Fourth Edition

SC EIE
S oCIoRES
DISCRETE STRUCTURES
 DISCRETE
STRUCTURES
For

B. Tech. and M. C.A. Courses

By
Dr SATINDER BAL GUPTA Dr C.P. GANDHI
B.Tech., (CSE), MCA, UeC-NET, Ph.D (CS) Ph.D (Mathematics), UeC-NET
Prof. Deptt. of Computer Science & Applications Associate Professor; Deptt. of Mathematics,
Vaish College of Engineering, Rohtak, Rayat & Bahra Institute of Engineering
Haryana. & Bio-Technology, Kharar,
Email :[email protected] Chandigarh.

Email :[email protected]

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DISCRETE STRUCTURES

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 PREFACE TO THE FORTH EDITION

"Discrete Structures" primarily meant for B.Tech. and M.C.A. students of various
Indian Universities, has been written by taking into consideration the students' capability of
solving the mathematical as well as graphical problems in a systematic and logical manner.
The authors have certainly left no stone unturned in presenting the subject matter in a
comprehensive and lucid way.
The various topics like
• Basic Counting Principles
• Inclusion· Exclusion Principle
• Equivalence Relations and Partitions
• Recurrence Relations and their Solutions by Generating Functions
• Permutation and Symmetric Group
• Direct Products of Groups
• Dihedral Groups
• Applications of Groups in Coding Theory
• Rings
• Applications of Boolean Algebra in Logic Circuits and Switching Designs
• Applications of Graphs and Trees in Computer Science,
have been explained in an explanatory and methodological way. Further, the MCQs have also
been provided at the end of the concerned chapters. This book gives an inkling of the capability
of the authors and confirms that the authors must have been successful teachers.
Errors or misprints, if any, are unintentional and regretted. Any suggestion/
recommendation for improvement of the subject matter of the book, are invited.

Dr. C.P. Gandhi

Dr. Satinder Bal Gupta

(v)
 CONTENTS

Chapters Pages

1. Sets ............................................................................................................ 1-49

1 . 1. Introduction . 1
1.2. Set Formation .................. ................. ................. ................ ................. ................. 1
1.3. Standard Notations ................ ................. ................. ................ ................. 1
1. 4. Kinds of Sets .................................... ................. ................ ................. ................. ..... 2
1. 5. Operation on Sets .............................. ................. ................ ................. ..................... 4
1. 6. Algebra of Sets ................................................... ................ ................. ............... ....... 5
1. 7. (a) Principle of Duality for Sets ........................ ................. ................. ................ 10
1. 7. (b) Cardinality of a Set ...................................... ................ ................ ................. 11
1.8. Cartesian Product of Two Sets ............................ ................. ................ .................. 12
1.9. Partitions of Sets and Venn-diagrams ................ ................. ................. ................. 28
1. 10. Venn -diagrams ...................................................................................... .............. ..... 28
1 . 1 1. Cross Partition ..................................................................................... ............... ..... 28
1. 12. Enumerable or Denumerable or Countably Infinite Set .................... .............. ..... 42
1. 13. Countable Set .......................................................................................... .................. 42
1. 14. Uncountable Set or Uncountably Infinite Set .................. ................. ................. 42
....

1. 15. Fundamental Product ......................................................... ................ ............... ..... 42

1. 15. (a) Minsets or Minterms .................. ................. ................ ................. .............. ..... 43
1. 15. (b) Minset Normal Form .................. ................. ................ ................. .............. ..... 43
1. 16. Maxsets or Maxterms ......................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 43
2. Relations ................................................................................................. 50-89
2.1. Introduction ....................................... ................. ................. ................. .................. 50
2.2. Ordered Pair .................................... ................. ................ ................. ............... ..... 50
2.3. Cartesian Product of Sets ................ ................ ................. ................ ............... ..... 50
2.4. Relation (or Binary Relation) ........................... ... ................. ................ .................. 50
2.5. Total Number of Relations ................................ ................ ................. .............. ..... 5 1
2.6. Domain and Range of a Relation ......................... ................. ................ .................. 5 1
2.7. Inverse Relation .................................................. ................. ................. .................. 5 1
2.8. Types of Relations ........................... ............... .. ................. ................ ............... ..... 5 1
2.9. Properties of Relations ..................... ................. ................ ................ ............... ..... 5 1
2. 10. Equivalence Relation ..................... .. ................ ................. ................ ............... ..... 53
2. 1 1. Compatible Relation ..................... .. ................. ................. ................ ............... ..... 54
2. 12. Partial Order Relation ..................... ................. ................ ................ ............... ..... 54
2. 13. Product of Sets ................................................... ................ ................. ............... ..... 54
(vii)
 (viii)

2. 14. Ternary Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .............. ..... 66

2. 16. Closure Properties of Relations ........................ ................. ........... ...... .............. ..... 66
2. 16. Composition of Relations ..................................... ................ ................. .................. 66
2. 17. Directed Graph or Digraph of a Relation .......................... ................. .............. ..... 67
2. 18. Equivalence Relations and Partitions ................................ ................ .............. ..... 78
2. 19. WarshalYs Algorithm to Find Transitive Closure .................................................... 81
3. Functions .............................................................................................. 90-127
3.1. Function 90
......................................................................................................................

3.2. Domain of a Function ......................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 91

3.3. Co·domain of a Function .................. ................. ................ ................. .............. ..... 91
3.4. Image of an Element ........................ ................ ................. ................ ............... ..... 91
3.6. Range of a Function or 1m (j) ............................... ................. ................ .................. 92
3.6. Description of a Function ..................................... ................ ................. .................. 92
3.7. (a) Everywhere Defined Function ..................... ................ ................. .............. ..... 93
3.7. (b) Graph of a Function ........................................ ................ ................. .................. 93
3.7. (c) Function as a Relation ................ ................ ................. ................ ............... ..... 94
3.8. Types of Functions .......................... ............... .. ................. ................ ............... ..... 96
3.9. Equal Functions ................................. ................ ................. ................. .................. 98
3. 10. (a) Identity Functions ........................ ................. ................ ................. .................. 98
3. 10. (b) Constant Function ..................... ................. ................. ................ ............... ..... 98
3. 1 1. Invertible (Inverse) Functions .............................................................. .................... 99
3. 12. Hashing Function .................................................................................... .................. 99
3. 13. Graphical Representation of One·one and Onto Functions .................... 109
3. 14. Composition of Functions ........................................................................ 1 14
3. 16. Inverse Function ............................................... ................. .................. ll6 .

3. 16. Method to Find the Inverse of a Bijection .. ll6

4*. Mathematical Induction .................................................................... 128-137
4.1. Principle of Mathematical Induction .. 128
4.2. Working Rule ...................................................... ................ .................. 128 .

4.3. Peano's axioms ................................. ................ ................. .................. 128 .

SA. Basic Counting Principles .............................................................. 138-166

6.1. Introduction ................. ................ ...................
....................................... 138
6.2. Basic Counting Principles ............... ................. ................ .................. . 138
6.3. Sum Rule ......................................... ................. ................. .................. . 138
6.4. Product Rule ..................................... ................ ................. .................. . 138
5B. Basic Counting Principles .............................................................. 142-166
6.6. Define Factorial n ............................. ................. ................ ................... 142
6.6. Permutation ............................................................................................. . 142
6.7. Permutation with Restrictions ............................................................... . 146
6.8. Permutations When All of the Objects are Not Distinct ...................... . 146
* Not meant for P,T,U, B.Tech, "Discrete Structures" (BTCS-302) Course,
 (ix)

5.9. Permutations with Repeated Objects ................ ................. .................. . 147

5. 10. Circular Permutations ....................................... ................. ................. . 148
5. 1 1. Combination ...................................... ................. ................ .................. . 152
5. 12. Pigeonhole Principle ......................... ................. ................ .................. . 155
5. 13. Extended Pigeonhole Principle 155
6. Inclusion-exclusion Principle ............................................................ 167-179
6.1. Inclusion--Bxclusion Principle 167
.................................................................

7. Recurrence Relations and Generating Functions ........................... 180-216

7.1. Introduction 180
..............................................................................................

7.2. Recurrence Relations ................. ................ ................ 180

.........................................

7.3. Order of a Recurrence Relation ......................... ................. ................. 180 .

7.4. (a) Degree of Recurrence Relation ...................... ................ .................. 180 .

7.4. (b) Linear Recurrence Relation .. 181

7.5. Formation of Recurrence Relations . 181
7.6. Linear Recurrence Relation of Order n with Constant Coefficients . 183
7.7. Homogeneous Linear Recurrence Relation of Order n.. 183
7.8. Characteristic Equation . 183
7.9. Algorithm for Solving Homogeneous Linear Recurrence Relation
of Order n with Constant Coefficients . 183
7. 10. Solution of Recurrence Relations by the Method of Substitution . 190
7. 1 1. Non-homogeneous Linear Recurrence Relation of Order n with Constant
Coefficient . 194
7. 12. Algorithm for Solving Non-homogeneous Linear Recurrence Relation of
Order n with Constant Coefficients . 194
7. 13. Generating Functions or Numeric Functions 205 .........................................................

7. 14. Generating Functions for Some Standard Sequences 207 ............................................

7. 15. Solution of Recurrence Relation by the Method of Generating Functions 207 ...........

8. Monoids and Groups .......................................................................... 217-313

8.1. Introduction ..................... ................. 217
................. ................ ................. .................

8.2. Algebraic Structure ................ 217

................ ................. ................ ..................

8.3. Binary Operation ................................................ 217 ................ ................. ..................

8.4. Tables of Operation ............................................ 218 ................. ................ ..................

8.5. Properties of Binary Operations 218

........................ ................. ................. .................

8.6. Semi-group 22 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. ................. ..................

8.7. Subsemi-group 225

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. ..................

8.8. Free semi-group .................................................................... 225 ................. .................

8.9. Congruent Relations and Quotient Structures 226 ..................................... .................

8.10. Homomorphism of semi-groups 230

............................................................ ..................

8. 1 1. Fundamental Theorem of Semi-group Homomorphism 232 ........................ ................

8. 12. Monoid 234

.................................................................................................... .................

8. 13. Submonoid 234

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. ................. ..................

8.14. Group .................................................................. 237 ................. ................. ..................

8. 15. Zm (The Integers Modulo m (m 2: 1» ................... ................ ................. ................. 241

 (x)

8.16. Finite and Infinite Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ................ ................. ................. 241

8. 17. (a) Order of a Group ......................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 241
8. 17. (b) Order of an Element ................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 241
8.18. Subgroup .......................................... ................. ................. ................. .................. 242
8.19. Abelian Group ....................................................................... ................. ................. 245
8.20. (a) Cosets ............................................................................. ................. .................. 252
8.20. (b) Coset Representative System for H in G ........................ ................ ................. 252
8.21. Index of a Subgroup ............................................................ ................. .................. 255
8.22. Normal Subgroup ............. ................ ................. ................ ................. ................. 255
8.23. Quotient Group ............... ................. ................. ................ ................. .................. 261
8.24. (a) Cyclic subGroup ................ ................ ................. ................ .................. 261
8.24. (b) Cyclic Group ................ ................ ................. ................ ................. ................. 261
8.25. Morphisms .................... . . ................ ................. ................. ................. .................. 266
8.26. Kernel ! ........................... ................ ................. ................. ................. .................. 266
8.27. Image ! ............................................. ................. ................. ................. .................. 266
8.28. Dihedral Group ................................. ................. ................ ................. .................. 276
8.29. Direct Product of Groups .................. ................. ................ ................. ................. 283
8.30. Basic Terminology ............................................................... ................. .................. 287
8.30. (a) Permutation .................................................................... ................. ................. 288
8.30. (b) Composition of Permutations in Array Form ............... ................. ................. 288
8.30. (c) Permutation as a Single Row .......................................... ................ ................. 289
8.30. (d) Orbit of a Permutation ................................. ................. ................ .................. 289
8.30. (e) Disjoint Permutations .................. ................. ................ ................. ................. 289
8.30. (j) Cyclic Permutations .................... ................. ................. ................ .................. 289
8.31. Multiplication of Cycles .................... ................. ................ ................ .................. 290
8.32. Properties of Permutations ............... ................. ................ ................. ................. 293
8.33. Even and odd permutations ............ ................. ................. ................ .................. 294
8.34. Symmetric Group ................................................ ................ ................. ................. 297
8.35. Alternating Group (A,) ....................................... ................. ................ .................. 302
8.36. Applications of Groups in Coding Theory ................ ................. ................. 304
8.37. Message .............................................................. ................. ................. .................. 304
8.38. Word ............................... . . ................. ................ ................. ................. ................. 304
8.39. Encoding Function ................. ................ ................. ................. .................. 304
8.40. Weight ............................ . . ................. ................ ................. ................. ................. 305
8.41. Parity Check Code ................. ................ ................. ................. .................. 305
8.42. Hamming Distance ................ ................. ................. ................ .................. 305
8. 43. Minimum Distance ........................... ................. ................. ................ .................. 306
8.44. Group Codes ...................................... ................. ................ ................. ................. 306
8.45. More Applications of Groups ............. ................ ................ ................. ................. 309
9. Rings ................................................................................................... 314-351
9.1. Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. 314
................ ................. ................. ..................

9.2. Commutative Ring ........................... ................ ................. ................. .................. 314

9.3. Ring with Unity ................................. ................. ................ ................. ................. 314
9.4. Finite and Infinite Ring ................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 315
 (xi)

9.5. (a) Ring with Zero Divisors ................................. ................ ................. ................. 315
9.5. (b) Ring Without Zero Divisors ........................... ................ ................. ................. 315
9.6. Ring of Integers Modulo m (m 2: 1) ..................... ................. ................ ................. 317
9.7. Boolean Ring ..................................................... ................. ................. .................. 319
9.8. Direct Product of Rings ..................... ................. ................ ................ .................. 320
9.9. Morphism of Rings ........................... ................. ................. ................ .................. 32 1
9.10. Subring ........................ . . . ................ ................. ................. ................. .................. 324
9. 1 1. Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. ................ ................. ................. ................. 326
9. 12. Integral Domain ............. ................. ................ ................. ................. .................. 328
9. 13. Field .............................. . . ................. ................ ................. ................. .................. 334
9.14. Gaussian Integers ................. ................ ................. ................. .................. 336
9. 14. Ideals ............................ . . ................. ................. ................. ................. .................. 341
9. 15. Sum of Ideals ....................................................................... ................. .................. 344
9.16. Quotient Ring ....................................................................... ................. ................. 345
9. 17. Fundamental Theorem of Ring Homomorphism ................ ................. ................. 345
9.18. Principal Ideal ..................................................................... ................. .................. 347
9.19. Principal Ideal Domain (P.LD.) ......................... ................. ................ .................. 347
9.20. Euclidean Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. ................. .................. 348
9.21. Associate ................................................................................................................... 349
10. Boolean Algebra ............................................................................... 352-446
10. 1. Partially Ordered Relation ...................................................................................... 352
10.2. Comparable Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. .................. 353
10.3. Non·Comparable Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. ................. 353
10.4. Linearly Ordered Set or Totally Ordered Set ...................... ................ ................. 353
10.5. Hasse Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. ................. 354
10.6. Lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. ................ ................. ................. ................. 361
10.7. Boolean Algebra ............... ................ ................. ................ ................. ................. 364
10.8. Unary Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ................ ................. ................. .................. 364
10.9. Binary Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ................ ................. .................. 364
10. 10. Boolean Algebra as a Lattice .............................. ................ ................. ................. 365
10. 1 1. Alternate Definition of Boolean Algebra ............. ................ ................ ................. 365
10.12. Boolean Sub·algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ................ ................. .................. 373
10. 13. Atoms of a Boolean Algebra ............ ................. ................. ................ .................. 374
10. 14. Isomorphic Boolean Algebras ................. ................. ................ .................. 378
10. 15. Representation Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ................ ................. ................ .................. 378
10. 16. Laws of Boolean Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. ................ .................. 379
10. 17. Principle of Duality ............................................ ................. ................ .................. 384
10. 18. Boolean Expression or Boolean Function ................ ................. ................. 388
10. 19. Literal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. ................. .................. 388
10.20. Fundamental Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ................ ................. .................. 388
10.21. Sum· of· Products form or SOP Form .................. ................ ................. ................. 388
10.22. Complete sum·of·Products form ........................ ................. ................. ................. 388
 (xii)

10.23. Minterm 391

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .................

10.24. BooLean Expansion Theorem ............................................................... .................. 392

10.25. Disjunctive Normal form or Sum-of-Products (or SOP) form ............... ................ 393
10.26. Conjunctive Normal form or Products of Sums (or POS) form ............. ................ 393
10.27. (a) Obtaining a Disjunctive Normal Form ............................................ ................. 393
10.27. (b) Obtaining a Conjunctive Normal Form ......................... ................. ................. 393
10.28. Prime Implicants ................................................................. ................. .................. 395
10.29. Karnaugh Map 395
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ ..................

10.30. Adjacent Fundamental Products 395

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ .................

10.31. Karnaugh Map for two Variables 396

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ ..................

10.32. Karnaugh Map for Three Variables 396

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ .................

10.33. Karnaugh Map for Four Variables 396

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ .................

10.34. Looping 397

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ ..................

10.35. Looping Groups of Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ 397

. . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ ..................

10.36. Looping Groups of Four ........................................................................................... 397

10.37. Looping Groups of Eigths ........................................................................................ 399
10.38. Karnaugh Map Method for Finding Prime Implicants and Minimal form for a Boolean
Expression ................................................................................................................. 400
10.39. Basic Rectangle for Three Variable k-map ........................................... ................. 401
10.40. Applications of Boolean Algebra to Switching Circuits ........................ ................ 410
10.41. Truth Table for the Switches Connected in Parallel ........................... ................. 4 1 1
10.42. Truth Table for the Switches connected in Series ............... ................. ................ 4 1 1
11 GRAPHS
_ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 447-524
1 1 . 1. Introduction ..................... ................. ................. ................ ................. ................. 447
11.2. Basic Terminology ............................ ................ ................. ................. .................. 447
1 l.3. Directed Graph ................................. ................. ................ ................. .................. 447
11.4. (a) Undirected Graphs ..................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 448
11.4. (b) Mixed Graph ................................ ................. ................ ................. ................. 449
11.4. (c) Finite Graph ............................ ..... ................. ................ ................. ................. 449
11.4. (d) Linear Graph .............................. ................ ................. ................. .................. 449
11.4. (e) Discrete or Null Graph ............... ................. ................ ................. .................. 449
11.5. Simple Graph .................................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 449
11.6. Complement Graph ........................... ................ ................. ................ .................. 449
11. 7. (a) Degree .......................................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 450
11. 7. (b) Indegree and Outdegree ............. ................. ................. ................ .................. 450
1 l.8. Source and Sink ................................ ................. ................ ................. ................. 450
11. 9. Even and Odd Vertex ........................ ................ ................. ................ .................. 450
11. 10. Adjacent Vertices ............................. ................. ................ ................. .................. 45 1
l l . l l. Path in a Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ 452
. . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ .................

11. 12. Undirected Complete Graph ............. ................ ................. ................. ................. 455
11. 13. Connected Graph .............................. ................. ................ ................. .................. 456
11. 14. Disconnected Graph ......................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 456
11. 15. Connected Component ..................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 456
11. 16. Subgraph .......................................... ................. ................. ................. .................. 457
 (xiii)

1 1. 17. (a) Spanning Subgraph ....................................... ................ ................ .................. 460

1 1. 17. (b) Complement of a Graph .............. ................. ................ ................. ................. 460
1 1. 17. (c) Complement of a Subgraph ................ ................ ................. ................. 461
1 1. 18. (a) Cut Set .......................................... ................. ................ ................. ................. 461
1 1. 18. (b) Cut Points or Cut Vertices ................ ................. ................. ................. 461
1 1. 19. Edge Connectivity ............................. ................. ................ ................. ................. 462
1 1.20. Bridge (Cut Edges) ........................... ................. ................. ................ .................. 465
1 1.21. Isomorphic Graphs ........................... ................. ................. ................ .................. 468
1 1.22. Order and Size of Graph ................... ................ ................. ................ .................. 470
1 1.23. Homeomorphic Graphs ...................................... ................. ................ .................. 470
1 1.24. Weakly Connected ............................................. ................. ................. .................. 47 1
1 1.25. Unilaterally Connected Digraph ................ ................. ................ ................. 47 1
1 1.26. Strongly Connected Digraph ........................... .. ................. ................. ................. 47 1
1 1.27. Disconnected Digraph ...................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 472
1 1.28. Directed Complete Graph ................ ................. ................ ................. .................. 472
1 1.29. Labelled Graphs ............................... ................ ................. ................. .................. 478
1 1.30. Weighted Graphs ............. ................ ................. ................ ................. .................. 479
11.31. Multiple Edges ................................. ................ ................. ................. .................. 479
1 1.32. Multigraph ....................................... ................. ................. ................. .................. 479
1 1.33. Traversable Multigraphs .................. ................. ................ ................. ................. 480
1 1.34. Representation of Graphs ................ ................. ................ ................. .................. 480
1 1.35. Other Important Graphs ................... ................ ................. ................ .................. 487
1 1.36. Euler Path (or Chain) ........................ ................ ................. ................ .................. 489
1 1.37. Euler Circuit (or Cycle) ..................... ................. ................ ................ .................. 489
1 1.38. Euler Graph ....................................... ................. ................ ................. ................. 490
11.39. Fleury's Algorithm ............................................ ................. ................. .................. 491
11.40. Hamiltonian Path (or Chain) ............. ................ ................ ................. ................. 492
1 l.41. Hamiltonian Circuit (Or Cycle) ............................................................................... 492
11.42. Hamiltonian Graph .................................................................................................. 492
11.43. Rules for Constructing Hamilton Paths (or Chains) and Hamilton Circuits
(or Cycles) in a Graph .............................................................................................. 493
11.44. Regular Graph .................................. ................ ................. ................. .................. 499
11.45. Planar Graph .................................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 500
11.46. Region of a Graph ................................................................. ................. ................. 500
11.47. Properties of Planar Graphs ................................................ ................. ................. 502
11.48. State and Prove Euler' s Theorem on Graphs ...................... ................ ................. 502
11.49. Non Planar Graphs .............................................................. ................ .................. 504
11.50. Properties of Non Planar Graphs ...................... ................. ................ .................. 505
11.51. Graph Colouring ................................................ ................. ................. .................. 511
11.52. Chromatic Number of G ................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 511
11.53. Applications of Graph Theory ........................... ................. ................ .................. 517
11.54. Dijkstra' s Algorithm for Shortest Path ............. ................. ................. ................. 517
 (xiv)

12. Trees .................................................................................................. 525-557

12. 1. Introduction 525
..............................................................................................................

12.2. Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. ................. 525

................. ................. ..................

12.3. Directed Trees ............... . . ................. ................. ................ ................. ................. 525
12.4. Ordered Trees .................................... ................. ................ ................. ................. 526
12.5. Rooted Trees ..................................... ................ ................. ................. .................. 527
12.6. Path Length of a Vertex ................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 527
12.7. Forest .............................................. .. ................ ................. ................. .................. 528
12.8. Binary Tree ....................................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 528
12.9. Basic Terminology ............................ ................ ................. ................. .................. 528
12. 10. Binary Expression Trees ................... ................ ................. ................ .................. 534
12. 1 1. Complete Binary Tree ...................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 535
12. 12. Full Binary Tree ............................... ................ ................. ................. .................. 535
12. 13. Traversing Binary Trees ................... ................ ................. ................ .................. 537
12. 14. Algorithms ......................................................... ................. ................. .................. 538
12. 15. Binary Search Trees ........................................... ................ ................. .................. 545
12. 16. Inserting into a Binary Search Tree .................. ................. ................ ................. 545
12. 17. Spanning Tree ...................................................................... ................. ................. 549
12. 18. Applications of Trees ............................................................................. .................. 550
12. 19. KruskaYs Algorithm to Find Minimum Spanning Tree ......................................... 550
13*. Propositional Calculus ................................................................... 558--601
13. 1. Basic Logic Operations ............................................................................................ 558
13.2. Statement ......................................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 558
13.3. Proposition ....................................... ................. ................. ................. .................. 558
13.4. Propositional Variables ..................... ................. ................ ................ .................. 559
13.5. Truth Table ....................................... ................. ................ ................. .................. 559
13.6. Combination of Propositions .............................. ................. ................. ................. 560
13.7. (a) Laws of the Algebra of Propositions ............. ................ ................. ................. 565
13.7. (b) Variations in Conditional Statement ............ ................ ................ ................. 566
13.8. Principle of Duality ............................................ ................. ................ .................. 567
13.9. Logical Implication ............................................. ................. ................ .................. 568
13. 10. Logically Equivalence of Propositions ................ ................ ................. ................. 569
13. 1 1. Tautologies ......................................................... ................. ................. .................. 570
13. 12. Contradiction ....................................................................... ................. .................. 571
13. 13. Contingency .......................................................................... ................. ................. 571
13. 14. Functionally Complete Sets of Connectives ........................ ................ ................. 573
13. 15. Argument ............................................................................. ................. .................. 574
13. 16. Proof of Validity ................................ ................. ................ ................. ................. 578
13. 17. Quantifiers ....................................... ................. ................. ................. .................. 583
13. 18. Existential Quantifier ........................................ ................ ................. .................. 583
13. 19. Universal Quantifier .......................................... ................. ................ .................. 583
13.20. Negation of Quantified Propositions .................. ................. ................ ................. 585
13.21. Propositions with Multiple Quantifiers ............. ................ ................. ................. 586
 (xv)

14*. Matrix Algebra ................................................................................. 602-648

14 1�Mili� �
14. 1. (b) Kinds of Matrices ........................ ................. ................. ................ .................. 602
14.2. Addition of Matrices ........................................... ................ ................. .................. 605
14.3. Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar ............... ................. ................ ................. 605
14.4. Properties of Matrix Addition ............................ ................. ................ .................. 605
14.5. Matrix Multiplication ......................................... ................. ................ .................. 606
14.6. Properties of Matr� Multiplication ................... ................ ................. ................. 609
14.7. Transpose of a Matr� ........................................ ................ ................. .................. 614
14.8. Properties of Transpose of a Matr� .................................... ................. ................. 614
14.9. Symmetric Matr� .................................................................................................... 615
14. 10. Skew· symmetric Matr� (or Anti·Symmetric Matr�) ............................................ 615
14. 1 1. Every Square Matrix can Uniquely be Expressed as the Sum of a
Symmetric Matr� and a Skew· symmetric Matr� ................................................. 615
14.12. Orthogonal Matrix ................................................................................................... 616
14. 13. For any Two Orthogonal Matrices A and B, show that AB is an
Orthogonal Matrix ................................................................................................... 616
14. 14. Adjoint of a Square Matr� .................................................................... ................. 618
14. 15. An Important Relation between a Square Matrix A and Adj A ................. 618
14. 16. Singular Matrices and Non·singular Matrices ..................................... ................. 620
14. 17. Inverse (or Reciprocal) of a Square Matr� ........................................... ................. 620
14. 18. The Inverse of a Square Matr�, if it Exists, is Unique ......................................... 620
14. 19. The Necessary and Sufficient Condition for a Square Matrix A to
Possess Inverse is that I A I '" 0 (i.e., A is Non·Singular) .................................... 620
14.20. If A is Invertible, then so is A-l and (A-l)-l = A ...................................................... 622
14.21. If A and B be Two Non·singular Square Matrices of the Same Order,
then (AB)-l = B-1 A-l 622
........................................... ..... ....... . ....................................................................... ....... ..................................

14.22. If A is a Non·singular Square Matrix, then so is A' and (Aj-l = (A-l)' .................... 622
14.23. If A and B are Two Non·singular Square Matrices of the Same Order,
then adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A) ................................................................................. 623
14.24. Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equations by Matrix Inversion Method
or Matr� Method ..................................................................................................... 625
14.25. If A is Non·singular Matrix, then the System of Equations AX = B has
a Unique Solution given by X = A-l B ..................................................................... 626
14.26. Rank of a Matrix ............................................... ................. ................. .................. 630
14.27. To Determine the Rank of a Matr� A ............... ................ ................. ................. 63 1
14.28. Echelon Form of a Matrix ..................................................................... .................. 63 1
14.29. Rank of a Matrix by Using Echelon Form ............................................ ................. 63 1
14.30. Solution of a System of Linear Equations (Rank Method) or
(Gauss Jordan Method) ........................................................................ .................. 635

* Not meant for P,T,U. B.Tech., "Discrete Structures" (BTCS-402) Course,

 (xvi)

14.31. Theorem: If A is a Non-singular Matrix, then the Matrix Equation AX = B

has a Unique Solution .............................................................................................. 636
14.32. Gauss Elimination Method ............... ................. ................ ................. ................. 643
15A* Arithmetic Progression
_ 649--670
________________________________________________________________

15. 1. Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 649

................. ................. ................. ..................

15.2. Finite and Infinite Sequence ............. ................ ................ ................. ................. 649
15.3. Arithmetic Progression (AP.) 650
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ ..................

15.4. Important Observations 654

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ................ ................. ..................

15.5. Sum of First n Terms of an AP . 660

........................ ................. ................ .................

15.6. Arithmetic Means 667

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ................. .................

15.7. Single AM. between any Two given Numbers 667 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ .................

15.8. n AM.s between any Two given Numbers 667 .......................... ................ .................

158*_ Geometric Progression ________________________________________________________________ 671--697

15.9. Geometrical Progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ................ ................. ................ 67 1
..................

15. 10. Important Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ................. ................ ................. 67 1

..................

15. 1 1. Sum of n Terms of a G.P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ 681

.................

15. 12. Particular Cases ............................... ................ ................. ................. 681

..................

15. 13. Sum to Infinity of a G.P . ................... ................ ................. ................ 687
..................

15. 14. Geometric Mean ....................................................................................................... 691

16* Sequences
_ _______________________________________________________________________________________ 698-704
16. 1. Sequence of Natural Numbers ................................................................................ 698
16.2. Sequence of Squares of Natural Numbers ................ ................ 698
.................

16.3. Sequence of Cubes of Natural Numbers ............. ................ ................ 699

.................

17*_ Partial Fractions ______________________________________________________________________________ 705-717

17 . 1. Introduction .......................................................................... ................. 705
.................

17.2. Resolution of a Fraction into Partial Fractions ................... ................ 705

.................

17.3. Method of Resolution Into Partial Fractions ...................... ................. 705

.................

Index ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 718-724

* Not meant for P,T,U. B.Tech., "Discrete Structures" (BTCS-402) Course,

 SYLLABUS DETAILS

The book entitled "Discrete Structures" is strictly according to the latest syllabus of
various Indian universities as per details given below:
Sr. N. Name of the University Subject Subject Code

l. Anna University, Chennai Discrete Mathematics (MA035)

2. Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla Discrete Mathematics and
Logic Design (IT 4003)
3. Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra Discrete Structures (CSE-205 E)
4. Maharishi
Rohatak Dayanand University,
Discrete Structures (CSE-203-F)
5. Ponmcherry University) Puducherry Discrete Mathematics and (MA T4l)
Graph Theory
6. Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar Foundation
Computer Mathematical (MCA-104 (N2)
7. Punjay Technical University, Jalandhar Discrete Structures BTCS-402
8. Swami Vivekanand University, Discrete Structures (IT 302)
Sironja, Sagar (MP)
9. University of Mumbai, Mumbai Discrete Structures (CSE-305)
10. Uttar Pradesh Technical University, Discrete Mathematical (ECS-303)
Lucknow Structures

(xvii)
 SYLLABUS

ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI

DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (MA 035)

1. Logic
Statements-Truth Tables-connectives-Normal forms-Predicate Calculus-Inference theory
for statement calculus and Predicate Calculus.
2_ Combinatorics
Review of Perm utation and combination-Mathematical Inducation -Pigeon hole principle­
Principle of inclusion and exclusion-Generating function-Recurrence relations.
3_ Groups
Semi groups-Monoids-groups-permutation group-Consets-Lagranges theorem-Group
homomorphism-Kernal-Rings and Fields (definitions and examples only).
4_ Lattices
Partial ordering-Posets-Hasse diagram-Lattices-Properties of Lattices-Sub Lattices­
Special Lattices-Boolean Algebra.
5_ Graphs
Introduction to Graphs-Graph terminology-Representation of Graphs-Graph
Isomorphism-Connectivity-Euler and Hamilton Paths

(xviii)
 SYLLABUS

HIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITY, SHIMLA

DISCRETE MATHEMATICS AND LOGIC DESIGN (IT 4003)

SECTION A
Mathematical Logic: Statements and Notation, Connectives; Negation; Conjunction; Disjunction; State­
ment Formulas and Truth Tables; Logical Capabilities of programming Languages; Conditional and
Biconditional; Well formed Formulas; Tautologies; Equivalence of Formulas; Duality Law; Tautological
Implications; Formulas with distinct Truth Tables; Functionally Complete sets of connectives; other
connectives; Two state devices and Statement logic; Normal forms; principal disjunctive normal forms;
principal conjunctive normal form; ordering and Uniqueness of Normal Forms; Completely parenthe­
sized Infix Notation and Polish Notation; The Theory of Interference for the statement calculus; Valid­
ity using Truth Table; Rules of Inference; Consistency of Premises and Indirect Method Of Proof; Auto­
matic Theory Proving; The Predicate Calculus; predicates; The Statement Function, variables and Quan­
tifiers; Predicate Formulas; Free and Bound Variables; The Universe of Discourse; Inference Theory of
the Predicate Calculus, Valid Formulas and Equivalences; Some Valid Formulas over Finite Universes;
Special Valid Formulas Involving Quantifiers; Theory of Inference for the Predicate Calculus; Formula
Involving More Than One Quantifier.
SECTION B

uct; permutations; Combinations; Generation of permutationsIntroduction,

Permutations, Combinations, and Discrete Probability: The Rules of Sumprobability,
and prod­
and combinations, Discrete
Information and Mutual Information.
Relations and Functions: Introduction, A Relational Model for Data Bases; properties of Binary Re­
lations; Equivalence Relations and partitions; Partial Ordering Relations and Lattices; Chains and
Antichains; A Job Scheduling problem; Functions and the Pigeonhole principle.
SECTION C
Graphs and Planner Graphs: Introduction, Basic Terminology, Multigraphs and Weighted Graphs,
Paths and Circuits; Shortest paths in Weighted
and circuits, The Traveling Salesperson problem;Graphs,
FactorsEulerian pathsplanar
of Graph; and circuits;
Graph. Hamiltonian paths
Trees and cut-sets: Trees, Rooted Trees, path, Lengths in Rooted trees; prefix codes; Binary search
trees; Spanning Trees and cut-sets; Minimum Spanning Trees; Transport Networks.
SECTION D
Recurrence Relations and Recursive Algorithms: Introduction; Recurrence Relations; Linear Re­
currence Relations with constant coefficients; Homogeneous Solutions; Particular Solutions; total Solu­
tions; solution by the Method of Generating Functions; Sorting Algorithms; Matrix Multiplication Algo­
rithms.
Groups and Rings: Introduction, Groups, Subgroups; Generators and evaluation of Powers; Co sets
and Lagrange's Theorem; permutation groups and Burnside's theorem; Codes and Group codes; Isomor­
phisms and Automorphisms; Homomorphisms and Norma Integral Domains, and Fields; Ring Homo­
morphisms; Polynomial Rings and Cyclic Codes.
(xix)
 SYLLABUS

KURUKSHETRA UNIVERSITY, KURUKSHETRA

DISCRETE STRUCTURES (CSE-205 E)

UNIT-I
Set Theory: Introduction to set theory, Set operations, Algebra of sets, combination
ofsets, Duality, Finite and Infinite sets, Classes of sets, Power Sets, Multi sets, Cartesian
Product, Representation of relations, Types of relation, Binary Relations, Equivalence
relations and partitions, Partial ordering relations and lattices, Mathematics Induction,
Principle ofInclusion and Exclusion, Propositions. Function and its types, Composition
of function and relations, Cardinality and inverse relations. Functions and Pigeon Hole
principles.
UNIT-II
Propositional Calculus: Basic operations: AND, OR, NOT, Truth value of a compound
statement, propositions, tautologies, contradictions. Techniques of Counting: Rules of
Sum of products, Permutations with and without repetition, Combination. Recursion
and Recurrence Relation: Polynomials and their evaluation, Sequences, Introduction to
AP, GP and AG series, partial fractions, linear recurrence relation with constant
coefficients, Homogeneous solutions, Particular solutions, Total solution of a recurrence
relation using generating functions.
UNIT-III
Algebric Structures: Definition, elementary properties of algebric structures, examples
of a Monoid, Submonoid, Semi-group, Groups and rings, Homomorphism, Isomorphism
and Automorphism, Subgroups and Normal subgroups, Cyclic groups, Integral domain
and fields, Cosets, Lagrange's theorem, Rings, Division Ring.
UNIT-IV
Graphs And Trees: Introduction to graphs, Directed and Undirected graphs,
Homomorphic and Isomorphic graphs, Subgraphs, Cut points and Bridges, Multigraph
and Weighted graph, Paths and circuits, Shortest path in weighted graphs, Eurelian
path and circuits, Hamilton paths and circuits, Planar graphs, Euler's formula, Trees,
Rooted Trees, Spanning Trees and cut-sets, Binary trees and its traversals.

(xx)
 SYLLABUS

MAHARISHI DAYANAND UNIVERSITY, ROHATAK

DISCRETE STRUCTURES (CSE-203-F)

SECTION A
Set Theory and Propositional Calculus: Introduction to set theory, Set operations,
Algebra of sets, Duality, Finite and Infinite sets, Classes of sets, Power Sets, Multi sets,
Cartesian Product, Representation of relations, Types of relation, Equivalence relations
and partitions, Partial ordering relations and lattices
Function and its Types: Composition offunction and relations, Cardinality and inverse
relations.
Introduction to propositional Calculus: Basic operations: AND, OR, NOT, Truth
value of a compound statement, propositions, tautologies, contradictions.
SECTION B
Techniques of Counting and Recursion and Recurrence Relation: Permutations
with and without repetition, Combination. Polynomials and their evaluation, Sequences,
Introduction to AP, GP and AG series, partialfractions, linear recurrence relation with
constant coefficients, Homogeneous solutions, Particular solutions, Total solution of a
recurrence relation using generating functions.
SECTION C
Algebric Structures: Definition and examples of a monoid, Semigroup, Groups and
rings, Homomorphism, Isomorphism and Automorphism, Subgroups and Normal
subgroups, Cyclic groups, Integral domain and fields, Cosets, Lagrange's theorem.
SECTION D
Graphs and Trees: Introduction to graphs, Directed and Undirected graphs,
Homomorphic and Isomorphic graphs, Subgraphs, Cut points and Bridges, Multigraph
and Weighted graph, Paths and circuits, Shortest path in weighted graphs, Eurelian
path and circuits, Hamilton paths and circuits, Planar graphs, Euler's formula, Trees,
Spanning trees, Binary trees and its traversals.

(xxi)
 SYLLABUS

PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY, PUDUCHERRY

DISCRETE MATHEMATICS AND GRAPH THEORY (MA T41)

UNIT-I
Connectives: Statement formulae, Equivalence of Statement formulae, Functionally
complete set of connectives - NAND and NOR connectives, implication, Principal
conjunctive and disjunctive normal forms.
UNIT-II
Inference calculus: Derivation process - Conditional proof - Indirect method of proof­
Automatic theorem proving - Predicate calculus.
UNIT-III
Partial ordering: Lattices - Properties - Lattices as algebraic system - sub lattices -
Direct product and homomorphism - Special lattices - Complemented and Distributive
lattices.
UNIT-IV
Graphs: Applications of graphs - degree - pendant and isolated vertices - isomorphism­
sub graphs - walks - paths and circuits - connected graphs - Euler graphs - operations
on graphs - More on Euler graphs - Hamilton paths and circuits - complete graph.
UNIT-V
Trees: Properties of Trees - Pendant vertices in a Tree - Distance and Center in a Tree
- rooted and binary trees - spanning trees - Fundamental Circuits - Distance between
spanning trees shortest spanning trees - Kruskal algorithm.

(xxii)
 SYLLABUS

PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, JALANDHAR

DISCRETE STRUCTURES (BTCS-402)

PART-A
1. Sets, Relations and Functions: Introduction, Combination of Sets, Ordered pairs,
Proofs of general identities of sets, Relations, Operations on relations, Properties of
relations and Functions, Hashing Functions, Equivalence relations, Compatibility re­
lations, Partial order relations. [Chapters 1, 2, 3] [7]
2_ Rings and Boolean Algebra: Rings, Subrings, Morphism of rings, ideals and quo­
tient rings, Euclidean domains, Integral domains and fields. Boolean Algebra, direct
product, Boolean sub-algebra, Boolean Rings, Application of Boolean algebra (Logic
Implications, Logic Gates, Karnaugh Map) [Chapters 9, 10] [8]
3_ Combinatorial Mathematics: Basic counting principles Permutations and Combina­
tions, Inclusion and Exclusion Principle. Recurrence relations, Generating Function,
Applications. [Chapters 5A, 5B, 6, 7J [7]
PART-B
4_ Monoids and Groups: Groups, Semigroups and Monoids. Cyclic Subgroups and
Submonoids, Subgroups and Cosets, Congruence Relations on Semigroups. Morphisms.
Normal Subgroups. Homomorphism, Isomorphism, Dihedral Groups, Applications.
[Chapter 8] [7]
5_ Graph Theory: Graph-Directed and Undirected, Eulerian Chains and cycles,
Hamiltonian chains and cycles Trees, Chromatic number, Connectivity, Graph coloring,
Planar and connected graphs, Isomorphism and Homomorphism. Applications.
[Chapters 11, 12] [7]
Note_ Chapters to be read for "Discrete Structures" (BTCS 402): Chapters No., 1, 2, 3,
5A, 5B, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, and 12 only.

(xxiii)
 SYLLABUS

PUNJAB TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, JALANDHAR

COMPUTER MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATION (MCA-I04 (N2)

SECTION A
Sets and Relations: Definition of sets, Subsets, Complement of a set, Universal set,
Intersection and Union of sets, De-Morgan's laws, Cartesian products, Equivalent sets,
Countable and Uncountable sets, Minset, Partitions of sets, Relations: Basic definitions,
graphs of relations, Properties of relations. [Chapters 1, 2]
SECTION B
Algebra of Logic: Propositions and logic operations, Connectives, Tautologies and
Contradiction, Equivalence and implication, Principle of Mathematical Induction,
Quantifiers. [Chapters 4, 13]
SECTION C
Matrix Algebra: Introduction of a Matrix, its different kinds, Matrix addition and
Scalar multiplication, Multiplication of matrices, Transpose etc. Square matrices, Inverse
and Rank of a square matrix, Solving simultaneous equations using Gauss eliminations,
Gauss Jordan and Matrix Inversion methods. [Chapter 14]
SECTION D
Graphs: A general introduction, Simple and Multigraphs, directed and Undirected
graphs, Eulerian and Hamiltonian Graphs, Shortest path algorithms, Chromatic number,
Bipartite graph, Graph coloring. [Chapter 11]
Note_ Chapters to be read for "Computer Mathematical Foundation (MCA 104 N2):
Chapters No., 1, 2, 4, 1 1, 13 and 14 only.

(xxiv)
 SYLLABUS

SWAMI VIVEKANAND UNIVERSITY, SIRONJA, SAGAR (MP)

DISCRETE STRUCTURES (IT 302)
Un it-I

Set Theory, Relation, Function, Theorem Proving Techniques : Set Theory: Definition of sets,
countable and uncountable sets, Venn Diagrams, proofs of some general identities on sets
Relation: Definition, types of relation, composition of relations, Pictorial representation of
relation, Equivalence relation, Partial ordering relation, Job-Scheduling problem Function:
Definition, type of functions, one to one, into and onto function, inverse function, composition
of functions, recursively defined functions, pigeonhole principle. Theorem proving Techniques:
Mathematical induction, Proof by contradiction.

Un it-II

Algebraic Structures: Definition, Properties, types: Semi Groups, Monoid, Groups, Abelian
group, properties of groups, Subgroup, cyclic groups, Cosets, factor group, Permutation groups,
Normal subgroup, Homomorphism and isomorphism of Groups, example and standard re­
sults, Rings and Fields: definition and standard results.

Un it-III

Propositional Logic: Proposition, First order logic, Basic logical operation, truth tables, tau­
tologies, Contradictions, Algebra of Proposition, logical implications, logical equivalence, predi­
cates, Normal Forms, Universal and existential quantifiers. Introduction to finite state ma­
chine Finite state machines as models of physical system equivalence machines, Finite state
machines as language recognizers

Un it-IV

Graph Theory: Introduction and basic terminology of graphs, Planer graphs, Multigraphs and
weighted graphs, Isomorphic graphs, Paths, Cycles and connectivity, Shortest path in weighted
graph, Introduction to Eulerian paths and circuits, Hamiltonian paths and circuits, Graph
coloring, chromatic number, Isomorphism and Homomorphism of graphs.

Un it-V

Posets, Hasse Diagram and Lattices: Introduction, ordered set, Hasse diagram of partially,
ordered set, isomorphic ordered set, well ordered set, properties of Lattices, bounded and
complemented lattices. Combinatorics: Introduction, Permutation and combination, Binomial
Theorem, Multimonial Coefficients Recurrence Relation and Generating Function: Introduc­
tion to Recurrence Relation and Recursive algorithms ) Linear recurrence relations with con­
stant coefficients, Homogeneous solutions, Particular solutions, Total solutions ) Generating
functions , Solution by method of generating functions.
(xxv)
 SYLLABUS

UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI, MUMBAI

DISCRETE STRUCTURES (CSE-305)

MODULE-I

Set Theory: Sets, Venn diagrams, Operations on Sets; Laws of set theory, Power set
and Products; Partitions of sets, The Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion.
MODULE-II

Logic: Propositions and logical operations, Truth tables; Equivalence, Implications;

Laws of logic, Normal Forms; Predicates and Quantifiers; Mathematical Induction.
MODULE-III

Relations, Digraphs and Lattices: Relations, Paths and Digraphs; Properties and
types of binary relations; Manipulation of relations, Closures, Warshall's algorithm;
Equivalence and partial ordered relations; Posets and Hasse diagram; Lattice.
MODULE-IV

Functions and Pigeon Hole Principle: Definition and types of functions: Injective,
Surjective and Bijective; Composition, Identity and Inverse; Pigeon-hole principle.
MODULE-V
Generating Functions and Recurrence Relations: Series and Sequences;
Generating functions; Recurrence relations; Recursive Functions: Applications of
recurrence relations e.g. , Factorial, Fibonacci, Binary search, Quick Sort etc.
MODULE-VI
Graphs and Subgraphs: Definitions, Paths and circuits: Eulerian and Hamiltonian;
Planer graphs, Graph coloring; Isomorphism of graphs; Subgraphs and Subgraph
isomorphism.
MODULE-VII

Trees: Trees and weighted trees; Spanning trees and minimum spanning tree;
Isomorphism of trees and sub trees; Prefix codes.
MODULE-VIII

Algebraic Structures: Algebraic structures with one binary operation: semigroup,

monoids and groups; Product and quotient of algebraic structures; Isomorphism,
Homomorphism and Automorphism; Cyclic groups, Normal subgroups; Codes and group
codes.

(xxvi)
 SYLLABUS

UTTAR PRADESH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW

DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES (ECS-303)

UNIT-I

Set Theory: Introduction, Combination of sets, Multisets, Ordered pairs. Proofs of some
general identities on sets.
Relations: Definition, Operations on relations, Properties of relations, Composite
Relations, Equality of relations, Recursive definition of relation, Order of relations.
Functions: Definition, Classification offunctions, Operations on functions, Recursively
defined functions. Growth of Functions.
Natural Numbers: Introduction, Mathematical Induction, Variants of Induction,
Induction with Nonzero Base cases. Proof Methods, Proof by counter - example, Proof
by contradiction.
UNIT-II

Algebraic Structures: Definition, Groups, Subgroups and order, Cyclic Groups, Cosets,
Lagrange's theorem, Normal Subgroups, Permutation and Symmetric groups, Group
Homomorphisms, Definition and elementary properties of Rings and Fields, Integers
Modulo n.
UNIT-III

Partial order sets: Definition, Partial order sets, Combination of partial order sets,
Hasse diagram.
Lattices: Definition, Properties of lattices - Bounded, Complemented, Modular and
Complete lattice.
Boolean Algebra: Introduction, Axioms and Theorems of Boolean algebra, Algebraic
manipulation of Boolean expressions. Simplification of Boolean Functions, Karnaugh
maps, Logic gates, Digital circuits and Boolean algebra.
UNIT-IV
Propositional Logic: Proposition, well formed formula, Truth tables, Tautology,
Satisfiability, Contradiction, Algebra of proposition, Theory of Inference.
Predicate Logic: First order predicate, well formed formula of predicate, quantifiers,
Inference theory of predicate logic.
UNIT-V

Trees: Definition, Binary tree, Binary tree traversal, Binary search tree.
Graphs: Definition and terminology, Representation of graphs, Multigraphs, Bipartite
graphs, Planar graphs, Isomorphism and Homeomorphism of graphs, Euler and
Hamiltonian paths, Graph colouring.
Recurrence Relation and Generating Function: Recursive definition of functions,
Recursive algorithms, Method of solving recurrences.
Combinatorics: Introduction, Counting Techniques, Pigeonhole Principle, Polya' s
Counting Theory.
(xxvii)
 1 SETS

1 .1 . INTRODUCTION
In this chapter) we will study some basic laws of algebra of sets) Venn-diagrams) repre­
sentation of various sets) ordered and unordered partition of sets.
Set. A set is defined as a collection of distinct objects of same type or class of objects.
The objects of a set are called elements or members of the set. Objects can be numbers,

A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5}
alphabets) names etc.

A is a set of numbers containing elements 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.

e.g.,

Remarks. 1. A set is usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, D, P, Q, R, S, T etc.

2. Elements of the set are defined by t or
p, q, r, PI'Ql ' t l etc.
r1 ,

1 .2. SET FORMATION

The set can be formed by two ways :
(i) Tabular form of a set
(ii) Builder form of a set.
(i) Tabular Form or Roster Form of a Set. If a set is defined by actually listing its
members, e.g., if the set P contains elements a, b, C, d, then it is expressed as P = {a, b, c, d}.
This is called tabular form of a set.
(ii) Builder Form of a Set. If a set is defined by the properties which its elements
must satisfy e.g.,
P = {x : x E N, x is a multiple of 3}.
R = {x : x > 1 and x < 10 and x is an odd integer}.
T = {x : x is even number less than 9}.
This form is called Set builder form of a set and the method of defining the elements is
called Property Method.
1 .3. STANDARD NOTATIONS
XE A x belongs to A or x is an element of set A.
x Ci A x does not belong to set A.
<jJ Empty set.
2 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
U Universal set.
N The set of all natural numbers.
I The set of all integers.
10 The set of all non-zero integers.
1+ The set of all + ve integers.
C , Co The set of all complex) non-zero complex numbers respectively.
Q, Q o , Q+ The set of rationals) non-zero rationals) +ve rational numbers
respectively.
The set of reals) non-zero reals) +ve real numbers respectively.

1 ,4, KINDS OF SETS

I. Finite Set. If a set consists of specific number of different elements, then that set is

P = {x : x E N, 3 < x < 9}.

called finite set. e.g.)

Q = {2, 4, 6, 8}.
R = {months of year}, are finite sets.
II. Infinite Set. If a set consists of infinite number of different elements or if the counting
of different elements of the set does not come to an end, the set is called infinite set.
e.g., I = {The set of all integers}.
E = {x : x E N, x is a multiple of 2}, are inifinite sets.
III. (Principle of Extension) Equality of Sets. Two sets A and B are said to be
equal and written as A = B if both have the same elements. Therefore, every element which
belongs to A is also an element of the set B and every element which belongs to the set B is also
an element of the set A.
A=B (x E A <=? x E B).
If there is some element in set A that does not belong to set B or vice·versa then A '" B
i.e., A is not equal to B.
Remarks 1. A set does not change if one or more of its elements are repeated.
2. Aset does not change if we change the order in which its elements are tabulated.
IV. Disjoint Sets. Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if no element of A is in B
and no element of B is in A. e.g., if R = {a , b, c}, S = {k, p, m}, then R and S are disjoint sets.
V. Family of Sets. If a set A contains elements which are itself sets, then it is called
family of sets or a set of sets. e.g., if A = {{I, 2}, {3, 4}, q,}, then A is set of sets.
VI. Subset of a Set. If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B, then A is
called subset of B and is written as A c B. B is called superset of A.
e.g., A c B = {x : x E A => X E B}

(a) Proper Subset. If A is subset ofB and A '" B, then A is said to be proper subset ofB.
If A is a proper subset of B, then B is not subset of A i.e., there is at least one element in B
which is not in A. e.g.,
(i) If A = {2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 3, 4, 5}, then A is a proper subset of B.
(ii) The empty set q, is a proper subset of every set.
SETS 3

(b) Improper Subset. If A is a subset of B and A = B, then A is said to be an improper

subset of B. e.g.,
(i) If A = {2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 3, 4}, then A is improper subset of B.
(ii) Every set is improper subset of itself.
VII. Null Set or Empty Set. The set that contains no element is called the null set or
the empty set and is denoted by q,. e.g.,
(a) P = {x : x2 = 4, x is odd}.
(b) Q = {x : x2 = 9, x is even}.
(c) R = {x : x2 = 9, 2x = 4}, are all null sets.
Remark. The set A :::: {O} is not a null set because 0 is the element of the set.
The set A = {q,} is not a null set because set q, is the element of the set.
VIII. Power Set
The power set of any given set A is the set of all subsets of A and is denoted by P(A). If
A has n elements, then P(A) has 2n elements.
If A = {r, s}, then its subsets are q" {r}, Is}, {r, s}. The power set of A is
P(A) = {q" {r}, Is}, (r, s)) which has 22 = 4 elements.
IX. Universal Set. If all the sets under investigation are subsets of a fixed set U, then
the set U is called universal set. e.g., in plane geometry, the universal set consists of all the
points in the plane.
X. Comparability. Two sets A and B are comparable if one of them is subset of other,
i.e., A c B or B c A. If A c B and B c A, then A = B. Set q, is comparable to every set. Every set
is comparable to the universal set U.
Two sets A and B are said to be incomparable if A iZ. B and also B iZ. A i.e., there is at
least one element in A not in B and vice-versa.
XI. Principle of Abstraction. Given any set U and any property P, there is a set A
such that the elements of A are exactly those members of U which have the property P.

Theorem I. Prove that, the null set q, is a subset of every set.

Proof. Suppose that q, is not a subset of A i.e., q, Cl A.
Then there exists an element x E q, such that x 'l A.
But q, is the null set and hence for every x, x 'l q, because null set does not contain any
element.
From above, x E q, and x tl q, which is contradiction. Hence, q, Cl A is wrong supposition.
Therefore, q, is a subset of A. Hence proved.
Theorem II. Prove that, every set is a subset of itself i.e., A c A.
Proof. Let x E A => X E A . . A c A
As every element belonging to set A is also an element of set A. Therefore, A is subset of
A or itself. Hence proved.

Theorem III. Prove that, ifA c B and B c C, then A c C.

Proof. Let x be any element of the set A.
Since, AcB .. XE A => XE B
BcC XE B => XE C XE A => XE C
A c C. Hence proved.
4 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Theorem IV. Prove that, if A c B, B c C, C c A, then A = C.
Proof. If A c B and B c C, then A c C Theorem III
A� C cA (Given)
A c C and C c A
A = C. Hence proved.

Theorem V. Prove that, ifA c <p, then A = <p.

Proof. <p c A (As <p is subset of every set).
But A c <p (Given)
.. A=� Hence proved.
Theorem VI. The following are equivalent
(i) A c B (ii) A n B = A (iii) A u B = B.
Proof. (i) => (ii) Let A c B and x E A, then, x E B and hence x E A n B => A c A n B
Also A n B c A. Consequently A n B = A
(ii) => (iii) Let A n B = A and x E A. Then,
x E A n B => x E A and x E B. Hence A c B.
(i) => (iii) Let A c B and x E A u B, then,
x E A or x E B.
If x E A, then x E B AcB
In either case, X E B => A u B c B
Also B c A u B => A u B = B
(iii) => (i) Let A u B = B and x E A. Then, by definition of A u B, x E A u B = B => X E B
=> A c B.

Example. How many subsets can be formed from a set of n elements ? How many of
these will be proper and how many improper ? (P.T.U. B.Tech. May 2007)
n
Sol. There are C 1 subsets each consisting of one of the elements of the given set.
There will be n C2 subsets each consisting of any two of the n elements of the given set.
Also, there will be n C3 subsets each consisting of any three of the n elements of given set.
At last, there will be n Cn subsets consisting of all the n elements of the given set.
Also, there will be one set <p.

+ 1 (For the null set)

Hence, the total number of subsets
(n c, n C2 n C3 n cn)
= 1)
= + + + ...... +
nco nc , nC2 nCn n
=2 : nco
Therefore, 2 subsets are formed from n elements of a set. Out of 2 subsets, 2 - 1
= + + + ...... + ( .

n n n
subsets will be proper and 1 (one) subset improper i.e., the set itself.

1 .5. OPERATION ON SETS

The basic set operations are :
1. Union of Sets (P. T. U. B. Tech. May 2006 ; M. C.A. May 2007)
Union of the sets A and B is defined to be the set of all those elements which belong to
A or B or both and is denoted by A u B, i.e.,
A u B = (x : x E A or x E B)
SETS 5
e.g., Let A = {I, 2, 3}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6},
then A u B = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
2. Intersection of Sets (P. T. U. B.Tech. May 2006; M. C.A. May 2007)
Intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all those elements which belong to both A
and B and is denoted by A n B, i.e.,
A n B = {x : x E A and x E B}
e.g., Let A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {a, b, l, m},
then A n B = {a, b}.
3. Difference of Sets (PT. U. B.Tech. May 2007 )
The difference of two sets A and B is a set of all those elements which belong to A but do
not belong to B and is denoted by A - B or AlB, i.e.,
A - B = {x : x E A and x " B}
e.g., Let A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {d, l, m, n}
then A - B = {a, b, c}.
Note. The set A - B or AlB is also known as relative complement of B w.r.t. A.
4. Complement of a Set w.r.t. a Universal Set (PT. U. B.Tech. May 2007)
The complement of a set A is a set of all those elements of the universal set which do not
belong to A and is denoted by A',
Le., A' = U - A = {x : x E U and x " A} = {x : x " A}
e.g., Let U be the set of all natural numbers.
Let A = {I, 2, 3},
Then A' = {all natural numbers except 1 , 2, 3}.
Note. The set AC is also known as absolute complement of the set A.
5.
Symmetric Difference of Sets. The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is the
set containing all the elements that are in A or in B but not in both and is denoted by A EB B.
Le.,
A EB B = (A u B) - (A n B)

1 .6. ALGEBRA OF SETS

A set is obtained from a set formula by replacing the variables by definite sets. When
the set variables appearing in two set formulas are replaced by any sets and both the set
formulas are equal as sets, then we call that both the set formulas are equal. The equality of
set formulas are called set identities. Some of the identities describe certain properties of the
operations involved. These properties describe an algebra called algebra of sets.
6 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Table 1
General Identities of Set Theory
(i) Idempotent Laws (vi) Identity Laws
(a) A u A = A (a) A u � = A
(b) A n A = A (b) A n U = A
(ii) Associative Laws (c) A u U = U
(a) (A u B) u C = A u (B u C) (d) A n � = �
(b) (A n B) n C = A n (B n C) (vii) Complement Laws
(iii) Commutative Laws (a) A u N = U
(a) A u B = B u A (b) A n N = �
(b) A n B = B n A (c) U' = �
(iv) Distributive Laws (d) �' = U
(a) A u (B n C) = (A u B) n (A u C)
(viii) Involution Law
(b) A n (B u C) = (A n B) u (A n C) (a) (N)' = A
(v) De Morgan's Laws
(a) (A u B)' = N n B'
(b) (A n B)' = N u B'

The Table 1 shows general identities of sets. We now prove these identities.
Theorem I. Prove Idempotent laws i.e.,
(a) A u A = A (b) A n A = A.
Proof. (a) To prove A u A = A
Since, for any set A and B, B c A u B, therefore A c A u A
Let xE AuA => XE A or xE A => XE A
AuAcA
As A u A c A and A c A u A => A = A u A. Hence proved.
(b) To prove A n A = A
Since, for any set A and B, A n B c B, therefore A n A cA
Let xE A => X E A and x E A
XE An A AcAnA
As A n A c A and A c A n A => A = A n A. Hence proved.

Theorem II. Prove Associative laws i.e., (a) (A u B) u C = A u (B u C)

(P.T.V. M.C.A. May 2008, 2007 ; P.T.V. B.Tech Dec. 2006)
(b) (A n B) n C = A n (B n C). (P.T.V. M.C.A. Dec. 2007)
Proof. (a) To prove (A u B) u C = A u (B u C)
Let X E (A u B) u C
=> (x E A or X E B) or XE C
=> XE A or XE B or XE C
=> XE A or (X E B or X E C)
=> XE A or (x E B u C)
SETS 7
X E A u (B u C).
Similarly, if x E A u (B u C), then x E (A u B) u C.
Thus, x E A u (B u C) <=? X E (A u B) u C.
Hence (A u B) u C = A u (B u C)
(b) To prove (A n B) n C = A n (B n C)
Let x E A n (B n C) x E A and x E B n C
X E A and (x E B and x E C) => X E A and x E B and x E C
(x E A and x E B) and x E C => (x E A n B) and x E C
X E (A n B) n C.
Similarly, if x E (A n B) n C, then x E A n ( B n C)
Thus, any x E (A n B) n C <=? x E A n (B n C)
Hence (A n B) n C = A n (B n C).

Theorem III. Prove Commutative laws i.e.,

(a) A u B = B u A. (P.T.V. M.C.A. May 2007)
(b) A n B = B n A. (P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2006)
Proof. (a) To prove A u B = B u A, we know
A u B = (x : x E A or x E B)
= {x : x E B or x E A} ( -: Order is not preserved in case of sets)
= B u A. Hence proved.
(b) To prove A n B = B n A, we know
A n B = (x : x E A and x E B)
= {x : x E B and x E A}
( .: Order is not preserved in case of sets)
= B n A. Hence proved.

Theorem IV. Prove Distributive Laws i.e., (a) Intersection of sets is distributive w.r.t.
union of sets i.e.,
A n (B u C) = (A n B) u (A n C)
(b) Union of sets is distributive w.r.t. intersection of sets i.e.,
A u (B n C) = (A u B) n (A u C).
Proof. (a) To prove A n (B u C) = (A n B) u (A n C)
Let x E A n (B u C) x E A and x E B u C
=> (x E A and x E A) and (x E B or x E C)
=> (x E A and x E B) or (x E A and x E C)
=> XE A n B or xE A n C
=> X E (A n B) u (A n C)
Therefore) A n (B u C) c (A n B) u (A n C) ... (1)
Again, let Y E (A n B) u (A n C) => Y E A n B or Y E A n C
8 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(y E A and Y E B) or (y E A and Y E C)
(y E A or Y E A) and (y E B or Y E C)
YEA and (y E B u C)
Y E A n (B u C)
Therefore, (A n B) u (A n C) c A n (B u C) ... (2)
Combining (1) and (2), we get A n (B u C) = (A n B) u (A n C). Hence proved.
(b) To prove A u (B n C) = (A u B) n (A u C)
Let X E A u (B n C) => x E A or x E B n C
(x E A or x E A) or (x E B and x E C)
(x E A or x E B) and (x E A or x E C)
(x E A u B) and (x E A u C)
X E (A u B) n (A u C)
Therefore, A u (B n C) c (A u B) n (A u C) ... (1)
Again, let Y E (A u B) n (A u C) => Y E A u B and Y E A u C
=> (y E A or Y E B) and (y E A or Y E C)
(y E A and Y E A) or (y E B and Y E C)
YE A or (y E B n C)
Y E A u (B n C)
Therefore, (A u B) n (A u C) c A u (B n C) ... (2)
Combining (1) and (2), we get A u (B n C) = (A u B) n (A u C). Hence proved.

Theorem V. Prove De Morgan's Laws (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 20 1 3)

(a) (A u B)' = A' n B' (P.T.V. M.C.A. May 2007; Dec. 2007)
(b) (A n BY = A' u B'.
(P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2009, May 2008, 2007, 2006; M.C.A. Dec. 2006)
Proof. (a) To prove (A u B)' = N n B'
Let x E (A u B)' => x 'l A u B (-: a E A <=? a 'l N)
=> x 'l A and x 'l B
::::::} x E Ac and x E Bc
::::::} x E Ac n Bc
Therefore) (A u B)' c N n B' ... (1)
Again, let x E AC and x E BC
x 'l A and x 'l B
x 'l A u B
x E (A u B)'
Therefore, A' n B' c (A u B)' ... (2)
Combining (1) and (2), we get N n B' = (A u B)'. Hence proved.
(b) To prove (A n B)' = N u B'
SETS 9

Let x E (A n B)' => x 'l A n B ( ": a E A <=? a 'l A')

=> x 'l A or x 'l B
=> X E AC or X E Be
=> X E Ac u Bc
.. (A n B)' c A' u B' ... (1)
Again, let x E Ac u Bc => X E AC or X E Be
=> x 'l A or x 'l B
=> x 'l A n B
=> x E (A n B)'
.. A' u B' c (A n B)' .... (2)
Combining (1) and (2), we get (A n B)' = A' u B'. Hence proved.

Theorem VI. Prove Identity Laws i.e.,

(a) A u q, = A (b) A n q, = q, (c) A u U = U (d) A n U = A.
Proof. (a) To prove A u q, = A
Let X E A u q, XE A or X E q,
xE A ( .: x 'l q" as q, is the null set)
Therefore) X E A u q, XE A
Hence A u q, c A ... (1)
We know that A c A u B for any set B.
For B = q" we have A c A u q, ... (2)
From (2) and (1), A c A u q" A u q, c A A = A u q,. Hence proved.
(b) To prove A n q, = q,
If x E A, then x 'l q, ( .: q, is null set)
Therefore, x E A, x 'l q, => A n q, = q,. Hence proved.
(c) To prove AuV=V
Every set is a subset of universal set
AuVcV
Also, VcAuV
Therefore, A u V = V. Hence proved.
(d) To prove AnV=A
We know AnVcA ... (1)
So we have to show that A c A n V
Let XE A XE A and XE V ( ": A c V so X E A => X E V)
XE A XE An V
AcAnV ... (2)
From (1) and (2), we get A n V = A. Hence proved.
10 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Theorem VII. Prove Complement Laws i.e.,
(a) A u A' = U (b) A n A' = q,
(c) U' = q, (d)<jJ' = U
(e) (A')' = A (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2007; M.e.A. May 2007)
Proof. (a) To prove A u A' = V, we know that
Every set is a subset of V.
A u A' e V . .. (1)
We have to show that V c A u A'
Let X E V XE A or x 0' A
xE A or X E AC X E A u A'
.. V c A u A' ... (2)
From (1) and (2), we get A u A' = V. Hence proved.
(b) To prove A n A' = q" we know that
q, is a subset of every set
.. q, e A n A' ... (1)
We have to show that A n A' e q,
Let x E A n A' x E A and x E AC
X E A and x O' A (A contradictory statement)
XE q,
A n A' e q, ... (2)
From (1) and (2), we get A n A' = q, . Hence proved.
(c) To prove V' = q,
Let X E UC <=? x O' V <=? XE q,
V' = q,. (As V is a universal set) Hence proved.
(d) To prove q,' = V
Let X E q,' <=? x 0' q, <=? XE V (As q, is an empty set)
q,' = V. Hence proved.
(e) Let x E (A')' <=? x 0' A' <=? XE A
(A')' = A. Hence proved.

1 .7. (a) PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY FOR SETS

It states that if certain axioms imply their own duals, then the dual of any theorem that
is a consequence of the axioms is also a consequence of the axioms.
The dual E* of an equation E involving sets is the equation obtained by interchanging u
and n and also U and q, in E, i.e., by replacing each occurrence of u, n, U and q, in E by n, U,
q, and V respectively.
Example. Write the dual of the following set equation :
(i) (U n AY u (B n AY = A (ii) (A n U) n (q, u A') = q,.
Sol. (i) Replacing u by n and also V by q, in the given set equation, we get
(q, u A) n (B u A) = A, as the required dual
SETS 11

(ii) Required dual is

(A u <jJ) u (U n N) = U.

1 .7. (b) CARDINALITY OF A SET

The total numbers of unique elements in the set is called the cardinality of the set. The
cardinality of the countably infinite set is countably infinite e.g., It is denoted by n(A) or I A I
or A or card(A).
1. Let P= {k, I,
m, n}. Then the cardinality of the set P is 4.
2. Let A is the set of all non-negative even integers i.e., A = {O, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, .........}
As A is countably infinite set, hence the cardinality of this set is countably infinite.
3. The cardinality of an empty set <jJ is zero, i.e., n(<jJ) = 0
Example 1. Find the cardinal number of each set:
(a) {Monday, Tuesday, ... , Sunday}
(b) {x : x is a letter in the word "BASEBALL'}
(c) {x : x" = 9, 2x = 8}
(d) The power set P(A) of A = {l, 5, 7, ll }
(e) Collection of functions from A = {a, b, c} into B = {l, 2, 3, 4}
if) Set of relations on A = {a, b, c}.
Sol. The cardinal number of a set 'A' is denoted by n(A).
(a) Given set A = {Monday, Tuesday, ...... , Sunday}
This contains 7 elements viz.)
Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday and Sunday.
.. n(A) = 7.
(b) Let A = {x : x is a letter in the word "BASEBALL"}
The number of letters in the word "BASEBALL" is 5 (B, A, S, E, L)
.. n(A) = 5.
(c) Let A = {x : x2 = 9, 2x = 8}
Here x2 = 9 => x = ± 3. Also, 2x = 8 => x = 4,
which is not possible.
.. n(A) = O.
(d) A = { 1 , 5, 7, 1 1} i.e., A contains 4 elements
. . P(A) will contain 2 = 1 6 elements
4

.. n(P (A» = 16.

(e) A = {a, b, c}, B = {1, 2,
3, 4}
A contains 3 elements) B contains 4 elements
. . Total number of functions from A to B = 4 = 64.
3

The cardinal number of the collection of functions from A to B = 64.

( f) Given A ={a, b, c} i.e., A contains 3 elements.
Total number of relations on A is
12 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Total number of relations �n a set

23' = 29 = 6 1 2.
Required cardinality = 512.
I containing n elements = 2n

Example 2. Find the cardinal number :

(a) The collection X of functions from A = {a, b, c, d} into B = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5}
(b) The set of all relations on A = {a, b, c, d}.
(c) B = {n l OO : n is a +ve integer}
n(A) = 4, n(B) = 6.
.. Total number of functions from A to B = 6 4 = 62 6 . [If A contains 'm' elements and B
Sol. (a)

contains 'n' elements then total number of functions from A to B = nm]

. . Required cardinality = 62 6 .
(b) n(A) = 4
Total number of relations on A = 2 4 = 2 ' = 65536.
,6
(c) Given set is B = {l IOO , 2 '00 , 3 '00 , ...}
There is a one-one correspondence between the elements of B and the set N. Hence B is
countably infinite.
Example 3. Let A and B are any arbitrary sets. Discuss the cardinality ofA u B.
Sol. We discuss the following cases :
Case I. When A and B are both finite, then A u B will also be finite. Therefore,
n(A u B) = finite.
Case II. When A is finite and B is countably infinite. Then A u B will be countably
infinite. Therefore, the cardinality of A u B is countably infinite.
Case III. When A is countably infinite and B is finite, then A u B is countably infinite.
Therefore, the cardinality of A u B is countably infinite.
Case IV. When A and B are both countably infinite, then A u B will be countably
infinite. Hence, the cardinality of A u B is countably infinite.
Case V. When A and B are both uncountable, then A u B is also uncountable. The
cardinality of A u B is uncountably infinite.

1 .8. CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF TWO SETS

The cartesian product of two sets P and Q in that order is the set of all ordered pairs
whose first member belongs to the set P and second member belongs to set Q and is denoted by
P x Q i.e.,
P x Q = {(x, y) : x E P, y E Q}.
Similarly, A x B x C = {(a, b, c) : a E A, b E B, c E C}. It is common to denote A x A by A2 ,
3
A x A x A by A etc. Also we denote (A x B) x (A x B) by (A X B)2 , (A x B) x (A x B) x (A x B) by
3
(A X B) etc.

Example 1. Let P = {a, b, c} and Q = {k, I, m, n}. Determine the cartesian product of
P and Q.
Sol. The cartesian product of P and Q is
 {(a, (a, (a, (a, }
SETS 13

k), I), m), n),

Px Q = (b, k), (b, I), (b, m), (b, n), .
(c, k), (c, I), (c, m), (c, n )
Example 2. If A = {I, 2, 4, 5}, B = {a, b, c, f}, C = {a, 5}. Compute A u C, (A u C) x B.
(P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2005)

Sol. Given A = {1, 2, 4, 5} , B = (a, b, c, f), C= {a, 5}

A u C = {1, 2, 4, 5, a}
(A u C) x B = {1, 2, 4, 5, a} x (a, b, c, f)
= {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (1, f), (2, a), (2, b),
(2, c), (2, f), (4, a), (4, b), (4, c), (4, f),
(5, a), (5, b), (5, c), (5, f), (a, a), (a, b), (a, c), (a, f)}
Theorem VIII. Prove that (A x B) n (P x Q) = (A n P) x (B n Q).
(P.T.V. M.C.A. May 2008)
Proof. Let (x, y) E (A x B) n (P x Q)
=> (x, y) E (A x B) and (x, y) E (P x Q)
=> (x E A and Y E B) and (x E P and Y E Q)
=> (x E A and x E P) and (y E B and Y E Q)
=> x E (A n P) and Y E (B n Q)
=> (x, y) E (A n P) x (B n Q)
Therefore, (A x B) n (P x Q) c (A n P) x (B n Q) ... (1)
Now, conversely let (x, y) E (A n P) x (B n Q)
=> x E (A n P) and Y E (B n Q)
=> (x E A and Y E P) and (y E B and Y E Q)
=> (x E A and Y E B) and (x E P and Y E Q)
=> (x, y) E (A x B) and (x, y) E (P x Q)
=> (x, y) E (A x B) n (P x Q)
Therefore, (A n P) x (B n Q) c (A x B) n (P x Q) ... (2)
From (1) and (2), we have
(A x B) n (P x Q) = (A n P) x (B n Q). Hence proved.
Theorem IX. Prove that A x (B n C) = (A x B) n (A x C).
(P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2007; M.C.A. Dec. 2006)
Proof. Let (x, y) E
A x (B n C) => x E A and Y E (B n C)
=> X E A and (y E B and Y E C)
=> (x E A and Y E B) and (x E A and Y E C)
=> (x, y) E (A x B) and (x, y) E (A x C)
=> (x, y) E (A x B) n (A x C)
Therefore, A x (B n C) c (A x B) n (A x C) ... (1)
Now, conversely let (x, y) E (A x B) n (A x C)
=> (x, y) E (A x B) and (x, y) E (A x C)
=> (x E A and Y E B) and (x E A and Y E C)
=> X E A and Y E B and Y E C
=> x E A and Y E B n C
=> (x, y) E A x (B n C)
Therefore, (A x B) n (A x C) c A x (B n C) ... (2)
14 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
From (1) and (2), we have A x (B n C) = (A x B) n (A x C). Hence proved.

