS
• UNIT III APERTURE AND SLOT ANTENNAS
Uniqueness theorem, Radiation from an elemental area of a plane wave
(Huygen’s Source), Radiation from rectangular apertures, Horn antenna -
Types, Parabolic reflector antennas and its feed systems, Aperture
blockage, Slot antennas, Method of feeding slot antennas-Microstrip
antennas – Radiation mechanism – Application, Numerical tool for
antenna analysis.
• UNIT IV SPECIAL ANTENNAS AND ANTENNA MEASUREMENTS
Yagi-Uda Antenna - Principle of frequency independent antennas –Spiral
antenna, Helical antenna, Log Periodic Dipole Array - Reconfigurable
antenna, Active antenna, Antenna Measurements - Test Ranges,
Measurement of Gain, Radiation pattern, Polarization, VSWR. Directivity
 SYLLABUS
• UNIT V PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES
Modes of propagation, Structure of atmosphere, Ground wave
propagation, Tropospheric propagation, Duct propagation, Troposcatter
propagation , Flat earth and Curved earth concept Sky wave
propagation – Virtual height, critical frequency , Maximum usable
frequency – Skip distance, Fading , Multi hop propagation.

• TEXT BOOKS
1. “Antennas for all Applications”, McGraw Hill, 2005 by John D Kraus
2. “Antennas and Radiowave Propagation”, McGraw Hill, 1985 by
R.E.Collin
 Unit – I
ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS
Fig 1.1 Wireless Communication Link

9
 Definition for Antenna
• An antenna is a transitional structure (metallic
device: as a rod or wire) between free-space and a
guiding device , for radiating or receiving radio
waves as shown in Fig. 1-1.
• The guiding device may take the form of a
transmission line (coaxial line) or a waveguide
(hollow pipe), and it is used to transport
electromagnetic energy (from the transmitting
source to the antenna, or from the antenna to the
receiver).

10
Thevenin Equivalent of Antenna

11
 Thevenin equivalent of the antenna system in
the transmitting mode shown in Fig. 1-2.
 The source is represented by an ideal generator
(with voltage 𝑽𝒈 and impedance 𝒁𝒈, [ 𝒁𝒈 = 𝑹𝒈 + 𝒋
𝑿𝒈]), the transmission line is represented by a line
with characteristic impedance 𝒁𝒄 , and the antenna
is represented by a load with impedance 𝒁𝑨 , [ 𝒁𝑨 =
( 𝑹𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 + 𝑹𝒓𝒂𝒅) + 𝒋 𝑿𝑨] connected to the transmission
line.

12
 Topic 1

Radiation Pattern

13
 Radiation Pattern
 An antenna radiation pattern - “a mathematical function or a
graphical representation of the radiation properties of the
antenna as a function of space coordinates”.
• Radiation pattern is very important characteristic of an
antenna. Radiation properties include radiation density,
radiation intensity, field strength, gain, directivity, effective
aperture, polarization, etc.,
• If the radiation from an antenna is represented in terms of
field strength (electric or magnetic), then the radiation
pattern is called field pattern.
• If the radiation from an antenna is represented in terms of
power per unit solid angle, then the radiation pattern is called
power pattern.
• To completely specify the radiation pattern with respect to
field intensity and polarization requires three patterns.
14
• The 𝜃 component of the electric field as a function
of the angles 𝜃 and 𝜙 or 𝐸𝜃(𝜃, 𝜙).
• The 𝜙 component of the electric field as a function
of the angles 𝜃 and 𝜙 or 𝐸𝜙(𝜃, 𝜙).
• The phases of these fields as a function of the angles
𝜃 and 𝜙 or 𝛿𝜃(𝜃, 𝜙) and 𝛿𝜑(𝜃, 𝜙).
• Fig. 1-2. shows three-dimensional field pattern (in
spherical coordinates) of a directional antenna with
maximum radiation in 𝑧- direction at 𝜃 = 0°.

15
Fig 1.2 Three Dimensional Field Pattern

16
 Radiation Pattern Lobes
• Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as
lobes, which may be sub-classified into major or
main, minor, side and back lobes.
• A major lobe is defined as the radiation lobe
containing the direction of maximum radiation.
 A minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe.
 A side lobe is a radiation lobe in any direction other
than the lobe.
 A back lobe is a radiation lobe whose axis makes an
angle of approximately 180° with respect to the beam
of an antenna.
17
Fig 1.3 Radiation Lobes & Beamwidth of Antenna

18
• Fig. 1-3 demonstrates a symmetrical three dimensional
power pattern with a number of radiation lobes. Fig. 1-4
illustrates a linear plot of power pattern and its
associated lobes and beamwidths.
• The half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is defined as the
angular measurement between the directions in which
the antenna is radiating half of the maximum value.
• The First-null beamwidth or beamwidth between first
two nulls (FNBW) is defined as the angular measurement
between the directions radiating no power.

19
Fig 1.4 Linear Plot of Power Pattern

20
• Often the field and power patterns are normalized with
respect to their maximum value, yielding normalized
field and power patterns. Fig.1-5 shows the normalized
field pattern and normalized power pattern.
• Dividing a field component by its maximum value, we
obtain a normalized or relative field pattern which is a
dimensionless number with maximum value of unity. The
half power level occurs at those angles 𝜃 and 𝜙 for which
𝑬𝜽(𝜽, 𝝓)𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 (or) 𝑬𝝓(𝜽, 𝝓)𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 .

21
Fig 1.5 Normalized Field and Power Patterns

22
• Patterns may also be expressed in terms of the power
per unit area.
• Normalizing this power with respect to its maximum
value yields normalized power pattern as a function of
angle which is a dimensionless number with a
maximum value of unity.
• The half power level occurs at those angles 𝜃 and 𝜙
for which 𝑷𝒏(𝜽, 𝝓)𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟓.

23
 Principle Patterns
• For a linearly polarized antenna, performance is often
described in terms of its principal 𝑬-and 𝑯-plane
patterns.
• The 𝑬-plane is defined as “the plane containing the
electric-field vector and the direction of maximum
radiation,” and the 𝑯-plane as “the plane containing
the magnetic-field vector and the direction of
maximum radiation.”
• The 𝑥-𝑧 plane (elevation plane; 𝜙 = 0) is the principal
𝑬-plane and the 𝑥-𝑦 plane (azimuthal plane; = 𝜋/2) is
the principal 𝑯-plane.

24
 Types of Radiator
 An isotropic radiator is defined as “a hypothetical
lossless antenna having equal radiation in all
directions.”
 Although it is ideal and not physically realizable, it is
often taken as a reference for expressing the directive
properties of actual antennas.
• A directional antenna is one having the property of
radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves more
effectively in some directions than in others.
 An omnidirectional antenna is defined as one “having
an essentially non-directional pattern in a given plane
and a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane.
 An omnidirectional pattern is then a special type of a
directional pattern.
25
 Topic 2

Beam Area or Beam Solid Angle

26
Fig 1.6 Beam Area or Beam Solid Angle

27
• In polar-two dimensional coordinates an incremental
area 𝑑𝐴 on the surface of a sphere is the product of
the length 𝑟𝑑𝜃 in the 𝜃 direction and 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙 in the
𝜙 direction, as shown in Fig. 1-6.
• The incremental area of a sphere is given by;
• 𝑑𝐴 = ( 𝑟𝑑𝜃 ). (𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙) = 𝑟2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 -------- (1.1)
• where 𝑑Ω = solid angle subtended by the area 𝑑𝐴, and
• 𝑑Ω = 𝑑𝐴/𝑟2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
• (Generally solid angle is nothing but angle subtended
by an elementary area on a sphere.)

28
• The beam solid angle of an antenna is given by
the integral of the normalized power pattern
over a sphere (4𝜋).
• Ω𝐴 = ∬ 𝑃𝑛(𝜃, 𝜙) 𝑑Ω
• Ω=4𝜋 ------- (1.2)
• where 4𝜋 = solid angle subtended by a sphere
(sr, Sterdian)
• 2𝜋 𝜋
Ω𝐴 = ∫ ∫ 𝑃𝑛(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
• 𝜙=0 𝜃=0 -------- (1.3)
29
• The beam area of an antenna can often be
described approximately in terms of the angles
subtended by the half-power points of the main
lobe in the two principal planes. Thus,
• Ω𝐴 = 𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝜙𝐻𝑃 -------- (1.4)
• where 𝜃𝐻𝑃 and 𝜙𝐻𝑃 are the half-power beam
widths (HPBW) in the two principal planes, minor
lobes being neglected.
– The (total) beam area consists of the main
beam area (Ω𝑀) plus the minor-lobe area(Ω𝑚).
• Ω𝐴 = Ω𝑀 + Ω𝑚 -------- (1.5)
30
 The ratio of the main beam area to the (total) beam
area is called the (main) beam efficiency.
• e𝑀 = Ω𝑀/Ω𝐴 -------- (1.6)
• The ratio of the minor-lobe area to the (total) beam
area is called the (main) stray factor.
• e𝑚 = Ω𝑚/Ω𝐴 -------- (1.7)
• It follows that e𝑀 + e𝑚 = 1

31
 Topic 3

Radiation Density

32
• Electromagnetic waves are used to transport
information through a wireless medium or a guiding
structure, from one point to the other. The quantity
used to describe the power associated with an
electromagnetic wave is the instantaneous Poynting
vector defined as;
• 𝑾=𝑬×𝑯
• where ;
• 𝑾 = instantaneous Poynting vector , (𝑾/𝒎𝟐)
• 𝑬 = instantaneous electric-field intensity, (𝑽/𝒎)
• 𝑯 = instantaneous magnetic-field intensity ,
(𝑨/𝒎) 33
• The total power crossing a closed surface can be
obtained by integrating the normal component of the
Poynting vector over the entire surface.
• 𝑷 = ∯ 𝑾. 𝒅𝒔
𝑆
• For time-varying fields, the time average power
density (average Poynting vector);

• The average power radiated by an antenna (radiated

power) can be written as

34
 Topic 4

Radiation Intensity

35
• Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as ”
the power radiated from an antenna per unit solid
angle”.
• The radiation intensity is a far-field parameter and
obtained by multiplying the radiation density by the
square of the distance.
• It is given by –
• 𝑈 = 𝑟2 𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 -------- (1.11)
• Where 𝑈 = radiation intensity, (W/unit solid angle)
𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 = radiation density, (𝑾/𝒎𝟐)
•
36
• The total power radiated by the antenna is obtained by
integrating the radiation intensity over the entire solid
angle of 4𝜋. Thus –

• where 𝑑Ω =element of solid angle = sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙

• For an isotropic source, 𝑈 will be independent of the
angles 𝜃 and 𝜙. Thus above exp can be written as –

37
• The radiation intensity of an isotropic source as;
•

38
 Topic 5

Directivity

39
• Directive gain of an antenna is defined as “the ratio of
the radiation intensity in a given direction from the
antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all
directions”.

• The average radiation intensity is equal to the total

power radiated divided by 4𝜋. In mathematical form –

• If the direction not specified, the direction of maximum

radiation intensity (maximum directivity, 𝐷0,) given by-40
• Directivity 𝐷0 : It is defined as the ratio of the
maximum radiation intensity to the average radiation
intensity.
• The total power radiated by the antenna is defined in
terms of normalized power pattern is given by –

• Substuiting Prad in the above –

41
 Topic 6

Power Gain

42
• Gain of an antenna is defined as “the ratio of the
radiation intensity, in a given direction, to the radiation
intensity obtained if the power accepted by the
antenna were radiated isotropically.
• The radiation intensity corresponding to isotropically
radiated power is equal to the power accepted (input)
by the antenna divided by 4𝜋.”

• In most cases, the relative gain is defined as “ the ratio

of the power gain in a given direction to the power gain
of a reference antenna in its referenced direction.”
43
• The power input must be the same for both antennas.
• The reference antenna is usually a dipole, horn or any
other antenna whose gain can be calculated or it is
known.
• However, the reference antenna is a lossless isotropic
source. Thus,

• The total power radiated, 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑, by the antenna is

related to the input power, 𝑃𝑖𝑛, by;
• 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜅𝑃𝑖𝑛 -------- (1.23)
• Substuiting Pin in the exp for ‘G’ –
44
• Where ‘k’ is the antenna efficiency factor.
• The gain (𝐺) of an antenna is an actual quantity which
is less than the directivity (𝐷) due to ohmic losses in
the antenna.
• The maximum value of the gain is related to maximum
directivity;

45
 Topic 7

Antenna Efficiency Factor

46
• Antenna Efficiency is defined as the ratio of power
radiated by the antenna to the total input power
supplied by the antenna. It is denoted by 𝜅. It value lies
between 0 ≤ 𝜅 ≤ 1.

47
 Topic 8

Input Impedance

48
• Input impedance is defined as “the impedance
presented by an antenna at its terminals or the ratio of
the voltage to current at a pair of terminals or the ratio
of the appropriate components of the electric to
magnetic fields at a point.
• Consider an antenna in the transmit mode, having an
input impedance of 𝒁𝑨 = 𝑹𝑨 + 𝒋 𝑿𝑨 , connected
directly to a source having an equivalent Thevenin’s
voltage, 𝑽𝒈, and an internal impedance 𝒁𝒈 = 𝑹𝒈 + 𝒋
𝑿𝒈 , as shown in Fig.1-7.

49
50
• where 𝒁𝑨 is the antenna impedance , 𝑹𝑨 is the
antenna resistance , 𝑋𝐴 is the antenna reactance ,
𝑹𝒓𝒂𝒅 is the radiation resistance of the antenna and
𝑹𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 is the ohmic loss resistance of the antenna.
• The maximum power transfer takes place when the
antenna is conjugate-matched to the source.
• Under the complex conjugate-match condition, the
antenna input current is –

• The real power supplied by the source is given by;

51
• Half the power supplied by the source is lost in the
source resistance, 𝑹𝒈, and the other half gets
dissipated in the antenna resistance, 𝑹𝑨.
• Thus the effective power input to the antenna is ;

• The antenna resistance, 𝑹𝑨, is comprised of two

components, namely the radiation resistance, 𝑹𝒓𝒂𝒅,
and the loss resistance, 𝑹𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 ;
• 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 -------- (1.32)

52
53
 Topic 9

Radiation Resistance

54
• Radiation resistance is the fictitious resistance such
that when connected in series with an antenna will
consume the same power as actually radiated by the
antenna.
• The total power radiated by an antenna is given by;

55
• The radiation resistance is the part of an antenna’s
feed point resistance caused by the radiation of
electromagnetic waves from the antenna.
• The radiation resistance is determined by the geometry
of the antenna.
• The energy lost by radiation resistance is converted to
electromagnetic radiation.

56
 Topic 10

Bandwidth

57
• The Bandwidth of an antenna is defined as “the range
of frequencies within which the performance of the
antenna, with respect to some characteristics,
conforms to a specified standard”.
• The bandwidth - the range of frequencies, on either
side of a center frequency (usually the resonance
frequency for a dipole), where the antenna
characteristics (input impedance, pattern, beam width,
polarization, side lobe level, gain, etc) are within an
acceptable value of those at the center frequency.
• For narrow band antennas, the bandwidth is
percentage of the frequency difference over the center
frequency of the bandwidth. 58
• The antenna bandwidth mainly depends on impedance
and pattern of antenna.
• At low frequency, impedance variation decides the
bandwidth as pattern characteristics are frequency
insensitive.
• Under such condition, bandwidth of the antenna is
inversely proportional to Q factor of the antenna.
• The bandwidth of the antenna can be expressed as ;

59
• where 𝑓0is the center frequency or resonant
frequency, while 𝑄 factor of antenna is given by –

• Thus for lower 𝑄 antennas, the antenna bandwidth is

very high and vice versa

60
 Topic 10

Polarization

61
• Polarization defined as the figure traced as a function
of time by the tip of the instantaneous electric field
vector at fixed location in free space observed along
the direction of propagation.
• The polarization of an antenna is the polarization of the
wave radiated by the antenna in the far-field.
• In the far-field region, the radiated field essentially has
a spherical wave front with 𝑬 and 𝑯 fields transverse to
the radial direction, which is the direction of
propagation.

62
• As the radius of curvature tends to infinity, the wave
front can be considered as a plane wave and the
polarization of this plane wave is the polarization of the
antenna.
• The polarization of the antenna is direction-
dependent, i.e., polarization as a function of (𝜃, 𝜙).
• Polarization of a plane wave describes the shape,
orientation, and sense of rotation of the tip of the
electric field vector as a function of time, in the
direction of propagation.

63
 Linear Polarization
• A time-harmonic wave is linearly polarized at a given
point in space if the electric field (or magnetic field)
vector at that point is always oriented along the same
straight line at every instant of time.
• Condition:
1. Only one component,
2. Two orthogonal linear components are in time phase.

64
 Circular Polarization
• A time-harmonic wave is circularly polarized at a given
point in space if the electric field (or magnetic field)
vector at that point traces a circle as a function of time.
• Condition:
1. The field must have two orthogonal linear components
2. The two components must have the same magnitude.
3. The two components must have a time-phase
difference of odd multiples of 90°.

65
 Elliptical Polarization
• A time-harmonic wave is elliptically polarized at a
given point in space if the electric field (or magnetic
field) vector at that point traces an elliptical locus in
space.
• Condition:
• 1. The field must have two orthogonal linear
components,
• 2. The two components can be of the same or
different magnitude, and

66
 Elliptical Polarization 2
• 3. i). If the two components are not of the same
magnitude, the time-phase between two components
must not be 0° or multiples of 180°(because it will be
linear).
• ii). If the two components are of the same magnitude,
the time-phase between two components must not be
odd multiples of 90°(because it will be circular).

67
 Topic 11

Polarization Mismatch

68
• In general, the polarization of the receiving antenna
will not be the same as the polarization of the
incoming (incident) wave.
• This is commonly stated as “polarization mismatch.”
• The amount of power extracted by the antenna from
the incoming signal will not be maximum because of
the polarization loss.
• Assuming that the electric field of the incoming wave
can be written as -
•

69
70
• The relative alignment of the polarization of the
incoming wave and of the antenna is shown in the next
Figure.
• If the antenna is polarization matched, its PLF will be
unity and the antenna will extract maximum power
from the incoming wave.

71
Polarization Unit Vectors

72
Polarization Loss Factor

73
• If the polarization of the incoming wave is orthogonal
to the polarization of the antenna, then there will be
no power extracted by the antenna from the incoming
wave and the PLF will be zero or−∞ dB.
• The previous Figure illustrates the polarization loss
factors (PLF) for linear wire antenna.