Theorem X. Prove that A x (B u C) = (A x B) u (A x C).

Proof. Let (x, y) E A x (B u C) => X E A and y E (B u C)
=> X E A and (y E B or y E C) (x E A and Y E B) or (x E A and Y E C)
=> (x, y) E A x B or (x, y) E (A x C) (x, y) E (A x B) u (A x C)
Therefore, A x (B u C) c (A x B) u (A x C) ... (1)
Now, conversely let (x, y) E (A x B) u (A x C)
=> (x, y) E (A x B) or (x, y) E (A x C) => (x E A and Y E B) or (x E A and Y E C)
=> X E A and Y E B or Y E C X E A and Y E (B u C)
=> (x, y) E A x (B u C)
Therefore, (A x B) u (A x C) c A x (B u C) ... (2)
From (1) and (2), we have A x (B u C) = (A x B) u (A x C). Hence proved.

Theorem XI. Prove that if A c B, then A x C c B x C.

Proof. Let (x, y) E A x C => X E A and Y E C
=> X E B and Y E C ( -: A c B)
=> (x, y) E B x C
Therefore, A x C c B x C. Hence proved.

Theorem XII. If S and T have n elements in common. Show that S x T and T x S have
n 2 elements in common.
Proof. Suppose) a set R, consisting of n common elements of S and T.
Then, R e S and R e T
Let (x, y) E (R x R) <=} X E R and Y E R
<=} (x E R and Y E R) and (x E R and Y E R)
<=} (X E S andy E T) and (X E T andy E S) ( -: R c S ; R c T)
<=} (x, y) E (S X T) and (x, y) E (T x S)
<=} (x, y) E (S x T) n (T x S)
Therefore, (R x R) = (S x T) n (T x S).
The right hand side contains ordered pairs common to both S x T and T x S.
The left hand side R x R has n2 elements ( .: R has n elements)
Since, the two sets are equal, both have the same number of elements.
Hence, S x T and T x S have n2 common elements.
SETS 15

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Write the following sets in builder from :

(a) A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, i2, i4} (b) K = {3, 6, 9, i2, i5, i8, .. .}
(c) L = {pUNJAB, HARYANA, DELHL UP, ... , BIHAR}.
Sol. (a) {x : x is a +ve integer divisible by 2 and less than 15}.
(b) {x : x is +ve integer and is multiple of 3}.
(c) {x : x is the state of India}.
Example 2. Write the following sets in tabular form :
(a) A = {x : x2 = 9} (b) B = {x : x is a multiple of 3 and 0 < x < 20}
(c) C = {x : x is a +ve even integer} (d) D = {x : x is a multiple of 5}.
Sol. (a) A = {3, - 3} (b) B = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 1S}
(c) C = {2, 4, 6, S, 10, ...} (d) D = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ...}
Example 3. Which of the following sets are equal :
(a) R = {x : x2 = 7) (b) S = {x : x + 4 = 4)
2
(c) T = {x : x + 2 = 8}.
Sol. The sets R and T are equal as they are empty sets. The set S is not an empty set,
because element (x = 0) belongs to set S.
Example 4. Determine the power set P(A) of the set A = {I, 2, 3}.
Sol. P(A) = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}, q,}.
Example 5. Let A = [{a}, {b, c, d, e}, {c, d}]. List the elements ofA and determine whether
each of the following statements are true or false.
(i) a E A (ii) {a} E A
(iii) {{a}, (c, d)) c A (iv) {b, c, d, e} C A
(v) q, C A (vi) q, E A.
Sol. Given A = {{a}, {b, c, d, e}, {c, d}}
The elements of A are {a}, {b, c, d, e}, {c, d}
(i) False. Since the element a is not one of the three elements of A.
(ii) True. The set {a} is one of the three elements of A.
(iii) True. The set {{a}, {c, d}} is a subset of A.
(iv) False. {b, c, d, e} is an element of A, not a subset of A.
(v) True. The empty set is a subset of every set.
(vi) False. Since, the empty set is not listed as one of the elements of A.
Example 6. Consider B = {{I, 3, 5}, {2, 4, 6}, {OJ}. List the elements of B and determine
whether each of the following statements is true or false.
(i) q, c B (ii) 3 E B
(iii) {l, 3, 5} c B (iv) {l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} E B
(v) {{2, 4, 6}, (O)) c B (vi) {OJ E B.
Sol. Given B = {{1, 3, 5}, {2, 4, 6}, (O)).
The elements of B are {1, 3, 5}, {2, 4, 6}, {OJ
16 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(i) True. Since the empty set is a subset of every subset.
(ii) False. Since 3 is not an element of B.
(iii) False. Since {1, 3, 5} is one of the three elements of B.
(iv) False. Since {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is not an element of B.
(v) True. Since {2, 4, 6}, {OJ are elements of B, therefore {{2, 4, 6}, {O}} is a subset of B.
(vi) True. Since {OJ is one of the three elements of B.

Example 7. Let E = {{I, 2, 3}, {2, 3}, {a, b}}, F = {{a, b}, {I, 2}}. List the elements of E.
Determine whether the following statements are true or not
(i) {a, b} c F (ii) [{1, 2, 3}] c E
(iii) F C E (iv) q, C F
(v) l E E (vi) {2, 3} E E.
Sol. Given E = {{1, 2, 3}, {2, 3}, {a, b}}
The elements of E are {1, 2, 3}, {2, 3}, {a, b}
(i) False. Since {a, b} is one of the three elements of E
(ii) True. Since {1, 2, 3} is an element from E therefore, {{1, 2, 3}} is a subset of E
(iii) False. Since {1, 2} E F but {1, 2} 'l E
(iv) True. The empty set is a subset of every set
(v) False. Since 1 is not an element of E
(vi) True. Since {2, 3} is one of the three elements of E.
Example 8. If A = {x : 3x = 6}. Does A = 2 ?
Sol. Given A = {x : 3x = 6} = {2}. Now 2 E A but A ", 2.
Example 9. Determine which of the following sets are equal: q" {OJ, {q,}.
Sol. The set (OJ contains one element, namely, zero.
The set q, contains no element as it is an empty set.
The set {q,} also contains one element, the null set.
Hence) each given set is different from the other sets.

Example 10. Describe a situation where the universal set U may be empty.
Sol. Let U is the set of town councillor in a given city. It is possible that in a given year,
there are no such councillors and hence U = q,.

Example 11. Explain the difference between A C B and A c B.

Sol. The statement A C B reads as "A is a subset of B"and means that every element of
A also belongs to B, which includes the possibility A = B.
The statement A c B reads as "A is a proper subset of B" and means that A is a subset
of B but A '" B. Hence there is at least one element in B which is not in A.

Example 12. If A = {2, 3, 4, 5}. Is A a subset ofB = {x : x E N, x is even} ?

Sol. A cannot be a subset of B if we can find at least one element in A but not in B. Now
3 E A but 3 'l B since B consists of even numbers. Hence A is not a subset of B.
SETS 17
Example 13. Show that A = {2, 3, 4, 5} is a proper subset of B = {I, 2, 3, ..... 8, 9}.
Sol. Each element of A is also an element of B. Hence A c B. On the other hand, 1 E B
but 1 'l A.
Hence A '" B. Therefore, A is a proper subset of B.

Example 14. LetA, B, C be non-empty sets such that A c B, B e e and C c A. What can
be deduced about these sets ?
Sol. Given A c B, B e e => Ace
B e e, C c A => BcA
Now A c B, B c A => A=B
C c A, A c e => C=A
Hence A) B) C are equal sets.

Example 15. If A is a subset of the null set q" then A = q,. Prove it.
Sol. We know that the null set q, is a subset of every set. In particular, q, c A. Also given
A c q,. Hence A = q,.

Example 16. Does every set have a proper set ?

Sol. No, since the null set q, does not have a proper subset. Every other set does have q,
as a proper subset.

Example 17. Suppose

U = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
A = {I, 4, 9}
P = {x : x E U and x is a perfect square}
R = {I, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}
D = {2, 3, 5, 7}
N = {x : x E U and x is a prime number}
q, = the empty set
(a) Determine which sets are subsets of others.
(b) Determine which sets are proper subsets of others.
(c) Determine pair of sets which are disjoint.
(d) Determine pair of sets which are comparable.
(e) Determine pair of sets which are incomparable.
Sol. (a) All the sets are subsets of U since the elements of every set belong to U. Set q, is
subset of all other sets. Set A is subset of P. Set D is subset of R and N.
(b) All the sets are proper subsets of U since they are not equal to U. Set D is proper
subset of R. Set R is proper subset of N. Set q, is proper subset of all the other sets.
(c) The pairs A and D, A and N, P and D, and P and N are disjoint sets.
(d) All the sets are comparable with the set U.
Set D is comparable with R as D c R
Set R is comparable with N as R c N
All sets comparable with q, as q, C Every set.
(e) The pairs A and R, A and D, A and N, P and R, P and D, P and N, are incomparable.
18 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 18. Determine the cardinalities of the sets :
(a) P = {n 7 : n is a positive integer} (b) Q = {n 1 09 : n is a positive integer}
�PuQ MPn�
Sol. (a) The cardinality of the set P is countably infinite as the number of +ve integers
are infinite.
(b) The cardinality of the set Q is countably infinite as the number of positive integers
are infinite.
(c) Since sets P and Q are both infinite, their union is also infinite and hence cardinality
of the set P u Q is also infinite.
(d) The cardinality of P n Q is one because for n = 1
1 7 = 1 ' 09
But forn=2; 27 '" 2 ' 09
and so on.
Hence) P n Q contains only one element.
. . Cardinality of P n Q = 0

Example 19. (a) Let N is the set of all natural numbers. Let P denotes the set ofall finite
subsets ofN. What is the cardinality of set P ? Give reason.
(b) Find the cardinal number of the following sets
(a) A = {a. b. c • y. z}
. . .• (b) B = {l. - 3. 5. 7. - SO}
(C) C = {X E N : x" = 7) (d) D = {5. 10. 15. 20 ) • ...

(e) E = {S. 9. 10. 11 } • ...

Sol. (a) The number of subsets of any set is given by 2 n , where n is number of elements
in the set. As the number of subsets of set N is 2ft) hence there are 2 n number of subsets in set
P. Therefore, the cardinality of set P is 2n .
(b) (a) The cardinality of A = 26 since there are 26 letters in the English alphabet.
(b) The cardinality of B = 4
(c) The cardinality of C = 0 (zero) as there is no x E N whose square is 7.
(d) Countably infinite
(e) Countably infinite
Example 20. Determine which of the following are true and which are false. Justify
your answer.
(a) 3 E {I, 3, 5}
(b) Let A = {(a, b)}, then
(i) a E A (ii) A E A (iii) {a, b} E A (iv) n(A) = 2
(c) {3} E {I, 3, 5} (d) {3} c {I, 3, 5} (e) {3, 5} c {I, 3, 5}
(f) {I, 3, 5} c {I, 3, 5} (g) q, C q, (h) q, E q,
(i) q, c {q,} (j) q, E {q,} (k) {q,} E q,
(T) {q,} c {q,} (m) {q,} E {q,}
(n) {a, b} c {a, b, c. {a, b, ell (0) 1 E {a + 2b : a, b are even integers}.
Sol. (a) True. Since 3 is a member of {I, 3, 5}. Hence, 3 E {I, 3, 5}.
(b) (i) False. The only member of the set A is the element {a, b}. Hence, a 'l A.
(ii) False.
SETS 19

(iii) True. {a, b} is the element of A. Therefore, {a, b} E A.

(iv) False. Since A has only one element namely {a, b}. Therefore, n(A) = 1.
(e) False. Since {3} is not an element of A.
(d) True. Since {3} is a subset of {1, 3 , 5} and also {3} is not equal to {1, 3 , 5}. Hence, it is
a proper subset of {1, 3, 5}. Therefore, {3} c {1, 3, 5}.
(e) True. Since {3, 5} is a subset of {1, 3, 5}.
(f) False. Since {1, 3, 5} is a subset of {1, 3, 5} and both are equal. Therefore, it is an
improper subset of {1, 3, 5}. Hence, {1, 3, 5} C {1, 3, 5}.
(g) True. Both sets have no elements i.e., q, = q,. Therefore, q, c q, (Every set is a subset of
itself.)
(h) False. As q, contains no element.
(i) True. Since empty set is a subset of every set. Hence, q, c {q,}.
(j) True. q, is an element of {q,}.
(k) False. Since {q,} is a set containing the element q" whereas, q, is an empty set containing
no element.
(l) True. Every set is a subset of itself.
(m) False.
(n) True. Since {a, b} is a subset of the set {a, b, e, (a, b, e)) .
(0) False. Since a and b are even integers) a + 2b is also an even integer. But 1 cannot be
even.

Example 21. (i) If A = {I, 2, {I, 3}, q,}, determine the following sets
(P.T.V. B. Tech. May 2009)
(a) A - {1) (b) A - q, (e) A - {q,) (d) A - {1, 2).
(ii) If A = (q" {q,}}, determine whether the following statements are true or false.
(a) q, E P(A) (b) q, c P(A) (e) {q,} C P(A) (d) {q,} c A
(e) {q,} E P(A) (f) {q,} E A ) {q,
(g ( )) c P(A) (h) ({q,)) c A
(i) ({q,)) E P(A) (j) ({q,)) E A.
Sol. (i) Given set A = {1, 2, {1, 3}, q,}
The elements of A are 1, 2, {1, 3}, q,.
. . {1}, {q,} are subset of A
(a) A - {1} = (x : x E A and x " ( 1)) = {2, {1, 3}, q,}.
(b) A - q, = {x : x E A and x " q,} = A = {1, 2, {1, 3}, q,}.
(e) Since q, is an element of A, therefore, {q,} is a subset of A containing the element q,.
.. A - {q,} = {x : x E A and x " (q,)) = {1, 2, ( 1, 3)) .
(d) Since 1, 2 are elements of A therefore, {1, 2} is a subset of A.
.. A - {1, 2} = {x : x E A and x " ( 1, 2)) = {{1, 3}, q,}.
(ii) Given A = (q" (q,)) i.e., the elements of A are q" {q,}
.. P(A) = {q" {q,}, ({q,)), {q" (q,m i.e.,
The elements of P(A) are q" {q,}, ({q,)), (q" (q,))
(a) True, since q, is an element of P(A).
(b) True, since the empty set is a subset of every set
20 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(c) True, since <I' is an element of P (A) , therefore, {<I'} is a subset of P (A)
(d) True, since <I' is an element of A, therefore, {<I'} is a subset of A
(e) True, since <I' is an element of P(A) , therefore, {<I'} is a subset of P (A)
if) True, since {<I'} is an element of A
(g) True, since {<I'} is an element of P(A) , therefore, ({<I'll is a subset of P(A)
(h) True, since {<I'} is an element of A, therefore, {{<I'll is a subset of A
(i) True, since ({<I'll is an element of P(A)
(j) False, since ({<I'll is not an element of A.
Example 22. Determine whether each of the following statements is true or false. Ex-
plain your answer.
(a) A u P(A) = P(A) (b) A n P(A) = A
(c) {A} u P(A) = P(A) (d) {A} n P(A) = A
(e) P(A) - {A} = P(A).
Sol. (a) A u P(A) = P(A).
False. P (A) contains all subsets of A but does not contain all elements of A. Therefore,
A u P(A) '" P(A) .
(b) A n P(A) = A.
False. Since power set of A contains all subsets of A but no elements of A, hence there is
no element common to both the sets. Therefore, A n P (A) '" A.
(c) {A} u P(A) = P (A)
True. P(A) contains all subsets of A and {A} is also an element of P(A) .
(d) {A} n P (A) = A.
False. {A} is common to both {A} and P (A) because P(A) contains all subsets of A but
their intersection is not A. Therefore, {A} n P(A) '" {A}
(e) P (A) - {A} = P (A) .
False. {A} is also an element of P(A) . Therefore, P (A) - {A} '" P (A) .
Example 23. Consider the sets
A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, C = {I, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
Find (i) A EB B (ii) B EB C
(iii) A n (B EB C), (A n B) EB (A n C) and show that both are equal.
Sol. (i) By definition, A EB B = (A u B) - (A n B)
But A u B = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
A n B = {4, 5, 6}
(A u B) - (A n B) = The elements which are in A u B but not in A n B
= {I, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9} = A EB B
(ii) Proceed as in Part (i)
B EB C = {I, 3, 4, 6, 8}
(iii) Using part (ii), A n (B EB C) = {I, 3, 4, 6} ... (1)
Also A n B = {4, 5, 6}, A n C = {I, 3, 5}
.. (A n B) u (A n C) = {4, 5 , 6, 1 , 3}
(A n B) n (A n C) = {5}
SETS 21

� n m ffi � n � = � n m u � n � - � n m n � n �
= {I, 3, 4, 6} ... (2)
From (1) and (2)
A n (B ffi C) = (A n B) ffi (A n C).
Example 24. Determine the following sets :
(a) q, u {q,} (b) q, n {q,} (c) {q,} u {a, q" (q,))
(d) {q,} n {a, q" (q,)) (e) q, ffi {a , q" (q,)) (f) {q,} ffi {a, q" (q,)) .
Sol. (a) q, is an empty set and {q,} is a singleton set containing the element q,
.. q, u {q,} = {q,}
(b) q, n {q,} = q,
(c) {q,} u {a , q" (q,)) = {a, q" (q,))
(d) {q,} n {a, q" (q,)) = {q,}
(e) We know that A ffi B = (A - B) u (B - A)
Take A = q" B = {a, q" (q,))
A - B = The set of elements which are in A and not in B = q,
B - A = The set of elements which are in B and not in A = {a, q" (q,))
A ffi B = (A - B) u (B - A) = q, u {a, q" (q,)) = {a, q" (q,))
(f) Take A = {q,}, B = {a, q" (q,))
A - B = The set of elements which are in A and not in B
= {q,} [since q, is an element of A]
B - A = The set of elements which are in B and not in A = {a, (q,))
A ffi B = (A - B) u (B - A) = {q,} u {a, (q,)) = {a, (q,)) .

Example 25. Let A, B, C be sets. Under what conditions is each of the following true ?
(a) (A - B) u (A - C) = q, (b) (A - B) n (A - C) = q,
(c) (A - B) ffi (A - C) = q,.
Sol. (a) This is true if A = B = C or A, B and C are null sets.
(b) This is true if A = B = C or all three sets are null sets.
(c) This is true if A c B and A c C.
It is also true if A c B and A g; C but B = C.

Example 26. What can you say about P and Q if

(a) P n Q = P (b) P u Q = P (c) P ffi Q = P (d) P n Q = P u Q.
Sol. (a) This tells that P c Q. (b) This tells that P = Q or Q c P.
(c) P ffi Q = P => (P - Q) u (Q - P) = P. This tells that Q is a null set.
(d) This tells that P = Q.
Example 27. Let A, B, C be arbitrary sets :
(a) Show that (A - B) - C = A - (B u C).
(b) Show that (A - B) - C = (A - C) - B.
(c) Show that (A - B) - C = (A - C) - (B - C).
22 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. (a) (A - B) - C = A - (B u C)
Let x E (A - B) - C => X E (A - B) and x O' C
=> x E A and x 0' B and x 0' C
=> X E A and x 0' (B or C)
=> x E A and x O' B u C
=> x E A - (B u C).
A - (B u C) C (A - B) - C ... (i)
Conversely, let x E A - (B u C)
=> x E A and x O' B u C
=> x E A and x 0' B and x 0' C
=> X E A - B and x O' C
=> X E (A - B) - C
(A - B) - C c A - (B u C) ... (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get (A - B) - C = A - (B u C).
(b) (A - B) - C = (A - C) - B
Let X E (A - B) - C
=> X E A - B and x O' C => X E A and x 0' B and x 0' C
=> X E A - C and x O' B => X E (A - C) - B
(A - C) - B c (A - B) - C ... (i)
Conversely, let x E (A - C) - B
=> X E (A - C) and x 0' B => X E A and x 0' C and x 0' B
=> X E A and x 0' B and x 0' C => X E (A - B) and x O' C
=> X E (A - B) - C
(A - B) - C c (A - C) - B ... (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get (A - B) - C = (A - C) - B.
(c) (A - B) - C = (A - C) - (B - C)
Let X E (A - B) - C => X E (A - B) and x O' C
=> X E A and x O' B and x O' C => x E A and x 0' C and x 0' B and x 0' C
=> X E A - C and x O' B - C => X E (A - C) - (B - C)
. . (A - C) - (B - C) c (A - B) - C ... (i)
Conversely, let x E (A - C) - (B - C)
=> X E (A - C) and x 0' (B - C) => X E A and x 0' C and x 0' B and x 0' C
=> X E A and x 0' B and x 0' C => X E A - B and x O' C
=> X E (A - B) - C
. . (A - B) - C c (A - C) - (B - C) ... (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get (A - B) - C = (A - C) - (B - C).
SETS 23
Example 28. Given that P u Q = P u R, is it necessary that Q = R ? Justify your answer.
Sol. This is not necessary. Since
PuQ => all elemen ts of P or Q are in this set.
PuR => all elemen ts of P or R are in this set.
If Q c P and also R e P. Then P u Q = P u R = P.
Therefore, it is not necessary that Q = R.
e.g., Let P = {I, 2, 3, 4}, Q = {I, 2}, R = {3, 4}, then P u Q = P u R = P
But here Q fc R.

Example 29. Given that P n Q = P n R, is it necessary that Q = R ? Justify your answer.

Sol. This is not necessary. Since
P n Q contains elements common to both P and Q.
P n R contains elements common to both P and R.
But it is not necessary that Q = R because set R can have elements of set Q which are
elements of set P as well, but it can also have elements other than those in set Q.
e.g. , Let P = {I, 2, 5, 6}, Q = {I, 2, 8}, R = {I, 2, 9}
Then P n Q = P n R = {I, 2} ; but Q fc R.

Example 30. Given that P 8l Q = P 8l R, is it necessary that Q = R ? Justify your answer.

Sol. It is necessary that Q = R.
Because P 8l Q = (P u Q) - (P n Q) i.e., this set contains elements which are in sets P or
Q but does not contain elements common to both sets.
Similarly, P 8l R = (P u R) - (P n R) i.e., this set contains elements which are in sets P
or R but does not contain elements common to both sets.
Given P 8l Q = P 8l R
.. W u � - W n � = w u m - W n m
=> P u Q = P u R and P n Q = P n R, which is possible only when
Q=R
e.g., let P = {I, 2, 3, 4}, Q = {I, 5}, R = {I, 5}
P 8l Q = (P u Q) - (P n Q) = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5} - {I} = {2, 3, 4, 5}
P 8l R = (P u R) - (P n R) = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5} - {I} = {2, 3, 4, 5}
=> Q = R.

Example 31. (a) Prove that (A - B) n B = q,.

(b) A u {B - A) = A u B
Sol. (a) (A - B) n B = q,
If x E B, then x 'l A - B due to definition of A - B. Hence
x E B and x 'l A - B => (A - B) n B = q,. Hence proved.

(b) We prove A u (B - A) = A u B
Let X E A u (B - A) <=? X E A or x E B - A

<=? x E A or (x E B and x 'l A)

24 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
<=? (x E A or x E B) n (x E A or x 'l A)
<=?

<=?

<=?
x E A or x E B
xE Au B
A u (B - A) c A u B
I
A u (B n C)
= (A u B) n (A u C)

Hence A u (B - A) = A u B

Example 32. Prove that A u B = <jJ => A = <jJ, B = <jJ.

Sol. Let A u B = <jJ
Now <jJ is a subset of every set => <jJ e A, <jJ e B
Since, A e A u B, B e A u B
Hence, A e <jJ, B e <jJ I A u B = <jJ
So A e <jJ, <jJ e A => A = <jJ
B e <jJ, <jJ e B => B = <jJ. Hence proved.

Example 33. Prove that A - B e B'.

Sol. Let x E A - B => X E A and x 'l B
X E A and x E B' => X E A n B' as A n B' e B'
===> X E Be
Therefore, any x E A - B => X E B'
So A - B e B'. Hence proved.

Example 34. Given that (A n C) c (B n C), (A n C) c (B n O). Show that A c B.

Sol. For (A n C) c (B n C), all elements of set A which are also elements of set C are
contained in a set which contains elements common to both B and C. It implies A c B for
elements which are common in A and C, and B and C.
For (A n 0) c (B n O), elements common to sets A and 0 are contained in a
set containing elements common to both B and C. It implies A c B for elements common in A
and 0 and also in B and O .
Hence, from both conditions it is shown that A c B.
Example 35. (a) If a set A has 20 elements, then how many members of P(A) are proper
subsets ofA.
(b) Salad is made with combination of one or more eatables. How many different salads
can be made from onion, tomato, carrot, cabbage and cucumber ?
Sol. (a) If A has 20 elements, then P(A) has 220 elements out of which (220 - 1) are
proper subsets of A, as one of the member of P(A) is the set A (improper subset of A) itself.
(b) Let, A = {Onion, Tomato, Carrot, Cabbage, and Cucumber}.
Now the set of all salads is all possible subsets of A except <jJ (as no salad can be pre·
pared without using at least one of the eatables)
.. Number of salads = n(P(A» - 1
= 25 - 1 I P(A) contains 2 5 elements
= 31.
SETS 25

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1.1

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Determine which of the following sets are finite, If so) find the cardinality of each set.
A
(a) � {seasons in a year} (b) B
� {states in India}
(c) =
C {positive integers less than one} (d)
D {Odd integers} =
=
(e) E {positive integral divisors of 12}
2. A B
If � {2. 3, 5} and � { E N is even}. Is a subset of
4, x:x A B?
3. ) A
(a Is � {2, 3, 5} a subset of � {
4, B
E N, is even}
x:x x ?
(b) A
Is � {2, 3, 5} a proper subset of C � {I, 2, 3, ...... , 8, 9}.
4,
(e) Give an example one each for sets B and C such thatA,
(i) CA B, B C C and C A r];
(ii) A c B, B C C and C C. A
4. Which of the following sets are equal ?
( )A
a �{ x : x' - 4x
+ 3 � O} (b) B
� { 3x + 2 � O} x : x' -
(c) C�{ E N,
x:x 3} x< (d)
D � { E N, is odd 5} x:x x <

(e) E � {1, 2} !JJ F � {3, I}

5. A B
If � {I, 2, 5, 6}, � {2, 5, 7}, C � {I, 3, 5, 7, 9}, U � {I, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, find 4,
(a) A n B (b) B u C
(c) AC (d) A - B
(e) A- C !JJ A EIl B
(g) A Ell C C) (h) (A u -B
(i) (A u BY Ell C) (j) (B -A
6. A
(a) If � {I, 2, 3, 5}. Find the cardinal number of the power set of
4, A.
(b) A
If � {I, 2, 3}. Find peA). (P. T. U. B. Tech. Dec. 2007)
7. ( ) A
a If C show that B, � AnB� A, A u B B
(b) Show that we can have � C without � C An B An B
(c) Show that we can have Au B =Au
C without C B=
(d) A, B,
Let C are three sets such that � C and � Au B Au AnB A n C. B
Show that � C.
8. Describe the following sets in set builder form
( )
a {3, 5, 7, 9, ... ... 77, 79}.
(b) The rational numbers that lie between - 1 and 1.
(c) The even integers. (P. T. U. B. Tech. Dec. 2005)
9. A B
Let � {O, 2, 3}, � {2, 3}, C � {I, 5, 9}
Determine which of the following statements are true. Give reasons.
( )A
a C B {3} E (b) A
(c) {3} C A C (d) B A
(e) C A B !JJ � C C
(g) � E A (h) B n A c C
26 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
10. If A � {a, 2, 3}, B � {2, 3}, C � {I, 5, 9} and U � {a, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, Determine
(a) B -A A B(b) x
(c) A-B (d) B2
(e) B3 if) C {8} x

LONG ANSWERS TYPE QUESTIONS

11. Find the dual if each set equations
(a) (U n A) u (B n A) � A (A u B u cy � (A u cy n (A u BY
(b)
(c) (An n (� uN) � �
U) (d) (An uy nA� �
12. (a) Prove that (A u B) - (A n B) � (A -B) u (B -A)
(b) If A and B are two subsets of a universal set, prove that A - B A B. = II

(P. T. U. B.
Tech. 2008)
13. (a) Determine the power set of A � { , c, d} a b,
(b) Distinguish between �, {�}, {a}, o. (P. T. U. M. C.A. May 2008)
14. Prove that
(a) (A n B) c Ae (A u B) (An B) c B c (A u B).
(b)
15. Prove that
(a) A Ell (B Ell C) � (A Ell B) Ell C A Ell B � B Ell A
(b)
(c) If A Ell C � A Ell B, Then C � B (d) A n (B Ell C) � (A n B) Ell (A n C)
where denotes the symmetric difference of two sets
EB

16. State and prove DeMorgan's law on difference of sets.

Two finite setsnumber
have ofandsubsets
n elements. The total
set.number
Find theofvalue
17. m subsetsof ofand
the n,first set is 56 more
than the total of the second m

(P. T. U. M c.A.
Dec. 2006)
18. (a) If A � { +, - } and B � {OO, 01, la, ll} . Find A B x (P. T. U. B.
Tech. May 2005)
(b) How many elements of A4 and (A B)3 have ? x

Answers
1. (a) n(A) � 4 nCB) � 28
(b)
(c) n(C) � a (d) Infinite
(e) neE) � 6.
2. No, since 3 A does not in B.
E
3. (a) No. since 3 A but 3 B as B contains even numbers.
E rt
(b) Yes, since each
Therefore, A is aelement of A isofalsoC. an element of C. Also, 1 C but 1 A. Hence, A C.
proper subset E tt t:-

(c) (i) A � {a, b}, B � e, d}, C �

{{a, b}, a, }, { , e, d}, g, h}
{{a, b a
(ii) A � { , c}, B �
a b, c}, {d, e}, f}, C � {{{a, c}, {d, e}, f}, { , e}, g} .
{{a, b, b, a b,
4. B � C � E, A � D � G
5. (a) An B � {2, 5} B u C � {I, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}
(b)
(c) � {3, 7, 8 , 9}
A" 4, (d) A-B � {1, 6}
(e) A - C � {2, 6} (f) A Ell B � {I, 6, 7}
(g) A Ell C � {2 , 3, 6, 7, 9} (h) (A u C) - B � {I, 3, 6, 9}
(i) (A u BY � {3 , 8 , 9} 4, (j) (B Ell C) -A� {3, 9}
SETS 27
6. (a) 32 (b) PiA} � {{I}, {2}, {3}, {I, 2}, {I, 3}, {2, 3}, {I, 2, 3},
N
8. (a) {2m + 1, m Z, 2 m 39} E <; <; <;
(b) {x : x Q, - 1 x I}
E <;
(c) {2n : n Z E

9. (a) False (b) False (c) True (d) True

(e) False if) True (g) False (h) False.
10. (a) � (b) {CO, 2), (0, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
(c) {OJ (d) {(2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
)
(e {{2, 2, 2}, {2, 2, 3}, {2, 3, 2}, {2, 3, 3}, {3, 2, 2}, {3, 2, 3}, {3, 3, 2}, {3, 3, 3}}
if) {{I, 8}, {5, 8}, {9, 8}}.
11. (a) (� u A) n (B u A) � A (b) (A n B n cy � (A n cy u (A n BY
(c) (A u �) u (U n AC) � U (d) (A u W u A � U
13. (a) peA) � [A, {a, b, c}, {a, b, {a, c, {b, c, d}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, {b, c}, {b, {c, d}, {a}, {b}, {c},
d), d), d), d),
{d}, �l
17. m � 6, n � 3.
18. (a) A x B � {+ 00, + 01, + 10, + 11, - 11, -00, - 10, - 11}, (b) 16, 512.
Hints
7. (b) Take A � {I, 2}, B � {2, 3}, C � {2, 4}, then An B � {2}, An C � {2}, but B " C
(c) Take A � {I, 2}, B � {I, 3}, C � {2, 3}, then A u B � A u C � {I, 2, 3}, but B " C.
11. Interchange u and and also U and � in each set equations.
II

12. � 0u � - 0 n � � 0u � n 0n � � 0 u � n W u �
� 0n � u 0n B' u (B n � u (B n �
� � u (A n B") u (B n N) u � � (A n B") u (B n N)
� (A -B) u (B -A)
14. (a) Let x An B x A and x B
E � E E

Now x A A B C A
E =:::} II ... (1)
Further, if x Ai then x Au B
E E I Definition of A u B
ACAuB ... (2)
Combining (1) and (2), An B C A C A u B.
17. Let n(A) � m, nCB) � n, Then
Total number of subsets of A = 2 m
Total number of subsets of B = 2 n
2n (2m-n 1) � 56 � 8.7 � 23 (23 - 1)
_

n= 3, m- n = 3 m = 6. ==>

18. (b) A'�AxAxAxA

.. n(A') � n(A x A x A x A) � n(A) . n(A) . n(A) . n(A)
� 2 · 2 · 2 . 2 � 16
Also n(A) � 2, nCB) � 4, n(A x B) � n(A) . nCB) � 2.4 � 8
n(A x B)' � n(A x B) . n(A x B) . n(A x B) � 8.8.8 � 512
28 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 .9. PARTITIONS OF SETS AND VENN-DIAGRAMS

Partitions of sets. Let S be a non·empty set. A partition P of S is a finite collection

{Ai li=, of non·empty subsets of S such that
(i) 1\ n Aj = <I> \;j i '" j i.e., the subsets 1\ are mutually disjoint
n

(ii) U 1\ = S
i=l
In other words, a partition P of S is a subdivision of S into disjoint non empty sets. The
subsets in a partition are called cells.

1 . 1 0. VENN-DIAGRAMS

A Venn·diagram is a pictorial representation of sets in which sets are represented by

enclosed areas in the plane. The universal set U is represented by the interior of a rectangle
and the other sets are represented by circles lying with in the rectangle. For e.g.,
If A and B are two arbitrary sets such that
(i) A c B (ii) A n B = <I>
The Venn·diagrams of these sets is shown in Fig. 1 .1, and Fig. 1.2.

8 8
An B= �
Fig. 1 . 1 Fig. 1 . 2
1 . 1 1 . CROSS PARTITION
If [A" A" ...... , Am] and [B" B" ...... BJ be partitions of a set X. Then the set P = {Ai n Bj ,
i = 1, 2, ... m; j = 1, 2, . . . n} is called cross partition.

I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES I
Example 1. Let S = {red, blue, green, yellow}. Determine which of the following is a
partition of S
(a) Pl = {{red}, {blue, green}} (b) P2 = {{red, blue, green, yellow}}
(c) P3 = [<I>, {red, blue}, {green, yellow}} (d) P4 = [{blue}, [red, yellow, green}}.
Sol. (a) No, since P, = [{red}, {blue, green}] .
Here P, cannot be a partition of S since yellow does not belong to any cell in P ,.
(b) Yes, since P, = {red, blue, green, yellow}
Here P, is a partition of S since P, has one element which is S itself.
(c) No, since P 3 = [<I>, {red, blue}, {green, yellow}]
Here P 3 cannot be a partition. Since the empty set <I> cannot belong to a partition.
SETS 29
(d) Yes, since P4 = [{blue}, {red, yellow, green}]
Here P 4 is a partition since each cell in P 4 is disjoint and their union is S.
Example 2. Let S = {I, 2, 3, ...... , 8, 9}. Determine whether or not each of the following is
a partition of S
(a) [{I, 3, 5}, {2, 6}, {4, 8, 9}]
(b) {{I, 3, 5}, {2, 4, 6, 8}, {5, 7, 9}}
(e) {{I, 3, 5}, {2, 4, 6, 8}, {7, 9}}
(d) Let X = {I, 2, 3, ... 8, 9}. Determine whether or not each of the following is a partition
of X.
(i) [{l, 3, 6}, {2, 8}, {5, 7, 9}}
(ii) [{l, 5, 7}, {2, 4, 8, 9} {3, 5, 6}}
Sol. (a) No, since 7 does not belong to any cell
(b) No, since {I, 3, 5} and {5, 7, 9} are not disjoint
(e) Yes, as each cell is disjoint and their union is S .
(d) (i) Given X = {I, 2, 3, . . . 8, 9}
Let P 1 = [{I, 3, 6}, {2, 8}, {5, 7, 9}]
Take A, = {I, 3, 6}, � = {2, 8}, � = {5, 7, 9}
Clearly A" � and � are mutually disjoint sets.
Also A, U � U � = {I, 2, 3, 6, 5, 7, 8, 9} '" X (since 4 E X is not in A, U � U A3)
:. P 1 is not a partition of X
(ii) Let P, = [{I, 5, 7}, {2, 4, 8, 9}, {3, 5, 6}]
Take B, = {I, 5, 7}, B, = {2, 4, 8, 9}, B3 = {3, 5, 6}
Clearly, B" B, and B3 are mutually disjoint sets. Also
B, u B, U B3 = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} = X
:. P, is a partition of X.
Example 3. Find all partitions of S = {a, b, c, d}.
Sol. Each partition of X contains either 1, 2, 3 or 4 distinct sets. The partitions are as
follows:
(1) {{a, b, e, d}}
(2) {{a}, {b, e, d}}, lib}, {a, e, d}}, {{e}, {a, b, d}}, lid}, {a, b, e}},
{{a, b}, {e, d}}, {{a, e}, {b, d}}, {{a, d}, {b, e}}
(3) {{a}, {b}, {e, d}}, {{a}, {c}, {b, d}}, {{a}, {d}, {b, e}},
lib}, {e}, {a, d}}, lib}, {d}, {a, e}}, {{c}, {d}, {a, b}}
(4) {{a}, {b}, {e}, {d}}
There are fifteen different partitions of X.
Example 4. Determine whether or not each of the following is a partition of the set N of
positive integers.
(a) {in : n > 5}, {n : n < 5}} (b) {in : n > 5}, {O}, {l, 2, 3, 4, 5}}
2 2
(e) {{n : n > ll}, {n : n < ll}}.
Sol. (a) No, since 5 does not belong to any cell
(b) No, since {O} is not a subset of N
(c) Yes, the two cells are disjoint and their union is N.
30 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 5. Find all the partitions of S = {I, 2, 3j.
Sol. Each partition of S contains either, 1, 2 or 3 different cells.
The partition containing 1 cell is {I, 2, 3} = S
The partitions containing 2 different cells are {{I}, {2, 3}}, {{2}, {I, 3}}, {{3}, {I, 2}}
The partitions containing 3 different cells are {{I}, {2}, {3}}
Hence, there are five different partitions of S.
Example 6. Consider the set Z of integers. Determine which of the following is a parti-
tion ofZ ?
(i) P1 = {{nj " n E Z}
(ii) P1 = {n : n E Z, n < OJ, P2 = {OJ, P3 = {n : n E Z and n > OJ
(iii) P1 = {n " n E Z and n .'2 OJ, P2 = {n " n E Z and n '" OJ
(iv) P1 = {n E Z : I n I = k, k = - 1, 0, 1, 2, .... .j, P2 = {n E Z = I n I = - Ij.
Sol. (i) Yes, since for different value of n, we have different sets and all the sets are
mutually disjoint.
(ii) Yes, since P" P, and P3 are mutually disjoint and
P 1 u P, u P3 = {n : n E Z, n < O} u {O} u {n : n E Z, n > O} = Z
(iii) No, since P, and P, are not mutually disjoint as 0 E both P, and P,
(iv) No, since P, = {n E Z = I n I = - I} = <jJ, as the empty set <jJ cannot belong to any
partition.
Example 7. A student, on an exampaper, defined the term partition in the following
way.
"Let A be a set. A partition of A is any set of non-empty subsets A l' A2' ...... ofA such that
each element of A is in one and only one of the subsets A /' Is this definition correct ? Why ?
Sol. From the given definition of partition, it is possible that an element of A is in one
and only one of the subsets 1\. Take
A = {a, b, c}, A, = {a, c}, � = {b, c}, � = {c, a}
Clearly A, u � u � = {a, b, c} = A
'"
But A, n � <jJ. Hence the given definition is not correct.
Example 8. Let {Al' A2, ...... An} be a partition of the set A and if B is any non-empty
'"
subset of A. Prove that {A i n B : Ai : n B <jJ} is a partition of A n B.
Sol. Since {A" �, ... An} is a partition of A, therefore, the sets Ai are non-empty and
n
U i=
mutually disj oint and A A . Also, B is non-empty subset of A, therefore,
i= l
n

B n A= B n U A i = B n (A, u A, u � u ... u An>

i= l
= (B n A,) u (B n �) u ... (B n An> I Distributive law
n

= U (B n AJ
i= l
Next, we show that all B n 1\ are mutually disjoint. For this consider, for i j '"
(B n 1\) n (B n A) = B n (Ai n A) I Associative law
= B n <jJ I Since 1\ are mutually disjoint
= <jJ
'"
Hence, the set {Ai n B : Ai n B <jJ} is a partition of A n B.
SETS 31

Example 9. If Ai = {I, 2}, A2 = {2, 3}, A3 = {I, 2, 3, 6}. Find U A, and n A, .

3

i=l i=l
(P.T.U. M.C.A. Dec. 2005)
3
Sol. U A i = A, U � U � = {I, 2} U {2, 3} U {I, 2, 3, 6} = {I, 2, 3, 6}.
i= l
3
n A i = A, n � n � = {I, 2} n {2, 3} n {I, 2, 3, 6} = {2} n {I, 2, 3, 6} = {2}.
i= l
Example 10. Let X = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and consider the following partitions ofX
given by Pi = [{l, 3, 5, 7, 9}, (2, 4, 6, 8}) and P2 = [{l, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 7}, (6, 8, 9).
Find the cross partition P.
Sol. Take A, = {I, 3, 5, 7, 9}, � = {2, 4, 6, 8}
B, = {I, 2, 3, 4}, B, = {5, 7}, B3 = {6, 8, 9}
A, n B, = {I, 3},
A, n B, = {5, 7}, A, n B3 = {9}
� n B, = {2, 4}
� n B, = <1>, A, n B3 = {6, 8}
.. The required cross partition of X is given by
P = [{I, 3}, {5, 7}, {9}, {2, 4}, {6, 8}]
(<I> cannot belong to the partition of a set).
Example 11. IfA andB are two sets. Represent each ofthe following as Venn-diagrams.
(a) A u B (b) A n B (c) A'.
Sol. (a) A u B, {x : x E A or x E B]. The Venn-diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3
(b) A n B = {x : x E A and x E B]. The Venn-diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5

(c) N = {x : x E U and x 'l A]. The Venn-diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.5.
Example 12. Draw a Venn diagram of three arbitrary sets A, B, C which divides the
universal set U inta 2" = 8 regions. Explain why are there eight regions ?
32 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. The Venn diagram is shown in Fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6
There are eight regions since there may be elements
(i) in A, B and C (ii) in A and B, but not in C
(iii) in A and C, but not in B (iv) in B and C, but not in A
(v) in only A (vi) in only B
(vii) in only C (viii) in none of A, B, C.
Note: A =
Venn diagram of four sets All �) As and A4 will contain 24 16 regions.
Example 13. (i) Let A and B be sets such that (A n B) c B and B Cl A. Draw the Venn
diagram.
(ii) Let A, B and C be sets such that A c B, A c C, B n C c A, A c (B n C). Draw the Venn
diagram.
(iii) Let A, B, C be sets such that (A n B n C) = <p, A n B = <p, B n C = <p, A n C = <p. Draw
the Venn diagram.
(iv) Let A and B are sets such that:
(a) A n B = B. Draw its Venn diagram
(b) A u B = A and A ", B. Draw its Venn diagram.
Sol. (i) (A n B) c B. It means every member of A is also a
member of B. Hence A c B. Also B Cl A means A and B are not equal.
Hence, A is a proper subset of B i.e., A c B. The correspond·
ing Venn diagram is shown in Fig. 1. 7 (a)

(a)

(ii) Given B n C c A, A c B n C. It implies A = B n C. Also

A c B and A c C. The corresponding Venn diagram is shown in
Fig. 1. 7 (b)

(b)

(iii) Given A n B = <p, B n C = <p, A n C = <p. It means A, B and

C are disjoint sets. The corresponding Venn diagram is shown in 0 8
8
Fig. 1. 7 (c)

(e)
SETS 33

(iv) (a) A n B = B. It means B c A. The corresponding Venn

diagram is shown in Fig. 1. 7 (d)
(b) A u B = A and A '" B. This means B c A.
The corresponding diagram is shown in Fig. 1. 7 (d).

B c;;; A
(d )
Example 14. Draw a Venn diagram of the sets A, B and C Fig. 1.7
(i) where A c B, A and C are disjoint, but B and C have
elements in common.
(ii) where A c B, B and C are disjoint, but A and C have elements in common.
Sol. (i) The required Venn diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.8
(ii) If A and C have an element in common, say x, then x E A and x E C
Also A c B => x must belong to B
Now x E B and x E C and hence, B and C are not disjoint. But it is given that B and
C are disjoint. Hence, No such Venn diagram exists.
Example 15. Using Venn diagrams, prove De Morgan's laws.
Proof. We show (A u B)' = N n B'
Consider the Venn diagram of two arbitrary sets A and B as shown in the Fig. 1.9(a)
Case I. Venn diagram for (A u B)'
Shade A u B with strokes in horizontal direction as shown in Fig. 1.9(b)
(A u B)' is the area outside of A u B as shaded in Fig. 1.9(b). Hence, the Venn diagram
for (A u B)' is shown in the shaded portion of the Fig. 1.9(c).

'
(a) Sets A and B (b) A u B is shade (e) (A u B) is shaded

Fig. 1.9
34 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Case II. Venn diagram for A' n B'
The area outside A is N. Shade N with strokes that slant upward to the right ). (¢'
Fig. l.lO(a)
The area outside B is B'. Shade B' with strokes that slant downward to the right ( �).
Fig. 1. lO(a).

'
(a) A is shaded with¢' '
(b) A n B' is shaded
Be
is shaded with �

Fig. 1 . 1 0

The crosshatched area is shown shaded in Fig. 1.10 (b) is N n B'.

Since Fig. 1.9(c) and Fig. 1. lO(b) represent the same area. Hence (A u B)' = N n B'.

Example 16. Using Venn diagram, show that A u (B n C) = (A u B) n (A u C).

Sol. Consider the Venn diagram for any three sets A, B and C as shown in Fig. 1.ll(a)

C C C
(a) Sets A, B and C (b) A and B n C are shaded (c) A u (B n C)
Fig. 1 . 1 1

Case I. Venn diagram for A u (B n C).

Shade A with upward slanted strokes (¢')
and B n C with downward slanted strokes
(�) as shown in Fig. 1.1 1(b)
The total area is the union A u (B n C) shown in the shaded portion of the Fig. 1.1 1(c)
Case II. Venn diagram for (A u B) n (A u C).
Shade A u B with upward slanted strokes (¢')
and A u C with downward slanted
strokes (�) as shown in Fig. 1. 12(a)
The crosshatched area is the intersection (A u B) n (A u C) is shown in the shaded
portion of the Fig. 1. 12(b).
SETS 35

• ••••••'
A

., c

(a) A u B and A u C are shaded (b) (A u B) n (A u C) is shaded

Fig. 1 . 1 2
Sinee the area represented by Fig. 1. 11 (e) and Fig. 1. 12(b) is same. Hence
A u (B n C) = (A u B) n (A u C).
Example 17. By using Venn diagram, Prove that A n (B u C) = (A n B) u (A n C).
Sol. Consider the Venn diagram for any three sets A, B, C as shown in Fig. 1. 13(a).

A A

c c

(a) Sets A, B and C (b) A and B u C are shade (e) A n (B u C) is shaded

Fig. 1 . 1 3
Case I. Venn diagram for A n (B u C).
Shade A with upward slanted strokes (¢-) and B u C with downward slanted strokes
(�) as shown in Fig. 1.13(b).
The crosshatched area is the intersection A n (B u C) and is shown in the shaded
portion of the Fig. 1. 13(c)
Case II. Venn diagram for (A n B) u (A n C).
Shade A n B with upward slanted strokes (¢-) and A n C with downward slanted
strokes (�) as shown in Fig. 1. 14(a)
The total area is the union (A n B) u (A n C) as shown in the shaded portion of the
Fig. 1. 14(b).

c c

(a) A n B and A n C are shaded (b) (A n B) u (A n C) is shaded

Fig. 1 . 1 4
36 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Since the area represented by Fig. 1. 13(c) and Fig. 1. 14(b) is same. Hence
A n (B u C) = (A n B) u (A n C)

Example 18. Describe the Venn diagram ofA n B'.

Sol. Consider the Venn diagram for two arbitrary sets A and B as shown in Fig. 1. 15(a)
Shade A with strokes that slant upward to the right (�). Shade B', the area outside B,
with strokes that slant downward to the right (�) as shown in Fig. 1. 15(b).

OJ A B
(a) Sets A and B (b) A and B' are shaded (e) A n B' is shades
Fig. 1 . 1 5

The crosshatched area is the intersection A n B' shown in the shaded portion of Fig.
1. 15(c)
Example 19. If A, B are any sets. Draw the Venn-diagrams of
(i) A - B (P.T.U. M.C.A. May 2008)
(ii) B - A
(iii) A EB B, where EB denotes the symmetric difference of two sets.
(P.T.U. M.C.A. May 2008)
Sol. (i) A - B = {x : x E A and x 'l B}. The Venn-diagram is shown in Fig. 1. 16.

Fig. 1 . 1 6 Fig. 1 . 17

(ii) B - A = {x : x E B and x 'l A}. The Venn-diagram is shown in the Fig. 1. 17.
(iii) A EB B = (A u B) - (A n B). The Venn-diagram is shown in the Fig. 1. 18.

Fig. 1 . 1 8
SETS 37
Example 20. Represent A EB B = (A u B) - (A n B), using Venn diagram.
Sol. Consider the Venn diagram for any two sets A and B as shown in the Fig. 1.19

CD A B A B
CD
(a) Sets A and B (b) A u B and A n B are (e) A Ell B is shaded
shaded

Fig. 1 . 1 9

Shade A u B with upward slanted strokes (�) and A n B with downward slanted
strokes (�) as shown in Fig. 1. 19(b)
Then, A EB B consists of the area in Fig. 1. 19(b) with strokes in one direction or another,
but not both, as shown in the shaded portion of the Fig. 1. 19(c).
Example 21. Using Venn diagram, prove the following ,'
If A EB B = A EB C, then B = C. (Cancellation law)
Sol. Consider a Venn diagram for any three sets A, B and C as shown in the Fig. 1.20(a)

A B

c
(a) Sets A, B and C (b) A Ell B is shaded with (1111) (e) (A Ell B) Ell C is shaded
C is shaded with (�� )

Fig. 1 .20
For the Venn diagram of A EB B, shade A EB B with strokes in one direction (�) and
shade A EB C with strokes in another direction (�) as shown in Fig. 1.20(b).
Further, consider the area with strokes in one direction or another, but not in both in
the following Fig. 1.20(c).
Now if A EB B = A EB C, then the areas shaded in Fig. 1.20(c) must be empty. Thus
B = B n C = C. Hence proved.
Example 22. Using Venn diagram, prove
(A EB B) EB C = A EB (B EB C). (Associative law)
38 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. Consider a Venn diagram for any three sets A, B and C as shown in Fig. 1.2 1(a).

A B

(a) Sets A, B and C (b) A Ell B is shaded with � (e) (A Ell B) Ell C is shaded
C is shaded with �

Fig. 1 .2 1

Case I. For the Venn diagram of (A 8l B) 8l C.

Shade A 8l B with strokes in one direction (¢-) and shade C with strokes in another
direction (�) as shown in Fig. 1.21(b).
Then, (A 8l B) 8l C consists of the areas in Fig. 1.21(b) with strokes in one direction or
another but not in both, as shown in the shaded portion of the Fig. 1.21(c).
Case II. For the Venn diagram ofA 8l (B 8l C).
Shade A with strokes in one direction (¢-) and shade B 8l C with strokes in another
direction (�) as shown in the Fig. 1.22(a)
Then, A 8l (B 8l C) consists of the area in the Fig. 1.22(a) with strokes in one direction or
another but not in both as shown in the shaded portion of the Fig. 1.22(b)

A B

C
(a) A is shaded with � (b) A Ell (B Ell C) is shaded
B Ell C is shaded with �

Fig. 1 .22

Since the area represented by Fig. 1.21(c) and Fig. 1.22(b) is same, therefore
(A 8l B) 8l C = A 8l (B 8l C)
SETS 39

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1.2

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

=
1. Let X {Ii 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Determine whether or not each of the following is a partition of X
(a) [{I, 3, 6}, {2, 8}, {5, 7, 9}] (b) [{2, 4, 5, 8}, {I, 9}, {3, 6, 7}]
(c) [{I, 5, 7}, {2, 4, 8, 9}, {3, 5, 6}] (d) [{I, 2, 7}, {4, 6, 8, 9}, {3, 5}]
=
2. Let S {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Determine whether or not each of the following is a partition of S
(a) P, � [{I, 2, 3}, {I, 4, 5, 6}] (b) P2 � [{I, 2}, {3, 5, 6}]
(c) Ps � [{I, 3, 5}, {2, 4}, {6}] (d) P � [{I, 3, 5}, {2, 4, 6, 7}]
4

3. Determine whether or not each of the following is a partition of the set Z of positive integers.
(a) [in : n > 5}, {n : n 5}]
< (b) [in : n > 5}, {O}, {I, 2, 3, 4, 5}]
<
(c) {n : n2 > ll}, {n : n2 l l}
4. Consider two sets A and B. Draw the Venn-diagrams of
(i) An B" (h) (B -A)"
(iii) B n N (iv) A n (B u C)
(v) (A n B) u (An C)
5. Consider the sets Ai B, C. Draw the Venn-diagrams of
(i) A- (B u C) (il) N n (B u C)
(iii) N n (C -B)
6. If A and B are two sets) then
(i) AEll B � B Ell A (Commutative law)
(ii) An (B Ell C) � (An B) Ell (B n C). (Distributive law)
7. Using Venn diagram, represent the following sets
(a) N u (B u C) (b) N n (B - C)
(c) An B"n C" (d) N n (B u C)
(e) Au (B- C).
8. The description of the shaded region in Fig. 1 .23 using the operations on sets, is
B

Fig. 1 .23
(i) C u (A n B) (h) C - (A n C) u (C n B) u (A n B)
(iii) C -(A n C) n (C n B) n (A n B)
(iv) Au B u C - (C u (A n B». (P. T. U. B. Tech. Dec. 2008)
40 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Answers
1. (a) No (b)Yes (e) No (d) Yes
2. (a) No (b) No (e) Yes (d) No
3. )
(a No (b) No (e) Yes
4. (,) r------, (h)

A n Be = A - B (B _ A)e
(iii) (iv) , (v)

B n AC = B - A

A n (B u C) = (A n B) u (A n C)
5. (,) (h)

u
A -(B C) A' n (B u C)

(iii)

AC n (C - B)
SETS 41

7. (a)
' cex" (b)
'C@"
AC u (8 u C) is shaded AC n (8 - C) is shaded

(c)
'C@" (d)

A n Be n CC is shaded
re/
AC n ( 8 u C) is shaded

(e)

r&/
A u ( 8 - C) is shaded

8. (ii)

Hints
8. Consider the Venn diagram for any three sets Ai B and C as shown in Fig. 1.24(a).
Shade An C by strokes slanted upward (¢')
Shade e ll B by strokes slanted downward (�)
Shade An B by strokes drawn parallel ( )
=

Thus, the total area is (A C) (C B) (A B) as shown in the shaded portion of Fig. 1.24(a).
II U II u II

'(E§)"
8

C C
(a) (A n C) u (C n B) u (A n B) (b) C - (A n C) u (C n B) u (A n B)
is shaded
Fig. 1.24
Hence C - (A n C) (C n B) (A n B) is the area shown in the shaded portion of Fig. 1.24(b).
u u

Hence the correct answer is (ii),

42 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 . 1 2. ENUM ERABLE OR DEN U M ERABLE OR COUNTABLY INFINITE SET

(P. T. u., M. G.A, May 200 7)
A set X is said to be enumerable if there exists a one·one and onto function from the set
N (set of natural numbers) to the set X.

1 . 1 3. COUNTABLE SET
A set X is said to be countable if it is either finite or enumerable.

1 . 1 4. UNCOUNTABLE SET OR UNCOUNTABLY INFINITE SET

A set which is not countable is said to be uncountable.
Examples: (i) <I> is countable.
(ii) The set {I, 6, 9, 20} is countable as it is a finite set.
(iii) The sets N, Z and Q are countable.
(iv) The set R is uncountable.
Theorem I. Every subset of a countable set is countable.
Proof. Let A be a countable set and B is subset of A.
Case I. If A is finite, then B being a subset of a finite set, is finite and hence countable.
(Every subset of a finite set is finite).
Case II. If A is enumerable, then A can be written as
A = {al l a2 ! a3 ) ...... }
If B = <1>, then B is countable.
If B '" <1>, then in the sequence of elements of A, there is first element in A is ak, E B.
Take b, = a k, . The second element in A is ak, E B. Take b2 = ak, . This process does or does not
terminate according as B is finite or not. Since A contains all the elements of B, the possible
terminating sequence of elements of B is b" b 2 , b3 , .
. . B is either finite or enumerable. Hence B is countable.
Theorem II. If A and B are countable, then A n B is also countable or intersection of
two countable sets is countable.
Proof. Given A and B are countable sets. Also A n B c A. i.e., A n B is a subset of A and
since A is countable, A n B is also countable. (Every subset of a countable set is countable).
Theorem III. Every superset of an uncountable set is uncountable.
Proof. Let A is uncountable and B is such that A c B. i.e., B is a superset of A. We show
B is uncountable. For if, B is countable, then, since A c B, we can say that A is also countable,
which is a contradiction as A is given uncountable. Hence B is uncountable.

1 . 1 5 . FUNDAMENTAL PRODUCT
Let A" �, .. An be n distinct sets. A fundamental product of these sets is a set of the
form
A; n A2* n �* n ... n An*
where Pc,* is either Pc, or Pc,'. There are 2n such fundamental products and any two such
fundamental products are disjoint and the union of all the fundamental products is equal to
the universal set.
SETS 43

1 .1 5. (a) MINSETS OR MINTERMS

Let A be any set and {B " B" ... Bn} be a set of subsets of A. Then a set of the form
D, n D, n . . . n D n where each Di may be either Bi or B,' is called a minset or minterm generated
by E l ) B2 ! . . . ) En '

1 .1 5. (b) M I NSET NORMAL FORM

A set is said to be in minset normal form or canonical form if it is expressed as the union
of distinct non·empty minsets or it is <p.

1 . 1 6. MAXSETS OR MAXTERMS

Let A be any set and {B " B" ... Bn} be a set of subsets of A. Then a set of the form
D, u D, u . . . . . . u D n , where each Di may be either Bi or B,' is called maxset generated by
E l ) B2 ! ... En '
Remark 1. The set of maxsets donot necessarily form a partition of A.
Remark 2. Let beform
A any asetpartition
and E ll ofB2!A.' " En be subsets of A. Then the set afnon-empty minsets
generated by
E l l B2! ' " E n

I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Consider A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B 1 = {I, 3, 5}, B2 = {I, 2, 3}. Obtain all
possible minsets of A generated by B l and B2'
Sol. For given n sets B" B" . . . Bn, there are 2n minsets. The possible minsets for the
given sets B, and B, are given as
B{ = {2, 4, 6}; B� = {4, 6, 6}
A, = B, n B, = {I, 3}; � = B, n B� = {6}
� = B{ n B, = {2}; A, = Bf n B� = {4, 6}
Also, each element of A appears exactly once in one of the four min sets B, n B" B, n B�,
B{ n B" B{ n B�. Hence they form a partition of A.
Example 2. Let A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and let B l = {I, 3, 5}. B2 = {I, 2, 3}. Find the maxsets
generated by B l and B2. So maxsets form a partition ofA ?
Sol. Here Bf = [2, 4, 6]; B� = [4, 6, 6]
The possible number of maxsets generated by n sets is 2 n . The maxsets generated by B,
and B, are
M, = B, u B, = [1, 2, 3, 6]
M, = Bf u B, = [2, 4, 6] u [1, 2, 3] = [1, 2, 3, 4, 6]
M3 = B, u B� = [1, 2, 3] u [4, 6, 6] = [1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6]
M, = Bf u B� = [2, 4, 6] u [4, 6, 6] = [2, 4, 6, 6]
Now M, n M, = [2, 3] # <p. Therefore M" M" M3, M, cannot form a partition of A.
Example 3. Consider A = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and let Bl = [5, 6, 7J, B2 = [2, 4, 5, 9],
B3 = [3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9]. Find the minsets generated by B 1, B2, B3•
44 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(a) Do these minsets form a partition ofA ?
(b) How many different subsets ofA can you create using B l' B2 and B 3 with the stand­
ard set operations ?
Sol. (a) The possible number of minsets generated by n sets is 2n. The minsets gener­
ated by B" B, and B3 given below:
Here Bf = [1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9], B� = [1, 3, 6, 7, 8], B£ = [1, 2, 7 ]
The min sets generated by B" B, and B3 are
A, = B, n B, n B3 = [5]
A, = Bf n B, n B3 = [4, 9]
A, = B, n B� n B3 = [6]
A, = B, n B, n B� = q,
A5 = Bf n B� n B3 = [3, 8]
� = B, n B� n B£ = [7]
A, = Bf n B, n B� = [2]
A" = Bf n B� n B� = [1]
(b) From part (a), the minsets generated by B" B, and B 3 are
P, = {5}, P, = {4, 9}, P3 = {6}, P, = {3, 8},
P5 = {7}, P6 = {2}, P7 = {I}
Clearly, Pi n Pj = q" i j '"
7

and U Pi = A , hence, they form a partition of A.

i=l 3
Number of subsets generated by B, = 2 = 8
Number of subsets generated by B, = 2 ' = 16
Number of subsets generated by B 3 = 26 = 64
Total number of subsets = 8 + 16 + 64 = 88.
Example 4. (a) Partition A = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with the minsets generated by
B 1 = {O, 2, 4} and B2 = {I, 5}
(b) How many different subsets of A can you generate from B 1 and B 2 ?
Sol. (a) The possible number of minsets generated by B, and B, are 2' = 4.
The min sets are
A, = B, n B � = {a, 2, 4} n {a, 2, 3, 4} = {a, 2, 4}
A, = Bf n B, = {I, 3, 5} n {I, 5} = {I, 5}
A, = Bf n B� = {I, 3, 5} n {a, 2, 3, 4} = {3}
A, = B, n B, = {a, 2, 4} n {I, 5} = q,
The min sets are {{3), {l, 5), {a, 2, 4)}
(b) Number of subsets generated by B 1 = 23 = 8
Number of subsets generated by B, = 2' = 4
Required Number of subsets = 8 + 4 = 12.
SETS 45
Example 5. Let B1, B2 and B3 are subsets of a universal set U.
(a) Find all minsets generated by B l' B2 and B 3'
(b) Draw a Venn diagram representing all minsets obtained in part (a)
(c) Find the minset normal form of the following sets
(i) B/
Sol. (a) The possible number of minsets generated by B" B, and B3 is 23 = 8, The
minsets are
A, = B, n B, n B 3 ; A, = B{ n B, n B 3
� = B l n B� n B3 ; A4 = B n B2 n B�
l
A5 = Bf n B� n B3 ; A = Bf n B2 II B�
6
-'-,\'I = B 1 n B'2 n B'3 ). A8 = B'1 n B'2 n B'3
(b) The Venn diagram for the sets A" A", .. , As obtained in part (a) is shown in Fig, 1.26

Fig. 1 .25

(c) (i) The minset normal form for Bf (using Venn diagram) is given as
Bf = A,; u A" U A5 U A,;
= (Bf n B, n B�) u (Bf n B, n B 3) u (Bf n B� n B,) u (Bf n B� n B�
(ii) The minset normal form for B, n B, (using Venn diagram) is
B, n B, = A, u A, = (B, n B, n B,) u (B, n B, n B3 ')
(iii) The minset normal form for B� n B� (using Venn diagram) is
B� n B� = A5 U A,; = (Bf n B� n B,) u (Bf n B� n B�
Example 6. Consider the universal set
U = {l, 2, 3, 4, , IO} and the subsets
..

A = {I, 7, 8}, B = {I, 6, 9, IO}, C = {I, 9, IO}

(a) List the non-empty minsets generated by A, B and C. Do the minsets form a partition
of U ?
(b) How many elements of U can be generated by A, B and C ?
(c) Compare the number obtained in (b) with n(P(U) ,
(d) Give an example of one subset that cannot be generated by A, B and C.
Sol. (a) The possible number of minsets generated by n sets is 2n, These minsets are
given below:
A, = A n B n C' = {I, 7, 8} n {I, 6, 9, 1O} n {2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 7, 8} = <jl
A" = A n B' n C = {I, 7, 8} n {2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8} n {I, 9, 1O} = <jl
46 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

� = N n B n C = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 1O} n {I, 6, 9, 1O} n {I, 9, 1O} = {9, 1O}

A, = A n B' n C' = {I, 7, 8} n {2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8} n {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} = {7, 8}
A5 = N n B n C' = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 1O} n {I, 6, 9, 1O} n {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} = {6}
� = N n B' n C = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 1O} n {2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8} n {I, 9, 1O} = q,
A, = N n B' n C' = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 1O} n {2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8} n {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
= {2, 3, 4, 5}
� = A n B n C = {I}.
Hence, the minsets generated by A, B and C are {9, 1O}, {7, 8}, {6}, {2, 3, 4, 5}, {I}.
8

Clearly, Ai n Aj = q, for i '" j and U Ai = U. Hence, they form a partition of U.

i=l
(b) From part (a), there are five different minsets generated by A, B and C. Hence, 2 5
elements of U can be generated by A, B and C.
(c) As U contains 10 elements, therefore,
n (P(U» = 2 10
(d) {I, 2} cannot be generated by A, B and C since 2 E A, B, and C.
Example 7. Give an example to show that intersection of two countably infinite sets can
be finite or countably infinite.
Sol. Let A and B are two countably infinite sets.
Take A as a set of odd natural numbers and B as a set of even natural numbers i.e.,
A = {I, 3, 5, 7, 9, ...... } and B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...... }
Then A n B = q" which is finite
Further, take B = N, the set of natural numbers,
Then A n B = A n N = {I, 3, 5, 7, 9, ...... } n {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ..... }
= {I, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . . . . . } = A, which is countably infinite.
Example 8. Give examples to show that the intersection of two uncountably infinite sets
can be:
(i) finite (ii) countably infinite (iii) uncountable.
Sol. (i) Let A and B are uncountably infinite sets.
Take A = 2N, B = set of negative integers, then both A and B are uncountably infinite
sets. But A n B = q" which is finite.
(ii) Take A = 2N U N, B = (2N X 2N) U N
Then, A n B = (2N U N) n «2N x 2N) u N) = N, which is countably infinite.
(iii) Take A = 2N, B = 2N,
Then A n B = 2N n 2N = 2N, which is uncountable.
SETS 47
Example 9. Show that at the most countably infinite number ofbooks can be written in
Punjabi.
Sol. Assume that upto this moment, some finite number, say, N of books in Punjabi are
written in Punjabi. The successor of N is N + 1.
i.e., each next book in Punjabi will be mapped with the successor of N, and so on. This means
there exists 1·1 correspondence between the elements in N and elements in set of books. But
N is countably infinite set, hence infinite number of books can be written is Punjabi.
Example 10. State whether the following sets are finite, countably infinite, uncountably
finite:
(i) Class of all programms that can ever be written in programming language C+.
(ii) All movies produced by A.R. Rehman.
(iii) Number offish in Hind Maha Sagar.
(iv) Set of all Primes.
(v) Set of real numbers in (0, 1).
Sol. (i) Countably infinite
(ii) Finite
(iii) Finite
(iv) Countably infinite
(v) Uncountably infinite.
Example 11. Let A be any set. Show that A x q, = q, x A = q,.
Sol. By definition, q, x A = { (x, y) : XE q, and Y E A} = q, as x E q, is not true.
Similarly, A x q, = {(x, y) : x E A and y E q,} = q, as y E q, is not true.
Example 12. Let A and B are two sets such that A x B x q,. What can you conclude ?
Sol. Given A x B = q, implies either A is q, or B is q, or both A and B are empty sets.

I TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1.3 I

1. Partition A = {a, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5} with the minsets generated by Bj = {a, 2, 4}, B2 = {I, 5}. How many
different subsets of A can you generate from B l and B2 ?
2. Let A = {4, 5, 6}, B j = {4, 5}, B2 = {5, 6}
(a) Find the minsets and maxsets generated by Bl and B2,
(b) Do minsets form a partition of A ?
<;
3. Let S be a set of words or string oflength 2. i.e., S = {a, I , 00, aI, la, ll} and A = {a, 00, Ol},
B = {OO, aI, la, l l} .
Find a partition of S using minsets generated by A and B .
Answers
1. Required number of subsets = 12
{I, 5}, {a, 2, 4}, {3} .
2. (a) The minsets are Aj = {5}, A" = {6}, A" = {4}, A4 = �
The maxsets are m j = {4, 5, 6}, m2 = {5, 6}, m3 = {4, 5}, m4 = {4, 6}
(b) Yes
3. The minsets are Aj = {oa, Ol}, A" = {la, l l}, A3 = {a}, A4 = {I}.
The required partition is {Ali �) AS) AJ .
48 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

M U LTIPLE CHOICE QU ESTIONS

1. Let A and B be sets and N and B' denote their complements. Then
(A - B) u (B - A) u (A u B) equal to
(a) A u B (b) N u B'
(c) A n B (<1) N n B'.
2. The number of elements in the power set P(A) of the set A = {{q,}, 1, {2, 3}} is
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 8 (<1) None.
3. Let P(A) denote the power set of A. Which of the following is true ?
(a) P(P(A» = P(A) (b) P(A) n A = P(A)
(c) P(A) n P(P(A» = {q,} (<1) A 'l P(A)
4. Let A be a finite set containing n elements, then P(A x A) contains
'
(a) 2 2" (b) 2 n
(c) (2 n)' (<1) None elements.
5. Let A be an infinite set and A" A", ..... , An be n sets such that A, u A" u A" u ...... u An
= A. Then
(a) At least one of the sets 1\ is a finite set
(b) No more than one of the sets Ai can be finite
(c) At least one of the sets 1\ is an infinite set
(d) None.
6. Let A = {3, {I, 4}, 5}, then P(2A) is
(a) {A, 3, 1, 4, {I, 3, 5}, {I, 4, 5}, {3, 4}, q,} (b) {A, 3, {I, 4}, 5}
(c) {A, {3}, {3, {I, 4}}, {3, 5}, q,} (<1) None.
7. Consider the following statements :
T1 : 3 infinite sets A, B and C such that A n (B u C) is finite
T, : 3 two rational numbers x and y such that x + y is rational. Then
(a) Only T, is correct (b) Only T, is correct
(c) Both T, and T, are correct (<1) None ofT, and T, are correct.
8. In a room containing 28 females, there are 18 females who speak English, 15 females
speak French and 22 speak German, 9 females speak both English and French, 1 1
females speak both French and German whereas 1 3 speak both German and English.
How many females speak all the three languages.
(a) 9 (b) 8
(c) 7 (<1) 6.
9. The number of substrings of all lengths that can be formed from a character string of
length n is.
(a) n (b) n'
n(n - 1) (<1)
n(n + 1)
(c)
2 2
SETS 49
10. The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is denoted by A Ell B. Which of the following
is true.
(a) A Ell B = (A u B) - (A n B) (b) A Ell B = (A - B) u (B - A)
(c) Both (a) and (b) are true (d) None.
11. A set A has 10 members. Then the number of members of P(A) is
(a) 10 (b) 2 10
(c) lOF(A) (d) none.
12. A set A has 5 members. The number of proper subsets of A is
(a) 25 (b) 2 5 - 1
(c) 25 + 1 (d) none.
Answers and Explanations
1. (a) (A - B) u (B - A) u (A u B) = A u B.
2. (c) A contains 3 elements, so P(A) will contain 23 = 8
elements.
3. (c) P(A) contains all subsets of A but no elements of A.
Hence, there is no element common to A and P(A) . Also,
there is no element common to P(A) and P(P(A» .
. . P(A) n P(P(A» = <p.
(A - 8) u (8 - A) is shaded with
�.

4. (b) n(A) = n :. n(A x A) = n(A) x n(A) = n x n = n2 A u B is shaded with III

,
P(A x A) contains 2n elements.
5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (c)
8. (d) n(E) = 18, n(F) = 15, n(G) = 22, n(E n F) = 9, n (F n G) = 1 1 , n (G n E) = 13,
n (E u F u G) = 28. Using
n(E u F u G) = n(E) + n(F) + n(G) - n(E n F) - n(F n G) - n(G n E) + n(E n F n G), we have
28 = 18 + 15 + 22 - 9 - 1 1 - 13 + n(E n F n G)
or 28 = 22 + n (E n F n G)
=> n(E n F n G) = 6.
9. (d) 10. (c) 11. (b)
12. (b) If a set A contains n elements, then P(A) contains 2 subsets, out of which 2 n - 1
n
subsets are proper and one is improper, the set A itself.
 2 RELATIONS

2 . 1 . INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, we have discussed various operations on sets to generate more
sets from given sets. We now discuss one more property of sets which is known as cartesian
products of sets which will help us in understanding the concept of relations.

2.2. ORDERED PAIR

Let A and B be any two sets. Then by an ordered pair ofelements, we mean a pair (x, y)
where x E A, y E B.
For example, the ordered pairs (1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 5) represent different points in a plane.

2.3. CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF SETS

Let A and B be any two non·empty sets. Then the cartesian product of the sets A and B
is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) such that x E A and y E B and it is denoted by A x B. Thus
A x B = {(x, y) : x E A and y E B}.
For example, consider A = (1, 2), B = (3, 4, 5). We find A x B, B x A, A x A, B x B.
Here A x B = {(I, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5)}
B x A = {(3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2), (5, 1), (5, 2)}
A x A = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}
B x B = {(3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5)}

2.4. RELATION (Or Binary Relation)

Let A and B be any two non·empty sets. Then a binary relation or simply a relation R
from A to B is a subset of A x B. Thus,
R is a relation from A to B iff R c A x B.
Notation. IfR is a relation from a non·empty set A to a non·empty set B and if (x, y) E R,
we write xRy (read as x is related to y by the relation R).

50
RELATIONS 51

2.5. TOTAL NU MBER OF RELATIONS

Let A and E be two non·empty finite sets containing m and n elements respectively.
Then the number of ordered pairs in A x E = mn. Therefore, total number of subsets of A x E
is 2 mn ,
Since each subset of A x E defines a relation from A to E, so total number of relations
from A to E is 2 mn (including the empty relation q, and the universal relation A x E).
,
Similarly, if a set A contains n elements, then the total number of relations on A is 2n .

2.6. DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A RELATION

Let R be a relation from the set A to the set E. Then, the domain ofR is the set of allfirst
co·ordinates of the ordered pairs belonging to R. Similarly, the range of R is the set of all
second co·ordinates of the ordered pairs belonging to R. For e.g.,
Consider A = {I, 3, 5, 7}, E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 1O} and R = (1, 8), (3, 6), (5, 2), (1, 4) be a relation
from A to E. Then
Domain of R = {I, 3, 5}
Range of R = {2, 4, 6, 8}.

2.7. INVERSE RELATION

Let R be a relation from a set A to another set E. Then, the inverse relation is a relation
from E to A. It is denoted by R-l Thus, if R = {(a, b) : a E A, b E E}, Then
R-1 = {(b, a) : b E E, a E A}
Also, Domain of R-l = Range of R
Range of R-1 = Domain of R.

2.8. TYPES OF RELATIONS

The following are the types of relations.
(a) Empty or void relation. Let A be a set. Then q, c A x A is true and hence it is a
relation on A. This relation is called void relation or empty relation.
(b) Universal relation. Let A be any set. Then A x A c A x A is true and hence it is a
relation on A. This relation is called universal relation on the set A.
Remark. The void relation is the smallest relation on A and the universal relation is the largest
relation on A.
(c) Identity relation. Let A be any set. Then the relation R = {x, x) : x E A} on A is
called the identity relation or diagonal relation on A and is denoted by fl.Aor fI.
For example, consider A = {a, b, c} and define relations R, and R, as follows.
R, = {(a, a) (b, b), (c, e)}
R, = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (a, c)}
Then R, is an identity relation on A, but R, is not an identity relation on A as the
element a is related to a and c.

2.9. PROPERTIES OF RELATIONS

(a) Reflexive relation. A relation R on a set A is said to be a reflexive relation if every
element of A is related to itself. Thus, R is reflexive iff (x, x) E R for all x E A.
A relation R on a set A is not reflexive if there is an element x E A such that (x, x) 'l R.
52 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

For example, consider A = (1, 2, 3). Then the relation R, defined by R, = {(I, 1), (2, 2),
(3, 3), (1, 3), (2, I)} is a reflexive relation on A.
The relation R, defined by R, = {(I, 1), (3, 3), (2, 1), (3, 2)} is not a reflexive relation on A,
since (2, 2) 'l R,.
The identity relation and universal relation on a non-empty set is a reflexive relation.
(b) Irretlexive relation. A relation R on a set A is said to be irreflexive if (a, a) 'l R \j
a E A. In other words, a relation R on a set A is not irreflexive if there exists at least one a E A
such that (a, a) E R.
Example. Consider R = {(a, b) : a '" b} on the set A = {a, b} i.e., R is the relation of
inequality on the set A, thus R is irreflexive since for every a E A, (a, a) 'l R.
Example. Let A be a non-empty set and R be a relation on A = {a : a is a computer
science student) defined by R = {(a, b) : a scored less than b}
Then for all a E A, (a, a) 'l R i.e., R is an irreflexive relation.
Remark. Every identity relation on a non-empty set Ais a reflexive relation, but not conversely.
= =
Consider A {a, b, c} and define a relation R by R {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (a, b)}. Then R is a reflexive
relation on A but not an identity relation on A due to the element (a, b) in R.
(e) Symmetric relation: Let A be any set. Then a relation R on the set A is called
symmetric iff
(x, y) E R => (y, x) E R for all x, Y E A.
For example, the identity relation and universal relation on a non-empty set A are
symmetric relations on A.
Consider A = (1, 2, 3, 4) and define relations R, and R, as follows :
R, = {(I, 3), (1, 4), (3, 1), (2, 2), (4, I)}
R, = {(I, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 3)}
In R" (1, 3) E R, => (3, 1) E R,
(1, 4) E R, => (4, 1) E R,
(2, 2) E R, => (2, 2) E R,
Thus, the relation R, is a symmetric relation on A.
In R" (1, 3) E R, =p (3, 1) E R,. Thus R, is not a symmetric relation.
(d) Transitive relation: Let A be any set. Then a relation R is said to be transitive iff
(x, y) E R and (y, z) E R => (x, z) E R for all x, y, Z E A.
For example, the identity relation and universal relation are transitive relation on any
non-empty set.
Consider A = The set of all straight lines in a plane. Define a relation "is parallel to" on A.
Take 1" I" 13 E A. Then 1, is parallel to I, and I, is parallel to 13 , It implies that 1, is
parallel to 13 also. Hence the relation "is parallel to" is a transitive relation.
(e) Antisymmetric or Asymmetric or Non-symmetric relation: Let A be any set. A
relation R on A is said to be a antisymmetric iff
(x, y) E R and (y, x) E R => x = y for all x, Y E A.
RELATIONS 53
or A relation R on a non· empty set A is Antisymmetric if whenever xRy andyRx, then x = y,
Le.
if whenever (x, y), (y, x) E R then x = y
On the other hand, a relation R on a non·empty set A is not anti symmetric if there
exists x, Y E A such that (x, y) and (y, x) E R but x '" y.
Example. The relation "S;' (read as less than or equal to) is antisymmetric since whenever
a '" b and b '" a, then a = b.

2 . 1 0. EQU IVALENCE RELATION (P. T. U. B. Tech. May 2013, May 2012, May 2010, Dec. 2007)
Let A be any set. Then a relation R on A is said to be an equivalence relation on A iff it
satisfies the following :
(i) It is reflexive
(ii) It is symmetric
(iii) It is transitive.
Theorem L IfR and S are two equivalence relations on a set A, then
(a) R n S is also an equivalence relation on A. (P. T.U. M. C.A. Dec. 2006)
(b) R u S may or may not be an equivalence relation on A.
(P.T.U. B.Tech. Dec. 2013; P.T.U. M.C.A. Dec. 2006)

. . (l)
Proof. Given R is a relation on A. It means R is a subset of A x A. It implies
RcAxA
Also, S eAx A . . . (2)
(1) and (2) gives R n S e A x A i.e. , R n S is a subset of A x A. Hence R n S is a relation
on A.
We show R n S is an equivalence relation on A.
(i) Reflexivity. Let x E A be any arbitrary element of A.
As R and S are equivalence relations on A. It implies R and S are reflexive relations on A.
If x E A => (x, x) E R and (x, x) E S.
=> (x, x) E R n S for all x E A.
Hence R n S is reflexive on A.
(ii) Symmetry. Let x, Y E A such that (x, y) E R n S. It means (x, y) E R and (x, y) E S.
As R and S are symmetric relations on A.
.. (y, x) E R and (y, x) E S
=> (y, x) E R n S.
Hence (x, y) E R n S => (y, x) E R n S for all x, Y E A.
Therefore R n S is symmetric on A.
(iii) Transitivity. Let x, y, Z E A such that (x, y) E R n S, (y, z) E R n S.
We show (x, z) E R n S.
Now, (x, y) E R and (x, y) E S. Also, (y, z) E R and (y, z) E S.
As R, S are transitive on A
.. (x, y) E R, (y, z) E R => (x, z) E R
Also, (x, y) E S, (y, z) E S => (x, z) E S
=> (x, z) E R n S.
Hence R n S is an equivalence relation on A.
Further, we show R u S may or may not be an equivalence relation.
Consider A = {a, b, c} . Define the relations R and S by
R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (a, b), (b, a)}
S = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (b, c), (c, b)}
54 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Clearly, R and S are equivalence relations on A.
But R u S = {(a, a), (b, b,), (c, c), (a, b), (b, a), (b, c), (c, b)}
Here (a, b) E R u S, (b, c) E R u S.
But (a, c) 'l R u S . . R u S is not transitive.
Hence R u S cannot be equivalence relation on A.

2. 1 1 . COMPATIBLE RELATION
A binary relation on a set which is reflexive and symmetric is called a compatible rela·
tion. Every equivalence relation is a compatible relation. But every compatible relation may
not be an equivalence relation.
Let A is the set of persons and define R on A by R such that for a, b E A, (a, b) E R if a is
a friend of b, then R is reflexive and symmetric. Hence R is compatible.
Let a, b, c E A such that (a, b) E R, (b, c) E R. Here, a is a friend of b, b is a friend of c but
a may or may not be a friend of c. Hence R may or may not be transitive.
Example. Let A = {x : x is a English word}. Let R be a relation on A such that
R = {(a, b) : a, b E A and a and b has one or more letters common}. We
show R is a compatible relation.
(i) Reflexive. Every English word has letters same as itself. Therefore R is reflexive.
(ii) Symmetric. If a has one or more letters same as that of b, then b also has one or
more letters same as a. Hence R is symmetric.
Therefore, R is a compatible relation. But R is not transitive.
Take a = book, b = kite, c = ten (any English word).
Here (a, b) = (book, kite) E R (as book and kite has 'k' common)
(b, c) = (kite, ten) E R. But (a, c) = (book, ten) 'l R.
R is not an equivalence relation.

2.12. PARTIAL ORDER RELATION (P. T. U. B. Tech. Dec. 2013, May 2006)
A relation R on a set A is called a partial relation if it is
(i) reflexive
(ii) anti· symmetric
(iii) transitive.
For example, define a relation 'c;;;' on A. We show the relation ' c;;;' is a partial order
relation on A.
(i) Let B E P(A). Then B c;;; B is true. Therefore, ' c;;;' is reflexive.
(ii) Let B" B, E P(A) and if B, C;;; B" B, C;;; B,. Then B, = B 2 is true.
. . \::;,' is anti-symmetric.
(iii) Let B" B" B3 E P(A) and if B, C;;; B" B, C;;; B3 , then B, C;;; B3 is true.
Hence the relation ie' is transitive.
The relation ie' is a partial order relation.

2.13. PRODUCT OF SETS

Let A" � . . . , An are n sets. Then the set of all ordered n·tuples (a" a2 , ... , a) where a,
E A, a, E A, . . . , an E A is called the product of the sets A" �, ... An ' and is denoted by A, x �

A3 X ... x An or II Ai .
n
X
i=1
RELATIONS 55
Hence, we write A x A = A'
A x A x A = A'

A x A x ... A = An
2.14. TERNARY RELATION

Let S be any set. Then, a subset of S x S x S is called a ternary relation an S. e.g.,

Consider A = [1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , 15]. Let R be the ternary relation on A defined by the equation
x' + 5y = z. We write R as a set of ordered pairs.
For x > 3, x' > 15. Hence, we find only solutions of the equation x' + 5y = z for x = 1, 2, 3
For x = 1, we have 1 + 5y = z and the values of y, z are 1, 6; 2, I I.
For x = 2, we have 4 + 5y = z and the values of y, z are 1, 9; 2, 14
For x = 3, we have 9 + 5y = z and the values of y, z are 1, 14. Hence
R = {(I, 1, 6), (1, 2, 11), (2, 1, 9), (2, 2, 14), (3, 1, 14)} .
Example 9. Show, how a binary operation, say, addition (+), may be viewed as a ternary
relation.
Sol. Let the binary operation '+' may be defined as a set of ordered triples as follows:
+ = { (x, y, z) : x + y = z}
Then, the relation '+' defined above is a ternary relation. For e.g., (2, 5, 7) E +, but
(2, 4, 8) 'l +.
Example. Let A = {l, 2, 3, ... I5}. Let R be the 4-ary relation on A defined by
R = {(x, y, z, t) : 4x + 3y + Z2 = t}. Write R as a set of 4-tuples.
Sol. Let (x, y, z, t) E R such that
4x + 3y + z, = t,
Then x can assume the values 1, 2 and 3 only for all y, z, t E A.
Thus, R = {(I, 1, 1, 8), (1, 1, 2, 1 1), (1, 2, 1, 1 1), (1, 2, 2, 14), (1, 3, 1, 14),
(2, 1, 1, 12), (2, 1, 2, 15), (2, 2, 1, 15)}.

2.1 5. CLOSURE PROPERTIES OF RELATIONS

Consider a relation R on a given set A. Suppose the relation R does not satisfy the
desired property. After adding the least number of ordered pairs to relation R, if R satisfies
the desired property, then the desired property is called closure of relation R.
(a) Reflexive closure. A relation RR is called reflexive closure of the relation R if R R is
the smallest relation containing R having the reflexive property.
For example, consider A = {7, 8, 1O}. Define a relation R by
R = {(7, 8), (7, 10), (8, 8), (10, 7)}. Here R is not reflexive. We find the reflexive closure ofR.
The relation R is reflexive if (x, x) E R for all x E A. :. We add the ordered pairs (7, 7),
(10, 10) in R. The required reflexive closure of R is given by
RR = {(7, 7), (10, 10), (7, 8), (7, 10), (8, 8), (10, 7)}
(b) Symmetric closure. A relation Rs is called symmetric closure of R if Rs is the
smallest relation containing R having the symmetric property. The smallest symmetric relation
containing R is Rs = R U R-l
For example, consider A = {4, 5, 6}. Define a relation R by R = {(4, 5), (5, 5), (5, 6)}.
We find the symmetric closure of R.
56 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Here R-l = {(5, 4), (5, 5), (6, 5)}
. . The required symmetric closure of R is given by
Rs = R U R-l = {(4, 5), (5, 5), (5, 6), (5, 4), (6, 5)}
(c) Transitive closure. A relation R T is called transitive closure ofR if RT is the small·
est relation containing R having the transitive property.
For example, consider A = {4, 6, 8, 1O} and define a relation R on A by
R = {(4, 4), (4, 10), (6, 6), (6, 8), (8, 1O)}. We find the transitive closure of R.
Here (6, 8) E R, (8, 10) E R, but (6, 10) 'l R. So we add the ordered pair (6, 10) to R.
Hence the required transitive closure of R is given by
RT = {(4, 4), (4, 10), (6, 6), (6, 8), (8, 10) (6, 1O)}

2.16. COMPOSITION OF RELATIONS (P. T. U. B. Tech. May 2007)

Let R and S be two relations from sets A to B and B to C respectively. Then a relation
RoS is called composite relation from A to C where (a, c) E RoS iff we can find b E B such that
(a, b) E R and (b, c) E S.
The relation RoS is read as composition of R and S.
or
Let A, B, C be any three sets. Let R be a relation from A to B and S be a relation from B
to C. i.e., R is a subset of A x B and S is a subset of B x C. Then R and S give rise to a relation
from A to C denoted by RoS and defined by
a(RoS)c if for some b E B, we have aRb and bSc. Thus,
RoS = {(a, c) : There exists b E B for which (a, b) E R and (b, c) E S}
e.g., Let A = (1, 2, 3), B = (a, b, c), C = (x, y, z).
Consider the following relation: R from A to B and S from B to C, given by
R = {(I, b), (2, a), (2, c)} ; S = {(a, y), (b, x), (c, y), (c, z)}
We find the composition relation RoS
Draw the arrow diagram of R and S as shown Fig. 2. 1. There is an arrow from 1 to b
which is followed by an arrow from b to x. Thus l(RoS)x or (1, x) E RoS.
Similarly, (2, y), (2, z) E RoS. No other pairs belong to RoS. Thus, RoS = {(I, x), (2, y),
(2, z)}

Fig. 2 . 1
Remark. In general RoS SoK Also, (RoS) -l S-l oR-l
-:f- =
Theorem II. Let A, B and C be three sets and R be a relation from A to B, S a relation
from B to C. Then (RoSt1 = S-l oR-l
Proof. Let a E A, b E B, c E C. Then (a, b) E R, (b, c) E S
<=? (a, c) E RoS <=? (c, a) E (ROS) -l ( 1)
But (b, c) E S <=? (c, b) E S-"

Also (a, b) E R => (b, a) E R <=? (c, a) E S-l oR-l

-l (2)
RELATIONS 57

From (1) and (2), (ROS)-l c S-l oR-l

and S-l oR-l C (ROS) -l
Hence (ROS)-l = S-l oR-l

2 . 1 7. DIRECTED GRAPH OR DIG RAPH OF A RELATION

Consider a relation R on A = {I, 2, 3, 4} defined by
R = {(I, 2), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 3)]
To find the directed graph of R, write down the elements of A.
Draw an arrow from an element x to an element y whenever
(x, y) E R. The Fig. 2.2 so obtained is known as directed graph for the
relation R.
We emphasize that a directed graph is not defined for a relation Fig.graph
2.2 Directed
of R
from a set to another set.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Let R be a relation on A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} defined by 'x is relative prime to y'.

Write R as a set of ordered pairs.
Sol. We know that two integers x and y are said to be relative prime iff (x, y) = 1 i.e.,
g.c.d of x and y is one.
:. The required set of ordered pairs is given by
R = {(2, 3), (2, 6), (3, 4), (3, 6), (4, 6), (6, 6)}
Example 2. (a) Explain the difference between an ordered pair (a, b) and the set {a, b}
with two elements.
(b) Explain when the ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal. When the n-tuples (a1 , a2,
... , a,) and (b l' b2' ... , b,) are equal ?
(c) Let A = {I, 2}, Find A2 and A3
(d) Give the geometrical meaning ofR 2 = R x R as points in the plane.
Sol. (a) The order of the elements in (a, b) does make a difference. Here, a is taken as
the first element and b as the second element. Thus (a, b) '" (b, a) unless a = b.
Whereas, {a, b} and {b, a} represent the same set.
(b) Two ordered pairs are equal iff the corresponding elements are equal. Therefore,
(a, b) = (c, d) <=? a = c and b = d
Also (a" a" ... an> = (b" b 2 , ... , bn>
¢::} a1 = b 1 ; a2 = b 2 ; a3 = b 3 ; ... an = b n
or ai = bi V i = I, 2, ... ) n.
(c) Given A = {1, 2}
Then A' = A x A = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}
A3 = A x A x A = A' x A
= {(I, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2), (2, 1, 1),
(2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 1), (2, 2, 2)}
58 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(d) Let (a, b) E R x R be any point in the plane. Then, the verticle line through P meets
the x-axis at a and the horizontal line through P meets the y-axis at b. Thus,
R2 = R x R is known as cartesian plane (Fig. 2.3).
Example 3_ (a) Show that n(A xB) = n(A) . n(B) where A and B are finite sets and n (A)
denotes the number of elements in A. Generalise the result.
(b) Let A = {I, 2, 3, ... , lO}, B = {a, b, c, ... , x, y, z}. How many elements are in A x B.
(c) If A = {I, 2, 3, 6}, B = {8, 9, lO}. Determine the number of
elements in
(i) A x B
4
(ii) B x A (iii) A2 b f-- -, P(a. b)
__

(iv) B (v) A x A x B (vi) B x A x B.

SoL (a) For each ordered pair (a, b) in A x B, we have n(A) choices
for a and n(B) choices for b. Thus, there are n(A) . n(B) such ordered
a
pairs. Hence
Fig. 2 . 3
n(A x B) = n(A). n(B).
Generalisation_ If A" �, . . . An are n finite sets, then
n(A, x � x . . . x A) = n(A,) . n(A2) ... n(A)
(b) n(A) = 10, n(B) = 26
n(A x B) = n(A) . n(B) = 10.26 = 260
(c) n(A) = 4, n(B) = 3
(i) n (A x B) = n(A) . n(B) = 4. 3 = 12
(ii) n (B x A) = n(B) . n(A) = 3.4 = 12
(iii) n(A2) = n(A x A) = n(A) . n(A) = 4.4 = 16
(iv) n(B') = n(B x B x B x B) = n(B) . n(B) . n(B) . n(B) = 3.3.3.3 = 81
(v) n(A x A x B) = n(A) . n(A) . n(B) = 4 . 4 . 3 = 48
(vi) n(B x A x B) = n(B) . n(A) . n(B) = 3 . 4 . 3 = 36 A
Example 4_ (a) Let A = {I, 2}, B = {x, y, z}, C = {3, 4}.
Find A x B x C and n(A x B x C) 2
(b) Let A = {I, 2}, B = {a, b, c}, C = {c, d}.
Find (A x B) n (A x C) and hence A x (B n C).
(c) If B 1 = {I, 2}, B2 = {3, 4}, B3 = {5, 6}. 3 4 3 4
Find rrBi.
Fig. 2.4
SoL (a) From the tree diagram, (Fig. 2.4)
A x B x C = {(I, x, 3), (1, x, 4), (1, y, 3), (1, y, 4), (1, z, 3), (1, z, 4), (2, x, 3), (2, x, 4)
(2, y, 3), (2, y, 4), (2, z, 3), (2, z, 4)}
Also n(A x B x C) = n(A) . n(B) . n(C) = 2. 3. 2 = 12
(b) Given A = {I, 2}, B = {a, b, c}, C = {c , d)
A x B = {(I, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}
RELATIONS 59

A x C = {(I, e), (1, d), (2, e), (2, d)} B,

(A x B) n (A x C) = {(I, c), (2, e)} 2

Also A x (B n C) = (A x B) n (A x C) = {(I, e), (2, e)}
(e) Using tree diagram (Fig. 2.5) 3
ITBi = B, x B, X B3
= {(I, 3, 5), (1, 3, 6), (1, 4, 5), (1, 4, 6),
(2, 3, 5), (2, 3, 6), (2, 4, 5), (2, 4, 6)} Fig. 2.5
Example 5. (a) let R be the relation on the set X = {O, 1, 2, 3,
.. .} of non-negative integers defined by the equation x2 + y2 = 25. Write R as a set of ordered
pa�rs.
(b) Let S be the relation on the set N ofpositive integers defined by the equation 3x + 4y
= 1 7. Write S as a set of ordered pairs.
(c) Let R be the relation on the set N ofpositive integers defined by the equation x2 + 2y
= 100. Find the domain and range of R.
Sol. (a) Given x' + y' = 25. We can have
x = 0, y = 5 ; x = 3, y = 4
x = 4, y = 3 ; x = 5 ; y = 0
Thus R = {(O, 5), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, O)}
(b) Given 3x + 4y = 17 or 3x = 17 - 4y (1)
From (1), we observe that no value of y can exceed 4 as x must be positive.
11 . 9
For y = 1, x = -, not an lnteger ; y = 2, x = = 3
3 3
5 . 1 .
y = 3, x = 3' not an mteger ; Y = 4, x = - - not an mteger
3'
Hence S = {(3, 2)}
(e) Given x' + 2y = 100 or 2y = 100 - x' (1)
For y to be positive, x cannot exceed 9 also R.H.S. of (1) is even and hence y cannot be
odd.
99 96
When x = I, y = 2 ' not an lnteger
. ; x = 2, y = - = 4S
2
91 84
x = 3, y = 2 ' not an lnteger
. ; x = 4, y = - = 42
2
Similarly, x '" 5, x '" 7, x '" 9
For x = 6, 2y = 100 - 36 = 64 => y = 32
36
x = S, 2y = 100 - 64 = 36 => y = - = IS
2
R = {(2, 4S), (4, 42), (6, 32), (S, IS)}
Domain R = {2, 4, 6, S}, Range R = {IS, 32, 42, 4S}.
60 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 6. (a) IfA is a set containing n elements. Find the number ofrelations from A
to A.
(b) If A = (1, 2). Find all possible relations from A to A.
Sol. (a) We know that if a set A has m elements and B has n elements, then total
number of relations from A to B is 2 m".
Therefore, the total number of relations from A to A is 2" x " = 2n ' .
2'
(b) A contains 2 elements :. Total number of relations from A to A = 2 = 42 = 16.
The various relations are
q" {(I, 2), (2, 1) , ( 1, 1) , (2, 2)}, {(I, 2), (2, I)}, {(I, 2), ( 1, I)}, {(I, 2), (2, 2)}, {(2, 1) , ( 1, I)},
{(2, 1) , (2, 2)}, {(I, 1), (2, 2)}, {(I, 2), (2, 1), (1, I)}, {(I, 2), (1, 1), (2, 2)}, {(2, 1), (2, 2), (1, I)},
{(I, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}, {(I, 2), (2, 1), (1, 1), (2, 2)}, {(I, 1), (2, 2)}, {(I, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2)}, {(2, 1),
(1, 1), (1, 2)}
Example 7. What are the properties of relations ? Explain with examples.
(P.T.V. Dec. 2005)
Sol. There are many properties of relations. These properties tell the nature and type of
the relations. The following are the main properties.
(i) Reflexive. Consider a binary relation R on a set A. If for x E A, (x, x) E R for all
x E A, then R is called reflexive relation.
For example, consider A = (1, 2) and R = {(I, 1) , (2, 2)}.
Then R is reflexive relation.
(ii) Irreflexive relation. A relation R is called irreflexive if for every x E A, (x, x) 'l R.
For example, consider A = (1, 2) and R = {(I, 2), (2, 2)}
then R is irreflexive since (x, x) 'l R for every x E A.
(iii) Symmetric relation. Consider a binary relation R on a set A. The relation R is
called symmetric if whenever (x, y) E R => (y, x) E R
For example, consider A = {(I, 2)} and R = {(I, 2), (2, 1), ( 1, I)}
Then R is symmetric relation.
(iv) Asymmetric relation. A relation R is called asymmetric relation if for every
(x, y) E R => (y, x) 'l R for all (x, y) E A.
For example, consider A = (1, 2) and R = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2)}
This relation R is asymmetric as (1, 2) E R, but (2, 1) 'l R.
(v) Antisymmetric relation. A relation R on a set A is called an antisymmetric if
whenever (x, y) E R, (y, x) E R then x = y.
For example, P(A) = The set of all subsets of A and let 'c;;;' is a relation on P(A) .
Let A c;;; E, E c;;; A for A, B E P(A).
Then clearly B = A. Hence 'c;;;' is antisymmetric relation.
(vi) Transitive relation. Let R be a relation on a set A. Let (x, y) E R, (y, z) E R => (x, z)
E R for x, y, Z E R. Then R is called transitive relation.
For example, consider A = (1, 2, 3) and R = {(I, 2), (2, 1), (1, 1), (2, 2)} is a transitive
relation.
RELATIONS 61
Example 8. Give an example of a relation which is
(a) Neither reflexive nor irreflexive
(b) Both symmetric and antisymmetric
(c) Both reflexive and symmetric
(d) Each reflexive, symmetric and transitive
(e) Both symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
Sol. (a) Neither reflexive nor irreflexive
Recall that a relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive if aRa \j a E A. Also a relation
R on a set A is said to be irreflexive if (a, a) 'l R \j a E A.
Let A = {I, 2, 3} and define R = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 3)}.
Here R is not reflexive since (2, 2) 'l R where as 2 E A.
It is also not irreflexive since (1, 1) E R.
(b) Both symmetric and anti symmetric
Recall that a relation R on a set A is symmetric if (a, b) E R => (b, a) E R. Also a
relation R is antisymmetric if (a, b) E R and (b, a) E R => a = b.
Take A = (1, 2, 3) and R = {(I, 1), (2, 2)}
Then, R is symmetric and antisymmetric
(c) Both reflexive and symmetric
Take A = {I, 2, 3} and R = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}.
Here R is reflexive and symmetric relation on A.
(d) Each reflexive, symmetric and transitive
Let L be the set of lines in the Evclidean plane. Let R be the relation on L defined by "is
parallel to".
If 1, E L, then 1, 11 1, => R is reflexive. If 1" I, E L such that 1, Il l" then
I, 11 1, => R is symmetric.
If 1 " I" 13 E L such that 1, Il l, and I, 11 13 , then 1, 11 13 , Hence R is transitive also.
(e) Both symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
The empty relation <p on any finite set A is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.
Example 9. Consider the following relations on the set A = (1, 2, 3, 4), defined by
(i) R = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 3)}
(ii) S = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
(iii) T = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
(iv) <p = Empty relation
(v) U = Universal relation.
Determine whether or not each of the above relations on A is
(a) Reflexive (b) Symmetric (c) Transitive (d) Antisymmetric.
Sol. (a) Reflexive. The universal relation on A = {I, 2, 3, 4} is reflexive. The empty
relation <p on A = {I, 2, 3, 4} is not reflexive.
Also R, S and T are not reflexive since there exists an element a E A such that (a, a) 'l R,
S, T.
(b) Symmetric
(i) R = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 3)}. Here R is not symmetric since (1, 2) E R, but (2, 1) 'l R.
(ii) S = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}. Hence (a, b) E S => (b, a) E S for all a, b E S
:. S is symmetric.
62 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(iii) T = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3)}. Here T is not symmetric since (1, 2) E T => (2, 1) " T
(iv) The empty relation on any non-empty set is always symmetric.
(v) The universal relation on any non-empty set is always symmetric.
(c) Transitive
(i) R = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 3)}. Here (a, b) E R, (b, c) E R => (a, c) E R 'd a, b, c E R
(ii) S = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
Here (a, b) E S, (b, c) E S => (a, c) E S 'd a, b, C E S. Hence S is transitive.
(iii) T = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3)}. Here (1, 2) E T, (2, 3) E T => (1, 3) E T
.. T is not transitive.
(iv) The empty relation on A is always transitive.
(v) The universal relation on any non-empty set A is always transitive
(d) Antisymmetric
(i) R = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 3)}. We know that a relation R is called antisymmetric
relation on A iff (a, b) E R, (b, a) E R => a = b . . R is antisymmetric.
(ii) S = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}. Here (a, b) E S, (b, a) E S => a '" b 'd a, b E S.
.. S is not antisymmetric. Since (1, 2) E S, (2, 1) E S => 1 '" 2.
(iii) T = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3), (3, 3)}. Here (1, 2) E T, (2, 1) E T => 1 ", 2.
:. T is not antisymmetric.
(iv) The empty relation on A is not antisymmetric.
(v) The universal relation on any non-empty set. For if, let a, b (a '" b) E A. If aRb, b R a
and if R is antisymmetric, then, we must have a = b, which is a contradiction. Hence
the universal relation on A is not antisymmetric.
Example lO_ Each of the following defines a relation on the set N ofpositive integers
R : x >y
S : x + y = lO
T : x + 4y = 10 for all x, y, E N
Determine which of the relations are
(a) reflexive (b) symmetric
(c) transitive (d) antisymmetric
SoL (a) Reflexive_ None are reflexive. For e.g., (1.1) " R, S and T
(b) Symmetric_ Take x = 3, y = 6, then clearly y > x, but x 1: y R is not symmetric
If (x, y) E S, then x + y = 10 => y + x = 10
=> (y, x) E S. Hence S is symmetric.
Also for x = 6, y = 1, x + 4y = 10 holds
Le., (6, 1) E T, but (1, 6) " T i.e., T is not symmetric.
(c) Transitive_ Let (x, y), (y, z) E R => x > y and y > Z
=> x > z :. (x, z) E R for all x, z E N
R is transitive
But S is not transitive.
For e.g., (3, 7) E S since 3 + 7 = 10; (7, 3) E S since 7 + 3 = 10
But (3, 3) " S as 3 + 3 = 6 '" 10
RELATIONS 63
Further, if (x, y) E T, then x + 4y = 10

( )
(y, z) E T, then y + 4z = 10
10 - x
Consider x + 4z = x + 10 - y = x + 10 - ---
4
4x + 40 - 10 + x 5x + 30
= = '" 10
4 4
.. (x, z) 'l T. Hence T is not transitive.
(d) Antisymmetric. If x > y and y > x, then x = y \;j x, Y E N
. . R is antisymmetric.
Let (2, 8) E S => (8, 2) E S but 2 '" 8
. . S is not antisymmetric.
If (x, y) E T, then x + 4y = 10
(y, x) E T, then y + 4x = 10
x + 4y = y + 4x
3y = 3x => x = y \;j x, Y E N
.. T is antisymmetric.
Example 11. (a) Find the numbers of relations from A = (a, b, c) to B = (1, 2).
(b) Define ternary relation and give an example. (P.T.V., B.Tech. Dec. 2006)
(c) Define anti-symmetric relation with an example.
Sol. (a) We know that if a set contains m elements and B contains n elements, then
total number of relations from A to B is 2mn.
Here m = 3, n = 2 required number of relations from A to B = 26 = 64.
(b) A ternary relation is a set of ordered triples. In particular, if S is a set, then a subset
of S x S x S is called a ternary relation on S. For example, If L is a line, then "betweenness" is
a ternary relation among poin ts of L.
(c) A relation R is said to be antisymmetric relation if (x, y) E R, (y, x) E R => y = x
For e.g., consider A = The set of natural numbers. Define R as (x, y) E R iff x Iy.
Then we know that if x divides y, y divides x then x = y for all x, y E R
Hence the relation defined above is an antisymmetric relation.
Example 12. (a) Give an example to show that a reflexive relation on a set A is not
necessarily symmetric.
(b) Prove that a relation R on a set A is symmetric iff R = R-i .
(P.T.U. M.C.A. Dec. 2005)
Sol. (a) Consider A = (1, 2, 3) and define a relation R by R = {(I, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1,3)}.
Here (x, x) E R for all x E A. :. The relation R is reflexive. But (1, 3) E R => (3, 1) 'l R.
:. The relation R is not symmetric.
(b) Let R is symmetric on A. We show R = R-l
Let (x, y) E R for all x, Y E A
=> (y, x) E R I R is symmetric
(x, y) E R-l By definition of inverse relation
R C R-1 ( 1)
64 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Again let (x, y) E R-1 for all x, Y E A
=> (y, x) E R By definition of inverse relation
=> (x, y) E R I R is symmetric
=> R� c R (2)
From (1) and (2) R = R-1
Converse. Let R = R-l We show R is symmetric
Let (x, y) E R
=> (x, y) E R-1
=> (y, x) E R for all x, Y E A. I R = R-1
i.e., R is symmetric.
Example 13. Let R be a relation on the set ofall lines in a plane defined by (11, 12) E R
<=?1 1 is parallel to lz Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Sol. Let A = The set of all lines in a plane and I E A. Since I is parallel to I for each I E A.
:. R is reflexive.
Also let (1" I,) E R for all 1" I, E A. Then by definition of R, 1, is parallel to I, => I, is also
parallel to 1" It means (I" 1,) E R.
. . R is symmetric.
Finally, Let (1" I,) E R, (I" I,) E R for all 1" I" 13 E A.
Now, (1" I,) E R => 1, is parallel to I,
(I" I,) E R => I, is parallel to 13 ,
It means 1, is parallel to 13 , :. (1" I,) E R i.e., R is transitive. Hence we can say that the
relation R is an equivalence relation.
Example 14. Show that the relation "is congruent to" on the set of all triangles in a
plane is an equivalence relation.
Sol. Let A = The set of all triangles in a plane.
R = The relation on A defined by (T" T ,) E R <=? T, is congruent to T, for all
T" T, E A
Reflexivity. Let T1 E A, then T1 '" T1 is true
.. (T" T,) E R for all T, E A. Hence R is reflexive.
Symmetry. Let T" T, E A such that (T" T,) E R
Now, (T" T,) E R => T, '" T, => T, '" T,
=> (T" T,) E R for all T" T, E A
. . R is symmetric.
Transitive. Let T" T" T3 E A such that
(T" T,) E R, (T" T3 ) E R
Now, (T" T,) E R => T, '" T,
(T" T,) E R => T, ", T3
.. T, '" T3
=> (T T,) E R. . . R is transitive.
l'
Hence the relation R is an equivalence relation.
Example 15. Let A be a non-empty set and R be a relation on thepower set P(A) defined
by (A, B) E R <=? A c B for all A, B E P(A). Examine whether R is an equivalence relation or not.
Is R antisymmetric ?
Sol. Let A E P(A). Since A c A for all A E P(A)
.. (A, A) E R. i. e., R is reflexive.
Let (A, B) E R for all A, B E P(A) .
RELATIONS 65

Then A c B => B rz A i.e., B may not be a subset of A. Hence R is not symmetric.

.. R is not an equivalence relation.
But if (A, B) E R, (B, A) E R, then we have A c B, B c A => A = B.
Hence R is antisymmetric.
Example 16. Consider the set Z of integers and an integer m > 1. We say that x is
congruent to y modulo m, written as x = y (mod m) if x - y is divisible by m or x - y = km, for
some integer k. Show that = is an equivalence relation on Z.
Sol. Reflexive. For any x E Z, X = x (mod m)
Since x - x = 0 is divisible by m. Hence = is reflexive
Symmetry. Let x = y (mod m) => x - y is divisible by m => we can write x - y = km
for some integer k.
or - (x - y) = - km = rm for some integer r = - k
or y - x = rm or y - x is divisible by m
Hence y = x (mod m)
.. == is symmetric.
Transitive. Let x = y (mod m), y = z (mod m)
x - y and y - z are divisible by m
=> x - y + y - z is also divisible by m
=> x - z is divisible by m
=> x = z (mod m)
== is transitive

Hence == is an equivalence relation.

Similar Problem 1. LetX = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} andR = {{x, y) ,' x-y is divisible by 3}. Check
whether "a is congruent to b{mod 5)" is equivalence relation or not? Justify your answer.
(P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2007)
Ans. Yes
Similar Problem 2. Let R be a relation on the set Z of integers defined by a = b{mod 5)
{read as "a is congruent to b{mod 5)". Then, R is an equivalence relation on Z.
(P.T.U. B.Tech. May 2013)
Example 17. (a) Let A be the set of integers and let - be a relation on A x A defined by
(a, b) - (c, d) if a + d = b + c. Prove that - is an equivalence relation.
(P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2012, May 2010)
(b) Let A be a set of non-zero integers and let - be the relation on A x A defined by
(a, b) - (c, d) if ad = bc. Show that - is an equivalence relation.
Sol. (a) Reflexive. (a, b) - (a, b) if a + b = b + a, which is true. Hence - is reflexive.
Symmetric. Let (a, b) - (c, d), then a + d = b + c
or c + b = d + a and hence (c, d) - (a, b)
Hence � is symmetric.
Transitive. Let (a, b) - (c, d) . Then a + d = b + c
Let (c, d) - (e, j), then c + f= d + e
Adding, a + d + c + f= b + c + d + e
=> a + f= b + e => (a, b) - (e, j).
Hence is transitive.
�

is equivalence relation.
�
66 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(b) Reflexive. (a, b) - (a, b) if ab = ba = ab, a, b are non zero integers
which is true
is reflexive
�

Symmetric. Let (a, b) (c, d), then ad = bc

�

=> bc = ad
cb = da a, b, c, d are non-zero integers
(c, d) �
(a, b)
. . is symmetric
�

Transitive. Let (a, b) (c, d) => ad = bc

�
( 1)
Let (c, d) (e, f) => cf= de
�
(2)
Multiplying (1) and (2), we get
(ad) (cf) = (bc) (de)
cdaf = cdbe
cd(af - be) = 0
af- be = O I c, d are non-zero integers
af = be
(a, b) (e, f)
�

is transitive
�

Thus, is an equivalence relation.

�

Example 18. (a) Define partial order relation with example.

(P.T.U. B.Tech. May 2006)
(b) Let A be the set ofpeople and R be a relation on A defined by R = {(a, b): a is a brother
of b}.
Is R equivalence relation ? Is R partial order relation ? (discard half brother, paternity
brother).
(c) LetR be a binary relation an A such that (a, b) E R, ifbook a costs more and contains
fewer pages than book b. Is R equivalence relation ? Is R partial order relation ?
Sol. (a) Partial order relation. A relation R on a set A is said to be a partial order
relation on A iff it is (i) reflexive (ii) antisymmetric (iii) transitive.
Let P(A) denotes the power set of A and define a relation R as (A, B) E R <=? A c B.
We show R is a partial order relation.
Reflexive. Since A c A for all A E P(A).
. . (A, A) E R. Hence R is reflexive.
Antisymmetric. Let (A, B) E R, (B, A) E R, then A c B, B c A => A = B for all A, B E P(A) .
.. R is antisymmetric.
Finally, if (A, B) E R, (E, C) E R, then
A c B, B c C => A c C for all A, B, C E P(A).
R is transitive also.
Hence the relation R is partial order relation.
(b) Let a E A, then (a, a) 'l R (if a is a female, then no female can be a brother of
herself). R is not reflexive.
. .

Let (a, b) E R i.e. , a is a brother of b. Then (b, a) may not belong to R (If b is a female,
then b cannot be brother of a). Hence R is not symmetric.
RELATIONS 67
Further, if (a, b) E R and if a and b are male, then both a and b are brothers of each
other. Consequently (b, a) E R, but a '" b.
. . R is not antisymmetric.
Transitive. If (a, b) E R and (b, c) E R. We show (a, c) E R.
Case I. If (a, b) E R, then a has to be male.
If (b, c) E R, then b has to be male.
. . a and b are both male. Consequently (a, c) E R. Hence R is transitive.
Thus, R is neither an equivalence relation nor a partial order relation.
(c) Reflexive. No book costs more than itself, nor pages fewer than itself. Hence
(a, a) 'l R, therefore R is not reflexive.
Symmetric. If (a, b) E R, then the cost of the book 'd is more than the cost of the book
'b' . Here, (b, a) 'l R (since the cost of the book 'b' is less than the cost of the book 'd)
. . R is not symmetric.
Consequently R is not an equivalence relation, not a partial order relation.
Example 19. LetA = (a, b, c). Let R be a rekLtion an A defined by R = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, c),
(c, a)}. Find the reflexive closure of R.
Sol. Given relation R = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, c), (c, a)} is not reflexive. Adding the ordered
pairs (b, b), (c, c) in R, the required reflexive closure of R is given by
RR = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, c), (c, a), (b, b), (c, c)}.
Example 20. Let A = (1, 2, 3, 4) and let R is defined by R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (2, 1)}.
Find the transitive closure of R.
Sol. Given R = {(I, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (2, I)}
Here (1, 2), (2, 1) E R. If R is transitive. Then there should be (1, 1) E R.
Similarly, (1, 2) E R, (2, 3) E R. If R is transitive, there should be (1, 3) E R
If (1, 3) E R, (3, 4) E R. We should also have (1, 4) E R
Also (2, 1) E R, (1, 2) E R. If R is transitive, there should be (2, 2) E R.
If (2, 3) E R, (3, 4) E R, we should have (2, 4) E R.
Hence the required transitive closure of R is given by
RT = {(I, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (2, 1), (1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4)}
Example 21. Consider A = {I, 2, 3, 4}, and R, S be the relations defined by
R = {(1, 2), (1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 2)}
S = {(1, 4), (1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, I)}.
Find RoS,
Sol. We compute the elements of RoS. Consider the Fig. 2.6.

R S
Fig. 2 . 6
RoS = {(I, 3), (1, 4), (1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 3)}
68 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 22. Let R and S be the relations on A = (1, 2, 3, 4) A defined by
R = {(1, 1), (3, 1), (3, 4), (4, 2), (4, 3)}
8 = {(1, 3), (2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 4)}
(a) Find the composition relation RoS
(b) Find the composition relation SoR
(c) Find the composition relation R2 = RoR
(d) Find the composition relation R3 = RoRoR.
Sol. (a) lRl and 183 => (1, 3) E R08
Also 3R1 and 1 8 3 => (3, 3) E R08
3R4 and 484 => (3, 4) E R08
4R2 and 281 => (4, 1) E R08
4R3 and 38 1 => (4, 1) E R08
4R3 and 382 => (4, 2) E R08
Thus, R08 = {(I, 3), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 2)}
(b) First use 8 and then R.
183 and 3R1 => (1, 1) E 80R
183 and 3R4 => (1, 4) E 80R
281 and lRl => (2, 1) E 80R
381 and lRl => (3, 1) E 80R
484 and 4R2 => (4, 2) E 80R
484 and 4R3 => (4, 3) E 80R
Thus, 80R = {(I, 1), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)}
(c) Here R = {(I, 1), (3, 1), (3, 4), (4, 2), (4, 3)}
R = {(I, 1) , (3, 1), (3, 4), (4, 2), (4, 3)}
(1, 1) E R and (1, 1) E R => (1, 1) E RoR
(3, 1) E R and ( 1, 1) E R => (3, 1) E RoR
(3, 4) E R and (4, 2) E R => (3, 2) E RoR
(3, 4) E R and (4, 3) E R => (3, 3) E RoR
(4, 3) E R and (3, 4) E R => (4, 4) E RoR
(4, 3) E R and (3, 1) E R => (4, 1) E RoR
.. RoR = R' = {(I, 1) , (3, 1) , (3, 2) , (3, 3), (4, 4) , (4, I)}
(d) Here R3 = RoRoR = R'oR
But R' = {(I, 1) , (3, 1) , (3, 2) , (3, 3), (4, 4), (4, I)} I Using Part (c)
R = {(I, 1) , (3, 1) , (3, 4) , (4, 2) , (4, 3)}
( 1, 1) E R' and ( 1, 1) E R => ( 1, 1) E R'oR
(3, 1) E R' and ( 1, 1) E R => (3, 1) E R'oR
(3, 3) E R' and (3, 1) E R => (3, 1) E R'oR
(4, 4) E R' and (4, 2) E R => (4, 2) E R'oR
(4, 1) E R' and ( 1, 1) E R => (4, 1) E R'oR
.. RoRoR = R'oR = {(I, 1) , (3, 1) , (4, 2) , (4, I)} .
Example 23. Find the number of relations from A = {a, b, c} to B = {I, 2}.
Sol. A contains 3 elements and B contains 2 elements. There are 3 x 2 = 6 ordered pairs
in A x B.
Hence, total number of subsets of A x B is 2 6 = 64. Therefore,
Total number of relations from A to B = 64 .
RELATIONS 69
Example 24. Let R be a relation on A = {I, 2, 3, 4} defined by "x is less than y". Write R
as a set of ordered pairs. Find the inverse R-1 of the relation R. Can R-1 be described in words?
Sol. R consists of the ordered pairs (x, y) where x < y. Thus
R = {(I, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}
Reverse the ordered pairs of R to obtain R-l
Thus, R-l = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (3, 2), (4, 2), (4, 3)}
R-l is the relation (Ix is greater than y"
Yes, R-l can be described in words, i.e. , R-l is the relation " x is greater than y".
Example 25. Let R be a relation from A = (1, 2, 3, 4) to B = (x, y, z) defined by
R = {(1, y), (1, z), (3, y), (4, x), (4, z)}
(a) Find the domain and range of R
(b) Find the inverse relation R-1 ofR.
Sol. (a) The domain of R consists of the first elements of the ordered pairs of R and the
range consists of the second elements. Thus,
dom (R) = {I, 3, 4} and
Range (R) = {x, y, z}
(b) R-l is obtained by reversing the ordered pairs in R Thus,
R-l = {(y , 1), (z, 1), (y , 3), (x, 4), (z, 4)}.
Example 26. Let A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 6} and R be the relation "x divides y". Write R as set of
ordered pairs. Find the inverse R-1 of the relation R. Can R-1 be described in words.
Sol. We know that xly (read as x divides y) if there exists an integer z such that y = xz.
We find those numbers in A which are divisible by 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6.
Since 111, 112, 113, 114, 116, 2/2, 2/4, 2/6, 3/3, 3/6, 414, 416
Thus, R = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (3, 3), (3, 6), (4, 4), (4, 6)]
Reverse the ordered pairs of R to obtain R-1 Thus,
R-1 = {(I, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (6, 1), (2, 2), (4, 2), (6, 2), (3, 3), (6, 3), (4, 4), (6, 4)]
Yes, R-1 can be described by the statement "x is a multiple of y".
Example 27. Let R and 5 be the relations on A = {I, 2, 3} defined by
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 3)}
5 = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (3, 3)}
(a) Find R n 5, R u 5
(b) Find R'.
Sol. (a) R n S = {(I, 2), (3, 3)}
R u S = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 3)}
(b) Using the fact that A x A is the universal relation on A. Hence,
A

(1. 1) (1 . 2) (1 . 3) (2. 1) (2. 2) (2. 3) (3. 1) (3. 2) (3. 3)

Fig. 2.7
70 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
A x A = (1, 2, 3) x (1, 2, 3)
= {(I, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
R' = A x A - R = The set of ordered pairs which are in A x A but not in R
= {(I, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 2)}
Example 28. Let S = {(I, n) " n E Z}, T = (en, 1), n E Z} are relations on Z. Find
(i) ToS, (ii) SoT.
Sol. (i) (n, 1) E T, (1, n) E S => (n, n) E TaS, n E Z
Le., ToS = Z x Z
(ii) To find SoT, here (1, n) E S, (n, 1) E T
=> (1, 1) E SoT
.. SoT = {(I, I)}.
Example 29. Consider the digraph given below Fig. 2. 8. Write relation as set of ordered
pairs and check for equivalence or partial ordering.
Sol. From the Fig., R = {(a, b), (b, a), (a, c), (c, c), (c, d), (b, d)}
Reflexive. (a, a) 'l R . . R is not reflexive.
Symmetric. (a, c) E R, but (c, a) 'l R . . R is not symmetric.
Antisymmetric. (a, b) E R, (b, a) E R, but a '" b always.
.. R is not antisymmetric. d
Transitive. (a, c) E R, (c, d) E R, but (a, d) 'l R
R is not transitive.
Hence R is neither an equivalence relation nor a partial order· Fig. 2.8
ing relation.
Example 30. Let A = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) and R be a relation on A defined by
U(x, y) E R iff y is divisible by x". Is R equivalence relation ? Is R partial order relation ? Draw
its digraph.
Sol. Here R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (1, 7), (1, 8), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (2, 8), (3, 3), (3, 6),
(4,4), (4, 8), (6, 6), (6, 6), (7, 7), (8, 8) }
Reflexive. (a, a) E R for all a E R
R is reflexive.
Antisymmetric. R is antisymmetric.
Transitive. R is transitive.
Hence, R is a partial order relation. But R is
not symmetric. (1, 2) E R but (2, 1) 'l R.
. . R is not an equivalence relation.
Digraph of R. It is shown in Fig. 2.9
Example 31. Given A = {I, 2, 3, 4} and de-
fine R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 2), (4, 4)} Fig. 2 . 9
(a) Draw its directed graph
(b) Is R (i) reflexive (ii) symmetric (iii) transitive or
(iv) antisymmetric
(c) Find R2 = RoR.
Sol. (a) The directed graph of R is shown below (Fig. 2. 10).
(b) (i) 3 E A, but (3, 3) 'l R . . R is not reflexive.
(ii) (4, 2) E R, but (2, 4) 'l R . . R is not symmetric.
(iii) (4, 2) E R, (2, 3) E R, but (4, 3) 'l R . . R is not transitive.
(iv) (2, 3) E R, (3, 2) E R, but 2 '" 3
Fig. 2 . 1 0
R is not antisymmetric.
RELATIONS 71
(c) Here R = {(I, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 2) (4, 4)}
R = {(I, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 2), (4, 4)}
(1, 1) E R and (1, 1) E R => (1, 1) E RoR
(2, 2) E
R and (2, 2) E R => (2, 2) E RoR
(2, 2) E
R and (2, 3) E R => (2, 3) E RoR
(3, 2) E
R and (2, 3) E R => (3, 3) E RoR
(3, 2) E
R and (2, 2) E R => ( 3 , 2) E RoR
(4, 2) E
R and (2, 3) E R => (4, 3) E RoR
(4, 4) E
R and (4, 2) E R => (4, 2) E RoR
(4, 4) E
R and (4, 4) E R => (4, 4) E RoR
. . R' = RoR = {(I, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4)}
Example 32. Let S be a relation on X = {a, b, c, d, e, f} defined by
S = {(a, b), (b, b), (b, c), (c, f), (d, b), (e, a), (e, b), (e, f!)
Draw the directed graph of S.
Sol. Write down the elements of X
Draw an arrow from the letter x to the letter y if (x, y) E S.
The required directed graph of S is shown in the Fig. 2. 1 1 d
Example 33. (a) LetA = {I, 2, 3, 4, 6} andR be the relation
x I y (read as x divides y) defined by Fig. 2 . 1 1
R=n � � � � � � �� � ��� � � � � � � � � �
Draw the directed graph of R
(b) Let R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (5, 5), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (4, 2), (3, 5), (3, 4)} be a relation
on the set A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Represent R as a directed graph (P.T.U. B.Tech Dec 2013)
(c) Let R be a relation defined on the set A given by
R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 2), (4, 4)}. Draw its diagraph.
Also Justify whether R is
(i) reflexive
(ii) antisymmetric
(iii) transitive (P.T.U. B.Tech Dec 2010)
Sol. (a) Write down the elements 1, 2, 3, 4, 6. Draw an arrow from the integer x to the
integer y if x divides y. The directed graph is shown in Fig. 2. 12(a)

1 2 3 4 6

, [' i]
1
2 0 0 1
3 0 o 1 0
4 0 o 0 1
6 0 o 0 0
(a) ( b)
72 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(b) The required diagraph is shown in Fig. 2. 12(c)

Diagraph of R

(c) (d)

Fig. 2.12
(c) Given R = {(I, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 2), (4, 4)}. The diagraph of R is shown in
Fig. 2. 12(d)
(i) R is not relflexive since (3, 2) E R
(ii) R is not antisymmetric since (4, 2) E R, (2, 2) E R, but 4 '" 2
(iii) R is transitive
Example 34. Find the transitive closure RT ofthe relationR an A = {I, 2, 3, 4} defined by
the directed graph as shown in Fig. 2. 13.
Sol. From the directed graph,
lR2, 2R2, 2R4, 4Rl, 4R3, 3R2, 3R4
:. R = {(I, 2), (2, 2), (2, 4), (4, 1), (4, 3), (3, 2), (3, 4)}
Now (2, 4) E R, (4, 1) E R => (2, 1) 'l R
. . We add (2, 1) in R.
3
Also (1, 2) E R, (2, 1) E R => (1, 1) 'l R
. . We add (1, 1) in R Fig. 2.13
(1, 2) E R, (2, 4) E R => (1, 4) 'l R . . We add (1, 4) in R
(1, 4) E R, (4, 3) E R => (1, 3) 'l R . . We add (1, 3) in R
(2, 1) E R, (1, 3) E R => (2, 3) 'l R . . We add (2, 3) E R
(3, 2) E R, (2, 1) E R => (3, 1) 'l R . . We add (3, 1) in R
(3, 1) E R, (1, 3) E R => (3, 3) 'l R . . We add (3, 3) in R
(4, 1) E R, (1, 2) E R => (4, 2) 'l R . . We add (4, 2) in R
(4, 1) E R, (1, 4) E R => (4, 4) 'l R . . We add (4, 4) in R
. . The transitive closure of R is given by
RT = {(I, 2), (2, 2), (2, 4), (4, 1), (4, 3), (3, 2), (3, 4), (2, 1), (1, 1), (1, 4), (1, 3),
(2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 3), (4, 2), (4, 4)}
The number of order pairs in Rr is 16
.. RT = A x A.
Example 35. (a) Let R be a relation on a set A. Give a procedure to find the symmetric
and reflexive closure ofR.
(b) Using the procedure ofpart (a), find the reflexive closure ofR and symmetric closure
of R where A = {I, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3)}.
RELATIONS 73
Sol. (a) The symmetric closure ofR is R u R-l The reflexive closure ofR is R u /j.A where
/j.A is the diagonal relation
(b) The symmetric closure of R is
R U R-l = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)}
Also /j.A = The diagonal relation on A = (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)
:. The reflexive closure of R is
R U /j.
A = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
Complement of a Relation
Let R is a relation from a set A to a set B i.e., R is a subset of A x B. The complement of
R, denoted by R is defined by R = {(a, b) : (a, b) 'l R}
Example 36. Consider the sets A = {I, 2, 3, 4} and B {a, b, c}.
Let R = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, b), (2, c), (3, b), (4, b)}. Find R
Sol. A x B = {(I, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, a), (3, b), (3, c), (4, a), (4, b), (4, c)}
:. R= A x B - R. The set of all ordered pairs in A x B but not in R
= {(I, c), (2, a), (3, a), (3, c), (4, b), (4, c)}.
Example 37. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} andR be a relation onA whose corresponding diagraph
is given below Fig. 2. 14. Find R .

1
Sol. From the diagraph,
R = {(a, b), (a, e), (a, d), (b, c), (b, d), (b, e), (c, c), (d, d), (e, e)}
(a, a), (a, b), (a, c), (a, d), (a, e), (b, a), (b, b),

I
(b, c), (b, d), (b, e), (c, a), (c, b),(c, c), (c, d),
Also A x A =
(c, e),(d, a), (d, b), (d, c), (d, d), (d, e),(e, a),
(e, b), (e, c), (e, d), (e, e)
. . R = A x A - R. The set of all ordered pairs in A

= {(a, a), (a, c), (b, a), (b, b), (c, a), (c, b), (c, d),
x A but not in R

(c, e), (d, a), (d, b), (d, c), (d, e), Fig. 2.14
(e, a), (e, b), (e, c), (e, d)}

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 2.1

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What is a congruent relation ?
2. Define an equivalence relation with the help of an example,
3. What is a relation ? Give example,
4. If R is a relation on a finite set A having elements. What will be the number of relations on A?
n
5. (a) If A = (1, 2, 3, 4) and R = {(2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (1, 2)} be a relation on A. Examine whether R is
symmetric) transitive or reflexive,
74 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Let
(b) �
R {(I, 1),relation �
(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} be a relation on the set S {I, 2, 3} . Prove that R is an
equivalence on S. (P. T U. B. Tech. Dec 2013)
6. (a) =
Consider the relation 's on the set A (2, 3, 4, 5) . Find the inverse relation on A.
Consider a set A of human beings and define a relation as "is a brother of' on A. Then which
(b)
of the following is true,
(0 Transitive) symmetric and reflexive
(ii) Transitive, but neither reflexive nor symmetric
(iii) Transitive and reflexive but not symmetric
(iv) Neither reflexive, nor transitive nor symmetric.
7. Examine whether the relation 'Divides' on the set of natural number is a partial order
(a)
relation. Is it equivalence relation ? (P. T u., B. Tech. Dec. 2009)
Prove that the relation ';:':.: on the real numbers is not an equivalence relation.
(b)
(PT. V., M. G.A. Dec. 2005)
Let A be a set of integers and R be a relation on A x A defined by R d)
(c) (a, b) (e, =:::} a + d = b + c.
Prove that R is an equivalence relation. (PT. U. B. Tech. May 2008, M. C.A. Dec. 2005)
8. Which of the following collections of subsets are partitions of [I, 2, .. ,6] ?
(a) {I, 2l. {2, 3, 4l. {4, 5, 6} (b) {I}, {2, 3, 6l. {4l. {5}
(c) {2, 4, 6l. {I, 3, 5} (d) {I, 4, 5l. {2, 6}.
9. List all partitions of A � {I, 2, 3}.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

10. =
Consider A {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Give an example of a relation which is
(i) Reflexive) transitive but not symmetric
(ii) Symmetric and antisymmetric.
(iii) Anti-symmetric but not reflexive
(iv) Neither symmetric nor anti-symmetric
(v) Neither symmetric, asymmetric, nor antisymmetric.
=
11. Consider A (1 , 2, 3, 4) and R be a relation defined by
�
R {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 3), (4, 4)}. Determine whether or not R is
(i) Reflexive (h) Irreflexive
(iii) Symmetric (iv) Asymmetric
(v) Antisymmetric (v�) Transitive.
=
12. Consider A {I, 2, 3}. Give an example of a relation on A which is
(i) Reflexive, symmetric, transitive and antisymmetric.
(ii) Neither symmetric nor antisymmetric
(iii) Reflexive, symmetric and not transitive
(iv) Not reflexive, not symmetric, not antisymmetric and not transitive.
(v) Symmetric and transitive but not reflexive
(vi) Neither reflexive nor symmetric
(vii) Reflexive but not symmetric.
� �
13. Let A (1, 2, 3, 4) and R {(2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3), (2, 2), (4, 2)}. Find
Reflexive closure of R
(a) (b) Symmetric closure of R.
RELATIONS 75
14. Let R and S be relations on a set A. Determine whether each of the following statements is true
or not. If not true, give counter example
(a) If R and S are transitive, then R S is transitive u

(b) If R and S are transitive, then R S is transitive. II

(c) If R is transitive, then R-1 is transitive.

(d) If R and S are reflexive, then RoS is reflexive
(e) If R is antisymmetric, then R-1 is antisymmetric.
15. If A and R
� (a. b. c) b)} be a relation on R. Find the transitive closure ofR.
� {(a. a). (b. c). (a.
16. Consider a set A = {I,
3, 5}. Let R be a relation defined as iff = 2, and S be a relation
xRy y x+
defined as iff :s; find
xSy x y
(i) RoS (ii) SoR (iii) Is RoS SoR � ?
17. Consider the following relations on the set N of positive integers:
R: is greater than S:
x y, x + y = 10;
T � x + 4y � 10
(a) Determine which of the relations are reflexive
(b) Determine which of the relations are symmetric
(e) Determine which of the relations are antisymmetric.
(d) Determine which of the relations are transitive. Hint. See Example 10
18. Give examples of relations R on A = {I,
2, 3} having the stated properly
(a) R is both symmetric and antisymmetric
(b) R is neither symmetric nor antisymmetric
(e) R is transitive but R R-l is not transitive.
u

19. (i) Let A be a set of non-zero integers and let be the relation on A x A defined by
� d) (a, b) � (e,
if = Prove that is an equivalence relation.
ad be. �

(ii) Show that the relation of set inclusion is not an equivalence relation.
c
(iii) Let R be the relation on the set of positive integers defined by R = {(a, b): a + b
is even}. Is R
an equivalence relation ?
(iv) Consider the relation of perpendicularity on the set L of lines in the Euclide an plane. Is
� �
an equivalence relation ?
20. Prove the following :
(a) If R and S are reflexive relations on a set A, then R S is also reflexive II

(b) If R and S are symmetric relations on a set A, then R S is also symmetric II

(e) If R is reflexive relation on A. Then R-l and R S are reflexive for any relation S on A
u

(d) Show, by a counter example, that R and S may be transitive relations on A, but R S need u

not be transitive.
(e) If R is any relation on A, show that R R-1 is symmetric. u

21. Let d}, B 2, 3} and C

A � {a. b. c. � {I, z}. Consider the relations R from Ato B and S from
� {w. x. y.
B to C defined by
R 3), 3),
� {(a, (b. 3), 2)}
(c, 1), (c, (d.
S � {(I. x).
(2. (2. z)} y),
Find RoS.
22. Let A, B, C, D be any four sets. Suppose R is a relation from A to B, S is a relation from B to C and
T is a relation from C to D. Then show that (RoS)oT Ro(SoT). =
23. (a)Show that union of two equivalence relations need not be an equivalence relation.
(P. T. U. M. G.A. Dec. 2005. 2006. May 2003)
76 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Consider Z, the set of integers and an integer m > We say that is congruent to modulo
(b) 1, x y
(written as =y(mod. m). Show that this defines an equivalence relation on Z.
m x
24. Let R be the relation on the positive integers N defined by the equation + that is, x 3y = 12 ;

R � {(x, y) : x
+ 3y � 12}
Write R as a set of ordered pairs.
(a)
Find : domain of R, range of R, and R-1
(b) (i) (ii) (iii)
Find the composition relation RoR.
(c)
25. Consider a relation whose directed graph is shown in the following (Fig. Determine its 2 .15).
inverse R-l and its complement R , Also draw the directed graphs of R-l and R ,

Fig, 2,15
Let � (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3) � [1, 2, 3] ,
26,
of R,Rusing composition of relation
and A R. Find the reflexive, symmetric and transitive closure
Answers
5.Reflexive and transitive,
6, (a) (2, 2) (3, 2), (4, 2), (5, 2), (3, 3), (4, 3), (5, 3), (4, 4), (5, 4), (5, 5),
(b) (iii), (a) 7, Yes, No
8, (b) (c)
and are partitions,
9, {{I}, {2}, {3}}, {{I}, {2, 3}}, {{2}, {I, 3}}, {{3}, {I, 2}}, {{I, 2, 3}} ,
10, (i) {(4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (7, 7), (8, 8), (4, 5), (5, 6), (4, 6)}
(ii) {(4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (7, 7)} (ii,) {(4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)}
(iv) {(4, 4), (4, 3), (3, 4), (4, 2)} (v) {(4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 4), (4, 6)}
11. R is reflexive, symmetric, transitive. R is not irreflexiv8, asymmetric, antisymmetric.
12, R
(i) � {(I, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} R (h) � {(I, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3)}
R
(iii) � {(I, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 1), (3, 2)}
(iv)R � {(I, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2)} R (v) � {(I, 2), (2, 1), (1, 1), (3, 2)}
(vi)R � {(I, 1), (2, 3), (3, 3)} R (vi,) � {(I, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (2, 3)}
13, (a)� Reflexive closure of R
� � {(2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3), (2, 2), (4, 2), (1, 1), (4, 4)}
(b) �
Rs Symmetric closure of R � {(2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3), (2, 2), (4, 2) (1, 2), (2, 4)}
14, (a)Not true, take R S � {(I, 2)}, � {(2, 3)}
True True True True,
(b) (c) (d) (e)
15, �
Rr The transitive closure of R � {(a, a) , (b, c) , (a, b), (b, b), (c, c), (c, b), (b, a)}
16, RoS
(i) � {(I, 3), (1, 5), (3, 5)}
SoR
(ii) � {( 1 , 3), (1, 5), (3, 5)}
(iii) =
RoS SoK But in general, RoS SoR t:-
RELATIONS 77
17. (a)None (b) S is symmetric
R and T
(c) (d) R and T.
18. R
(a) � {(I, 1), (2, 2)} (b) R � {(I, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3)}
R
(c) � {(I, 2)}
21. RoS � fCc, x), (d, y), (d, z)} .
24. (a) (9, 1), (6, 2), (3, 3)
(b) (1) {9, 6, 3} (ii) (1, 2, 3) (iii) {(I, 9), (2, 6), (3, 3)}
(c) {3, 3} .
25. (1) R-1 � reb, a), (c, a), (b, b), (c, b), (d, c), (d, d), (a, d), (b, d)]

a}---+-b---{

}---+----{ c

Directed graph of R-l Directed graph of R

(ii) R � [(a, a), (a, d), (b, d), (b, a), (c, a), (c, b), (c, c), (d, c)]
26. RR � [(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1)]
Rs � [(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3)]
Rr � [(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (1, 3)]

Hints
19. (�)
We must show that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
�

We have
(a) Reflexivity : since
(a, b) (a, b)
� ab = ba.
Hence is reflective. �

(b) Symmetry : Suppose (a, b) - (c, d).

Then Accordingly, ad� bc.
and hence d) cb � da (c, � (a, b).
Thus, is symmetric.
�

(c) Transitivity :
Suppose (a, b) - (c,
d) andgives (ad)
d) Then (c,
and and . Multiplying
- (e, f). ad � be cf � de
corresponding terms of the equations (de), Canceling (ef) = (be)
from C -:f- 0 d -:f- 0
both sides of the equation yields and hence at = be, f). Thus is transitive. Accord­
(a, b) (e, � �

ingly, is an equivalence relation.

�

20. Let E A. Since R and S are reflexive,

(a) a
.. E R and E S
(a, a) (a, a) E R nS =c} (a, a)
Hence R S is reflexive.
II

(b)Let E R n S
(a, b) E R and E S
=c} (a, b) (a, b)
But R and S are symmetric, therefore, E R and E S E RnS
(b, a) (b, a) =c} (b, a)
Hence R S is symmetric.
II

(c)Let E A. Since R is -lreflexive, :

a ER . (a, a)

reflexive =::}E R and

(a, a) E R S for any relation S on A, Hence R-l and R S is
(a, a) u u

(d)Take R S� (1, 2), � (2, 3),

then R and S are transitive. But
R S u � {(I, 2), (2, 3)}
is not transitive
Since -lE R S, E R S -l R S
(1, 2) u (2, 3) u =c} (1, 3) � u

(e)Let E R R If E R
(a, b) U (a, b) ER =c} (b, a)
Hence E R R-1 , :. R R-1 is symmetric,
(b, a) u u
78 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

2.18. EQU IVALENCE RELATIONS AND PARTITIONS

Let S be non·empty set. By partition P of S, we mean a finite collection {Ai }7=1 of

non·empty subsets of S such that,
(i) Ai n AJ = <p \;j i '" j i.e., the subsets A/s of S are mutually disjoint
(ii) u n1=1 A! = S
In other words, a partition P of S is a subdivision of S into disjoint non·empty sets.
Further, suppose that R be an equivalence relation on S. For each a E S, let [a] denotes the set
of elements of S to which a is related under R. Thus,
[a] = {x E S: (a, x) E R} or
= {x E S: aRx}
The set [a] is called equivalence class if a in S.
The collection of all equivalence classes of elements of S under an equivalence relation
R is denoted by SIR. Thus,
SIR = {[a] : a E S} where
SIR (to be read as the quotient set of S by R) is called the quotient set.
Theorem. Let R be an equivalence relation on a set S and let SIR denotes the quotient
set of S by R. Then, the quotient set SIR is a partition of S. Also,
(i) a E [a] \;j a E S
(ii) [a] = [b] iff (a, b) E R
(iii) Ina] '" [b], then [a] and [b] are disjoint.
Proof. (i) Since R is an equivalence relation on S, it must be reflexive. Thus, for every
a E S, (a, a) E R => a E [a] I by definition of [a]
(ii) Let (a, b) E R and we show [a] = [b]
Let x E [b] => (b, x) E R. Also (a, b) E R and since R is an equivalence relation on S, it
must be transitive.
Hence (a, b) E R, (b, x) E R => (a, x) E R
=> X E [a] => [b] c [a] ( 1)
To show [a] c [b], let (a, b) E R
=> (b, a) E R R is symmetric
=> a E [b] => [a] c [b] (2)
Hence, combining (1) and (2), we have
[a] = [b]
Conversely, if [a] = [b], then by using part (i),
we have b E [b] = [a] => b E [a]
=> (a, b) E R
(iii) We prove that if [a] n [b] '" <p, then
[a] = [b]
Since [a] n [b] '" <p => 3 an element X E S such that
x E [a] n [b] => x E [a] and x E [b].
Now x E [a] => (a, x) E R
Similarly, (b, x) E R
RELATIONS 79
But R is symmetric, therefore,
(b, x) E R => (x, b) E R
Again, (a, x) E R, (x, b) E R and R is transitive, we must have
(a, b) E R => [a] = [b] I Using Part (ii)

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 1. Let A = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) and R be an equivalence relation on A defined by
R=n � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �
Find the equivalence classes of R (i.e., the partition of A induced by R). Also find AIR.
Sol. For each a E A, let [a] denotes the set of those elements of A to which a is related
under R. Thus,
[a] = {x E A: (a, x) E R}
Here, the set [a] is called equivalence class of a in A:
Start with an element ' l' of A:
Le., [1] = {x E A . (1, x) E R}
Clearly, (1, 1) and (1, 5) both belong to R. i.e., the elements 1 and 5 are related by ' 1'
.. [1] = { I, 5} = A" say.
Next, pick an element from A which does not belong to [1], these are 2, 3, 4 or 6.
Consider an element, '2' , say, which dose not belong to [1]. We find [2].
The elements related to 2 are 2, 3 and 6 (since (2, 2), (2, 3) and (2, 6) all belong to R)
Therefore, [2] = {2, 3, 6} = �, say
We next, pick an element which does not belong to [1] or [2]. Clearly, 4 is the only
element. Now, the elements related to 4 is 4. (since (4, 4) E R). Hence,
[4] = {4} = �, say
The sets A" �, A3 form a partition of A since A" A, and � are mutually disjoint sets
and A, U � U � = A:
Finally,
AIR = The set of all equivalence classes of elements of A under an equivalence relation R
= [{I}, {2}, {4}]
Example 2. Consider the set W = {sheet, last, sky, wash, wind, sit}. Find WIR where R
is the equivalence relation on W defined by "has the same number of letters as"
Sol. For each W E W, let [w] denotes the set of all those elements of W to which w is
related under R. Thus,
[w] = {x E W. (w, x) E R}
Here, the set [w] is called equivalence class of w in W.
Consider the set
W = {w1 ! W2 ! W3! W4! W5! w6 } where
w1 = " sheet" ) w2 = (11ast" ) W3 = ilS ky" )
w4 = ((wash", W5 = ((wind" and W6 = ((sit"
Start with an element, say, w, ofW. Here [w,] denotes the set of those elements ofW to
which ' w,' is related under R.
80 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Now, the element ' W ,' has 5 letters and the only element, which has same number of
letters as of (w 1' is w1 ' Hence
{w,} = {sheet} = W" say,
Next, pick an element from W which does not belong to [w,], these are w, w3 W, ' W5 or
' '
Consider an element 'w,', say, which does not belong to [w,]. We find [w,].
The elements related to (w2' are W2 ! w4 and W5 (since these elements have same number
of letters as of 'w,')
Therefore,
[W,] = {last, wash, wind} = W, say,
We next, pick an element which does not belong to [w,] or [w,]. Clearly, W3 and W6 are
the only elements.
The elements related to ' W3' are W3 are W6 (since these elements have same number of
letters as of ' W3 ')
Thus, [w3 ] = {sky, sit} = W3 say
Clearly, the sets W" W, and W, form a partition ofW since W" W, and W3 are mutually
disjoint sets and W, U W, U W3 = W. Hence
WIR = The set of all equivalence classes of elements ofW under an equivalence relation R
= [{sheet}, {last, wash, wind}, {sky, sit}]

1 TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 2.2 1

Prove that � is an equivalence relation on A
1. =
Let A {I, and let be the relation on A x A defined by
2, 3, . . . 9} ,�, if (a, b) � (c, d) a+d=b+ c
(a)
(b) Find the equivalence class of [(2, 5)]
(2, 5), i.e.,
2. =
Let S {I, Let R be an equivalence relation on S defined by =y(mod Find
2, 3, . . . , 19, 20} . "
x 5)" .
SIR, the quotient set (the partition of S induced by R).
3. =
Consider the set of words W {sheet, last, sky, wash, wind, sit}
Find W/R where R is the equivalence relation on W defined by " begins with the same letters as" ,

Answers
1. =
[(2, 5)] {(I, 6),
4), (2, 5), (3, (6,
(4, 7), (5, 8), 9)}
2. =
SIR [{I, 6, 1 1 , 16}, {2, 7, 12, 17}, {3, 8, 13, 18}, {4, 9 , 14, 19}, {5, 10, 15, 20}]
3. W/R = [{sheet, sky, sit}, {last}, {wash, wind}]
Hints
1. (a) Please see example page in this chapter.
17 65
�
(b) (2, 5) (c, d) iff +
2 d 5 = or+ c d - c = 5 - 2 = 3 \j c,
dE A
6),
(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, and (6, are the only elements to which is related.
(4, 7), (5, 8) 9) (2, 5)
=
[(2, 5)] {(I, 6),
4), (2, 5), (3, (4, 1), (5, 8),
(6, 9)}
2. x =y (mod (read as is congruent to y(mod means that y is divisible by
5) "
x 5)") x- 5.
By definition,
relation SIR is the set of all equivalence classes of elements of S under an equivalence
R. Therefore, we are required to find the equivalence classes of the elements of S.
Start with an element of S. The elements of S to which is related under R are I, 6, 16
'1' '1' 11,
(since = l(mod = 6(mod = (mod and = 6(mod Therefore,
1 5), 1 5), 1 11 5) 1 5».
[1] {I, 6, = etc. 1 1 , 16}
3. Please see example (page in this chapter.
2 79)
RELATIONS 81

2 . 1 9 . WARS HALL'S ALGORITHM TO FIND TRANSITIVE CLOSURE

This method is to be applied for large sets and relations. This algorithm is a more
efficient algorithm to compute the transitive closure.
Consider a relation R defined on a set
A = (a" a" ...... an>. If {x" x,, ...... xn} is a path in R, then any vertex other than x, and xn
is called interior vertex of the path. Also for 1 < k < n, we define a Boolean matrix Wk as
follows.

if any, come from the set {a" a2 , ...... an}' In other words, W n = MR'
The (i,j)th element ofWk is 1 iff there is a path from ai to a in R whose interior vertices,

If we define Wo = Mw then we can find a sequence Wo W l ' W" ...... Wn whose first term
is Wo = MR and the last term is Wn = MR'
'

Each matrix Wk can be computed from Wk_1 using the following algorithm (Warshall's
algorithm) .
Step I. First transfer ali I's in Wk_1 to Wk'
Step II. List the locations P " P" ... in column k of Wk _ l ' where the entry is 1 and
locations al ) a2 ! in row k of Wk_1 J where the entry is L
••••••

Step III. Put l's at all the positions (Pi' q) ofWk (if they are not already there).
Example 1. Using Warshall's algorithm, find the transitive closure ofR defined on
A = {I, 2, 3, 4} and
R = (1, 1), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4).