74
 Topic 12

Matching - Baluns

75
• Transmission lines are referred to as balanced or
unbalanced.
• Parallel wire lines are balanced in that if an incident
wave is launched down the line, it will excite balanced
currents on a symmetrical antenna.
• On the other hand, a coaxial transmission line is not
balanced.
• A wave traveling down the coax may have a
unbalanced current mode - the currents on the inner
conductor and the inside of the outer conductor are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

76
• When this wave reaches a symmetrical antenna, a
current may flow back on the outside of the outer
conductor, which unbalances the antenna and
transmission line as shown next figure.
• The currents on the two halves of the dipole are
unbalanced. The current 𝐼3 flowing on the outside of
the coax will radiate.
• The currents 𝐼1, and 𝐼2 in the coax are shielded from
the external world by the thickness of the outer
conductor.
• They could actually be unbalanced with no resulting
radiation; it is the current on the outside surface of the
outer conductor that must be suppressed. 77
Coaxial TX Line Feeding a Dipole

78
• To suppress this outside surface current, a balun
(contraction for "balanced to unbalanced transformer")
is used.
• The situation in previous Figure may be understood by
examining the voltages that exist at the terminals of
the antenna.
• These voltages are equal in magnitude but opposite
in phase (i.e., 𝑉𝑎= −𝑉𝑏 ). Both voltages act to cause a
current to flow on the outside of the coaxial line.
• If the magnitude of the currents on the outside of the
coax produced by both voltages are equal, the net
current would be zero.
79
 Sleeve Balun
• However, since one antenna terminal is directly
connected to the outer conductor, its voltage 𝑉𝑏,
produces a much stronger current than the other
voltage 𝑉𝑎.

80
 Bazooka Balun
• One type of a balun is that shown in Fig. 2, referred
to usually as a bazooka balun.
• Mechanically it requires that a 𝜆/4 in length metal
sleeve, and shorted at its one end, encapsulates the
coaxial line.
• Electrically the input impedance at the open end of this
𝜆/4 shorted transmission line, which is equivalent to
• 𝑍′ , will be very large (ideally infinity).
• Thus the current 𝐼3 will be choked, if not completely
eliminated and system will be nearly balanced.

81
Three Common Types of Baluns

82
 Topic 13

Antenna Noise Temperature

83
Every object with a physical temperature above absolute
zero (0𝐾 = −273°𝐶) radiates energy.
The amount of energy radiated is usually represented by
an equivalent temperature 𝑇𝐵, better known as
brightness temperature, and it is defined as

84
• Since the values of emissivity are 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, the
maximum value the brightness temperature can
achieve is equal to the molecular temperature.
• Some of the better natural emitters of energy at
microwave frequencies are (a) the ground with
equivalent temperature of about 300 K and (b) the sky
with equivalent temperature of about 5 K when looking
toward zenith and about 100–150 K toward the
horizon.
• The brightness temperature emitted by the different
sources is intercepted by antennas and appears at their
terminals as an antenna temperature.
85
• It is defined as –

• If the antenna and transmission line are maintained at

certain physical temperatures & transmission line
between the antenna and receiver is lossy, the antenna
temperature 𝑇𝐴 as seen by the receiver must be
modified to include the other contributions and the
line losses. 86
• If the antenna itself is maintained at a certain physical
temperature 𝑇𝑝 and a transmission line of length 𝑙,
constant physical temperature 𝑇0 throughout its
length, and uniform attenuation of 𝛼 (𝑁𝑝/𝑚) is used to
connect an antenna to a receiver, as shown in Fig. 1,
the effective antenna temperature at the receiver
terminals is given by ;

87
88
89
90
 Topic 14

Effective Aperture

91
• The effective aperture (also known as the effective
area) of an antenna is the area over which the antenna
collects energy from the incident wave and delivers it
to the receiver load
• If the power density in the wave incident from the (𝜃,
𝜙) direction is 𝑾 at the antenna and 𝑃𝑟(𝜃, 𝜙) is the
power delivered to the load connected to the antenna,
then the effective aperture, 𝐴𝑒,is defined as ;

92
Receiving Antenna and Load

93
94
95
• where 𝑃𝑟 is the power delivered to the receiver load,
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 is the power dissipated in the antenna, and
𝑃𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡 is the power scattered, since there is no physical
resistance corresponding to the radiation resistance.
• The total power collected by the antenna is the sum of
the three powers.

• If the power density in the incident wave is 𝑾, then

the effective collecting aperture, 𝐴𝑐,of the antenna is
the equivalent area from which the power is collected.

96
• Consider now an antenna with an effective aperture
𝐴𝑒, which radiates all of its power in a conical pattern
of beam area Ω𝐴, as suggested in Fig. 1.

97
98
99
 Topic 15

Radiation from Oscillating Dipole

100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
 Topic 16

Radiation from Half wave

Dipole/Monopole

115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
 Topic 17

Folded Dipole

131
• To achieve good matching to practical coaxial lines
with 50 Ω or 75 Ω characteristic impedances, the most
widely used dipole is half wavelength 𝜆/2.
• It has an input impedance of 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 73 + 𝑗42.5 and
directivity of 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.643.
• In practice, there are other very common
transmission lines whose characteristic impedance is
much higher than 50 Ω or 75 Ω.
• For example, a “twin-lead” transmission line is
widely used for TV applications and has a characteristic
impedance of about 300 Ω.
• One simple geometry that can achieve this is a
folded wire which forms a very thin rectangular loop as
shown in Fig. 1. 132
133
• A folded dipole consists of two parallel 𝜆/2 dipoles
connected to each other at the ends. It is fed at the
centre of one of the dipoles and the other dipole is
shorted.
• The impedance of the folded dipole is four times
greater than that of an isolated dipole of the same
length, i.e., 𝒁𝒇 = 𝟒𝒁𝒅.

• Advantages:
– Very high input impedance
– Inherent impedance transformation property
– Wide bandwidth
– Acts as reactance compensation network
134
• Applications:
• The folded dipoles with parasitic elements can
be used for wideband transmissions such as TV
signals.
• It is used in Yagi-uda antenna as a driven
element.

135
 Topic 18

Friss Transmission Formula

136
 Two Antennas in Free Space
• One of the most fundamental equations in antenna
theory is the Friis Transmission Equation.
• The Friis Transmission Equation is used to calculate the
power received from one antenna (with gain G1), when
transmitted from another antenna (with gain G2)
separated by a distance R, and operating at
frequency f.
• Consider two antennas in free space (no obstructions
nearby) separated by a distance R:

137
 Power Density
• Assume that, PT Watts of total power are delivered to
the transmit antenna which is omni-directional,
lossless and that the receive antenna is in the far field
of the transmit antenna.
• Then the power density p (Watts per square meter) of
the plane wave incident on the receive antenna a
distance ’R’ from the transmit antenna is given by –

• If the transmit antenna has an antenna gain in the

direction of the receive antenna given by GT, then the
power density becomes
138
 Power Received
• The gain term factors in the directionality and losses of
a real antenna. Assume now that the receive antenna
has an effective aperture given by AER. Then the power
received by this antenna is given by -

• Since the effective aperture for any antenna can also

be expressed as –

• The resulting received power can be written as

• ------- (1)
• This is known as the Friis Transmission Formula. It
relates the free space path loss, antenna gains and
wavelength to the received and transmitted powers. 139
 Second Form of Friss Transmission Formula
• Another useful form of Friis Transmission Equation is
given in Equation [2]. Since wavelength and frequency
are related by speed of light ’C’, the Friis Transmission
Formula can be expressed as –

• ------- (2)
• The above equation shows that more power is lost at
higher frequencies.
• For antennas with specified gains, the energy transfer
will be highest at lower frequencies. The difference
between the power received and the power
transmitted is known as path loss.
140
 Generalized Form of Friss TX Formula
• The Friis transmission equation indicates that the path
loss is higher for higher frequencies.
• If the antennas are not polarization matched, the
above received power can be multiplied by the
polarization loss factor (PLF) to properly account for
this mismatch. The second equation can be altered to
produce a generalized Friis Transmission formula which
includes polarization mismatch.

• ------ (3)

141
Applications
 Applications
• An antenna is mainly used as a metallic device
for radiating or receiving radio waves which is
basically used for transmitting signals,
transmitting antenna is used to transmit
information and for receiving signal, receiving
antenna is used at receiver end to receive signals
 UNIT – II
ANTENNA ARRAYS
Introduction to Antenna Arrays

9
 Introduction to Array Antennas
• The radiation pattern of a single element is
relatively wide & each element provides low values of
directivity (gain).
• In many applications, it is necessary to design antennas
with very directive characteristics (very high
gains) to meet the demands of long
distance communication.
• This can only be accomplished by increasing the
electrical size of the antenna.
• Higher directivity is the basic requirement in point-to-
point communication, radars and space applications.

10
• Enlarging the dimensions of single elements often
leads to more directive characteristics.
• Another way to enlarge the dimensions of the antenna,
without increasing the size of the individual elements,
is to form an assembly of radiating elements in an
electrical and geometrical configuration.
• This new antenna, formed by multi-elements, is
referred to as an array.
• In most cases, the elements of an array are identical.
• Thus antenna array can be defined as the system of
similar antennas directed to get required high
directivity in the desired direction.

11
• The antenna array is said to be linear if the elements of
the antenna array are equally spaced along a straight
line.
• It is said to be uniform linear array if all the
elements are fed with a current of equal
magnitude with progressive uniform phase shift
along the line.
• Five controls used to shape the overall pattern of the
antenna. - Geometrical configuration of the overall
array (linear, circular, rectangular, spherical, etc.)
• Relative displacement between the elements
• Excitation amplitude of the individual elements
• Excitation phase of the individual elements
• Relative pattern of the individual elements 12
Types of Antenna Arrays

13
 Types of Antenna Arrays
• Practically various forms of the antenna array
are used as radiating systems. They are;
1. Broadside Array (BSA)
2. End-Fire Array (EFA)
3. Collinear Array
4. Parasitic Array

14
 Broadside Array
• A typical arrangement of a Broadside array is shown in
Figure 1.
• A broadside array consists number of identical
antennas placed parallel to each other along a straight
line and the direction of maximum radiation is
always perpendicular to the plane consisting
elements.
• This straight line is perpendicular to the axis of
individual antenna. It is known as axis of antenna
array.
• Thus each element is perpendicular to the axis of
antenna array.
15
• All the individual antennas are spaced equally
along the axis of antenna array.
• All the elements are fed with currents with equal
magnitude and same phase.
• As the maximum radiation is directed in broadside
direction i.e. perpendicular to the line of axis of
array, the radiation pattern for the broadside array
is bidirectional.
• Thus broadside array can be defined as the
arrangement of antennas in which maximum
radiation is in the direction perpendicular to the
axis of array and plane containing the elements of
array
16
Figure 1 Broadside Array

17
 End Fire Array
• The end fire array is very much similar to the
broadside array from the point of view of
arrangement.
• But the main difference is in the direction of
maximum radiation.
• In broadside array, the direction of the maximum
radiation is perpendicular to the axis of array;
• while in the end fire array, the direction of the
maximum radiation is along the axis of array.
• Thus in the end fire array number of identical
antennas are spaced equally along a line.

18
• All the antennas are fed individually with currents
of equal magnitudes but their phases vary
progressively along the line to get entire
arrangement unidirectional finally. i.e. maximum
radiation along the axis of array as shown in Figure 2.
• Thus end fire array can be defined as an array with
direction of maximum radiation coincides with the
direction of the axis of array to get unidirectional
radiation.

19
 Co-linear Array
• As the name indicates, in the collinear array, the
antennas are arranged co-axially i.e. the antennas
are arranged end to end along, a single line as shown in
Fig. 3-3 (a) and (b).
• The individual elements in the collinear array are fed
with currents equal in magnitude and phase.
• This condition is similar to the broadside array.
• In collinear array the direction of maximum
radiation is perpendicular to the axis of array.

20
Collinear Array

21
• So the radiation pattern of the collinear array and the
broadside array is very much similar but the radiation
pattern of the collinear array has circular symmetry
with main lobe perpendicular everywhere to the
principle axis.
• Thus the collinear array is also called omni directional
array or broadcast array.
• The gain of the collinear array is maximum if the
spacing between the elements is of the order of 0.3 λ
to 0.5 λ.

22
 Parasitic Array
• In order to overcome feeding problems of the antenna,
sometimes, the elements of the array are fed through
the radiation from the nearby element.
• The array of antennas in which the parasitic elements
get the power through electromagnetic coupling
with driven element in proximity with the parasitic
element is known as parasitic array.
• The simplest form of the parasitic array consists one
driven element and one parasitic element.
• In multi-element parasitic array - one or more driving
elements and also one or more parasitic elements.
• In general the multi-element parasitic array - at least
one driven element and one or more parasitic elements.
23
• The common example of the parasitic array with linear
half wave dipoles as elements of array is Yagi-Uda array
or simply Yagi antenna.
• The amplitude and the phase of the current induced in
the parasitic element depends on the spacing between
the driven element and parasitic element.
• To make the radiation pattern unidirectional, the
relative phases of the currents are changed by
adjusting the spacing between the elements.
• This is called tuning of array.
• For a spacing between the driven and parasitic
element equal to 𝜆/4 and phase difference of 𝜋/2
radian, unidirectional radiation pattern is obtained.
24
Parasitic Array / Yagi Antenna

25
 Topic 1

Array of Two Point Sources

26
• The array of point sources is nothing but the array of
an isotropic radiators occupying zero volume.
• For the greater number of point source in the
array, the analysis of antenna array becomes
complicated and time consuming.
• Also the simplest condition of number of point
sources in the array is two.
• Then conveniently analysis is done by considering first
two point sources, which are separated by
distance and having same polarization.
• The results obtained for only two point sources can be
further extended for ′′ number of point sources in the
array.
27
• Let us consider the array of two isotropic point
sources, with a distance of separation ‘d’ between
them. The polarization of two isotropic point sources is
assumed to be the same. To derive different
expressions following conditions can be applied to the
antenna array ;
• 1. Two point sources with currents of equal magnitudes
and with same phase.
• 2. Two point sources with currents of equal magnitude
but with opposite phase.
• 3. Two point sources with currents of unequal
magnitudes and with any phase.
28
 Case 1 / Currents with Equal magnitude & Phase
• Consider two point-sources 1 and 2 separated by
distance – d and both the point sources are supplied
with currents equal in magnitude and phase as shown
in Figure 1.
• Let point 𝑃 far away from the array and the
distance between point 𝑃 and point sources 1 and 2
be r1 and r2 respectively.
• Assuming far-field observations - r1 = r2 = r
• The radiation from the point source 2 will reach
earlier at point 𝑃 than that from point source 1
because of the path difference.

29
Figure 1 – Two Element Array

30
• The extra distance is travelled by the radiated wave
from point source 1 than that by the wave radiated
from point source 2.
• Hence path difference -

31
32
• Above equation represents total field intensity at
point 𝑃, due to two point sources having currents of
same amplitude and phase.
• The total amplitude of the field at point 𝑃 is 2E0 while
the phase shift is (kdcos 𝜙)/2 .
• By putting 2E0 = 1 , then the pattern is said to be
normalized.

33
Maxima Direction

34
Minima Direction

35
Half Power Point Direction

36
• The field pattern drawn with 𝑇 against 𝜙 for = 𝜆/2,
then the pattern is bidirectional as shown in Fig. 2.
• The field pattern obtained is bidirectional and it is a
figure of eight (8).
• If this patterns is rotated by 360° about axis, it will
represent three dimensional doughnut shaped space
pattern

37
Case 1 / Equal in Amplitude & Phase

38
Case 2 / Currents Equal in Magnitude & Opposite in Phase
• Consider two point sources separated by distance
and supplied with currents equal in magnitude but
opposite phase.
• Consider Figure 2, all the conditions are exactly same
except the phase of the currents is opposite i.e. 180°.
• With this condition, the total field at far point 𝑃 is
given by,

39
40
41
Maxima Directions

42
Minima Directions

43
Half Power Point Directions

44
45
Case 2 / Equal in amplitude & Opposite in Phase

46
Case 3 / Unequal in Amplitude & Any Phase

47
 Case 3 / Unequal in Amplitude & Any Phase
• Two point sources are separated by distance and
supplied with currents which are different in
magnitudes and with any phase difference say
𝛼, as shown in Figure 3.
• Assume that source 1 is taken as reference for
phase. The amplitude of the fields due to source 1
and source 2 at the distant point 𝑃 is E1 and E2
respectively, in which E1 is greater than E2 , as shown
in the vector diagram in Figure 3.

48
49
50
 Topic 2

N- Element Uniform Linear

Antenna Array

51
• An array of elements is said to be linear array if
all the individual elements are spaced equally
along a line.
• An array is said to be uniform array if the elements in
the array are fed with currents with equal
magnitudes and uniform progressive phase shift
along the line.
• Consider uniform linear array of 𝑵 isotropic point
sources with all the individual elements spaced
equally at distance from each other and all elements
are fed with currents equal in magnitude and
uniform progressive phase shift along line as shown
in Fig. 1.

52
N - Element Uniform Array

53
54
55
56
 Topic 3

Broadside Array (BSA)

57
• An array is said to be broadside array, if maximum
radiation occurs in direction perpendicular to array
axis.
• In broadside array, individual elements are equally
spaced along a line and each element is fed with
current of equal magnitude and same phase.
• The total phase difference of the fields at point 𝑃 from
adjacent sources is given by -

58
59
60
61
62
 Topic 4

End-fire Array (EFA)

63
• An array is said to be end-fire array, if the direction of
maximum radiation coincides with the array axis.
• In end-fire array, individual elements are equally
spaced along a line and each element is fed with
current of equal magnitude and opposite phase.
• The total phase difference of the fields at point 𝑃 from
adjacent sources is given by,
• 𝜓 = kd cos 𝜙 + 𝛼

64
65
66
67
68
69
70
 Topic 5

Principle of Pattern Multiplication

71
• The field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar
sources is the product of the pattern of the individual
sources and the pattern of isotropic point sources
having the same locations, relative amplitudes, and
phase as the non-isotropic point sources.
• This is referred to as pattern multiplication for arrays
of identical elements.

72
 RADIATION PATTERN OF 4-ISOTROPIC ELEMENTS FED
IN PHASE & SPACED 𝝀/𝟐 APART
• Consider a 4-element array of antennas as shown in
Fig. 1, in which the spacing between the elements is
𝝀/𝟐 and the currents are in-phase (𝛼 = 0).
• The pattern can be obtained directly by adding the four
electric fields due to the 4 antennas.
• However the same radiation pattern can be obtained
by pattern multiplication in the following manner

73
Fig 1 / Linear Array of 4 Isotropic elements

74
• Two isotropic point sources spaced 𝜆/2 apart fed in-
phase provides a bidirectional pattern as in Fig. 2 (b).
• Now the elements 1 and 2 are considered as one
unit and this new unit is considered to be placed
between the midway of elements 1, 2 and similarly the
elements 3,4 as shown in Fig. 2 (a).