1
1
Wo = MR = 0
[ 0
1
0
0
1
0
]
Sol. If MR denotes the matrix representation ofR, then (Take Wo = MR)

0 1 0 and n = 4 (As MR is a 4 x 4 matrix)

o 0 0 1

We compute W4 by using Warshall's algorithm.

For k = 1. In column 1 of Wo,l's are at positions 1 and 2. Hence P, = 1, P, = 2
In row 1 of Wo l's are at positions 1 and 4.
'
Hence q, = 1, q, = 4. Therefore, to obtain W, we put 1 at the positions :

[ ]
'
{(P " q,), (P " q,), (P" q,), (P" q2 ) = (1, 1), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 4)}. Thus

1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1
W, = 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
For k = 2. In column 2 of W" l's is at positions 2. Hence P , = 2.
In row 2 of W" l's are at positions 1, 2 and 4.
Hence q, = 1, q, = 2, q3 = 4.
Therefore, to obtain W2 , we put Is at the positions:
{(P " q,), (P " q,), (P " q, ) = (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 4)}. Thus (using W,)
 [ ]
82 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1
W, = 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

For k = 3. In column 3 ofW" ' 1' is at position 3.

Hence P, = 3

[ ]
In row 3 ofW" ' 1' is at position 3. Hence q, = 3
Thus, we put ' 1' at the position: {(P " q,) = (3, 3)}. Thus (using W,)
1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1
W3 = 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
For k = 4. In column 4 ofW3 , l's are at positions 1, 2 and 4. Hence P , = 1, P, = 2, P3 = 4.
In row 4 of W3 ' 1' is at position 4. Hence q, = 4
'

[ ]
Therefore, we put l's at the positions:
{(P" q,), (p" q,), (P3 q,) = (1, 4), (2, 4), (4, 4)}. Thus (using W3 ).
'
1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1
W4 = 0 0 1 0 = MR'
o 0 0 1
Hence, from the matrix MR', the transitive closure of R is given by
W = {(I, 1), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
Example 2. Let A = {I, 2, 3, 4} and letR = (O, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (2, I)}. Find the transitive

[� � � �
closure ofR using Warshall's algorithm.
Sol. Let MR denotes the matrix representation of R. Take Wo = Mw we have
0 1 0 0'
Wo = MR = and n = 4 (As MR is a 4 x 4 matrix)
o 0 0 0
We compute W4 by using warshalYs algorithm.
For k = 1. In column 1 of Wo ' ' 1' is at position 2. Hence P, = 2.

[ ]
In row 1 ofWo ' 1' is at position 2. Hence q, = 2. Therefore, to obtain W l ' we put ' l' at the
'
position: {(P" q,) = (2, 2)}. Thus

0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
W, = 0 0 0 1
o 0 0 0
For k = 2. In column 2 of W" l's are at positions 1, 2. Hence P, = 1, P, = 2.
RELATIONS 83
In row 2 of W" l's are at positions 1, 2 and 3. Hence q , = 1, q, = 2, q3 = 3
Therefore, to obtain W" we put ' 1' at the positions :
{(P " q,), (P " q,), (P " q3) (p" q,), (P2' q,), (p" q3) = (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}.

]
'
Thus (using W,)

1 1 0
1 1 0
o 0 1
0 0 0
For k = 3. In column 3 of W" l's are at positions 1, 2. Hence P , = 1, P, = 2
In row 3 ofW" ' 1' is at the position 4. Hence q , = 4

[ ]
Therefore, to obtain W3 we put l's at the positions: {(P" q,), (P" q,) = (1, 4), (2, 4)}.
Thus (using W,)
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
W3 = 0 0 0 1
o 0 0 0
For k = 4. In column 4 of W3 , l's are at positions 1, 2, 3. Hence P , = 1, P2 = 2, P3 = 3

[
In row 4 ofW3 , ' 1' is at no position, and no new l's are added and hence MR' = W4 = W3 .
Thus
1 1 1 l'
1 1 1 1 �

W4 = W3 = 0 0 0 1 = MR
o 0 0 0
Thus, the transitive closure of R is given as

[ ] [ ]
R� = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}
Example 3. Let A = (1, 2, 3, 4) and let R and S be the relation on A described by
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
MR
= 0 1 0 0 ' Ms = 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
Use Warshall's algorithm to compute the transitive closure of R u S.
(P.T.U. B. Tech. December 2008)
Sol. Let MR u
s denotes the matrix representation or R u S, then

We compute W4 by using WarshalYs algorithm. Here n = 4 (As MR u s is a 4 x 4 matrix)

and
 [ ]
84 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 0 1 1
WO = MR u S =
1 0 0o
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 o
For k = 1. In column 1 of Wo ' '1' is at position 1. Hence P, = 1.
In row 1 ofWo l's are at positions 1, 2, and 4.
'
Hence q, = 1, q, = 2, q3 = 4.

[
Therefore, to obtain W" we put l's at the positions:
{(P " q,), (P " q,), (P " q,) = (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4)}. Thus (using Wo)
1 1 0 l'
W, =
o 1 0 0 = Wo
0 1 1 0
o 1 1 1
For k = 2. In column 2 of W" l's are at positions 1, 2, 3 and 4. Hence P , = 1, P2 = 2, P3
= 3, P 4 = 4
In row 2 ofW" '1' is at position 2. Hence q, = 2
Therefore, to obtain W, , we put l's at the positions:

[
{ (P " q,), (p" q,), (P3 ' q,), (P4 ' q,) = (1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2)}
Thus (using W,)
1 1 0 l'
W, =
o 1 0 0 = W,
0 1 1 0
o 1 1 1
For k = 3. In column 3 of W" l's are at positions 3, 4. Hence P , = 3, P, = 4
In row 3 of W" l's are at positions 2 and 3.
Hence q, = 2, q, = 3
Therefore, to obtain W3 we put l's at the positions :
'

[
{ (P " q,), (P" q2) ' (P 2' q,), (P 2' q2) = (3, 2), (3, 3), (4, 2), (4, 3)}.
Thus (using W2)
1 1 0 l'
o 1 0 0
W3 = 0 1 1 0 = W2
o 1 1 1
For k = 4. In column 4 of W3 , l's are at positions 1 and 4. Hence P, = 1, P, = 4 in row 4
of W3 , l's are at to obtain W4 , positions 2, 3 and 4. Hence q, = 2, q, = 3, q3 = 4.
Therefore, to obtain W4 we put l's at the positions:

[ ]
{(P " q,), (P" q,), (P" q,), (P " q,), (P 2 ' q,), (P" q3) = (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4)}
Thus (using W,)
1 1 1 1
o 1 o 0 =
W4 = 0 1 1 0 M (R U S)�
o 1 1 1
RELATIONS 85
Thus, the transitive closure of R u S is given as
(R u S) � = { ( I , 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (3, 2), (3, 3), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4)}
Example 4. Let A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5} and
R=n � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �
S = (O, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 4), (5, 5)}
Find the transitive closure of R u S by using Warshall's algorithm.

[ � �l ' [� � � l
Sol. Let MR and Ms denote the matrix representation of R and S respectively. Then
1 1 0
1 1 0
MR = 0 0 1 Ms = o 0
0 0 0 �1 �1
o 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 o 1

]j � � � � � �]
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
= 0 0 1 1
o 0 1 1 o 0 0 1
o 0 0 0 o 0 0 1

!]
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 Iv 1 = 1
= 0 0 1 1 O v l = 1 etc.
o 0 1 1 1v0 = 1
o 0 0 1 OvO=O

]
We now compute W5 by WarshalYs algorithm. Here n = 5. (As MR u S is a 5 x 5) matrix
and
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
WO = MR u S = 0 0 1 1 0
o 0 1 1 1
o 0 0 1 1
For k = 1. In column 1 of Wo' l's are at positions1, 2. Hence P , = 1, P , = 2.
In row 1 ofWo l's are at positions 1, 2. Hence q, = 1, q, = 2
'
Therefore, to obtain W" we put l's at the positions:
{ (P " q,), (P" q,), (p" q,), (p" q,) = (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}

[� � � � �l
Thus (using W0>

W, = = Wo
o 0 1 1 1
o 0 0 1 1
86 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
For k = 2. In column 2 of W" l's are at positions 1, 2. Hence P , = 1, P , = 2
In row 2 ofW" l's are at positions 1, 2. Hence q , = 1, q, = 2
Therefore, to obtain W" we put l's at the positions:
{ (P " q ,), (P" q,), (P" q, ), (P" q,) = (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}.

[� � � � �l
Thus (using W,)

W = = W1
' 0 0 1 1 1
o 0 0 1 1
For k = 3. In column 3 of W" l's are at the positions 3, 4. Hence P , = 3, P, = 4.
In row 3 ofW" l's are at the positions 3 and 4. Hence q , = 3, q, = 4
Therefore, to obtain W3 , we put l's at the positions:
{ (P " q,), (p" q,), (p" q,), (p" q,) = (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 3), (4, 4)}

� � � � �]
Thus (using W,)

W3 = = W,
o 0 1 1 1
o 0 0 1 1
For k = 4. In column 4 of W3 , l's are at positions 3, 4, 5. Hence P , = 3, P, = 4, P3 = 5.
In row 4 ofW3 , l's are at the positions 3, 4 and 5. Hence q, = 3, q, = 4, q3 = 5.
Therefore, to obtain W" we put l's at the positions:
{(P" q,) , (P" q,), (P" q3)' (p" q ,), (p" q,), (p" q,), (P3' q ,), (P3' q,), (P3' q3)
=(3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5)}. Thus (using W,)

]
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
W, = 0 0 1 1 1
o 0 1 1 1
o 0 1 1 1

:
For k = 5. In column 5 ofW" l's are at the positions 3, 4, 5. Hence P , = 3, P, = 4, P3 = 5.
In row 5 of W" l's are at the positions 3, 4, 5. Hence q , = 3, q, = 4, q3 = 5.

[
This is similar to the case for k = 4. Hence
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
W5 = W, = 0 0 1 1 1 = M (RuS) �

o 0 1 1 1
o 0 1 1 1
Thus, the transitive closure of R u S is given as
(R u S) � = {(I, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5),
(5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5)}
RELATIONS 87

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 2.3

1. Let A � and let R �

(1, 2, 3) {(I, 1), (1 2), (2, 3), (1, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2)} , Find the matrix M R- of the
transitive closure R by using Warshall's algorithm.
2. Let A = {al l a2 ! as) a4 ! a5]
and R be a relation on A. If
MR � � � � � � � Wo
1 0 0 0 0
o 1 0 0 1
,

Compute Wl ' W3 as in Warshall's algorithm. Also find Roo, the transitive closure of R.
[� I
W2 !

[� I
3. Let A = (I, 2, 3, 4).
For thes algorithm.
relation R whose matrix is given, find the matrix of the transitive
closure by using Warshall'
0 0

�j
1 0
,
(I) MR

[ ]
1 0 0 1
1
,�
1 0
0 1
0 0
,
(n) MR

[
1 0 0
,� 0 0
0 1 �j
II
0 0 0
(iii) 0 1 1 0 (iv) 1 0 0
o 1 1 0 o 1 0
1 0 0 1 o 0 1

[� � � � �l' � � � � �:
4. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e] and let R and be the relations on described by
S A

MR � Ms �
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
Use Warshall's algorithm to compute transitive closure of R u S.

[
Answers

J
1 1 1
1. MW � 1 1 1 ,
1 1 1
where R� � {(I, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}

2. Wl �W2 �W3 � [� � � � �l
1 0 0 1 0
o 1 0 0 1

3.
R� �
()1 � �
jo 1
1 0
[I
(il) i
j
{(I I), (1, 4), (2, 2), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 1), (4, 4), (5, 2), (5, 5)}

o 1
� 0 o 1
1 0
1 0
0 0 o 1 1 0 o 1
 [ ] [ ]
88 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
(iii) 0 1 1 0 (iv) 1 1 1 1
o 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1

4. (R u S)� � {(a, a), (a, b), (a, ) (a, d), (a, e) , (b, a), (b, b), (b, c) , (b, d), (b, e) , (c, a), (c, b), (c, c) (c,
c, d),
(c, e) , (d, a), (d, b), (d, c), (d, d), (d, e), (e, a), (e, b), (e, c), (e, d), (e, e)}

M U LTIPLE CHOICE QU ESTIONS ( MCQs)

1. The binary relation S <p (empty set) on set A {I, 2, 3} is

� �

(a) Neither reflexive nor anti· symmetric (b) Symmetric and reflexive
(c) Transitive and reflexive (d) Transitive and symmetric.
2. A relation R is defined on the set of integers as xRy iff (x + y) is even. Which of the
following statement is TRUE ?
(a) R is not an equivalence relation
(b) R is an equivalence relation having one equivalence class
(c) R is an equivalence relation having two equivalence classes
(d) R is an equivalence relation having three equivalence classes.
3. The time complexity of computing the transitive closure of a binary relation on a set of
n elements is known to be
(a) O(n) (b) O(n log n)
(e) o (n3/2) (d) O(n3).
4. The number of equivalence relations of the set {I, 2, 3, 4} is
(a) 4 (b) 15
(c) 16 (d) 24.
5. Let R be non·empty relation on a collection of sets defined by ARB if and only if A n B <p. �

Then, (pick the TRUE statement)

(a) R is reflexive and transitive (b) R is symmetric and not transitive
(e) R is an equivalence relation (d) R is not reflexive and not transitive.
6. Let R be a symmetric and transitive relation on a set A, then
(a) R is reflexive and hence an equivalence relation
(b) R is reflexive and hence a partial order
(e) R is not reflexive and hence not an equivalence relation
(d) None of these.
7. The 'Subset' relation on a set of sets is
(a) A partial ordering (b) An equivalence relation
(c) Transitive and symmetric only (d) Transitive and anti· symmetric only.
8. Let R, and R, be two equivalence relations on a set. Consider the following assertions
(i) R, u R, is an equivalence relation.
(ii) R, n R, is an equivalence relation.
Which of the following is correct ?
(a) Both assertions are true
RELATIONS 89
(b) Assertion (i) is true but assertion (ii) is not true
(c) Assertion (ii) is true but assertion (i) is not true
(d) Neither (i) nor (ii) is true.
9. Let R be a relation on A = {I, 2, 3, 4} defined by "x is less than y". Then R-l is
(a) {(2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (3, 2), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4)}
(b) {(2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (3, 2), (4, 2)}
(c) {(2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (3, 2), (4, 2), (4, 4)}
(d) None.
10. Let R be a relation on A = {I, 2, 3} defined by R = {(I, 2), (2, 3), (3, I)}. The transitive
closure of R is
(a) RT = {(I, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 1) (2, I)}
(b) RT = {(I, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (1, 3)}
(c) both (a) and (b) are true
(d) none.
Answers and Explanations
1. (d) The empty relation on any non·empty set is always symmetric and transitve.
2. (c) R = {(x, y) : x + y is even}
Reflexive. (x, x) E R, since x + x = 2x is even. Hence R is reflexive.
Symmetric. If (x, y) E R, then x + y is even => y + x is also even => ( y, x) E R.
Hence R is symmetric.
Transitive. If (x, y) E R, then x + y is even, say x + y = 2k
If (y, z) E R, then y + Z is even, say y + Z = 2m where k, m are integers.
Now, x + Z = 2k - y + 2m - y = 2k + 2m - 2y = 2(k + m - y) = 2l, say l = k + m - y
which is even. Hence (x, z) E R
. . R is Tansitive also.
Hence R is an equivalence relation.
To find the number of equivalence classes, we have (x, y) E R => x + y is even.
Also, y + x is even => (y, x) E R
. . The number of equivalence classes is 2.
3. (d)
4. The number of equivalence relations = 2 4 - 1 = 16 - 1 = 15.
5. (b) Let A and B are two sets such that A n B = <jJ. Then B n A = <jJ is also true. Hence, R
is symmetric.
Also, if A, B, C are sets such that A n B = <jJ, B n C = <jJ, then A n C may or may not be <jJ.
Hence, R is not transitive.
6. (d) Every equivalence relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. But the converse
is not true.
7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (c).
 3 FUNCTIONS

3 . 1 . FUNCTION
Let A and B be two non·empty sets. A function or a mapping ffrom a set A into a set B
is a rule which associates to each element 'a of A, a unique element 'b' of B such that f(a) = b.
The element 'b' is call1ed image of ' a under fand 'a is called pre· image of b.
This fact is denoted by f : A --; B and read as "f is a function from A to B".
Remark If f: A -----t B is a function from A to B, then
(i) each element of A has one and only one image in B.
(ii) Different elements of A can have same images in B.
Theorem I. Let A and B be two finite sets having m and n elements respectively. Then
total number offunctions from A to B is nm.
Proof. Given, number of elements in A = m
Number of elements in B=n
Now, fis a function from A to B. It means each element of A can be associated to any one
of n elements of the set B. Therefore, total number of functions from set A to set B is equal to
the number of ways of doing m jobs where each job can be done in n ways i.e.,
1st element of A can be associated in n ways.
2nd element of A can be associated in n ways

mth element of A can be associated in n ways.

. . By Fundamental Principle of Counting, total number of ways of associating m
elements of A to any one element of B
= n x n x n ..... m times = nm
Hence, total number of functions from A to B = nm.

I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. If a set A has n elements, how many functions are there from A to A.
Sol. If a set A has n elements, then there are nn functions from A to A.
Example 2. If A has m elements and B has n elements, how many functions are there
from A to B and from B to A.
90
FUNCTIONS 91
Sol. A has m elements and B has n elements. So, the total number of functions from A
to B are nm and the total number of functions from B to A are mn .
Example 3. If A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {5, 6}. Determine all functions from A to B.
Sol. The total number of functions from A --; B are 2 3 = 8, which are
(i) {(2, 5), (3, 5), (4, 5)} (ii) {(2, 6), (3, 6), (4, 6)}
(iii) {(2, 5), (3, 5), (4, 6)} (iv) {(2, 5), (3, 6), (4, 6)}
(v) {(2, 6), (3, 5), (4, 5)} (vi) {(2, 6), (3, 6), (4, 5)}
(vii) {(2, 6), (3, 5), (4, 6)} (viii) {(2, 5), (3, 6), (4, 5)}
Example 4. Let F be the set ofone-one functions from A to B where A = {I, 2, 3, ....... , n},
B = {I, 2, 3, ...... , m} and m :> n :> 1.
(a) How many functions f are members ofF ?
(b) How many functions f in F satisfy the property f(i) = 1 for some 1 <:i <:n ?
(c) How many functions f in F satisfy the property f(i) < f(j) for all 1 <: j <:n ?
Sol. (a) Given neAl = n, nCB) = m
Total number of functions which are 1-1 = neAl x nCB) = nm
Hence (nm' functions are members of F.
(b) There are 'n'functions (the cardinal number of A is n) satisfying the property f(i) = l.
(c) The number of functions satisfying

f (i) < f (j) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ..... + n =

n(n + 1)
2

3.2. DOMAIN OF A FUNCTION (P. T. u., B. Tech. Dec. 2006)

Let fbe a function from A to B. The set A is called domain of the function f

3.3. CO-DOMAIN OF A FUNCTION (P. T. u., B. Tech. Dec. 2006)

Let fbe a function from A to B. The set B is called co-domain of the function f

3.4. IMAGE OF AN ELEMENT

If the element x of A corresponds to y under function f, then y is the image of x under f
and is written as f(x) = y.
If f(x) = y, then we say that x is a pre-image of y.
If f : X --; Y, then each element of X has unique image in Y, whereas every element in Y
need not be image of some x in X.
Pre-image or inverse image
Let f: A --; B be a function from A to B. Let T be a subset of B. Then the inverse image or
pre-image of T under f, denoted by r' (T), is defined as
f-l (T) = {a E A : f(a) E T}
In otherwords, f-l (T) consists of the elements of A whose images belong to T.
92 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 5. Let A = {I, 2, 3, 4} and the function f ,' A --; A as shown in Fig. 3.1. Find
(i) the image of each element of A. (ii) the image f(A) of the function f

Fig. 3 . 1
Sol. (i) The image of 1 = f(l) = 3, f(2) = 3, f(3) = 1 and f(4) = 1.
(ii) The image of f(A) consists of all the image values.
Therefore, f(A) = {I, 3}.

3.5. RANGE OF A FUNCTION OR 1m (f)

The range of a function is the set of images of its domain. In other words, we can say, it
is a subset of its co· domain.
If f : A --; B, then f(A) = {{(x) : x E A} = (y : y E B I 3 x E A, such that f(x) = y}.
Example 6. Let P = {x, y, z, u} and Q = {a, b, c, d} and f,' P --; Q, such that
f = {(x, a), (y, b), (z, c), (u, c)}.
Find the domain, co-domain and range of function.
Sol. Domain of function f is the set P = {x, y, z, u}
Co-domain of function f is the set Q = {a, b, c, d} Range of the function f is Range
(f) = {a, b, c}.
Example 7. Let A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c} and f = {(2, a), (3, b), (4, b)}
Find domain, co-domain and range of the function.
Sol. Domain of function is Domain (f) = {2, 3, 4}
Co-domain of function is co-domain (f) = {a, b, c}
Range of function is Range (f) = {a, b}.

3.6. DESCRIPTION OF A FUNCTION

If f : A --; B is a function such that its domain Df
consists of a finite number of elements. Then, f(x) can be a -4c-----.p.
described by listing the values which it attains at
different points of its domain. b
e.g., Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {x, y, z}
and f : A --; B such that f = {(a, x), (b, z), (c, x)} c
Then f can be represented diagrammatically as
Fig. 3 . 2
shown in Fig. 3.2.
IfDf is an infinite set, then f cannot be described by listing the values which it attains at
different points of its domain. In this case, a function is generally described by a formula.
For example, f : Z --; Z given by f(x) = x2 + 1,
g : R --; R given by g (x) = e' etc.
 FUNCTIONS 93

Example 8. Let X = {x, y, Z, k} and Y = {I, 2, 3, 4}. Determine which of the following are
functions ? Give reasons if it is not. Find range if it is a function.
(i) f = {(x, 1), (y, 2), (z, 3), (k, 4)} (ii) g = {(x, 1), (y, 1), (k, 4)}
(iii) h = {(x, 1), (x, 2), (x, 3), (x, 4)} (iv) I = {(x, 1), (y, 1), (z, 1), (k, 1)}
(v) d = {(x, 1), (y, 2), (y, 3), (z, 4), (k, 4)}.
Sol. (i) It is a function. Range (f) = {I, 2, 3, 4}.
(ii) g not a function because every element of X does not relate with some element of Y
i.e., z is not related with any element of Y.
(iii) h is not a function because element x has more than one image in set Y. i.e., x E X
has four images 1, 2, 3, 4.
(iv) It is a function. Range (l) = {I}.
(v) d is not a function because element y has more than one image in set Y. i.e., y E X
has two images 2 and 3.

3.7. (a) EVERYWHERE DEFINED FUNCTION

Consider a function ffrom A to E. Then the function f is everywhere defined if dam if) = A.

Example 9. Let A = {I, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c} and C = {a, �, y}. Consider the following
two functions f ,' B --; C and g " A --; C given as
(i) f = {(a, a), (b, �), (c, y)} (ii) g = (O, a), (3, �), (2, y)}
Determine whether or not each function is everywhere defined.
Sol. (i) fis everywhere defined since dam (f) = {a, b, c} = E.
(ii) g is not everywhere defined since dam (f) = {I, 2, 3} '" A = {I, 2, 3, 4} .

3.7. (b) GRAPH OF A FUNCTION

Let f : A --; E is a function, then the graph of f, denoted by graph f, is a subset of A x E,

given by
graph f = {(a, f(a» : a E A}
This means that each a E A, there is a unique pair (a, b) in fwhich is equivalent to say
that each vertical line intersects the graph in exactly one point.
Example lO. Consider the function ffrom A = {a, b, c, d} into B = {x, y, z, w} defined as
given in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3 . 3

Injective Function.
 94 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(a) Find the image of each element ofA.
(b) Find the image off
(c) Find the graph f
(d) Find f(s) where S = {a, b, d}
(e) Find tl (7) where T = {y, z}
(/) Find tl (w)
Sol. (a) From the given diagram, the images of each element of A = {a, b, c, d} are given
as f(a) = y, f(b) = x, f(c) = Z, f(d} = y.
(b) 1m(/) = The set of all images ofthe elements in A
= {x, y, z}
(c) Graph f = {(a, f(a» ; a E A}
= {(a, y), (b, x), (c, z), (d, y)}
(d) Here S = {a, b, d}
.. f(S) = {f(a), f(b), f(b)} = {y, x, y} = {x, y}
(e) Here, T = {y, z}
From the given diagram
t' (T) = {a, d, c} = {a, c, d}
(/) t' (w) does not exist since the element w has no its pre-image.

3.7. (e) FUNCTION AS A RELATION

Let A and B be non-empty sets. A relation from A t,

to B is a subset of A x B. This relation is called a function
from A to B if
(i) For each a E A, there exists b E B such that
(a, b) E f
3
(ii) If (a, b) E f, (a, c) E f, then b = c. i.e., no two 4
ordered pairs in fhave the same first element.
For e.g., let A = (1, 2, 3), B = (2, 3, 4) and let f, . f, . f3 A B
are three subsets of A x B given by Fig. 3 .4
(i) f, = (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)
(ii) f, = (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 4) t,

(iii) f3 = (1, 3), (2, 4) 2

We examine whether or not f" f" f3 are functions
or not. 2 3
Here, f, is a function from A to B. As each element
of A is associated to a unique element of B. (see Fig. 3.4) 3 4
Butf, is not a function. Since each element of A is Fig. 3 .5
not associated to a unique element of B.
(1 E A has two images 2 and 3) (Fig. 3.5)

Bijective Function.
FUNCTIONS 95

Similarly, f3 is not a function from A to B. (3 E A is

not associated to any element of B) (Fig. 3.6)
Note. If a function {is expressed as the set of ordered
pairs, then the domain of {is the set of all first components of
members of f and the range of {is the set of second components
of members of f
Fig. 3.6
3.S. TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

(a) Injective (One-to-One) Functions. Let f : X --; Y. The function f is called one·to·
one or injective if different elements in X have different images in Y i.e., if f(x,) = f(x,)
===> Xl = X2 V X l ) X2 E X.

Another way of defining injective function is that every element of domain X has a
unique image in the co·domain Y and there is no element ofY which is image of more than one
element of domain X.
For example : Consider, X = {x, y, z, k} and Y = {I, 2, 3 , 4} and fis function from X to Y
such that
f = {(x, 1), (y, 2), (z, 3), (k, 4)}
The function f is injective function as every element of domain X has a unique image in
the co· domain Y (Fig. 3.7).

Y -+-------+_ 2
Z -1-----+-. 3
K -f-----..,... 4
x Y
Fig. 3.7
Remark Number of one-one functions. If A and B are finite sets having m and n

elements respectively, then number of one·one functions from A to B = {n P

om , n ;> m
, n <m
(b) Surjective (Onto) Functions
Let f : X --; Y. The function f is called surjective function if each element in Y, is the
image of at least one element in X. In other words, in surjective functions, the range of f is
equal to co·domain Y i.e., \;f y E Y, Y = f(x) for some x E X.
For example : Consider, X = {I, 2, 3 , 4, 5}, Y = {a, b, c, d} and f = {(I, a), (2, a), (3, b),
(4, c), (5, d)}
It is a surjective function, as every element of Y is the image of some element of X
(Fig. 3.8).
96 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Remark: Number of onto functions. If A and B are two sets having and n elements such
m

that 1 :0:;; n :s; m) then number of onto functions from A to B is given by Ln (_ l)n-r nCr rm
r =
1

a
2 b
3 Y
4 c
5 d
z
X Y P Q
Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3 .9
(c) Bijective (One-to-One Onto) Functions. A function which is both injective (one·
to·one) and surjective (onto) is called a bijective (one·to·one·onto) function.
For example : Consider, P = {x, y, z}, Q = {a, b, c} and { : P --; Q such that
{ = {(x, a), (y, b), (z, e)}
The { is one·to·one and also it is onto. So it is a bijective function (Fig. 3.9).
Remark 1. To Check whether tis onto or not
Let {: A --; B be the given function.
Step I. Take y E B such that {(x) = y
Step II. Solve {(x) = y for x and obtain x in terms of y. Let x = g(y).
Step III. If for all values of y E B, the values x obtained from x = g(y) are in the set A,
then { is on to.
If there are some y E B for which x is not in A, then {is not into.
Remark 2. Number of Bijections. If Aand B are finite sets and!: A-----t B is a bijection, then A
and B have the same number of elements. If A has n elements, then the number of bijections from A to
=
B Total number of arrangements of n items taken n at a time n C n = n = !.

(d) Into Functions. Let {: X --; Y. The function {is called an into function if the range
of {is not equal to the co·domain Y. Therefore, there must be an element of co·domain Y which
is not the image of any element of domain X.
For example : Consider, X = {I, 2, 3} , Y = {k, I, m, n, p} and { : X --; Y such that
{ = {(I, k), (2, n), (3, p)}
In the function f, the range i.e., {k, n, p} fc co·domain of Y i.e., {k, I, m, n, p}
Therefore, it is an into function (Fig. 3. 10).
FUNCTIONS 97

x y x y
Fig. 3.10 Fig. 3.11
(e) One-One Into Functions. Let { : X --; Y. The function { is called one·one into func·
tion if it is one·one but not onto (See Fig. 3. 1 1).
For example : Consider, X = {k, I, m}, Y = {I, 2, 3, 4} and { : X --; Y such that
{ = {(k, 1), (I, 3), (m, 4)}
The function { is one·one into function (Fig. 3. 1 1).
if) Many One Functions. Let {: X --; Y. The function {is said to be many one function
if there exists two or more than two different elements in X having the same image in Y.
For example : Consider X = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5}, Y = {x, y, z} and { : X --; Y such that
{= {(I, x), (2, x), (3, x), (4, y), (5, z)}
The function { is a many one function. (Fig. 3. 12)

x y x y
Fig. 3.12 Fig. 3.13
(g) Many One Into Functions. Let { : X --; Y. The function { is called many·one into
function if and only if it is both many one and into function.
For example : Consider X = {a, b, c}, Y = {I, 2} and { : X --; Y such that
{ = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, I)}
As the function {is many· one and into, so it is a many· one into function (Fig. 3. 13).
(h) Many One Onto Functions. Let { : X --; Y. The function {is called many·one·onto
function if and only if it is both many one and onto.
For example : Consider, X = {I, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {k, l} and { : X --; Y such that
{ = {(I, k), (2, k), (3, I), (4, I )}
The function {is many· one (as two elements have the same image in Y) and it is onto (as
every element of Y is the image of some element X). So, it is many· one onto function
(Fig. 3.14).
98 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

x y
Fig. 3.14
3.9. EQUAL FU NCTIONS
Consider two functions f and g from a set X to a set Y. The functions f and g are called
equal functions if and only if f(a) = g(a), for every at D = D f n Dg or
Two functions f and g are equal iff
(i) Dom (f) = Dom (g)
(ii) Co·domain (f) = Co· domain (g)
(iii) f (x) = g (x) 'II X E D where D = Dom (f) n Dom (g)
The functions f and g are called unequal functions if there exist at least one element
a E X such that f(a) # g(a).

3.10. (a) IDENTITY FU NCTIONS

Consider any set A. Let the function f : A --; A. The function f is called the identity
function if each element of set A has image on itself i.e., f(a) = a 'II a E A.
It is denoted by 1.
Example 11. Consider, A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5} and f : A --; A such that
f = {(I, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5)}
The function f is an identity function as each element of A is mapped onto itself. The
function fis one·one and onto (Fig. 3. 15).

2 -ir-----_f_.
3 -t----_t_.
4 ---,f-----......
5 +----�
A A
Fig. 3.15
3.10. (b) CONSTANT FU NCTION
Let f be a function with domain A. Then f is called a constant function if for every
x E A, f(x) = c, c is some constant
Example 12. For given sets A and B, how many constant maps are there from A into B ?
Sol. For each x E A, the constant map is given by f(x) = b, b E B
Let n(B) = I B I , the number of elements in B, then there are I B I constant maps.
FUNCTIONS 99

3. 1 1 . INVERTIBLE (Inverse) FUNCTIONS

A function f : X --; Y is invertible if and only if it is a bijective function.

Consider the bijective (one to one onto) function f : X --; Y. As f is one·to·one, therefore,
each element of X corresponds to a distinct element ofY. As f is onto, there is no element ofY
which is not the image of any element of X i.e., range = co-domain Y.
The inverse function for f exists if r 1 is a function from Y to X.
Example 13. Consider, X = {I, 2, 3}, Y = {k, I, m} and f : X --; Y, such that
f = {(I, k), (2, m), (3, l)} as in Fig. 3. 16.

k ---\-----++

m
A A y x
Fig. 3.16 Fig. 3.17
The inverse function of f is shown in Fig. 3. 17 i. e., f -1 = { (k, 1), (m, 2), (I, 3)}

3 . 1 2. HASHING FU NCTION

Any function defined by f : k --; A, where k denotes the set of keys and A is a set of
physical address, is known as Hashing function.
One of the most popular Hash functions is modulus function, written as mod f(n).
Uses: Hash functions are widely used in many applications such as symbol table of
compilers, direct addressing in memory operations, direct access in file handling etc. In these
cases, the program is supplied with a key, using this key, the program has to locate the required
record of information. To make direct record retrieval in an easy and smooth way, we need
some relationship between the record key and record storage position. For direct access, we
require some methods of assigning addresses to the keys. This method for the same is known
as Hashing function.
Example 14. Let H : K --; L be a hash function where L consists of two digit addresses
00, 01, 02, ... , 49. Find H (12304) using. (P.T.U. B.Tech May 2013)
(i) Division Method (ii) Folding Method
Sol. (i) Division Method: The prime number close to 49 is 47. Thus, the hash address
generated by H(12304) is obtained by dividing 12304 by 47. This gives you the remainder 37,
which is the required hash address.
(ii) Folding Method: Divide the key 12304 k" k, and ka into three parts and then add
to obtain the hash address.
ki k2 ka
H(12304) = 12 , 30 , 4
k, is reversed, so the required hash address is 12 + 03 + 4 = 19.
1 00 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Let A = (1, 2, 3, 4) and B = (a, b, c, d). Determine which of the following are
functions. If so, /ind the range of each functions.
(a) f c A x B, where f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c), (4, d)}
(b) f c A x B, where f = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, b), (4, d)}
(c) f c A x B, where f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c)}
(d) f c A x B, where f = {(1, a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, a), (4, a)}
(e) f c A x A, where f = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1)}.
Sol. (a) f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c), (4, d)}
From Fig. 3. 18, we observe that each element of A is
associated to a unique element of B. :. fis a function. Also,
range f = (a, b, c, d)

A
Fig. 3.18 B

(b) f = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, b), (4, d)}

From Fig. 3. 19, we observe that each element of A is
associated to a unique element of B. :. fis a function.
Also, range f = (a, b, d)
A Fig. 3.19 B

(c) f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c)} --+---�--�� b

From Fig. 3 . 20, we observe that the element
--+---�----\- c
4E A is not associated to a element of B.
:. f is not a function. d
A
Fig. 3.20

(d) f = {(1, a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, a), (4, a)}
From Fig. 3.21, we observe that the element
2 E A is not associated uniquely to elements of B.
:. f is not a function.
Fig. 3.21
FUNCTIONS 1 01
(e) f = {(I, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, I)}
From Fig. 3.22, we observe that each element of A is
associated to a unique element of A.
:. f is a function from A to A.
Also range f = {I}.
Example 2. Let W = {a, b, c, d}. Determine whether
each of the following sets of ordered pairs is a function
from W into W.
(a) {(b, a), (c, d), (d, a), (c, d), (a, d)} Fig. 3.22
(b) {(d, d), (c, a), (a, b), (d, b)}
(c) {(a, b), (b, b), (c, b), (d, b)}
(d) {(a, a), (b, a), (a, b), (c, d), (d, a)}.
Sol. (a) Yes, although the element c appears as the first coordinate in two ordered
pairs, but these two ordered pairs are equal.
(b) No, the element b does not appear as the first coordinate in any ordered pair. Also,
the two ordered pairs (d, d) and (d, b) have the same first element.
(c) Yes, as each element of W appears as the first coordinate exactly in one ordered
pair.
(d) No, the element a appears as the first coordinate in two different ordered pairs.
Example 3. Let F: R --; R be a function which assigns to each real number x its square x2.
Describe different ways of defining f
Sol. There are three ways of defining f
(i) f(x) = x' (ii) x --; x'
(iii) y = x'
The symbol --; is called barred row and reads as "goes into".
In (iii), x is called independent variable and y is called dependent variable.
Example 4. If x, y E {I, 2, 3, 4}. Then which of the following are functions in the given
set ?
(a) fi = {(x, y) : y = x + I}
(b) f2 = {(x, y) : x + y > 4}
(c) f3 = {(x, y) : y < x}
(d) f4 = {(x, y) : x + y = 5}.
Sol. (a) We first express f, as a set of ordered pairs. Here f, = {(I, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)}
f, is not a function since the element 4 is not appeared in first place of any ordered pair
of f"
(b) Here, f, = (1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)
We observe that 2, 3, 4 have appeared more than once as first component of the ordered
pairs in f,. :. f, is not a function.
(c) Here, f3 = {(2 , 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (3, 2), (4, 2), (4, 3)}
We observe that 3, 4 have appeared more than once as first component of the ordered
pairs of t,. :. f3 is not a function.
(d) Here, f4 = {(I, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, I)}
We observe that each element of the given set has appeared as first component in one
and only one ordered pair of f4 .
:. f4 is a function.
Example 5. Let A = {I, 2}, B = {3, 6} and f : A --; B is given by f(x) = x2 + 2, g : A --; B is
given by g(x) = 3x. Is f = g ?
1 02 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. Given f: A � B i.e., fis a function from A to B.
. . Domain f= (1, 2), co-domain g = (3, 6)
Also g : A � B i.e., g is a function from A to B
. . Domain g = (1, 2), co-domain g = (3, 6)
Also, f(l) = 1 + 2 = 3,g(1) = 3
f(2) = 4 + 2 = 6,g(2) = 6
=> f(x) = g(x) for all x E Dom. f, Dom. g. This f and g are equal functions.
Example 6_ Let fbe a function with domain A and codomainB. Let the relation k cA xA
is defined on A as (x, y) E k iff f(x) = f(y). Show that k is an equivalence relation.
Sol. Since f(x) = f(x) for all x E A
.. (x, x) E k i. e., k is reflexive
Let (x, y) E k => f(x) = f(y) for all x, Y E A
=> f(y) = f(x)
=> (y, x) E k i.e., k is symmetric
Further, if (x, y) E k, (y, z) E k. Then
f(x) = f(Y), f(y) = f(z)
f(x) = f(z) for all x, z E A
(x, z) E k .. k is transitive.
Hence the relation k is an equivalence relation.
Example 7_ Determine if the following function is one-one.
(a) To each person on the earth, assign the number which corresponds to his age.
(b) To each country in the world, assign the lattitude and longitude of its capital.
(c) To each book written by only one author, assign the author.
(d) To each country in the world, which has a prime minister, assign its prime minister.
Sol. (a) No, as many people in the world can have the same age.
(b) Yes different countries have different capitals.
(c) No, as we can have different books by the same author.
(d) Yes, as different countries in the world have different prime ministers.
Example 8_ Let A = B = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Define a function f: A � B such that f is one-one
and onto function. (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec., 2005)
Sol. Let f(x) = x for all x E A, then
f(l) = 1, f(2) = 2, f(3) = 3, f(4) = 4, f(5) = 5.
i.e., different elements of A have different images in B.
--T---�----f-- 2
.. f is one-one (Fig. 3.23).
--+---�--�� 3
----,f---+--+- 4
Also, each element of B is the images of some

5
elem ent of A.
f is onto also. -+--+-----'.'"""
A B
Example 9_ LetA =B = {I, 2, 3, 4}. Define functions Fig. 3.23
f: A � B (ifpossible) such that
(i) f is one-to-one and onto
(ii) f is neither one-to-one nor onto
(iii) f is onto but not one-to-one
(iv) f is one-to-one but not onto.
FUNCTIONS 1 03

Sol. (i) The function { = {(I, 1), (2, 4), (3, 2), (4, 3)} is one-to-one and onto (Fig. 3.24).
(ii) The function { = {(I, 1), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3)} is neither one-to-one nor onto (Fig. 3.25).

2 �\----1r:. 2
2
3
4 .-1--.-:><:::\:::.:
3 3
4 4
A B

Fig. 3.24 Fig. 3.25

(iii) The function { which is onto but not one-to-one is not possible on the set A = B
= {I, 2, 3, 4}
(iv) The function { which is one-to-one but not onto is not possible on the set A = B
= {I, 2, 3, 4}

Example 10_ Consider the sets X and Yand let {: X --; Y. Determine whether the {allow­
ing functions are :
(a) one-to-one function (b) onto function
(c) one-to-one onto (d) neither one-to-one nor onto.
(i) X = {x, y, z} ; Y = {1, 2, 3, 4}, { = {(x, 1), (y, 1), (z, 3)}
(ii) X = {a, b, c, d} = 1', { = {(a, a), (b, c), (c, d), (d, b)}

(iii) X = {�, i, 1�} ; Y = {a, b, c, d},f = {(� , Hi, dH 1�' a)}

b

(iv) X = {Y1' Y2' yJ ; Y = {k, I}, { = {(Y 1' I), (Y2' I), (Y3' k)}.
Sol. (i) From the Fig. 3.26, we observe that the elements x, y E X are not uniquely
associated to elements of Y
:. {is not one-one
Also 4 E Y has in its pre-image in X. Hence, {is not onto.

x x y
Fig. 3.26 Fig. 3.27
1 04 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(ii) From Fig. 3.27 we observe that f is one-one and onto.

(iii) Consider Fig. 3.28 we observe that f is

x y
Fig. 3.28 Fig. 3.29
one-one, but not onto as the element c has not its pre-image in X.
(iv) From Fig. 3.29 we observe that
f is not one-one, but onto.
Example 1 L Which of the following functions are one-one, onto or both ?
(a) f . R --; R defined by f{x) = r - 3x
(b) f Z --; Z defined by f{x) = - x + 2
(c) f . N x N --; N defined by f{m, n) = 2m3n
(d) f . N --; N defined by f{n) = n2 + n
(e) f N --; N x N defined by f{n) = (n, 1 10 - n I).
SoL (a) Onto_ f . R --; R is a function from R to R
.. Co-domain f = R.
Also, range f= If(x) ; X E R} = {x'l - x . X E R} = R
. . Co-domain f = range f
Hence the function f: R --; R is onto.
One-one_ Let x, y E R such that f(x) = fly)
=> x'l - X = y3 _ y
=> 3
x'l _ y _ (x - y) = 0
=> (x- y) (x' + y' + xy) - (x - y) = 0
=> (x- y) (x' + y' + xy -l) = 0
But x' + y' + xy - 1 '" 0 'd x, Y E R
x - y = 0 => x = y
:. f is one-one.
(b) One-one_ We know that a function fis one-one if f(x) = fly) => x = y for all x, y E Dr
Let x, y E Z (= Dr) and consider f(x) = fly)
=> - x + 2 = - y + 2 => - x = - y
=> x = y. :. f . Z --; Z is one-one.
Onto . Let y E Z such that f(x) = y for all x E Z
-x+ 2 =y
x = 2 -y
FUNCTIONS 1 05
For each Y E Z, we observe that x E Z
.. { is onto.
(c) One-one. We know that { : A --; E is one· one iff {(x) = {Iy) => x = y for all x, y E Dr
Here domain {= N x N
Let (m " n,), (m" n,) E N x N such that
{(m" n,) = (m" n,)

2m1 - m2 .
= 1 = 20.30
3ni - n2

m 1 - m 2 = 0, n1 - n2 = 0
m 1 = m 2 ! n 1 = n2
(m " n,) = (m" n,)
{ : N x N --; N is one·one.
Onto. A function, {: A --; E is said to be onto iff for Y E E, there exists x E A such that {(x) = y
Now, 1 E N, but there is no (m, n) E N x N such that {(m, n) = 1
.. { is not onto.
(d) One-one. Let {(x) = {Iy) => x' + x = y' + y
=> x' - y' + x - y = O => (x - y) (x + y + 1) = °
=> x - y = 0, => x =y I x + y + 1 '" 0, for x, Y E N
{ : N --; N is one·one.
Onto. Let Y E N such that {(x) = y => x' + x = y
- 1 ± F+4Y
x' + x - y = O => x= 2

Now, for Y E N, we get some values of x which are not in N.

(l Take Y = 1, we get x = - 1 + J5
;
.. { : N --; N is not on to.
(e) One-one. Let m, n E N such that {(m) = {(n)
=> (m, I 10 - m I ) = (n, I 10 - n I )
m = n, 1 1O - m l = I lO - n l
m = n, lO - m = lO - n
m = n, for all m, n E N
. . { : N --; N x N is one· one.
Onto. Given { : N --; N x N is a function from N to N x N. Therefore co· domain {= N x N
Also range {= {{(n) : n E N} = (n, I 10 - n I )
1 06 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
N x N '" co-domain
f : N --; N x N is not on to function.
Example 12. Let A = B = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Define functions f A --; B (ifpossible) such that
(a) fis one-one and onto (P.T.U. B.Tech. Dec. 2005)
(b) f is neither one-one nor onto
(c) f is one-one but not onto
(d) f is onto but not one-one.
Sol. (a) Define f : A --; B such that
f(x) = x for all x E A = B
Le., f(l) = 1 , f(2) = 2, f(3) = 3
f(4) = 4, f(5) = 5
i.e., different elements of A have different images in B
Fig. 3.30.
.. f : A --; B is one-one. Also, we observe that
for each Y E B, there exists x E A such that f(x) = y. Hence f
is on to also. A B
(b) Define f : A --; B such that Fig. 3.30
f(x) = 1 for all x E A, 1 E B one-one and onto
Le., f(l) = 1, f(2) = 1,
f(3) = 1 , f(4) = 1 , f(5) = 1
i.e., different elements of A have same images in B Fig. 3.3 1.
f : A --; B is not one-one. 2
Also 2, 3, 4, 5 E B have no images in A. 3
.. f : A --; B is not on to 4
(c) Since A = B, :. There is no function which is one­ 5
one but not onto. A B
(d) Again, as A = B, :. There is no function which is Fig. 3.31
onto, but not one-one.
Example 13. Consider the function f ,' N x N --; R defined by f(x, y) = (2x + 1) 2Y - 1,
where N is the set of natural numbers including zero. Show that f is bijective.
Sol. One-one. Let f (x" Y,) = f (x" Y,) => (2x, + 1)2Y' - 1 = (2x2 + 1)2Y' - 1
(2x, + 1)2Y' = (2x2 + 1)2 "' , which can hold if
2X, + 1 = 2x, + 1 and 2Y' = 2Y'
Le., if Xl = x2 and
Hence, (x" Y,) = (x" y,).
:. f is one-one.
Onto. For each (x, y) E N x N, (2x + 1) 2Y - 1 E R
such that f(x, y) = (2x + 1) 2Y - 1. Hence range of f = R = co-domain f
:. fis onto.
Hence, f is bijective.
FUNCTIONS 1 07
Example 14. Consider the function f ,' N � N, where N is the set of natural numbers
including zero defined by f(n) = n2 + 2. Check whether the function f is (i) one-one (ii) onto.
Sol. One-one. Let m, n E N such that f (m) = f (n)
=> I m t:- - n since m, n E N
:. f is one-one.
Onto. Given f(n) = n' + 2, n E N
Let m = f(n) = n' + 2 => n' = m - 2 => n = ± �m - 2
For m E N, n 'l N (take m = 1, then n = ± R = ± i)
:. f is not on to.
Example 15. Which of the following functions are injections, surjections, or bijections
on R
(a) f(x) = - 2x (b) g(x) = x2 - 1.
Sol. (a) We know that a function f: R � R is one-one iff f(x) = fly) => x = y for all x, y E R
Let f(x) = fly)
- 2x = - 2y
x = y for all x, y E R.
.. f : R � R is one-one (injection)
Also, let y E R such that f(x) = y

- 2x = y =>x=- y (1)
2
Now, y E R, we observe that the values of x given by (1) are in R. . . f : R � R is onto
(surjection). Since f : R � R is one-one and onto. :. f is bijection also.
(b) Let g(x) = gly) for all x, y E R
x2 - 1 = y2 - 1 => X' = y2
x=±y
g = R � R is not one-one.
Also, co-domain g = R and
Range Rg = {g(x) : x E R} = {x' - 1 : x E R}
= (0, ) '" R = co-domain
=

.. g : R � R is not onto.
Alternatively: Let y = g (x) = x2 - 1
=> x' = l + y => x = ± .,f1+Y
For y E R, 3 x 'l R. Take
y = -2, then x = ± � = ± i 'l R
Hence g is not onto
Example 16. Consider the function f ,' N � N where N is the set of natural numbers.
Defined by f(n) = n2 + n + 1. Show that fis one-one but not onto. (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2008)
Sol. Given function f : N � N, where N is the set of natural numbers., is defined by
f(n) = n2 + n + 1.
1 08 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
We know that a function f : X --; Y is one-one if f(x,) = f(x,) => x, = x, \;j x" x, E X
Also f : x --; y is onto if for each Y E y, there exists at least one x E X such that f(x) = y.
One-one_ Let n" n, E N such that f(n,) = f(n,)
::::::} n1 2 + n1 + 1 = n2 2 + n2 + 1
::::::} n1 2 - n2 2 + n1 n2 = 0
-

=> (n, - n,) (n, + n, 1) = °

-

::::::} either n1 = n2 or n1 + n2 - 1 = 0
If n, + n, 1 = 0, then n, = 1 n, 'l N for n, E N
- -

. . n, = n,. Hence f : N --; N is one-one.

Onto_ To check whether f is onto, let m E N such that m = f(n) \;j n E N
or m = n' + n + 1 => n' + n + 1 - m = °
- l ± Jl + 4(m - l) ±J
- l--' 4m - 3
n= = - ':- -
_

2 2
Now for each m E N, there exist n 'l N. Hence f is not onto.
Example 17_ Give an explicit formula for a function from the set of integers to the set of
positive integers which is (P.T.V. B. Tech. May 2009)
(a) one-one but not onto
(b) onto but not one-one
(c) one-one and onto
(<1) neither one-one nor onto.
SoL Recall that a function f : X --; Y is called one-one if whenever
f(x,) = f(x,)
::::::} Xl = x2 for all Xl ) X2 E X.

Also a function f : X --; Y is called an onto function if for each y E Y, there is x E X such
that f(x) = y.
Case I. One-one but not onto
Define f : Z --; Z+ by
f(x) = 2x
Let f(x) = fly) => 2X = 2Y => x = y \;j x, Y E Z
:. f is one-one.
If f(x) = y, then 2X = y
=> x = log, y
Now for y E Z+, X = log, y is not an integer. Hence the function f(x) : Z --; Z+ defined by f(x)
= 2x is not an onto function.

Case II. Not one-one, but onto

Define f : Z --; Z+ by
f(x) = I x I
Let f(x) = fly) => I x I = I y I => x = ± Y
:. f is not one-one.
Also f : Z --; Z+ is defined by f(x) = I x I
Co-domain of f = Z+ = set of positive integers range of
f = If(x) : x E Z} = { I x I : x E Z} = Z+
FUNCTIONS 1 09
Since co-domain of f = range of f
. . fis onto.
Case III. One-one and onto
Define f= Z --; Z+ by f(x) = x + 5
Let f(x) = fly) => x + 5 = y + 5 => x = y \;j x, Y E Z.
. . f is one-one.
Let f(x) = y => y = x + 5 => x = y 5 -

Now for each y E Z+ , X is an integer. Hence f is onto also.

Case IV. Not one-one, not onto
Define f : Z --; Z+ by f(x) = x'
'
Let f(x) = fly) => x' = y => x = ± Y \;j x, Y E Z
f is not one-one
Also, let f(x) = y => y = x' => x = ± ..JY
Now for each y E Z+, X is not an integer. Hence f is not onto.

3.13. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF ONE-ONE AND ONTO FUNCTIONS

When we say that a function f : A --; E is one-one, this means that there are no two
distinct pairs (a" b) and (a" b) in the graph of f. Hence, each horizontal line (either below or
above the x-axis) can intersect the graph offin atmost one point.
When we say that a function f : A --; E is onto, this means that for every b E E, there
must be at least one a E A such that (a, b) belongs to the graph of f. Hence, each horizontal line
(either below or above the x-axis) must intersect the graph of fin atleast one point
Further, if each horizontal line either below or above x-axis intersects the graph of fin
exactly one point, we say f is both one-one and onto
Example 18. Consider the following graphs (Fig. 3. 32). Determine which of these are
functions from R into R.

x -1

-1 -1

(a) (b)

-2 o 2

-1
(e)

Fig. 3.32
110 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. (a) Recall that a set of points on a coordinate diagram is a function iff every vertical
line contains exactly one point of the set. Hence the graph given in Fig. 3.32(a), (b) represents
functions. But, the graph given in Fig. 3.32(c) does not represent a function. Since the vertical
line drawn through the graph (Fig. 3.32) meets in two points.
Example 19. Determine which of the graphs in the followings figures (Fig. 3. 33) are
functions from R to R.

-2 o 2

-2
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.33
Sol. If a vertical line is drawn, it does not contain exactly one point. Hence, both the
graphs (a) and (b) do not represent any function.
Example 20. Consider the functions defined as f(x) = 2', g(x) = x'I x, h(x) = x2, d(x) = x'I
-

and their graphs as shown below (Fig. 3.34). Determine which of the functions are one-one.
Which of them are onto ?

o g(x) x3 - x
=

f(x) 2'
=

(a) (b)

o o

h(x) x'
=
d(x) x3
=

(e) (d)
Fig. 3.34
FUNCTIONS 111
Sol. Recall that a set of points on a coordinate diagram is a function iff every vertical
line contains exactly one point of the set. Hence, the graphs shown in Fig. 3.34(a) , (b), (c) and
(<1) represent functions.
Also, if a horizontal line is drawn through the graph and if it meets the graph in atmost
one point, then the function is one-one. If each horizontal lines intersect the graph in at least
one point, then the function is onto.
(a) The function f(x) = 2x is one-one since the horizontal line drawn through the Fig.
3.34(a) contains atmost one point. But the function f is not onto since some horizontal lines
(those below x-axis) contain no point of t.
(b) The function g(x) = x3 - x is not one-one. Since, the horizontal line drawn through the
graph contains more than one points. Also, every horizontal line (those either below x-axis or
above x-axis) contains at least one point of g. Hence g is onto.
(c) If we draw horizontal lines through the graph of the function d(x) = x2 , these lines
intersect the graph in two points. Hence the function d(x) = x2 is not one-one. Also, there are
horizontal lines (below the x-axis), which donot intersect the graph of d(x) at all. Hence d(x) is
not onto.
(d) The function d (x) = x3 is one-one and onto since every horizontal line (either above
or below x-axis) intersects the graph of d(x) in exactly one point.
Example 21. Let A c Z and f: A --; N be a one-one function where Z is the set ofintegers
and N is the set of natural numbers. Let R be a relation on A defined as under :
(x, Y) E R iff fly) = kf(x) for k E N. Prove that R is a partial order relation.
(P.T.V. B. Tech. Dec. 2008)
Sol. Given f : A --; N is a one-one function where A c Z, the set of integers. The relation
R on A is defined as below :
(x, Y) E R <=? fly) = kf(x) for all x, Y E Z. We show R is a partial order relation i.e.
(i) R is reflexive
(ii) R is antisymmetric
(iii) R is transitive.
To show R is transitive_ Consider f(x) = 1 . f(x) = kf(x) where k = 1 E N.
=> (x, x) E R. Hence R as reflexive.

To show R is antisymmetric.
Let (x, y) E R => fly) = k,t(x), k, E N (1)
Let Iy, x) E R => f(x) = klly), k2 E N (2)
Using (2) in (1), we have fly) = k,k2 fly)
=> (1 - k,k2) fly) = 0
=> 1 - �� = 0
I If Y E Z, then fly) E N since f : Z --; N is a function. Hence fly) # 0

k,k2 = 1
But k" k2 E N and (3) implies k, = 1 = k2
.. from (2) f(x) = klly) = fly)
=> x=y I f is one-one
Hence the relation R is antisymmetric.
To show R is transitive_
112 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Let (x, y) E R => f(y) = k/(x) for x, Y E Z, k, E N
(y, z) E R => f(z) = k,t(y) for x, y, E Z, k2 E N
or f(z) = k2 (k/(x»
= k2k, f(x) = k2k, f(x)
= k f(x) where k = k2k, E N
(x, z) E R
Hence R is transitive also.
Therefore, the relation R is a partial order relation.

I TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 3.1

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. State whether or not each diagram in the given figure) defines a function from
A = {a, b,
c} into B = {x,
y, z}.

b
e ��------��

(a) (b)

(e)
2. Consider the figure given below :

(a) Find the graph of the function and write f as a set of ordered pairs
(b) Find f(S) where S = {I, 3, 5}
(c) Find f -1 (T) where T = {I, 2}
(d) Find f -1 (3).
FUNCTIONS 1 13
Let =
pairs)X is {I,a function
2, 3, 4}. Determine whether each of the following relations on X (set of ordered
3. (a)
from X into X.
(i){� {(2, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 4)}
(ii)g � {(3, 1), (4, 2), (1, I)}
� {(2, 1), (3, 4), (2, 1), (4, 4)}
3 1 then show that { (1)
(iii) h

(b) If {(x) � -3x - - +

x' 2' - � {(x)
x x x

4, What is the range of the function {(x) where {(x) � 1

x, x < 0
x, O :S; x :s; 1
x>l
x
5. Let f : R R be a function defined by [(x) Is tone-one, onto or both ?
-----t = x2.

6. = < < =
Let A {x : - 1 x I} B and f : A B is a function defined by [(x) 2 Examine whether tis
-----t = ..::. ,
bijective or not.
7. Let I(x) '\jx-=
1
� ) is a function on R. Find the domain of f
-4
8, (a) If A � {I, 2, 3}, B � { b, c} . Find the number of injections from A to B.
a,
(b) Find the number of bijective functions from A to itself when A contains 106 elements.
(a)
(c) If X � {a, b} and Y � {I, 2, 3} . Find the number n of functions from Xinto Y (b) From Y into X
If X has I X elements and Y has I Y I elements. Show that there are I Y I I X I functions
(d)
from X into I y, (Hint. Use theorem I)

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

9. Consider the following functions
(a){ : Z --> Z defined by {(x) � I x I for all x Z E

(b) { : Z --> Z defined by {(x) � + x for all x Z. x' E

Examine which are one-one, many one

10. Show that the functions given by
(a){ : R --> R defined by {(x) � 3x' + 5
(b) { : Q --> Q defined by {(x) � 2x - 3 are bijections.
11. Which of the following functions from Z to Z are bijections ?
(a){(x) � x' (b) {(x) � x + 2
)
(c {(x) � 2x + 1 (d) {(x) � x2 + x.
12. -----t =
Let f : N N is a function defined by fen) 2n + 3. Is f one-one, onto or both.
Answers
1. (a) No, the element b is not associated to any element of B
(b) No, two elements x and are associated to c z
()
c Yes
114 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
2. (a) Graph f � {(I, 3), (2, 5), (3, 5), (4, 2), (5, 3)}
(b) {3, 5} (e) {4} (d) {I, 5}
3. (a) (0 No, the element 2 is repeated twice as its first coordinate.
(ii) No, the element 2 does not appear as the first coordinate in any ordered pair in g.
(iii) Yes,
deredAlthough X appears as the first coordinate in the two ordered pairs, but these or­
pairs ) but2 Ethese ordered pairs are same,
4. (0, ) =
5. Neither one-one, nor onto
6. Bijective i.e., one-one and onto -7. (
=
, -2) u (2,
=
)
8. (a) 6 (b) 106 I 9. Many-one Many-one.
(a) (b)
11. (b) 12. One-one, not onto.
3.14. COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS
Def. Let f : A --; B and g : B --; C be two functions. Then the function gof : A --; C, defined
by
(go!) (x) � g(f(x» for all x E A, is called composition of f and g.
Thus, to find the image of 'a" under gof, we first find the image of 'a" under fand then we
find the image of f(a) under g.
Further, we say that gofis defined only if range R, is a subset of domain Dg' Also, gof is
a functlOn from A to C.
RemarkIf we view and as relations, we use the notation for the composition of and
f g fog f g.
If we use and as functions, then, we use the notation for the composition of and
f g go! f g.
For example, let f : {I, 2, 3} --; {a, b} is a function defined by f(l) � a, f(2) � a, f(3) � b and
g : {a, b} --; {5, 6, 7} is defined by g (a) � 5, g(b) � 7
We find gof and fog.
Here Range R, � {a, b}, Domain Dg � {a, b}
Since Range R, c Domain D :. gofis defined and gof : {I, 2, 3} -; {5, 6, 7}
g
Now, (go/) (1) � g(f(l» � g(a) � 5
(go/) (2) � g(f(2» � g(a) � 5
(go/) (3) � g (f( 3» � g(b) � 7
To find fog, we observe that range Rg � {5, 6, 7} and domain D , � {I, 2, 3}. Since range
Rg iZ. domam Dr
.. fog is not defined.
Theorem II. Let f: A --; B, g : B --; C and h : C --; D, be three functions, then
fo(goh) � (fog)oh
Proof. Given. f : A --; B, g : B --; C, h : C --; D
=> goh : B --; D, fog : A --; C
=> fo (goh) : A --; D, (fog)oh : A --; D
Thus fo(goh) and (fog)oh are functions from A to D.
We now show fo(goh) � (fog)oh
Let x E A and consider
(fo(goh» x � f(goh)(x) � f(g(h)(x» (1)
Also, (f og)oh)(x) � (f og)(h(x» � f((g(h(x» ) (2)
From (1) and (2), (fo(goh» (x) � (fog)oh) x for x E A
=> fo(goh) � (fog)oh.
FUNCTIONS 115

Theorem III. Let f: A � B, g : B � C are one-one (injections), Thengof: A � C is also

one-one, not conversly. (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2013)
Proof. Let x, Y E A and consider (gof) (x) = (gof) (y)
=> g ([(x» = g([(y»
f(x) = f(y) I g is one-one
x =y I f is one-one
.. gof is one-one.
Theorem IV. Iff: A --; B, g : B --; C are onto (surjections) functions, then gof: A --; C is
also onto (surjection) function, not conversly.
Proof. To show gofis onto, we show that for every element in C has its pre-image in A.
i.e., for all Z E C there exists x E A such that (gof)(x) = z.
Now Z E C and g : B --; C is onto function from B to C :. We can find y E B such that g(y)
= z. Also y E B and f : A --; B is onto function :. we can find x E A such that f(x) = y
(gof)(x) = g([(x» = g(y) = Z
gof is onto function from A to C.
Theorem V. Iff : A --; B, g : B --; C are one-one and onto functions or surjections, then
gof: A � C is also one-one and onto (surjection).
Proof. Combining theorem, II and theorem III, we get the required result.
Theorem VI. Let f: A �B and IB : B �B be two functions, then IBof = f
Proof. Given IB : B --; B is an identity function and f : A --; B is a function from A to B.
Let x E A. Consider
(IB0f) (x) = IB ([(x» = IB(y) I y = f(x) E B
= Y = f(x)
(IB0f) (x) = f(x)
IBof = f
Theorem VII. Let IA : A --; A and f: A --; B be two functions, then foIA = f
Proof. Given IA : A --; A and f : A --; B :. fa IA is a function from A to B let x E A and
consider
([alp) (x) = fo(IA(X» = f(x)
folA = f

3 . 1 5. INVERSE FUNCTION
Let f : A --; A and if there is a function g : A --; A such that gof = fog = lA' then g is called
inverse of f and is denoted by rl i.e., g = rl
If f : A --; B is a one-one and onto function, then the function defined by g : B --; A is
called inverse of f
Example. Consider the functions f: R --; R and g : R --; R defined by f (x) = X4 and g (x)
= X . Then for each x E R, f (x) and g (x) are inverses of one another.
1 l4
116 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. Here f and g are inverses of one another if
(fog) (x) = Ix and (go/) (x) = Ix
Now (fog) (x) = f (g (x» = f (X'I4) = (X'i') ' = x = Ix
Also (go/) (x) = g (f (x» = g (x') = (X') lI' = X = Ix
Hence f = g-l and g-l = f

3.1 6. METHOD TO FIND THE I NVERSE OF A BIJECTION

Let f : A --; B be a bijection (one· one and onto). To find f-"

Step I. Take f(x) = y, y E B, x E A.
Step II. Solve f(x) = y to obtain x in terms of y
Step III. Replace x by r' (y) in step II, we get the required function.
For example, let f : R --; R be a function defined by f(x) = x2 . Is r' exist ?
If so, find r' (4), f-l (O) , f-l (- 1).
Here r' will exist if f is one·one and onto.
One-one. Let x, y E R such that f(x) = f(y) => x' = y2
=> X = ± y.
If x = y, then f is one· one.
Onto. Here Rf = [0, =] and co·domain f = R # Rf
:. f is not onto.
Hence f -l (4), r' (O), r' (- 1) donot exist
Theorem VIII. Let f: A --;A is a function from A to A. Then ri exists ifffis one-one and
onto.
Proof. Let r' exists, we show fis one·one and onto.
Let (a, b), (c, b) E f Then, by definition of r" (b, a) and (b, c) E r'
Since r' is a function :. a = c. Hence f is one·one.
Further, let b E A and since r' is a function from A to A, we can find a E A such that
f-l (b) = a => b = f(a). Hence fis onto.
Converse. Let f is one·one and onto. We show f-l exists.
Consider g : A --; A is a function from A to A. We show fog = IA and gof = IA
Let x E A and since f : A --; A, we can find Y E A such that f(x) = y
Also, g : A --; A is a function from A to A. :. for Y E A, we can find x E A such that g(y) = x
Now, (go/) (x) = g(f(x» = g(y) = x
=> (go/) (x) = x for all x E A
=> gof= IA
Also, (fog)(y) = f(g(y» = f(x) = y
=> (fog)(y) = y for all Y E A
=> fog = IA
Hence f-l exists.
Theorem IX. A function f: A --; B has an inverse ifff is one-one and onto (bijective).
Proof. Let f-l exists and we show fis one·one and onto.
Let (a, b), (c, b) E ffor a, c E A, b E B. Since r' exists. :. by definition, (b, a), (b, c) E rl
l
But f- is a function. :. We must have a = c :. f is one· one.
Further, let b E B and since r' is a function from B to A, we can find a E A such that
r' (b) = a => b = f(a). Hence fis onto.
FUNCTIONS 117
Converse. Let f is one·one and onto. We show r' exists.
Consider g : B � A is a function from B to A. We show fog = IB , gof = IA
Let x E A and since f : A � B, there exists y E B such that f(x) = y
Also, g : B � A. . . we have g(y) = x
Now, (go/) (x) = g(f(x» = g(y) = x,
=> (go/) (x) = x for all x E A
=> g� = � ( 1)
Similarly, (fog) (y) = f(g(y» = f(x) = y
=> (fog) y = y for all y E B
=> fog = I B (2)
Hence from (1) and (2), gof = lA' fog = IB => f-1 exists.
Theorem X. Iff : A � B and g : B � C are two bijections, then (gof)-l = f-1og1
Proof. Given f : A � B is a bijection, g : B � C is a bijection. :. gof : A � C is also a
bij ection (one·one and onto) (Theorem IV)
=> (gO/) -l : C � A exists.
Again f : A � B is a bijection => t' : B � A is also a bijection. Also, g : B � C is a
bijection. => g' : C � B is also a bijection.
.. r' og' is a bijection. Hence t' og-' also exists.
Let x E A, y E B, Z E C such that f(x) = y, g(y) = Z
Consider (go/) (x) = g(f(x» = g(y) = Z
=> (gO/) -l (z) = x (1)
Also, f(x) = y - 1
f (y) = X
g(y) = z g-l (Z) = y
.. (f'og-' ) (z) t' (g-' (Z» = r'(y) = x (2)
From (1) and (2),
(gO/) -l (Z) = (f' og-' ) (z)
(gO/)-l = r' og1

I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Let f : {I, 2, 3} � {a, b} be a function defined by f(1) = a, f(2) = b, f(3) = b.

Let g : {a, b} � {5, 6, 7} be a function defined by g(a) = 5, g(b) = 7. Find got, fog.
Sol. To find gof. Given f : {I, 2, 3} � {a, b} and g : {a, b} � {5, 6, 7}.
:. Here Range Rf = {a, b} = Domain Dg
:. gof is defined (since Rf is a subset of Dg)
i.e., gof : {I, 2, 3} � {5, 6, 7}
Here (go/) (1) = g(f(I» = g(a) = 5
(go/) (2) = g(f(2» = g(b) = 7
(go/) (3) = g(f(3» = g(b) = 7
.. gof = {5, 7}
To find fog. Given Range Rg = {5, 6, 7}
Domain Df = {I, 2, 3}. :. Since Range Rg Sl Domain Df
.. fog is not defined.
Example 2. Let f: R � R be defined by f(x) = :x:'I and g : R � R be defined by g(x) = 3x + 1.
Find (gof)(x), (fog)(x). Is gof = fog ?
118 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. Given f : R --; R, g : R --; R
Here Range Rr = R, Domain Dg = R
gof is defined. (since Rr is a subset of Dg)
Also, Range Rg = R, Domain Dr = R
fog is defined (since Rg is a subset of D r)
Now, (go/) (x) = g(f(x» = g(x3) = 3x'l + 1
Also, (fog) (x) = f(g(x» = f(3x + 1) = (3x + 1)3
Since (go/)(x) = 3x'l + 1, (fog)(x) = (3x + 1)3
gof"' fog.
Example 3. (a) If f(x) = x2, g(x) = x3 find (fogofog)(x).
(b) Iff(x) = x + 1, g(x) = x + 3, find (fofofof)(x).
(c) If f(x) = 4x - 1, g(x) = x2 + 2, find (fo(fog))(1).

(d) If f(x) = -x
x+1
, g(x) = -1
x- 1
' find (fog)(x)

(e) If f(x) = x + 5, g(x) = x2, find (gof)(x), where f: R --; R, g : R --; R is given.
(/) If f : R --; R and g: R --; R are two functions defined by f (x) = sinx and g(x) = x2.
Find fog and got Is fog = got? (P.T.U. B.Tech. May 2013)
Sol. (a) (fogofog)(x) = f(g(f(g(x» » = f(g(f(x'l» = f(g(x6»

I f(x) = x' ; f(x'l) = (x'l)' = x'l

g(x) = x3 ; g(x6) = (X3) 6 = X' 8
(b) (fofofo/) (x) = f(f(f(f(x» » = f(f(f(x + 1» )
= f(f(x + 2» = f(x + 3) = x + 4
(c) (fofog) ( I) = f(f(g(I» = f(f( 3» I g(x) = x2 + 2, g(l) = 3
= f( l 1) = 44 - 1 = 43 I f(x) = 4x - 1, f(3) = 1 1

(d) [ )
(fog)(x) = f(g(x» = f __
1
x -I
1 1

=
--
x -I
1
+1
=
x -I
l +x-l
=
1
x
I x
{(x) = __
x+l
x -I x -I
(e) (go/) (x) = g(f(x» = g(x + 5) = (x + 5)' = x2 + 25 + lOx.
(/) (fog) (x) = f (g(x» = f(x') = sin x2
(go/) (x) = g (f (x» = g (sin x) = (sin x)' = sin' x
Thus, gof ", fog
Example 4. Consider the functions f, g : R --; R defined by
f(x) = x' + 3x + 1, g(x) = 2x - 3.
Find the composition functions
(i) fat (ii) fog (iii) got
Sol. (i) (fo/)(x) = tIf(x) 1 = f(x' + 3x + 1)
= (x' + 3x + I) ' + 3(x' + 3x + 1) + 1
FUNCTIONS 119

= x' + 9x' + 1 + 6:0 + 2x' + 6x + 3x' + 9x + 3 + 1

= x' + 6:0 + 14x' + 15x + 5.
(ii) (gof)(x) = g[f(x)] = g(x' + 3x + 1)
= g(x' + 3x + 1) - 3 = 2x' + 6x + 2 - 3
= 2x' + 6x - 1.
(iii) (jog)(x) = fTg(x)] = f(2x - 3)
= (2x - 3)' + 3(2x - 3) + 1
= 4x' + 9 - 12x + 6x - 9 + 1
= 4x' - 6x + 1.
Example 5. Let t, g, h be functions from N to N, where N is the set of natural numbers so
that
f(n) = n + 1 ; g(n) = 2n and

{O , when n �s even
h(n) = 1 , when n �s odd.

Determine fat, fog, got, goh, hog, (fog)oh.

Sol. (i) fof(n) = f [f(n)] = fen + 1) = n + 2
(ii) fog(n) = f [g(n)] = f(2n) = 2n + 1
(iii) gof(n) = g[f(n)] = g(n + 1) = 2(n + 1) = 2n + 2
(iv) When n is even :
goh(n) = g[h(n)] = g(O) = 0
when n is odd :
goh(n) = g[h(n)] = g(l) = 2
(v) hog(n) = h[g(n)] = h(2n) = 1 I 2n is even
(vi) When n is even :
= = =
!jog) oh(n) !jog) [hen)] [og(O) [ [g(0) ] [(0) = =I
when n is odd :
!jog) oh(n) = !jog) [hen)] = [og(l) = [ [g(l)] = [(2) = 2 + 1 =3
So, (jog)oh = 1, when n is even and (jog)oh = 3, when n is odd.

Example 6. Consider A = B = C = R and let f : A --; B and g : B --; C be defined by

f(x) = x + 9 and g(y) = y 2 + 3.
Find the following composition functions :
(i) (fof)(a) (ii) (gog)(a)
(iii) (fog)(b) (iv) (gof)(b)
(v) (gof)(4) (vi) (fog)(-4).
Sol. (i) (jof)(a) = f[f(a)] = f(a + 9) = (a + 9) + 9 = a + 18.
(ii) (gog)(a) = g[g(a)] = g(a' + 3) = (a' + 3) ' + 3 = a' + 6a' + 12.
(iii) (jog)(b) = fTg(b)] = feb' + 3) = (b' + 3) + 9 = b' + 12.
1 20 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(iv) (gaf)(b) = g[f(b)] = g(b + 9) = (b + 9) ' + 3 = b ' + 18b + 84.
(v) (gaf)(4) = g[f(4)] = g(13) = (13)' + 3 = 172.
(vi) (fag)(- 4) = fTg(- 4)] = f(19) = 19 + 9 = 28.
Example 7. Let X = {a, b, c}. Define f : X --; X such that
f = {(a, b), (b, a), (e, c)}
Find (i) f-1 (ii) f 2 (iii) [ 3
Sol. (i) The inverse function r' = {(b, a), (a, b), (c, e)} (Fig. 3.35).
(ii) The f' is faf (Fig. 3.36).
(faf)(a) = f[f(a)] = f(b) = a, (faf)(b) = f[f(b)] = f(a) = b

Fig. 3.35 Fig. 3.36

(faf)(c) = f[f(e)] = f(c) = c,
So, f' = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, e)} .
,
(iii) The ! is fafafi.e., faf ' (Fig. 3.37).
(faf) ' (a) = f[f ' (a)] = f(a) = b, (faf ')(b) = f[f ' (b)] = f(b) = a
(faf ')(e) = f[f'(e)] = f(e) = e

�c-----+... a a

-+----+-... b b
��---+... c �---�. c

Fig. 3.37
So, !' = {(a, b), (b, a), (e, e)}.
(iv) The f is fafafafi.e., fa! , (Fig. 3.38).
4
(fa! ') (a) = f[f 3 (a)] = f(b) = a, (fa! ') (b) = f[f 3 (b)] = f(a) = b
(fa! ') (c) = f[f 3 (c)] = f(c) = c
FUNCTIONS 121
3
f
a a a

b b b
c c C
f4

Fig. 3.38
So , t' = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, e)}.
Example 8. Consider the functions f, g and h as in Figs. 3. 39, 3.40 and 3.41.

x,--'I'"-
----++ --\,------.1-+ Z,

Fig. 3.39 Fig. 3.40

Z, --\-----1+ k,
Z2 -+------jf--+ k2

Z3 -f----,.". k3
h
Fig. 3.41
Determine (i) got (ii) ho(gof) (iii) (hog)of
Sol. (i) Consider Fig. 3.42.

x,----'I-----++ --\-------{+ Z,

Fig. 3.42. gal

(gof!(x,) = g[f(x,)] = g(y,) = Z" (gof)(x,) = g[f(x,)] = g(y,) = Z3
(gof!(x,) = g[f(x,)] = g(y,) = Z3 ' (gof)(x,) = g[f(x,)] = g(y,) = Z3
SO, got = {(x" Z,) , (x" Z,) , (x3 ' Z3 ) ' (x" z,)}.
(ii) First find the composition oft with g and then with h (Fig. 3.43).
ho(gof!(x,) = ho[g(f(x,» ] = hO[g(y,)] = h(Z,) = k,
1 22 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

ho(goj)(x,) = ho[g(f(x2))] = hO[g(Y3)] = h(z,) = k3

ho(goj)(x,) = ho[g(f(x,» ] = ho[g(y,)] = h(z,) = k3
ho(goj)(x,) = ho[g(f(x,))] = h[g(y,)] = h(z,) = k3

Fig. 3.43. ha(ga!).

SO, ho(goj) = {(X" k,), (X" k,), (x3 ' k,), (X" k,)}.
(iii) First find the composition of g with h and then with f(Fig. 3.44).

---,'+ 1----+-+ k,
--\-
---1
9 h

Y2 Z2 k2
Y3
Y4 -+-------'\+ k3

Fig. 3.44. (hog) of.

(hog)(y,) = h(g(y,» = h(Z,) = k" (hog)(y,) = h(g(y,» = h(Z3 ) = k3
(hog)(y,) = h(g(y, » = h(z,) = k3 ' (hog)(y,) = h(g(y,» = h(z, ) = k3
So, hog = {(Y" k,), (Y" k,), (Y3 ' k ,), (Y" k,)}
Now,
«hog)oj)(x,) = (hog)(f(x,» = hog(y,) = k,
«hog)oj)(x,) = (hog)(f(x,» = hog(y,) = k3
«hog)oj)(x,) = (hog)(f(x,» = hog(y,) = k3
«hog)oj)(x,) = (hog)(f(x,» = hog(y,) = k3
So, (hog)of= { (Y" k,), (Y" k,), (Y3 ' k,), (Y" k ,)} .
Example 9. (a) Iff : A --; B and g : B --; C are one-one functions. Show that
gof : A --; C is one-one.
(b) If f : A --; B and g : B --; C are onto functions. Then show that gof : A --; C is onto
(c) In part (b), ifgof is one-one, then f is one-one.
(d) Inpart (b), ifgof is onto, then fis onto.
Sol. (a) Let (goj)(x) = (goj)(y)
=> g(f(x» = g(f(y»
=> f(x) = f(y) I g is one-one
x=y I f is one-one
Hence gof is one-one.
(b) As g is onto, therefore, for c E C, there exists b E B such that g(b) = c. As f is onto,
therefore, for b E B, there exists a E A such that f(a) = b
.. (goj) (a) = g(f(a» = g(b) = c
FUNCTIONS 1 23

Hence we have shown that for a E A, there exists C E C such that

(go/) (a) = c. Hence gof is on to.
(c) Suppose, f is not one-one, then, there exists a ", b E A such that f(a) = f(b)
.. (go/)(a) = g(f(a» = g(f(b»
= (go/) (b)
=> gof is not one-one (as a ", b).
Hence, our supposition is wrong. Therefore, if gof is one-one, then fmust be one-one.
(d) For a E A, consider (go/)(a) = g(f(a» E g(B)
=> (go/) (A) C g(B). Now, suppose, ifg is not onto, then g(B) must be properly contained
in C and hence (go/) (A) is also properly contained in C. It means gofis not onto.
Hence, our supposition is wrong. Therefore, if gof is onto, then g must be onto.
Example 10_ Let A = {I, 2, 3j, B = (a, b c, dj, C = {7}. Define f.' A --; B, by f(1) = cJ(2) = b,
f(3) = a, and define g : B --; C by g(x) = 7, for all x E B.
(a) Does f-1 exist ? Why ?
(b) Does g -l exist ? Why ?
SoL (a) f-1 exists iff f is one-one and onto.
Here f : A --; B given by f(l) = c, f(2) = b, f(3) = a
Le., different elements of A has different images in B.
.. f is one-one. (Fig. 3.45)
Also the element 'd' ofB has not its pre-image in A. :. fis
not onto. :. f-1 does not exist (As we know that r' exists iff it is A B
one-one and onto).
(b) Here g : B --; C by g(x) = 7 for all x E B
Le., g(a) = 7, g(b) = 7, g(c) = 7, g(d) = 7
Thus, different elements of g have different images in C
.. g is one-one. (Fig. 3.46)
Also every element of C has its pre-image in B. :. g is
onto. Hence g-l exists (we know that f-1 exists iff f is one-one B Fig. 3.46 C
and onto).
Example 1 L Let (xj denotes the greatest integer function and f : R --; Z defined by
f(x) = [x]. Find f-1(1).
SoL We first define the greatest integer function. For any real number, we define the
greatest integer function [x] = the greatest integer less than or equal to x, x E R.
For e.g., [2.45] = 2, [- 2. 1] = - 3, [0.32] = 0 etc.
Here f : R --; Z is defined by f(x) = [x]. Co-domain f = Z, Also the range Rf = Z
.. f is onto.
Let x, y E R such that f(x) = fly) => [x] = [y]
=> x =y
.. f is one-one. Hence r' exists.
We now find f-l (l). Given f(x) = [x], X E R
For O < x s 1, [x] = 1
f(x) = [x] = 1, if O < x S 1, X E R.
f (1) = [x : 0 < x s 1, x E R] .
-1
1 24 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 12. If f: A � B is a function from A to B, and iffl exists, then it is unique.
Sol. Given fl exists => f is one·one and onto.
Let g : B � A and h : B � A be two inverses of f We show g = h.
Let y E B. Since g : B � A, h : B � A. :. We can find x" x, E A such that g(y) = x" h(y) = x,
Now, g(y) = x,
=> y = g-' (X,) = f(x,)
Also, h(y) = x,
=> y = h-l (x,) = f(x,)
=> f(x,) = f(x,)
Xl = x2 I f is one·one
g(y) = h(y) for y E B
g = h.
Hence the result.
Example 13. If f: R � R is given by
(a) f{x) = 3x - 5 (b) f{x) = 5 - 8x
Find fl, if exists.
Sol. (a) f-l exists iff f : R � R is one·one and onto.
One-one. Let x, y E R such that f(x) = f(y) => 3x - 5 = 3y - 5
=> 3x = 3y => x = y
:. f is one·one
Onto : Let y E R such that f(x) = y => 3x - 5 = y

5+y
3x = 5 + y ::::::} x = 3 --

5+y
For each y E R, we have x = 3- E R. . . fis onto also. Hence fl exists.
-

Now, f(x) = y gives x = fl (y)

5+y
fl (y) = x = 3
--

5+ X
f-l (X) = --

3
5-x
(b) Try yourself, f' (X) = 8- '
-

Example 14. Consider the function f: N x N � N defined by

f (x, y) = (2x + 1) 2Y - 1 where N = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, .. .}. Show that f is bijective.
Sol. Let (x, y) and (m, n) E N x N such that f (x, y) = f (m, n)
=> (2x + 1) 2Y - 1 = (2m + 1) 2" - 1
=> (2x + 1) 2Y = (2m + 1) 2"
which is possible only if
x = m and y = n
(x, y) = (m, n)
. . f is one·one
Let f (a, b) = 0 => (2a + 1) 2b - 1 = 0
=> (2a + 1) 2b = 1 = 2° = 1.20 which is possible if
=> 2a + 1 = 1 and 2b = 2° => a = 0 and b = 0 => (a, b) = (0, 0)
. . fis onto.
Since fis 1·1 and onto, therefore f is bijective.
FUNCTIONS 1 25

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 3.2

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Let f and g are defined by f(x) � 2x + 1 and g(x) � x2 - 2 respectively. Find
(a) gof (4) (b) (jog)(4)
(c) (gof)(a + 2) (d) (jag)(a + 2)
(e)gof fog (f)
�f W�
2. (a) Let f: A E be a function from A to B. Show that
-->
falA � f, where(h)
IE : B B and IA : A A are the identity functions on B and A respectively.
-----t -----t

(b) hen)
Let (,�g,n -h 1.areThen
functions Z to Z, on the set of integers, given by fen) n2 , g(n) n + = =
find (i)from
ga(joh) (ii) fa(goh) (iiI) ha(jag).
I,

3, Let A � 2, 3}. Define f A A by f(l) � 2, f(2) � 1, f(3) � 3. Find f and t1

{I, -->
4, Let A � E � C � R and let f : A E, g : E C be defined by f(a) � a + 1, g(b) � b2 + 2 find
--> -->
(gof)(-2), (jag)(- 2)
5, Let A � 2, 3, 4}, E � {a, b, c, d} andf: A E is given by
{I, -->
(i) f� {(I, )
a), (2, a), (3, c , (4, d)} (h) {(I, )
f� a), (2, c , (3, b), (4, d)}.
Determine whether rl is a function or not.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
6. Let f: A B and g : B C be functions. Show that if go/is one-one, then {is one-one.
-----t -----t

7. Let f: A B and g : B C be functions. Show that if go/is onto) then g is onto.

-----t -----t

8, Let f; Z Z by f(x) � 2X2 + 7x. Is t' exist ? If not, why ?

-->
9. Find the formula for the inverse of g(x) - 1. = x2
10. Consider the functions [(x) 2x - 3 and g(x) x2 + 3x + 5. Find a formula for the composition
= =
functions
(a) gof (b) fog
c f
() (d) f S
11. Find a formula for the inverse of[(x) 52xx - 3 = -7

= ax =
12. Let [(x) + b, g(x) ex + d where a, b, e and d are constants. Determine for which constants a,
b, c, d it is true that fag � gal
Answers
L (a) 79 (b) 29 (c) 4a2 + 20a + 23
(d) 2a2 + 8a+ 5 (e) 4x2 + 4x - 1 (f) 2x' - 3
(g) 4x + 3 x'
(h) - 4x'
2, (b) (i) (n - 1) 2 + 1 (ii) n2 (iii) (n + 1) 2 - 1
3, f2 � 2, 3}, f-l � f
{I, 4, (gof)(-2) � 3, (jag) (-2) � 5
5, (I) No (il) Yes
1 26 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

8. No, since {is not one-one. Also, {is not onto 9.g- l (X) =F
2
10. (a) 4x + 5 (b) 2x' + 6x+ 7
(c) 4x-9 (d) 8x- 21
11. h-1 (x) 75xx -3
� --
-7
�
12. (a- I) d (c - l)d.
M U LTIPLE CHOICE QU ESTIONS ( MCQs)

1. The number of functions from an m element set to an n element set is

(a) m + n (b) mn
(c) nm (d) m n.
2. Let A and E be sets with cardinalities m and n respectively. The number of one· one
mappings (injections) from A and E, when m < n, is
(a) mn (b) np m
(c) nem (d) None of these.
3. Suppose x and y are sests and I x I and I y I are their respective cardinalities. It is

1, I y I = 97
(c) I x I = 97, I y I = 97
(b) I x I = 97, I y I =
(d) None of these.
1
given that there are exactly 97 functions from x to y. From this one can conclude that
(a) I x I =

4. Let R denote the set of real numbers. Let f : R x R --; R x R be a bijective function

( 1 )]
[_1_,_
defined by f (x, y) = (x + y, x - y). The inverse function of f is given by

(a) f -l (x, y) = (b) f -l (x, y) = (x - y, x + y)

[; ;]
x+y x-y

x y x y
(c) f - I (x, y) = , (d) f -l (x, y) = [2 (x - y), 2(x + y)].
5. Let A and E be sets with cardinalities m and n respectively. The number of one·to·one
mapping from A to b where m < n is
(a) mn (b) np m
(c) e
m
(d) nem.
n
6. Let A be set of integers greater than one and smaller than thousand. Let b denote set of
books in library, I E I = 999. Let f : A --; E, assigning a unique number to each book fis
(a) one to one, onto (b) one to one, and not onto

7.
(c) not one to one, onto

1 1) 1
Let f(x) = x' + x and g(x) = x + then fog is :
(a) x' + 3x +
(d) not one to one, not onto.

(b) x' + x + 1
(c) (x + I) (x +
' + (d) None of the above.
8. Each of the function 2n and n1cg n has growth rate ... that of any polynomial.
(a) Greater than (b) Less than
(c) Equal to (d) Proportional to.
106
� 100 W 100 1
9. The number of bijective functions from A to A when A contains elements is

1
(c) (d) None.
FUNCTIONS 1 27

10. Iff : N --; N is a function defined by f(n) = 2n + 3. Then

(a) fis one·one, but not onto (b) fis onto, but not one·one
(c) fis neither one·one, nor onto (<1) fis one·one and onto.
Answers and Explanations
1. (c) 2. (b)
3. (a) If A is a set containing m elements and B is a set with n elements, then total number
of functions from A to B is nm . Here, nm = 97 = 97 1
=> n = 97, m = 1, i.e., I x I = 1, I y I = 97.

4. (c) Let f (x, y) = (x" y,) => (x + y, x - y) = (x" y,)

x + Y = Xl (1)
X - Y = Y, (2)

Adding, 2X = X, + Y,

Subtracting, we get 2y = x, - Y 1 =>

(x, y) -_ (Xl + Y Xl Y )
1
'
- 1
- f-1
_
(x" y,)

(; ;)
2 2

x y ,x y
f-1 (x, y) = .

5. (b)
6. (b) Consider the function f : A --; B defined by f(a) A B
= a - I for all a E A, then each element of A has 2 ----'\-----4
different images in B. So fis one·one. 3 ---\-----.H> 2
But the element 999 has not its preimage in A. 4 3
Therefore, f is not onto since, if 999 E B, then
there should be 1000 in A such that
9 9 9 -f----�� 9 9 8
f(1000) = 1000 - 1 = 999
Hence f is one·one, but not onto. 999
7. (c) fog (x) = f(g(x» = f(x + 1) = (x + 1) 2 + X + l.
8. (b)
9. (b) The number of bijective functions from f : A --; B where A and B have the same
number of elements say, n is n !.
10. (a) One-one. Let f(n,) = f(n2) => 2n, + 3 = 2n2 + 3
n1 = n2 f is one-one • •

m-3
Onto. Let f(n) = m => 2n + 3 = m ::::::} n = --
2
m-3
For each m E N, n = -- 'l N
2
:. f is not on to.
 MATHEMATICAL
INDUCTION
4. 1 . PRINCIPLE O F MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

The process to establish the validity of a general result involving natural numbers is
the principle of mathematical induction.

4.2. WORKING RULE (P. T. U. M G.A. May 200 7)

Let no be a fixed integer. Suppose P(n) is a statement involving the natural number n
and we wish to prove that P(n) is true for all n :> no'
1. Basis of Induction. P(no) is true i.e., P(n) is true for n = no'
2. Induction Step. Assume that the P(k) is true for n = k. (k :> n�
Then P(k + 1) must also be true.
Then P(n) is true for all n :> no '

4.3. PEANO'S AXIOMS

Peano, a mathematician defined the natural number in the following way. According to
him, the member of set N satisfying the following properties are called natural number.
1. 1 E N.
2. For all n E N, there exists a unique n' E N, such that
(a) m' = n' <=? m = n
(b) There exists no element p in N such that p ' = 1.
3. If S c N and
(a) 1 E S
(b) X E S => x' E S then S = N.
x' is called the successor of x and x is known as predecessor of x'.
These properties are called Peano's Axioms.
The number x' and x + 1.
Therefore 2 = 1', 3 = 2' = (1')', 4 = 3' = (2')' = «1 ')')' and so on.

*Not meant for P,T,U. B.Tech., "Discrete Structures" (BTCS-302) Course,

1 28
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 1 29

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAM PLES

Example 1. Prove by Mathematical Induction ,'

2 2 2 2 _ n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
1 +2 + 3 + ... +n - 6 .

Sol. Basis ofInduction. For n = 1,

P (l) = I' =
1(1 + 1X2 (1) + 1)
6
= �6 = 1
It is true for n = 1.
Induction Step. For n = r, ( 1)

per) = I' + 2' + 3' + ... + r' = r(r + 1 2r + 1) is true � (2)

Adding (r + I) ' on both sides, we get

per + 1) = I' + 2' + 3' + ... + r, + (r + 1) , = + (r + I)'

r(r + 1X2r + 1)
6

: 6(r + 1) ]
(2)
[
I Using
r(r + 1X2r + 1) + 6(r + 1) 2 r(2r + 1)
= (r + 1)
6

[r(2r + 1) + 6(r + 1)] = + 7r + 6]

� + 1) � + 1)
= -- [2r' --

6 6
(r + 1Xr + 2X2r + 3)
= -'---'- :-'-'- --'-
_ _
(3)
As per) is true, hence per + 1) is true.
6

From (1), (2) and (3), we conclude that

I' + 2' + 3' + ... + n' -

_ n(n + 1X2n + 1)
6
is true for n = I, 2, 3, 4, 5, . Hence proved.

Example 2. Prove by Mathematical Induction ,' 1 3 + �n�' + r

,�' + ...
_
+ n3 - [ n(n + 1)
2
]2
Sol. Let pen) = 13 + 23 + 33 + ... + n3 = [ n(n + 1) 2
2
.
]
Basic Step. For n = 1,

P(l) = 13 = [ ; 1) ] , = (I)' = 1
1(1

Hence pen) is true for n = 1. ( 1)

Induction Step. For n = r,

per) = 13 + 2 3 + 3 3 + ... +
[ ; 1) ]
,
r(r
r = is true (2)
1 30 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Adding (r + 1)3 on both sides

per + 1) = 13 + 2 3 + 3 3 + ... + r3 + (r + 1)3 =

r(r [ ; 1) r + (r + 1)3
(r + 1)2 {r 2 + 4(r + l)l
I Using (2)
4
(r + 1) 2 [r 2 + 4r + 4]
=

[ +�+ f
4
(r l r 2)
= (3)
As per) is true, hence per + 1) is also true.
From (1), (2) and (3), we conclude that

1 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 + . . . + n3 = [ n(n2+ r
1)

is true for n = I, 2, 3, 4, 5, . Hence proved.

Example 3. Prove by Mathematical Induction :
1 . 2 + 2 . 3 + 3 . 4 + ... + n{n + 1) =
n(n + l)(n + 2) . (P.T.U. M.C.A. Dec. 2006)
3

Sol. Let pen) = 1 . 2 + 2 . 3 + 3 . 4 + ... + n(n + 1) =

n(n + lXn + 2) .
3
Basis of induction. For n = 1,
1(1 + IX l + 2)
P(l) = 1 . 2 = =1.2
3
It is true for n = l. (1)
Induction Step. For n = r,
r(r + 1)(r + 2) .
per) = 1 . 2 + 2 . 3 + 3 . 4 + ... + r(r + 1) = IS true ... (2)
3
Adding (r + l)(r + 2) on both sides,
per + 1) = 1 . 2 + 2 . 3 + 3 . 4 + ... + r(r + 1) + (r + l)(r + 2)
r(r + 1)(r + 2)
= + (r + l)(r + 2) I Using (2)
3
r(r + 1)(r + 2) + 3(r + 1)(r + 2) (r + 1)(r + 2)(r + 3)
= (3)
3 3
As per) is true, hence per + 1) is also true.
From, (1), (2) and (3), we conclude that

1. 2 + 2 . 3 + 3 . 4 + . . . + n(n + 1) =
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
3
is true for n = I, 2, 3, 4, . Hence proved.
Example 4. Prove by Mathematical Induction :
1 1
--- + -- +
1
+ ... + 1
": n
1 . 3 3 .-5 -
5-.-
7 - - l)(2=-n---:-:-
-::(2=-n --:- + l) 2n + 1
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 1 31
Sol. Basic Step. For n = 1,
1 1 1 1
(2 - 1X2 + 1) 3 2(1) + 1 3
Hence pen) is true for n = l. (1)
Induction Step. For n = r,
+ . . . + -::- -::"-:---,,.-,
1 1 1 1 r .
per) = + -- +
-- -- -
-- IS true (2)
1.3 3. 5 5.7 (2r - 1X2r + 1) 2r + 1
1
Adding on both sides
(2r + 1X2r + 3)
1 1 1 1 1
P(r + 1) = -- + +
-- + ... +
-- + ------

1.3 3. 5 5. 7 (2r - 1X2r + 1) (2r + 1X2r + 3)

= -- + -;:- c"-:- =
r 1 r(2r + 3) + 1
- -
I Using (2)
2r + 1 (2r + 1X2r + 3) (2r + 1X2r + 3)
2 (2r + l)(r + 1)
= 2r + 3r + 1 (r + 1)
(3)
(2r + 1X2r + 3) (2r + 1)(2r + 3) (2r + 3)
As per) is true, hence per + 1) is also true.
From (1), (2) and (3), we conclude that
1 1 l I n
-- +-- + -- + . . . + ------
1.3 3.5 5.7 (2n - 1)(2n + 1) 2n + 1
is true for n = I, 2, 3, 4, . Hence proved.

Example 5. Prove 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n - 1) = n2 by induction (n :> 1).

Sol. Consider pen) = 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n - 1) = n'
Basis of Induction. For n = 1,
P(l) = 2 x 1 - 1 = 1 = l' = 1
It is true for n = l. (1)
Induction Step. For n = r,
per) = 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2r - 1) = r' is true (2)
Adding (2r + 1) to both sides,
per + 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2r - 1) + (2r + 1)
= r' + (2r + 1) = (r + 1)' (3)
As per) is true, hence per + 1) is also true.
From (1), (2) and (3), we conclude that
1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n - 1) = n'
is true for n = I, 2, 3, . Hence proved.

Example 6. Show that 1 + 2 + 22 + 2' + ... + 2" = 2"+1 - 1 by induction (for n :> 0).
(P.T.U. M.C.A. Dec. 2005)
Sol. Consider pen) = 1 + 2 + 2' + 23 + ... + 2" = 2"+1 - l.
Basis ofInduction. For n = 0,
P(o) = 1 = 2 ' - 1 = 1
It is true for n = 0. (1)
1 32 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Induction Step. For n = r,
P(r) = 1 + 2 + 2' + 23 + . . . + 2' = 2,+1 - 1 is true. (2)
Adding 2'+1 to both sides,
P(r + 1) = 1 + 2 + 2' + 23 + ... + 2' + 2'+1 = 2'+1 - 1 + 2 rt 1 I Using (2)
= 2(2rt1) - 1 = 2'+' - 1 (3)
As P(r) is true, hence P(r + 1) is also true.
From, (1), (2) and (3), we conclude that
1 + 2 + 22 + . . . + 2n = 2n+1 _ I , is true for n = I , 2, 3, .
1
-a n+l
Example 7. Prove by induction that for n :> 0 and a '" 1 ; 1 + a + a2 + ... + an =
I-a
(P.T.U. M.C.A. May 2007)
Sol. Basis ofInduction. For n = 1,
1 - a 1+ 1 I - a'
1 + a' = -,-­ -- = I + a
I-a 1- a
It is true for n = l. (1)
Induction Step. For n = r,
1 - ar + 1
P(r) = 1 + a + a' + ... + a' = is true (2)
I-a
Adding a'+1 to both sides,
P(r + 1) = 1 + a + a' + ... + a' + a'+1
1 - ar+ 1 1 - a r+2
= -,__ + ar + 1 = (3)
I-a 1- a 1- a
I Using (2)
As P(r) is true, hence P(r + 1) is also true.
From (1), (2) and (3), we conclude that
1 - an+ 1
1 + a + a2 + . . . + an = is true for n ;::: O. Hence proved.
I-a
Example 8. Show that for any integer n, 11 n+2 + 122n+1 is divisible by 133.
Sol. Let P(n) = I I n+' + 12'n+1
Basis of Induction. For n = 1,
P(I) = 113 + 123 = 3059 = 133 x 23
So, 133 divides P(I). ( 1)
Induction Step. For n = r,
P(r) = 11'+' + 12,,+1 = 133 x s, say, (2)
Now, for n = r + I,
P(r + 1) = l lrt'+1 + 12' (c) +3 = 1l [133s - 12 " +1 ] + 144 . 12' rt 1 I Using (2)
= I I x 133s + 12,,+1 . 133 = 133[lls + 12" +1] = 133 x t, say (3)
As (1), (2) and (3) all are true, hence P(n) is divisible by 133.
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 1 33
Example 9. Prove by induction that the sum of the cubes ofthree consecutive integers is
divisible by 9.
Sol. Let pen) = n3 + (n + 1)3 + (n + 2) 3
pen) is divisible by 9
P(l) = 1 + 8 + 27 = 36
which is divisible by 9. ( 1)
For n = r,
per) = r3 + (r + 1) 3 + (r + 2) 3 = 9 . q, say, (2)
For n = r + 1 , per + 1) = (r + 1) 3 + (r + 2) 3 + (r + 3) 3
= r3 + (r + 1) 3 + (r + 2) 3 + [9 r' + 27r + 27] I Using (2)
= 9q + 9(r' + 3r + 3) = 9[q + r' + 3r + 3 ]
= 9.s, say, (3)
From (1), (2) and (3), we have the required result by induction. Hence proved.

1 1 1 13
Example lO. Prove -- + -- + . . . + - -, for n :> 2. > 24
n+1 n+2 2n
Sol. For n = 2,
1 1
= 7 13
L.H.S. =
2+ 1
+
2+2 12 > 24 = R.H.S. ( 1)
It is true for n = 2. Now, for n = r, where r > 2
1 1 1 13
-- + -- + . . . + - > ­ (2)
r+l r+2 2r 24
For n = r + I,
1 1 1 1 1 13 1 1 1
L.H.S. = -- + -- + ... + - + + >- +
-- +
-- - -- -- --

r+2 r+3 2r 2r + 1 2r + 2 24 2r + 1 2r + 2 r + 1
[Using (2)]
13 2r + 2 + 2r + 1 - 2(2r + 1) 13 1 13
= -+ =-+ >-
24 (2r + lX2r + 2) 24 (2r + lX2r + 2) 24
As n = r is true. Thus, the result is also true for n = r + 1. Hence, we have the result for
n :> 2 by induction. Hence proved.

Example 11. Show that n3 + 2n is divisible by 3 for all n :> 1 by induction.

Sol. Basis ofInduction. For n = 1,
P(l) = 1 3 + 2 x 1 = 3. It is divisible by 3.
Induction Step. For n = r,
Assume, per) = r3 + 2r = 3s, say,
For n = r + I,
per + 1) = (r + 1) 3 + 2(r + 1) = r3 + 1 + 3r(r + 1) + 2r + 2
= r3 + 1 + 3 r' + 3r + 2r + 2
1 34 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

= r3 + 3 + 5r + 3r' = ,'3 + 2r + 3 + 3r + 3r' ( -: r3 + 2r = 3r)

= 3s + 3 + 3r + 3r' = 3r' + 3(r + s) + 3
= 3(r' + r + s + 1) = 3t, say
It is divisible by 3. Hence, we have the required result by induction.

Example 12. Show that 2" x 2" - 1 is divisible by 3 for all n :> 1 by induction.
Sol. Basis ofInduction. For n = 1,
2' X 2' - 1 = 3 divisible by 3.
It is true for n = l.
Induction Step. For n = r,
per) = 2' 2' - 1 = 3s, say Le., 2,+1 - 1 = 3s ( 1)
For n = r + I ,
2 '+1 . 2 '+1 - 1 = 2'+1 (3s + 1) - 1 I Using (1)
= 3s . 2 "" + 2"" 1 = 3s . 2 '+1 + 3s
-

= 3s(2'+1 + 1).
It is divisible by 3. Hence, we have the required result by induction.

n(2n - 1)(2n + 1)
Example 13. Show that 1 2 + 32 + 52 + ... + {2n - 1)2 = .
3
Sol. Basis of Induction. For n = 1,
1(2 x 1 - lX2 x 1 + 1)
(2 x 1 _ 1)' = 1 = =1
3
It is true of n = l.
Induction Step. For n = r,
r(2r - 1)(2r + 1)
l' + 3' + 5' + . . . + (2r - 1)' = is true. ( 1)
3
For n = r + I ,
per + 1) = l ' + 3' + 5' + . . . + (2r - 1)' + [2(r + 1 ) - 1]'
r(2r - lX2r + 1) r(2r - lX2r + 1) + 3(2r + 1)2
= + (2r + 1)' = I Using (1)
3 3
(2r + 1)[2r 2 - r + 6r + 3] (2r + 1)[2r 2 + 5r + 3]
= -=----=-=---::-,------'-'.
-"'-
3 3
2
(2r + 1)[2r + 3r + 2r + 3] (2r + lX2r + 3Xr + 1)
= �--�--------�
3 3
which proves the result for n = r + l.
n(2n - lX2n + 1)
So, l' + 3' + 5' + . . . + (2n - 1) , = .
3
Example 14. Prove that n{n + 1){n + 2) is a multiple of 6.
Sol. pen) = n(n + l)(n + 2)
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 1 35

Basis of Induction. For n = 1,

P(I) = 1 . (1 + 1)(1 + 2) = 1 . 2 . 3 = 6
which is true.
Induction Step. For n = r,
P(r) = r(r + 1)(r + 2) be a multiple of 6
For n = r + I,
P(r + 1) = (r + 1)(r + 2)(r + 3) is also a multiple of 6.
Now, P(r + 1) = (r + 1)(r + 2)(r + 3) = (r + 1)(r + 2) r + 3(r + 1)(r + 2)
= r(r + l)(r + 2) + 3(2r')
where (r + l)(r + 2) = even = 2r' = r(r + l)(r + 2) + 6r'
which is a multiple of 6.
Thus, P(r + 1) is true as P(r) is true.
. . P(n) is true for all natural numbers n
i.e., n(n + l)(n + 2) is a multiple of 6. Hence proved.

Example 15. Prove that \In E N, 2 n 5 + 2 n3 + � n is a natural number.

5 15
5 3
3
Sol. Let P(n) = -
1 1
+ -n +
n
7 n IS. a natural number.
-

5 3 15
Basis of Induction. For n = 1,
1 1 7
5 + 3' + 15 = 1, which is a natural number.
It is true for n = l.
Induction Step. For n = r,
(-.! r5 -.! r3 � r)
5
+
3
+
15
is a natural number (1)

For n = r + I,
1 1
- (r + 1) 5 + - (r + 1) 3 +
7 (r + 1)
-

5 3 15
1 5 1
= - (r + 5r' + lOr3 + lOr' + 5r + 1) + - (,-" + 3r2 + 3r + 1) +
7 (r + 1) -

5 3 15

=
5
(�r5 � r3 � r)
+
3
+
15
+ (r' + 2r3 + 3r' + 2r) + 1

= (a natural number) + (a natural number) + 1 [Using (1)]

= a natural number
As (P(r» is true, hence P(r + 1) is also true.
Hence, by induction, P(n) is true \In E N. Hence proved.
1 36 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 16. Prove that n{n + 1)(2n + 1) is divisible by 6.
Sol. Let pen) = n(n + I)(2n + 1) is divisible by 6.
Basis of Induction. For n = 1,
P(l) = 1(1 + 1)(2 + 1) = 1 . 2 . 3 = 6 which is true for n = 1 ... (1)
Induction Step. For n = r,
per) = r(r + 1)(2r + 1) be divisible by 6 (2)
For n = r + I,
per + 1) = (r + l)(r + 2)(2r + 3)
L.R.S. = (r + l)(r + 2)(2r + 3) = 2," + 9r' + 13r + 6
= (2r3 + 3r2 + r) + (6r' + 12r + 6)
= r(r + 1)(2r + 1) + 6(r' + 2r + 1)
which is divisible by 6. [From (2)]
As (P(r» is true, hence per + 1) is also true. . . pen) is true for all natural numbers n
Le., n(n + 1)(2n + 1) is divisible by 6. Rence proved.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1. If Pen) is the statement : "n(n + 1) + 1 is odd", then write P(3).

2. If Pen) is the statement "n2 + 1 is even") then write P(4). Is it true ?
3. If Pen) is the statement "ns + 2 is a multiple of 5") then show that P(4) is not true.
4. If Pen) is the statement "12n + 3 is a multiple of 5") then show that P(3) is false, whereas P(G) is
true.
5. Let Pen) be the statement "3" > n" , If Pen) is true, show that Pen + 1) is also true.
6. If P(n) is the statement : 13 + 23 + 33 + ...... + n3 = [ n(n + 1) r. Then verify that P(3), P(7) are both
2
true.
7. If Pen) is the statement : 12 + 32 + 52 + ...... (2n - 1)2 -_ n(4n2 - 1) ' then show that P(3), P(4), P(G)
3
are true.
8. Let Pen) be the statement "n2 + n is even", If P(k) is true, then show that P(k + 1) is true.
Prove the following by using the principle of mathematical induction (Q. No. 9-16) :

9. n(n + 1) + 1 is an odd number, n E N.

10. 1 + 4 + 7 + ..... + (3n - 2) = n(3n2 - 1) ' n E N.
11. a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + ...... + [a + (n - l)d] = "2n [2a + (n - l)d] , n E N.
1 1 l I n
12. -- + -- + -- + . . . . . . + --, n E N.
1x 3 3 x 5 5 x 7 (2n - 1) x (2n + 1) 2n + 1
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 1 37

1 1 l I n
13.
1 x 4 4 x 7 7 x 10 + ...... + (3n - 2)(3n + 1) = 3n + 1 ' n E N.
--+--+ --
---

14.
21 + 221 + 231 + ...... + �1 = 1 - �1 , n E N.
15. a + ar + ar2 + .. " .. + ar - a(1_rn)
n- l _
1 -r , n E N.
16. �
2 + 4 + 6 + ...... + 2n n(n + 1), n E N.
17. Prove by mathematical induction that 2 - 24n - 25 is divisible by 576.
52n +
18. Prove by mathematical induction that (23 - 1) is divisible by 7 for all values of n E N.
n
19. Prove by Mathematical Induction that 2 + 1 is divisible by 43 for each positive integer n,
6n +
72n +
U.
(P. T. M.
c.A. May.
2008)

Answers
1. 13 is odd 2. 17 is even, No
Hint
8. Let k2 + k 2\ where \ E N.
�
Now (k + 1)' + (k + 1) k2 + 3k + 2 (2\ -k) + 3k + 2 2(\ + k + 1).
� � �
 SA
BASIC COUNTING
PRINCIPLES

5 . 1 . INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we will discuss some methods of counting which acts as 'building blocks'
for all counting problems.

5.2. BASIC COUNTING PRINCIPLES (P. T. U. B. Tech. Dec. 2006 ; Dec. 2005)
There are mainly two counting principles namely
(i) Sum Rule (ii) Product Rule.
These two principles form the basis of permutations and combinations and hence known
as basic counting principles.

5.3. S U M RULE

If there are two jobs such that they can be performed independently in m and n ways.
Then number of ways in which either of the two jobs can be performed is m + n.

5.4. PRODUCT RULE

If there are two jobs such that one of them can be done in m ways and when it has been
done, second job can be done in n ways, then the two jobs can be done in m x n ways.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. In a class there are 10 boys and 8 girls. The teacher wants to select either a
boy ar a girl to represent the class in a function. In how many ways the teacher can make this
selection ?
Sol. The teacher can select a boy in 10 ways and a girl in 8 ways.
By sum rule, the number of ways of selecting either a boy or a girl = 10 + 8 = 18.
Example 2. There are 3 students for a classical, 5 for mathematical and 4 for physical
science scholarship. In how many ways, one of these scholarships be awarded ?
Sol. Classical scholarship can be awarded in 3 ways
Mathematical scholarship can be awarded in 5 ways
Physical science scholarship can be awarded in 4 ways.
1 38
BASIC COUNTING PRINCIPLES 1 39

Number of ways of awarding one of three scholarship

= Number of ways of awarding classical or mathematical or physical science
scholarship
= 3 + 5 + 4 = 12 I By Sum Rule
Example 3. In a class, there are 10 boys and 8 girls. The teacher wants to select a boy
and a girl to represent the class in a function. In how many ways can the teacher make this
selection ?
Sol. The teacher can make this selection by
(i) selecting a boy among 10 boys
(ii) selecting a girl among 8 boys
The first job can be done in 10 ways and the second job can be done in 8 ways. Therefore,
by product rule, the total number of ways of selecting a boy and a girl = 10 x 8 = 80.
Example 4. A snack bar serves 5 different sandwiches and 3 different beverges. How
many different lunches can a person order ?
Sol. The person can place his order by
(i) asking a sandwich among 5 sandwiches
(ii) asking a beverge among 3 beverges
. . By 'Product Rule', the total number of ways of placing a order for a sandwich and a
beverge = 5 x 3 = 15.
Example 5. Aperson is to complete a true-false questionaire consisting of 10 questions.
How many different ways are there to answer the questionaire ?
Sol. Each question can be answered in two ways (true or false).
Now first question can be answered in 2 ways
Second question can be answered in 2 ways

10th question can be answered in 2 ways

. . By 'Product Rule' the total number of answering the questions
= 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 2 1D
Example 6. A questionaire contains 4 questions that have two possible answers and 3
questions with 5 possible answers. How many ways are there to answer the questionaire ?
Sol. There are four questions each of which can be answered in two ways each.
. . Total number of ways of answering these four questions = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 16
Also the next 3 questions each of which can be answered in 5 ways
. . Total number of answering these 3 questions = 5 x 5 x 5 = 125
By 'Product Rule', the total number of ways of answering the questionaire
= 16 x 125 = 2000.
Example 7. A room has 6 doors. In how many ways can a man enter the room through
one door and come out through a different door ?
Sol. There are 6 ways of entering the room. Therefore, a man can enter the room in
6 ways.
After entering the room, the man can come out through any one of the remaining five
doors.
Number of leaving the room = 5.
. . By 'Product rule' the required number of ways in which a man can enter a room and
come out through a different room = 6 x 5 = 30.
1 40 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 8. Five persons entered the lift cabin on the ground floor of an 8 floor house.
Suppose each of them can leave the cabin independently at any floor beginning with the first.
Find the total number of ways in which each of the five persons can leave the cabin
(i) At any one of the 7 floors
(ii) At different floors.
Sol. (i) Suppose M" M2 , M3, M4, M5 are five persons.
Here M , can leave the cabin at any one of the seven floors in 7 ways
M2 can leave the cabin at any one of the seven floors in 7 ways
Similarly, M3, M4, M5 can leave the cabin at any one of the seven floors in 7 ways
. . By 'Product Rule', Total number of ways in which five persons can leave the cabin
at any one of the seven floors
5
=7x7x7x7x7=7 .
(ii) M , can leave the cabin at any of the seven floors in 7 ways
M2 can leave the cabin at any one of the remaining 6 floors in 6 ways
Similarly, M3, M4, M5 can leave the cabin in 6, 4 and 3 ways respectively.
. . By Product rule, Total number of ways of leaving the cabin = 7 x 6 x 6 x 4 x 3 = 2620.
Example 9. Automobile license plates in Massachusetts usually consist of 3 digits fol-
lowed by 3 letters. The first digit is never zero. How many different plates of this type could be
made ?
Sol. Consider the digits 0, 1, 2, ... 9. These are 10 digits. Since the first digit of the
license plate is non-zero.
. . first place of the license plate can be filled up in 9 ways.
Similarly, the second place of the license plate can be filled up in 10 ways and the third
place in 10 ways

Required number of using the digits = 9 x 10 x 10 DDD

9 10 1 0
Again, there are 26 alphabets. The first place of the license plate can be filled up in 26
ways.
Similarly, the second place can be filled up in 26 ways and third in 26 ways
. . Required number of using the English alphabets = 26 x 26 x 26
By 'Product Rule', total number of making the plates
= 9 x 10 x 10 x 26 x 26 x 26 = 16818400.
Example 10. For a set offive true or false questions, no student has written all correct
answers and no students have given the same sequence ofanswers. Find the maximum number
of students in the class for this to be possible.
Sol. A true-false question can be answered in two ways either by making it true or false
..Number of ways of answering each of the five questions
= 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 32.
Out of these 32 ways of answering, there is only one way of answering all the five
questions correctly. But no student has written all the answers correctly.
Maximum number of students in the class
= Number of ways except one in which all answers are correct
= 32 - 1 = 31.
BASIC COUNTING PRINCIPLES 1 41

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 5.1

1. Inmany
a class
ways,there
canarea student
8 male choose
teachers9 mathematics
and 5 female teachers
professorteaching
? 9 mathematics class. In how
2. There are 3 students for a classical, 5 for mathematical and 4 for physical science scholarship, In
how many ways can these scholarships awarded?
3. The flag of aThere
differently, newlyareformed countrycolours
six different is in thetoform 'D 'D "D
be used. How many of three
suchblocks,
designseacharetopossible
be coloured
?
4. InII and
a monthly
III of test,
the the
book teacher
If there decides
are 12 that there
questions inwill be
chapterthree
I, 10questions,
in chapterone
II from
and 6each
in chapter
chapter Ii
III.
In how many ways can three questions be selected?
5. Find the total number of ways of answering 5 objective type questions, each questions having 4
choices.
6. How many three digit numbers can be formed without using the digits 0, 2, 3 , 4, 5, 6 ?
7. How many numbers are there between 100 and 1000 such that 7 is in the unit place.
8. A gentleman has 6 friends to invite. In how many ways can be send invitation cards to them, ifhe
has three servants to carry the cards.
Answers
1. 13. 2. 3 x 5 x 4 � 60. 5 6 x 5 x 4 � 120
3.
4. 12 x l0 x 6 �720 5. 4 x 4 x 4 x 4 x 4 = 4 . 6. 4 x 4 x 4 = 64
7. 9 x 10 x 1 � 90 8. 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 � 36 � 729.
 PERMUTATIONS AN D
58 COMBINATIONS

5.5. DEFINE FACTORIAL n

The product of first n natural number is called factorial n. It is denoted by n , or � .

n ,=
The factorial n can also be written as
n(n - 1) ,= n(n - 1) (n - 2) ,

We have,
=
1 =1, = 1.
n(n - l)(n - 2)(n - 3)
and 0 '
......... 1.

For example : (i) Find the value of 1:/ .

Here,
8! =
10 ! '='::"
10'--:'c
x 9--' =
8 ! '':' 10 9 90.
x8! x =
(ii) Determine the value of
n!
(n - 1) !
Here,
n! = =
nCn - I) ! n.
- 1)""'! Cn _ I)!
C""Cn---:-:

Here, 3,+4 , == = 130)

(iii) Show that 3 ! + 4 ! '" (3 + 4) !
(3 x 2 x + (4 x 3 x 2 x 1)

and
Hence
(3 + 4) ,= ,=
6 + 24
7 7x6x 5x4x 3x2x
3 , + 4 , '" (3 + 4) ,
1 = 5040

5.6. PERM UTATION

A permutation is an arrangement of a number of objects in some definite order taken
some or all at a time. The total number of permutations of n distinct objects taken r at a time
is denoted by n Pr or pen, r), where 1 "" r "" n.

1 42
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 1 43

Theorem I. Prove that the number of different permutations of n distinct objects taken r
at a time, r :::; n is given by
n pr =
n! = n (n - l)(n - 2) ... (n - r + l).
( n - r) !
Proof. The number of permutations of n distinct objects taken r at a time is like filling
of r places with n objects.
The first place can be filled in by any one of the n objects. So, this can be done in n ways
.. n p1 = n.
The second place can be filled in by any one of the n - 1 objects because after filling first
place. We are left with (n - 1) objects. Thus, the first two places can be filled in n(n - 1) ways.
n P2 = n(n - l)
Similarly, the third place can be filled in by any one of the remaining (n - 2) objects.
Therefore, the first three places can be filled in n(n - 1) (n - 2) ways.
Proceeding in this way, we have the number of permutations of n different objects taken
r at a time, given by
n Pr = n(n - l)(n - 2) ... (n - r - l)
n(n - lXn - 2) ... (n - r + 1)(n - r) ! n!
= =
(n - r) ! (n - r) !
Theorem II. (a) Prove that the number ofpermutations of n things taken all at a time
is n I.
Proof. We know that (theorem I)
n! =_ n ! =_
n!
np =
n (n - n) ! O ! 1
=nI
Theorem II. (b) Prove that nPr = n. n-1Pr_T

Proof. We know np = n! n (n - I) !
= I Theorem. I
r (n - r) ! (n - r) !
=n.
(n - I) ! n�p� .
(n - 1 - (r - I» ! = n .
Example 1. Determine the value of the following
(ii) 9 P3 (iii) 20 P2 (iv) 52 Pr
• 4 _ 4! 4 x 3 x 2 ! = 12
Sol. (,) P2 - (4 - 2) ! =
2!
• • 9 _ 9! 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 ! = 504
(,,) Pa - (9 _ 3) ! =
6!
1 44 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

... 20 ! 20 x 19 x 18 !
(m) 20 P2
_
- (20 _ 2) ! = 18 ! = 380

. 52 _ 52 ! = 52 x 51 x 50 x 49 x 48 !
(w) P4 - 48 ! = 6497400.
(52 - 4) !
Example 2. Determine the value of n if
(i) 4 x n P3 = n+ 1 P3 . (ii) 6 x n P3 = 3 x n+ 1 P3 . (iii) 3 x n P4 = 7 x n- 1 P4 .

Sol. (i) 4x
n ! = (n + I) ! [..
. np n!
, = (n - r) !
]
(n - 3) ! (n + 1 - 3) !
. 4xn! (n + l) x n !
-
(n - 3) ! ( n - 2)(n - 3) !
4(n - 2) = (n + 1) => 4n - 8 = n + 1
3n = 9 n = 3.
(ii) 6 x n p3 = 3 x n + 1 p3

6x
n! = 3x
(n + I) !
(n - 3) ! ( n + 1 - 3) !
. 6 x n! =
3 (n + 1)(n !)
(n - 3) ! ( n - 2)(n - 3) !
=> 6(n - 2) = 3 x (n + 1) => 6n - 12 = 3n + 3
=> 6n - 3n = 12 + 3 3n = 16
=> n = 6.

]
(iii) 3 x np 4 = 7 x n-1 p4

3x
(n - 4) ! T
(n--:::
n ! = 7 x (n - I) !
- I--"- =!
- 4)
[.: n p, nl
(n - r) !
3 x n x (n - 1) ! = 7 x--(n --"1)'-'-!
(n - 4Xn - 5) ! -'---(n -'--:
-" 5) :: !
3n = 7 (n - 4) => 3n = 7n - 28
3n - 7n = - 28 => - 4n = - 28
n = 7.
Example 3. How many variahle names of 8 letters can be formed from the letters a, b, c,
d, e, f, g, h, i if no letter is repeated ?
Sol. There are 9 letters and 8 are to be selected.
:. Total number of variable names of 8 letters is = 9p 8 =
9 .1 9!
=-= 9 .I .
(9 - 8) ! I!
Example 4. There are 10 persons called on an interview. Each one is capahle to be
selected for the job. How many permutation are there to select 4 from the 10 ?
Sol. There are 10 persons and 4 are to be selected.
:. Total number of permutations to select 4 persons = lO p,
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 1 45

10 ! 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 !
= -:-:-::-----:-:-
-:- = = 5040.
(10 - 4) ! 6!
Example 5. How many 6-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
if no digit is repeated.
Sol. There are 8 numbers are 6 are to be selected.
8! 8!
.. Total number of 6-digit numbers = 8 P6 = =
(8 6) ! 2 ! _

8x7x6x5x4x3x2!
= = 22560.
2!
5.7. PERMUTATION WITH RESTRICTIONS

The number of permutations ofn different objects taken r at a time in whichp particular
objects do not occur is n -P P r
The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time in which p particu­
lar objects are present is n -p P r _p x rpp .
Example 6. How many 6-digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8 if every number is to start with '30' with no digit repeated.
Sol. All the numbers begin with '30' . So, we have to choose 4-digits from the remaining
7-digits.
:. Total number of numbers that begins with '30' is
7p 7! 7x6x5x4x3!
= = = 840.
4 (7 - 4) ! 3!
Example 7. In how many ways 5 different microprocessor books and 4 different digital
electronics books be arranged in a shelf so that all the four digital electronics books are together ?
Sol. Consider the four digital electronics books as one unit. Thus, we have 6 units that
can be arranged in 6 I ways.
For each of these arrangements, 4 digital electronics books can be arranged among
themselves in 4 I ways.
:. Total number of arrangements in which all the four digital electronics books are
together is
= 6 I x 4 I = 720 x 24 = 17280.
Example 8. How many permutations can be made out of the letter of word "COMPU­
TER" ? How many of these
(i) begin with C ? (ii) end with R ?
(iii) begin with C and end with R ? (iv) C and R occupy the end places ?
Sol. There are 8 letters in the word 'COMPUTER' and all are distinct.
:. The total number of permutations of these letters is 8 I = 40320.
1 46 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(i) Permutations which begin with C.
The first position can be filled in only one way i.e., C and the remaining 7 letters can be
arranged in 7 I ways.
. . Total number of permutations starting with C are = 1 x 7 I = 5040.
(ii) Permutations which end with R.
The last position can be filled in only one way i.e., R and the remaining 7 letters can be
arranged in 7 I ways.
. . The total number of permutations ending with R are = 7 I x 1 = 5040.
(iii) Permutations begin with C and end with R.
The first position can be filled in only one way i.e., C and the last place can also be filled
in only one way i.e., R and the remaining 6 letters can be arranged in 6 I ways.
. . The total number of permutations begin with C and end with R is
= 1 x 6 I x 1 = 7 20 .
(iv) Permutations is which C and R occupy end places.
C and R occupy end positions in 2 I ways i.e., C, R and R, C and the remaining 6 letters
can be arranged in 6 I ways.
The total number of permutations in which C and R occupy end places is
= 2 I x 6 I = 1440.
5.S. PERM UTATIONS WHEN ALL OF THE OBJ ECTS ARE NOT DISTINCT
Theorem III. The number ofpermutations of n objects, of which n objects are of one
1

kind and n2 objects of another kind, when all are taken at a time is
n!
n] ! n2 !
Proof. Let us assume that the number of required permutations be K. Now consider a
single particular permutation of these K permutations, in which n, objects of one kind is
followed by n, objects of other kind.
Also, assume that all n, object are distinct from all n, objects.
So, number of permutations of n, objects taken all at a time is = n , Pn = n, I
,
Also, the number of permutations of n, objects taken all at a time is = n, Pn = n, I
,
By the fundamental principle of counting, these K permutations will give rise to n, I n, I
permutations by arranging the objects of one kind within the places occupied by them.
Therefore, K permutations will give rise to K. n, I n, I permutations.
n
For n distinct objects, the number of permutations is = p n = n I
n!
Therefore, K x n 1 ! n2 ! = n !

This result can be generalised as follows :

If n, objects are of one kind, n, objects are of second kind, n3 objects are of third kind,
and so on upto n, objects are of tth type is given by
n!
[Here n, + n, + n3 + ... + n, = nl
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 1 47

Example 9. Determine the number ofpermutations that can be made out ofthe letters of
the word 'PROGRAMMING'.
Sol. There are l l ietters in the word 'PROGRAMMING' out of which G's, M's and R's
are two each.
The total number of permutations is
11!
= -::-:-
---: ,---
:-c --:-
---:
11 x 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 !
= -----,-
-----,-
-::- ----:
-- ----:
:- ,---
:- --- -- = 4989600.
2!x2! x2! 2 x 1x2x 1x2!
Example 10. There are 4 blue, 3 red and 2 black pens in a box. These are drawn one by
one. Determine all the different permutations.
Sol. There are total 9 pens in the box out of which 4 are blue, 3 are red and 2 are black.
The total number of permutations

=
9! =
9x8x7x6x5x4! = 1080.
4!x3!x2! 4!x3x2x1x2x1
Example 11. How many different variable names can be formed by using the letters a,
a, a, b, b, b, b, c, c, c ?
Sol. There are total 10 letters out of which 3 are as, 4 are b's and there are 3 c's.
Total number of permutations

=
10 ! = 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 !
3 ! x 4 ! x 3 ! 3 x 2 x 1x 4 ! x 3 x 2 x 1
= 10 x 3 x 4 x 7 x 5 = 4200.

Example 12. How many 7-digits numbers can be formed using digits 1, 7, 2, 7, 6, 7, 6 ?
Sol. There are total 7-digits out of which 3 are 7's and 2 are 6's.
7!
.. Total number of permutations is = = 420.
3 I. x 2 I.
5.9. PERM UTATIONS WITH REPEATED OBJECTS
Theorem IV. Prove that the number of different permutations ofn distinct objects taken
r at a time when every object is allowed to repeat any number of times is given by n'.
Proof. Assume that with n objects we have to fill r place when repetition of objects is
allowed.
Therefore, the number of ways of filling the first place = n
The number of ways of filling second place = n

The number of ways of filling rth place = n

Thus, the total number of ways of filling r places with n elements is
= n. n. n. n. ...... r times = nr,
1 48 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 13. How many 4-digits numbers can be formed by using the digits 2, 4, 6, 8
when repetition of digits is allowed ?
Sol. We have 4-digits.
So, number of ways of filling unit's place = 4.
Number of ways of filling ten's place = 4.

Number of ways of filling hundred's place = 4.

Number of ways of filling thousand's place = 4.
Therefore, the total number of 4-digits numbers is = 4 x 4 x 4 x 4 = 256.

Example 14. How many 2-digits even numbers can be formed by using the digits 1, 3, 4,
6, 8 when repetition of digits is allowed ?
Sol. We have three even numbers and two odd number.
Thus, number of ways of filling unit's place = 3.
Number of ways of filling ten's place = 5.
:. Total number of two digits even numbers = 3 x 5 = 15.
Example 15. In how many ways can 5 software projects be allotted to 6 final year stu-
dents when all the 5 projects are not allotted to the same student ?
Sol. We have 5 projects and 6 students.
Each projects can be allotted in 6 ways.
Thus, the number of ways of alloting 5 projects is = 6 x 6 x 6 x 6 x 6 = 65 .
Number of ways in which all projects allotted to same student = 6.
Therefore, total number of ways to allocate 5 projects to 6 students = 65 - 6 = 7770.

5.10. CIRCULAR PERMUTATIONS (P. T. U. B. Tech. Dec. 2007)

The circular permutations are the permutations of the
objects placed in a circle. Consider the letters k, I, m, n, a placed
along the circle as shown in Fig. 1.
Ifwe place letters linearly, there are five different permu­
tations i.e., k, I, m, n, 0 ; I, m, n, 0, k ; m, n, 0, k, I ; n, 0, k, I, m ; 0,
k, I, m, n, but there is only one circular permutation k, I, m, n, o.
Therefore, there is no starting and ending in circular permuta­
tion. We only consider the relative positions. m

Theorem V. Prove that the number of circular permuta­ n

tions of n different objects is (n - 1) I Fig. 5.1.
Proof. Let us consider that K be number of permutations
required.
For each such circular permutation of K, there are n corresponding linear permuta­
tions. As shown earlier, we start from every object of n objects in the circular permutation.
Thus, for K circular permutations, we have K. n linear permutations.
Therefore, K. n = n I or K = �
n
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 1 49

or K _
_
n x (n - I) ! or K = (n - 1) I
n
Hence proved.

Example 16. In how many ways can these letters a, b, c, d, e, fbe arranged in a circle ?
Sol. There are 6 letters and hence the number of ways to arrange these 6 letters in a
circle is
= (6 - 1) I = 5I = 120.
Example 17. In how many ways 10 programmers can sit on a round table to discuss the
project so that project leader and a particular programmer always sit together ?
Sol. There are total 10 programmers but project leader and a particular programmer
always sit together. So, both become a single unit and hence there are (10 - 2 + 1) = 9 remains.
Thus, these 9 units can be arranged on round table in (9 - 1) I ways.
The two programmers i.e., project leader and a particular programmer can be arranged
in 2 I ways.
Therefore, the total number of ways in which 10 programmers can sit on a round table
IS

= (9 - 1) I x 2 I = 8Ix2I = 80640.
Example 18. Determine the number of ways in which 5 S
software engineers and 6 electronics engineers can be sitted at
a round table so that no two software engineers can sit together.
S S
Sol. There are 6 electronics engineers that can be ar·
ranged round a table in (6 - 1) I ways. There are 5 software
engineers and they are not to sit together so we have six places
E E
for software engineers and can be placed in 6 I ways as shown
in Fig. 5.2. S S
Therefore, total number of ways to arrange the engi·
neers on a round table is S
= (6 - 1) I x 6 I = 5 I x 6 I

120 x 720 = 86400.

=
Fig. 5.2.
Example 19. In how many ways can 5 gentlemen and G,
5 ladies be seated round a table so that no two ladies are
together. (P.T.V. B. Tech. May 2009)
Sol. Let the gentlemen be seated first leaving one seat G2
vacant in between each of gentlemen.
This can be done in (5 - 1) I ways = 24 ways
L4 L2
Now 5 ladies can be seated in 5 vacant seats, as shown
in Fig. 5.S, in 5 P 5 ways = 5 I ways
= 120 ways

. . By fundamental principle of counting, required

number of ways = 24 x 120 = 2880
Fig. 5.3.
1 50 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 5.2

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Compute 4 5 6 7
!, !, !, !. Compute (a) 13!
2.
7!
11! (b) 10! .
3. Simplify (a) (n n!1) !
_
(b) (n +n !2) !
Findnif (a) nP �72, (b) nP4 �42 nP2, (c) 2nP2 � 2nP2 - 50.
Find the number2 of distinct permutations
4.
5. that can be formed all the letters of each word
(a) RADAR (b) UNUSUAL.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
6. Therecan
ways areafour
manbustravel,
lines between A and B, and three bus lines between B and c. In how many
(a) By bus from A to C by way of B
(b) Round-trip by bus from A to C by way of B
(c) Round-trip by bus from A to C by way of B ifhe does not want to use a bus line more than once.
7. Find the number of ways that a party of seven persons can arrange themselves
(a) In a row of seven chairs (b) Around a circular table.
Intwohowbooks
manyof ways can four books of mathematics, threeallbooks
booksofofhistory
8. ) threesubject
booksareof chemistry,
sociology be arranged on a shelf so that the same together ?
9. How manyby (a)
followed automobile licensedigits
three different plates(b)canif the
be made if each
first digit is notplate
zero.contains two different letters
10. Thereonearecansixdrive
that roads between A and B and four roads between B and C. Find the number of ways
(a) From A to C by way of B (b) Round-trip from A to C by way of B
(c) Round-trip from A to C by way of B without using the same road more than once.
11. (a) Find the number of ways in which five persons can sit in a row.
(b) How many ways are there if two of the persons insist on sitting next to one another.
(c) Solve part (a) assuming they sit around a circular table.
(d) Solve part (b) assuming they sit around a circular table.
12. Find the number of ways in which five large books, four medium size books, and three small
books can be placed on a shelf so that all books of the same size are together.
13. (a) Find the number of permutations that can be formed from the letters of word ELEVEN.
(b) How many of them begin and end with E ?
(c) How many of them have the three Es together ?
(d) How many begin with E and end with N?
14. (a) In how many ways can three boys and 2 girls sit in a row ?
(b) In how many ways can they sit in a row if the boys and girls are each to sit together ?
(c) In how many ways can they sit in a row if just the girls are to sit together ?
15. (a) In how many ways can you arrange the letters in the word CONGRESS ?
(b) In how many ways, the two SiS not together ?
16. How many words can be obtained by arranging the letters of the word 'UNIVERSAL' in different
ways ? In how many of them
(a) E, R, S occur together?
(b) No two of the letters E, R, S occur together ? (P. U. B. Tech. May
T. 2008)
17. Find
dashes. the number of different messages that can be represented by sequences of 4 dots and 6
(P.T.U. B.TechMay 2013)
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 151

Answers
1. 4 � 24, 5 � 120, 6 � 720, 7 � 5040
I I I I

2, (a) 156 (b) 7201 3, a n( ) (b) n2 + 3n + 2

4, (a n �) 9 (b) n � 9 (c) n � 5
5, a 2 5! 2! ! � 30
( )
(b) 3!7! � 840
(
6, a 12 ) (b) 144 )
(c 72
7, (
a7 ) I (b) 6 I 8, 41472
9, ( )
a 468000 (b) 421200
(
10, a 24 ) (b) 576 ()c 360
(
11. a 120 ) (b) 24 ()c 24 (d) 12
12, 103680
( )
13, a 120 (b) 24 ()c 24 (d) 12
( )
14, a 120 (b) 24 (c) 48
( )
15, a 20160 (b) 15120 16, 362880, (a) 30240, (b) 332640,
Hints
( )
6. a 4There3 are12 ways
four ways
x = to go tofromgo from
A to CAbytoway
B, and
of B.three ways to go from B to c. Hence there are
(b) There
12 12are 14412 ways
x ways toto travel
=
go fromround-trip,
A to C by way of B and 12 ways to return. Hence there are
()
c The man will traval from A to B to C to B to A.
Total number of ways 4 3 2 3 72. = x x x =
8. Required number of ways 4 4 3 3 2 = ! x ! x ! x ! x !
9, ( )
a Required no, � 26 25 10 8 � 468000
x x x 9x
(b) Required no, � 26 25 x 8 � 421200
x9x 9x
10, See Q, 6,
12. Required number of ways 3 5 4 3 = ! x ! x ! x !
( )
13. a ELEVEN consists 6 letters in which three Es, 2Vs, occur,
6 ! _ '::':'
x 2 ! ,-=-
Required number of ways _ =
6 x 5 x'-4 -'- � 120,
3!_ 2
(b) The first and last place are occupied with E.
Remaining places can be filled up in 4 24. ! = DDDDDD
()
c Take three Es as one word. Total number of words are 4, I I
E E
.. Required number of words 4 24. = ! = [EEE L,v,N]
(d) The first place is occupied with E and the last placed is occupied with N.
Required number of ways �2 ! 12. = = []] , L, E, V, E, lli]
( )
15. a The word CONGRESS consists ofS words in which 25 occur.
Total number of arranging the words �2! 20160. = =
1 52 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(b) Consider SS as one word, then Issl C, 0, N, G, R, E

Total number of arranging the words in which two S's occcur together 7 = !
Hence required number of arranging the words in which no two S's occur together
= Total number of arranging the words -(number of arranging the words in which 2 S's occur
together)
� I�
20160 -7 15120.
17. There are total 10 symbols i.e. 4 dots and 6 dashes.
The total number of messages that can be represented are:
10 ! 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 !
---,--,--- = 2 10 messages.
4!x6! 4!x6!
5. 1 1 . COMBINATION
A combination is a selection of some or all, objects from a set of given objects, where
order of the objects does not matter. The number of combinations of n objects, taken r at a time
is represented by nc or C (n, r).
Theorem VI., The number of combinations of n different things, taken r at a time is
given by
nC = n .' J
1 ::; r :::; n.
, r l (n - r) 1
Proof. The number of permutations of n different things, taken r at a time is given by
n !--,
np = -:(n-_
, - r) !
As there is no matter about the order of arrangement of the objects, therefore, to every
combination of r things, there are r ! arrangements i.e.,

npr = r ! nCr or nc = np, = -:- n ! -,

__ ---"
'-'--:c

, r ! (n - r) ! r !
Thus, _ n
.e !
.:...:. .,
nCr = ---:- - ,---,- ) 1 :::; r ::; n.
(n - r) ! r !
Theorem VII. Prove that the number of combinations of n things taken all at a time is
one.
Proof. We know that
nCn = (n - nn)! ! n ! =
n!
--

O! n! =1 [ .: 0 I = 1]
Theorem VIII. Prove that the number of combinations ofn things taken none at a time
�s one.
Proof. We know that
nco n ! ,.......,. - -
n-
! --n! -
_
_ - -
- -
(n - O) ! O ! n ! O ! n ! - 1 [ ' : 0 1 = 1]
Theorem IX. Prove that nC r = nCr> 1 :::; r :::; n.
Proof. We know that n _

ncn - ' = n! n! n!
----:--,--- --, = n c "
-

n - (n - r) ! (n - r) ! (n - n + r) ! (n - r) ! r ! (n - r) !
Remark. If n Cr = nCm J then either m = r or m + r = n .
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 1 53

Theorem X. Prove that

(n ; 1J
where 1 :::; r :::; n and TJ n are natural

numbers 2010)
(n ; 1
(P.T.V. B. Tech. Dec
J
Proof. Here = n+ 1 C" Consider

nC + nC' =
n! n'-
+ .,--- ----:.,-;: ---"-! ---
,-1
r ! x (n - r) ! (r - 1) ! x (n -- r +--:-:
1)-:-!
n! + .,---�..,.-�� n!
=
r (r - I) ! x (n - r) ! (r -I)! x (n - r� + 1)� -�
(n-- r)!
n ! x (n - r + 1) + n ! x r n ! x (n - r + 1 + r)
= = -:--------:-'-
r (r - I) ! x (n - r) ! x (n - r + 1) r ! x (n - r + 1) !
=
n ! x (n + 1) = (n + I) ! n
= + 1C '
r ! x (n - r + I)! r ! x (n + l - r) !

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Determine the value offollowing

(i) wC6 (ii) 50C4 (iii) 52C4 (iv) 20CW'
5
Sol. (i) lO C6 =
10 ! 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 ! = 10 x 3 x 7 = 210
=
(6) ! x (10 - 6) ! 6 ! x 4 x 3 x 2 x l .
.. 50 ! 50 x 49 x 48 x 47 x 46 x 45 !
(,,) 50 C4 5 =
45 ! x (50 - 45) ! = 45 ! x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 2118760.
... _ 52 ! 52 x 51 x 50 x 49 x 48 ! = 270725
_
_
('") 52 C4 - .
4 ! x (52 - 4) ! 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 x 48 !
(iv) 2DC 10 =
20 ! =
20 x 19 x 18 x 17 x 16 x 15 x 14 x 13 x 12 x 11 x 10 !
10 ! x (20 - 10) ! 10 ! x 10 !
= 184756.
Example 2. Determine the value of n if
(iii) 2D C 2D
(i) n C4 = n C3 (ii) n C 2 = 10
n _
n + 2 = C2n - J .
Sol. (i) nc4 = nC3
n! n!
= -::-:-:--:-c:-c
4 ! x (n - 4) ! 3 ! (n - 3) !
--,--
----:
- ,-,
n ! = 4 ! x (n - 4) ! = --- 4 x-3 ! x---'-
(n- - 4) ! -
- -'----
n! 3 ! x (n - 3) ! 3 ! x (n - 3) x (n - 4) !
1 = -- 4 => n - 3 = 4 => n = 7
n-3 .
1 54 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(ii) nC
n - 2 = 10
n! n!
Thus = 10 or = 10
(n - 2) ! [n - (n - 2)] ! (n - 2) ! x 2 !
or
n x (n - 1) x (n - 2) ! = 10 => n x (n - 1) = 10 x 2 I = 20
(n - 2) ! x 2 !
or n2 - n - 20 = 0 => n2 - 5n + 4n - 20 = 0
=> (n - 5) (n + 4) = 0
=> n = - 4, 5. Since - 4 is not possible, hence n = 5.
(iii) 2 D Cn + = 2 D C n
2 2 1 _

Therefore, we have either

n + 2 = 2n - 1 or (n + 2) + (2n - 1) = 25
I See remark below theorem IV
=> -n=-3 or 3 n = 24
=> n=3 or n=8
So n = 3, 8.
Example 3. How many 16-bit strings are there containing exactly five O's ?
Sol. A 16-bit string having exactly five O's is determined if we tell which bits are O's.
This can be done in 16 C5 ways.
Therefore, the total number of 16-bit strings is
_ _ 16 !
- 1 6 C5 - 5 ! x (16 - 5) !
16 x 15 x 14 x 13 x 12 x 1 1 !
= = 4368.
5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x l x 11!
Example 4. How many ways can we select a software development group of 1 project
leader, 5 programmers and 6 data entry operators from a group of 5 project leaders, 20 pro­
grammers and 25 data entry operators ?
Sol. There are 5 project leaders out of which one can be selected in 5C, ways.
There are 20 programmers out of which five can be selected in 2D C5 ways.
There are 25 data entry operators out of which six can be selected in 25 C6 ways.
Therefore, the total number of ways to select the software development group is
= 5 C, X 2 D C5 X 25 C6 = 9610 1544000.
Example 5. From 10 programmers in how many ways can 5 be selected when
(a) A particular programmer is included every time.
(b) A particular programmer is not included at all.
Sol. We have to select 5 programmers from the 10 programmers. So, the number of
ways to select them in lO C5
10 ! 10 x 9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 !
=
5 ! x (10 - 5) ! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 x 5 ! = 252.
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 1 55

(a) When a particular programmer is included every time then the remaining = 5 - 1
= 4 programmers can be selected from the remaining = 10 - 1 = 9 programmers. This can be
done in 9 C, ways
9! '9 x 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 !
= = = 126.
4 ! (9 - 4) ! 4x3x2x 1x5!
(b) When a particular programmer is not included at all, then the five programmers
can be selected from the remaining = 10 - 1 = 9 programmers.
This can be done in 9 C5 ways
9! 9 x8x7x6x5x4!
= -::-:-c
:::- -:::-:- = = 126.
5 ! (9 - 5) ! 5 x4x3 x2 x 1x 4!
5 . 1 2. PIGEONHOLE PRINCIPLE (P. T. U. M G.A. 2005)
TheoremX. Show that ifnpigeons are assigned to m pigeonholes and m < n, then there
is at least one pigeonhole that contains two or more pigeons.
Proof. Let us label the n pigeons with the numbers 1 through n and the m pigeonholes
with the numbers 1 through m. Now starting with pigeon 1 and Pigeonhole 1, assign each
pigeon in order to the pigeonhole with the same number. So we can assign as many pigeons as
possible to distinct pigeonholes, but as we know that pigeonholes are less than pigeons i.e.,
m < n. Thus, there remains n - m pigeons that have not yet been assigned to a pigeonhole.
Hence, there is at least one pigeonhole that will be assigned a second pigeon.
Example 6. Show that ifany four numbers from 1 to 6 are chosen, then two ofthem will
add to 7.
Sol. Make three sets containing two numbers whose sum is 7.
A = {I, 6}, B = {2, 5}, C = {S, 4}. The four numbers that will be chosen assigned to the set
that contains it.
As there are only three sets, two numbers that are chosen is from the same set whose
sum is 7.

Example 7. Show that at least two people must have their birthday in the same month
if 13 people are assembled in a room.
Sol. We assigned each person the month of the year on which he was born. Since there
are 12 months in a year.
So, according to pigeonhole principle, there must be at least two people assigned to the
same month.
Example 8. Show that if any eight + ve integers are chosen, two of them will have same
remainder when divided by 7.
Sol. Take any eight +ve integers. When these are divided by 7 each have some remain·
der. Since there are eight integers and only seven distinct remainders because number 7 can
generate only 7 remainders, so two +ve integers must have same remainder.

5 . 1 3. EXTENDED PIGEONHOLE PRINCIPLE

It states that if n pigeons are assigned to m pigeonholes (The number of pigeons is
very large than the number of pigeonholes), then one of the pigeonholes must contain at
least [(n - 1)/mJ + 1 pigeons.
1 56 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Theorem XI. Prove extended pigeonhole principle.
Proof. We can prove this by the method of contradiction. Assume that each pigeon·
hole does not contain more than [(n - 1)1 m] pigeons. Then, there will be at most m[(n - 1)/m]
'" m(n - 1)/m = n - 1 pigeons in all. This is in contradiction to our assumptions. Hence, for
given m pigeonholes, one of these must contain at least [(n - 1)/m] + 1 pigeons.
Example 9. Show that if 9 colours are used to paint 100 houses, at least 12 houses will
be of the same colour.
Sol. Let us assume the colours be the pigeonholes and the houses the pigeons. Now
100 pigeons are to be assigned to 9 pigeonholes. Using the extended pigeonhole principle,
[(n - 1)/m] + 1, where n = 100 and m = 9, we have [(100 - 1)/9] + 1 = 12. Thus, there are
12 houses of the same colour.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAM PLES

Example 1. How many different B-bit strings are there that end with 0111 ?
Sol. An 8-bit strings that end with 0 1 l l can be constructed in 4 steps i.e.,
By selecting 1st bit, IInd bit, IIIrd bit and IVth bit and each bit can be selected in 2
ways.
Hence, the total no. of 8-bit strings that end with O l l l is
= 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 = 2' .