75
76
77
• Here the width of the principal lobe is the same as the
width of the corresponding lobe of the group pattern.
• The number of secondary lobes can be determined
from the nulls in the resultant pattern, which is sum
of the nulls in the unit and group pattern

78
 Topic 6

Concept of Phased Array /

Adaptive Array

79
• In case of the broadside array and the end fire array, the
maximum radiation obtained by adjusting the phase
excitation between elements in the direction normal and
along the axis of array respectively.
• In other words elements of antenna array can be phased
in particular way.
• So we can obtain an array which gives maximum
radiation in any direction by controlling phase
excitation in each element.
• Such an array is commonly called phased array.
• The array in which the phase and the amplitude of most
of the elements is variable, provided that the direction
of maximum radiation and pattern shape along with the
side lobes controlled, is called as phased array. 80
• Suppose the array gives maximum radiation in
direction 𝜙 = 𝜙0 where 0 ≤ 𝜙0 ≤ 180°, then the
phase shift that must be controlled can be obtained
as follows.
• 𝜓 = kd cos 𝜙 + 𝛼|𝜙=𝜙0 = 0
• Thus from above Equation, that the maximum
radiation can be achieved in any direction if the
progressive phase difference between the elements
is controlled.
• The electronic phased array operates on the same
principle.
• Consider a three element array as shown in the Fig.
1.
81
• The element of array is considered as 𝜆/2 dipole. All
the cables used are of same length.
• All the three cables are brought together at common
feed point. Here mechanical switches are used.
• Such switch is installed one at each antenna and one at
a common feed point.
• All the switches are ganged together. Thus by operating
switch, the beam can be shifted to any phase shift.
• To make operation reliable and simple, the ganged
mechanical switch is replaced by PIN dipole which
acts as electronic switch.
• But for precision in results, the number of cables
should be minimized.
82
Fig 1 / Phased Array with mechanical Switches

83
 Types of Phased Arrays
• In many applications phase shifter is used instead of
controlling phase by switching cables.
• It can be achieved by using ferrite device. The
conducting wires are wrapped around the phase
shifter.
• The current flowing through these wires controls the
magnetic field within ferrite and then the magnetic
field in the ferrite controls the phase shift.
• The phased array for specialized functional utility are
recognized by different names such as frequency
scanning array, retroarray and adoptive array.

84
 Frequency Scanning Array
• The array in which the phase change controlled by
varying the frequency is called frequency scanning
array.
• This is found to be the simplest phased array as at
each element separate phase control is not
necessary.
• A simple transmission line fed frequency scanning
array as shown in the Figure 2.
• Each element of the scanning array is fed by a
transmission line via directional coupler.
• The directional couplers are fixed in position, while
beam scanning is done with a frequency change.
85
Fig 2 / Frequency Scanning Array

86
 Advantages of Frequency Scanning Array
• The transmission line is properly terminated of
the load to avoid reflections.
• There are no moving parts and no switches and
phase shifters are required.

87
 Retro-array
• The array which automatically reflects an incoming
signal back to the source is called retro-array.
• It acts as a retro-reflector similar to the passive
square corner reflector.
• That means the wave incident on the array is received
and transmitted back in the same direction.
• In other words, each element of the retro-array
reradiates signal which is actually the conjugate of
the received one.

88
• Simplest form of the retroarray is the Van Atta
array as shown in the Fig. 3 in which 8 identical
dipole elements are used, with pairs formed
between elements l and 8, 2 and 7, 3 and 6, 4 and 5
using cables of equal length.
• If the wave arrives at angle say 𝜙 , then it gets
transmitted in the same direction.

89
 Adaptive Arrays
• An array which automatically turn the maximum
beam in the desired direction while turn the null in
the undesired direction is called adoptive array.
• The adoptive array adjust itself in the desired
direction with awareness of its environment.
• In modem adoptive arrays, the output of each
element in the array is sampled, digitized and then
processed using computers.
• Such arrays are commonly called smart antennas.

90
 Topic 7

Principle of Antenna Synthesis /

Binomial Array

91
• In case of uniform linear array, to increase the
directivity, the array length has to be increased.
• But when the array length increases, the secondary
or side lobes appear in the pattern.
• In some of the special applications, it is desired to
have single main lobe with no minor lobes.
• That means the minor lobes should be eliminated
completely or reduced to minimum level as compared
to main lobe.
• To achieve such pattern, the array is arranged in such
away that the broad side array radiate more strongly at
the centre than that from edges.

92
 Binomial Series
• To reduce the side lobe level, John Stone proposed that
sources have amplitudes proportional to the
coefficients of a binomial series of the form -

• where is ‘m’ the number of radiating sources in the

array.
• Binomial array is an array whose elements are
excited according to the current levels determined
by the binomial coefficient. 93
94
 Pascal’s Triangle
• The above represents Pascal’s triangle.
• If the values of ‘m’ are used to represent the number
of elements of the array, then the coefficients of the
expansion represent the relative amplitudes of the
elements.
• Since the coefficients are determined from a binomial
series expansion, the array is known as binomial array.

95
Non-uniform Amplitude Arrays with Odd & Even
Elements

96
• From the above equations, the amplitude co-efficients
of the following arrays are –

97
• Binomial array’s do not exhibit any minor lobes
provided the spacing between the elements equal or
less than one-half of a wavelength.
• The design using a 𝜆/2 spacing leads to a pattern
with no minor lobes, the half-power beam width
and maximum directivity for d = 𝜆/2 spacing in
terms of the numbers of elements or the length of
the array are given by ;

98
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Binomial Arrays
• The advantages of binomial array is that there are no
side lobes in the resultant pattern.
• The disadvantages are -
• i. Beam width of the main lobe is large which is
undesirable
• ii. Directivity is small and high excitation levels are
required for the center elements of large arrays.

99
 UNIT – III
APERTURE AND SLOT ANTENNAS
Introduction to Aperture Antennas

9
 Introduction to Aperture Antennas
• Aperture antennas are most common at microwave
frequencies.
• In general aperture means opening. Aperture in
antenna, means opening in a closed surface.
• There are different geometrical configurations of an
aperture antenna shown in Fig. 1.
• They may take the form of a waveguide or a horn
whose aperture may be square, rectangular, circular,
elliptical, or any other configuration.

10
Aperture Antenna Configuration

11
• Aperture antennas are very practical for space
applications, because flush mounted on the surface of
the spacecraft or aircraft.
• Their opening can be covered with a dielectric material
to protect them from environmental conditions.
• This type of mounting does not disturb the
aerodynamic profile of the craft for high-speed critical
applications .
• The radiation characteristics of wire antennas can be
determined once the current distribution on the wire
known.
• For many configurations, current distribution is not
known exactly & only physical experimental
measurements can provide a reasonable12
approximation.
• This is even more evident in aperture antennas.
• Analysis of aperture type antennas is the conversion of
original antenna geometry into an equivalent geometry
which can be looked at as radiation through an
aperture in a closed surface.
• This equivalence is obtained by the principle known as
field equivalence principle.
• Along with this principle, the duality, uniqueness
theorem and image principles are also useful in the
aperture type antenna analysis.

13
 Topic 1

Field Equivalence Principle

(Huygen’s Principle)

14
 Huygen’s Principle
• Huygens’ principle states that “each point on a primary
wave-front can be considered to be a new source of a
secondary spherical wave and that a secondary wave-
front can be constructed as the envelope of these
secondary spherical waves.”
• The field equivalence principle is a principle by which
actual sources, such as antenna and transmitter, are
replaced by equivalent sources.
• The fictitious sources are said to be equivalent within a
region because they produce the same fields within
that region.

15
• By the equivalence principle, the fields outside an
imaginary closed surface obtained by placing over the
closed surface suitable electric and magnetic-current
densities which satisfy the boundary conditions.
• The current densities are selected so that the fields
inside the closed surface are zero and outside they are
equal to the radiation produced by the actual sources.
• The equivalence principle is developed by considering
an actual radiating source, which electrically is
represented by current densities 𝑱𝟏 and 𝑴𝟏, as shown
in Fig. 2.
• The source radiates fields 𝑬𝟏and 𝑯𝟏everywhere.
16
• It is desired to develop a method that will yield the
fields outside a closed surface.
• A closed surface 𝑆 is chosen, shown dashed in Fig. 2,
which encloses the current densities 𝑱𝟏 and 𝑴𝟏. The
volume within 𝑆 is denoted by 𝑉1 and outside 𝑆 by 𝑉2.
• The primary task will be to replace the original
problem shown in Fig. 2, by an equivalent one which
yields the same fields 𝑬𝟏and 𝑯𝟏 outside 𝑆 (within 𝑉2).
• An equivalent problem of Fig. 2 is shown in Fig. 2 (b).
The original sources 𝑱𝟏 and 𝑴𝟏 are removed, and we
assume that there exist fields 𝑬 and 𝑯 inside 𝑆 and
fields 𝑬𝟏and 𝑯𝟏 outside of 𝑆.
17
• For these fields to exist within and outside S, they must
satisfy the boundary conditions on the tangential
electric and magnetic field components.
• Thus on the imaginary surface 𝑆 there must exist the
equivalent sources and they radiate into an unbounded
space (same medium everywhere).

• The current densities of above equations are said to be

equivalent only within 𝑉2, because they produce the
original fields (𝑬𝟏, 𝑯𝟏) only outside 𝑆.
18
 Actual & Equivalent Models
• Fields 𝑬, 𝑯 different from the originals (𝑬𝟏, 𝑯𝟏), result
within 𝑉1.

19
• From electromagnetic uniqueness concepts, it is known
that the tangential components of only 𝑬 or 𝑯 are
needed to determine the fields.
• Since the fields 𝑬, 𝑯 within 𝑆 can be anything, it can be
assumed that they are zero.
• In that case the equivalent problem of Fig. 2-2 (b)
reduces to that of Fig. 2-2 (a) with the equivalent
current densities being equal to -

20
Equivalence Principle Models

21
– Love’s Equivalence Principle of Fig. 2-3 (a) produces a
null field within the imaginary surface 𝑆.
– Since the value of the 𝑬 = 𝑯 = 𝟎 within 𝑆 cannot be
disturbed if the properties of the medium within it are
changed, let us assume that it is replaced by a perfect
electric conductor (𝜎 = ∞) .
– The introduction of the perfect conductor will have an
effect on the equivalent source 𝑱𝒔. As the electric
conductor takes its place, as shown in Fig. 2-3 (b), the
electric current density 𝑱𝒔, which is tangent to the
surface 𝑆, is short-circuited by the electric conductor.
– Thus the equivalent problem of Fig. 2-3 (a) reduces to
that of Fig. 2-3 (b).
22
• There exists only a magnetic current density 𝑴𝒔 over 𝑆,
and it radiates in the presence of the electric conductor
producing outside 𝑆 the original fields 𝑬𝟏, 𝑯𝟏.
• Let us assume that instead of placing a perfect electrical
conductor within 𝑆 we introduce a perfect magnetic
conductor which will short out the magnetic current
density and reduce the equivalent problem to that
shown in Fig. 2-3 (c).

23
 Topic 2

Radiation from Aperture Fields

24
• The general coordinate system for aperture antenna
analysis is shown in Fig. 2-5. The radiating fields are
determined by first finding the vector potentials 𝑨 and
F, from the surface current densities 𝑱𝒔 and 𝑴𝒔
respectively.

25
Coordinate System for Aperture Antenna
Analysis

26
27
28
29
30
 Topic 3

Radiation from Rectangular

Apertures

31
Radiation from Uniform Apertures

32
33
34
35
36
Radiation from Tapered Apertures

37
38
 Topic 4

Slot Antennas

39
 Introduction to Slot Antennas
• Slot antenna is a radiating element formed by a slot in
a metallic surface. An opening cut in a conducting
sheet or in one of the walls of the waveguide acts as
the antenna.
• It is excited either by a co-axial cable or through the
waveguide. Slot antenna is the best suitable radiator at
frequencies above 200 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
• Consider an infinite conducting sheet as in Fig. 2-8 (a).
Now consider that an aperture of any size or shape is
made leaving a slot on a sheet.
• The flat strip obtained can be treated as short dipole as
shown in Fig. 2-8 (b).
40
Metallic Conducting Sheet

41
• When the two are combined together we get the
complete original infinite conducting sheet.
• Hence the infinite conducting sheet with slot and the flat
strip of the dimension same as of the slot are said to be
complementary.
• Now consider that a slot of 𝜆/2 is cut in a large
conducting sheet, we get complementary dipole
antenna.
• In general, the slot antenna is fed by either a generator
(or) transmission line connected across it.

42
 Working Principle of Slot Antenna
• Whenever a high frequency field exists across a very
narrow slot in an infinite conducting sheet, the energy is
radiated through slot. This is the working principle of
the slot antenna.
• In case of the waveguides, the slot antenna is fed with
the guided waves incident on slot. Consider that the slot
antenna is fed with a transmission line connected across
points 𝐴 & 𝐵 as in Fig. 2-9 (a).
• As the antenna is fed with a transmission line, the slot
will radiate due to the currents in the conducting sheet.
The complementary of the slot antenna is the dipole
as shown in Fig. 2-9 (b).
43
• For the complementary dipole antenna, the regions
with conducting sheet and air are interchanged.
• According to the G. Booker’s theory, the field pattern of
the slot is exactly identical in shape as that of the half
dipole with 𝑬 and 𝑯 interchanged. That means for the
slot, the electric field 𝑬 will be horizontally polarized,
while for the dipole, it is vertically polarized.
• A single half wavelength slot in a conducting sheet is
analogous to the half wave dipole in terms of gain and
directivity with only difference in the polarization.
• The horizontal slot produces vertical polarization in the
direction normal to the slot, while the vertical slot
produces horizontal polarization.
44
Slot & Dipole Antennas

45
46
 Slot Antenna Vs Complimentary Dipole
• Polarization is different in both the antennas.
• That means if the polarization is horizontal in slot
antenna, then it is vertical in the complementary
antenna.
• The radiations from the backside of the slot antenna
and the complementary antenna are of opposite
polarity.

47
Methods of Feeding Slot Antennas

48
 Feeding 1 using Co-axial Line
• Practically the slot antenna is fed with a co-axial
transmission line.
• The outer conductor is bonded to the metal sheet as
shown in Fig. 2-10 (a). In general, the terminal
impedance of λ/2.
• Slot in a conducting large sheet is very large
(approximately 500 Ω), while the characteristic
impedance of the transmission line is much smaller.
• Thus under such conditions, to provide proper
impedance matching, the off-center feed as shown in
Fig. 2-10 (b) is used.

49
• In practical applications, generally a slot antenna fed
with a transmission line is not observed.
• Instead of that the slot is boxed in any one of the sides
of the metallic cavity so that by properly selecting
dimensions of the cavity, the outward radiation from
the opening of the cavity is not affected, while the
backward radiation is virtually eliminated.

50
Feeding 1 Using Co-axial Line

51
 Feeding 2 - Cylindrical Slot Antenna
• For the applications at very high frequencies, a slot
antenna with a slot cut in a conducting cylinder is most
widely used.
• A longitudinal slot in infinitely long cylinder as shown in
Fig. 2-11 (a), produces circular radiation that diameter
of the cylinder is very small.
• The gain and directivity properties of a basic slot
antenna can be improved by using array of slots placed
half guide wavelength apart and placed on opposite
side of central line as shown in Fig. 2-11 (b).
• Actually are the slots radiates in same phase, but there
is a reversal of polarity of the field inside the guide.
52
Cylindrical Slot Antenna

53
• The shape of the slot may be either rectangular or
circular.
• The slot with circular or annular shape is called annular
slot antenna.
• The annular slot antenna is shown in 2-11 (c).
• When the diameter of the annular slot is less than half
wavelength the resulting radiations are identical to
those produced by short, vertical antenna.

54
 Feeding 3 - Boxed Slot Antenna
• A flat sheet with a 𝜆/2 slot radiates equally on both
sides of the sheet.
• However, if the sheet is very large (ideally infinite) and
boxed in as in Fig. 2-12, radiation occurs only from one
side.
• The depth d of the box is approximate (𝑑 ∼ 𝜆/4 ) for a
thin slot.

55
 Topic 5

Babinet’s Principle

56
 Statement of Babinet’s Principle
• Babinet’s principle states that when the field behind a
screen with an opening is added to the field of a
complementary structure, the sum is equal to the field
when there is no screen.

57
Babinet’s Principle

58
• Consider case 1 where a perfectly absorbing screen is
placed in plane A which has a region of shadow in the
observation plane B as shown in Fig. 2-13 (a).
• Let the field behind the screen be some function 𝑓1 of
𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 is given by 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑓1(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).
• Now case 2 where the first screen is replaced by its
complementary screen as shown in Fig. 2-13 (b).
• Let the field behind complementary screen is given by
𝐹𝑐𝑠 = 𝑓2(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).
• Finally in case 3, no screen is present and the field is
given by 𝐹0 = 𝑓3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).
• Now according to Babinet’s principle, at same point, the
total field is given as 𝐹0 = 𝐹𝑠 + 𝐹𝑐𝑠.
59
 Topic 6

Horn Antenna

60
 Introduction to Horn Antenna
• One of the simplest and probably the most widely used
microwave antenna is the horn.
• The horn is widely used as a feed element for large
radio astronomy, communication dishes and satellite
tracking through out the world.
• The horn antenna can be considered as a waveguide
with hollow pipe of different cross-sections which is
flared or tapered into a large opening.
• When one end of the waveguide is excited while other
end is kept open, it radiates in open space in all
directions.