Example 2. How many 2-digits numbers greater than 40 can be formed by using the
digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7
(a) When repetition is allowed (b) When repetition is not allowed.
Sol. (a) When repetition is allowed
We have to find the numbers greater than 40. Therefore,
Ten's place can be filled up by 3 ways.
Unit' s place can be filled up by 6 ways.
. . The total number of 2-digits numbers greater than 40 is = 3 x 6 = 18.
(b) When repetition is not allowed
Ten's place can be filled up by 3 ways.
Unit' s place can be filled up by 6 ways.
. . The total number of 2-digits numbers greater than 40 is = 3 x 6 = 16.
Example 3. How many words can be constructed of three English alphabets ?
(a) When repetition of alphabets is allowed
(b) When repetition is not allowed.
Sol. There are 26 alphabets in English. Therefore,
(a) When repetition is allowed
First alphabet of word can be selected in 26 ways.
Second alphabet of word can be selected in 26 ways.
Third alphabet of word can be selected in 26 ways.
Hence, total number of words of three alphabets constructed is
= 26 x 26 x 26 = 17676.

(b) When repetition is not allowed

First alphabet of word can be selected in 26 ways.
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 1 57

Second alphabet of word can be selected in 25 ways.

Third alphabet of word can be selected in 24 ways.
Hence, the total number of words of three distinct alphabets is = 26 x 25 x 24 = 15600.
Example 4. Show that 0 ! = 1.
Sol. We have
n!
np, = -;-_...,--, (1)
(n - r) !
Now, put r = n in equation (1), we have
n!=�
n !-, nl
np = __
=> 0 1 = -' = 1
n (n - n) ! O! n!
Hence 0 I = 1.
Example 5. There are n objects out of which r objects are to be arranged. Find the total
number ofpermutations when
(a) four particular objects always occur.
(b) four particular objects never occur.
Sol. (a) Number of ways to arrange first object = r
Number of ways to arrange second object = r - 1
Number of ways to arrange third object = r - 2
Number of ways to arrange fourth object = r - 3
Number of ways to arrange remaining n - 4 objects taking r - 4 at a time = n - 4 p , 4 '
-
Therefore, the total number of permutation when four particular objects always occur is
= r(r - l)(r - 2)(r - 3) n - 4 p , _ 4 ' [Using first principle of counting]
(b) There are four particular objects which never occur in any arrangement. Hence set
aside these four particular objects.
Thus, we have to find the number of arrangements of n - 4 objects taking r at a time.
. . The total number of arrangements is = n - 4 p,.

Example 6. How many permutations can be made out ofthe letters ofthe word "Basic" ?
How many of these
(i) begin with B ? (ii) end with C ?
(iii) B and C occupy the end places ?
Sol. There are 5 letters in the word 'Basic' and all are distinct.
The number of permutations of these letters
= 5 I = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 12 0.
(i) Permutations which begin with B
The first position can be filled in only one way i.e., B and the remaining 4 letters can be
arranged in 4 I ways.
. . Total number of permutations starting with B = 1 x 4 I = 24.
(ii) Permutations which end with C
The first position can be filled in only one way i.e., C and the remaining 4 letters can be
arranged in 4 I ways.
. . Total number of permutations ending with C = 4 I x 1 = 24.
1 58 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(iii) Permutations in which B and C occupy end places
B and C occupy end positions in 2 I ways i.e., B, C and C, B and the remaining 3 letters
can be arranged in 3 I ways.
. . Total number of permutations in which B and C occupy end places in = 2 I x 3 I = 12.
Example 7. Show that nc, + nC, _ l = n + l C" where n :> r :> 1 and n and r are natural
numbers. (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2010)
Sol. Take L.R.S. of equation i.e.,
n c + n c, = n! n!
, - 1 r ! x (n r) ! + -;-
- (r - 1) ! x (n - r + C""7
----,
c-:-----;---
I) !
n! n!
= +
r(r - I) ! x (n - r) ! (r - I) ! x (n - r + I)(n - r) !
n ! x (n - r + 1) + n ! x r n ! x (n - r + 1 + r)
= -- ������� =
r(r - I) ! x (n - r) ! x (n - r + 1) r ! x (n - r + I) !
n ! x (n + 1)
= = n + ' C'
r ! x (n - r + I) !
Renee proved.
Example 8. In the 'Discrete Structures Paper' there are 8 questions. In how many ways
can an examiner select five questions in all if first question is compulsory.
Sol. Since the first question is compulsory, the examiner has to select 4 questions from
the remaining 7 questions.
Therefore, the number of ways to select 5 questions = 7 C,
7! 7x6x5x4!
= = = 35
4 ! x (7 - 4) ! 4 ! x 3 x 2 x I '
Example 9. Determine the number of triangles that are formed by selecting points from
a set of 15 points out of which 8 are collinear.
Sol. When we take all the 15 points, the number of triangles formed is 15C3 .
As 8 points lie on the same line, they do not form any triangle. Thus, sC3 triangles are
lost.
The total number of triangles produced is
15 C - 8C _ I5 ! 8! 15 x 14 x 13 x I2 ! 8x7x6x5!
3 -
3 3 x (15 - 3) ! =
3 !(8 - 3) ! 3 x I2 ! 3x2x Ix5!
I5 x I4 x I3 8 x 7 x 6
= = 910 - 56 = 854.
3 3x2x 1
Example 10. How many lines can be drawn through 10 points on a circle ?
Sol. As all the points on the circle are not collinear. Thus, no lines will lost.
. . The total number of lines drawn through a circle = lO C,
IO ! 10 x 9 x 8 !
= = = 45.
2 ! x (10 - 2) ! 2 x 1x 8 !
Example 11. Determine the number ofdiagonals that can be drawn byjoining the nodes
of octagon.
Sol. The number of lines that can be formed by joining 2 out of 8 points = s c,
8x7
= -= 28
-

2
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 1 59

Out of these 28 lines, the 8 are sides of the octagon.

. . The number of diagonals = 28 - 8 = 20.
Example 12. In a shipment, there are 40 floppy disks of which 5 are defective. Deter-
m�ne
(a) in how many ways we can select five floppy disks ?
(b) in how many ways we can select five non-defective floppy disks ?
(e) in how many ways we can select five floppy disks containing exactly three defective
floppy disks ?
(d) in how many ways we can select five floppy disks containing at least 1 defective
floppy disks ?
Sol. (a) There are 40 floppy disks out of which we have to select 5 floppy disks. These
can be done in 4 0 C5 ways i. e.
J

40 ! 40 x 39 x 38 x 37 x 36 x 35 !
= = = 658008.
5 ! (40 - 5) ! 5 ! x 35 !
(b) There are 40 - 5 = 35 non-defective floppy disks out of which we have to select 5.
This can be done in 3 5C5 ways.
35 ! 35 x 34 x 33 x 32 x 31 x 30 !
= = = 324632.
5 ! (35 - 5) ! 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 x 30 !
(c) To select exactly three defective floppy disks out of total 5 we have 5 C3 ways and the
remaining 2 floppy disks can be selected in 3 5 C, ways.
Therefore, the total number of ways to select 5 floppy disks out of which exactly 3 are
defective = 5 C3 x 3 5 C,
5! 35 ! 5 x 4 x 3 ! 35 x 34 x 33 !
= -'-:-,,- :c-:- x = x --:--,--:
2 x 1 x - 33-:-
:-: !
-

3 ! (5 - 3) ! 2 ! x (35 - 2) ! 3 ! x 2 x 1
= 5950.
(d) There are five defective floppy disks out of which at least 1 must be selected. We
know that the total number of ways to select 5 floppy disks out of total 40 disks = ' D C5 .
Also, the number of ways to select 5 floppy disks with number one defective
= 3 5 C5 ·
Therefore, the total number of ways to select 5 floppy disks out of which at least one is
defective
= ' D C5 - 3 5 C5 = 611625.
Example 13. If a finite set A has n elements. Then the power set of A i.e., P(A) has 2n
elements.
Sol. By defination, p eA) is the set of subsets of A.
There are n c, subsets each consisting of one of the n elements of the given set.
There are n c, subsets each consisting of any two of the n elements of the given set
Similarly, there are n C3 subsets each consisting of any three of the n elements of the
given set

There are n Cn subsets each consisting of all the n elements of the given set. Also, there
will be one set {q,}
1 60 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Total number of subsets = (n c , + ... + n cn> + 1
= n c o + n C + ... + n Cn
1
= (1 + l) n = 2n .
Remark. Number of proper subsets of A = 2n - 1, There is only one improper subset i.e.) the set
itself.
Example 14. (a) How many subsets of {I, 2, 3, ... 10j contain at least 7 elements ?
(P.T.U. B Tech Dec. 2005)
(b) If T = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5}. How many subsets of T have less than 4 elements ?
(c) A set contains (2n + 1) elements. If the number of subsets of this set which contains at
most n elements is 8192, find n. (P.T.U. B. Tech. December 2008)
(<1) A bag contains 6 white marbles and 5 red marbles. Find the number of ways in which
4 marbles can be drawn from the bag if
(i) They can be of any colour
(ii) 2 must be white and 2 red. (P.T.U. B.Tech May 2011)
Sol. (a) Let A = {I, 2, ... 1O} i.e., A has 10 elements.
There are lO C7 subsets each consisting of any 7 of the 10 elements of the given set.
There are lO CS subsets each consisting of any 8 of the 10 elements of the given set. There are
lO Cg subsets each consisting of any 9 of the 10 elements of the given set. There are lO C
lO
subsets consisting of all the 10 elements of the given set.
Total number of subsets containing at least 7 elements
= lO C7 + lO C + lO C + lO C
8 9 10
= lO C + lO C + lO C + lO C nC = nC
3 2 1 0 r n-r
= 120 + 45 + 10 + 1 = 176.
(b) The total number of subsets containing at least 4 elements (Proceeding as in part (a»
= 5 C, + 5 C = 5 C, + 5C = 5 + 1 = 6
5 O
Also, total number of subsets = 25 = 32
. . Required number of subsets containing less than 4 elements
= Total number of subsets - (Number of subsets containing at least 4 elements)

= 32 - 6 = 26.

(c) Let A be a given set which contains (2n + 1) elements.

Number of subsets containing at most n elements = 8192
=> 2n + ' Co + 2n + ' C, + 2n + ' C, + ... + 2n + ' Cn = 8192

=> 2 2n +1 = 8192 I n co + n c, + n c, + ... + n Cn = 2 n

1
= 2 3

=> 2n + 1 = 13 => 2n = 12 => n = 6

(<1) Total number of balls = 11
(i) The number of ways in which four balls of any colour can be drawn.
= 1 1 x 1 1 x 11 x 11 = 1 1'

(ii) 2 white balls can be drawn in 6 C, ways

2 Red balls can be drawn in 5 C, ways.
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 1 61

6x5 5x4
Required number of ways = 6C, x 5C, = -- x = 150.
--

lx2 lx2
Example 15. Suppose that there are n people in a room (n :> 1) and they all shake hands
n (n - lJ
with one another. Show that hand shakes will have occured.
2
(P.T.V. B. Tech. Dec. 2005)
Sol. When two persons shake hands, it is counted as one hand shake.
.. Total number of hand shakes
= Number of ways of selecting 2 persons among n persons
n(n - 1) n(n - 1)
= n c, = = .
1.2 2
Example 16. A bag contains 6 white marbles and 5 red marbles. Find the number of
ways in which four marbles can be drawn from the bag if
(a) They can be any colour
(b) Two white and 2 red
(c) They are of same colour.
Sol. Total number of marbles = 6 + 5 = 1 1
(a) Number of ways in which four marbles (of any colour) can be choosen
1 1. 10. 9 . 8 .
= " C4 = = 330
1. 2 . 3 . 4
(b) Two white marbles can be choosen in 6 C, ways and 2 red marbles can b e choosen 5 C,
ways.
Total number of ways of choosing 2 white marbles and 2 red marbles
6.5 5.4
= 6 C, x 5 C = - x - = 150
' 1. 2 1.2
(c) The four marbles drawn are of either white colour or red colour.
The four white marbles can be choosen in 6 C4
The four red marbles can be choosen in 5C4
. . Total number of ways of choosing either 4 white marbles or 4 red marbles
= 6 C4 + 5 C 4 = 6 C, + 5C, = 15 + 5 = 20.
Example 17. How many committees of 5 with a given chair person can be selected from
12 persons ?
Sol. The chair person can be choosen in 12 ways. Once the chair person has been se·
lected, we have to chose 4 persons from remaining 11 persons. This can be done in " C4 ways.
Required number of ways = 12 x "C4
1 1 x 10 x 9 x 8
= 12 x = 3960.
lx2x3x4
Example 18. Seven members ofa family have total (2886 in their pockets. Show that at
least one of them must have at least (416 in his pocket.
Sol. Let us assume the members be the pigeonholes and the Rupees the pigeons. Now
2886 pigeons are to be assigned to 7 pigeonholes. Using the extended pigeonhole principle,
where n = 2886 and m = 7, we have [(2886 - 1) 17] + 1 = 41 6. Hence, there are 416 Rupees in one
member's pocket.
1 62 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 19. How many people must you have to guarantee that at least 9 of them will
have birthdays in the same day of the week ?
Sol. Let us assume the days of week the pigeonholes and the people the pigeons. Now
we have 7 pigeonholes and we have to find pigeons. Using the extended pigeonhole principle,
we have
[(n - 1)17] + 1 = 9
[(n - 1)17] = 9 - 1 = 8
n-1=8x7
n = 56 + 1 = 57.
Thus, there must be 57 people to guarantee that at least 9 of them will have birthdays
in the same day of the week.

I TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 5.3

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. How many committees of three can be formed from eight people ?
2. A farmer buys 3 cows) 2 pigs and 4 hens from a man who has 6 cows) 5 pigs and 8 hens. How
many choices does the former have ?
3. In how many ways can a committee consisting of three men and two women be choosen from
seven men and five women ?
4. The congressional committees on mathematics and computer science are made up of 5 congress
men each and a congressional rule is that the two committees must be disjoint. If there are 385
members of congress, how many ways could the committee be selected?
5. How many proper subsets of {I, 2, 3, 4, 5} contain the numbers 1 and 5? How many ofthem do not
contain the number 2 ?
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
6. In how many ways can you arrange the letters in the following words
(i) COMBINE (ii) SUBSET (iii) NOON.
7. As a freshman, suppose that you had to take 2 of 4 lab science courses, 1 of 2 literature courses,
2 of 3 math courses and 1 of 7 physical education courses. Disregarding possible time conflicts,
how many different schedules do you have to choose from ?
8. How many ways can a student do a 10 question true-false exam if he or she can choose not to
answer any number of questions ?
9. Suppose you have a choice of fish, lamb or beef for a main course, a choice of Peas or Carrots for
a vegetable and a choice of pie, cake or ice-cream for desert. If you must order one item from each
catagory, how many different dinners are possible.
10. A questionaire contains 6 questions each having yes-no answers. For each yes response, there is
a follow up question with 4 possible responses. In how many ways can the questionaire be
answered?
11. There are 10 points P P ... P on a plane but no three on the same line. Find
l' 2' 10

(a) In how many ways, lines are determined by the points ?

(b) How many triangles are determined by the points ?
12. A woman has 11 close friends
)
(a In how many ways can she invite five of them to dinner ?
(b) In how many ways if two of the friends are married and will not attend separately ?
(c) In how many ways if two of them are not no speaking terms and will not attend together ?
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 1 63

13. A woman has 11 close friends of whom six are also women
(a) In how many ways can she invite three or more to a party ?
(b) In how many ways can she invite three or more of them if she wants the same number of men
as women (including herself) ?
14. A student is to answer 10 out of 13 questions in an exam,
)
(a How many choices he has ?
(b) How many if he list answer the first two questions ?
ill

(c) How many if he must answer the first or second question but not both ?
(d) How many if he must answer exactly three out of the first five questions ?
(e) How many if he list answer at least three of the first five questions ?
ill

PIGEONHOLE PRINCIPLE
15. Find the minimum number of students in a class to be sure that three of them are born in the
same month.
16. Suppose a laundry bag contains many red, white and blue socks, Find the minimum number of
socks that one needs to choose in order to get two pairs (4 socks) of the same colour,
17. Find the minimum number of students need to gurantee that five of them belong to the same
class, (Freshman, phamore, Junior, senior)
student must
but thetakestudent
five classes
cannotfrom
takethree
areastwo
of study,
classesVarious
in any classes
18. A are offered in each
discipline, more than given area,
( )
a Using the Pigeonhole principle, show that the student will take at least one class in each area
(b) Using the inclusion-exclusion principle, show that the student will have to take at least one
class in each area,
19. Use Pigeonhole Principle to prove that an injection cannot exist between a finite set and a A
finite set B if the cardinality of is greater than the cardinality of B.
A

Answers
1. sC3 � 56 2. 6 C 5 C2 8C 4 14000
x X = 3. 7 C 5 C2 350
x =
4. 4.41 1021
x 5. ( )
3
a 23 - 1 7,� (b) 4. 6. (i) 37 1
(ii) 360 (iii) 6 7.252 8. 310
9. 18 10. 56 11. ( )
a 45 (b) 120
12. ( )
a 462 (b) 210 (c) 252 13. ( )
a 1981
(b) 325 14. (a) 286 (b) 165 )
(c 110
(d) 80 )
(e 276 15. 25 16. 10
17. 17.
Hints
4. The first committee can be selected in 385C5 ways, The second committee can be selected in 380C5
ways,
.. Required number of ways 385C5 380C5 ,
= x
6. (b) The word SUBSET contains 6 words with 2 S's.
Required number of words �2! , =

()c The word NOON contains 4 words with 2 0's

Required number of words i..!.2! ,
=

7. The number of schedules taking lab science course 42C2 =

The number of schedules taking literature course is C 1, of math course is 3C2 and of physical
education course is 7C 1 ,
1 64 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Required number of schedules = 4C2 2C 1 3C2 7C 1 , x X X

8. A question can be answered in 3 ways. Either by writingtrue-false or not to answer any question.
1st question can be answered in 3 ways
2nd question can be answered in 3 ways
10th question can be answered in 3 ways 0
.. Total number of ways = 3 3 3 ' 3 = 31
x x x
9. Required number of ways = 3C 1 2C 1 3C 1 , "
x X

10. Each question can be answered in 5 ways.

11. (a) Number of straight lines formed joining the 10 points taking 2 at a time = lOC2 = L2 10.9 = 45
(b) Required number of triangles = lOCS = 10.9.8 1.2.3 = 120.
12. (b) Two married persons out of 4 persons can be invited in 4C2 = - 4.3 = 6 ways one the two persons
1.2
have been selected, the remaining 3 persons from 7 persons can be selected in
7G � 7. 6 .5 �
3 1.2.3 35 ways .
Total number of inviting 5 persons = 6 35 = 210, x
13. (a) Total number of ways for inviting three or more friends out ofn11 friends
= 2ll11CS_+llll C4-+llllC-5 +ll ' " + ll C 11 co + n C 1 + nC2 + '" + n Cn = 2 n
I
= CO C 1 C2
� 2048 - 1 - 11 - 55 1981 �
(b) Toareinvite the same number of men as women including herself, the following combinations
possible,
(i) 2 m and 1w or (h)
3 m and 2w or
(iii) 4 m and 3w or (iv) 5 m and 4w
(i) 2 men and 1 woman can be selecting in5 5C2 6C 1 ways = 60
�
x
(ii) 3 men and 2 women can be selected in CS 6C2 ways = 150 x
(iii) 4 men and 3 women can be selected in 55C4 66CS ways = 100
(iv) 5 men and 4 women can be selected in C5 C4 ways = 15
x
x �
.. Total number of required ways = 60 + 150 + 100 + 15 = 325,
15. There are 12 months .. n = 12 (Pigeonholes)
Also three (Pigeons) of them are to born in the same month
.. Minimum number of required students = kn + 1 = 25,
16. Here n = 3 colours (pigeonholes) and k + 1 = 4 i.e., k = 3
.. Required number of sucks = kn + 1 = 9 + 1 = 10,
17. n = 4 classes (Pigeonholes)
Also, k + 1 =5 i.e., k = 4
.. Required number of students = kn + 1 = 16 + 1 = 17,
18. )
(a The three areas are the Pigeonholes i.e., n = 3 and the student must take five classes
�
(pigeons) i.e k + 1 5 k 4
.• � �
Hence the student must take at least two classes in one area,
(b) Each ofthen(A
principle, threeu Bareas
u of study represent three disjoint sets A, B, C, Using inclusion exclusion
C) = n(A) + nCB) + n(C), Since the students can take at must two classes
in any area of study, the sum of classes in any two sets, say A and B must be less than or
equal to four,
� �
n(G) n(A u B u G) - [n(A) + nCB)] 5 - (n(A) + nCB) � 1
Thus, the student must take at least one class in any area,
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 1 65

I M U LTIPLE CHOICE QU ESTIONS ( MCQs)

1. What is n, if n is minimum number of integers to be selected from I = {I, 2, 3, . . . . . . , 9}

such that the sum of two of the n integers is even ?
(a) n = 3 (b) n = 5
(c) n = 4 (<1) n = 9.
2. In Q. 1, the value of n such that difference of two of the n integers is 5 is
(a) 6 (b) 5
(c) 7 (<1) None.
3. The minimum number of balls needed to guarantee that five of them of same colour
(blue, red, green, white) is
(a) 17 (b) 5
(c) 20 (<1) 6.
4. In a beauty contest, half the number of experts voted for Mr. A and two third voted for
Mr. B. 10 voted for both and 6 did not vote for either. How many experts were there in
all ?
(a) 18 (b) 36
(c) 84 (<1) None of these.
5. The number of different permutations of the word BANANA is
(a) 720 (b) 60
(c) 120 (<1) 360.
6. The number of ways in which a team of eleven players can be selected from 22 players
including 2 of them and excluding 4 of them is
(a) 16 C ll (b) 1 6 C5
(c) 16 Cg (<1) 2 D Cg .
7. Ramesh has 6 friends. In how many ways can he invite one or more of them at a dinner ?
(a) 61 (b) 62
(c) 63 (<1) 64.
8. If n C 2 = n cs' then n is equal to
'
(a) 20 (b) 12
(c) 6 (<1) 30.
9. The side AB, BC, CA of a triangle ABC have 3, 4 and 5 interior points respectively on
them. The total number of triangles that can be constructed by using these points as
vertices is
(a) 220 (b) 204
(c) 120 (<1) 195.
10. Three persons enter a railway compartment. If there are 5 seats vacant, in how many
ways can they take these seats ?
(a) 60 (b) 20
(c) 15 (<1) 125.
11. There are three identical red balls and four identical blue balls in a bag. Three balls are
drawn. The number of different colour combinations is
(a) 20 (b) 35
(c) 40 (<1) 30.
1 66 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Answers and Explanations
1. (a) The sum of two even integers or of two odd integers is always even. Consider the two
subsets {I, 3, 5, 7, 9} and {2, 4, 6, 8} of I as pigeonholes. Using Pigeonhole principle,
minimum number of integers = k + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3.
2. (a) Consider the following subsets (Pigeonholes) of I
{I, 6}, {2, 7}, {3, 8}, {4, 9}, {5} which are five in number. By using Pigeonhole principle,
k + 1 = 5 + 1 = 6 will guarantee that two integers will belong to one of the subsets and
their difference will be 1.
3. (a) Number of pigeonholes n = 4 (blue, red, green, white)
Also, k + 1 = 5 => k = 4
Minimum number of balls required = kn + 1 = 4(4) + 1 = 17.
4. (c)
. (b) There are 6 letters in the word BANANA, out of which A repeats 3 times, N repeats
5
2 times. Therefore,
6!
Required number of different permutations = = 60.
3! 2!
6. (c) Take "2 players included" as one object and " 4 players excluded" as another object.
Therefore, we require to choose 9 players from 22 - (2 + 4) = 16 players. Hence, required
number of ways = 16 Cg.
7. (c) Number of ways of inviting one friend = 6 C 1
Number of ways of inviting two friends = 6 C,

Number of ways of inviting six friends

Total number of ways = 6 C, + 6 C, + 6 C3 + ...... + 6 C6
= (6 CO + 6 C, + 6 C, + ...... + 6 C 6) - 6 C O
= 2 6 - 1 = 64 - 1 = 63 .
8. (a) We know that if n C m = n c,
Then either m = r or m + r = n
Given n C = n cs ' Therefore, 12 + 8 = n or n = 20.
'2
9. (c)
10. (a) seats D D D D D
First person can occupy the seat in 5 ways
Second person can occupy the seat in 4 ways
Third person can occupy the seat in 3 ways
.. Total number of ways = 5 x 4 x 3 = 60.
11. (b) Total number of balls = 3 + 4 = 7
Out of these balls, 3 are red and 4 are blue.
7!
= .
3 ! 4 ! 35
Number of different colour combinations =
 INCLU S I ON - EXCLU S I ON
6 PRINCIPLE

As we know the cardinality of the set P is the number of unique elements in set P. It is
denoted as I P I and read as cardinality of set P. Some times it is also denoted by n(P).

6 . 1 . INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE (P. T. U. B. Tech. Dec. 2013, Dec. 2007, 2009)

Theorem I. Let P and Q be any two non-disjoint sets. Then

I P u Q I = I P I + I Q I - I P n Q I.
Proof. Draw Venn diagram for the above as shown in
Fig. 6. l.
From figure, we see that P u Q can b e seen to be the
union of three disjoint sets P - Q, Q - P and P n Q.
& I PuQ I = I P-Q I + I Q-P I + I P nQ I (1)
Also, I P I = I P-Q I + I PnQ I (2)
and I Q I = I Q-P I + I PnQ I (3) Fig. G.1
Combining (2) and (3)
I P I + I Q I = I P-Q I + I Q-P I +2 I P nQ I I Using (1)
= I PuQ I + I PnQ I
(As I P u Q I = I P - Q I + I Q - P I + I P n Q I )
� I PuQ I = I P I + I Q I - I PnQ I
Hence proved.
Another Statement of Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
. . Let A and B be any finite sets, then n (AuB) = n(A) + n(B) - n(AnB)
In other words, to find the number of elements in the union AuB, we add n(A) and n(B)
and then we subtract n(AnB) i.e. , we include n(A) and n(B) and we exclude n(AnB). This
principle is known as Inclusion-Exclusion principle.
Proof. In counting the elements of A u B, we count the elements in A as well as in B.
These are n(A) and n(B). But the elements in n(A n B) are counted twice.
.. n(A u B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A n B)
Cor. If A and B are disjoint sets such that AuB is finite, then
n (AuB) = n(A) + n(B)

1 67
1 68 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Proof. In counting the elements of AuB, we first count those elements which are in A.
These are neAl. The only other elements of AuB are those elements which are in B, but
not in A. Since A and B are disjoint, . . No element of B is in A.
Hence there are nCB) elements which are in B.
.. n(AuB) = neAl + nCB).
Theorem II. Let P, Q and R are three finite sets. Then (P. T.U. B. Tech. Dec. 2010)
I PuQuR I = I P I + I Q I + I R I - I PnQ I
- I P nR I - I Q n R I + I P n Q nR I.
Proof. Using theorem I, we have
I P u (Q u R) I = I P I + I Q u R I - I P n (Q u R) I
= I P I + I Q I + I R I - I Q n R I - I P n (Q u R) I . . . (1)
As P n (Q u R) = (P n Q) u (P n R)
So I P n (Q u R) I = I P n Q I + I P n R I - I (P n Q) n (P n R) I
= I PnQ I + I PnR I - I PnQnR I OO
Putting (2) in (1), we get
I PuQuR I = I P I + I Q I + I R I - I PnQ I - I PnR I
- I QnR I + I PnQnR I
Theorem III. General Exclusion-Inclusion Principle.
Let A" �, ... Am denote finite sets. Let Sk be the sum of the cardinalities
n(Ai 1 n Ai n . . . n Aik) of all possible k-tuple intersections of the given m sets. Then
'
n(A, u A, u A3 . . . u Am> = s, - s, + S3 ... + (- l) m-1 sm
Remark 1. For 4, we have
m=
8 neA,) + n(A.,), + n(A3) + n(A4)
I
=
8 neA, + n(A �) + n(As n A4) + n(A4 n A,) + neA, n �) + n(A n A4)
832 neA, A." �) +2 n(A." n � n A4) + n(� n A4 n A,) + neA, n A." n A24)
= n A.,,) n
= n n
84 neA,
= n A." n A." n A,,)
Remark 2. A set of the form At n Ai As* A:; where each At is either A or �c, is called
II " " II

a fundamental product of the sets A/s.

Remark 3. Consider three sets Ai B, C. Let
P , = A n B n C, P = A n B n Co,
2
P s = A n BC n C, P 4 = A Be ee,
II II

P 5 = Ac n B n C, P 6 = Ac n B n Cc,
P 7 = k n � n C, P8 = k n � n �
These eight fundamental products correspond to
the eight disjoint regions as shown in the Venn­
diagrams of sets A, B, C. (see Fig. 6.2)
Fig. 6.2
I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Out of 1200 students at a college

582 took Economics
627 took English
543 took Mathematics
INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE 1 69

21 7 took both Economics and English

307 took both Economics and Mathematics
250 took both Mathematics and English
222 took all three courses.
How many took none of the three ?
Sol. Let A, B, C denote the set of students studying Economics, English, Mathematics
respectively. Given
I A I = 582 I B I = 627
I C I = 543 I A n B I = 2 17
I A n C I = 307 I B n C I = 250
I A n B n C I = 222
The total number of students who took any of three subjects
I Au B u C I = I A I + I B I + I C I - I AnB I - I B n C I - I C nA I
+ I A nBnC I
= 582 + 627 + 543 - 217 - 307 - 250 + 222 = 1200
Students who took none of three subjects
= (total students in the college) - (total students who took any of three subjects)
= 1200 - 1200 = O.
Example 2. 40 computer programmers interviewed for ajob. 25 knew JAVA, 28 knew
ORACLE, and 7 knew neither of language. How many knew both languages ?
Sol. Now, I J I = 25
1 0 I = 28
I J u 0 I = 40 - 7 = 33
Computer programmers who knew both languages are
I J n 0 I = I J I + I 0 I - I J u 0 I = 25 + 28 - 33 = 20.

Example 3. A survey of 550 television watchers produced the following information :

285 watch football games
195 watch hockey games
115 watch baseball games
45 watch football and baseball games
70 watch football and hockey games
50 watch hockey and baseball games
100 do not watch any of the three games.
(a) How many people in the survey watch all three games ?
(b) How many people watch exactly one of the three games ?
Sol. (a) F, H, B denote the sets of watchers watching football, hockey, baseball
respectively. Given
I F I = 285 ; I H I = 195 ; I B I = 1 15
I F n B I = 45 ; I F n H I = 70 ; I H n B I = 50
I F u H u B I = 550 - 100 = 450
The number of people watch all three games
I F n H n B I = 450 - 285 - 195 - 1 15 + 45 + 70 + 50 = 20.
1 70 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(b) 20 watch all three games.
45 - 20 = 25 watch football and baseball but not all three.
70 - 20 = 50 watch football and hockey but not all three.
50 - 20 = 30 watch hockey and baseball but not all three.
285 - 25 - 50 - 20 = 190 watch only football.
195 - 50 - 30 - 20 = 95 watch only hockey.
115 - 25 - 30 - 20 = 40 watch only baseball.
Number of people exactly watch one of the three games
= 190 + 95 + 40 = 325.

(b) Alternative. To find the number of people watch·

ing, exactly one of the three games, we use Venn·diagrams
(see Fig. 6.3).
Required number of people watching exactly one of the
three games
= 190 + 95 + 40 = 325.
Fig. 6.3
Example 4. Among 100 students, 32 study Mathematics, 20 study Physics, 45 study
Biology, 15 study Mathematics and Biology, 7 study Mathematics and Physics, 10 study Physics
and Biology and 30 do not study any of three subjects.
(a) Find the number of students studying all three subjects.
(b) Find the number of students studying exactly one of the three subjects.
Sol. (a) Let M, P, B denote the sets of students studying Mathematics, Physics and
Biology. Given
n(M) = 32, n(P) = 20, n(B) = 45
n(MnB) = 15, n(MnP) = 7, n(PnB) = 10
n(M n B n P) = 30
Now, n(M n B n P) = 100 - n(M u B u P)
= 100 - n(M n B n P) = 100 - 30 = 70
. . Required number of students studying all the three subjects is given by
n(M n P n B)
Using inclusion---€xclusion principle, we have
n(M n P n B) = n(M) + n(P) + nCB) - n(M n P) - n(P n B)
- nCB n M) + n(M n P n B)
70 = 32 + 20 + 45 - 7 - 10 - 15 + n(M n P n B)
70 = 65 + n(M n P n B) ,------,

=> n(M n P n B) = 70 - 65 = 5
(b) To find the number of students studying exactly one
of the subjects we use Venn·diagram (see Fig. 6.4)
5 study all three subjects
7 - 5 = 2 study Maths and Physics but not
all three
15 - 5 = 10 study Maths and Biology but not
all three Fig. 6.4
INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE 1 71

10 - 5 = 5 study Biology and Physics but not all three

32 - (10 + 2 + 5) = 15 study Maths only
20 - (2 + 5 + 5) = 8 study Physics only
45 - (10 + 5 + 5) = 25 study only Biology only
Number of students studying exactly one of three subjects = 15 + 8 + 25 = 48.
Example 5. In a survey of 300 students,
64 had taken a Mathematics course
94 had taken a English course
58 had taken a Computer course
28 had taken both a Mathematics and a Computer course
26 had taken both a English and a Mathematics course
22 had taken both a English and a Computer course
14 had taken all three courses.
(a) How many students were surveyed who had taken non of the three courses ?
(b) How many had taken only a Computer course ?
Sol. Let M, E, C denote the sets of students taking mathematics, English, Computer
Courses respectively. Then
I M I = 64 ; I E I = 94 ; I C I = 58
I M n C I = 28 ; I M n E I = 26 ; l E n C I = 22
1 M n E n C I = 14
(a) I MuEu C I = I M I + I E I + I C I - I Mn C I
- I MnE I - 1 EnC I + I MnEnC I
= 64 + 94 + 58 - 28 - 26 - 22 + 14 = 154
Students who had taken none of the courses
= 300 - 154 = 146.
(b) 14 had taken all three courses.
28 - 14 = 14 had taken both a Mathematics and a Computer but not all three
22 - 14 = 8 had taken both a English and a Computer courses but not all three
58 - 14 - 8 - 14 = 22 had taken only Computer course.
Example 6. Let A, B, C, D denote respectively, Art, Biology, Chemistry and Drama
courses. Find the number of students in a dormetory given the data.
12 Take A, 5 Take A and B 3 Take A, B, C
20 Take B, 7 Take A and C 2 Take A, B, D
20 Take C, 4 Take A and D 2 Take B, C, D
8 Take D, 1 6 Take B and C 3 Take A, C, D
4 Take B and D 2 Take A, B, C, D
3 Take C and D 71 Take none.
Sol. We first find the number of students who take at least one course.
By Inclusion-Exclusion principle.
T = n(A u B u C u D)
= S l - S2 + S 3 - S4 (1)
General Exclusion -Inclusion Principle
where s, = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) + n(D) = 12 + 20 + 20 + 8 = 60
1 72 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
S2 = n (A n B) +n(B n C) + n(C n D) + n(D n A) + n(A n C) + n(B n D)
= 5 + 16 + 3 + 4 + 7 + 4 = 39
S3 = n(A n B n C) + n(B n C n D) + n(A n C n D) + n(A n B n D)
= 3 + 2 + 3 + 2 = 10
s, = n (A n B n C n D) = 2
From (1) T = 60 - 39 + 10 - 2 = 70 - 41 = 29
Hence the required number of students
= Number of students who take at least one course + Number of
students who take none course
= 29 + 71 = 100.
Example 7. Suppose that 100 of the 120 Mathematics students at a college take at least
one of the languages French, German and Russian. Also suppose
65 study French, 20 study French and German
45 study German, 25 study French and Russian
42 study Russian, 15 study German and Russian
(a) Find the number of students studying all the subjects
(b) Find the number of students studying taking exactly one subject.
Sol. (a) Let F, G and R denote the sets of students studying French, German, Russian
respectively. Given
n(F u G u R) = 100, n(F) = 65, n(G) = 45,
n(R) = 42, n(F n G) = 20, n(F n R) = 25,
n (G n R) = 15, we find n(F n G n R).
Using Inclusion-Exclusion principle,
n(F u G u R) = n(F) + n(G) + n(R) - n(F n G) - n(G n R) - n(R n F) + n(F n G n R)
=> 100 = 65 + 45 + 42 - 20 - 15 - 25 + n(F n G n R)
=> 100 = 92 + n(F n G n R)
=> n(F n G n R) = 100 - 92 = 8.

(b) To find the number of students taking exactly one

subject, we use Venn·diagrams. (see Fig. 6.5)
8 read all three subject
25 - 8 = 17 read French and Russian but not German
20 - 8 = 12 read French and German but not Russian
15 - 8 = 7 read Russian and German but not French
65 - (17 + 8 + 12) = 28 read French only G
45 - (12 + 8 + 7) = 18 read German only
42 - (17 + 8 + 7) = 10 read Russian only Fig. 6.5
Required number of students who study exactly one subject
= 28 + 18 + 10 = 56.
Example 8. In a survey of 60 people, it was found that
25 read Newsweek magazine
26 read Time, 26 read Fortune
INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE 1 73

9 read both Newsweek and Fortune

11 read both News week and Time
8 read both Time and Fortune
3 read all three magazines
(a) Find the number of students who read at least one of the three magazines
(b) Find the number of students who read exactly one magazine
(c) Find the number of students who read no magazine at all.
Sol. Let N, F, T denote the sets of students reading ,------,
Newsweek, Fortune, Time magazines respectively.
(a) Required number of students
= n(N u T u F) = n(N) + n(T) + n(F) - n(N n T)
- n(T n F) - n(F n N) + n(N n T n F)
= 25 + 26 + 26 - 1 1 - 8 - 9 + 3 = 52.
(b) To find the number of students who read exactly one
magazine, we use Venn-diagram. (see Fig. 6.6).
Here 3 read all three magazines Fig. 6.6
11 - 3 = 8 read Newsweek and Time but not all three magazines
9 - 3 = 6 read Newsweek and Fortune but not all three magazines
8 - 3 = 5 read Time and Fortune but not all three magazines
25 - ( 8 + 3 + 6) = 8 read only Newsweek
26 - (8 + 3 + 5) = 10 read only Time
26 - (6 + 3 + 5) = 12 read only Fortune
Required number of students who read exactly one magazine
= 8 + 10 + 12 = 30.
(c) Required number of students who study no magazine
= 60 - n(N u T u F) = 60 - 52 = 8.

Example 9. Among the first 500 positive integers :

(a) Determine the integers which are not divisible by 2, nor by 3, nor by 5.
(b) Determine the integers which are exactly divisible by one of them.
Sol. Let A denotes the set of numbers of integers divisible by 2
B denotes the set of numbers of integers divisible by 3
C denotes the set of numbers of integers divisible by 5.

I A I = [�]
5 0
= 250 ; [ ]
500
I B I = -- = 166 ;
3
I C I = [�]
5 0
= 100

I AnB I = [ ]
500
--

2x3
= 83
'
I An C I = [ ]
500
--

2x5
= 50

I BnC I = [ ]
500
3x5
= 33 ; I AnBn C I = [ ]
500
3x3x5
= 16.

(a) I A u B u C I = 250 + 166 + 50 - 83 - 100 - 33 + 16 = 366

The integers not divisible by 2, 3 and 5 = 500 - 366 = 134.
1 74 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(b) The integers divisible by all the three = 16

83 - 16 = 67 integers are divisible by 2 and 3 but not all the three
50 - 16 = 34 integers are divisible by 2 and 5 but not by all the three
33 - 16 = 17 integers are divisible by 3 and 5 but not by all the three
250 - 67 - 34 - 16 = 133 integers are only divisible by 2
166 - 67 - 17 - 16 = 66 integers are only divisible by 3
100 - 34 - 17 - 16 = 33 integers are only divisible by 5
Total number of integers only divisible by 2, 3 and 5
= 133 + 33 + 66 = 232.

Example lO.Among the first 1000 positive integers :

(a) Determine the integers which are not divisible by 5, nor by 7, nor by 9.
(b) Determine the integers divisible by 5, but not by 7, not by 9.
(P.T.U. B.Tech. May 2012)
Sol. Let A denotes the set of numbers of integers divisible by 5
B denotes the set of number of integers divisible by 7

[ �] [ ]
C denotes the set of number of integers divisible by 9.
1O 0 1000
So I A1 = = 200 ; I B I = = 142

[ ] [ ]
7
1000 1000
I C I = - - = 1 11 ; I AnB I = = 28

[ ] [ ]
9 5x7
1000 1000
I An C I = = 22 I BnC I = = 15

[ ]
5x9 ' 7x9
1000
I An B n C I = = 3.
5x7x9
(a) The number of integers divisible by 5, 7 and 9
I A u B u C I = 200 + 142 + 1 1 1 - 28 - 22 - 15 + 3
= 39l.
The number of integers not divisible by 5, nor by 7, nor by 9
= Total number of integers - number of integers divisible by 5, 7 and 9
= 1000 - 391 = 609.
(b) The integers divisible by all the three integers = 3
28 - 3 = 25 integers divisible by 5 and 7 but not by all the three
22 - 3 = 19 integers divisible by 5 and 9 but not by all the three
200 - 25 - 19 - 3 = 153 integers divisible by 5 but not by 7, not by 9.

Example 11. How many integers between 1 and 300 (inclusive) are :
(P.T.U. B.Tech. May 2010)
(a) divisible by at least one of 3, 5, 7 ?
(b) divisible by 3 and 5, not by 7 ?
(c) divisbile by 5 but neither by 3 nor by 7 ?
INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE 1 75

Sol. Total number of integers = 300

Let A denotes the set of numbers divisible by 3 B, the set of numbers divisible by 5, C,
the set of numbers divisible by 7, then,

[ 300]
neAl = 3 = 100 , nCB) = [-300]
5- 60 =

n(C) = [-300]
7- = 42

n(A n B) = [33x005 ] = 20 , nCB n C) = [ 5300x 7 ] =8

n(C n A) = [3300x 7 ]
-- = 14

n(A n B n C) = [3 x3005 x 7 ] =2

Also, n(A u B u C) = neAl + nCB) + n(C) - n(A n B) - nCB n C) - n(C n A) + n(A n B n C)

= 100 + 60 + 42 - 20 - 8 - 14 + 2 = 162
From the Venn diagram,
(a) number of integers divisible by at least 3, 5 or 7 = n(A u B u C) = 162
(b) the number of integers divisible by 3 and 5, not by 7 = n(A n B n C) = 18
(e) the number of integers divisible by 5 but not by 3, 7 = n(A n B n C ) = 28.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE I

1. (a) bottles.
Of 32 people whonumber
Find the save paper or bottles
of people (or both) for recycling, 30 save paper and 14 save
who save
(i) Both paper and bottles
(ii) Only paper
(iii) Only bottles
(b) A survey of 550 Television watchers produced the following information.
285 watch football games
195 watch hockey games
115 watch cricket
45 watch football and cricket
70 watch football and hockey
50 watch hockey and cricket
100 do not watch any of the three games.
(i) How many people in the survey watch all the three games ?
(ii) How many people watch exactly one of the three games ?
1 76 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
2. In a class of 300 students,
60 study Mathematics course
94 study English course
58 study Discrete course
28 study both Mathematics and Discrete course
26 study both English and Mathematics course
22 study both English and Discrete course
14 study all three course,
(a) Find the number of students who study none of the three courses
(b) Who study only Discrete course ?
3. A survey on a sample of 25 new cars being sold at a local auto dealer was conducted to see which
ofinstalled.
three popular options,
The survey foundair-conditioning (A), radio (R) and Power windows 0N), were already
15 had air-conditioning
12 had radio
11 had Power windows
5 had air-conditioning and Power windows
9 had air-conditioning and radio
4 had Power windows and radio
3 had all three options,
Find the number of cars that had
(a) Only Power windows
(b) Only air-conditioning
Cc) Only radio
(d) Radio and Power windows but not air-conditioning
(e) Air-conditioning and radio but not Power windows
if) Only one of the options
(g) At least one option
(h) None of the options
4. Using Inclusion-Exclusion principle, prove the following,
�
Ci) nCA B) nCA) + nCB) -nCA n B), for any finite sets A and B
u

�
Cii) nCA B) nCA) + nCB), where A, B are finite disjoint sets.
u

5. Aandsurvey wasZee
550 like conducted
TV. Also,among 1000 people ofthese 595 like Metro channel, 595 like star Movies
395 of them like Metro channel and Star Movies
350 of them like Metro channel and Zee TV
400 of them like Star Movies and Zee TV
250 of them like Metro channel, Star Movies and Zee TV,
Find
(a) How many of them who not like Metro channel, do not like Star Movies and do not like Zee TV?
do

(b) How many of them who like Metro channel, do not like Star Movies and do not like Zee TV ?
6. Ingames
a class of 60 boys, 45 boys play cards and 30 boys play carrom,
? How many play cards only and how many plays carroms only ? How many boys play both
CPT. U. B.Tech. May 2008, 2010)
INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE 1 77

7. Given that
U all students in a university
=

A Day students
=

B mathematics majors
=

C graduate students
=

Also � n(
n(U)who16,are000,mathematics ) � � �
A 9000, nCB) 300 and n(G) 1000, Assume that the number of day
students
number of day graduate studentsmajorsis 700.isDetermine
250, 50 of which are graduate
the number students,
of students who areand the total
(a) evening students
(b) non-mathematics majors
(c) under graduate (day or evening)
(d) day graduate non-mathematics majors
(e) evening graduate students
if) evening graduate mathematics majors
(g) evening under graduate non-mathematics majors.
8. In a class of 80 students, 50 students know English, 55 know French and 46 know German. 37
students
none of theknow EnglishFind
languages. and French, 28 students know French and German, 7 students know
)
(a How many students know all the three languages ?
(b) How many students know exactly two languages ?
)
(c How many know only one language ?
9. Among integers 1 to 1000
( )
a How many of them are not divisible by 3 nor by 5 nor by 7 ?
(b) How many are not divisible by 5 or 7 but divisible by 3 ?
10. It is known that in a university, 60% of teachers play tennis, 50% play bridge, 70% jog, 20% play
tennis andjogbridge,
and play40%tennis
play bridge and jogJustify
and 30%
teachers and bridge. this play
claim.tennis and jog. It is claimed that 20%
Answers
L (a) (,) 12 (ii) 18 (iii) 2 (b) (,) 450 (ii) 325
2, (a) 146 (b) 22 3, ( )
a 5 (b) 4 ()
c2
(d) 4 (e) 6 (/) 11 (g) 23 (h) 2.
5, ( )
a 155 (b) 100 15, 30, 15,
6,
7, ( )
a 7000 (b) 15700 ()
c 15000 (d) 650 (e) 300
(/)and (g) cannot be determined with the given information.
8, ( )
a 12 (b) 54 (c) 7
9, ( )
a 457 (b) 229 10. The claim is not true.
Hints
L (a) � �
(ii) n(P -B) n(P) - n(P n B) 30 - 12 18 �
� �
(ii,) nCB - P) nCB) -n(P n B) 14 - 12 2 �
1 78 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(b) 20 watch all the three games.

Fig. 6.7
Number of people watch exactly one of the three games 190 + 95 + 40 325.
= =
3.

2
Fig. 6.8
5. (a) Number of People who like at least one of the channels
�
n (M u S u Z) n(M) + n(S) + n(Z) - n(M n S) - n(S n Z) - n(Z n M) + n(M n S n Z)
595 + 595 + 550 - 395 - 350 - 400 + 250 845
� �

Required
Zee TV 1000of-845
..not like number People 155.
who do not like Metro channel, do not like Star Movies, and do
� �
8. � � � �
Given n(A) 50, nCB) 55, n(G) 46, n(A n B) 37, nCB n G) 28, n(A n G) 25. � �
n(A u B u C) number of students knowing none of the language 7
= =

� n (u) -n(A u B u G) 7 �
� �
80 -n(A u B u G) 7 n(A u B u G) 73 � �
)
(a Number of students knowing all the three languages is given by n(A B C) II II

�
Now, n(A u B u G) n(A) + nCB) + n(G) - n(An B) -nCB n G) - n(G n A) + n(An B n G)
=:::} n(A B C) 12. Hence, there are 12 students who know all the three languages.
II II =
(b) Using Venn diagram, students knowing exactly two languages
� n(A n B) + n (B n C) + n(A n C) - 3 X n (A n B n C) A B
� 37 + 28 + 25 - 3 X 12 � 54.
(c) language
Using Venn0 +diagram,
2 + 5 number of students knowing only one
= = 7.

9. Let A The set of numbers between 1 to 1000 that are divisible by 3

=
B The set of numbers between 1 to 1000 that are divisible by 5
= Fig. 6.9
C The set of numbers between 1 to 1000 that are divisible by 7.
=
INCLUSION-EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE 1 79

n(A) � [ 1000J
-
· 1000J · 1000J
3- � 333, nCB) � [ 5- � 200, n(G) � [ 7- � 142
- -

n(A n B n G) � [ 3 1000 ] [1000]

x 5 x 7 � 9, n(A n B) � 3 x 5 � 66
n (B n G) � [1000] [1000]
5 x7 �28, n(A n G) � 3x 7 � 47
-- --

(a) The number of integers that are not divisible by 3 nor by 5 nor by 7
� n(A n B n C) � n(A u B u C) � U - n(A u B u C) (1)
But, n(A u B u G) � 333 + 200 + 142 - 66 - 47 - 28 + 9 � 543
:. From (1), n(A n B n � 1000 - 543 � 457
C)
(b) Number of integers that are not divisible by 3 but not by 5 nor by 7
�n(A n B n C) n(A n B u C ) n(A - B u C )
� �

� 333 - (57 + 9 + 38) � 229.

10. Let the total number of teachers 100
=
n(T) � 60, nCB) � 50, n(J) � 70
n(T n � �20, n� n J) � ®, n(T n J) � OO
Number of teachers who jog and play tennis and bridge is given by
n(T u B u J) � 60 + 50 + 70 - 20 - 40 - 30 + n(T n B n J)
� n(T n B n J) � 100 -(90) � 10
Le., 10% of Teachers jog and play tennis and bridge.
 RECURRENCE RELATIONS

7 AN D GEN ERATING
FUNCTIONS

7. 1 . INTRODUCTION
In this chapter) we will discuss the formation of recurrence relations and their solutions.
The closed form expressions of recurrence relations and its solutions using generating functions
is also discussed in this chapter.
7.2. RECURRENCE RELATIONS (P.T.U. B.Tech. Dec. 2006)
Let S be a sequence of numbers. A recurrence relation on S is a formula that relates all,
but a finite number of terms of S, to previous terms of S.
For e.g the Fibonacci sequence is defined by the relation.
.•

FK = FK_2 + FK_l " K :> 2. where Fo = 1 . F, = 1 .

The relation defined above is a recurrence relation and the conditions F0 = 1, F = 1 are
1

called initial conditions.

Note. The recurrence relations are also called difference equations.
7.3. ORDER OF A RECURRENCE RELATION
The order of a recurrence relation is the difference between the highest and the lowest
subscripts of S(K). For e.g., consider the recurrence relation.
FK = FK_2 + FK_l " K :> 2
Here the difference between highest and lowest subscripts of F = K - (K - 2) = 2
Its order is 2.
Note. The order of a recurrence relation may or may not be defined
7.4. (a) DEGREE OF RECURRENCE RELATION
It is the highest power of S(K) occurring in the recurrence relation. For example. consider
the recurrence relation.
S 2 (K + 3) + 2S 2 (K + 2) + 2S(K + 1) = 0
Its order = (K + 3) - (K + 1) = 2
degree = 2(Highest power)
1 80
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 181

For example, consider S4 (K) + 3S3(K - 1) + 6S2(K - 2) + 4S(K - 3) = 0

Its order = K - (K - 3) = 3
degree = 4.
7.4. (b) LINEAR RECURRENCE RELATION (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2006)
A recurrence relation with degree one is called linear recurrence relation.

7.5. FORMATION OF RECURRENCE RELATIONS

We illustrate this concept in the following examples.

I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Find the order of the following recurrence relations defined by

(i) T(K) = 2(T(K - 1))" - KT(K - 3)
(ii) P(K) + 2P(K - 3) - K2 = 0,
(iii) S(K) = S[KI2] + 5, K ?- 0
(iv) A(K) - 2A(K - 1) - 2K = O.
Sol. (i) The difference between the highest and lowest subscripts = K - (K - 3) = 3
Its order = 3.
(ii) The difference between the highest and lowest subscripts = K - (K - 3) = 3
Its order = 3.
(iii) The recurrence relation is of infinite order. Since K - [�] becomes larger and
larger as K is made large.
(iv) The difference between the highest and the lowest subscripts = K - (K - 1) = 1
Its order = 1.
Example 2. Obtain the linear recurrence relation from the sequence defined by
S(K) = 5 . 2K
Sol. Given S(K) = 5 . 2K ... (1)
Changing K to K - 1, we get S(K - 1) = 5 . 2K-l ... (2)
Subtracting (1) and (2), we get
S(K) - S(K - 1) = 5 . 2K - 5 . 2K-l
( ) �
= 5 . 2K 1- � = . 5 . 2K = S(K)
2 2 2

=> (1- �) S(K) - S(K - 1) = 0

=> S(K) - 2S(K - 1) = 0, is the required linear recurrence relation.
Example 3. Obtain the recurrence relation of second order from the sequence defined by
S(K) = 3K-1 + 2K+ 1 + K.
1 82 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. Given S(K) = 3 K-1 + 2 K+l + K ... (1)
Changing K to K - 1 in (1), we get
= 3 K-2 + 2 K + K - 1
1 1
S(K - 1)

=-
3 3 K-1 + - 2K+l +
K- 1 ... (2)
' 2 '
Changing K to K - 2 in (1), we get
S(K - 2) = 3 K-3 + 2 K-1 + K - 2

= ..!c . 3 K-1 + ..!c . 2 K +l + K _ 2 ... (3)

9 4
Eliminating 3K-1 from (1) and (2), we get
S(K) - 3S(K - 1) = (1-%) 2K+l +
K - 3(K - 1)

= _ ..!c . 2K+l +
3 - 2K ... (4)
2
Eliminating 3K-1 from (2) and (3), we get
S(K - 1) - 3S(K - 2) = G-f) 2K+l +
K - 1 - 3(K - 2)

= _ ..!c . 2K + 1 + 5 - 2K ... (5)

4
Eliminating 2K +l from (4) and (5), we get
S(K) - 3S(K - 1) - 2 [S(K - 1) - 3 S(K - 2)]
= 3 - 2K - 2 = - 7 + 2K
( 5 - 2K)
or S(K) - 5 S(K - 1) + 6S(K - 2) = 2K - 7,
is the required recurrence relation.
Its order = K - (K - 2) = 2.
Example 4. Obtain the recurrence relation of second order from the sequence given by
S(K) = 2 . 4K - 5 . (- 3jK
Sol. Given S(K) = 2 . 4K - 5 . (- 3)K ... (1)
Changing K to K - 1 in (1), we get
S(K - 1) = 2.4K-1 - 5 . (- 3) K-1 =�. 4K - 5. (- 3)K . (- 3)-1

1
4
5 (
= _
4K + -
3 ' _ 3)K ... (2)
2 '
Changing K to K - 2 in (1), we get
S(K - 2) = 2 . 4K-2 - 5 . (- 3) K-2 = 2 . 4K . 4-2 - 5 . (- 3) K . (- 3)-2
.!c
= . . 4 K _ � . ( _ 3) K ... (3)
8 9
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 1 83

335 . (
Eliminating 4K from (1) and (2) , we get
S(K) - 4S(K _ 1) 230 . (
= _ 5 . (_ 3) K _ _ 3) K = _ _ 3) K ... (4)

Eliminating 4K from (2) and (3), we get

S(K - 1) - 4S(K - 2) ... (5)

Eliminating (- 3)K from (4) and (5), we get

S(K) - 4S(K - 1) + 3[S(K - 1) - 4 S(K - 2)] = 0
or S(K) - S(K - 1) - 12S(K - 2) = 0, is the required recurrence relation of order = 2.
7.6. LINEAR RECURRENCE RELATION OF ORDER n WITH CONSTANT
COEFFICIENTS
The general linear recurrence relation of order n with constant coefficients, is given by
S(K) + C,S(K - 1) + C2S(K - 2) + ...... + CnS(K - n) = f(K), K :> n,
where Cp C2 ) ...... e n are constants.
7.7. HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR RECURRENCE RELATION OF ORDER n
A homogeneous linear recurrence relation of order n is an equation of the form
S(K) + C, S(K - 1) + C2 S(K - 2) + ...... + Cn S(K - n) = O.

7.B. CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION

Consider a linear recurrence relation of order n given by
S(K) + C,S(K - 1) + C2S(K - 2) + ...... + CnS(K - n) = f(K), K :> n.
Then the equation
a + C 1 a -1 + C 2a -2 + ...... + Cn_1 a + en = 0 is called characteristic equation.
n n n

The left-hand side of this equation is known as characteristic polynomial.

7.9. ALGORITHM FOR SOLVING HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR RECURRENCE RELA­
TION OF ORDER n WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS (P. T. U. B. Tech. Dec. 2006)
Consider the linear homogeneous recurrence relation of order n as
S(K) + C, S(K - 1) + C2S(K - 2) + ...... + Cn S(K - n) = 0 ... (1)
where Cp C2 ) ...... en are constants.
Step I. Write the characteristic equation of the equation (1), which is
+ C 1 a -1 C 2a -2
+ Cn_1 a en = 0
+ ... + +
n n n
a
Step II. Find the roots of the characteristic equation obtained in step 1.
Case I. If the characteristic equation has n distinct roots, say, mp m2, mn, then the
•••

solution of (1) is given by

S(K) = C, m / C 2 m2K
+ + ...... +
C n mnK
Case II. If the characteristic equation has two equal roots) say m1 = m2) then the solu­
tion of (1) is given by
1 84 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Case III. If the characteristic equation has three equal roots, say, m1 = m2 = m3) then
the solution of (1) is given by
S(K) = (C, + C2K + C3K2) m/ + C4m/ + ...... + Cn mnK and so on
Case IV. If the characteristic equation has imaginary roots, say, a ± i�, then solution of
(1) is given by
S(K) = C, (a + i�)K + C2 (a - i�)K
Case V. If the characteristic equation has repeated imaginary roots, say, a ± i�, a ± i�,
then the solution of (1) is given by
S(K) = (C, + C2K) (a + i�)K + (C3 + C4K) (a - i�)K
Example 5. Solve the recurrence relation ar - 3ar _ 1 + 2ar_ 2 = O.
Sol. The characteristic equation is given by
s2 - 3s + 2 = 0 or (s - l)(s - 2) = 0
Therefore, the required solution of the given homogeneous recurrence relation is
ar = C 1 + C2 . 2 r .
Example 6. (a) Solve the recurrence relation: a, - 7a,_ 1 + lOa,_ 2 = 0, given that ao = 0, a1
= 3. (P.T.U. B.Tech. Dec. 2007)
(b) Solve the recurrence relation: an = 3an_1 + 4an_2) ao = 0, a1 = 5.
(P.T.U. B.Tech Dec. 2013)
Sol. (a) The characteristic equation is
s2 - 7s + 10 = 0 or (s - 2)(s - 6) = 0
Therefore, the required solution of the given homogeneous recurrence relation is
ar = c1 . 2r + c2 . 5r• ... (1)
Using ao = 0, (1) gives
0 = c1 + c2 ... (2)
Using a, = 3, (1) gives
3 = 2c, + 6c2 ... (3)
Using (2) in (3), we get
3 = 2c, - 6c, = - 3c,
c, = - 1
From (2) c2 = - c, = 1
. . From (1), the required solution is
a, = _ 2r + sr.
(b) Proceed yourself as in part (a).n
an = 4 - (_ l)
n
Ans.
Example 7. Solve the following recurrence relations
(a) tn = 6tn_1 - 1 1 tn _ 2 + 6tn _ 3, n :> 3, subject to to = 1, t1 = 5, t2 = 1 5.
(b) tn = - 3 tn _ 1 - 3 tn _ 2 - tn _ 3, n :> 3, subject to to = 1, t1 =- 2, t2 =- 1.
(c) an = 6an_1 - 12an_2 + 8an_3, ao = 3, a1 = 4, a2 = 12 (P.T. U. B.Tech Dec. 2013)
Sol. (a) Given equation is tn - 6tn - 1 + 11 tn _ 2 - 6tn _ 3 = 0
Its order = n - (n - 3) = 3
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 1 85

The charateristic equation is

a3 - 6a2 + 11a - 6 = 0 ... (1)
Here, a = 1 satisfies (1). So a = 1 is a root of (1). By Horner's method.
1 1 -6 11 -6
1 -5 6
1 -5 6
LiO.:O:Remainder
The quotient is a2 - 5a + 6 = 0 =>
2 a - 3a - 2a + 6 = 0
=> (a - 3) (a - 2) = 0 ::::::} a = 2) 3
The required solution is
tn = C, + C2 2n + C3 3n ... (2)
Using to = 1 in (2), 1 = C, + C 2 + C 3 ... (3)
Using t, = 5 in (2), 5 = C, + 2C2 + 3C3 ... (4)
Using t2 = 15 in (2), 15 = C, + 4C2 + 9C3 ... ( 5)
(3) - (4) gives - 4 = - C2 - 2C3 ... ( 6)
(4) - (5) gives - 10 = - 2C2 - 6C3 ... (7)
Multiplying (6) by 2, - 8 = - 2C2 - 4C3 ... (8)
Subtracting (7) and (8), - 2 = - 2C3 => C3 = 1
From (7), - 10 = - 2C 2 - 6 => C2 = 2
From (3), C, = 1 - 2 - 1 = - 2
From (2), The required solution is
tn = (- 2) + 2(2n) + 3n = - 2 + 2n + 1 + 3n.
(b) Given equation is tn + 3tn _ 1 + 3tn _ 2 + tn _ 3 = 0
Its order = n - (n - 3) = 3
The characteristic equation is a3 + 3a2 + 3a + 1 = 0
=> (a + 1)3 = 0 => a = - 1, - 1, - 1
.. The general solution is
tn = (C, + C2 n + C3 n2) ( - l)n ... ( 1)
Using to = 1 in (1), 1 = C, ... (2)
Using t, = - 2 in (1), - 2 = (C, + C2 + C3 ) (- 1) or 2 = C, + C2 + C3 ... (3)
Using t2 = - 1 in (1), - 1 = C, + 2C2 + 4C3 ... (4)
Put C, = 1 in (3) and (4), we get
C2 + C3 = 1 ... (5)
2C2 + 4C3 = - 2 ... ( 6)
Solving (5) and (6), we get C3 = - 2, C2 = 3
The required solution is
tn = ( 1 + 3n - 2n2) (- l)n.
(c) Please proceed yourself asin part (a)
Hint. The characteristic equation is a3 - 6a2 + 12a - 8 = 0 . . . ( 1)
Here, a = 2 satisfies equation (1). By Horner's method, the roots of equation ( 1) are
2, 2, 2
Ans. an = (3 - 2n + n2) 2n
1 86 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 8. Solve the recurrence relation for Fibonacci numbers given by
fn = fn _ 1 + fn _ 2' subject to f1 = f2 = 1.
Sol. Given recurrence relation is fn - fn - fn _ 2 = 0
-1
... (1)
Its order is n - (n - 2) = 2

The characteristic equation is a2 - a - I = 0 => a=- ..J1+4

1 ±--'--
- - 1 ± ..!5
2 2
---
Take a = 1+ ..!5 '
2 --
� = 1 - ..!5 . Clearly, a + � = 1 , a� = - l
2
The solution of (1) is given as
fn. = C an + C2 Rf--'n
1
... (2)
Given f, = C, a + C2 � = 1 ... (3)
f2 = C, a2 + C2�2 = 1 ... (4)
Solving (3) and (4), we get
� C2 -1 2 3 2
_ 2 2
� � a a a� a � _ 2 _ 2
C = _ f3(1 - �)
1
af3(� - a)
a� ( -: a + � = 1)
-- - a""'
f3(""
� --a-'-)
1 - 2 1
--- � -- a � 1 - ..!5 - 1-..!5 ..!5
a(a - 1)
C2 = - --='-=--
- a�
a�(� - a) af3(� - a) l a+�=l

= � -1 a � - ..!5 1

n n
( )f[
.fn = J5 1 -
2 J [
1 +-..!5
- - -2- 1f ) IS the requlre
1-J..!5 .
. d soIutlOn.
1
Example 9. Solve the recurrence relation tn = 4(tn _1 - tn _ 2 ), subject to initial conditions
tn = 1 for n = 0, 1.
Sol. Given equation is tn - 4tn + 4tn _ 2 = 0
-1

Its order = n - (n - 2) = 2
The characteristic equation is a2 - 4a + 4 = 0 => (a - 2)2 = 0 => a = 2, 2
The solution is given by tn = (C, + C2n)2n
Using tn = 1 for n = 0 in (1), we get 1 = C,
Using tn = 1 for n = 1 in (1), we get 1 = (1 + C�2 => C2 = - "2
1

( �n) 2n = (2 - n) 2n
tn = 1- -1
, is the required solution.
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 1 87
Example 10. Given that white tiger population of Orissa is 30 at time n = 0 and 32 at
time n = 1. Also the increase from time n - 1 to time n is twice the increase from time n - 2 to
time n -1. Find the recurrence relation and solve it for growth rate of tiger.

{
Sol. Given initial conditions are
30, n� 0
tn = 32, n� 1
3tn_1 - 2tn_2 , n> 1
n - 1 to time n is tn - tn _ I "
I
Increase from time
Increase from time n - 2 to time n - 1 is tn -1 - tn _ 2'
According to given,
tn - tn _ 1 = 2(tn _1 - tn _ )
::::::} tn = 3tn _ 1 - 2tn _ 2
For n > 1, the recurrence relation is tn - 3tn _ 1 + 2tn _ 2 = 0
The characteristic equation is
a2 - 3a + 2 = 0 => a2 - 2a - a + 2 = 0
=> (a - 1) (a - 2) = 0 => a = 1, 2
. . The solution is tn = C, + C2 2 n
For n = 0, 30 = C, + C2 ... (1)
For n = 1, 32 = C, + 2C2 ... (2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get C, = 28, C2 = 2
. . The required solution is tn = 28 + 2n + 1 .

Example 11. Find the solution of the homogeneous recurrence relation

YK - YK 1 - YK 2 = o.
Sol. The characteristic equation is s2 - S - 1 = 0
- -

l ± ..j1+4 l±
s= 2 - ---
2
.J5
Therefore, the required solution of the given homogeneous recurrence relation is

h = C, \ [
1 .J5
+ C
1- J5
2 2. r [ r
Example 12. Find the solution of the homogeneous recurrence relation ar 4 + 2ar 3 + +

+ 3ar 2 + 2ar 1 + ar = o.
+ +

Sol. The characteristic equation is S4 + 2s3 + 3s2 + 2s + 1 = 0

=> S4 + s2 + 1 + 2s3 + 2s + 2s2 = 0 I (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
(S2 + s + 1)2 = 0
or s = - l ± i-J3 - l ± i -J3
2 2
Therefore) the required solution of the given homogeneous recurrence relation is given
by
1 88 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 13. Find the solution of the homogeneous recurrence relation YK + 4 + 4YK + 3
+ 8yK + 2 + 8yK + 1 + 4yK = O.
Sol. The characteristic equation is 84 + 483 + 882 + 88 + 4 = 0
84 + 482 + 4 + 483 + 88 + 482 = 0
I (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b 2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
(82 + 28 + 2)2 = 0
or s = - l ± i) - l ± i
Therefore) the required solution is given by
YK = (C, + C2 K)(- l + ilK + (C3 + C4 K)(- 1 - ilK
Example 14. Solve T(K) = 7T(K - 1) - lOT(K - 2) where T(O) = 4, TO) = 1 7.
Sol. Given equation is T(K) - 7T(K - 1) + 10T(K - 2) = 0
Its order = K - (K - 2) = 2
The characteristic equation is a2 - 7a + 10 = 0
a2 - 5a - 2a + 10 = 0 => (a - 5) (a - 2) = 0
a = 5) 2
.. The required solution is
T(K) = C,5K + C22K ... (1)
Given T(O) =4 . . (1) gives 4 = C, + C2 ... (2)
=
T(l) 1 7 . . (1) gives 1 7 = 5C, + 2 C 2 ... (3)
Multiplying the equation (2) by 2 and subtracting from (3), we get
8 - 1 7 = 2 C, - 5C, => - 3C, = - 9
=> C, = 3
From (2), 4 = 3 + C2 => C2 = 1
From (1), we have
T(K) = 3 . 5K + 2K, is the required solution.
Example 15. Solve the recurrence relation
(a) a, - 2a,_1 + a,_2 = 0 given that ao = 1, a1 = 2. (P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2006)
(b) an = 6 an_1 - 8 an_2, ao = 1, a1 = 10. (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2012)
(c) an = - 3 an_1 + 10 an_2, n :> 2, given ao = 1, a1 =- 4. (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2009)
Sol. (a) Given recurrence relation can be written as
8(r) - 2 8(r - 1) + 8(r - 2) = 0 ... (1)
where 8(0) = 1 , 8(1) = 2
Its order = r - (r - 2) = 2
The characteristic equation is a2 - 2a + 1 = 0
(a - 1)2 = 0 => a = 1, 1
The solution to (1) is
8(r) = (C, + C2r) . l' ... (2)
Given 8(0) = 1 (2) gives 1 = C,
8( 1) = 2 (2) gives 2 = C, + 2 C2

2 C2 = 2 - 1 = 1 => C2 = "2
1
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 1 89

The required solution of (1) is S( ) r= ( + � r) . l'

1

(b) Given equation is an - 6 an_1 + 8an_2 = 0 ... (1)

where ao = a1 = 10
1)
(1) can be written as
- 6S(n - 1) + 8S(n - 2) = 0, S(O) = 1 , S(l) = 10
S( n)
Its = n - (n - 2) = 2
order
The characteristic equation is a2 - 6a + 8 = 0
a2 - 4a - 2a + 8 = 0 => a(a - 4) - 2(a - 4) = 0
(a - 2) (a - 4) = 0 => a = 2, 4
.. The solution of (1) is given by
S(n) = C,.2n + C2. 4n ... (2)
Given S(O) = 1 . . (2) gives 1 = C, + C2 ... (3)
S(l) = 10 . . (2) gives 1 0 = 2C, + 4C2 ... (4)
Multiplying (3) by 2 and subtracting from (4), we get
- 8 = - 2C2 => C2 = 4

From (3), C, + 4 = 1 => C, = - 3

The required solution is

S(n) = - 3 . 2n + 4n+1
(c) Given recurrence relation is an + 3an 1 - lOan _ 2 = 0
-
Its order = n - (n - 2) = 2
The characteristic equation is
a2 + 3a - 10 = 0 => a2 + 5a - 2a - 10 = 0
=> (a + 5) (a - 2) = 0 => a = 2, - 5
The general solution is an = C, 2n + C2 (- 5) n ... (1)
Using ao = 1 , (1) gives 1 = C, + C2 ... (2)
Using a, = - 4, (1) gives - 4 = 2C, - 5C2 ... (3)
6 1
Solving (2) and (3), we get C 2 = "7 ' C, = "7

.. The required solution is (%)<

an = (�}n + - 5)n .
Example 1 6. Solve S(K) - 7S(K - 2) + 6S(K - 3) = 0, where S(O) = 8, S(1) = 6, S(2) = 22.
Sol. Given equation is S(K) - 7S(K - 2) + 6S(K - 3) = 0 ... (1)
Its order = K - (K - 3) = 3
. . The character equation is a3 - 7a + 6 = 0 ... (2)
Put a = ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... , in (2), we observe that a = 1 satisfies (2)
.. a = 1 is root of (2).
By Horner's method
1 1 0 -7 6
1 1 -6
1 1 -6 �= Remainder
1 90 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
The quotient is a2 + a - 6 = 0
a2 + 3a - 2a - 6 = 0
a(a + 3) - 2(a + 3) = 0
(a + 3) (a - 2) = 0
a = - 3) 2
Hence the roots are 1) 2) - 3.
.. The solution to (1) is given by
S(K) = C , .1 K + C2 . 2K + C3 . (- 3)K
= C, + C2 . 2K + C3(- 3)K ... (3)
Given S(O) = 8 (3) gives 8 = C, + C2 + C3 ... (4)
S(l) = 6 (3) gives 6 = C, + 2C2 - 3C3 ... (5)
S(2) = 22 (3) gives 22 = C, + 4C2 + 9C3 ... (6)
Multiplying (4) by 3 and adding to (5), we get
24 + 6 = 4C , + 5C2 or 4C, + 5C2 = 30 ... (7)
Multiplying (5) by 3 and adding to (6), we get
1 8 + 22 = 4C , + 10C2 or 4C , + 10C 2 = 40 ... (8)
Subtracting (7) and (8), we get
- 5C2 = - 10 => C2 = 2
From (8), + 20 = 40 => 4C, = 20
4C , => C, =5
From (4), 5 + 2 + C3 = 8
The required solution of (1) is given by
S(K) = 5 + 2 . 2 K + (- 3)K

7.10. SOLUTION OF RECURRENCE RELATIONS BY THE METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION

The substitution method is also known as iterative method which is used to find a
formula for recurrence relation. We illustrate this method by the following examples.
Example 17. Solve the following recurrence relation by substitution method

an = {an-12,+ 3� nn ?-= 2l
Sol. For n � 2) an = an _ 1 + 3 ... (1)
Changing n to n - 1 in (1), we get
an_1 = an _ 2 + 3 = an _ 2 + 3(1) ... (2)
Using (2) in (1), we get
an = (an _ 2 + 3) + 3 = an_2 + 6 = an _ 2 + 3(2) ... (3)
Changing n to n - 2 in (1), we get
an _ 2 = an _ 3 + 3 ... (4)
Using (4) in (3), we get
an = (an _ 3 + 3) + 6 = an _ 3 + 9 = an _ 3 + 3(3) ... (5)
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 191
Proceeding in this way) we get
an = an _ 4 + 3(4)
an = an _ i + 3 (i)
Repeating this process for i = n - 1 times) we get
an = a, + 3(n - 1)
= 2 + 3(n - 1) I a, = 2
= 3n - 1) is the required solution.
Example 18. Solve the recurrence relation
Hn = {Hn-1 + (n - l), n ?- 2
O� n=1
by substitution (iterative) method.
Sol. For n ?- 2, Hn = Hn _ 1 + n - 1 ... (1)
Changing n to (n - 1) in (1), we get
Hn _ 1 = Hn _ 2 + n - 2 ... (2)
Using (2) in (1), we get
Hn = (Hn _ 2 + n - 2) + n - 1
= Hn _ 2 + [(n - 2) + (n - l)] ... (3)
Changing n to n - 2 in (1), we get
Hn _ 2 = Hn _ 3 + n - 3 ... (4)
Using (4) in (3), we get
Hn = Hn _ 3 + [(n - 3) + (n - 2) + (n - 1)]
Proceeding in this way) we get
Hn = Hn - r. + {(n - i) + (n - i - I) + ... + (n - 3) + (n - 2) + (n - l)l
For i = n - 1) we get
Hn = H, + [1 + 2 + 3 + ... + (n - 3) + (n - 2) + (n - 1)]
= 0 + L(n - 1) = (n -2 l)n is the required solution.
'

Example 19. Solve the following recurrence relation by substitution method

{2t _l 1, n ?- 2
tn = n 1, + n = l '
Sol. For n ?- 2, tn = 2tn _ 1 + 1 ... (1)
Changing n to n - 1 in (1), we get
tn _ 1 = 2tn _ 2 + 1 ... (2)
Using (2) in (1), we get
tn = 2(2tn_ 2 + 1) + 1
= 22 tn - 2 + 2 + 1 ... (3)
Changing n to n - 2 in (1), we get
tn _ 2 = 2tn _ 3 + 1 ... (4)
Using (4) in (3), we get
tn = 22 (2tn _ 3 + 1) + 2 + 1 = 23 tn _ 3 + 22 + 2 + 1
1 92 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Proceeding in this way) we get
tn = 2i tn -r + 2i - 1 + 2i - 2 + ...... + 2 + 1
i
For = n - 1) we get
tn = 2n - 1 t 1 + 2 n - 2 + 2n + .... . + 2 + 1 -3
n n
= 2 -1 + 2 -2 + 2
n -3
+ ...... + 2 + 1 I t, = 1
n
= 1 + 2 + 2 2 + ...... + 2 - 1
(1 - 2n)
=1 . = 2 n - 1) is the required solution.
1-2

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 7.1

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Define recurrence relation with examples. (P. T. U.B. Tech. Dec. 2006)
2. Define linear homogeneous recurrence relation of order n with constant coefficients.
3. Find the order of the following recurrence relations.
(i) S(K + 4) + 4S(K + 3) + SS(K + 2) + SS(K + 1) + 4S(K) 0
(ii) S(K) - 2S(K - 1) + 2S(K - 2) - S(K - 3) 0
=

(iii) S(K + 3) + S(K + 2) - SS(K + 1) - 12S(K) 0

=

(iv) S(K) S [�] + 9, K � O.