61
• As compared with the radiation through transmission
line, the radiation through the waveguide is larger.
• In waveguide, a small portion of the incident wave is
radiated and large portion is reflected back due to the
open circuit.
• As one end of the waveguide is open circuited, the
impedance matching with the free space is not perfect.
• To minimize reflections of the guided wave , the mouth
of the waveguide is flared or opened out such that it
assumes shape like horn.
• A horn antenna is nothing but a flared out or opened
out waveguide. The main function of the horn antenna
is to produce an uniform phase front with an aperture
larger than waveguide to give higher directivity. 62
 Types of Horn Antennas
• Basically the horn antennas are classified as rectangular
horn antennas and circular horn antennas.
• The rectangular horn antennas are fed with rectangular
waveguide, while the circular horn antennas are fed
with circular waveguide.
• Depending upon the direction of flaring, the
rectangular horns are further classified as Sectoral horn
and Pyramidal horn.
• A sectoral horn is obtained if the flaring (tapering) is
done in one direction only. A sectoral horn is further
classified as E-plane sectoral horn and H-plane sectoral
horn.
63
• The E-plane sectorial horn is obtained when the flaring
is done in the direction of the electric field vector. The
H-plane sectorial horn is obtained if the flaring is done
in the direction of the magnetic field vector.
• When the flaring is done along both the walls of the
rectangular waveguide in the direction of both the
electric and magnetic field vectors, the horn obtained is
called pyramidal horn.
• Similar to the rectangular horns, the circular horn
antennas can be obtained by flaring the walls of the
circular waveguide. The circular horn antennas are of
two types namely conical horn antenna and biconical
horn antenna. 64
• Many times, the transition region between the throat
of the waveguide and the aperture is tapered with a
gradual exponential taper. This minimizes the
reflections of the guided waves. Such horns are called
exponentially tapered horn antennas.
• Fig. 2-14 shows the horn antennas such as the E-plane
sectoral horn, H-plane sectoral horn, pyramidal horn
and conical horn.
• When the aperture size is large compared to the
wavelength the wave impedance approaches the free
space impedance. Thus, a pyramidal horn provides a
slow transition from the waveguide impedance to the
free space impedance, provided that the length of the
65
transition is large compared to the wavelength.
Typical Horn Antennas

66
Design of Horn Antenna

67
68
• The directivity of maximum value can be obtained at the
largest flare angle for which the value
• 𝛿 does not exceed typical value such as 0.25 𝜆 for E-
plane sectora horn, 0.22 𝜆 for conical horn and 0.40 𝜆
for H-plane sectoral horn.
• The directivity of the pyramidal horn and conical horn is
highest as compared to other types of the horns
because they have more than one flare angle.
• One more advantage of the horn antenna is that it can
be operated over a wide range of high frequency as
there is no resonant element in the antenna.

69
 Applications of Horn Antenna
– It is used as a feed element in antennas such as
parabolic reflectors
– It is the most wide used antenna for measurement
of various antenna parameters in the laboratories.
– It is most suitable antenna for various application in
microwave frequency range where moderate gains
are sufficient.

70
 Topic 7

Reflector Antennas – Plane

Reflector, Corner Reflector,
Parabolic Reflector

71
 Introduction to Reflector Antennas
• The reflector antennas are most important in
microwave radiation applications. At microwave
frequencies the physical size of the high gain antenna
becomes so small that practically any suitable shaped
reflector can produce desired directivity.
• In reflector antenna, another antenna is required to
excite it. Hence the antenna such as dipole, horn, slot
which excites the reflector antenna is called primary
antenna, while the reflector antenna is called secondary
antenna.
• In general, reflector antenna can be represented in any
geometrical configuration, but the most commonly
used shapes are plane reflector, corner reflector and
curved or parabolic reflectors. 72
 Introduction to Reflector Antennas 2
• Using reflectors, the radiation pattern of a radiating
antenna can be modified.
• By using a large, metallic plane sheet as a reflector, the
backward radiations from the antenna can be
eliminated thus improving radiation pattern of an
antenna.
• Thus for an antenna, desired radiation characteristics
can be produced with the help of a large, suitably
illuminated and suitably sized and shaped reflector
surface.
• Some of the common reflectors are plane reflector,
corner reflector and curved reflector.
73
 Type 1 / Flat or Plane Reflector Antennas
• The plane reflector is the simplest form of the reflector
antenna. When the plane reflector is kept in front of
the feed, the energy is radiated in the desired
direction. The plane reflector is as shown in Fig. 2-16.

74
Plane Reflector Antennas

75
• To increase the directivity of the antenna, a large flat
sheet can be kept as plane reflector in front of a half
dipole as shown in Fig. 2-16 (b).
• The main advantage of the plane reflector is that for
the dipole backward radiations are reduced and the
gain in the forward direction increases.
• To increase directivity further, we can use array of
two half wave dipoles in front of a flat plane reflector
as shown in Fig. 2-16 (c).
• It is observed that the flat sheet is less frequency
sensitive than the thin element. Hence only a
reflector element can be used to increase directivity.
Such arrangement is shown in Fig. 2-16 (d). 76
• In case of the plane reflectors, the polarization of the
radiating source and its position with respect to the
reflector both are important as one can control
radiating properties of the overall antenna such as
radiation pattern, directivity, impedance etc.
• Image theory has been used to analyze the radiation
characteristics of such a antenna

77
 Type 2 / Corner Reflector Antennas
• The disadvantage of the plane reflector is - radiation in
back and side directions.
• In order to overcome this limitation, the shape of the
plane reflector is modified so that the radiation is in
forward direction only.
• The modified arrangement consists of two plane
reflector joined to form a corner with some angle.
• The reflector is thus known as corner reflector.
• The angle at which two plane reflectors joined is called
included angle (𝛼).
• In most of the practical applications, the included angle
is 90°.
78
• In some other applications angles other than 90° are
also used.
• A typical corner reflector is shown in Fig. 2-17. The top
view of the corner reflector is shown in Fig. 2-17 (a).
• The Fig. 2-17 (b) indicates the front view of the corner
reflector.
• The vertical corner reflector with field pattern along
main axis is shown in Fig. 2-17 (c).

79
Corner Reflector Antenna

80
 Physical Arrangement of Corner Reflector
• When two flat reflecting sheets intersect each other
at corner or at an angle, a directional antenna called
corner reflector.
• When the corner angle is 90°, the corner reflector is
called square corner reflector.
• Corner reflectors with included angle less than 90°
are not advantageous.
• When included angle tends to 180° a flat sheet
reflector obtained - the limiting condition of corner
reflector.
• The analysis of the corner reflector is carried out
when two intersecting planes are perfectly
conducting & infinite. 81
 Dimensions of Corner Reflector
• In most corner reflectors, the feed element is either a
dipole or array of collinear dipoles placed parallel to the
vertex at a distance 𝑆 as shown in Fig. 2-17 (b).
• To increase the bandwidth, instead of thin wires as feed
element, the biconical or cylindrical dipoles are
preferred.
• For mathematical analysis, the dimensions specified are
aperture of corner reflector (𝐷𝐴) length of the
reflector (𝑙) and height (ℎ).
• Generally the dimension of the aperture of the
reflector (𝐷𝐴) is selected between one and two
wavelengths (𝜆 < 𝐷𝐴 < 2𝜆).
82
• The spacing between the vertex of the reflector and
the feed element is selected as a fraction of
wavelength (𝜆/2 < 𝑆 < 2𝜆).
• The length of the reflectors is typically selected as
twice the spacing between feed and vertex (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑙 ≈
2𝑆) for the included angle of 90°.
• The radiation resistance is the function of spacing
between the feed and the reflector.
• If the spacing is too large, the unwanted multiple lobes
are produced and hence the directivity is lost. If the
spacing is very small, the radiation resistance
decreases.
83
• The losses in the system increase as the decreased
radiation resistance becomes comparable with the
loss resistance of the antenna. Thus antenna is
treated as inefficient antenna.
• The height of the reflector (ℎ) is selected about 1.2 to
1.5 times greater than total length of the feed
element.
• A corner reflector with two flat conducting sheets at a
corner angle 𝛼 and a driven antenna is called active
corner reflector antenna.
• If the corner reflector antenna consists only two flat
conducting sheet at a corner angle 𝛼 without any
driven element is called passive corner reflector
antenna.
84
 Type 3 / Parabolic Reflector
• To improve the overall radiation characteristics of the
reflector antenna, the parabolic structure used.
• A parabola is a locus of a point which moves in such a
way that the distance of the point from fixed point
called focus plus the distance from the straight line
called directrix is constant shown in Fig. 2-18.
• By definition ; 𝐹𝑀 + 𝑀𝑀′ = 𝐹𝑁 + 𝑁𝑁′ = 𝐹𝑃 + 𝑃𝑃′ =
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ;
• When the point source is placed at the focal point,
then the rays reflected by the parabolic reflector form
parallel wave front as shown in Fig. 2-18 (b).
• This principle is used in the transmitting antenna.
85
Parabolic Reflector

86
 Working of Parabolic Reflector
• When the beam of parallel rays incident on a parabolic
reflector, then the radiations focus at a focal point
shown in Fig. 2-18 (c). This principle is used in the
receiving antenna.
• Consider a parabolic reflector shown in Fig. 2-18 (b).
• When point source is kept at the focal point of the
parabola, the radiations striking the reflector are
reflected parallel to the axis of parabola irrespective of
the striking angle.
• That means the rays reflected by the parabolic reflector
travel same distance to reach near the mouth of the
reflector.
87
• The open end of the parabolic reflector is called
aperture.
• The time taken by the reflected rays to travel a distance
up to the directrix of the parabola is same. That means
all the reflected rays are in phase.
• Thus the wave front at the aperture of the parabolic
reflector is uniform phase front & very strong and
concentrated beam obtained along the axis.
• Thus parabolic reflector is the most effective microwave
antenna which produces concentrated radiation beam
along the axis of parabola.
• The power gain of the paraboloid is a function of ratio
between diameter of aperture. 88
 Topic 8

Reflector Antennas – Paraboloidal

Reflector or Paraboloid or
Microwave Dish Antenna

89
 Introduction to Paraboloidal Reflector
• The parabolic reflector is a two dimensional structure. In
practical applications, a three dimensional structure of the
parabolic reflector is used.
• The three dimensional structure of the parabolic reflector
can be obtained by rotating the parabola around its axis
and it is called paraboloid.
• The paraboloid is as shown in Fig. 1 (a). The radiation
pattern of the paraboloid is as shown in Fig. 1 (b). As the
mouth of the paraboloid is circular in shape, the parallel,
beam produced are of the circular cross-section.
• The radiation pattern consists very sharp major lobe and
smaller minor lobes.

90
Fig 1 / Paraboloid with Pyramidal Horn as Feed

91
 Power Gain of Paraboloid
• Consider that the power gain of the paraboloid, with
circular mouth or aperture, with respect to half wave
dipole is given by,

• Here 𝐴0 is the capture area which is less than the actual

area 𝐴𝑒 of the mouth and it is given by,

• where 𝑘 = constant dependent on feed antenna used. It is

0.65 for dipole.
• The actual area of circular aperture with diameter 𝑑 is
given by

92
 Power Gain of Paraboloid 2
• Hence the power gain given by –

• From the above equation the power gain of the paraboloid

depends on the ratio or diameter 𝑑 of the circular aperture
to the wavelength in free space. The ratio 𝑑/𝜆 is called
aperture ratio of the paraboloid.
• Hence the effective radiated power (ERP) is the product of
the input power fed and the power gain 𝐺.
• With small diameter of the paraboloid, the gain of the
paraboloid is extremely large when 𝜆 is small in microwave
frequency range.
• For lower frequencies, 𝜆 is large, the diameter of the circular
aperture becomes too large – hence use of parabolic reflectors
are avoided at lower frequency. 93
 Spillover / Back Lobes
• In paraboloid reflector, the ratio of the focal length 𝑓 to the
diameter of aperture is another important design
constraint.
• The paraboloid can be designed to obtain pencil shape
radiation beam by keeping the diameter of the aperture
fixed and changing the focal length 𝑓.
• The three possible cases are as follows ;
– Focal point inside the aperture of paraboloid.
– Focal point along the plane of open mouth of paraboloid.
– Focal point beyond the open mouth of paraboloid
• CASE 1 : When the focal length is very small, the focal point
lies inside the open mouth of paraboloid as shown in Fig. 2
(a). It is very difficult to obtain uniform illumination over a
wide angle. 94
 Spillover / Back Lobes 2
• Case 2 : When the focal point lies on the plane of the open
mouth of the paraboloid by the geometry, the focal length 𝑓
is one fourth of the open mouth diameter 𝑑. This condition
gives maximum gain pencil shaped radiation equal in
horizontal and vertical plane as shown in Fig. 2 (b).
• Case 3: When the focal length is too large, the focal point
lies beyond the open mouth of the paraboloid as shown in
Fig. 2 (c) - difficult to direct all the radiations from the
source on the reflector.
• For practical applications, the value of the focal length to
diameter ratio lies between 0.25 to 0.5.

95
 Spillover / Back Lobes 3
• Some of the desired rays are not fully captured by reflector,
such non-captured rays form spill over. The noise pick up
increases with spill-over.
• Few radiations originated from the primary radiators are
observed in forward direction - such radiations get added
with desired parallel beam. This is called back lobe
radiation. They are unwanted as they affect the reflected
beam.

96
 Types of Paraboloid Reflectors
• Truncated paraboloid : This type formed by cutting some of
the portion of the paraboloid to meet the requirements. As
the portion of the paraboloid is cut away or truncated as
shown in Fig. 3 (a) , the paraboloid is called cut paraboloid
or truncated paraboloid.
• Parabolic right cylinder: The right cylindrical structure of
the parabolic reflector shown in Fig. 3 (b). This structure is
obtained by moving the parabola side ways. This parabolic
structure has focal line instead of a focal point and a vertex
line instead of a vertex. In parabolic right cylinder reflector
the energy is collimated at a line parallel to the axis through
the focal point of the reflector.

97
 Types of Paraboloid Reflectors 2
• Pill box or cheese antenna: The cheese antenna or pill box
is a short parabolic right cylinder enclosed by parallel plates
as shown in Fig. 3 (c). This antenna is useful in producing
wide beam in one of the planes while a narrow in other.

98
 Topic 9

Feed Structures for Paraboloidal

Reflector (Reflector Antennas)

99
 Introduction to Feed Systems
• A parabolic reflector antenna system consists of two basic
parts - a source of radiation focus and a reflector. The
source placed at the focus is called primary radiator, while
the reflector is called secondary radiator. The primary
radiator is commonly called feed radiator or simply feed.
• In case of a parabolic reflector a feed radiates entire energy
towards the reflector illuminating the entire surface of
reflector & no energy radiated in any unwanted direction.
• Practically there are number of possible feeds to the
parabolic reflector antenna. The secondary radiator used is
most of the times a paraboloid.

100
 General Feed Systems
• Case 1 : The simplest type of feed used is a dipole antenna.
But it is not a suitable feed for the parabolic reflector
antenna. Instead of only dipole, a feed consisting dipole
with parasitic reflectors can be used as a feed system.
• In such cases, the spacing between the dipole as a driven
element and the parasitic reflector is 0.125 𝜆 . In some
cases a dipole along with a plane reflector spaced 0.4 𝜆
apart from the dipole is used. It is shown in Fig. 1 (a).
• Case 2: An end fire array of dipoles is used as feed radiator
as shown in Fig. 1 (b). The dipoles are spaced in such a way
that the end fire pattern of an array illuminates reflector.

101
 General Feed Systems 2
• Case 3 : The most widely used feed system in the parabolic
reflector antenna is horn antenna as shown in Fig. 1 (c). The
horn antenna is fed with a waveguide. If circular
polarization is required, then in place of a rectangular horn,
a conical horn or helix antenna is used at the focus.
• In all three cases, the feed is placed at the focus to obtain
maximum beam pattern. If the feed is moved along a line
perpendicular to the main axis then beam deteriorates. But
if the feed is moved along the main axis, then the beam gets
broadened.
• Hence focus is the important point on the main axis at
which the feed is placed to obtain maximized beam pattern.

102
Fig 1 / General Feed Systems

103
 Case 4 - Cassegrain Feed
• This system of feeding paraboloid reflector named after a
mathematician Prof. Cassegrain. In all the feed systems, the
feed is located at the focus.
• But in Cassegrain feed system, the feed radiator is placed at
the vertex of the parabolic reflector instead of placing it at
the focus.
• This system uses a hyperboloid reflector, such that its one of
the foci coincides with the focus of the parabolic reflector.
This hyperboloid reflector is called Cassegrain secondary
reflector.
• The primary radiator or feed radiator used is generally a
horn antenna.

104
 Cassegrain Feed 2
 The radiation emitted from primary feed radiator reach
sub-reflector. The sub reflector reflects and illuminates
the main parabolic reflector. The main reflector reflects
the rays parallel to the axis. The geometry of the
Cassegrain feed system is as shown in Fig. 2.

105
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Cassegrain Feed
• It reduces the spill over & minor lobe radiations.
• Focal length greater than the physical focal length achieved.
• Ability to place a feed at convenient place.
• Beam can be broadened by adjusting one of the reflector
surfaces.
• Some of the radiation from the parabolic reflector
obstructed or blocked by the hyperboloid reflector creating
region of blocked rays. It is called aperture blockage.
• For small dimension parabolic reflector it is the main
drawback of the Cassegrain feed system.

106
 Case 5 – Offset Feed System
 To overcome the aperture blocking effect due to the
dependence of the secondary reflector dimensions on the
distance between feed and sub-reflector, the offset feed
system as shown in Fig. 3 is used.
 Here feed radiator is placed at the focus.
 With this system all the rays are properly collimated without
formation of the region of blocked rays.

107
 Topic 10

Microstrip Patch Antennas

108
 Introduction to Microstrip Patch Antenna
 Microstrip patch antenna consists of a radiating patch on one
side of a dielectric substrate which has a ground plane on the
other side as shown in Fig. 1.
 The patch is generally made of conducting material such as
copper or gold and can take any possible shape.
 The radiating patch and the feed lines are usually photo
etched on the dielectric substrate.
 In order to simplify analysis and performance prediction, the
patch is generally square, rectangular, circular, triangular,
elliptical or some other common shape as shown in Fig. 2.

109
Structures & Shapes of Microstrip

110
 Dimensions of Patch Antenna
• For a rectangular patch, the length L of the patch is 0.333𝜆0
≤ L ≤ 0.5𝜆0 , where 𝜆0 is free-space wavelength. The patch is
selected to be very thin such that 𝑡 << 𝜆0 (where 𝑡 is the
patch thickness). The height h of the dielectric
substrate is 0.033𝜆0 ≤ ℎ ≤ 0.05𝜆0. The dielectric constant
of the substrate (𝜀𝑟) is typically in the range 2.2 ≤ 𝜀𝑟 ≤ 12.
• Microstrip patch antennas radiate primarily because of the
fringing fields between the patch edge and the ground
plane.
• For good antenna performance, a thick dielectric substrate
having a low dielectric constant is desirable since this
provides better efficiency, larger bandwidth and better
radiation.
111
 Radiation Mechanism of Patch Antenna
• Consider a rectangular patch of length 𝐿 and width 𝑊
printed on a dielectric substrate of height h. The length of
the patch is chosen as 𝜆𝑔 /2, where 𝜆𝑔 is the guide
wavelength of microstrip line of width 𝑊 printed on the
same dielectric substrate.
• The electric field along 𝑥-direction undergoes a 180° phase
reversal as in Fig. 3 from one edge to the other.
• It can be shown that the fields near edges 1 and 2 add up
producing the radiation with a maximum along the 𝑧-
direction.

112
 Radiation Mechanism of Patch Antenna 2
• Hence, edges 1 and 2 are known as the radiating edges.
• Further, the fields near edges 3 and 4 do not contribute to
the radiation. The rectangular microstrip patch shown in Fig.
4 radiates linearly polarized waves, with the electric field
oriented along the 𝑥-direction when looking in the direction
of maximum radiation.

113
 Radiation Mechanism of Patch Antenna 3
• The radiation patterns in the two principal planes, viz., the 𝐸-
plane (𝑥-𝑧 plane) and the 𝐻-plane (𝑦-𝑧 plane) are shown in
Fig. 4. The pattern is very broad and has nulls along the y-
direction.
• For efficient transfer of power from a transmission line to the
patch antenna, the input impedance of the antenna matched
to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line.

114
 Advantages of Patch Antenna
• Light weight and low volume.
• Low profile planar configuration easily made conformal to
host surface.
• Low fabrication cost.
• Supports both linear as well as circular polarization.
• Can be easily integrated with microwave integrated circuits
(MICs).
• Capable of dual and triple frequency operations.
• Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces.

115
 Disadvantages / Applications of Patch Antenna
• Narrow bandwidth
• Low efficiency
• Low gain
• Extraneous radiation from feeds and junctions
• Poor end fire radiator except tapered slot antennas
• Low power handling capacity.
• Used for high-performance aircraft, spacecraft, satellite, and
missile applications where size, weight, cost, performance,
installation and aerodynamic profile are constraints.
• Other areas where microstrip antennas widely used are:
GPS, Telemetry, Radars, Altimeters, etc.,

116
 Topic 11

Feeding Structures for Microstrip

Patch Antennas

117
 Type 1 – Microstrip Line Feed
 In this type of feed technique, a conducting strip is
connected directly to the edge of the microstrip patch as
shown in Fig. 1.
 The conducting strip is smaller in width compared to the
patch. It has the advantage that the feed can be etched on
the same substrate to provide a planar structure.
 An inset cut can be incorporated into the patch to obtain
good impedance matching without the need for any
additional matching element.
 This is achieved by properly controlling the inset position.
Hence this is an easy feeding technique & provides ease of
fabrication and simplicity in modeling as well as impedance
matching.
118
 Type 1 – Microstrip Line Feed 2
 However as the thickness of the dielectric substrate
increases, surface waves and spurious feed radiation
also increases, which hampers the bandwidth of the
antenna.
 This type of feeding technique results in undesirable
cross polarization effects.

119
 Type 2 – Coaxial Feed
 The Coaxial feed or probe feed is one of the most common
techniques used for feeding microstrip patch antennas.
 From Fig. 2, the inner conductor of the coaxial connector
extends through the dielectric and soldered to the radiating
patch, while the outer conductor is connected to the ground
plane.

120
 Type 2 – Coaxial Feed 2
– The main advantage that feed can be placed at any desired
position inside the patch in order to obtain impedance
matching. This feed method is easy to fabricate and has
low spurious radiation effects.
– The major disadvantage is that it provides narrow
bandwidth and difficult to model since a hole has to be
drilled into the substrate. The increased probe length
makes the input impedance more inductive, leading to
matching problems.
– By using a thick dielectric substrate to improve the
bandwidth, the microstrip line feed and the coaxial feed
suffer from numerous disadvantages such as spurious feed
radiation and matching problem.
121
 Type 3 – Aperture Coupled Feed
– In aperture coupling the radiating microstrip patch element
is etched on the top of the antenna substrate & microstrip
feed line is etched on the bottom of the feed substrate to
obtain aperture coupling.
– The thickness and dielectric constants of these two
substrates may thus be chosen independently to optimize
the distinct electrical functions of radiation and circuitry.
– The coupling aperture is centered under the patch, leading
to lower cross polarization due to symmetry of the
configuration. The amount of coupling from the feed line to
the patch is determined by the shape, size and location of
the aperture.
– Since the ground plane separates the patch and the feed
line, spurious radiation is minimized as shown in Fig. 3. 122
 Type 3 – Aperture Coupled Feed 2
 This type of feeding technique can give very high bandwidth
of about 21%. Also the effect of spurious radiation is very
less as compared to other feed techniques. The major
disadvantage is that difficult to fabricate due to multiple
layers, which also increases the antenna thickness.

123
 Type 4 - Proximity Coupled Feed
 This type of feed technique is also called as the
electromagnetic coupling scheme. As shown in Fig. 4, two
dielectric substrates are used such that the feed line is
between the two substrates and the radiating patch is on top
of the upper substrate.

124
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Proximity Feed
– Eliminates spurious feed radiation and provides very high
bandwidth of about 13%, due to increase in the electrical
thickness of the microstrip patch antenna.
– Provides choices between two different dielectric media,
one for the patch and one for the feed line to optimize the
individual performances.
– Difficult to fabricate because of the two dielectric layers that
need proper alignment. Also, there is an increase in the
overall thickness of the antenna.

125
Comparison of Feeds – Patch Antenna

126
 Topic 12

Numerical Tool for Antenna

Analysis

127
Numerical Tool for Antenna Analysis

128
Applications
 Applications
• Slot Antenna. Slot radiators or slot
antennas are antennas that are used in the
frequency range from about 300 MHz to 25 GHz.
They are often used in navigation radar usually
as an array fed by a waveguide. ... The
polarization of a slot antenna is linear.
 UNIT – IV
SPECIAL ANTENNAS AND ANTENNA
MEASUREMENTS
Yagi-Uda Antenna
 Introduction
• Yagi-Uda arrays or Yagi-Uda antennas are high gain
antennas.
• The antenna was first invented by a Japanese Prof. S.
Uda in early 1940's and described in English by Prof. H.
Yagi.
• Hence the antenna name Yagi-Uda antenna was
given after Prof. S. Uda and Prof. H. Yagi.
• A basic Yagi-Uda antenna consists a driven element,
one reflector and one or more directors.
• Basically it is an array of one driven element and one of
more parasitic elements.
• The driven element is a folded dipole made of a
metallic rod which is excited. 101
• A Yagi-Uda antenna uses both the reflector (𝑅) and the
director (𝐷) elements in same antenna.
• The element at the back side of the driven element is
the reflector. It is of the larger length compared with
remaining elements.
• The element in front of the driven element is the
director which is of lowest length.
• Directors and reflector are called parasitic elements.
• All the elements are placed parallel and close to each
other as shown in Fig. 1.
• The length of the folded dipole is about 𝜆/2 and it is at
resonance. Length of the director is less than 𝜆/2 and
length of the reflector is greater than 𝜆/2.
102
• The parasitic element receive excitation through the
induced e.m.f. as current flows in the driven element.
• The phase and amplitude of the currents through the
parasitic elements mainly depends on the length of the
elements and spacing between the elements.
• To vary reactance of any element, the dimensions of
the elements are readjusted.
• Generally the spacing between the driven and the
parasitic elements is kept nearly 0.1 𝜆 to 0.15 𝜆.

103
Fig 1 / Yagi Uda Antenna

104
 Working of Yagi Antenna
• The parasitic element is used either to direct or to
reflect, the radiated energy forming compact
directional antenna.
• If the parasitic element is greater than length 𝜆/2, (i.e.
reflector) then it is inductive in nature. Hence the phase
of the current in such element lags the induced voltage.
• If the parasitic element is less than resonant length 𝜆/2
(i.e. director), then it is capacitive in nature. Hence the
current in director leads the induced voltage.
• The directors adds the fields of the driven element in
the direction away from the driven element. If more
than one directors are used, then each director will
excite the next. 105
 Working of Yagi Antenna 2
• To increase the gain of the Yagi-Uda antenna, the
number of directors is increased in the beam direction.
• To get good excitation, the elements are closely spaced.
• The driven element radiates from front to rear (i.e.,
from reflector to director).
• Part of this radiation induces currents in the parasitic
elements which reradiate almost all radiations.
• With the proper lengths of the parasitic elements and
the spacing between the elements, the backward
radiation is cancelled and the radiated energy is added
in front.

106
Fig 2 / Yagi Antenna Radiation Pattern

107
 Applications of Yagi Antenna
▪ Yagi-Uda array is the most popular antenna for the
reception of terrestrial television signals in the VHF band
(30 MHz-300 MHz).
▪ The array for this application is constructed using
aluminium pipes.
▪ The driven element is usually a folded dipole, which
gives four times the impedance of a standard dipole.
▪ Thus, a two-wire balanced transmission line having a
characteristic impedance of 300 𝛺 can be directly
connected to the input terminals of the Yagi-Uda array.
▪ Yagi-Uda arrays have been used in the HF, VHF, UHF,
and microwave frequency bands
108
Principle of Frequency Independent
Antennas

15
 Frequency Independent Antennas
• The numerous applications of electro-magnetics need
utilization of most of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
invention of various broadband systems need the design of
the broadband antennas.
• The antennas which are simple, small, light weight,
economical and operating over the entire frequency band are
most desirable.
• Such antennas are frequency independent antennas used in
𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑯𝒛 region for applications such as TV, point
to point communication, feeds for reflectors and lenses.
• According to the antenna scale model measurements, if the
shape of the antenna is specified completely by angles, then
its performance would be independent of frequency.

16
 Frequency Independent Antennas 2
• To have such practical infinite structures, the current on the
structure should decrease with distance away from the input
terminals. After a certain point, the current becomes negligible
and then the structure beyond that point to infinity can be
removed.
• Such truncated antenna has lower cut-off frequency and
beyond this cutoff frequency the radiation characteristics of
the truncated antenna and infinite structure are identical. The
lower cut-off frequency is that for which the current at the
point of truncation becomes negligibly small.
• The biconical antenna can be completely specified by angles
but the current along the structure does not reduce with
distance away from the input terminals. Also its pattern does
not have a form limiting with frequency.
17
 Frequency Independent Antennas 3
Rumsey proposed a general shape equation which has
frequency independent impedance, pattern and polarization
characteristics and with this shape the current distribution
reduces to zero rapidly.

18
 Topic 1

Frequency Independent Antennas

(Spiral Antenna)

19
 Principle of Spiral Antenna
• Spiral is a geometrical shape found in nature. A spiral can be
geometrically described using polar coordinates. Let (𝑟, 𝜃) be
a point in the polar coordinate system. The equation
• 𝑟 = 𝑟0𝑒𝑎𝜃
• where, 𝑟0 and 𝑎 are positive constants, describes a curve
known as a logarithmic spiral or an equiangular spiral. Taking
natural logarithm on both sides of above equation.
• ln 𝑟 = ln 𝑟0 + 𝑎𝜃
• Differentiating with respect to ;

20
Fig 1 / Logarithmic Spiral

21
 Concept of Frequency Independence
• From ∆ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 in Figure 1 ;
•
• Therefore, the angle between the tangent at any point on
the spiral and the radial line from the origin to that point
(designated as 𝛽) is the same for all points on the spiral (𝑎 is
a constant).
• Hence, the spiral represented by Equation 1 is also known as
an equiangular spiral.
• Consider a spiral described by
•

• The dimensions of an antenna designed to operate at a

frequency, 𝑓0. If the antenna is scaled by a factor 𝐾, it would
have the same radiation and input properties at a frequency
𝑓0/𝐾.
22
 Rumsey Principle
• Multiplying above Equation by a factor K - ;
• Expressing 𝐾 = 𝑒𝑎𝛿, above Equation reduces to ;

• This shows that the scaled antenna is obtained by rotating the

original antenna structure by an angle 𝛿. The structure itself is
unchanged.
• Hence, the radiation pattern alone rotates by an
angle 𝛿, keeping all the other properties the same. Such an
antenna is known as a frequency- independent antenna.
• Frequency-independent antennas are governed by
𝑹𝒖𝒎𝒔𝒆𝒚′𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆, which states that the impedance and
pattern properties of an antenna will be frequency
independent if the antenna shape is specified only in terms 23of
angles.
 Rumsey Principle 2
• The antenna described by above Equation satisfies this
criterion provided the structure is infinite.
• For structures that are finite in size, the frequency invariance
property is exhibited over a limited range of frequencies. The
lower end of this band is decided by the largest dimension of
the spiral and the upper end by the smallest dimension.

24
Fig 2 / Logarithmic Spiral

25
 Construction of Spiral Antenna
• Consider a thin conducting strip of variable width with the
edges defined by the following two equations ;

•
– These two edges are shown in Figure 2 for 0 ≥ 𝜃 ≤ 2.25𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝛿 ≥ 𝜃 ≤ (2.25𝜋 + 𝛿). A second conductor can be obtained by
rotating the first spiral by 180°. The edges of the second spiral
are given by ;
–
–These edges, edge 𝑟3 and edge 𝑟4 are shown in Figure 2
for −𝜋 ≥ 𝜃 ≤ 1.25𝜋 and (−𝜋 + 𝛿) ≥ 𝜃 ≤ (1.25𝜋 + 𝛿). These
two conductors form a balanced structure with feed points FF'.

26
 Construction of Spiral Antenna 2
– The parameters used to define this structure are ;
• 𝛿 ∶ determines the width of the arm
• 𝑟0 ∶ determines the radius of the feed region
• 𝑎 ∶ rate of growth of the spiral, and
• 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∶ determines the maximum radius of the spiral.
• The spiral antenna has a bidirectional main lobe
perpendicular to the plane of the antenna. The radiated field
is right circularly polarized on one side and is left circularly
polarized on the other side of the spiral.
• The axial ratio is used as one of the convenient parameters to
define the acceptable bandwidth of the antenna.
• Outside the band of operation of the antenna, the radiation
is elliptically polarized.
27
 Topic 2

Frequency Independent Antennas

Log Periodic Antenna

28
 Introduction to Log Periodic Antenna
• Any antenna defined in terms of angles, then it comes under
the category of frequency independent antenna.
• In any frequency independent antenna, the impedance and
the radiation pattern both are independent of frequency.
• In order to be frequency independent, the antenna should
expand or contract in proportion to the wavelength. If the
antenna structure is not mechanically adjustable, the size of
the radiating region should be proportional to wavelength.
• It is a broadband antenna in which geometry of the antenna
structure is adjusted such that all the electrical properties of
the antenna are repeated periodically with the logarithm of
the frequency.
• For every repetition, the structure size changes by a constant
scale factor, with which structure can either expand or
29
contract.
Fig 1 / Log Periodic Dipole Array (LPDA)

30
 Construction of LPDA
• A typical log periodic dipole array (LPDA) consists number of
dipoles of different lengths and spacings and fed by balanced
two wire transmission line as shown in Figure 1.
• The feed line is connected at narrow end or apex of the array.
• The length of the dipoles increases from feed point towards
other end such that the included angle 𝛼 remains constant.
• The increase in the length of the dipole (𝑙) and the spacing in
wavelength between two dipoles (𝑠) are adjusted such that
the dimensions of the adjacent dipoles posses certain ratio
with each other.
• The dipole lengths and the spacings between two adjacent
dipoles are related through parameter called design ratio or
scale factor which is denoted by 𝜏.
31
 Construction of LPDA 2
• Thus the relationship between 𝑠𝑛 and 𝑠𝑛+1 and 𝑙𝑛 and 𝑙𝑛+1 is
given by –

• The ends of the dipoles lie along straight lines on both the
sides. These two straight lines meet at fixed point or apex
giving angle 2𝛼 which is angle included by two straight line.
• Depending on the length of the dipoles, there are three
regions in LPDA, namely inactive transmission line region,
active region and inactive stop region.

32
 Operating Regions of LPDA
• Inactive transmission line region (𝒍 < 𝜆/2): The elements in
this region provide capacitive impedance. The element
spacing in this region is comparatively smaller. The currents
in the region are very small hence it is considered as inactive
region. These currents lead the voltage supplied by the
transmission line.
• Active region (𝒍 ≈ 𝝀/𝟐): Equal to resonant length. This is the
central region of the array from where maximum radiation
takes place. In this region, the dipoles offer resistive
impedance. Thus the currents are large value and in phase
with the base voltage.
• Inactive stop region (𝒍 > 𝜆/2): Greater than resonant length.
The dipoles offer inductive impedance. The currents are
smaller in this region and also lags the base voltage.
33
 Geometry of LPDA
• To find the relationship between the apex angle 𝛼, spacing 𝑠,
and length 𝑙 , consider part of the LPDA as shown in Figure 2.

• From the above figure –

34
Geometry of LPDA 2

35
 Geometry of LPDA 3
• where 𝛼 = apex angle, 𝑘 = scale factor , 𝑠𝜆=spacing in
wavelength short ward of 𝜆/2 element.
• The length of any element say 𝑛 + 1𝑡ℎ element and length of
first element is related as ;

• When the length of the first element is 𝑙1 then the length 𝑛 +

1𝑡ℎ element is 𝑘𝑛 time greater than 𝑙1. This ratio is also termed
as frequency ratio 𝐹 or it is called Bandwidth.
• The relation between the apex angle 𝛼, scale factor 𝑘 and
spacing 𝑠𝜆 with optimum design line and gain represented in
Figure 3.

36
 Design Curve of LPDA
• The number of elements in the array (𝑛) can be obtained
from upper frequency 𝑓𝑈 and lower frequency 𝑓𝐿 as ;

37
 Topic 3

Frequency Independent Antennas

Helical Antenna

38
 Introduction to Helical Antenna
• Helical antenna is a broadband VHF and UHF antenna used to
provide circular polarization.
• It consists of a thick copper wire wound in the form of a screw
thread forming a helix.
• In general , helix is used with a ground plane.
• There are different forms of ground plane such as flat ground
plane, cylindrical cavity.
• The helix is usually connected to the center conductor of a
coaxial transmission line at the feed point with the outer
conductor of the line attached to the ground plane is as shown
in Figure 1.

39
Fig 1 / Helical Antenna with Ground Plane

40
 Construction of Helical Antenna
• The geometrical configuration of a helix consists of 𝑁 turns,
diameter 𝐷 and spacing 𝑆 between each turn.
• The total length of the antenna is 𝐿 = 𝑁𝑆 while the total length
of the wire is 𝐿𝑛 = 𝑁𝐿0 = 𝑁√𝑆2 + 𝐶2 , where 𝐿0 = √𝑆2 + 𝐶2 is the
length of the wire between each turn and 𝐶 = 𝜋𝐷 is the
circumference of the helix.
• The pitch angle 𝛼 which is the angle formed by a line tangent
to the helix wire and a plane perpendicular to the helix axis.
• The pitch angles defined by –
• When 𝛼 = 0° , the winding is flattened and the helix reduces to
a loop antenna of 𝑁 turns; When 𝛼 = 90° then the helix
reduces to a linear wire; When 0° < 𝛼 < 90° , a true helix is
formed with a circumference greater than zero but less than
the circumference when the helix is reduced to a loop (𝛼 = 0°).
41
 Normal Mode of Operation
• The helical antenna can operate in many modes but the two
principal modes are the normal (broadside) and the axial (end-
fire) modes.
• Normal mode: The field radiated by the antenna is maximum
in a plane normal to the helix axis and minimum along its axis,
as shown sketched in Figure 2. To achieve the normal mode of
operation, the dimensions of the helix are usually small
compared to the wavelength (i.e., 𝑁𝐿0 ≪ 𝜆0).