=

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

4. Obtain the recurrence relations from the following closed form of the sequence given by
(i) S(K) 2K + 9 ; order 1
= (ii) S(K) K' - K ; order 2 =

(iii) S(K) 2K' + 1 ; order 2

= (iv) S(K) (3 + K) 2K ; order 2.
=

5. Find the solution of the following recurrence relations.

(i) S(K) - 9S(K - 1) + lSS(K - 2) 0, where S(O) 1, S(l) 4
= = =

(ii) S(K) - 0.25S(K - 1) 0, where S(O) 6

= =

(iii) S(K) - 20S(K - 1) + 100S(K - 2) 0, where S(O) 2, S(l) 30

(iv) S(K) - 4S(K - 1) - llS(K - 2) + 30S(K - 3) 0 where S(O) 0, S(l) - 35, S(2) - S5.
= = =

6. Find the solution of the following recurrence relations.

= = = =

(i) S(K + 4) + 4S(K + 3) + SS(K + 2) + SS(K + 1) + 4S(K) 0

(ii) S(K) - 4S(K - 1) + 6S(K - 2) - 4S(K - 3) + S(K - 4) 0
=

(iii) S(K + 3) + S(K + 2) - SS(K + 1) - 12S(K) 0

=

(iv) S(K + 3) + 6S(K + 2) + 12S(K + 1) + SS(K) O.

=

7. Using iterative method or substitution method/solve the following recurrence relations.

=

(a) t
n
=
{t -11 , nn _ l
• �0
>
n +n
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 1 93

8. Solve the recurrence relation by iterative method

(a) an = 2anl, + (n - 1) for n ;::': 2
a1 :::: 0, and n :::: 2k for k � 1
(b) an :::: 2an - 1 + 1, and a1 :::: 7 for n :::-: 2
(c) an - 7an _ 1 + lOan_2 :::: 6 + 8n with ao :::: 1 and a2 :::: 2.
9. Solve the following recurrence relations by iteration (substitution) method
(a) tn :::: tn _ 1 + 3 for t1 = 2
(b) tn = 2tn _ 1 for to = 1
(c) tn :::: 2tn _ 1 + 1 for t1 :::: 1
(d) tn = 4(tn - 1 - tn _ ,), n ;::.: 2, to :::: t1 :::: 1
10. Solve the following recurrence relations
(a) tn= tn _ 1 + 6tn _ 2 for to = 32, t1 = - 17
(b) tn= - 8tn _ 1 - tn _ 2, n :;::: 2 for to :::: 0, t1 :::: 1
(c) tn + 1 :::: 2tn + 3tn - 1 ' n ;::': 1 for to :::: 0, t1 :::: 8
(d) tn :::: 2tn _ 1 + 15tn _ 2, n � 2 for to :::: 0, t1 :::: - 1
(e) tn :::: - 2tn _ 1 + 15tn _ 2 • n ;::': 2 for to :::: 0, t1 :::: 1
(f) tn = 4tn_1 , n � 1 and to :::: 1
(g) tn :::: 4tn 1 + sn, n :::-: 1 and to :::: 1.
-
Answers
3. (i) 4 (ii) 3 (iii) 3 (iv) Infinite order
4. (i) S(K) - S(K - 2) = 2 (ii) S(K) - 2S(K - 1) + S(K - 2) = 2
(iii) S(K) - 2S(K - 1) + S(K - 2) = 4
(iv) S(K) - 4S(K - 1) + 4S(K - 2) = 0

r
(ii) S(K) = 6 (� (iii) S(K) = (2 + K) 10K

(iv) S(K) = 4 (- 3)K + 2K 5K+ 1

_

6. (i) S(K) = (C 1 + C,K) (- 1 + ilK + (C3 + C4K) (- 1 - ilK

(ii) S(K) = (C1 + C,K + C3K' + C3 K3) , 1 K
(iii) S(K) = C 1 ,3K + (C, + C3K) (- 2)K
(iv) S(K) = (C1 + C,K + C3K') (- 2)K

7. (a) tn = n(n2+ 1) ' n � 1 (b) tn = 2n(n + 1), n � 1

(c) tn = 2r1, n ;::': 1
8. (a) an = 1 + n (log, n - 1) (b) an = 4,2n - 1 - 1
(e) an = (- 9)2n + 2(5)n + 8 + 2n
9. (a) tn = 2 + 3 (n - 1) (b) tn = 2n
(e) tn = 2n - 1 (d) tn :::: 2n n2n - 1
_
1 94 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

10. (a) t = 3n
n n
1
(b) t = __ (_ 4 + ../15)n -
2../15
�
2" 15
(- 4 - ../15)n

(e) t = - 2(- l)n + 2(3)n

n n 2
1 1
(d) t = _ (3)n + - (-
2
5)"
(e) t = 2(3)n + (-
n
5)" -2 (f) t = 4n
n
(g) t = 2(8)n - 4n.
n
7.1 1 . NON-HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR RECURRENCE RELATION OF ORDER n WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS
The recurrence relation of the form
S(K) + C , S(K - 1) + C2 S(K - 2) + ...... + Cn S(K - n) = f(K),
where C p C2 ) ...... e n are constants and f(K) t:- 0) is called non-homogeneous linear recurrence
relation of order n with constant coefficients.

7.1 2. ALGORITHM FOR SOLVING NON-HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR RECURRENCE

RELATION OF ORDER n WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS
Consider S(K) + C , S(K - 1) + C 2 S(K - 2) + ...... + Cn S(K - n) = f(K), where C l C2 ...... C n
' '
are constants and f(K) '" O.
Step I. Solve the corresponding homogeneous equation (i.e., f(K) = 0) as discussed in
previous section. We call this solution as homogeneous solution and denote it
by Sh(K).
Step II. Obtain the particular solution as explained below.
Case I. H f(K) = constant, then assume the particular solution as Sp(K) = constant.
Case II. o
H f(K) = a linear equation of the form C + C , K, then assume the particular
solution as Sp(K) = do+ d,K .
Case III. o
Hf(K) = a quadratic polynomial of the form C + C , K + C2K2 , then assume the
particular solution as Sp(K) = do
+ d , K + d2K2
Case IV. Hf(K) = an exponential function of the form aomK, then assume the particular
solution as Sp(K) = domK
Case V. Hf(K) = an exponential function of the form aoKmK, then assume the particular
solution as Sp(K) = (do d,K)mK
+
The general solution or complete solution of the given non-homogeneous linear recur­
rence relation of order n is given by
S(K) = Sh(K) + Sp(K),
where Sh(K) = Homogeneous solution, Sp(K) = Particular solution.
Imp. Note. While assuming the particular solution, it is important to note that none of the
terms of SP(K), should occur in Sh(K). If any term of Sh(K) occurs in Sp(K), then multiply the terms of
Sp(K), by lowest power of K. The following examples illustrate this concept more clearly.
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 1 95

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Solve S(K) + 5S(K - 1) = 9, S(O) = 6.

Sol. Given equation is S(K) + 5S(K - 1) = 9 ... (1)
The characteristic equation is a + 5 = 0 ::::::} a = - 5
The homogeneous solution of the given recurrence relation is given by
Sh(K) = c,(- 5)K
Now, the R.H.S. of the equation (1) is a constant, therefore assume the particular solu-
tion as
Sp(K) = do, do is constant.
Here Sp(K - 1) = do
Using all these in (1), we get
do + 5do = 9 => do = 3/2
Hence the general solution of (1) is given by

S(K) = Sh(K) + Sp(K) = c, (- 5)K + "23 ... (2)

Given S(O) =6 . . (2) gives 6 = c, + 3
-

2
=> C = 6- - = -
1
3 9
2 2
(2) gives (K) = � . (- 5)K + �2 , is the required solution.
S
2
Example 2_ Solve the following recurrence relation
T(K) - 7T(K - 1) + lOT(K - 2) = 6 + 8K
where T(O) = 1, TO) = 2. (P.T.U. B.Tech. Dec. 2005)
Sol. The given equation is
T(K) - 7T(K - 1) + 10T(K - 2) = 6 + SK ... (1)
Its order = K - (K - 2) = 2
The characteristic equation is a2 - 7a + 10 = 0
a2 - 5a - 2a + 10 = 0 => a(a - 5) - 2(a - 5) = 0
(a - 5) (a - 2) = 0 => a = 5, 2
The homogeneous solution of (1) is given by
Th (K) = C , . 5 K + C2 . 2 K
To find the particular solution of (1), we observe that R.H.S. of (1) is a linear equation of
the form 6 + SK. Therefore, assume the particular solution of (1) as
Tp(K) = do + d,K
Here Tp(K - 1) = do + d,(K - 1)
Tp(K - 2) = do + d, (K - 2)
Using all these in (1), we get
do + d,K - 7(do + d,(K - 1» + 10 (do + d,(K - 2» = 6 + SK
=> (do - 7do + 7d, + 10do - 20d,) + (d, - 7d, + 10d,) K = 6 + SK
4do - 13d, + 4d,K = 6 + SK ... (2)
1 96 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Equating the coefficients of constant term, in (2), we get
4do - 13d, = 6 ... (3)
Equating the coefficient of K in (2), we get
4d, = 8 => d, = 2
. . From (3), 4do - 26 = 6 => 4do = 32
do = 8
Tp(K) = 8 + 2K
Hence the general solution of (1) is given by
T(K) = Th(K) + Tp(K)
= C, . 5K + C2 . 2 K + 8 + 2 K ... (4)
Given T(O) = 1 gives 1 = C, + C2 + 8 ... (5)
T(l) = 2 (4) gives 2 = 5C, + 2 C2 + 10 ... (6)
Multiplying (5) by 2 and subtracting from (6), we get
o = - 3C , + 6 => C, = 2
From (5), 1 = 2 + C2 + 8 => C2 = - 9
. . (4) reduces to T(K) = 2 . 5K - 9 . 2K + 8 + 2K, is the required solution.
Example 3. Find the general solution of the following recurrence relation
S(K) - 3S(K - 1) - 4S(K - 2) = 4K (P.T.U. B.Tech. May 2010)
Sol. The given equation is
S(K) - 3S(K - 1) - 4S(K - 2) = 4K ... (1)
Its order = K - (K - 2) = 2
The characteristic equation is a2 - 3a - 4 = 0
a2 - 4a + a - 4 = 0 => a(a - 4) + (a - 4) = 0
(a + 1) (a - 4) = 0 => a = - 1, 4
The homogeneous solution is given by
Sh(K) = C , (- l)K + C24K ... (2)
Particular solution. Corresponding to the term 4K, [R.H.S. of (1)], we assume the
general form of the solution as do 4K but due to occurence of this term in equation (2), we
multiply this by suitable power ofK so that none of the term will occur in equation (2). Hence,
we multiply by K. Hence the particular solution of (1) becomes as
Sp(K) = doK 4K
Here Sp(K - 1) = do(K -1) 4K-I
Sp(K - 2) = do(K - 2) 4K-2
Using all these values in (1), we get
doK 4K - 3do(K - 1) 4K-I - 4do(K - 2) 4K-2 = 4K
Dividing by 4K-2, we get
16 Kdo - 12do(K - 1) - 4do(K - 2) = 16
do(16K - 12K + 12 - 4K + 8) = 16
20do = 16 => do = 4/5
S P(K) = � K 4K
5
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 1 97
The general solution of (1) is given by

Example 4. Find the particular solution of the recurrence relation

ar + 2 - 3ar + + 2ar = Z",
1 ... (1)
where Z is some constant.
Sol. The general form of solution is = A . Z'
Now putting this solution on L.R.S. of equation (1), we get
ar + 2 - 3ar + 1 + 2ar = AZH 2 3AZH 1 + 2AZ' = (Z2 - 3Z + 2)AZ'
- ... (2)
Equating equation (2) with R.R.S. of equation (1), we get
(Z2 - 3Z + 2)A = 1
or A = Z2 1 2 (Z 1XZ 1
2) (Z '" 1, Z '" 2)
- 3Z + _ _

Therefore) the particular solution is a,(P)

Z'
(Z - lXZ 2) . -

Example 5. Find the particular solution of the recurrence relation

a, + 2 - 5a, + 1 + 6a, = 5'. . .. (1)
Sol. Let us assume the general form of the solution a,(p) = A . 5'.
Now to find the value of A, put this solution on L.R.S. of the equation (1), then this
becomes
ar + 2 - 5ar + 1 + 6ar = A' 5H 2 5 . A5H 1 + 6 . A5'
-

= 25A . 5' - 25A . 5' + 6A . 5'

= 6A . 5' ... (2)
Equating equation (2) to R.R.S. of equation (1), we get
6A = 1 => A = -61
1
Therefore) the particular solution of the difference equation ar(p) = '6' 5r.
Example 6. Find the homogeneous solution and particular solution of the recurrence
relation
ar + 2 - 4ar = r2 + r - 1. . .. (1)
Sol. The characteristic equation is given by
a2 - 4 = 0
=> (a - 2) (a + 2) = 0
The homogeneous solution of the recurrence relation is given by
a,(h) = C,(2? + C2 (- 2?
To find the particular solution) let us assume the general form of the solution is
a,(p) = A, r2 + A2 r + A3.
1 98 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Putting this solution in L.R.S. of equation(1), we get
ad 2 - 4ar = A, (r + 2)2 + A2 (r + 2) + A3 - 4A, r2 - 4A2 r - 4A3
= - 3A, r2 + (4A, - 3A)r + (4A, + 2A2 - 3A) ... (2)
Equating equation (2) with R.R.S. of equation (1), we get
- 3A, = 1
4A, - 3A2 = 1
4A, + 2A2 - 3A3 = - 1
After solving these three equations) we get

A1 _
17
= - �3 ) A2 = �9 ) A3 _ _

27
_

Therefore, the particular solution is a,(P) = - C � E.

3 -9r-
27
Example 7. Find the homogeneous solution and particular solution of the recurrence
relation
ar + 2 - 2ar + 1 + ar = 3r + 5. ... (1)
Sol. The characteristic equation is
a2 - 2a + 1 = 0
=> (a -1)2 = O => a = l, l
The homogeneous solution of the recurrence relation is given by
a,(h) = C, + C2 r ... (2)
3r
Particular solution. Corresponding to the term + 5, we assume the general form of
the solution as A, r A2 (2),
+ but due to occurrence of these terms in equation we multiply this
r
by suitable power of so that none of the term will occur in equation (2).
Thus multiply by r2.
Hence, the general form of the solution becomes
ar(p) = Al r3 + A2 r2
Putting this solution in L.R.S. of equation (1), we get
3
a, + 2 - 2ad + a, = A, (r + 2) + A2 (r + 2)2 - 2A, (r + 1)3
I

- 2A2 (r + 1)2 + A, r3 + A2 r2
= A, (r3 + S + 6r2 + 12r) + A2(r2 + 4 + 4r)
- 2A, (r3 + 1 + 3r2 + 3 r) - 2A2(r2 + 1 + 2r) + A, r3 + A2 r2
= (12A, + 4A2 - 6A, - 4A)r + (SA, + 4A2 - 2A, - 2A)
= (6A,)r + (6A, + 2A) ... (3)
Equating equation (3) with R.R.S. of equation (1), we get
1
6A, = 3 A, = "2
. .

6A, + 2A2 = 5
1
Therefore, the particular solution is ar(p) = 2' T3 + r2 .
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 1 99
Example 8. Find the particular solution of the recurrence relation
ar + 2 + ar + 1 + ar r . 2r.
=
. .. (1)
Sol. Let us assume the general form of the solution a,(p) = (Ao + A, r) . 2'
Now, put this solution in the L.H.S. of equation (1), we get
ad 2 + ad 1 + a, = 2 [Ao + A, (r + 2)] + 2d 1 [Ao + A, (r + 1)] + 2' (Ao + A, r)
d 2
= 4. 2' (Ao + A,r + 2A,) + 2 . 2' (Ao + A, r + A,) + 2' (Ao + A, r)
= r. 2'(7A,) + 2' (7Ao + 10A,) ... (2)
Equating equation (2) with R.H.S. of equation (1), we get

7A, = 1 A, = 71

7Ao + 10A, = 0 Ao = - -10

49
Therefore, the particular solution is ar(p) = 2'
- 0+
4 ( � � r).
Example 9. Find the homogeneous and particular solution of the recurrence relation
a, - 4a,_ 1 + 4a, _ 2 (r + 1) . 2'.
=
. .. (1)
Sol. The characteristic equation is a2 - 4a + 4 = 0
=> (a - 2)2 = 0 => a = 2, 2
The homogeneous solution of the difference equation is given by
a,(h) = (C, + C2r) . 2' ... (2)
To find the particular solution) let us assume the general form of the solution is
= 2' (A,r + Ao), but due to occurrence of there terms in equation (2), we multiply this by suit·
able power of r so that none of the terms will occur in equation (2). Thus multiply by r2 .
Hence, the general form of the solution becomes = 2' (A,r + Ao) . r2
Putting this solution in L.H.S. of equation (1), we get
a, - 4a,_ 1 + 4a, _ 2 = 2' . (A,r + Ao) . r2 - 4 . 2' - 1 [A, (r - 1) + Ao]
. (r - 1)2 + 4 . 2' - 2 [A, (r - 2) + Ao] . (r - 2)2
= 2' . (A,r + Ao) . r 2 - 2(r2 + 1 - 2r) . 2' (A,r - A, + Ao)
+ (r2 + 4 - 4r) . 2' . (A,r - 2A, + Ao)
= r . 2' (6A,) + 2' (- 6A, + 2Ao) ... (3)
Equating equation (3) with R.H.S. of equation (1), we get

6A, = 1 A1 = .!.6
- 6A, + 2Ao = 1
Therefore, the particular solution is
+1
( )
ar(p) = r2. 2' % + 1 ­
Example 10. Solve S(n) - 6S(n - 1) + 9S(n - 2) 3n = (P.T.V. B. Tech. May 2010)
Sol. Given equation is S(n) - 6S(n - 1) + 9S(n - 2) = 3.3n ... (1)
Its order = n - (n - 2) = 2
200 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
The characteristic equation is a2 - 6a + 9 = 0
(a - 3)2 = 0 => a = 3, 3
. . The homogeneous solution of (1) is given by
Sh (n) = (C, + C2n) 3n ... (2)
n + 1
Corresponding to the term 3 [R.H.S. of (1)], we assume that general form of the
solution as do 3n+1 , but due to occurence of this term in equation (2), we multiply this by
suitable power of n so that none of the term will occur in equation (2). Thus multiply by n2•
Hence the particular solution of (1) becomes as
Sp(n) = do n23n
Here Sp(n - 1) = do(n - 1)2 3n-1
Sp (n - 2) = do(n - 2)2 3n-2
Using all these in (1), we get
don23n - 6do(n - 1)2 3n-1 + 9do (n - 2)2 3n-2 = 3 . 3n
Dividing by 3n-2, we get
9don2 - 18 do(n - 1)2 + 9do(n - 2)2 = 27
=> do[9n - 18n2 - 18 + 36n + 9n2 + 36 - 36n] = 27
2
=> 1
do [54] = 27 => do = '2

Sp(n) = � n2 . 3n
2
The general solution is given by
S(n) = Sh(n) + Sp(n) = (C, + C2n) 3n + '21 n2 . 3n.
Example 11. Solve the following recurrence relation
Q(J) - Q(J - 1) - 12Q(J - 2) = (- 3y + 6 . 4J
Sol. Given equation is
Q(J) - Q(J - 1) - 12Q(J - 2) = (- 3)" + 6 . 4J ... (1)
Its order = J - (J - 2) = 2
The characteristic equation is a2 - a - 12 = 0
a2 - 4a + 3a - 12 = 0 => a(a - 4) + 3(a - 4) = 0
(a - 4) (a + 3) = 0 => a = 4, - 3
The homogeneous solution of (1) given by
Qh (J) = C,4J + C2(- 3)J ... (1)
To find the particular solution of (1), we observe that the R.H.S. of (1) is a combination
of the terms (- 3)J and4J. But these terms also occur in the homogeneous solution (1). Therefore
we assume the particular solution of (1) as
Qp(J) = doJ(- 3)" + d,J 4J
Here Qp (J - 1) = do (J - 1) (- 3)J-1 + d,(J - 1) 4J-1
Qp(J - 2) = do(J - 2) (- 3)J-2 + d,(J - 2) 4J-2
Using all these values in (1), we get
doJ (- 3)J + d,J 4J - [do(J - 1) (- 3)J-1 + d,(J - 1) 4J-1] _ 12 [do(J - 2) (- 3)"-2 + d,(J - 2) 4J-2]
= (- 3)J + 6 . 4J
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 201
do (- S)"-2 [9J + 3(J - 1) - 12(J - 2)] + d, 4J-2 [16J - 4(J - 1) - 12(J - 2)] = (- S)" + 6 . 4J
or do(- S)"-2 (- 21) + d, 4J-2 (28) = (- 3)" + 6 . 4J
or Equating the coefficients of (- 3)J, we get -
21 do = 1 => d - � =

9 0
7
Equating the coefficient of 4J, we get => d1 =
96 = 24
28 7

The general solution of (1) is given by

4
Q(J) = Qh(J) + Qp(J) = C,4J + Ck 3)" - � J(- 3)" + 27 J 4J.
7
Example 12. Solve S(K) - 4S(K - 1) + 4S(K - 2) = 3K + 2K where S(O) = 1, S(1) = 1.
Sol. Given equation is S(K) - 4S(K - 1) + 4S(K - 2) = 3K + 2K ... (1)
Its order = K - (K - 2) = 2
The characteristic equation is given by a2 - 4a + 4 = 0
(a - 2)2 = 0 => a = 2, 2
The homogeneous solution of (1) is given by
Sh(K) = (C, + C2K). 2K = C,. 2K + C2K . 2K
To find the particular solution of (1), we observe that the R.H.S. of (1) contains the
terms 3K and 2 K But the terms 2K and K2 K also occur in Sh(K). Hence we divide the particular
solution in two parts.
Particular solution corresponding to the term 3K is
S� (K) = do + d, K
S�(K - 1) = do + d, (K - 1),
S� (K - 2) = do + d, (K - 2)
Using all these values in (1), we get
do + d,K - 4 (do + d,(K - 1) + 4(do + d,(K - 2» = 3K
=> do (1 - 4 + 4) + d, [K - 4(K - 1) + 4(K - 2)] = 3K
=> do + d, (K - 4K + 4 + 4K - 8) = 3K
=> do + d, (K - 4) = 3K
Equating the coefficient of constant term, we get do - 4d, = 0 ... (2)
Equating the coefficient of K, we get d, = 3 ... (3)
From (2), S�(K) = 12 + 3K ... (4)
Particular solution corresponding to the term 2K
Let S�(K) = d2K2 . 2K
.. S�(K - 1) = d2(K - 1)2 . 2K - 1
S�(K - 2) = d2(K - 2)2 . 2K - 2
202 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Using all these values in (1), we get
2 2
d2K .2 - 4 d2(K - 1) 2K-l + 4 d2(K - 2)2 . 2K-2 = 2K
K
d2 • 2K- 2(4K2 - 8(K - 1)2 + 4(K - 2),,) = 2K
2 2 2 2
=> d2 • 2K- (4K - 8K - 8 + 16K + 4K + 16 - 16K) = 2K

=> d22K-2(8) = 2K
8d2 = 1
4
. . . (5)

The particular solution of (1) becomes

Sp(K) = S� (K) + S�(K)
= 12 + 3K + K2 . 2K-l ... (6)
Hence the general solution of (1) is given by
S(K) = Sh(K) + Sp(K) I Using (4) and (5)
= C, . 2K + C2K . 2K + 12 + 3K + K2 . 2K - l . . . (7)
Given S(O) = 1, (7) gives
1 = C, + 12 => C, = - 11
S(l) = 1 (7) gives 1 = 2C, + 2C2 + 12 + 3 + 1

From (7), S(K) = - 11 . 2 K + '!...2 . K . 2 K + 12 + 3K + K2 . 2 K-l

= 12 + 3K + 2K - '(K2 + 7K - 22).
Example 13. Solve S(K) = rS(K - 1) + a, where S(O) = 0, where r, a > 0, r ", 1.
Sol. Given equation is S(K) - rS(K - 1) = a ... (1)
The characteristic equation is given by a - r = O ::::::} a=r
Sh(K) = C,rK
Also, let Sp(K) = do
Sp(K - 1) = do
Using all these in (1), we get do - rdo = a

do(1 - r) = a => d0 = _a
_
1-r
Sp (K) = -a
1-r
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 203

The general solution is given by

. . . (2)

Given 8 (0) = 0 (2) gives

a a
-- => --
O = C1 +
1-r C1 = -
1-r
a K a
8(K) = -
From (2),
1-r . r + --
--
1-r

1 - r IS
a(l - rK) . .
= . d soIutlOn.
the requlre

Example 14. Solve the recurrence relation a, + 5a,_1 + 6a,_2 = f(r)

where {a,
r = O, 1,5
f(r) = 6, otherwise
given that ao = a1 = 0. (P.T.U. B.Tech. Dec. 2006)
Sol. Given equation is
8 ( r) + 5 8 (r - 1) + 6 8 ( r - 2) = f(r) ... (1)
Its order = r - (r - 2) = 2
The characteristic equation is a2 + Sa + 6 = 0
a2 + 3a + 2a + 6 = 0 => a(a + 3) + 2(a + 3) = 0
(a + 3) (a + 2) = 0 => a = - 3, - 2
The homogeneous solution of (1) is given by
8 h ( r) = C , (- 3)' + C2 ( - 2)'
To find the particular solution,
Case I. When r = 0, 1, 5, then from given, we have f(r) = O. Consequently, 8p(r) = 0
Hence the general solution of (1) is given by
8(r) = 8h(r) + 8p(r) = C, (- 3)' + C2 (- 2)'
Case II. When r '" 0, 1, 5, then we are given f(r) = 6
. . Let 8p(r) = do
=> 8p(r - 1) = do
8p(r - 2) = do
Using all these in (1), we get do + 5do + 6do = 6
=> 12do = 6 => do = 1/2
8p(r) = "21
The required general solution is given by
204 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 15. Solve S(K) - 4S(K - 1) + 3S(K - 2) = K2 (P.T.U. B.Tech. May 2012)
Sol. Given equation is S(K) - 4S(K - 1) + 3S(K - 2) = K2 . . . (1)
Its order = K - (K - 2) = 2
The characteristic equation is a2 - 4a + 3 = 0
a2 - 3a - a + 3 = 0 => a(a - 3) - (a - 3) = 0
(a - 3) (a - 1) = 0 => a = 1, 3
The homogeneous solution of (1) is given by
K K
Sh(K) = C , . 1 + C2 3 = C , + C 2 3 K . . . (2)
Let the particular solution of (1) is given by
Sp(K) = K(Ao + A, K + A2K2)
(We have multiplied by K since (2) contains the constant term)
3
=> Sp(K) = AoK + A , K2 + A2K
.. Sp(K - 1) = Ao (K - 1) + A , (K 1 ) 2 + A2 (K - 1) 3
_
Sp(K - 2) = Ao (K - 2) + A, (K - 2) 2 + A2 (K - 2) 3
Using all these in (1), we get
3 3
AoK + A, K2 + A2K - 4[Ao (K - 1) + A , (K - 1) 2 + A2 (K - 1) ]
+ 3[Ao (K - 2) + A, (K - 2) 2 + A2 (K - 2)3] = K2
=> Ao [K - 4(K - 1) + 3(K - 2)] + A, [K2 - 4K2 + SK - 4 + 3K2 - 12K + 12]
3 3 3
+ A2 [K - 4K + 12K2 - 12K + 4 + 3K - lSK2 + 36K - 24] = K2
- 2Ao + A, [- 4K + S] + A2 [- 6K2 + 24K - 20] = K2
Equating the coefficient of powers of K, we get

Coefficient of K2 , A2 = - -
1
6
Coefficient of K, - 4A, + 24A2 = 0
- 4A , - 4 = 0
A, = - 1

20
Coefficient of constant term, - 2Ao + SA , - 20A2 = 0 => - 2Ao - S + - = 0
6

2Ao = _ 4S + 20 2S
=> Ao = _ 14 = _ 7...
6 6 6 3

S p(K) = - 7... K - K2 - .!. K

3
3 6
Hence the general solution is given by

S(K) = Sh(K) + Sp(K) = C , + C2 . 3 K - -7 K - K2 - -

K3
3 6
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 205

I TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 7.2

L Solve the following recurrence relations

(,) 8(K) - 28(K - 1) = 3.2K
(ii) 8(K) + 58(K - 1) + 68(K - 2) = 3K' (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2007)
(iii) 8(K) - 28(K - 1) + 8(K - 2) = 2, 8(0) = 25, 8(1) = 16
(iv) 8(K) - 8(K - 1) - 68(K - 2) = - 30, 8(0) = 20, 8(1) = - 5
(v) 8(K) - 58(K - 1) = 5K, 8(0) = 3
(vi) 8(K) - 58(K - 1) + 6 8(K - 2) = 2, 8(0) = 1, 8(1) = - 1.
Solve the following recurrence r relations
2 2
2.
(i) ar 2 - 2ar 1 + ar :::: r . 2 (ii) a K 3 + aK 2 - aK 1 - 12aK :::: 2K + 5
8
+ +
n
(iii) an - 4an_1 :::: 7(5) , n 1
;::.:
+ +
n +

(iv) an -4an_1 :::: 7(4) , n ;::': 1

(P.T. U. B.Tech. May 2013)
Answers
(ii) 8(K) = Cj (- 2)K + C, (- 3)K + 2115 1 2
(i) 8(K) = Cj 2K + 3K 2K 88 +
24 K + '4 K
17
1.

(iii) 8(K) = K' - 10K + 25 (iv) 8(K) = 11( - 2)K + 4 . 3K + 5

(v) 8(K) = (3 + K)5K (vi) 8(K) = - 2 . 3K + 2 . 2K + 1.
2. (i) a, = Cj + C,r + 2'(r' - Pr + 20)

(ii) aK = C13K + (C2 + C3K) (- 2)K K92 + -

1 K- -
27
17
54
_ _

7.13. GENERATING FUNCTIONS OR NUMERIC FUNCTIONS

Let <Sn> be a sequence defined for n :> 0, then the infinite sum G(S, z) where
G(S, z) = So + SjZ + S2z2 + S3z3 + ......
�

= L S nzn , is called generating function or numeric function of the

n=O

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Consider a sequence <8n> defined by 8(n) = 2", n :> O. Obtain its generating
function. (P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2010)
Sol. By definition, the required generating function is given by
� � �

G(S, z) = L S(n) zn = L 2nzn = L (2z)n

n=O n=O n=O
2 3
= 1 + 2z + (2z) + (2z) + ......=

1 a
=
1 - 2z
S
Sum of infinite G.P. is . - -­
�
l-r '
where a= First term, r = common ratio
206 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 2. If S(n) = ban, n :> 0, obtain its generating function.
(P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2012)
Sol. By definition, the generating function is given by
� � �

z) = L S(n) zn = L ban. zn = b L (az)n

G(S,
n=O n=O n=O
2 3
= b (1 + az + (az) + (az) + ...... =)
1 b
-_ b . 1- az -_ 1- az ' S
DO
�_
a_
1-r

Example 3. If S(n) = n, n :> 0, obtain its generating function.

Sol. By definition, the generating function is given by
� �

G(S, z) = L S(n) zn = L nzn

n=O n=O
= 0 + 1.z + 2z + 3z3 + 4Z4 + ...... =
2
= z(l + 2z + 3z2 + 4z3 + ...... =) (1 - x)-2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + ...
= z . (1 - z)-2 =
z .
(1- Z)2
4. If S(n) = �, find its generating function.
Example
n!
Sol. By definition, the generating function is given by

z) = L L -
S(n) zn
zn = -
=
1 +- Z +-
Z2 + -
Z3 + ..... . =
n=O n ! O ! I! 2 ! 3 !
G(S,
n=O
Z2 Z3
= 1 + z + - + - + ...... = = e2 .
2! 3!
Example 5. Obtain partial fraction decompositions for the expression
G/'"S z) = 1 - 611z- 29z
+ 30z2 I.
and identi'
y the sequence having the expression asgeneratingfunction.

6 - 29z = 6 -"::":
29z
"':-
Sol. Consider G(S , z) = 2
l- 11z + 30z "'3"'0- z;;-'---'6z - 5-
2 z +""'l
=
6 - 29z 6 - 29z
= -c::-----:-c-c--,,-
6z(5z - 1) - (5z - 1) (6z - 1) (5z - 1)
_ 6:..:- 29:..:=Z _
=_ +
A __
B
Let -,-:- :-:-= ----:-:-
(6z - 1) (5z - 1) 6z - 1 5z - 1 ... (1)
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 207
Multiplying (1) by (6z - 1) (5z - 1), we get
6 - 29z = A(5z - 1) + B(6z - 1) ... (2)
Put 5z - 1 = 0 in (2), we get 6 - 2 = B : (� ) -1 => B = 1

Put 6z - 1 = 0 in (2), we get 6 - 2: (% )

=A -1 => A=- 7

1 , (6z -6 1)- 29z

From ( )
-7
(5z - 1) = --
+ 5z 1- 1 = --
6z - 1 --
7
1 - 6z
- --
1
1 - 5z
G(S, z) = 7.6n - 1.5n

= 7.6n - 5n
b
Then G(S, z) = --­
1 - az

7.14. GENERATING FUNCTIONS FOR SOME STANDARD SEQUENCES

Sequence Generating functions

Sen) G(S, z)

Sen) = an, n � 0 G(S, z) = --

1
1 - az

Sen) = n + 1, n � 0 G(S, z) =
1
(1 - z)
2

Sen) = (n + 1) bn , n � 0 G(S , z) =
(1 - bz)
1
2

Z
Sen) = n, n � O G(S, z) = 2
(1 - z)

Sen) = nan, n � 0 G(S, z) =

az
(1 - az)
2

1
Sen) = - ' n �
n .,
0 G(S, z) = e<

S(n) ::::
nCr. 0
:::; r :::; n G(S, z) = (1 + z)n
7.15. SOLUTION OF RECURRENCE RELATION BY THE METHOD OF GENERATING
FUNCTIONS
Recurrence relation can also be solved by using the generating functions. Let the recur­
rence relation is
+ 1 +
Sen) C , Sen - ) C 2 S(n - ) 2 + ...... +
C S(n - K) = fen), n :> K
zn
k
Multiplying both sides by and summing up from n = K to where K = order of the =,

given recurrence relation, we get

208 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

L S(n) zn + C, L zn + C2 L zn + ...
�

S(n - 1) S(n - 2)
n=K n=K n=K
zn = L f(n)zn
� �

+ CK L S(n - K)
n=K n=K
S(n)zn ,
�

Writing each term in the form L we will get the solution in terms of G(S, z).
n=O
Using the results of 7.13, we can find the required solution. The following examples illustrate
the concepts more clearly_

Example 6. Solve the recurrence relation S(K) - 3S(K - 1) - 2 = 0, K?- 1, where S(O) = 1,
by using generating functions.
Sol. Given equation is S(K) - 3S(K - 1) = 2 ... (1)
zK, we get
Multiplying (1) by
S(K) zK - 3S(K - 1) zK = 2zK
Summing up for all K ?- 1 , we get, (order = K - (K - 1) = 1)
� � �

L S(K) zK - 3 L S(K - 1) zK = 2 L zK ... (2)

K=l K=l K=l
zK = S(O) + S(l) z + S(2) z2 + ..... .
�

Consider G(S, z) = L S(K)

K=O
�

= S(O) + L S(K) zK
K=l
�

=> L S(K) zK = G(S, z) - S(O)

K=l
For the second term in (2), we have

L S(K - 1) zK = z L S(K - 1) zK-l = z L S(K) zK = zG(S, z)

K=l K=l K=O
I Changing K to K +1
For the third term in (2), we have

� 2 3 z
L... zK = z + z + z + ...... 00 = _
_

1-z
K=l
Using all these in (2), we get
2z
G(S, z) - S(O) - 3 zG(S, z) = 1-z
--
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 209

(1 - 3z) G(S, z) = -- 2z
1-z
+1 I S(O) =1

2z + 1- z z+l
= =
1-z 1-z
1+z
G(S , z) = ... (3)
( 1 - z ) (1 - 3z)

Consider
l+z
---'--- = -- +
(1 - z) (1 - 3z)
A
1-z
B
1 - 3z
-- ... (4)

Multiplying (4) by (1 - z) (1 - 3z), we get

1 + z = A(l - 3z) + B(l - z) ... (5)

Put 1 - 3z = O in (5), we get l+ i ( i)

= B l- => B=2

Put 1 - z = 0 in (5), we get 1 + 1 = A(l - 3) => A=-1

-1
From (3) and (4), we get G(S , z) = -- +
1- z
2
1 - 3z
--
Hence the required solution of the given recurrence relation is
S(K) = - (l)K + 2.3K, K :> O.

Example 7. Find the generating function from the recurrence relation given by
S(K) - 6S(K - 1) + 5S(K - 2) = 0 where S(O) = 1, S(1) = 2.
(P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2010)
Sol. Given recurrence relation is
S(K) - 6S(K - 1) + 5S(K - 2) = 0 ... (1)
Its order = K - (K - 2) = 2
Multiplying (1) both sides by zK and summing up from K = 2 to =, we get
� � �

L S(K) zK - 6 L S(K - 1) zK + 5 L S(K - 2) zK = 0

K=2 K=2 K=2
� �

Consider G(S, z) = L S(K) zK = S(O) + S(l) z + L S(K) zK

�o K =2
= 1 + 2z + L S(K) zK
K =2
�

L S(K) zK = G(S, z) - 1 - 2z

[� )
K =2

Also � S(K - l) ZK = Z � S(K - l) ZK-' = Z S(K) Z K I Changing K to K + 1

[ ) [� )
,

= z 8(0) + � S(K) Z K - 8(0» =z S(K) Z K - S(O»

= z(G(S, z) - 1) = zG(S, z) - z
210 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

� � �

Also L S(K - 2) zK = z2 L S(K - 2) zK-2 = z2 L S(K) zK I Changing K to K + 2

K=2 K=2 K=O
= z2 G(S, z)
Using all these in (2), we get
[G(S, z) - 1 - 2z] - 6 [z G(S, z) - z] + 5[z2 G(S, z)] = 0
=> (1 - 6z + 5z2) G(S, z) - 1 - 2z + 6z = 0
1 - 4z
G(S, z) = 2
1 - 6z + 5z
is the required generating function.
Example 8. Find the generating function from the recurrence relation
S(n - 2) = S(n - 1) + S(n) where S(O) = 1, S(1) = 1, n :> O.
(P.T.U. B.Tech. May 2012)
Sol. Given recurrence relation is
S(n) + S( n - 1) - S(n - 2) = 0
Its order = n - (n - 2) = 2 ... (1)
Multiplying (1) both sides by zn and summing up all the terms from n = 2 to =, we get
� � �

L S( n) zn + L S(n - 1) zn - L S(n - 2) zn = 0 ... (2)

n =2 n =2 n =2
� �

Consider G(S, z) = L S(n) zn = S(O) + S(l) z + L S(n) zn

n =O n =2
�

= 1 +z+ L S(n) zn
n =2
�

L S(n) zn = G(S, z) - 1 - z
n =2
� � �

Also L S ( n - 1 ) zn = Z L S ( n - 1 ) zn-1 = Z L S( n) zn I Changing n to n + 1

[ ]
n =2 n =2 n =l

= z S(O) + t, S(n ) z n - S(O)

=z [� ]
S(n) zn - S(O) = z[G(S, z) - 1] = zG(S, z) - z

Also L S(n - 2) zn = z2 L S ( n - 2) zn-2 = z2 L S( n) zn I Changing n to n + 2

n =2 n =2 n =O
= z2 G(S, z)
Using all these terms in (2) , we get
[G(S, z) - 1 - z] + [z(G(S, z) - 1)] - z2 G(S, z) = 0
=> ( 1 + z - z2) G(S, z) = 1 + z + z
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 21 1

2z + 1
G(S, z) = -'--=-::"":"0-
":
1 + z - z2 )
is the required generating function.
Example 9. Use generating functions to solve the recurrence relation.
ak = ak_1 + 2ak_2 + 2k where ao = 4, a 1 = 12. (P.T.U. B.Tech May 2010)
Sol. Given recurrence relation can be written as
ak - ak_ 1 - 2ak_2 = 2k . . . (1)
Multiplying both sides of (1) by zk and summing up from k = 2 to k = =
, we get

�
-� -2 � �
DO DO DO DO

k k k
L..J ak Z L..J ak-l Z L..J ak - 2 Z = L..J 2k Z
k
. . . (2)

Consider
k=2

G(S, z) = L
�
k=2

ak z
k
=
k=2

ao + a,z + L
� k=2

ak z
k
= 4 + 12z + L akz k
k=O k=2 k=2

k
L ak z = G(S, z) - 4 - 12z . . . (3)
k=2

(Changing k to k+ 1)

= Z [ aD +
k�
f ak z
k
- aD J [ f 4J
= Z
k=O
ak z
k
- = zG(S, z) - 4z

. . . (4)

Further (Changing k to k + 2)
. . . (5)

Also = 1 + 2z + L 2k Zk - 1 - 2z = 1 + 2z + L 2k Zk
k=2 k=O

3
= 1 + 2z + L (2z)' = 1 + 2z + (1 + 2z + (2z)2 + (2z) + . . . =
)
k=O

= 1 + 2z + --
1
1 - 2z . . . (6) Is� = __
1 -r
a

Using (3), (4), (5) and (6) in (2), we get

1
G(S, z) - 4 - 12z - (zG(S, z) - 4z) - 2(z2 G(S, z» = 1 + 2z + --
1 - 2z
1 1
(1 - z - 2z2) G(S, z) = 1 + 2z + -- + 4 + 12z - 4z = 5 + 10z + --
1 - 2z 1 - 2z
5(1 + 2z) (1 - 2z )
=> (2z - 1) (z + 1) G(S, z) =
(1 _ 2z )
212 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

,
G (S z) = -----
5(1 - 4z 2 ) + 1
-' --'----'----
-- = -,------,-:-
- --,-:--
6 - 20Z2
,-,- . . . (7)
(2z _ 1)2 (Z + 1) (z + 1) (2z - 1)
Consider

6 - 20Z 2 = A + B + C
-
(Z + -
- 2z'::'-
1)-'(:":
":' z-+-1 -
_ 1)72 - 2z- _ 1)72
--1 -(2-z-''- . . . (8)

Multiplying (8) by (z + 1) (2z - 1) 2 , we get

6 - 20z2 = A(2z - 1)2 + B(z + 1)(2z - 1) + c(z + 1) . . . (9)

Put z + 1 = 0 in (9), we get -14 = 9A => A = _

14
9

Put 2z - 1 = 0 in (9), we get =>

3
1 = "2 C => C = "3
2
Equating the coefficient of constant terms in (9), we get

6 = A - B + C = -- - B + -
14 2
9 3
14
B = -- + - - 6 =
2 -14 + 6 - 54 =
-62
9 3 9 9
From (7) G(S, z) = - 14 1 62 1 2
"9 ' Z + 1 - "9 ' 2z - 1 + "3 '
1
(2z _ 1)2
Hence) the required solution is

ak = - 149 ( _1)k + 62
9
2k + �3 . (k + 1) 2k

If G(S, z ) = -- 1 , then S(n) = an , n :> 0

1 - az
If G(S, z ) =
1 , then S(n ) = (n + l)bn , n :> 0
(1 -bz)2
Example 10. Find a closed form expression (generating function) for the terms of
Fibonacci sequence (P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2005)
Sol. Consider the Fibonacci sequence F(K), given by
F(K) = F(K - 1) + F(K - 2), K :> 2
where F(O) = 1 , F(l) = 1
Its order = K - (K - 2) = 2
Multiplying by zK and summing up all the terms from K = 2 to =, we get

L F(K) zK - L F(K - 1) zK - L F(K - 2) zK = 0 ... (1)

K=2 K=2 K=2
Consider G(F, Z) = L F(K) zK = F(O) + F(l) z + L F(K)zK
K=O K=2
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 213
�

=1 +z+ L F(K) ZK
K =2
�

L F(K) ZK = G(F, Z) - 1 - Z
K=2
�

Also L F(K - 1) zK = z L l
F(K - 1) zK- = z L F(K) zK I Changing K to K +1
K=2

[ ] {�;) ]
K =2 K =l

= Z F(O) + � F(K) Z K - F(O) = F(K) Z K - 1

= z (G(F, z) - 1) = zG(F, z) - z

� �

F(K- 2) zK = z2 L F(K - 2) zK-2 = z2 L F(K) zK I Changing K to K + 2.

K=2 K=O
2
= z G(F, z)
Using all these values in (1), we get
[G(F, z) - 1 - z] - [zG(F, z) - z] - z2 G(F, z) = 0
(1 - z - z2) G(F, z) - 1 - z z = 0 +
(1 - z - z2) G(F, z) = 1
1
G(F, z) =
1-z -z
2

is the required generating function (or closed form expression) for the Fibonacci sequence.

I TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 7.3

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

L Find the generating function for the sequence Sn :::: 21"1, n ;::': o.
2. If Sn :::: arl, n ;::': 0, then find the generating function G(S, z). (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2013)
3. Find the generating function for the sequence Sn :::: n, n o. ;::.:
4. Write the generating function for the sequence U(n) :::: 2.3/"1, n � o.
Write the generating function for the sequence V(n) :::: 5, n :::-: o.
What is the generating function for the sequence T(n) :::: 7(- l)nP ?
5.
6.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

7. If 8(n) is a sequence defined by 8(n) 2.3" + 5 + 7.(- 1)", find the generating function for 8(n).
Find the generating function for the sequence
=

(i) V(n) 2"+1 + 5"

8.
(ii) V(n) 2" [3 + 2(- 1)"] .
If 8(n) 28(n - 1) + 38(n - 2), n 2 where 8(0) 3, 8(1) l.
= =

9. <'
(a) Find the generating function
= = =

(b) Find the sequence which satisfies the given recurrence relation.
214 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
10. If Sen) + 3S(n - 1) - 4S(n -2) = 0, n 2 where S(O) = 3, S(l) = - 2,
;>
(a) Find the generating function
(b) Find the sequence which satisfies the given recurrence relation.
Determine partial fraction decomposition and identify the sequence having the expression as a
generating function for the following expressions
11.

(a) 1 +33z+ -7z4Z2 (b)

3 - 5z
(1 - 3z) (1 + z)
5 + 2z 1
1 - 4Z 2 1 - 5z + 6z 2
(e) (d) ,

Answers
G(S, z) = 1 -12z 2. G(S, z) = -- a 3. G(S, z) =
2
1-z (1 - Z 2 )
1.

4. G(U, z) = 1 _23z 5. G(V, z) = -- 5

1-z
7
6. G(T, z) = -­
l+z
7. G(S, z) = 1 -23z + 1 -5 z + 1 +7 z
8. (i) G(V, z) = 1 -22z + 1 -15z (ii) G(V, z) = 1 _32z + 1 +22z
9. (a) G(S, z) = 1 -32z-52
-3z2
n n
(b) Sen) = 3 + 2(- l) ,

(a) G(S, z) = -- 2 + -- 5 (b) Sen) = 2 + 5(- 4)n

1-z 1 + 4z
10.

(a) 2 + (-n 4)n n (b) 3n + 2(- l)n

(d) - 2, 2n + 3,3n
11.
(e) 3 , 2 + 2(- 2)

Hint
7. Sen) = U(n) + Yen) + T(n) where U(n) = 2,3n, Yen) = 5, T(n) = 7(- l)n,

I MULTI PLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs) I

1. T(n) = 2T(n - 1) + n for n ;> 2 and T(l) = 1 evaluates to
The recurrence
n 1
(a) 2 - n - 2
+ (b) 2n - n
n
(e) 2 + n (d) 2n + 1 - 2n - 2,
2. Suppose that a school principal decides to give a prize away each day, Suppose that
3 5
further the principal has different kinds of prizes worth " 1 each and different kinds
4.
of prizes worth � each. Find a recurrence relation for an
= the number of different way
to distribute prizes worth " n,
(a) an = 3an _1 + 5an _ 4 (b) an = an _ 1 + an _ 4
(e) an = 2an _ 1 + 4an _ 4 (d) None of these,
3. Consider a lxn chessboard. Suppose we can colour each square of the chessboard either
red or white, Let an = the number of ways to colouring the chessboard in which no 2 red
squares are adjacent. Find a recurrence relation that an satisfies.
(a) an = an + an _1 (b) an = an_1 + an _ 2
(e) an = an _ 1 + an _ 2 (d) None of these,
RECURRENCE RELATIONS AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS 215

4. Find a recurrence relation for the number of ways to arrange flags on a flag pole n feet
tall using 4 types of flags ; red flags 2 feet high, or white blue, and yellow flags each 1
foot high.
(a) an = 2an + 3an _2 (b)
an = an _ 1 + an _ 2
(c) an = 3an _ 1 + an _ 2 (d) None of these.
5. Find a recurrence relation for the number of n-digit ternary sequences that have an
even number of 0's
(a) an = an _ 1 + 3n - 1 (b)
an = an _ 1 + 3n
( ) an = an + 3
c n (d) None of these.
6. Suppose a coin is flipped until 2 heads appear and then the experiment stops. Find a
recurrence relation for the number of experiments that end on the nth flip or sooner.
(a) an = an _ 1 + 2(n - 1) (b)
an = an _ 1 + (n - 1)
( ) an = an 1 + n
c (d) None of these.
-
7. The number of bacteria in a colony doubles every hour. If a colony begins with 5 bacteria,
how many bacteria will be there after 3 hours, 6 hours? 1900 hours? after n hours? Find
a recurrence relation to represent the same.
(a) an = an _ l + an _ 2 (b)
an = 3an _ l + 2an _ 2
( ) an = 2an _ 1
c (d) an = an _ 1 + 5.
8. Suppose that a person deposits '< 10,000 in a saving account at a bank yielding 1 1 % per
year with interest compounded annually_ How much amount will person have in the
account after n years?
(a) an = 1 . 1 1 an _ 1 (b)
an = 0 . 1 1 an _ 1
(c) an = 1.10 an _ 1 (d) an = 1 1 . 1 an _ I '
9. Which of the following represent the sequence 1 , 2, 5, 1 1 , 26, ...
(a) tn = tn _ 1 + tn _ 2 , to = 1, t 1 = 2 (b)
tn = tn _ l + 3tn _ 2 ' to = 1, t, = 2
( ) tn = 2tn - 1 + 1 , to = 1 , t , = 2
c (d) tn = 2 tn 1 + 2, to = 1, t, = 2.
-
10. There are n guests in a hall. Each person shakes hand with every body else exactly
once. Let Hn = No. of handshakes that occur. The recurrence relation is
(a) Hn = Hn _ 1 + n (b) Hn = Hn 1 + (n - 1)
-
( ) Hn = Hn 1 + n - 2
c (d) None.
-
Answers and Explanations
1. (d).
2. (a) Here an = number of different ways of distributing prizes worth '< n.
an _ 1 = number of different ways of destributing prizes worth '< 1 each.
an _ 4 = number of different ways of distributing prizes worth '< 4 each.
Required recurrence relation is an = 3an _ 1 + 5 an - 4'
3. (b).
4. (c) Let an = number of ways of arrange flags on a flag pole n feet tall.
If red flags are used, then they are to be arranged on a flag pole 2 feet high
. . number of ways to arrange such flags = an _ 2 (As we need only 1 flag)
If white, blue or yellow flags are used, then they can be arranged on a flag pole 1 feet high.
Number of ways of arrange such flags = 3an _ 1 (As we need 3 different flags)
The required recurrence relation is an = 3an 1 + an _ 2 '
-
216 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
5. (a).
6. (b).
7. (c) Initial number of bacteria = aD = 5
At the end of 1 hour, the number of bacteria doubles Le., a, = 10 = 2 x 5 = 2ao
At the end of 2 hours, 2 a = 20 = 2 x 10 = 2a,
At the end of 3 hours, a3 = 40 = 2 x 20 = 2a2
At the end of n hours, = an 2an
I' _

8. (a) D
Initial amount A = '< 10,000.
Now, amount after n years = Amount after (n - 1) years + Interest earned in nth year

or An = An -1 + (11 %) An _ 1 = An _ 1
( 1+
11
100
) =
111
100
An - 1 = 1.11 An - 1 '

9. (b) Given sequence 1 , 2, 5, 1 1 , 26 represents

to = 1 , t, = 2, t2 = 5, t3 = 1 1 , t4 = 26
Now, t2 = 5 = 2 + 3 = t , + 3to
t3 = 1 1 = 5 + 3 x 2 = t2 + 3t ,
t4 = 26 = 1 1 + 3 x 5 = t3 + 3t2

tn = tn 1 + 3tn 2 '
_ _

10. (b)Here H n denotes the number of handshakes that occur. Then H, = O. For n :> 2,
Consider one of the guests, say, Mr. X . , By definition, the number of handshakes made
by remaining (n - 1) guests among themselves is Hn l' Now, the guest Mr. X will _

shake· hands with (n - 1) guests, gives (n - 1) additional handshakes.

Hence
Hn = Hn -1 + (n - 1), n :> 2, H, = O.
 8 MONOIDS AN D GROUPS

8.1 . INTRODUCTION
In the present chapter) we introduce the concept of algebraic system) binary operations
and groups. The study of cyclic groups) normal groups) group homomorphism etc. help us in
understanding various applications of computer science. Groups play an important role in
coding theory.

8.2. ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURE

If there exists a system such that it consists of a non-empty set and one or more opera­
tions on that set, then that system is called an algebraic system. It is generally denoted by
(A) oP p oP2 ) ... ) oP n») where A is a non-empty set and oP p oP2 ) ... ) 0Pn are operations on A.
An algebraic system is also called an algebraic structure because the operations on
the set A define a structure on the elements of A.

8.3. BINARY OPERATION

Consider a non-empty set A and a function f such that f : A x A --; A, then f is called a
binary operation on A whose domain is the set of ordered pairs of elements of A. If * is a binary
operation on A) then it may be written as a * b.
A binary operation can be denoted by any of the symbols +) -) *) 8\ A) 0) v) /\ etc.
The value of the binary operation is denoted by placing the operator between the two
operands.
e.g., (i) The operation of addition is a binary operation on the set of natural numbers.
(ii) The operation of subtraction is a binary operation on set of integers. But) the operation
of subtraction is not a binary operation on the set of natural numbers because the subtraction
of two natural numbers may or may not be a natural number.
(iii) The operation of multiplication is a binary operation on the set of natural numbers)
set of integers and set of complex numbers.
(iv) The operation of set union is a binary operation on the set of subsets of a universal
set. Similarly) the operation of set intersection is a binary operation on the set of subsets of a
universal set.

217
218 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

8.4. TABLES OF OPERATION

Consider a non-empty finite set A = {ap a2 ) a3 ) ... , an}' A binary operation * on A can be
described by means of table as shown below:

* a1 a2 a3 an

a1 a1 *a1 a1 * a2
a2 a2*a1 a2* a2
a3 as * as

an a *a
n n

The empty cell in the ph row and kth column represent the element a; *ak •

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Consider the set A = {I, 2, 3} and a binary operation * on the set A defined by
a * b = 2a + 2b. Represent operation * as a table on A.
Sol. The table of operation is shown below: (Table S.I)
Table 8. 1

* 1 2 3
1 4 6 8
2 6 8 10
3 8 10 12
8.5. PROPERTIES OF BINARY OPERATIONS
There are many properties of the binary operations which are as follows :
1. Closure Property. Consider a non·empty set A and a binary operation * on A. Then
A is closed under the operation *, if a * b E A, where a and b are elements of A.
For example, the operation of addition on the set of integers is a closed operation. i.e., if
a, b E Z , then a + b E Z \;j a, b E Z.
Example 2. Consider the set A = {- i, D, I}. Determine whether A is closed under
(i) addition (ii) multiplication.
Sol. (i) The sum of the elements is (- 1) + (- 1) = - 2 and 1 + 1 = 2 does not belong to A.
Hence A is not closed under addition.
(ii) The multiplication of every two elements of the set are
-1 *0=0; -1*1 = -1; -1*-1=1
0*-1=0; 0*1 = 0;
1 *- 1 = - 1 ; 1 *0 = 0;
Since, each multiplication belongs to A hence A is closed under multiplication.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 219

Example 3. Consider the set A = {I, 3, 5, 7, 9, .. .}, the set of odd +ve integers. Determine
whether A is closed under (i) addition (ii) multiplication.
Sol. (i) The set A is not closed under addition because the addition of two odd numbers
produces an even number which does not belong to A.
(ii) The set A is closed under the operation multiplication because the multiplication of
two odd numbers produces an odd number. So) for every a, b E A, we have a * b E A.
2. Associative Property. Consider a non·empty set A and a binary operation * on A.
Then the operation * on A is associative, if for every a, b, c, E A, we have (a * b) * c = a * (b * c).

Example 4. (a) Consider the binary operation * on Q, the set of rational numbers,
defined by
a * b = a + b - ab \;j a, b E Q.
Determine whether * is associative.
(b) Consider the binary operation * on the set N ofpositive integers defined by
a * b = ab
Determine whether * is associative?
Sol. (a) Let us assume some elements a, b, C E Q, then by definition
(a * b) * c = (a + b - ab) * c = (a + b - ab) + c - (a + b - ab)c
= a + b - ab + c - ca - be + abc = a + b + c - ab - ac - be + abc.
Similarly, we have
a * (b * c) = a + b + c - ab - ac - be + abc
Therefore, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c).
Hence * is associative.
(b) * will be associative if
a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c \;j a, b, c E N
Take a = 2, b = 2, c = 3 and consider
a * (b * c) = 2 * (2 * 3) = 2 * 2 3 = 2 * 8 = 28 = 256
and (a * b) * c = (2 * 2) * 3 = 2 2 * 3 = 4 * 3 = 43 = 64
Hence a * (b * c) '" (a * b) * c
* is non-associative.
3. Commutative Property. Consider a non·empty set A and a binary operation * on A.
Then the operation * on A is commutative, if for every a, b E A, we have a * b = b * a.

Example 5. (a) Consider the binary operation * on Q, the set ofrational numbers, defined
by
a * b = a2 + b2 \;j a, b E Q.
Determine whether * is commutative.
(b) Consider S = {a, b, c, d} and be a binary operation on S defined by as shown in the
*

following table.
220 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Table 8.2
* a b c d
a a b c d
b b a a b
c c b a a
d d a a a
Determine (i) whether * is associative ?
(ii) whether * is commutative?
Sol. (a) Let us assume some elements a, b E Q, then by definition
a * b = a2 + b2 = b 2 + a2 = b * a
Hence * is commutative.
(b) (i) Let a, b, e E S and consider
b * (e * c) = b * a = b
and (b * c) * e = a * e = e
b * (e * c) '" (b * c) * e
Thus) * is non-associative
(ii) b * e = a and e * b = b
::::::} b * c * c * b
* is non-commutative
Example 6. Consider the binary operation * and Q, the set of rational numbers defined by
ab
a * b = - \;j a, b E Q.
2
Determine whether * is (i) associative (ii) commutative.
Sol. (i) Let a, b E Q, then we have
ab ba
a*b=-=-=b*a
2 2
Hence * is commutative.
(ii) Let a, b, C E Q, then by definition we have
ab
( ) ab
(a * b) * e = '2 * e = -
-2-
2
' e abc
=4
abc
Similarly, () be
a * (b * c) = a * '2 = -- = 4
2
2
abc

Therefore) a * (b * c) = a * (b * c)
Hence) * is associative.
4. Identity. Consider a non· empty set A and a binary operation * on A. Then the opera·
tion * has an identity property if there exists an element, e, in A such that
a * e (right identity) = e * a(left identity) = a \;j a E A.
' '
Theorem I. Prove that e/ = e where e/ is a right identity and e is a left identity ofa
/ /

binary operation.
Proof. We know that e/, is a right identity.
. .. (1)
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 221
Also, we know that et is a left identity.
Hence, el l! * e/ = e/ . .. (2)
From (1) and (2), we have e/ = e/,.
Thus, we can say that if e is a right identity of a binary operation, then e is also a left
identity.

Example 7. Consider the binary operation * on 1+, the set ofpositive integers defined by
ab
a * b = 2' Determine the identity for the binary operation *, if exists.
Sol. Let us assume that e be a +ve integer number, then
e * a = a, a E 1+
ea
- = a => e = 2 ... (1)
2
Similarly,
ae
-=a or e=2 ... (2)
2
Form (1) and (2) for e = 2, we have e * a = a * e = a
Therefore,2 is the identity element for *.
5. Inverse. Consider a non-empty set A and a binary operation * on A. Then operation
* has the inverse property if for each a E A, there exists an element b in A such that
a * b (right inverse) = b * a (left inverse) = e, where b is called an inverse of a.
6. Idempotent. Consider a non· empty set A and a binary operation * on A. Then the
operation * has the idempotent property, if for each a E A, we have
a * a = a V a E A.
7. Distributivity. Consider a non·empty set A and two binary operations * and + on A.
Then the operation * distributes over +, if for every a, b, C E A, we have
a * (b + c) = (a * b) + (a * c) [Left distributivity]
and (b + c) * a = (b * a) + (c * a) [Right distributivity]
8. Cancellation. Consider a non·empty set A and a binary operation * on A. Then the
operation * has the cancellation property, if for every a, b, C E A, we have
a * b = a * c => b = c [Left cancellation]
and [Right cancellation]

8.6. SEMI-GROUP (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2009, May 2008)

Let us consider, an algebraic system (A, *) , where * is a binary operation on A. Then,
the system (A, *) is said to be a semi· group if it satisfies the following properties :
1. The operation * is a closed operation on set A.
2. The operation * is an associative operation.
Example 8. Consider an algebraic system (A, *), where A = {I, 3, 5, 7, 9, ...}, the set ofall
*
positive odd integers and is a binary operation means multiplication. Determine whether
(A, *) is a semi-group.
222 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. Closure property. The operation * is a closed operation because multiplication of
two +ve odd integers is a +ve odd number.
Associative property. The operation * is an associative operation on set A. Since for
every a,b, C E A, we have
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
Hence, the algebraic system (A, *) is a semi-group.

Example 9. Consider the algebraic system ({D, i), *), where * is a multiplication opera­
tion. Determine whether ({D, i), *) is a semi-group.
Sol. Closure property. The operation * is a closed operation on the given set since
0 * 0 = 0 ; 0 * 1 = 0 ; 1 * 0 = 0 ; 1 * 1 = 1.
Associative property. The operation * is associative since we have
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c) \;j a, b, c
Since, the algebraic system is closed and associative. Hence, it is a semi-group.
Example 10. Let S be a semi-group with an identity element e and if b and b' are inverses
of an element a E S, then b = b' i.e., inverse are unique, if they exist.
Sol. Given b is an inverse of a, therefore, we have
a*b=e=b*a
Also, b' is an inverse of a, therefore, we have
a * b' = e = b' * a
Consider b * (a * bi = b * e = b ... (1)
and (b * a) * b' = e * b' = b' ... (2)
Now, S is a semi-group, associativity holds in S i.e., b * (a * bi = (b * a) * b'
e=} b = b'. I Using (1) and (2)
Example 11. Let N be the set of positive integers and let * be the binary operation of
least common multiple (L. c.lYI) on N. Find
(a) 4 * 6, 3 * 5, 9 * i8, i * 6
(b) Is (N, *) a semi-group
(c) Is N commutative
(d) Find the identity element ofN
(e) Which elements of N have inverses ?
Sol. (a) Let x, Y E N and x * y = L.C.M. of x and y
.. 4 * 6 = L.C.M. of 4 and 6 = 12
3 * 5 = L.C.M. of 3 and 5 = 15
9 * 18 = L.C.M. of 9 and 18 = 18
1 * 6 = L.C.M. of 1 and 6 = 6
(b) We know that the operation of L.C.M. is associative, i.e.,
a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c \;j a, b, c E N
. . N is a semi-group under *.
(c) Also for a, b E N,
a * b = L.C.M. of a and b = L.C.M. of b and a = b * a
N is commutative also.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 223
(d) For a E N, consider a * 1 = L.C.M. of a and 1 = a
1 * a = L.C.M. of 1 and a = a
.. a*l=a=l*a
i.e., 1 is the identity element of N.
(e) Consider a * b = 1 i.e., L.C.M. of a and b is 1, which is possible iff a = 1 and b = 1.
i.e.) the only element which has an inverse is 1 and it is its own inverse.
Example 12. Consider the set Q of rational numbers and let * be the operation on Q
defined by a * b = a + b - ab
1
(a) Find 3 * 4, 2 * (- 5), 7 * '2
(b) Is (Q, *) a semi-group ?
(c) Is Q commutative ?
(d) Find the identity element of Q.
(e) Which elements of Q have inverses and what are they ?
Sol. Given a * b = a + b - ab for a, b E Q
(a) 3 * 4 = 3 + 4 - 12 = - 5
2 * (- 5) = 2 + (- 5) - (- 10) = 2 - 5 + 10 = 7
1 1 7
7 * - = 7 + - - - = 4.
2 2 2
(b) Q will be a semi-group if it holds associativity under * for a, b, C E Q.
Consider a * (b * c) = a * (b + c - be)
= a + (b + c - be) - a(b + c - be)
= a + b + c - be - ab - ac + abc ... (1)
(a * b) * c = (a + b - ab) * c
= a + b - ab + c - (a + b - ab) c
= a + b + c - ab - ac - be + abc
= a + b + c - be - ab - ac + abc ... (2)
From (1) and (2),
a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c
Hence) (Q) *) is a semi-group.
(c) For a, b E Q
Consider
a * b = a + b - ab = b + a - ba = b * a
. . Q is commutative.
(d) Let e is the identity element of Q, therefore, for a E Q, we have

a + e - ae = a
e - ea = 0
e(l - a) = 0
e = O if a i" l
The identity of Q is O.
224 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(e) If x is the inverse of a E Q, then a * x = 0 (identity)
a + x - ax = O
a + x(l - a) = 0
a = x(a - 1)
a
x= -- ) a :t 1
a-1
Thus a has an inverse _
a
_
.

a-1
Example 13. Consider a non-empty set S with the operation a * b =a
(a) Is the operation associative ?
(b) Is the operation commutative ?
(c) Show that the right cancellation law holds.
(d) Does the left cancellation law hold ?
Sol. (a) For a, b, c E S,
Consider
a * (b * c) = a * b = a
and (a * b) * c = c * a = a
* is associative.
(b) For a '" b E S,
Consider
a * b = a and b * a = b
a * b ", b * a
* is not commutative.
(c) For a, b, C E Q,
Consider
a*c=b*c
a=b I Using given a *b=a
Right cancellation laws hold.
(d) The left cancellation law does not hold. For example, suppose b '" c, then
a*b=a*c
=> b = c) a contradiction
Hence) the result.

Example 14. Let (A, *) be semi-group. Show that for a, b, c in A, if a * c = c * a and

b * c = c * b, then (a * b) * c = c * (a * b).
Sol. Take L.R.S., we have
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c) [": * is associative]
= a * (c * b) [ .: b * c = c * b]
= (a * c) * b [": * is associative]
= (c * a) * b [ .: a * c = c * a]
= c * (a * b) [": * is associative]
(a * b) * c = c * (a * b).
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 225

8.7. SUBSEMI-GROUP

Let A be a non· empty subset of a semi group S. Then A is called a subsemigroup of S if

A is itself a semigroup with respect of the same operation on S. Since the elements of A are
also elements of S, the associative law automatically holds for the elements of A. Therefore, A
is a subsemigroup of S iff A closed under the operation of S.

Example 15. Let A and B are the sets of even and odd positive intergers. Then (A, x)
and (E, x) are subsemigroups of(N, +). Is (A, +) subsemigroup of(N, +) ? Is (E, +) subsemigroup
of (N, +) ?
Sol. Given A = {set of even positive integers}
B = {set of odd positive integers}
Also N is a semigroup under addtion and multiplication. Let m, n E A
::::::} m x n E A i.e.) A is closed under multiplication. Therefore) A is a subsemigroup of N
under multiplication.
Similarly) B is also closed under multiplication. Therefore) B is also a subsemigroup of
N under multiplication.
Further) sum of two even positive integers is also a positive even integer. Therefore, A
is also closed under addition. Hence A is a subsemigroup of (N, +).
But sum of two positive odd integers is not always an odd integer (e.g., 5 + 3 = 8 (even»
B is not closed under +. Hence B is not a subsemigroup of (N, +).
For example, Consider a semi-group (N, +), where N is the set of all natural numbers
and + is an addition operation. The algebraic system (E, +) is a subsemi-group of (N, +), where
E is a set of all even natural number.

8.8. FREE SEMI-GROUP

Consider a non-empty set A. A word w on A is a finite sequence of its elements.
For example, if we take A = {a, b, c}.
Then, the elements abcabca, aabbcc, baccaaaa, etc. are words on A.
Also, the length of a word w, denoted by l(w), is the number of elements in w.
Consider the following words
u 1 = abcabca, u2 = aabbcc, u3 = baccaaaa
Here l(u,) = the length of the word u ,
= number of elements in u 1
=7
Similarly, l(u) = 6, l(u) = 8
We now define concatenation of two or more words on the set A. By concatenation of
words u 1 and u2 ) written as u 1 * u2 or u 1 u2 ) we mean the word obtained by writing down the
elements of u , followed by the elements of u2 • Thus,
u , * u2 = u,u2 = (abcabca) (aabbcc)
= abcabca3 b 2c2
226 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Here
l(u , U) = length of the word u , u2
= number of elements in the word u 1 u2
= 13
Also, l(u ,) = 7 and l(u) = 6
=> l(u,) + l(u) = 7 + 6 = 13
Thus, l(u , u) = l(u,) + l(u)
Let F denotes the collection of all words on a given set A under the operation of concat­
enation. Then) for up u2 E F, we have proved that u 1 U2 E F.
Also, for up u2' u3 E F, the number of elements in the words u,(U2 uj and (u , u) u3 will
be same. Hence, we can say that F is a semigroup under the operation of concatenation and
this semigroup is called free semigroup on A and the elements of A are called generators of F.

8.9. CONGRUENT RELATIONS AND QUOTIENT STRUCTURES

Suppose R is an equivalence relation on a given set S and let a E S. Then,
[a] = Equivalence class of a in S
= {x E S: (a, x) E R}
Thus, [a] denotes the set of all elements of S to which a is related under R. Further, the
collection of all equivalence classes of elements of S under an equivalence relation R is de­
noted by SIR. Thus,
SIR = ([a] : a E S)
where SIR (read as the quotient space of S by R) is called the quotient set.
Further, suppose that the equivalence relation R on S has the following property:
If aRa', bRb' => abRa'b' \;j a, b E S
Then R is called a congruence relation on S.
We now show that SIR forms a semigroup under the operation * on the equivalence
classes, defined by
[a] * [b] = [a * b] or [a] [b] = lab]
Since SIR is closed under the operation * on the equivalence classes (by definition), it
remains to show SIR is associative
Consider ([a] * [b]) * [c] = [a * b] x [c]
= [a * b * c]
Also [a] * ([b] * [c]) = [a] * [b * c]
= [a * b * c]
Thus, [a] * ([b] * [c]) = ([a] * [b]) * [c]
Hence, associativity holds in SIR.
Thus, SIR forms a semigroup under the operation * on the equivalence classes.
This, semi-group SIR is called quotient of S by R.
Example 16. Let F be a free semi-group on a set A and R be an equivalence relation on
F defined by "uRu' if l(u) = l(u )"
Show that R is a congruence relation on F.
Sol. Let uRu', vRv'. then
l(u) = l(u') = m, say and l(v) = l(v') = n, say
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 227
Consider l(uv) = l(u) + l(v) = m + n
and l(u'v') = l(u') + l(v') = m + n => uvRu'v'
Thus R is a congruence relation of F.
Example 17. Let Z be the set of integers and m > 1 be any positive integer. Consider a
relation "congruence modulo m" defined by
a = b (mod m) if ml a - b V a, b E Z (read as "a is congruent to b modulo m if m divides
(a - b)').
'=:0'
Show that is a congruence relation on Z.
Sol. We first show that "congruence modulo m" is an equivalence relation on Z.
We know that for any integer a E Z , the difference a - a = 0 is divisible by m where m > 1
is any positive integer.
Hence a == a(mod m») which proves that '-=-' is reflexive
Also, if a = b (mod m), then m/(a - b) V a, b E Z
=> ml-(a - b) = b - a => m/(b - a)
=> b = a(mod m)
which proves that '-=-' is symmetric.
Further, if a = b (mod m), b = c (mod m),
we show a = c (mod m) V a, b, c E Z
Now a = b (mod m) => m/(a - b) V, a, b E Z
b oo c (mod m) => m/(b - c) V, b, c E Z
which further implies that m/(a - b) + (b - c) = a - c
=> m/(a - c) => a = c(mod m)
Hence the relation '=' is an equivalence relation on Z.
Finally, we show that the equivalence relation '=' is a congruence relation on Z.
Consider a = c (mod m) and b = d(mod m), we show ab = cd (mod m).
Now a = c (mod m) => m/(a - c) => mlb(a - c)
Also, b oo d (mod m) => m/(b - d) => mlc(b - d) V a, b, c E Z
Hence mlb(a - c) and mlc(b - d) V a, b, c, d E Z
=> mlb(a - c) + c(b - d) = ba - bc + cb - cd
mlba - cd = ab - cd => mlab - cd
ab = cd (mod m). Hence the result.