42
 Normal Mode of Operation 2
• In the normal mode, the helix of Figure 3 (a) can be simulated
approximately by 𝑁 small loops and 𝑁 short dipoles connected
together in series as shown in Figure 3 (b). The fields are
obtained by superposition of the fields from these elemental
radiators. The planes of the loops are parallel to each other
and perpendicular to the axes of the vertical dipoles.

43
 Normal Mode of Operation 3
• Since in the normal mode the helix dimensions are small, the
current throughout its length can be assumed to be constant
and its relative far-field pattern to be independent of the
number of loops and short dipoles.
• Thus its operation can be described by the sum of the fields
radiated by a small loop of radius 𝐷 and a short dipole of
length 𝑆, with its axis perpendicular to the plane of the loop,
and each with the same constant current distribution.
• Practically this mode of operation is limited and it is hardly
used because its bandwidth and radiation efficiency is very
small.

44
 Axial Mode of Operation
• In this mode of operation, there is only one major lobe and its
maximum radiation intensity is along the axis of the helix, as
shown in Figure 4.
• The minor lobes are at oblique angles to the axis. To excite this
mode, the diameter 𝐷 and spacing 𝑆 must be large fractions of
the wavelength. The antenna is used in conjunction with a
ground plane whose diameter is at least 𝜆0/2, and fed by a
coaxial line.
• However, other types of feeds are possible, especially at
microwave frequencies. The dimensions of the helix for this
mode of operation are not as critical, thus resulting in a
greater bandwidth

45
 Design Procedure
• The terminal impedance of a helix radiating in the axial mode
is nearly resistive with values between 100 and 200 ohms.

46
Design Procedure 2

47
 Topic 4

Modern Antennas

Reconfigurable Antenna

48
 Introduction to Reconfigurable Antenna
• A reconfigurable antenna is an antenna capable of modifying
dynamically its frequency and radiation properties in a
controlled and reversible manner.
• In order to provide a dynamical response, reconfigurable
antennas integrate an inner mechanism (such as RF
switches, varactors, mechanical actuators or tunable
materials) that enable the intentional redistribution of the RF
currents over the antenna surface and produce reversible
modifications over its properties.
• Reconfigurable antennas differ from smart antennas because
the reconfiguration mechanism lies inside the antenna rather
than in an external beam forming network.
• The reconfiguration capability of reconfigurable antennas is
used to maximize the antenna performance in a changing
scenario or to satisfy changing operating requirements. 49
 Classification of Reconfig Antennas
• Reconfigurable antennas come in a large variety of different
shapes and forms. Their operation can largely be analyzed
through existing design principles by utilizing well defined
antennas as the base design and a point of reference for the
desired operation.
• Reconfigurable antennas can be classified according to three
categories that describe their operation:
• (1) the reconfigurable antenna parameters of interest, (2) the
proximity of reconfiguration, and (3) the continuity of
reconfiguration (e.g., having reconfigurable antenna
parameters over a continuous range of values).
• Reconfigurable antennas are described by the first of these
categories, including reconfigurable radiation (pattern or
polarization) and reconfigurable impedance (frequency or
bandwidth). 50
 Reconfiguration of Antennas
• The proximity of reconfiguration describes physical properties
inherent to the base antenna design—either direct (alteration
of a driven element) or parasitic (alteration of a parasitic
component).
• The continuity of the reconfiguration is defined by the nature
and capabilities of the reconfiguration mechanism, either
discrete (a finite number of reconfigured states) or continuous
(reconfiguration within a range of states).

51
 Frequency Reconfigurable Dipole
• A generic wireless communication link shown in Figure 1
illustrates a basic application of reconfigurable antenna.
• This scenario involves a transmitter 𝑻 that broadcasts to two
sets of wireless receivers 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐. These receivers operate
at two different frequency bands 𝑩𝟏 and 𝑩𝟐, centered at
𝒇𝟏and 𝒇𝟐, respectively (with𝒇𝟏 < 𝒇𝟐).

52
 Frequency Reconfigurable Dipole 2
• The scenario assumes that all receiving antennas are
coincidentally polarized, the transmitter broadcasts at the
frequency bands centered at 𝒇𝟏and 𝒇𝟐, at times 𝒕𝟏and 𝒕𝟐,,
respectively, and the radios require isolation between the
bands such that a dual-band antenna is undesirable.
• Thus the reconfigurable antenna serves to allow
communication with both sets of receivers using a single
antenna.

53
 Topic 5

Modern Antennas

Active Antenna

54
 Introduction to Active Antenna
• The term active antenna implies an antenna integrated with an
active circuit, including the DC bias circuit, and without an
isolator or circulator between them.
• The absence of isolator/ circulator implies that neither the
antenna nor the circuit needs to be designed in a 50-Ω
environment.
• Figure 1 shows block diagrams of several types of active
antennas, classified according to their functionality.

55
56
 Frequency Agile Antennas
• A two- or three-terminal active device can be designed into
the antenna to enable the antenna impedance to tune with
frequency.
• Figure 2 shows an example of this type of active antenna: a
slot microstrip feedline contains a varactor diode tuning
element.
• When the capacitance of the diode changes, the electrical
length of the antenna, which in turn depends on the antenna
reactance, changes and the antenna becomes resonant at a
different frequency.
• In this case, DC power is used to provide increased bandwidth
of an antenna element.
• These antennas find applications in multifunctional systems
with multiple non-simultaneous carriers.
57
Fig 2 / Frequency Agile Antenna

58
 Oscillator Antennas
• A two- or three-terminal negative-resistance device can be
connected directly to the terminals of a single antenna
element or an array of elements.
• In this case, DC power is converted to radiated RF power.
• An example of a patch antenna in the feedback loop of a
transistor, shown in Figure 3.
• Oscillator antennas have been discussed for applications such
as low-cost sensors, power combining and synchronized
scanning antenna arrays.

59
Fig 3 / Oscillator Antenna

60
 Amplifier Antennas
• An active device is connected to the terminals of an antenna
element to provide amplification in receive mode or transmit
mode.
• In the former case, the matching between the antenna and
active element usually optimizes noise, while in the latter
case, the matching optimizes power and/or efficiency.
• Figure 4 shows an example of a repeater element with two
slot antennas and a pre-matched amplifier chip.
• In this case, increase in gain is enabled by adding DC power to
the antenna and it becomes difficult to separate antenna gain
from circuit gain.

61
 Fig 4 / Amplifier Antennas 2
• They find applications in transmitters where spatial power
combining can be achieved with an array & in receivers where
the feed line loss which contributes to the total noise figure,
can be eliminated by directly connecting an LNA to the
receiving antenna.

62
 Frequency Conversion Antennas
• A two- or three-terminal active device integrated with an
antenna can provide direct down or up conversion of a
radiated signal, at frequencies that are direct harmonics or
subharmonics of a fundamental frequency.
• Figure 5 shows an example of a slot antenna with a Schottky
diode which can be used for frequency doubling since the slot
is matched to the diode impedance at both the input
frequency and its harmonic.
• Such antennas have applications in receivers, mixers with high
dynamic range, detectors for millimeter-wave and THz
receivers, phase conjugating RFID type antennas and high-
frequency generation.

63
 Frequency Conversion Antennas 2
• A special case of frequency-conversion antennas is when a
two- or three-terminal rectifying device is connected directly
to the terminals of a receiving antenna in such a way that the
received RF power is converted with optimal efficiency to DC
power, while harmonic production and re-radiation is
minimized.
• This type of active antenna is referred to as a rectenna.
• Such antennas have been applied to RFID tags, sensor
powering for cases when there is no solar power and where it
is difficult to replace batteries, directed narrow-beam array
power beaming, and for energy recycling and/or scavenging.

64
Fig 5 / Frequency Conversion Antennas

65
 Topic 6

Modern Antennas

Dielectric Antenna

66
 Introduction to Dielectric Antenna
• The travelling wave antenna in which the travelling wave is
guided by a dielectric is called dielectric antenna as shown
in Figure 1.
• In dielectric antenna, near cut-off, the phase velocity equals
the velocity of light. The fields produced extend outside a
dielectric guide.
• These outward fields excite the desired radiation in free-
space. Such travelling wave antennas are useful for broad
band signals.

67
 Construction of DRA
• A dielectric resonator antenna (DRA) is a radio
antenna mostly used at microwave frequencies and higher,
that consists of a block of ceramic material of various shapes,
the dielectric resonator mounted on a metal surface, a
ground plane.
• Radio waves are introduced into the inside of the
resonator material from the transmitter circuit and
bounce back and forth between the resonator walls,
forming standing waves.
• The walls of the resonator are partially transparent to radio
waves, allowing the radio power to radiate into space.

68
 Applications of DRA
• An advantage of dielectric resonator antennas is they lack
metal parts, which become lossy at high frequencies,
dissipating energy.
• Hence these antennas can have lower losses and be more
efficient than metal antennas at high microwave and
millimeter wave frequencies.
• Dielectric waveguide antennas are used in some compact
portable wireless devices and military millimeter-wave radar
equipment.

69
 History of DRA
• The antenna was first proposed by Robert Richtmyer in 1939.
• In 1982, Long et al. did the first design and test of dielectric
resonator antennas considering a leaky waveguide model
assuming magnetic conductor model of the dielectric
surface.
• Thus, they argued that the dielectric antenna behaved like a
magnetic dipole antenna.
• The magnetic conductor model does not explain how current
in the dielectric medium is transformed into electromagnetic
waves which results in radiation.
• The electric field from oscillation of polarized dipole fall off
inversely with cube of distance and cannot be responsible for
far field radiation.

70
 Topic 7

Electronic Band Gap Structure

(EBG) and Applications

71
 Definition for EBG
• Periodic structures are abundant in nature, which have
fascinated artists and scientists alike.
• When they interact with electromagnetic waves, exciting
phenomena appear and amazing features result.
• In particular, characteristics such as frequency stop bands,
pass bands, and band gaps could be identified.
• These applications are seen in filter designs, gratings,
frequency selective surfaces (FSS), photonic crystals and
photonic band gaps (PBG), etc.
• Electromagnetic band gap structures are defined as artificial
periodic objects that prevent/assist the propagation of
electromagnetic waves in a specified band of frequency for
all incident angles and all polarization states.

72
 Classification of EBG Structures
• EBG structures are realized by periodic arrangement of
dielectric materials and metallic conductors.
• They can be categorized into three groups according to their
geometric configuration: (1) three-dimensional volumetric
structures, (2) two-dimensional planar surfaces, and (3) one-
dimensional transmission lines.
• Different EBG structures : 3-D EBG structures (a woodpile
structure consisting of square dielectric bars and a multi-
layer metallic tripod array) , 2-D EBG surfaces (mushroom-like
surface and a uni-planar design without vertical vias), one-
dimensional EBG transmission line designs as in Figure 1.

73
 Advantages of EBG
• 2-D EBG surfaces has the advantages of low profile, light
weight, and low fabrication cost, and are widely considered
in antenna engineering.
• The planar electromagnetic band gap (EBG) surfaces exhibit
distinctive electromagnetic properties with respect to
incident electromagnetic waves.

74
Fig 1 / Different EBG Structures

75
 Applications of EBG Structures
• A multitude of basic EBG applications exists especially within
the microwave and low millimeter wave region.
• For example, In electronically scanned phased arrays, high-
precision GPS, Bluetooth, mobile telephony, waveguides,
antennas, low loss- coplanar lines, and compact integrated
filters.

76
 Topic 8

Antenna Measurements – Test

Ranges

77
 Introduction to Test Ranges
• There are two methods of antenna measurements: indoor
and outdoor.
• Both the methods have their own limitations; the outdoor
measurements are not protected from the environmental
conditions whereas indoor measurements suffer space
restrictions.
• In general, for the accurate measurements uniform plane
waves should incident on the antenna and this is possible
only if measurements are carried out in far-field region.
• The region in which antenna measurements are performed
effectively is termed antenna ranges and it is basically of two
types: reflection ranges and free-space ranges.

78
 Types of Test Ranges
• Reflection ranges:
– Outdoor type test range, where ground is a reflecting
surface.
– Reflection ranges create constructive interference in the
region surrounding AUT.
– Height of Tx antenna adjusted while Rx antenna is
maintained constant.
– Suitable for the antenna systems operating in frequency
range from UHF to 16 GHz.
• Free-space ranges:
– Indoor type test range designed to minimize environmental
effects.
– Most popular test range where antennas mounted over tall
towers.
– Main problem of this method is reflection from the ground.
79
 Anechoic Chamber
• Anechoic chamber is an indoor chamber. The chamber walls,
celing and floor are filled with absorbing material except at
the location of transmitting antenna and antenna under test
(AUT).
• It simulates a reflection-less free space and allows all-
weather antenna measurements in a controlled
environment.
• In anechoic chamber, the area where test antenna situated is
isolated from all types of interfering signals in better way.
• To improve isolation of test area, many times shielding is
done which also allows Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
measurements.
• Small antennas - far field measurements possible using
anechoic chamber with outdoor range; Large antennas -
compact antenna test ranges and rear field ranges are 80
installed in anechoic chambers itself.
 Anechoic Chamber / Absorbing Materials
• The absorbing materials are not only the integral part of
measurement ranges but important components of antennas
used to reduce the side lobe and back lobe radiations.
• Typical broadband absorber used is carbon-loaded
polyurethane foam. An ideal absorber can provide an
impedance match for the incoming waves at all frequencies
and angles of incidence.
• By shaping absorber or by gradually varying resistivity of
material, a tapered transition in impedance from free space to
back of the absorber can be achieved.
• The most widely used geometrical shapers are pyramids and
wedges as shown in Figure 1 (a) and (b) respectively.

81
Fig 1 / Absorbing Materials

82
Anechoic Chamber / Absorbing Materials 2
• For normal incidence the pyramid type absorber is the best
option as they scatter as a random rough surface when large
compared with wavelength.
• At higher frequencies, the reflection coefficient is larger and
at lower frequencies, the thickness of the absorber should be
larger.
• While the wedge shaped absorbers, with wedge direction
along the plane of incidence, work perfectly at large angles of
incidences but for normal incidence they cannot work
satisfactorily compared with pyramidal absorbers.

83
 Rectangular Chambers
• Figure 2 shows a longitudinal sectional view of a rectangular
chamber in which the source antenna is located at the centre
of one of the end walls.
• The location of the test antenna is at a point approximately
equidistant from the side and back walls along the centre line
of the chamber at the other end of the chamber with respect
to the source antenna.
• The chamber is completely lined with microwave absorbing
material. Still there will be reflections from the walls, floor
and ceiling and the specular reflections reaching .the test
antenna are the cause of concern.
• These arise from the regions midway between the source and
test antennas on the side walls, floor, ceiling and also from the
centre region of the back wall.
84
 Rectangular Chambers 2
• For good absorption by the lining materials, the chamber
width and height is designed such that the angle of incidence
𝜃𝑖 < 60°.
• However, this requirement puts the restriction that the
length to width ratio of the chamber be about 2 : 1 which is
extended to 3 : 1 sometimes at the expense of higher levels
of reflections.

85
 Rectangular Chambers 3
• The space in which the test antenna is located is termed the
quiet zone.
• The volume of the quiet zone for a given chamber depends
on the specified or allowable deviation of the incident field
from a uniform plane wave.
• Rectangular chambers need bigger absorbing materials for
frequencies below 1 𝐺𝐻𝑧.
• It is difficult to obtain accurate measurements in these
chambers mainly because it is usually not possible to obtain
a source antenna with a sufficiently narrow beam width of
these frequencies, to avoid illumination of the walls, floor
and ceiling with the main beam.

86
 Tapered Chambers
• The tapered anechoic chamber got introduced to overcome
some of the limitations of the rectangular chamber,
mentioned above.
• It consists of a tapered section opening into a rectangular
section. The taper is shaped like a pyramidal horn that tapers
from a small source end to a large rectangular test region.
This construction is shown in Figure 3.

87
 Tapered Chambers 2
• The rectangular section is approximately which and the
tapered section is usually twice as long as the rectangular
section.
• This geometry inherently requires less absorbing material
which helps in substantially reducing the cost. In the tapered
chamber, the specular reflections that reach the test region
occur close to the source antenna as shown in Figure 3.
• However the path lengths of the reflected signals are not
very different, electrically, from that of the direct signal
which produces a slowly varying amplitude pattern which is
beneficial since a constructive interference results.
• Also this allows use of thinner absorbing materials over the
walls. The concept is illustrated in Figure 4.

88
Fig 4 / Tapered Chambers

89
 Topic 9

Antenna Measurements –
Radiation Pattern

90
 Introduction
• The radiation patterns, polarization, and gain of an antenna,
which are used to characterize its radiation capabilities, are
measured on the surface of a constant radius sphere.
• All these quantities are measured on the surface of a sphere
with constant radius. Any point ′𝑃′ on such sphere can be
described using spherical co-ordinate system as shown in
Figure 1.
• The radiation characteristics of the antenna as a function of 𝜽
and 𝝓 for constant radius and frequency is called radiation
pattern of an antenna.
• The minimum number of patterns required to construct a
three dimensional pattern is 2 and they are selected as
principle 𝑬-plane and 𝑯-plane patterns.
• The two dimensional pattern is generally called pattern cut.
91
Fig 1 / Radiation Pattern Measurement

92
 Introduction 2
• The pattern cuts can be obtained for one of the angles (𝜽 or
𝝓) constant and varying the other. In most of the cases, the
required patterns are horizontal plane i.e. 𝑥-𝑦 plane and
vertical pattern in 𝑥-𝑧 plane.
• The radiation pattern of an antenna can be measured either
in transmitting mode or receiving mode. For reciprocal
antennas, even any mode is sufficient, receiving mode is
selected.

93
 Basic Procedure for Measurement
• For the measurement of radiation pattern of antenna, two
antennas are required.
• One of the antennas in the system is the antenna under test,
while the other illuminates the antenna under test and it is
located away from the antenna under test.
• Thus one antenna is used in the transmitting mode, while
other in the receiving mode.
• But according to the reciprocity principle, the radiation
pattern will be same irrespective of the mode in which
antenna is used.
• The antenna under test is usually referred as primary
antenna, while the other one as secondary antenna.

94
 First Procedure
• The antenna under test i.e. primary antenna is kept
stationary, while the secondary antenna is moved around the
primary antenna along a circular path with uniform radius.
• If the secondary antenna is directional one, it is always aimed
at the primary antenna.
• In this procedure, usually the primary antenna is
transmitting.
• At different points, along the circular path, the readings of
the field strength and direction with respect to the primary
antenna are recorded.
• A plot of the radiation pattern of a primary antenna is plotted
either as rectangular plot or polar plot.

95
 Second Procedure
• Both the antennas are kept stationary with a suitable spacing
between them. The secondary antenna is aimed at the
primary antenna.
• The primary antenna is rotated about a vertical axis.
• In this procedure, the secondary antenna is used in the
transmitting mode, so that the field strength reading and
direction of the primary antenna with respect to the
secondary antenna is made.
• The continuous readings at different points during rotation
can be made using pattern recorder.
• Generally at low frequency, first procedure is used while at
high frequency second one is preferred.

96
 Set Up for Measurement
• The simple arrangement for the radiation pattern
measurement consists primary antenna is transmitting mode,
secondary antenna as antenna under test.
• The secondary antenna is coupled with the rotating shaft and
it is rotated using antenna rotator mechanism. To measure
the relative amplitude of the received field an indicator is
used along with the receiver as shown in Figure 2.

97
 Set Up for Measurement 2
• Usually the antenna under test is used in the receiving mode.
• It is properly illuminated by the stationary primary antenna.
• The secondary antenna is rotated about vertical axis.
• For E- plane pattern measurement, the antenna support
shaft is rotated with both the antennas horizontal.
• While for H-plane pattern measurement, the shaft is rotated
with both the antennas vertical.

98
 Topic 10

Antenna Measurements – Gain

99
 Introduction
• The gain and the directivity are usually measured in the
direction of the pattern maximum. Their values in any other
direction can be calculated from the radiation pattern.
• There are two techniques used for measuring the gain of an
antenna-absolute gain measurement and gain transfer
measurement.
• For the absolute gain measurement it is not necessary to
have a prior knowledge of the gains of the antennas used in
the measurement.
• The gain transfer method, requires the use of a gain standard
with which the gain of the antenna under test is compared.

100
 Absolute Gain Method
• Friis transmission formula forms the basis for absolute gain
measurement. The Friis transmission formula expressed in
decibels is ;

• Consider two identical antennas placed in an elevated range

or inside a rectangular anechoic chamber which are properly
oriented and aligned such that (i) they are polarization
matched and (ii) main beams of the two antennas are aligned
with each other.
• With this arrangement, the gain in the direction of the
maximum can be measured. The gain in any other direction
can be computed from the radiation pattern.

101
 Absolute Gain Method 2
• Let 𝑅 be the separation between the two antennas chosen
such that the antennas operate in the far-field region.
• Let 𝜆 be the wavelength corresponding to the operating
frequency. A calibrated coupling network and a matched
receiver unit, as shown in Figure 1, are used to measure the
transmit and the receive powers 𝑃𝑡𝑑𝐵𝑚 and 𝑃𝑟𝑑𝐵𝑚
respectively. All the components are impedance matched
using tuners.

102
 Absolute Gain Method 3
• If the two antennas are identical, their gains are identical and
above equation can be written as –

• and hence the gain of the antennas can be calculated.

• Since this method uses two antennas, it is known as two-
antenna method for gain measurement.
• In the absence of two identical antennas, a third antenna is
required to measure the gain. This is known as a three-
antenna method of gain measurement

103
 Gain Transfer Method
• The gain of the test antenna is measured by comparing with
a standard gain antenna, of which the gain is known
accurately.
• The test antenna is illuminated by a plane wave with its
polarization matched to the transmitting antenna. The
received power into a matched load, 𝑃r𝑇𝑑𝐵 is then
measured. Let 𝐺𝑇 dB be the gain of the test antenna.
• From Friis formula ;

104
 Gain Transfer Method 2
• The gain of the test antenna can be calculated by subtracting
the above two equations –

• It is important that the polarization of the test antenna and

the standard gain antenna need to be identical to each other
and this should be matched with the polarization of the
transmitter.
• Both antennas should be impedance matched to the receiver.
This method is used to measure the gain of a linearly
polarized antenna.

105
 Gain Transfer Method 3
• The gain of a circularly polarized antenna can also be
measured using a linearly polarized standard gain antenna.
• Since a circularly polarized wave can be decomposed into
two orthogonal linear components, we can use a linearly
polarized antenna to measure the gains of each of these
components and then the total gain is obtained by combining
the two.

106
 Topic 11

Antenna Measurements –
Directivity

107
 Procedure for Measurement
• Sometimes it is found that the directivity of the antenna
cannot be calculated using the analytical techniques alone.
• So the directivity can be obtained from the radiation pattern
of the antenna. The following procedure is considered ;
– Measure the two principal 𝐸- and 𝐻-plane patterns of the
test antenna.
– Determine the half-power beamwidths (in degrees) of the
𝐸- and 𝐻-plane patterns.
– Compute the directivity using the formula

where 𝜃𝐻𝑃 and 𝜙𝐻𝑃 are the half-power beamwidths (HPBW)

in the two principal planes,. 108
Computation

109
 Topic 12

Antenna Measurements –
Polarization

110
 Polarization pattern method
• Polarization Pattern Method : This method can be used to
measure the AR and the tilt angle 𝜏 of the polarization ellipse
but not the sense of polarization as shown in Figure 1.
• The test antenna is connected as the source antenna while a
linearly polarized antenna such as a dipole antenna is used
to receive the power at different rotation angles.
• The square root of the received power plotted against the
rotation angle ψ indicate the AR and title 𝜏.

111
Fig 2 / Polarization Pattern Method

112
 Topic 13

Antenna Measurements – VSWR

113
 VSWR
• The input characteristics of an antenna such as the input
impedance 𝑍𝐴 can be measured by a network analyzer.
• The advantage of a network analyzer is its ability to measure
both the magnitude and the phase of the power received.
• Reflection Coefficient Measurement: The reflection
coefficient 𝜌(or 𝑆11) of an antenna can be obtained from its
input impedance measurement.

• VSWR Measurement: The VSWR of an antenna can be

obtained from its reflection coefficient measurement.

114
 UNIT – V
PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES
 Topic 1

Modes of Propagation
• Electromagnetic Waves generated by the radiated power
from the current carrying conductor.
• In conductors, a part of the generated power escapes and
propagates into free space in the form of Electromagnetic
wave, which has a time-varying electrical field, magnetic
field, and direction of propagation orthogonal to each
other.
• Radiated from an isotropic transmitter, these wave
travels through different paths to reach the receiver.
• The path taken by the wave to travel from the transmitter
and reach the receiver is known as Wave Propagation.
• The mode of propagation of electromagnetic waves in the
atmosphere and in free space may be divided in to the
following three categories −
• Line of sight (LOS) propagation
• Ground wave propagation
• Sky wave propagation
• In ELF (Extremely low frequency) and VLF (Very
low frequency) frequency bands, the Earth, and
the ionosphere act as a wave guide for
electromagnetic wave propagation.
• In these frequency ranges, communication
signals practically propagate around the world.
• The channel band widths are small.
• Therefore, the information is transmitted
through these channels has slow speed and
confined to digital transmission.
FACTORS INVOLVED IN RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
Radio wave or electromagnetic wave when travels from
transmitter to receiver, many factors influence the
propagation of wave.
Some of the important factors are as follows:
• Characteristics of earth such as conductivity,
permittivity, permeability.
• Curvature of the earth, magnetic field of the earth,
roughness of the earth.
• Frequency of operation.
• Height and polarization of transmitting antenna and
transmitter power.
• Characteristics of ionospheric regions.
• Distance between transmitter and receiver.
• Refractive index and permittivity of troposphere and
ionospheric regions.
 Topic 2

Structure of Atmosphere
Structure of Atmosphere
• In the radio wave propagation, the earth's
environment between the transmitting and
receiving antennas play very important role.
• The atmosphere of the earth mainly consists of
three regions namely
– Troposphere
– Stratosphere
– Ionosphere
• In 1925, Sir Edward Appleton showed that
propagation of the radio waves at high frequencies
is greatly supported by the upper part of the
atmosphere of the earth.
 Structure of Troposphere
• This is the nearest region in the atmosphere from
the earth's surface and is around 10 𝑘𝑚 to 20 𝑘𝑚
above the earth's surface.
• But the height of the troposphere region slightly
varies at the poles and the equators. Its height is
least at the poles while maximum at the equators.
• The gas components in the troposphere remain
almost constant in percentage with increase in
height. But the water vapour components
drastically decrease with increasing height.
• The significant property of the tropospheric
region is that temperature decreases with
increase in the height.
• The troposphere is also called region of
change. At a certain height called critical
height above troposphere, the temperature
remains constant for narrow region and then
increases afterwards.
• This region between the top of troposphere
and the beginning of the stratosphere is called
tropopause.
 Structure of Stratosphere
• The region between 20 𝑘𝑚 to 50 𝑘𝑚 above the
earth's surface is called region of calm or
stratosphere.
• It is dense part of the atmosphere. It absorbs
UV rays because of the presence of Ozone
layer.
• The stratosphere has relatively little effect on
radio waves because it is calm region with little
or no temperature changes.
 Structure of Ionosphere
• The radiation from the space, in particular that
from the sun, ionizes the gas molecules present in
the atmosphere.
• The ionized layer that extends from about 50 𝑘𝑚
above the surface of the earth to several thousand
kilometers is known as the ionosphere.
• At great heights from the surface of the earth the
intensity of the ionizing radiation is very high, but
there are very few molecules to be ionized.
• Therefore, in this region the ionization density
(number of electrons or ions per unit volume) is
low.
• As the height is decreased, atmospheric
pressure increases, which implies that more
molecules are present in the atmosphere.
• Therefore, the ionization density increases
closer to the surface of the earth.
• With further reduction in height, though the
number of molecules keeps increasing, the
ionization density reduces because the energy in
the ionizing radiation has been used up or
absorbed to create ions.
• Therefore, the ionization density has a maximum
that exists neither at the surface of the earth nor at
the outer periphery of the ionosphere, but
somewhere in the middle i.e., between 50 𝑘𝑚 to
400 𝑘𝑚.
• It has been observed that the electron density
profile (electron density versus height), has regions
of maxima as well as regions of constant density
(Fig.2). These regions are known as layers of the
ionosphere.
• There are mainly three layers in the ionosphere
designated by the letters 𝐷, 𝐸, and 𝐹. The 𝐹 layer
splits into separate layers 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 during day
time.
• The 𝐹 layer is also called as Appleton layer and it
is ionized during day time as well as night time.
• The 𝐸 layer is also called as Kennelly-Heaviside
layer.
• The 𝐷 layer, which is present only during the day
time, does not reflect high frequency
electromagnetic waves (2 − 30 𝑀𝐻𝑧), but
attenuates the waves passing through it.
• Even though the 𝐷 layer reflects lower
frequency waves (< 1 𝑀𝐻𝑧), due to the high
absorption of the electromagnetic energy by
the 𝐷 layer, the utility of the reflected waves is
limited.
• The 𝐸 and 𝐹 layers, which are present during
both day and night times, make long distance
communication possible by reflecting radio
waves in the frequency range of 2−30 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
Radio waves above 30 𝑀𝐻𝑧 pass through the
ionosphere.
• Along with the E layer, there exists the 𝐸𝑠 layer
which has very high ionization density.
• This is known as sporadic E layer and it exists
during night time also.
• It is not important layer from the point of view
of long distance communication. But it provides
sometime better reception during night.
• The region lower to D region, where peak of
the electron density is called C layer.
• The region at height 400 𝑘𝑚 above the earth's
surface is called 𝐺 region.
• Even though the upper limit of the ionosphere
is not exactly known, the outer atmosphere is
nothing but 𝐺 region which consists of the
charge particles trapped by the terrestrial
magnetic field having shape similar to that of
the magnetic lines of force.
• This region is occupied by the radiation belts
girdling the earth.
• The number of layers in the ionosphere, their
heights and the amount of sky wave that can
bend by them will vary from day to day, month
to month and year to year.
• For each layer there is a critical frequency,
above which if radio wave is sent vertically
upward, will not return back to the earth, but
will penetrate it
 Topic 3

Ground Wave Propagation

 GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION
• The waves, which while traveling, glide over the
earth's surface are called ground waves.
• The ground wave is also called surface wave as the
wave passes over the surface of the earth.
• Ground waves are always vertically polarized
(produced by vertical antennas) .
• The vertical antennas are the antennas in which
the electromagnetic waves are vertically polarized
i.e., electric field vectors of electromagnetic waves
are vertical with respect to ground.
• Any horizontal component of the electric field
vectors in contact with the ground gets short
circuited.
• When the ground waves propagate along the
surface of the earth, the charges are induced on
the earth's surface.
• The number and polarity of these charges keep
on changing with the intensity and location of
the wave field.
• This variation causes the constitution of a
current.
• In carrying this current, the earth behaves like
a leaky capacitor.
• As the wave travels over the surface, it gets
weakened due to absorption of some of its
energy.
• This absorption, in fact, is the power loss in the
earth's resistance due to the flow of current.
• This energy loss is partly replenished by the
diffraction of energy, downward, from the
portion of the wave present some what above
the immediate surface of the earth. This
process is shown in Fig.
• The earth’s attenuation increases as frequency
increases. So this mode of propagation is suitable
for low and medium frequency i.e., upto 2 𝑀𝐻𝑧
only.
• It is also called as medium wave propagation. All
the broadcast signals received during day time is
due to ground wave propagation.
• Along with the ground attenuation, the ground
waves or surface waves are suffered due to the
diffraction and tilt in the wave front.
• As the ground wave propagates over a surface of
the earth, the wave front gradually tilts more and
more. As the wave front tilts more and more, the
more electric field component gets short circuited.
• Hence the strength of the signal gradually
decreases with increase in the tilt.
• At a particular distance from the transmitter,
the ground wave completely dies due to the
attenuation as a result of more and more tilt of
the wave front.
• The phenomenon of wave tilting in successive
wave front is shown in below Fig. in which 𝑇1,
𝑇2, 𝑇3, 𝑇4 and 𝑇5 are the tilting angles in
increasing order and 𝑊1, 𝑊2, 𝑊3, 𝑊4 and 𝑊5
wave fronts.
In general, surface of the earth is considered to
be a plane if the distance between the
transmitters and the receiver is less than the
minimum barrier distance 𝑑 given by expression
;
 Salient Features of Ground Wave Propagation
• The ground waves propagate along the surface of
the earth.
• When the ground waves propagate along the
surface of the earth, the charges are induced on
the surface of the earth. These charges travel
along the wave and hence the current gets
induced.
• While carrying induced current, the earth acts as a
leaky capacitor.
• The ground waves are produced in vertically
polarized antennas which are placed very close to
surface of the earth.
• The ground waves are important at broadcast
and lower frequencies. These can be used up
to 2 MHz.
• According to the characteristics of the earth,
the strength of ground wave varies. These
waves are not affected by the changes in the
atmospheric conditions.
• The variations in surface or type of the earth
affect propagation losses considerably.
• The maximum range of ground wave
propagation depends -on the frequency and
power of the transmitter.
 Topic 4

Sky Wave Propagation

 SKY WAVE PROPAGATION
• The sky wave propagation is very important
from the point of view of long distance radio
communication.
• In this mode of propagation, the
electromagnetic waves reaching the destination
point first get reflected by the region of ionized
gases in the upper atmosphere region which is
situated between 50 𝑘𝑚 to 400 𝑘𝑚 above
earth's surface.
• Hence, this mode of wave propagation is called
ionospheric propagation.
• The ionosphere acts like a reflecting surface
and reflect back the electromagnetic waves of
frequencies between 2 𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 30 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
• Electromagnetic waves of frequency more than
30 𝑀𝐻𝑧 are not reflected back from
ionosphere but they penetrate it.
• This mode is most effective from the
frequencies between 2 𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 30 𝑀𝐻𝑧 ,
hence this mode is also commonly called short
wave propagation.
• With the sky wave propagation, a long
distance point to point communication is
possible.
• The main advantage of the sky wave
propagation is that the long distance
communication is possible with the help of
multiple reflections of the sky waves.
• But these signals are affected by fading in
which the strength of the signal varies with
time
 Characteristics of Ionosphere
1. Characteristics of 𝑫 layer
• It is the lowest layer of the ionosphere at a height of 50
𝑘𝑚 to 90 𝑘𝑚.
• Its thickness is about 10 𝑘𝑚.
• It exists only in day-time and disappears in night time.
• Its ionization properties depend on the altitude of the
sun above the horizon.
• It is not useful layer for HF communication.
• It reflects some VLF and LF waves.
• It absorbs MF and HF waves to some extent.
• Its electron density is 400 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑐𝑐.
• Critical frequency of the layer is 100 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
2. Characteristics of 𝑬 layer
• It exists next to 𝐷 layer at an average height of
100 𝑘𝑚.
• Its thickness is about 25 𝑘𝑚. It reflects some
HF waves in day-time.
• Its electron density is 5 × 105𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑐𝑐.
• Its critical frequency is 4 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
3. Characteristics of 𝑬𝒔 layer
• It is a sporadic E-Layer.
• Its appearance is sporadic in nature.
• It exists in both day and night.
• It is a thin layer and its ionization density is
high.
• It appears close to E-Layer.
• If it appears, it provides good reception.
• It is not a dependable layer for
communication.
4. Characteristics of 𝑭𝟏 layer
• It exists at a height of about 180 𝑘𝑚 in day-
time.
• Its thickness is about 20 km.
• It combines with 𝐹2 layer during nights.
• HF waves are reflected to some extent.
• It absorbs HF to a considerable extent.
• It passes on some HF waves towards 𝐹2 layer.
• Its critical frequency is 5 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
.
5. Characteristics of 𝑭𝟐 layer
• It is the most import layer for HF communication.
• Its average height is about 325 𝑘𝑚 in day-time.
• Its thickness is about 200 𝑘𝑚.
• It falls to a height of 300 km at nights as it
combines with the 𝐹1 layer.
• It is the topmost layer of the ionosphere.
• It is highly ionized and offers better HF reflection.
• Electron density is 2 × 106 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑐𝑐.
• Its critical frequency is 8 𝑀𝐻𝑧 in day time and 6
𝑀𝐻𝑧 at nights
 Topic 5

Space Wave Propagation

 SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION
• Space waves are useful in the frequency range
of 30 𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 300 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
• It is used in FM, TV and radar applications.
• In this propagation, wave propagates within
the troposphere.
• It is the lowest portion of the atmosphere.
• Space wave consists of two components i.e.
direct wave (line-of-sight, LOS) and indirect
wave.
• Even though, both the wave namely direct wave
and indirect wave are transmitted at the same
time, with same phase,
• at the receiving end they may reach in phase or
out of phase depending on the different path
lengths
• Thus at the receiving end, the signal strength is the
vector addition of the strengths of the direct and
indirect waves.
• When the two waves are in phase, the strength of
the signal at the receiver will be stronger.
• Similarly if the two waves are out of phase, the
strength of the signal at the receiver will be
weaker.
• The space wave propagation is mainly used in VHF
(Very High Frequency) band as both previous
modes namely ground wave propagation and sky
wave propagation both fail at very high
frequencies.
 Topic 6

Tropospheric Propagation
 TROPOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
• The tropospheric region extends from the
surface of the earth to a height of about 10
𝑘𝑚 at the poles and 18 𝑘𝑚 at the equator.
• The temperature of this region decreases
with height at the rate of about 6.5°C per
𝑘𝑚 and falls a minimum value about −52°C
at its upper boundary.
• In this region, the clouds are formed.
• Next to the troposphere, stratosphere exists.
• The propagation through the troposphere takes
place due to mechanisms such as diffraction,
normal refraction, abnormal reflection and
refraction and tropospheric scattering.
• In troposphere, slight bending of radio waves
occurs and causes signals to return to earth
beyond the geometric horizon.
• Troposphere bending is evident over a wide range
of frequencies, although it is most useful in the
VHF and UHF regions.
• Radio signals can be trapped in the troposphere,
travelling a longer distance than normal before
coming back to the earth surface.
• Instead of gradual changes in the atmospheric
conditions, sometimes distinct regions are
formed and regions that have significantly
different densities try to bend radio waves
passing between regions.
• However, in a non-homogeneous atmosphere
whose index of refraction decreases with
height, rays of sufficiently small initial elevation
angle are refracted downward with a curvature
proportional to the rate of decrease of the
index of refraction with height.
• Out of different mechanism of troposphere wave
propagation diffraction, abnormal reflection and
refraction, and troposphere scattering, the normal
refraction is the main mechanism for most of
troposphere propagation phenomenon.
• The dielectric constant (hence refractive index) of
the atmosphere which varies above the earth and
set mostly by the moisture contains is a primary
factor in the troposphere refraction.
• When the wave passes between mediums of
different densities, its path bends by an amount
proportional to the difference in densities.
• Especially, at UHF and microwaves two cases of
tropospheric propagation are observed.
 Topic 7

Tropo-scatter Propagation
 TROPOSCATTER PROPAGATION
• Troposcatter is a mechanism by which propagation is
possible by the scatter and diffracted rays.
• The scattering takes place in the tropospheric region.
• This mode of propagation occurs in VHF, UHF and
microwave band.
• UHF and microwaves signals were found to be
propagated much beyond the line of sight propagation
through the forward scattering in the tropospheric
irregularities.
• This mechanism helps to get unexpectedly large field
strengths at the receivers even when they are is shadow
zone.
• It is possible to achieve a very reliable communication
over a range of 160 km to 1600 km by using high power
transmitter and high gain antennas.
• The tropospheric scattering phenomenon can
be used to establish a communication link over
a distance much beyond the radio horizon.
• The troposphere can scatter electromagnetic
waves due to its in-homogenous nature.
• The tropospheric scattering has been attributed
to the blobs of refractive index changes and
turbulence.
• These could be due to sudden changes in the
temperature or humidity or the presence of
dust particles.
• Waves passing through such turbulent regions
get scattered. When 𝝀 is large compared to the
size of the turbulent eddies, waves scatter in all
the directions.
• When 𝝀 is small compared to these
irregularities then most of the scattering takes
place within a narrow cone surrounding the
forward direction of propagation of the
incident radiation.
• When the wavelength is small (frequency is
high) than the eddies, forward scattering
dominates into the cone of angle 𝜶. The angle
𝜶 should be very small.
• To receive scattered signal at a point well
beyond the horizon, the transmitting and
receiving antennas must be of high gain and
must be so oriented that their beams overlap in
a region where forward scattering is taking
place.
• The scattering angle should also be as small as
possible. This process is shown in Fig.
• Since the scattering process is of random nature,
the scattered signals continuously fluctuate in
amplitude and phase over a wide range.
• Troposcatter can be used to establish
communication links in the UHF and microwave
frequency bands.
• These links typically have a range of up to a
thousand kilometers and can have bandwidths of a
few 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
• Troposcatter links can be used in multi-channel
telephony and television applications.
 Features Of Troposcatter Propagation
• It is useful for propagation in the range of 100
𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 10 𝐺𝐻𝑧.
• It produces undesirable noise and fading which
may be minimized to certain extent by diversity
reception.
• The field strength received is usually on the order
of 𝑑1/7 or 𝑑1/8 where d is the distance between
the transmitter and receiver.
• Since the signal strength is very weak, high gain
antennas are required for reception.
• The propagation exhibits seasonal variation.
• The forward scatter propagation is useful for point
to point communications and radio or television
relay links.
 Topic 8

Duct Propagation
 DUCT PROPAGATION
• The VHF, UHF and microwave frequencies are
the frequencies which are neither propagated
along the surface of the earth nor reflected by
ionosphere.
• But in the troposphere region, the high
frequency waves are refracted and
transmission takes far beyond line-of-sight
(LOS) distance.
• An atmosphere where the dielectric constant is
assumed to decrease uniformly with height to
value equal to unity at which air density is
supposed to be zero is commonly called normal
atmosphere or standard atmosphere.
• There are different air regions or layers one above
other with different temperatures and water
vapour contents.
• In one of the regions, there is a region where
𝑑𝑁/𝑑ℎ is negative. In this region, the curvature
along which the radio waves pass is slightly greater
than that of the earth.
• Due to this, the wave originally directed almost
parallel to the surface of the earth gets trapped
in such regions.
• The energy originating in this region propagates
around curved surfaces in the form of series of
hops with successive reflections from the earth
as shown in the below Fig.
• This phenomenon is called super refraction or
duct propagation. Two boundaries of surfaces
between two air layers form a duct which guide
the radio waves between walls i.e. boundaries.
• The concepts like line of sight and diffraction
cannot be applied when the wave propagates
through duct and it is found that the energy
travels high distances round the earth without
much attenuation.
• The concept of wave trapping can be considered as a
phenomenon similar to wave guide.
• But the main difference between waveguide and duct
propagation is that in wave guide all the modes are
confined within guide only.
• But in case of duct propagation, part of energy within
duct may escape to the space as shown in the below Fig.
• There is a limit on the wavelength of the signal of
maximum value 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 to be trapped in duct.
• It is the maximum wavelength for which the duct
propagation holds good. If the wavelength of the signal
exceeds the value 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥, then duct effect vanishes
almost completely. The value of 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 is given by,
• In general, the duct height ℎ𝑑 ranges from 10 to
hundreds of meters.
• While the Δ𝑁 value is typically 50 units. So
considering these values, the phenomenon of
duct propagation is found mostly in UHF (ultra
high frequency) and microwave frequency
regions.
• Moreover the duct propagation is possible only if
height of transmitting antenna is less than that of
duct height.
• If the transmitting antenna exists considerably
above duct, there is comparatively less effect of
presence of duct on the signal either inside or
above duct.
Characteristic Parameters of
Ionospheric Propagation
 Topic 9

Critical Frequency
• The critical frequency for the ionized layer of the
ionosphere is defined as the highest frequency that can
be reflected back to the earth by a particular layer for a
vertical incidence. It is denoted by 𝑓𝑐𝑟. Note that the
critical frequency is different for different layers.
• Let us assume that the ionosphere is lossless, has a
relative permeability of unity and can be modeled as
plane stratified media in the Figure.
• The wave path can be predicted using Snell's law
• √𝜖𝑟0 sin 𝜃0 = √𝜖𝑟1 sin 𝜃1 = ⋯ = √𝜖𝑟𝑛 sin 𝜃𝑛 - ---- (5.9)
• where 𝜃0 is the angle of incidence with respect to the
normal and 𝜃1is the angle of refraction at the lower
edge of the ionosphere.
• At the next interface between layers having dielectric
constants 𝜖𝑟1 and 𝜖𝑟2, the angle of incidence is 𝜃1and
the angle of refraction is 𝜃2. At the lower edge of the
ionosphere the electron density is zero and hence
𝜖𝑟0=1. Therefore, the equation representing Snell's law
reduces to ;
• sin 𝜃0 = √𝜖𝑟𝑛 sin 𝜃𝑛 ------ (5.10)
• The relative dielectric constant is a function of the
electron density 𝑁. As the electromagnetic wave
propagates deeper into the ionosphere, it passes
through a region of higher 𝑁 into a region of lower
• For a given angle of incidence 𝜃0 = 𝜃𝑖, if 𝑁 increases to a
level such that the angle of refraction, 𝜃𝑛 = 90°, the wave
becomes horizontal.
• Under this condition Eqn. (5.10) reduces to
• sin 𝜃𝑖 = √𝜖𝑟𝑛 -------- (5.11)
• Let the dielectric constant of the nth layer be 𝜖𝑟𝑛 = 𝜖𝑟.
Therefore , the refractive index of ionosphere can be
defined by
 Topic 10

Virtual Height
 Virtual Height
Definition:
When a wave is refracted, it is bent down
gradually, but not sharply. However, the path of
incident wave and reflected wave are same if it is
reflected from a surface located at a
greater height of this layer. Such a
greater height is termed as virtual height.

• Consider an electromagnetic wave from a

transmitter reaching the receiver after being
reflected by the ionosphere as shown in below Fig.
• Let the wave enter the ionosphere at 𝐿, and take a
curved path 𝐿𝑀𝑁 before it emerges out of the
ionosphere.
• The height at a point above the surface at
which the wave bends down to the earth is
called actual height or true height.
• If the incident and the reflected rays are
extended, they meet at point 𝑂 as shown in Fig.
i.e., it is more convenient to think of the wave
being reflected rather than refracted. So the
path can be assumed to be straight lines.
• The vertical height from the ground to the
point 𝑂 is known as the virtual height of the
ionized layer and it is not true height.
• An ionosonde is the instrument used to
measure the virtual height of the ionosphere.
• This instrument transmits an 𝑅𝐹 pulse
vertically into the ionosphere from the ground.
This pulse is reflected from the ionosphere and
is received by the ionosonde.
• The time delay between the transmit and the
receive pulse is measured and plotted as a
function frequency of the electromagnetic
wave.
• The time 𝑇 duration required for the round trip
is noted and then virtual height is determined
by using ;
• ℎ = 𝑐 𝑇 /2
where ; ℎ = virtual height , 𝑐 = velocity of light
(𝑚/𝑠) and 𝑇 = time period (𝑠).
• As the frequency of the electromagnetic wave
increases, the virtual height also increases
slightly, indicating that the waves of higher
frequencies are returned from higher levels
within the layer.
• As the frequency approaches the critical
frequency (5 𝑀𝐻𝑧 for the 𝐹1layer), the virtual
height steeply increases.
• Once the critical frequency is crossed, the
virtual height drops back to a steady value
(350 𝑘𝑚 for 5.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧) which is higher than
that for a lower frequency (200 𝑘𝑚 for 4 MHz).
• If the incidence angle is greater than 𝜃𝑖, the wave
returns to the earth. For a given angle of incidence,
higher frequency electromagnetic waves are
reflected from the region having a higher value of 𝑁.
• Consider an electromagnetic wave launched
vertically into the ionosphere having a maximum
electron density 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥. Substituting 𝜃𝑖 = 0 in Eqn.
(5.13), the highest frequency that gets reflected is
given by
• 𝑓𝑐𝑟 = √81𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 -------- (5.14)
• which is known as the critical frequency.
 Topic 11

Maximum Usable Frequency

(MUF)
• The critical frequency is the maximum frequency reflected
back to the earth by the ionosphere for the vertical
incidence. If the frequency of the radio wave exceeds the
critical frequency 𝑓𝑐𝑟 , then the path of propagation in the
ionosphere layer depends on the angle of incidence.
• Maximum usable frequency is defined as the limiting
maximum frequency that can be reflected back to the
earth by the ionospheric layer for a specific angle of
incidence other than the angle of incidence for vertical
incidence. It is denoted by 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹.
• The maximum usable frequency 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 can also be defined
as the maximum frequency that can be used for the sky
wave propagation for specific distance between two points
on the earth.
• Thus 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 is the highest frequency used for the sky wave
communication and for each pair of points on the globe,
the value of 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 will be different. Generally the value of
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 ranges between 8 𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 35 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
For any other angle of incidence, the highest frequency
that can be reflected from the ionosphere will be
greater than the critical frequency. The highest
frequency that gets reflected by the ionosphere for a
given value of angle of critical incidence (say 𝜃𝑚), is
known as the maximum usable frequency, 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹.
 The expression that relates the critical frequency and the
angle of incidence to the maximum usable frequency ;
• 𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 = 𝑓𝑐𝑟 sec 𝜃𝑚 -------- (5.20)
• For example, if the critical frequency is
9 𝑀𝐻𝑧 ,the maximum usable frequency
corresponding to an angle of incidence of 45° is 12.73
𝑀𝐻𝑧.
 Topic 12

Skip Distance
• The skip distance is the shortest distance from the
transmitter, measured along the surface of the earth,
at which a sky wave of fixed frequency will return back
to the earth.
• The angle of incidence for which the wave returns
back to the earth at minimum distance from the
transmitter , i.e., at the skip distance is called angle of
critical incidence.
• Assume that the ionosphere can be modeled as a flat
reflecting surface at a height ℎ (virtual height) from
the surface of the flat earth.
• Consider the frequency of the transmitted wave is
kept constant and the angle of critical incidence, 𝜃𝑚 ,.
• For launch angles, 𝜃𝑖 < 𝜃𝑚 , the waves are received
beyond point 𝑅. For 𝜃𝑖 > 𝜃𝑚, the ionosphere cannot
reflect the waves back .
• Let the wave launched at 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑚 reach the surface of
the earth at 𝑅, at a distance of 𝐷𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝 from the
transmitter. The distance 𝐷𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝 is known as the skip
distance.
• In the region of radius less than 𝐷𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝, it is not possible
to establish a communication link by the waves
reflected from the ionosphere.
• To derive an expression for the skip distance in terms of
the critical frequency and the maximum usable
frequency by considering the ∆𝐷𝑂𝑇 in Fig. 5.15.
 Topic 13

Optimum Working Frequency

(OWF)
• For the ionospheric propagation, it is desirable to use as
high a frequency as possible. This clearly points out that the
frequency used for the ionospheric transmission should be
the maximum usable frequency i.e. MUF.
• But MUF depends upon the distance between the
transmitter and the receiver and also upon the state of
ionosphere. It is observed that due to the daily continuous
changes and irregularities in the ionosphere, the MUF
varies about 15% of its maximum value. Hence practically
the frequency used should be 15% less than the value of
MUF.
• Thus the frequency normally used for the ionospheric
propagation is known as optimum working frequency. The
optimum working frequency between the transmitter and
the receiver for the ionospheric transmission is defined as
the frequency laying between 50% to 85 % of the predicted
MUF between the transmission and the reception points.
• It is observed that the maximum usable frequency at a
particular location varies considerably with time of the day,
from season to season and from months to months.
• As the optimum working frequency is selected as the
fraction of the maximum usable frequency, the OWF also
varies in the similar way as the maximum usable frequency
varies.
• Practically it is not at all possible to change the frequency
of the signal propagated from hour to hour. Hence for the
propagation of wave, two frequencies are used namely
one for the day time, while other for the night time.
• Sometimes it is preferred to have a third frequency even
during the transition period from the day time to night
time. It is observed that in the night time vertical height of
the ionospheric layer increases as compared to that during
the day time. Thus the skip distance also increases. It is
illustrated in the Fig. 5-16.
• As we have studied that, the wave with lower frequency is
bent more quickly as compared to the wave with higher
frequency. Hence the increase in the skip distance during
night time is cancelled by using lower frequency during
night time.
Topic 14

Fading
 FADING
• Fading is basically the undesirable variation in the
intensity of the signal received at the receiver.
• Hence the fading is defined as the fluctuations in the
received signal strength caused due to variations in
height and density of the ionization in different layers.
• Basically the fading is the common characteristic of the
high frequency short wave propagation i.e. sky wave
propagation.
• At receiver, the strength of the signal received is the
vector sum of the waves received.
• Because the waves leave from transmitter at same time
but reach at the receiver through different paths.
• So the fading is caused due to interference between two
waves of different path lengths.
Various types of fading are as follows.
1. Selective Fading
• It is more dominant at high frequencies for which
sky propagation is used.
• The selective fading produces serious distortion of
modulated signal.
• Due to the selective fading, the amplitude
modulated signals are seriously affected.
• The AM signal are more distorted due to the
selective fading rather than SSB signals.
• Hence to reduce the selective fading Exalted
carrier reception and single side band system can
be used
2. Interference Fading
• As name indicates, it is the fading produced
because of upper and lower rays of the sky wave
interfering with each other. This is the most
serious fading.
• It is also produced due to the interference
between a ground wave and a sky wave or
between sky waves reaching receiver by different
paths or different number of hops.
• For a single sky wave frequency, interference
fading takes place due to the fluctuations in the
height of the ionospheric layer or due to the
variation in the ionic density of the layer.
• As ionosphere is subjected to the continuous
small variations. Because of this, the length of
the path that the reflected wave follows also
undergoes small variations.
• Thus the relative phase of the wave reaching
receiver varies randomly.
• Because of these conditions, the amplitude of
the resultant also varies continuously which is
nothing but the interference fading.
• This can be minimized by using space diversity
or frequency diversity reception.
3. Absorption Fading
• This type of fading occurs due to the
variations of single strength with the different
amount of absorption of waves absorbed by
the transmitting medium.
4. Polarization Fading
• When the sky wave reaches after the reflection,
the state of polarization is constantly changing.
• The polarization of the sky wave coming down
changes because of the superposition of the
ordinary and extra ordinary waves (which are
having random amplitudes and phases) which are
oppositely polarized.
• Thus the polarization of the wave changes
continuously with respect to antenna, which
gives rise to the variations in the amplitude at the
receiver. Such type of fading is called polarization
fading.
5. Skip Fading
• At distances near the skip range or skip zone, the
fading occurs which is called skip fading.
• Due to the variations in the height and the density
of the ionized layer, the point at which the wave
can be received moves in or out of the skip zone.
• Thus due to this the amplitude at the receiver also
varies producing skip fading near the skip range.
• The minimize the fading, the most common
method is to use automatic volume control (AVC
or AGC), in the receiver.
 Topic 15

Multi-hop Propagation
• Let us now consider the transmit and receive antennas
located on the surface of the spherical earth. The
ionosphere is modeled as a spherical reflecting surface at
a virtual height ℎ from the surface of the earth [Fig. 5.17
(a)].
• A wave launched at a grazing angle 𝜓 from point A gets
reflected by the ionosphere (provided 𝜃𝑖 > 𝜃𝑚) and
reaches the surface of the earth at C.
• If the earth is a good reflector, the wave can undergo
multi-hops and thus can establish communication
between the points A and E in addition to that between A
and C.
 Applications
• In fact waves have applications in almost every
field of everyday life – from wireless
communications to detecting over-speeding
vehicles, from the music of guitar to laser –
almost every aspect of our everyday life in some
way involves wave.