Example 18. Let (J, +) be a semi-group and R is an equivalence relation on J defined by

aRb iff a = b (MOD 3).
Sol. If a and b yield the same remainder when divided by 3, then we have 3 divides
a - b i.e., 31a - b.
Now, if a = b (MOD 3) and c = d (MOD 3), then 3 divides a - b and 3 divides c - d.
Thus, we can write a - b = 3m ... (1)
and c - d = 3n ... (2)
I al b => b = at for some t
Here m and n are some integers of I.
Adding (1) and (2), we have
(a - b) + (c - d) = 3m + 3n or (a + c) - (b + d) = 3(m + n)
=> 3 divides (a + c) - (b + d)
228 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

or a + c = (b + d) (MOD 3)
Thus) the relation is a congruence relation.

Example 19. Consider the set A = {a, b}. Let (A*, -) is the semi-group generated by A, also
let R is a relation on A defined by aR� iff a and � have the same number of a's.
Show whether the relation R is a congruence on (A*, .).
Sol. First of all we will show that R is an equivalence relation. So, for that we will check
reflexive) symmetric and transitive properties of the relation R.
Reflexive. aRa for any a E A* since a has same number of a's as itself. Thus, R is
reflexive.
Symmetric. If a and � have same number of a's, then aR� or we can say �Ra. Thus, R
is symmetric.
Transitive. If aR�, it means a and � have same number of a's. If �Ry, it means � and y
have same number of a's. It implies a and y have same number of a's i.e., aRy. Thus, R is
transitive.
Hence, R is an equivalence relation.
To show that R is a congruence relation, let us assume that aRa, and �R�" It means a
and a, have same number of a's and � and �, have same number of a's. We know that the
number of a's in a . � is the sum of number of a's in a and the number of a's in �.
From the above discussion, we can say that the number of a's in a .� is same as in aI" � '
l
Hence (a . �) R (a, . �,) which shows that R is a congruence relation.
Example 20. Consider the semi-group (I, +), where + is an addition operation. Let
f(x) = x2 - 2x- 3 and also let R is a relation on I defined by aRb ifff(a) = f(b). Show whether R
is a congruence relation.
Sol. We first show that the relation R is an equivalence relation on the set 1.
(i) f(a) = f(a) => aRa i.e., R is symmetric
(ii) aRb => f(a) = f(b) => f(b) = f(a) i.e., bRa. Hence R is symmetric
(iii) If aRb, bRc, thenf(b) = f(b) andf(b) = f(c) => f(a) = f(c) => aRc i.e., R is transitive
To check whether R is congruence relation or not, we will try to find two pair of num­
bers aRb and cRd but (a + b) R (c + d), if possible. Then we will say R is not a congruence
relation.
Thus, we have
2RO Le., f(2) = f(O) = - 3
and - 2R4 i.e., f(- 2) = f(4) = 5
But (2 + (- 2» R (0 + 4) Le., 0 R 4
As f(O) = - 3 and f(4) = 5
Hence, R is not a congruence relation.
Example 21. Let (S,*) be a commutative semi-group. Show that ifx * x = x and y * y = y,
then (x * y) * (x * y) = x * y.
Sol. Take L.H.S. (x * y) * (x * y)
= (x * y) * (y * x) (8, *) is a commutative semi-group]
=x*y*y *x=x*y *x [ .; y * y = y]
=x*x*y .
[ ; Commutative semi-group]
=x*y [ .; x * x = x]
= (x * y) * (x * y) = x * y.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 229
Example 22. Let ({x, y), .) be a semi-group where x . x = y show that
(i) x . y = y . x (ii) y . y = y.
Sol. (i) To show that x . y = y. x
We have X . X . X = X . X . x ::::::} x . y = y . x [ .: x . x = y]
Hence proved.
(ii) To show that y . y =y
We know that the set (x, y) is closed under the operation. Therefore, we have two cases
x. y = x) x . y = y
Case. I Let x.y=x
Consider y . y = y . (x . x) = (y . x) . x [ ": . is associative]
= (x . y) . x [ .: x . y = y . x]
=x.X [ .: x . y = x]
=y
Case. II Let x.y=y
Consider y . y = (x . x) . y [ .: x . x = y]
= x . (x . y) [ ": . is associative]
=x.y [ .: x . y = y]
=y
Hence proved.

Example 23. Let (A, *) be a semi-group. Further more, for every a and b in A, if a # b
then a * b # b * a.
(a) Show that for every a in A, a * a = a
(b) Show that for every a, b in A, a * b * a = a
(c) Show that for every a, b, c in A, a * b * c = a * c.
Sol. (a) We know that A is a semi-group.
.. (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
Now putting b = a and c = a) we have
(a * a) * a = a * (a * a)
Since A is not commutative semi-group. i.e.) a * b t:- b * a)
H�� a*a=a ... (1)
(b) Let us assume that b E A, then we have
b*b=b
Multiplying both sides by a, we get
a * b * b = a * b or (a * b) * b = a * b [ ": * is associative]
Hence) a*b=a ... (2)
So, a * b * a = (a * b) * a * is associative]
=a*a a * b = a from (2)]
=a a * a = a from (1)]
(c) We know that a * b * c = (a * b) * c [ ": * is associative]
=a*c [ .: a * b = a from (2)]
230 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

8.10. HOMOMORPHISM OF SEMI-GROUPS

Let (8. *) and (8'. *') be any two semi·groups. Then. a function ffrom 8 to 8' is called a
semi-group homomorphism (or a homomorphism) if
f(a * b) = f(a) *' f(b) \j a. b E 8
In addition) if f is one-one and onto) then f is called an isomorphism of S and 8' and we
write S == 8'. Also) S and 8' are said to isomorphic subgroups.
Example 24. Consider G = {I, 3, 7, 9} under multiplication modulo iO and r- Z4 --; G be
a function defined by
f(O) = i, f(1) = 3, f(2) = 9, f(3) = 7
Show that f is a semi-group homomorphism. Also prove that Z4 G. '"

Sol. By definition
Z4 = (O. 1. 2. 3. +4)
G = {I . 3. 7. 9. x l O}
We first show that (Z4 ' +4) and (G. x lO) are both semi-groups under the addition modulo
4 and multiplication modulo 10 respectively.
The addition modulo table (Table 2a) for Z4 and the multiplication modulo table (Table 2b)
for G are shown below.
Table 2
+4 0 1 2 3 X ,O 1 3 7 9
0 0 1 2 3 1 1 3 7 9
1 1 2 3 0 3 3 9 1 7
2 2 3 0 1 7 7 1 9 3
3 3 0 1 2 9 9 7 3 1
(a) (b)
From Table 2a. we observe that each element in the interior of the table is also on
element of Z4' It means Z4 is closed under +4"
Also) for a, b, C E Z4) we know
a +4(b +4 c) = (a +4 b) +4 c is true
i.e., associativity holds in Z4'
Hence) (Z4 ) +4) is a semi-group
Similarly) we can prove that (G) x l O) is a semigroup.
To show f is a semi-group homomorphism. We need to show
f(a +4 b) = f(a) x , O f(b) \j a. b E Z4
We first find (a +4 b)
Now) the only elements in Z4 are 0) 1) 2 or 3. Therefore) the value of a +4 b can be either
o or 1 or 2 or 3 (since Z4 is closed under +4)' Consider the following possibilities:
(1) If the value of a +4 b is 0
(2) If the value of a +4 b is 1
(3) If the value of a +4 b is 2
(4) If the value of a +4 b is 3
We discuss the case (1) when the value of a +4 b is O.
From Table 2. we observe that a and b can take the following possible values.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 231

b = 0 so that a +4 b = 0 => [(a +4 b) = [(0) = 1

(i) a = 0,
(ii) a = 1,
b = 3 so that a +4 b = 1 + 3 = 4 = 0 => [(a +4 b) = [(0) = 1
(iii) a = 2,
b = 2 so that a +4 b = 2 + 2 = 4 = 0 => [(a +4 b) = [(0) = 1
(iv) a = 3,
b = 1 so that a +4 b = 3 + 1 = 4 = 0 => [(a +4 b) = [(0) = 1
We summarise the above obtained values in the following Table 3.

Table 3. Calculation off(a +4 b)

a b a +4 b f(a +4 b)

0 0 0 1
1 3 0 1
2 2 0 1
3 1 0 1
Similarly, the various values of [(a) x lO [(b) are calculated in Table 4.
Table 4. Calculation of [(a) x,O [(b)
a b f(a) f(b) f(a) xlO f(b)

0 0 1 1 l X10 1 :::: 1
1 3 3 7 3 x,O 7 21 1
= =

2 2 9 9 9 x,O 9 81 1
= =

3 1 7 3 7 x,O 3 21 1
= =

On comparing Table 3 and Table 4, we observe that the last column of these two tables
are identitcaL It means
[(a +4 b) = [(a) x,O [(b) \;j a, b E Z4
Hence, fis a semi-group homomrphism
To show fis 1-1 and onto: Here [ : Z4 --; G such that [(0) = 1 , [(1) = 3 , [(2) = 9, [(3) = 7.
S.l)
Consider the following (Fig.

Z4 G
Fig. 8.1
Since different elements of Z4 have different images in G, therefore, fis one-one.
Also, each element of G has its pre-image in Z4' Therefore, fis onto also.
Thus, we have shown that f is homomorphism, one-one and onto. Thus, S 4 == G.
232 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 25. Let M be the set of 2 x 2 matrices over integers of the types (� �) s. t.
ad - bc '" O.
Define f: M --; M such that f(A) = det. A \;j A E M. Then f is a semi-group homomorphism
on (M, x), but not on (M, +).
Sol. We know that (M, +) and (M, x) are both semi-groups. Let A, B E M and consider
f(A + B) = det. (A + B)
'" det . A + det . B
'" f(A) + f(B)
Thus, f is a not a semi-group homomorphism on (M, +).
Now, consider f(AB) = det. (AB)
= (det. A) (det. B)
= f(A) f(B)
Thus, f is a semi-group homomorphism on (M, x).
Example 26. Let - be a congruence relation on a semi-group S. Let q, : S --; SI- be the
natural mapping from "S to the quotient space of S by - " (denoted by SI-) defined by
q,(a) = fa]
then q, is a semi-group homomorphism.
Sol. Let a, b E S and consider
q,(ab) = lab] = [a][b]
= q,(a)q,(b)
thus) q, is a semi-group homomorphism.
Remark. We know that SIR denotes the set of all equivalence classes of elements of S under an
equivalence relation R. Also, if R is a congruence relation on S, then SIR forms a semi-group under the
operation on the equivalence classes.
8.11 FUN DAMENTAL THEOREM OF SEMI-GROUP HOMOMORPHISM
Theorem. Let f: S --; S' be a semi-group homomorphism. Let - be a relation on S defined
by "a - b iff(a) = f(b)" then
(i) ,..., is a congruence relation on S
(ii) SI- is isomorphic to f(S)
Proof. (i) We know that a relation R on a given set S is said to be a congruence relation
on S if R is an equivalence relation on S and satisfies the following.
If aRa', bRb' => abRa'b' \;j a, b E S
We first show that R is an equivalence relation on S.
(a) Reflexive. Since f(a) = f(a) => a - a \;j a E S
�
is reflexive
(b) Symmetric. Let a - b => f(a) = f(b) => f(b) = f(a) => b - a \;j a, b E S
�
. . is symmetric
(c) Transitive. Let a - b => f(a) = f(b) \;j a, b E S
Let b - c => f(b) = f(c) \;j b, c E S
It implies that f(a) = f(b) = f(c)
f(a) = f(c) => a - c \;j a, c E S
�
is transitive
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 233
Hence) � is an equivalence relation on S.
We next show that R is a congruence relation on S.
Let a � a' and b � b'. Then
f(a) = f(ai and f(b) = f(bi
Consider f(ab) = f(a) f(b) I As f is a homomorphism
= f(ai f(bi
= f(a'bi
ab � a'b'
. . � is a congruence relation on S
(ii) To show S/� is isomorphic to f(S).
Define q, : S/� --; f(S) by
q,([a]) = f(a)
We show q, is well-defined) homomorphism) one-one and onto.
(a) q, is well-defined. Consider [aJ = [bJ => a � b
=> f(a) = f(b)
=> q,([a]) = q,([b])
. . q, is well·defined
(b) q, is homomorphism. Consider q,([aJ [b]) = q,([ab])
= f(ab)
= f(a) f(b) I fis a semi·group homomorphism
= q,([a]) q,([b])
. . q, is homomorphism
(c) q, is one-one. Let q,([a]) = q,([b])
=> f(a) = f(b)
a�b
[aJ = [bJ
. . q, is one-one
(d) q, is onto. Let Y E f(S) => 3 a E S such that y = f(a)
Now q,([a]) = f(a) = y
Th us q, is onto
Hence, q, : S/� --; f(S) is an isomomorphism
Example 27. Let F be a free semi-group on A = {a, b}. Define f = F --; Z such that f(u)
= l(u) where l(u) denotes the length of the word 'u' in F. Let a � b if f(a) = f(b). Show that f is a
homomorphism. Also, FI� is isomorphic to N.
Sol. Suppose up u2 E F and consider
f(u , u) = l(u , u) = l(u,) l(u) = f(u,) f(u)
:. f is a homomorphism
Also, for u E F, f(F) = l(u) = a natural number
.. f(F) = N
By fundamental theorem of semi-group homomorphism, F/� is isomorphic to f(F) = N
Thus F/� is isomorphic to N
234 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 28. Let M be the set ofall 2 x 2 type matrices over integers of the type (� �)
and let f: M --; Z be a function defined by
f(A) = det. A
Let A � B if f(A) = f(B). Then MI� is isomorphic to Z.
Sol. We know that (M, x) is a semi·group under the multiplication of matrices. Also
(Z, -) is a semi·group
Let A, B E M and consider
f(AB) = det. (AB) = (det. A) (det. B)
= f(A) f(B)
Thus, f is a semi·group homomorphism from M to Z. By fundamental theorem of semi·
group homomorphism, M/� is isomorphic to f(Z).
But f(Z) = (b E Z: There exists A E M for which f(A) = b)
= (b E Z: det. A = b)
=Z
l\V� is isomorphic to Z

8.12. MONOID (P.T.U. B.Tech., Dec. 2013, May 2013, Dec. 2012, May 2008)
Let us consider an algebraic system (A) 0») where 0 is a binary operation on A. Then the
system (A, 0) is said to be a monoid if it satisfies the following properties.
(i) The operation 0 is a closed operation on set A.
(ii) The operation 0 is an associative operation.
(iii) There exists an identity element w.r.t. the operation o.
Examples. (N, x), (Z, +), (Q, +) are monoids
Example 29. Consider an algebraic system (L +), where the set 1 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, .. .} the
set of natural numbers including zero and + is an addition operation. Determine whether (L +)
is a monoid.
Sol. Closure property. The operation + is closed since sum of two natural numbers is
a natural number.
Associative property. The operation + is an associative property since we have
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) \;j a, b, c E I.
Identity. There exists an identity element in set I w.r.t. the operation +. The element 0
is an identity element w.r.t. the operation +. Since) the operation + is a closed) associative and
there exists an identity. Hence, the algebraic system (I, +) is a monoid.
Example 30. Let S be a finite set and F(s) be the collection of all functions f : S --; S
under the operation ofcomposition offunctions. Show that F(s) is a semi-group. Is F(s) a monoid?
Sol. Let t. g, h E F(s), then we know that composition of functions is associative i.e.,
fo(goh) = (fog)oh \;j f, g, h E F(s). Hence, F(s) is a semi-group. Also the identify function
is an identify element of F(s).
F(s) is a monoid.
8.13. SUBMONOID
Let us consider a monoid (M, 0), also let 8 c M. Then (8, 0) is called a submonoid of
(M, 0), if and only if it satisfies the following properties.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 235
(i) S is closed under the operation o.
(ii) S is associative under the operation o.
(iii) There exists an identity element e E S.
e.g., Let us consider) a monoid (M) *»)where * is a binary operation and M is a set of all inte­
gers. Then (M ' *) is a submonoid of (M, *), where M, is defined as
l
i
M, = {a I i is from 0 to n, a positive integer and a E M}.
Examples 31. Since N e Z and Z c Q,
N is a submonoid of Z and Z is a sub monoid of Q.
Theorem II. Let [M; *i be a monoid and K is a non-empty subset of M. Then K is a sub-
monoid of M iff
(i) a, b E K => a * b E K i.e. K is closed under *
(ii) For each a E K, there exists e E K such that a * e = e * a = a.
Proof. Let K is a submonoid of M. Then, by defination, K must be closed under *. Also
for each a E K, there exists e E K such that a * e = e * a. Hence (i) and (ii) hold
Converse. Let (i) and (ii) hold
From (i), a, b E K => a * b E K i.e., K is closed under *
Also) if a) b) C E K and K c M. :. a, b, C E M. But M is a monoid
.. a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c \;j a, b, c E K
i.e., the associativity holds for each element of K.
From (ii). K has an identity element
K is a monoid. But K c M
K is a submonoid of M under *.

I TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 8.1

L Let * be the operation on the set R of real numbers defined by a * b :::: a + b + 2ab
(a) Find 2 * 3, 3 * (- 5), 7 * (1/2)
(b) Is (R, *) a semi-group ? Is it commutative ?
(c) Find the identity element
(d) Which elements have inverses and what are they ?
Let S be a semi-group with identity e and let b and b' be inverses of a. Show that b :::: b' i.e.,
inverses are uniques, if they exist.
2.

Prove that for any commutative monoid (M *), the set of idempotent elements of M form a
;
submonoid.
3.

4. If a, b are elements of a monoid M and a * b :::: b * a. Show that

(a * b) * (a * b) = (a * a) * (b * b)
5. Let S :::: Q x Q, the set of ordered pairs of rational numbers, with the operation * defined by
(a, b) * (x, y) = (ax, ay + b)
(a) Find (3, 4) * (1, 2) and (- 1, 3) * (5, 2)
(b) Is S a semi-group ? Is it commutative ?
(c) Find the identity element of S
(d) Which elements, if any, have inverses and what are they ?
236 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
6. Let S :::: N x N, the set of ordered pairs of positive integers with the operation * defined by
(a, b) * (e, d) (ad + be, bd)
(a) Find (3, 4) * (1, 5) and (2, 1) * (4, 7)
=

(b) Is S a semi-group ? Is S commutative ?

Let A be a non-empty set with the operation * defined by a * b :::: a and assume A has more than
one element. Then
7.

(a) Is A a semi-groups ?
(b) Is A commutative ?
(c) Does A have an identity element ?
(d) Which elements, if any have inverses and what are they ?
Let A be a non-empty set with the operation * defined by a * b :::: a, and assume A has more
than one element.
8.

(a) Is A a semigroup? (b) Is A commutative? (c) Does A have an identity element?

(d) Which elements, if any, have inverses and what are they ?
Let A :::: {a, b}. Find the number of operations on A , and exhibit one which is neither associative
nor commutative.
9.

10. Find a set A of three numbers which is closed under:

(a) multiplication, (b) addition.
1L Let S be an infinite set. Let A be the collection of finite subsets of S and let B be the collection of
infinite subset of S.
(a) Is A closed under : (i) union, (ii) intersection, (iii) complements ?
(b) Is B closed under : (i) union, (ii) intersection, (iii) complements ?

Answers
1. (a) 17, - 32, ""2
29
(b) Yes, Yes

(e) zero (d) If a -:f- ...!.. , then a has an inverse which is

-a

(a) (3, 10), (- 5, 1) (b) Yes, No (e) (1, 0)

2 (1 + 2a)

(d) The element (a, b) has an inverse if a -:f- 0 and its inverse is (�, - %)
5.

6. (a) (19, 20), (18, 7) (b) Yes, Yes

7. (a) Yes (b) No (c) No (d) It is meaningless to talk about inverses when no identity element exists.
(a) Yes (b) No (c) No (d) If identity element does not exist, then it is meaningless to talk about
inverses.
8.

16, as there are two choices a or b for each of the four products aa, ab, ba and bb (Fig.). Further,
From Fig. 8.1
9.

ab -:f- ba. Also

[
*
a b
But a(ab) = aa = a
(aa)b =bb = a a b a
b b a
10. (a) {-
(aa) b " a(ab)
1, 1, No such set exists
OJ (b)
Fig. 8.1
11. (a) (i) Yes Yes No
(ii) (iii) (b) (i) Yes (ii) No (iii) No.
Hints
L (a) Givena * b :::: a + b + 2ab
. . 2 * 3 = 2 + 3 + 12 = 17
(b) (R, *) is semi-group iff we can show
a * (b * e) = (a * b) * e \j a, b, e E R
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 237
Consider a * (b * c) :::: a * (b + c + 2bc)
= a + (b + c + 2bc) + 2a(b + c + 2bc)
:::: a + b + c + 2bc + 2ab + 2ac + 2abc ... (1)
Also (a * b) * c = (a + b + 2ab) * c
= a + b + 2ab + c + 2(a + b + 2ab) c
:::: a + b + 2ab + c + 2ac + 2bc + 2abc ... (2)
From (1) and (2). we have
a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c
(R, *) is a semi-group
Further, (R, *) is commutative iff we can show
a * b :::: b * a a, b R
V E
Now a * b :::: a + b + 2ab :::: b + a + 2ba :::: b * a.
(c) Let e is an identity element of R, then for each a R, we have
E
a * e :::: a
� a + e + 2ae = a
=> e(l + 2a) = 0
e=O 1 1 + 2a ," O
(d) Let b R is the inverse of a. Then we must have
E
a * b =O e :::: 0, the identity
a + b + 2ab = 0
a + b(l + 2a) = 0
b(l + 2a) = - a
b = - all + 2a. 1 + 2a ," 0
2. Since S is a semi-group with identity e and b and b' are inverses of a
b*a=e=a*b ... (1)
b' * a :::: e :::: a * b' ... (2)
Now S is a semi-group under *. Therefore associativity holds among the elements of S under *.
Le., b * (a * b') = (b * a) * b'
b * e :::: e * b' I Using (1) and (2)
=:::} b :::: b'
3. Let S be the set of idempotent elements i.e., S :::: [a M: a * a :::: a]. We show S is a submonoid.
E
Let a, b S, then a * a :::: a, b b :::: b
E -:f-

Consider (a * b) * (a * b) = a * (b * a) * b I Associativity
= a * (a * b) * b I Commutative
= (a * a) * (b * b)
=a*b
S is closed under *.
Also e * e :::: e e S i.e., S has an identity element. Therefore, S is a submonoid.
::::} E
4. (a * b) * (a * b) = a * (b * (a * b» I Associativity
= a * ((b * a) * b) I Associativity
= a * ((a * b) * b) I a * b :::: b * a
= a * (a * (b * b» Associativity
= (a * a) * (b * b) I Associativity

8.14. GROUP (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2013, May 2008, 2006)

Let us consider an algebraic system (G, *), where * is a binary operation on G. Then the
system (G. *) is said to be a group if it satisfies the following properties:
238 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(i) The operation * is a closed operation.
(ii) The operation * is an associative operation.
(iii) There exists an identity element w.r.t. the operation *.
(iv) For every a E G) there exists an element a- I E G such that a- I * a = a * a- I = e
For example, the algebraic system (I, +), where I is the set of all integers and + is an
addition operation) is a group. The element 0 is the identity element w.r.t. the operation +.
The inverse of every element a E I is - a E I.
Examples (i) The sets (Q, +) (R, +) and (C, +) are groups under addition.
(ii) The sets R* (set of non-zero reals), Q* (set of non-zero rationals) and C* (set of non­
zero complex numbers) are groups under multiplication.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 1. Determine whether the algebraic system (Q, +) is a group where Q is the set
of all rational numbers and + is an addition operation.
Sol. Closure Property. The set Q is closed under operation +, since the addition of two
rational numbers is a rational number.
Associative Property. The operation + is associative, since (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) 'd a,
b, C E Q.
Identity. The element 0 is the identity element. Hence a + 0 = 0 + a = a 'd a E Q.
Inverse. The inverse of every element a E Q is - a E Q. Hence the inverse of every
element exists.
Since, the algebraic system (Q, +) satisfies all the properties of a group, hence (Q, +) is
a group.
Example 2. Which of the following are groups under addition N, Z, Q, R, C ?
Sol. The set of integers Z, the set of rationals Q, the set of reals R, the set of complex
numbers C, are all groups under addition. (Prove yourself as in Example-I)
But N) the set of natural numbers donot form a group under addition. Since) N does not
have additive identity. (0 'l N).
Example 3. Let S be the set of n x n with rational entries under the operation of matrix
multiplication. Is S a group ?
Sol. We know that matrix multiplication is associative. But inverse does not always
exist. As we know that if I A I '" 0, then A-I exists.
Example 4. Prove that G = {l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is a finite abelian group of order 6 under
multiplication modulo 7. (P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2010, 2009)
Sol. G = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, x7}
Consider the multiplication modulo 7 table as shown below (Table 8.5). Recall that
a x 7 b = The remainder when ab is divided by 7
X7 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 6 5 4 3 2 1
Table 8.5
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 239
From the table, we observe that each element inside the table is also an element of G. It
means that G is closed under multiplication modulo 7.
Also for eacha) b) C E G
a x 7 (b x 7 c) = (ax 7 b) x 7 c i.e., associative law hold.
From the table, we observe that the first row inside the table is identical with the
top-row of the table. Therefore, 1 is the identity (multiplicative) of G.

Hence) each element G has an inverse) i.e.,

Inverse of 2 is 4 and of 4 is 2
Inverse of 3 is 5 and of 5 is 3
Inverse of 6 is 6
Hence, G is a group under the multiplication modulo 7.
Example 5. Consider an algebraic system (Q, *),where Q is the set of rational numbers
and * is a binary operation defined by
a * b = a + b - ab \;j a, b E Q.
Determine whether (Q, *) is a group.
Sol. Closure property. Since the element a * b E Q for every a, b E Q, hence, the set Q
is closed under the operation *.
Associative property. Let us assume a, b, C E Q, then we have
(a * b) * c = (a + b - ab) * c
= (a + b - ab) + c - (a + b - ab)c
= a + b - ab + c - ac - be + abc
= a + b + c - ab - ac - be + abc
Similarly, a * (b * c) = a + b + c - ab - ac - be + abc.
Therefore, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
* is associative.
Identity. Let e is an identity element. Then we have a * e = a \;j a E Q
a + e - ae = a or e - ae = 0
or e(l - a) = 0 or e = 0, if 1 - a te 0
Similarly, for e * a = a v a E Q, we have e = 0
Therefore, for e = 0, we have a * e = e * a = a
Th us, 0 is the identity element.
Inverse. Let us assume an element a E Q. Let a- 1 is an inverse of a. Then we have
a * a- 1 = O [Identity]
a + a- 1 - aa-1 = 0
a
or a- 1 ( 1 - a) = - a or a- 1 = a te 1
--

a - 1'
a
-- E Q, if a te 1
a-I
Therefore, every element has inverse such that a t:- 1 .
Since, the algebraic system (Q, *) satisfy all the properties of a group. Hence, (Q, *) is a
group.
240 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Theorem III. Show that the identity element in a group is unique.
Proof. Let us assume that there exists two identity elements i.e., e and e' of G.
Since) e E G and e' is an identity. We have e'e = ee' = e
Also) e' E G and e is an identity. We have e'e = ee' = e'
e = e'
Hence) identity in a group is unique.

Theorem IV. Show that inverse of an element a in a group G is unique.

Proof. Let us assume that a E G be an element. Also) assume that a1- 1 and a2- 1 be two
inverse elements of a. Then we have)
a1- 1 a = aa1- 1 = e and a2- 1 a = aa2- 1 = e
Now, a1- I = a1- I e = a1- l (aa2- 1) = (a1- 1 ala2- 1 = ea2- 1 = a2- 1
Thus) the inverse of an element is unique.

Theorem V. Show that (a- it i = a for all a E G, where G is a group and a- i is an inverse
ofa.
Proof. Given that a- I is an inverse of a. Then) we have
aa- 1 = a- 1 a = e
This implies that a is also an inverse of a- I . Therefore (a- l)- 1 = a.

Theorem VI. Show that (ab)- i = b- i a- i for all a, b E G.

Proof. We have to prove that ab is inverse of b- 1 a- 1 . We prove
(ab)(b- l a- I) = (b- l a- l)(ab) = e
Consider (ab)(b- l a- I) = [(ab) b- l ]a- l = [a(bb- l)] a- I
= (ae) a- I = aa- 1 = e ... (1)
Similarly, (b- l a- l)(ab) = e ... (2)
. . From (1) and (2), we have
(ab) (b-l a-I) = e = (b-l a-I) ab Hence proved.

Theorem VII. Prove the left cancellation law in a group G holds i.e., ab = ac => b =c
\;j a, b, c E G.
Proof. Consider ab = ac.
Then) we have b = eb = (a- 1 a)b = a- I (ab) = a- I (ac) [ .: ab = ac]
= (a- l a)c = ec = c Associativity
ab = ac => b = c.
Theorem VIII. Prove the right cancellation law in a group G holds i.e., ba = ca =>
b =c \;j a, b, c E G.
Proof. Consider ba = ca.
Then, we have b = be = b(aa- l) = (ba)a- l = (ca)a- l [ .: ba = cal
'
= c(aa- ) = ce = c I Associativity
ba = ca => b = c.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 241
Theroem IX. Let G be a group and a, b E G. Then the equation a * x = b has a unique
solution given by x = a-i * b.
Proof. Given a) b E G and G is a group under *) therefore) a-I exists in G
Hence a-I * b E G. G is closed
Consider a*x=b
= (a * a-I) * b I a * a-I = e
l
= a * (a- * b) Associativity
x = a-I * b Left cancellation law
Uniqueness. Let the equation a * x = b has two solutions) say) Xl and x2) then we have
a * x, = b ... (1)
a * x2 = b ... (2)
(1) and (2) gives a * x, = a * x2
::::::} Xl = X2 Left cancellation law

8.15. Zm (THE INTEGERS MODULO m (m � 1 »

The integers modulo m, denoted by Zm ' is the set given by
Zm = {O) 1, 2, ... m - 1 ; +m ' x m } where the operations +m (read as addition modulo m)
and x m (read as multiplication modulo m) are defined as
a +m b = remainder after a + b is divided by m
a x m b = remainder after a x b is divided by m.
Theroem X. For each m :> 1, [Zm; +m1 is a group known as group of integers modulo m.
Proof. By definition, If a, b E Zm) then a +m b is remainder after a + b is divided by m,
which is again an element of Zmo Hence Zm is closed under +m' Also the addition modulo m is
always associative. 0 is the identity element for +m and every element of Zm has an additive
inverse. :. Zm is a group under addition modulo m.

8.16. FINITE AND INFINITE GROUP

A group (G, *) is called a finite group if G is a finite set.
A group (G, *) is called an infinite group if G is an infinite set.
For Example
1. The group (I, +) is an infinite group as the set I of integers is an infinite set.
2. The group G = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, xs} under multiplication modulo 8 is a finite group as
the set G is a finite set.
3. The group G = {I, w, w2} , is a finite group under multiplication
4. The group G = {± 1 , ± i, ±j, ± k} where i2 = P = k2 = -1 and i . j = k,j.i = -k etc. is a finite
group.

8.17. (a) ORDER OF GROUP

The order of the group G is the number of elements in the group G. It is denoted by I G I
or o(G). A group of order 1 has only the identity element i.e., ((e)).

8.17. (b) ORDER OF AN ELEMENT

Let G be a group under multiplication and a E G. If there exists a least positive integer
n such that an = e. Then a is said to be order n and written as o(a) = n
242 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
If G is a group under +, then a is said to be of order n if n is a least positve integer such
that na = e. Here e is the identity element of G.
A group of order 2 has two elements i.e., one identity element and one some other element.
Example 6. Let ({e, xj, ) be a group of order 2. The table of operation is shown in
*

(Fig. 8.3).
* e x
e e x
x x e
Fig. 8.3
The group of order 3 has three elements i.e., one identity element and two other elements.
Example 7. Let ({e, x, yj, ) be a group of order 3. The table of operation is shown in
*

(Fig. 8.4).
* e x y
e e x y
x x y e
y y e x
Fig. 8.4
Example 8. Consider an algebraic system ({O, 1). +) where the operation + is defined as
shown in (Fig. 8.5).
+ o 1
o o 1
1 1 o
Fig. 8.5
The system ({O. l), +) is a group. In this 0 is identity element and every element is its
own lnverse.
Theorem XI. If G is a finite group of order n and a E G, then there exists a positive
integer m such that am = e and m ::; n.
Proof. Consider the elements of the group G as a, a2, a3, ... an+1 . These are n + 1 elements.
Since I G I = n. Therefore two of its elements, say, aJ\ aq must be equal, i.e., aP = aq,
p < q. Take m = q - p
am = aq-p = uP . a-P
= aq . (al')-l = aq . (aq)-l
=e
Further, since p, q are among n + 1 ,
.. l S p < q S n + l � q - p = m S n.

8.18. SUBGROUP (P.T. U. B.Tech. May 2013, May 2007, May 2006)
Let us consider a group (G, *) . Also, let S c G ; then (S, *) is called a subgroup iff it
satisfies following conditions :
(i) The operation * is closed operation on S.
(ii) The operation * is an associative operation.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 243
(iii) As e is an identity element belonged to G. It must belong to the set S i.e., The identity
element of (G, *) must belongs to (S, *) .
(iv) For every element a E S, a- I also belongs to S.
Since Z c Q, Z is a subgroup of Q under addition.
For example, let (G, +) be a group, where G is a set of all integers and (+) is an addition
operation. Then (H, +) is a subgroup of the group G, where H = {2m : m E G}, the set of all even
integer.
For example, let G be a group. Then the two subgroups of G are G and G, = (e), e is the
indentity element.
Example 9. Let (L +) be a group, where I is the set of all integers and (+) is an addition
operation. Determine whether the following subsets of G are subgroups of G.
(a) The set (G1, +) of all odd integers. (b) The set (G2 , +) of all positive integers.
Sol. (a) The set G, of all odd integers is not a subgroup of G. It does not satisfy the
closure property, since addition of two odd integers is always even.
(b) Closure property. The set G2 is closed under the operation +, since addition of two
even integers is always even.
Associative property. The operation + is associative since (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) for
every a, b, C E G2"
Identity. The element 0 is the identity element. Hence, 0 E G2.
Inverse. The inverse of every element a E G2 is - a tl G2. Hence, the inverse of every
element does not exists.
Since the system (G2 , +) does not satisfy all the conditions of a subgroup. Hence, (G2 , +)
is not a subgroup of (I, +).
Example 10. Consider the group Z of integers under addition. Let H be the subset of Z
consisting of all multiples of a positive integer m i.e.,
H = {...... , - 3m, - 2m, - m, 0, m, 2m, 3m, ..... }
Show that H is a subgroup of Z.
Sol. For r, s E Z, rm, sm E H.
Consider rm + sm = (r + s) m E H
Le., H is closed under addition.
For rm E H, - rm E H and consider rm + (- rm) = (r - r) m = 0 E H
i.e., 0 is the identity of H and - rm is the inverse of rm.
Hence, H is a subgroup of Z.
Theorem XII. A subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G iff
(i) The identity element e E H
(ii) H is closed under the same operation as in G
(iii) H is closed under inverses i.e., if a E H, then a-1 E H.
Proof. Given G is a group and H is a subset of G. Let H is a subgroup of G, then, by
definition, (i), (ii), (iii) are true.
Converse. Let (i), (ii), (iii) hold. We show H is a subgroup ofG. We show the associativity
of elements of H.
Let a, b, C E G and since H c G :. a, b e E H
Since elements of G are also elements of H
. . Associativity holds for H. Hence the Theorem.
Another statement : A subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G iff a * b-I E H.
\f a, b E H
244 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Theorem XIII. Let Hi and H2 be subgroup of group G, neither of which contains the
other. Show that there exist an element of G belonging neither to Hi nor H2 .
Proof. Given H, and H2 are subgroups of G. Also H , q; H2 and H2 q; H" We show that
there exists an element belonging neither to H I nor H2 o Let) if possible) there is an element a
belonging to H , and H2 i.e., a E H , n H 2 .
Now a E H I and since H I is a subgroup of G . . . .. (1)
But a E H2 and since H 2 is a subgroup of G .. . .. (2)
(1) and (2) gives H , c H2 , a contradiction.
Hence the theorem.
Theorem XIV. If H and K are two subgroups of G, then H n K is also a subgroup of G.
(P.T.U. B.Tech. Dec. 2012, May 2010, Dec. 2007)
Proof. We know that a subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G iff ab-I E H \;f a, b E H.
Let a, b E H n K. We show ab-I E H n K.
Now a E H n K => a E H and a E K
Also b E H n K => b E H and b E K
Since H is a subgroup of G and a, b E H
=> ab-I E H (Using theorem X) ... (1)
Also K is a subgroup of G and a, b E K
=> ab-I E K ... (2)
I
From (1) and (2), ab- E H n K. Hence H n K is a subgroup of G.
IfH and K are two subgroups of a group G, then give an example to show that H K mayu

not be a subgroup of G
Cor.

Consider G :::: The group of integers under +

HI :::: {... - 6, - 4, - 2, 0, 2, 4, 6 ...}
H2 :::: {... - 12, - 9, - 6, - 3, 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, ...} are subgroups of G under +.
But H , U H2 = {... - 4, - 3, - 2, 0, 2, 3, 4, 6, ...j
Since 2 E H , U H2 , 3 E H , U H2 => 2 + 3 = 5 'l H , U H 2 i.e., H , u H2 is not closed under +.
Hence H , u H2 is not a subgroup of G under +.
Theorem XV. If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group G and H is closed under
multiplication. Then H is a subgroup of G.
Proof. We know that a non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroups of G iff
(i) a E H, b E H => ab E H
(ii) a E H => a-I E H
The condition (i) is true since it is given that H is closed under multiplication.
To show (ii), Let a E H, a E H => a2 E H I H is closed under multiplication
3
Again a E H, a2 E H ===> a E H and so on.
2 3
Thus the infinite collection of all the elements a, a , a , ... am, ''' , belongs to H. But H is
finite. :. there must be repetetion. Let ar = as r > s > 0
ar . a-S = e
ar-s = e E H
r s 1
Take y = a - - and consider
ya = ar-s-1 a = ar-s = e
•

Similarly, ay = e
Hence ya = e = ay
===> y is the inverse of a. Hence the theorem.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 245
Theorem XVI. Let H be a subgroup of G. Then
(a) H = Ha <=? a E H

(b) Ha = Hb <=? a b-I E H

(c) aH = bH
(d) HH = H.
Proof. (a) Let Ha = H. If e E H => e a E Ha = H
=> aE H l ea = a
Conversly, Let a E H. As H is a subgroup and h E H, a E H
=> haE H I H is closed under multiplication.
HaeH ... (1)
Again) if h E H) a E H and since H is a subgroup of G) I
h a- E H (Theorem X)
=> I
(ha- ) a E H a
h(a-I a) E Ha => h e E Ha
hE Ha
HeHa ... (2)
From (1) and (2) Ha = H
(b) Let Ha = Hb and we show ab-I E H
Now a = e a E Ha
=> a E Ha = Hb
=> a E Hb => a = hb, h E H
=> ab-I = (hb)b-I = h(bb-I) = he = h E H
=> ab-I E H
Conversly, Let ab-I E H => ab-I = h, h E H
=> a = hb
=> Ha = Hhb = Hb I For h E H, Hh = H
(c) Proceed yourself as in Part (b).
(d) Let h E H. Then,
H = Hh V h E H I Using part (a)
H e HH e H
HH = H.

8.19. ABELIAN GROUP

Let us consider) an algebraic system (G) *») where * is a binary operation on G. Then the
system (G, *)is said to be an abelian group if it satisfies all the properties of the group plus an
additional following property :
(i) The operation * is commutative i.e.,
a * b = b * a V a, b E G
For example, consider an algebraic system (I, +), where 1 is the set of all integers and +
is an addition operation. The system (I, +) is an abelian group because it satisfies all the
properties of a group. Also the operation + is commutative for every a, b E l.
246 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 11. Consider an algebraic system (G, *), where G is the set ofall non-zero real
ab
numbers and * is a binary operation defined by a * b = 4' Show that (G, *) is an abelian
group.
ab
Sol. Closure property. The set G is closed under the operation *. Since, a * b = "4 is
a real number. Hence) belongs to G.
Associative property. The operation
ab ( )
* is associative. Let a, b,
(ab)c abc
(a * b) * c = "4 * c = 16 = 16 '
C E G) then we have

Similarly, a * (b * c) = a *
( )
bC

4
=
a(bc) abc
16
=
16
.
Identity. To find the identity element, let us assume that e is a positive real number.
Then for a E G,
ea
- = a or e = 4
4
Similarly, a*e=a
ae
- = a or e = 4.
4
Thus, the identity an element in G is 4.
Inverse. Let us assume that a E G. If a- I E Q is an inverse of a) then a * a- I = 4
1
aa - - 1
16
-- = 4 or a = ­
1
4 a
Similarly, a- * a = 4 gives
a- I a 1
16
-- = 4 or a- = -
4 a
Th us, the inverse of an element a in G is �.
a
Commutative. The operation * on G is commutative.
ab ba
a * b = - = - = b * a.
4 4
Thus, the algebraic system (G, *) is closed, associative, has identity element, has in­
verse and commutative. Hence, the system (G, *) is an abelian group.

Example 12. Let (Z, *) be an algebraic structure, where Z is the set of integers and the
operation * is defined by n * m = maximum (n, my. Determine whether (Z, *) is a monoid or a
group or an abelian group.
Sol. Closure Property
We know that n * m = max. (n,m) E Z \;j n, m E Z
Hence * is closed.
Associative property. Let us assume a, b, c E Z.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 247
Then, we have a * (b * c) = a * max. (b, c) = max. (a, max. (b, c» = max. (a, b, c)
Similarly, (a * b) * c = max. (a, b, c)
Hence * is associative.
Identity. Let e be the identity element. Then max. (a, e) = a
Hence) the minimum element is the identity element.
Inverse. The inverse of any element does not exist. Since) the inverse does not exist)
hence (Z) *) is not a group or abelian group but a monoid as it satisfies the properties of
closure) associative and identity.

Example 13. Let S = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and multiplication modulo 8, that is

x 0 y = (xy) Mod 8
(i) Prove that ({O, 1), 0) is not a group.
(ii) Write three distinct groups (G, 0) where G c S and G has 2 elements.
Sol. (i) (a) Closure property. The set {O, I} is closed under the operation 0, as shown
in table of operation (Fig. 8.6).

o 1
o o o
1 o 1

Fig. 8.6
(b) Associative property. The operation 0 is associative. Let a, b, c E G, then we have
(a 0 b) 0 c = a 0 (b 0 c) e.g., (0 0 1) 0 1 = (0) 0 1 = 0
Similarly, 00 (1 0 1) = 0 0 (1) = O.
(c) Identity. The element 1 is the identity element as for every a E {O, I}: We have
1 0 a = a = a 0 1.
(d) Inverse. There must exist an inverse of every element a E {O, I}, such that
a 0 a- 1 = 1
But the inverse of element 0 does not exist.
Therefore, since the inverse of every element a E {O, I} does not exist. Hence ({O, I), 0)
is not a group.
(ii) The three distinct groups (G, 0), where G c S and G has 2 elements is as follows
(a) ({I, 3), 0) (b) ({I, 5), 0) (c) ({I, 7), 0).
Example 14. Determine whether a semi-group with more than one idempotent element
can be a group. (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2010)
Sol. Let (A, *) be a semi· group with two idempotent elements a and b (a ", b). Then we
have
... (1)
b * b = b. ... (2)
Now assume that A is a group with identity element e.
a*e=a and b*e=b
248 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
From (1) and (2),
a*e=a=a#a ::::::} e=a I Left Cancellation Law
Also b*e=b=b"b => e=b I Left Cancellation Law
a=e=b
which is a contradiction to a i:- b.
Hence (A, *) can not be group.

Example 15. Let (G, 0) be a group. Show that if (G, 0) is an Abelian group then,
(a 0 b) 2 = a2 0 b 2 for all a and b in G. (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2010)
Sol. Let us assume G is an Abelian group, then
(a 0 b)2 = (a 0 b) 0 (a 0 b) = a 0 (b 0 a) 0 b o is associative]
= a o � 0 � o b = � 0 � 0 (b o � = � o b 2 I G is abelian
Hence, 2 2 2
(a 0 b) = a 0 b \;j a, b E G.
Example 16. Let G be a group of 2 x 2 matrices with rational entries and non-zero
determinant. Let H be a subset of G consisting of matrices whose upper right entry is zero. Then
show that H is a subgroup of G.

Sol. Given G= [(� �): a, b, c, d E Q a nd ad - bc ,, 0 ]

H = [(� �): a , c, d E Q ]
H is a subgroup of G iff
(i) H is closed under multiplication
(ii) For A E H, A-' E H

Let A, B E H where A =
(a1
c,

Consider AB = c,(a1
�)
d1 2 E H

i.e., H is closed under multiplication.

Further) For A E H) we have

A= (� �) . I A
I� �I
I = = ad
Also All = d) A 2 = - C, A2 =
1 0,
1 A22 =a

adj A = (
A ll A 12
A 21 A 22
) ( 0)
T
d
= -c a

" 0 �'�� {�, ;] e n

Hence H is a subgroup of G.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 249
Example 17. Let G be a group of real numbers under multiplication. Let H = {- I, I}.
Then show that H is a subgroup of G under multiplication.
Sol. Consider the multiplication table of H under multiplication.
-1 1

-1 1 -1
1 -1 1
From the table, we observe that each element in the table belongs to H.
Hence H is closed under multiplication.
Also, the inverse of - 1 is - 1 and of 1 is 1. Thus each element of H has its inverse.
Therefore H is a subgroup of G under multiplication.
Example 18. Consider the group of integers Z under +. Let E = The set of even integers.
Then show that E is a subgroup of Z under +.
Sol. Given E = {2m : m E Z} i.e., the set of even integers. Clearly E is a subset of Z.
Let a, b E E => a = 2m, m E Z
b = 2n, n E Z
a + b = 2m + 2n = 2(m + n) E E 1 m, n E Z m+nE Z
i.e., E is closed under +. Also for each a E E) we have a = 2m) m E Z
- a = - 2m = 2(- m) = 2 t, t = - m E Z
-aE E
Th us each element belonging to E has additive inverse.
E is a subgroup of Z under +.
Example 19. Let Z be a group of integers under +. Let Z+ is the set of non-negative
integers. Is Z+ a subgroup of Z ?
Sol. Z+ = {O, 1, 2, 3, ...}
Clearly Z+ is a subset of Z. But Z+ is not a subgroup of Z. Since the elements of Z+ do not
have additive inverses. For e.g., 2 E Z\ but - 2 tl Z+ .
Example 20. Consider Z12 = [0, I, 2, ... I ll, the group under addition modulo 12. Let
H = [0, 3, 6, 9]. Show that H is a subgroup of Z1 2 under +1 2'
Sol. Given H = [0, 3, 6, 9]. Clearly H is a subset of Z, 2 '
Let a, b E H => a + 1 2 b is also in H. :. H is closed under + 1 2 ' Also we have
3 + ,2 9 = 0, 0 is the identity of Z, 2
6 +,2 6 = 0
9 +,2 3 = 0
each element of H has its inverse.
H is a subgroup of Z, 2 under addition modulo12.
Example 21. Consider the group of integers Z under +. Let 2Z and 3Z are two subgroups
of [Z; +]. Is 2Z n 3Z a subgroup of Z ?
Sol. We know that if H and K are two subgroups of a group G. Then H n K is also a
subgroup of G. Using this result, we can say that 2Z n 3Z is a subgroup of Z. (Theorem XII)
250 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 22. Consider Z,5' the group under addition modulo 16. Let H, = [0, 6, 10] ,
H2 = 4, 8, 12]. Are H , and H 2 subgroups of Z , 5 under +,5 ?
[0,
Sol. To check whether H, is a subgroup of Z,5' compute the following Table 8.6.
Table 8.6
+,5 0 5 10
0 0 5 10
5 5 10 0
10 10 0 5
From the Table 8.6, we observe that each element which is in the interior of the addition
table is also in H" :. H , is closed under + ' 5 ' Also we have 6 + , 5 10 = 0, 10 + , 5 6 = 0, 0 is the
identity . . each element of H, has its inverse. :. H I is a subgroup of Z 15"
To check, whether H2 is a subgroup of Z , 5 compute the following Table 8.7.
'
Table 8.7

+,5 0 4 8 12
0 0 4 8 12
4 4 8 12 1
8 8 12 1 5
12 12 1 5 9
From the Table 8.7, we observe that there are some elements in the interior of the
addition table, which are not in H2 (e.g., 9 'l H ) . Hence H2 is not closed under + 5' :' H2 is
'
not a subgroup of Z , 5 '
Example 23. Let H and K be groups.
(a) What do you mean by the direct product of H and K?
(b) What is the identify element of H x K ?

(d) Describe and write the multiplication table of the group G = Z2 X Z2'
(c) What is the order of H x K ?

Sol. (a) Let G = H x K be the cartesian product of H and K with the operation * defmed by
(h, k) * (h', k') = (hh', kk')
Then G is group called the direct product of H and K.
(b) Let eR is the identity element of H and eK be the identity element of K, then (eR , e0
is an identity element of H x K.
(c) o(G) = o(H x K) = o(H) x o(K)
(d) As, Z 2 = {O, I} has two elements . . o(Z) = 2
.. o(G) = o(Z2 x Z) = o(Z) x o(Z) = 2 x 2 = 4
. . G has four elements namely a = (1, 0), b = (0, 1), c = (1, 1), e = (0, 0).
The multiplication table of G, = Z2 X Z2 is shown below (Table 8.8):
Table 8.8
* e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 251

Here) a2 = e) b2 = e) c2 = e
Since the table is symmetric, therefore G is abelian.

I TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 8.2

L If a, b, c are elements of a group G and a * b :::: c * a. Then b :::: c ? Explain your answer.
(P. T. U. B.Tech, Dec. 2006, May 2005)
2. Discuss the relation between groups and monoids ? Is every monoid a group ? Is every group a
monoid ?
3. Which of the following are groups ?
(i) M2xS(R) with matrix addition
(ii) M2x2(R) with matrix multiplication
(iii) The positive real numbers with multiplication
(iv) The non-zero real numbers with multiplication
(v) The set [- 1, 1] with multiplication.
4. Give an example of (i) a finite abelian group (ii) an infinite non-abelian group.
5. Let V :::: {e, a, b, c}. Let * be defined by x * x:::: e for all x E V. Write a complete table for * so that 0/, *)
is a group.
6. Which of the following subsets of the real numbers is a subgroup of [R, +] ?
(a) The rational numbers (b) The positive real numbers
(c) H {� K is an integer}
= : (d) H {2K : K is an integer}
=

(e) H {x : - 100 <; x <; 100}

Prove that if H, K are subgroups of a group G and H u K :::: G. Then either H :::: G or K :::: G.
=

7.
8. Show that [Zn; x,J, n :;:': 2 is a monoid with identity.
9. Show that the intersection of any number of subgroups of G is a subgroup of G.
10. Let G be a group and a, b E G. Then the equation x * a :::: b has a unique solution given by
x :::: b * a-I .
11. Let G be a group of order is prime. Find all subgroups of G.
Prove that congruence modulo H, a b (mod H) is an equivalence relation in G.
p, p

12. ==

(P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2007)

Answers
2. No, Yes (Every group is a monoid)
3. (i), (iii), (iv), (v) are groups
4. (i) G :::: {e, a, b, c} is a finite abolian group under defined by the following Table 8.9:
*

Table 8.9
*
e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c a e
c c b e a
252 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(ii) M2x2(R), the set of all 2 x 2 matrices (� �} ad- be :;tO is an infinite non-abelian group w.r.t.
the matrix multiplication.
5. See Q. 4 (i) 6. (a) and (c) 11. {e) and G itself.
Hints
L Given a, b, G. Consider a * b :::: c * a. We claim b c. For, if, b :::: c, then
CE -:f-

a * b :::: a * c c * a unless G is abelian. Hence the given statement is a false statement. However,
-:f-
the given statement is a true statement if G is an abelian group. In this case,
a * b :::: c * a :::: a * c I G is abelian
b=c Left cancellation law
2. The set N of natural numbers is a monoid under +, but not a group under +.
3. M2x2(R) with matrix multiplication is not a group.

Take A = (i i) . I A I = I i i l = 1 - 1 = 0
=:::} I A I :::: 0 i.e., the matrix is singular and hence A-I does not exist.
11. By Lagrange's theorem, the order of a subgroup H of G divides the order of G. Hence O(H) :::: 1 or p.

If O(H) = 1, then H = {e)

If O(H) = then H = G.
p.

8.20. (a) COSETS (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2006)

Consider an algebraic system (G) *») where * is a binary operation. Now) if (G) *) is a
group and let a be an element of G and H c G. then
The left coset a * H of H is the set of elements such that
a * H = {a * h : h E H}.
The right coset H * a of H is the set of elements such that
H * a = {h * a : h E H}.
The subset H is itself a left and right coset since e * H = H * e = H.

8.20. (b) COSET REPRESENTATIVE SYSTEM FOR H IN G

A subset C of G is said to be a coset representative system of H if C contains exactly one
element from each coset. Such an element is called a representative of the coset. The number
of coset representatives is equal to [G : Hl. the index of H in G.
Example. Let H be a subgroup of a finite group G. How many coset representative sys·
tems exist for the cosets of H ?

,
Sol. There are n(H) ways of choosing an element from any coset and there are [G : H]
distinct cosets. Hence. the desired number is n(H) [G HI
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 253

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Let us consider a group (G, *) , where G is a set having elements {O, I} and *
is a binary operation. Also, let H = {I} is a subgroup of G. Determine all the left cosets ofH in G.
Sol. There are only 2 left cosets i.e.,
1 * H = H = { 1}
o * H = {OJ.

Example 2. Let (I, +) is a group, where I is the set of all integers and + is an addition
operation and let H = {. .. , - 4, - 2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, .. .} be the subgroup consisting of multiples of 2.
Determine all the left cosets of H in I.
Sol. There are two distinct left cosets of H in I.
o + H = { ... , - 6, - 4, - 2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ...} = H
1 + H = {... - 5, - 3, - 1 , 1, 3, 5, 7, ...}
2 + H = {... - 4, - 2, 0, 2, 4, ......} = H
3 + H = {... , - 5, - 3, - 1 , 1, 3, 5, ...} = 1 + H
so on.
There is no other distinct left coset because any other left coset coincides with the cosets
given above.

Example 3. Let G = (1. +) be a group, where l is the set of integers and + is an addition
operation, also let G 1 = {. ..... - 14, - 7, 0, 7, 14, 21, ..... .} be a subgroup consisting of the multiples
of 7. Determine the cosets of G 1 in I.
Sol. The set I has 7 different cosets (left or right) of Gl ' which are as shown below.
0 + H = {...... - 14, - 7, 0, 7, 14, 2 1 , ......}
1 + H = {...... - 13, - 6, 1 , 8, 15, 22, ......}
2 + H = {...... - 12, - 5, 2, 9, 16, 23, ......}
3 + H = {...... - 1 1 , - 4, 3, 10, 17, 24, ......}
4 + H = {...... - 10, - 3, 4, 1 1 , 18, 25, ......}
5 + H = {...... - 9, - 2, 5, 12, 19, 26, ......}
6 + H = {...... - 8, - 1 , 6, 13, 20, 27, ......}
7 + H = {...... - 14, - 7, 0, 7, 14, 2 1 , ......} = H
All other cosets coincides with any one of the cosets shown above) hence we will not
count them.
Theorem I. If b E a * H (left coset), then
a * H = b * H. Also, if b E H * a (right coset), Then H * a = H * b
Proof. Case I. Let x E a * H, we show x E b * H
Now x E a * H ::::::} there exists an element h E H such that x = a * h
I I
Also b E a * H => There exists an element h2 E H such that b = a * h2
254 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
b * h2-1 = (a * h;) * h2-1 = a * (h2 * h2-1) = a * e = a
a = b * h2-1
x = a * h 1 = (b * h2-1) * h 1 = b * (h2-1 * h 1)
H and H is subgroup of G
h2-1 E H and h2-' * h , E H
Hence x = b * (h2-1 * h,) E b * H
=> XE b * H
=> a*Hcb*H ... (1)
Similarly, if x E b * H) we can easily show that x E a * H.
=> b*Hca*H ... (2)
from (1) and (2), a*H=b*H
Case II. Let x E H * a. We show x E H * b. Now x E H * a => There exists an element
h, E H such that x = h, * a
Also b E H * a => There exists an element h2 E H such that b = h2 * a
=> h2-1 * b = h2-1 * (h2 * a) = (h2-1 * h;) * a
=e*a=a
a = h2-1 * b
X = h 1 * a = h 1 * (h2-1 * b) = (h 1 * h2-1) * b
Since hp h2 E H and H is a subgroup of G. . . h, * h2-1 E H
Hence x = (h, * h2-1) * b E H * b
=> XE H * b
=> H*a cH*b
Similarly) if x E H * b) we can easily show that x E H * a
=> H*bcH*a
Hence H *a=H*b
Theorem II. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then the right cosets Ha form a parti-
tion of G. Or
Any two right (left) cosets in a group G are either disjoint or equal.
Proof. Let Ha and Hb be two right cosets and suppose Ha n Hb '" q,. We show Ha = Hb
Let x E Ha n Hb => x E Ha and x E Hb
=> x = h,a and x = h 2 b for some h I ' h2 E H
=> h, a = h2 b E Hb
=> h,a E Hb
=> Ha c Hb
Also h2 b = h,a E Ha
=> h2 b E Ha
=> Hb c Ha
Hence Ha = Hb
Lagrange's Theorem
(P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2007, 2006, May 2006, May 2012, May 2013)
Theorem III. If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then o(H) 1 0(G).
Proof. Since H is a subgroup of a finite group G) . . H is also finite) say)
H = {h I ' h2 , ... hnl . where each hi is distinct.
We claim H and any coset Ha have the same number of elements.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 255
Consider Ha = {h , a, h2a, ... hna}. We claim all hia's are distinct. For if,
hp = hja
=> h, = hJ 1 Right cancellation law
a contradiction, since h/s are distinct. Thus, H and Ha have same number of elements.
Now G is finite :. The number of distinct right cosets of H in G is also finite, say, k.
k
Let G = Ha, u Ha2 u ... u Hak = i�' Ha i

o(G) = Number of elements in Ha, + number of elements in Ha2 + ...

+ number of elements in HaK
= n + n + ... k Times = nk
n l o(G)
o(H) l o(G)
Hence the Theorem.
Converse of Lagrange's theorem is however, not true i.e., If o(H) l o(G). Then G
may not have a subgroup of order o(H).

Consider the alternating group A4. Here o(A4) = !..!. =

12 and 6 1 12. But there is no
2
subgroup of A4 whose order is 6. (see the topic "Symmetric Group" in this chapter)

8.21 . INDEX OF A SUBGROUP

Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. Then the number of right (left) cosets of H
in G is called the index of H in G. The index of H in G is denoted by [G : H] .

Theorem IV. If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G. Then fG: Hi = :�� .

Proof. Proceeding in the same way as in the proof of Lagrange's theorem, we have
o(G) = nk, where k is the number of distinct right cosets of H in G
oCG) oCG)
k= =
n oCH)
oCG)
[G: H] =
oCH) '
Theorem V. Let G be a finite group of order n show that an = e for any element a E G.
(P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2010)
Proof. Let a E G has order m, then am = e
Let H be a subgroup of G, of order m. By Lagrange's theorem,
o(H) l o(G)
min ::::::} n = mr, for some r
an = amr = (am) r = er = e
Hence the Theorem.

8.22. NORMAL SUBGROUP (P.T. U. B. Tech. Dec. 2007)

A subgroup H of a group G is called normal subgroup of G if for every g E G, h E H,
=> ghg-' E H.
256 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
or
A subgroup H of a group G is called a normal subgroup of G iff for g E G, we have
gHg-I = H \;j g E G
Example 4. Let G be the group of two by two invertible real matrices (� �).- ad - bc cj'

O. Let H = [(� �} a ", 0] . Then H is a normal subgroup of G. (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2010)
Sol. We first show that H is a subgroup of G.

(� �} (� �J
Let h I ' h2 E H such that

hl = h2 = 1 a ", o, a, ,,, o

Now
)( ) =( )
0
a
al 0
0 a1
aal 0
0 aal E H I aa , '" 0

(o ) I I
i.e., H is closed under matrix multiplication. Further) For A E H)we have
a 0 a 0 2
A=
a ) I A I = 0 a =a
Also All = a, A 2 = 0, A2 = 0, A22 = a
1 1

(� �r (� �)
]
adj A = =

Hence , ' o ��� o "', (; ; :)�[: C H ",e

( ) ( )
Thus each element belonging to H has multiplicative inverse. Hence H is a subgroup of G.

[ l
Further, For g= a b E G, h= a 0 E H, ConsIder
.

c d 0 a

(: J ( J ( J ( J ( J ad�bC �
-
b a 0 a b -I a b a 0 ad bc

[ : [ :� :
ghg-l = = c d 0 a a -c
d 0 a c d
ad - bc ad - bc

(
a 2 ba ad bC ab bC
= ea da
J -
=
a
�=
c
�
ad - bc :

[ ::d �
-c a

:(
cad - dae - cab + da 2
ad - bc ad - bc ad - bc ad - bc

� � �)
a - C)
O
b
= a (ad _ bC) = E H
ad - bc
Hence H is a normal subgroup of G under matrix multiplication.

Example 5. Let G be a group of two by two invertible real matrices (� �).- ad - bc cj' 0

under matrix multiplication. Let H= [(� �J : 1

ab '" 0 Is H a normal subgroup of G ?
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 257
Sol. We first show that H is a subgroup of G. Let A, B E H such that

A_
- ( a 0
)
° b , ab '" 0, B= (a, 0
)
° b, ' a, b, '" °

Consider AB = (� 0b) (a,O 0

b, ) (
=
aa,
° b
�J E H,

::::::} H is closed under multiplication of matrices

Thus, every element of H has multiplicative inverse. Thus H is a subgroup of G under

[) :
matrix multiplication.

Also, For g = (� �) E G, h= (� �) E H, Consider

d -b

:[ :
0 ad - bc ad -bc

[
b -c a
ad - bc ad - bc

�
-b a 2 d - b 2c - a 2b + b 2 a
b2
db
) ad bc
-c
ad - bc
a = ad - bc ad - bc
cad - dbc - cab + dab
"H

ad - bc ad - bc ad - bc ad - bc
Hence H is not a normal subgroup of G under matrix multiplication.
Example 6. Let G be the group of non-singular 2 x 2 matrices under matrix multiplica­
tion. Let H be the subset of G consisting of the lower triangular matrices i.e.; matrices of the
form (� �) where ad '" O. Show that H is a subgroup of G, but not a normal subgroup.
Sol. Let A, B E H such that

A= (a,
c,

Consider AB = (a,
c,

( a,a2 °
-- c 1a 2 + d1c2 d1d2 E ) H

H is closed under matrix multiplication.

Also for any M E H, we have M= (� �)

I M I = I� �I = ad '" ° (given)
258 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

M-l exists. Further (� �) E H is the identity of H. Hence, H is a subgroup of G.

But H is not a normal subgroup of G.

Since) for example)

Take

Consider ghg-1 = 1 2 ( )( 1 0 )( 1 2 ) ' -

1 3 1 1 1 3

=
( 1 2) ( 1 0 ) ( 3 2 ) -

1 3 1 1 -1 1

( ) ( 23
1 2
= 1 3
-2)
-1

=
(7 )
9
-

-
4
5 'l H.

Example 7. Let G be the group of non-singular 2 x 2 matrices under matrix multiplica­

tion. Let H be a subset of G consisting of matrices with determinant 1. Show that K is a normal
subgroup of G.

Sol. We know that if ! = (� �). then

det(I) = 1 I E H. i.e., H has an identity.

Let A, B E H => det (A) = 1 , det (B) = 1
Now, det (AB) = (det A) (det B) = 1.1 = 1
=> AB E H i.e., H is closed under matrix multiplication. Let A E H => det(A) = 1
Further, det(A-1) = 1/det(A) = III = 1
. . A-I E H. i.e., H has an inverse.
.. H is a subgroup of G.
Let X E G and A E H such that det A = 1
Consider det (XA X-I) = det (X) det (A) det (X-I)
1
= det (X) . 1 . =1
det (X)
XAX-l E H for all X E G
H is a normal subgroup of G.
Example 8. Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.
Sol. Let H be a subgroup of a normal group G. We show H is normal. Let hE H and
gE G. Consider
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 259
ghg-' = gg-l h h E H e G => h E G
= eh Also h, g-l E G and
=hE H SInce G is abelian
ghg-l E H. hg-l = g-l h
Hence) H is a normal subgroup of G.
Theorem VI. Let H be a subgroup and K be a normal subgroup ofa group G. Show that
HK is a subgroup of G. (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2013)
Proof. We show that (i) HK is closed under multiplication
(ii) For x E HK, we should have y-l E HK
(iii) e E HK
Let x, y E HK => x = hi kp Y = h2 k2 ) where hp h2 E H; kp k2 E K

Consider xy = h , k , h2 k2 = h, h2 (h2-1 k, h) k2 E HK
Let h2 E H => h2-1 E H e G => h2-1 E G
Since K is a normal subgroup of G) and k l E K)
.. h2-1 k, h2 E K
=> (h 2-1 k, h) k2 E K
=> h , h 2 (h2-1 k, h) k2 E HK
Thus HK is closed under multiplication.
Further) For x E HK) we have
X-I = (h, k,)-' = k,-' h,-' = h,-'(h, k,-' h,-')
Leth, E H e G => h , E G. Also k, E K
=> k,-' E K
Since K is a normal subgroup of G
h 1 k1-1 h 1-1 E K
=> h,-' (h, k,-') h,-' E HK
Thus y-l E HK.
Finally, e E H, e E K => e . e E HK => e E HK
Thus HK is a subgroup of G.
Theorem VII. Let H is a subgroup of a group G. Then H is a normal subgroup of G iff
aH = Ha \j a E G.
Proof. Let H is a normal subgroup of G. Then for a E G, we have
aHa-1 = H
(aH a-1)a = Ha
aH(a-1 a) = Ha
aH e = Ha
aH = Ha
Theorem VIII. The intersection of any number of normal subgroups of G is a normal
subgroup of G.
260 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Proof. Let HI ' H2, H3, .... be a collection of normal subgroups of a group G. Let

H= ,(1 Hi' We show H is a normal subgroup of G.

Now the intersection of any collection of subgroups is a subgroup. :. H is a subgroup

of G. We show H is a normal subgroup of G. Let g E G, hE H => hE n

i=1
Hi => hE Hi Vi
But each Hi is normal in G

ghg-I E Hi Vi => gh g-I E n

i= 1
= H,

ghg-I E H
=> H is a normal subgroup of G.
Cor. Prove that intersection of two normal subgroups is again a normal subgroup.
(P.T. U. B.Tech. May 2007, May 2006)
Remark. Union of two normal subgroups may not be a normal subgroups
Consider G :::: The group of integers under +
H I :::: { ... - 6, - 4, - 2, 0, 2, 4, 6 ...}
H2 :::: { ... - 12, - 9, - 6, - 3, 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, ...} are subgroups of G under +.
But H , U H2 = {... - 4, - 3, - 2, 0, 2, 3, 4, 6, ...}
Since 2 E H , U H2 , 3 E H , U H2 => 2 + 3 = 5 'l H, U H 2 i.e., H , u H2 is not closed under +.
Hence H , u H2 is not a subgroup of G under +.
Theorem IX. Let G is a group and H is a normal subgroup of G. Let G IH denotes the
collection of right (left) cosets of H in G. Show that G IH is a group under the coset multiplica­
tion defined by
aHbH = abH V a,b E G
Proof. (i) Closure Property. By definition, G/H = {aH : a E G}
Let aH , bH E G/H and consider
(aH) (bH) = a(Hb)H = a(bH)H I Ha = aH <=? H is normal in G (Theorem VII)
= (ab) HH
= abH I HH = H
Hence coset multiplication is well-defined i.e., G/H is closed under coset multiplication.
(ii) Associativity. Let aH, bH, cH E G/H for all a, b, c E G
Consider aH(bH cH) = aH(bcH) = abcH I Using (i)
Also (aHbH)cH = (abH)cH = abcH
=> aH(bHcH) = (aHbH)cH
Thus associativity holds in G/H.
(iii) Identity. Let aH E G/H for a E G.
Consider (aH)H = a(HH) = aH I HH = H
=> H is the identity element of G/H.
(iv) Inverse. Let aH E G/H and consider
(a-I H) (aH) = (a-I a)H = eH = H
Le., a-I H is the inverse of aH
Thus G/H is a group under coset multiplication.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 261

8.23. QUOTIENT GROUP

Let G be a group and H be a normal subgroup ofG. Let G/H denotes the set of right (left)
cosets of H in G. Then G/H is a group (Proved in above theorem IX) called quotient group, or
factor group under the coset multiplication defined by
(aH) (bH) = abH.
8.24. (a) CYCLIC SUBGROUP
Let G be any group and a E G. Then all the integral powers of a, given by
3 O 3
... ) a- , a-2 , a-\ a = e, a, a2 , a ,
form a subgroup of G called the cyclic group generated by a and is denoted by gp(a) or < a >.
•••

The element a is called generator of G.

Order of a, a E G. The smallest positive integer m such that am = e, is known as order
of a and is denoted by o(a) or (a).
If I a I = m, then the cyclic subgroup gp(a) has m elements given by
gp(a) = {e, a, a2 , a3 , ... , am-I}
e.g., If G = (±1, ±i), then G is a cyclic subgroup generated by i
O 3 4
Since i = 1, i1 = i, i2 = -1, i = - i, i = 1
i.e., n
every element of G is of the form i , n E Z.
Also, the element i is a generator of G.
Example. The group G = {I, w, w2} is a cyclic group. Since
WI = w
w2 = w2
w3 = 1
i.e., Hence each element of G is some power of w. Therefore, G is a cyclic group and w is a
generator of G.
The group G = {± 1, ± i} is cyclic with 'i' as generator.

8.24. (b) CYCLIC GROUP

A group whose all elements are integral powers of one or more elements is called cyclic.
The order of a generator of the cyclic subgroup is equal to the order of the group.
is a cyclic subgroup.
Remark.
e.g., Z 12 :::: [Z 1 2 ; +1 2]
Sol. Z, 2 = {O, 1, 2, ... 11, + , 2}'
Consider 5=5
5 +, 2 5 = 10
5 + , 2 5 + ,2 5 = 3
5 + , 2 5 + , 2 5 + ,2 5 = 8
5 + , 2 5 + ,2 5 + , 2 5 + 2 5 = 25 = 1 etc.
'
Thus we see that every element of Z, 2 is of the form 5n for some n E Z. Thus 5 is a
generator of Z 12 '
Hence [Z, 2' + 12] is a cyclic subgroup with 5 as generator. Since inverse of 5 is 7 (5 +,2 7 = 0),
therefore, 7 is also a generator. (theorem X below)
Example 9. The group of integers Z is cyclic under addition.
Sol. Z = {O, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... }
Since 1=1
1+1=2
262 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
1+1+1=3
1 + 1 + 1 + ... 1
= n etc
n times
Thus we see that every element of Z is of the form n (l). Thus Z is cyclic group. Hence
Z = < 1 >. Also Z = < - l >.
Theorem X. If a is a generator of a cyclic group G, show that inverse of a is also a
generator.
Proof. Let G = <a> i.e., G is a cyclic group and a is its generator. Let g E G, then
g = ar for some r E Z
Take S
r = - s) E Z) we have
g = a-' = (a-I), for some s E Z
Thus every element g E G is of the form (a-I),. Hence a-I is a generator.
Theorem XI. Every cyclic group is abelian. (P.T.V. B. Tech. May 2006, May 2005)
Proof. Let G be a cyclic group with a as its generator. i.e., let G = <a> and g, E G.
Then gl = ar for some r E Z
Let g2 E G, then g2 = a' for some s E Z
Consider gl . g2 = ar as = ar+s
•

= as+r I r + s = s + r as Z is abelian

=> G is abelian.
Theorem XII. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
(P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2009)
Proof. Let G = <a> i.e., G is a cyclic group with a as its generator. Let H be a subgroup
of G.
Case I. If H = (e), then H = <e> i.e., H is a cyclic group with e as a generator.
Case II. If H '" [e], then o(H) :> 2 i.e., there exists e '" a E H.
Since H is a subgroup) it must be closed under inverses and so contains positive powers
of a. Let m is the smallest power of a such that am E H. We claim b = am is a generator of H. Let
X E H. But H c G . . X E G.
Since G is a cyclic group G with a as its generator. :. x = an for some n E Z.
Dividing n by m) we get a quotient q and remainder r. i.e.,
n = mq + r) 0 :::; r < m
Now an = amq+r = amq . ar = bq . ar
ar = b-q a
=> •
n
Here an ) b E H and since H is a subgroup . . b-q an E H which means ar E H.
But m was the least positive integer of a such that am . E H and r < m .
. . We must have r = 0
Hence an = b q for some q E Z
::::::} X = an = bq i.e.) every element x E H is of the form bq for some q E Z
. . H is cyclic.
Theorem XIII. If G is a cyclic group of order n and a is a generator of G. Let (n, k) = d.
Then the order of the cyclic group generated by ka is !!:. where d is the greatest common divisor
d
of n and k.
Proof. Proof of this theorem is beyond the scope.
Example 10. Find the order of the cyclic subgroup generated by 18 in Z30'
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 263
Sol. We know that 1 is a generator of Z30' Also 18 = 18(1) i.e., k =18, a = 1, n = 30
The greatest common divisor of (n, k) = (30, 18) = 6 = d

.. The order of cyclic subgroup generated by

30
18 = 6 = 5. (Theorem XIII)
Theorem XIV. Every group ofprime order is cyclic.
Proof. Let G be a group of order p, p is prime. It means G must contain at least two
elements. Since 2 is the least positive integer which is prime i.e., if a E G, then o(a) :> 2.
Let o(a) = m and H be a cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, then
o(H) = o(a) = m
I The order of a cyclic group is equal to the order of its generator
Also By Lagrange's theorem,
o(H) l o(G) => m I p
=> p = 1 or p = m
But p # l .. p = m
o(H) = o(G) => H = G.
Hence G is cyclic since H is cyclic.
Theorem XV. Let G is a cyclic group of order p (p is prime). Show that G has no proper
subgroups except G and {e}.
Proof. Let G is a cyclic group of order p.
Let H be any subgroup of G and o(H) = m.
By Lagrange theorem, o(H) I o(G) => m I p
=> p = 1 or p = m
But p # 1 .. p = m
i.e., o(H) = m = p => H is a group of prime order and hence cyclic. Also o(G) = m
.. G = H i.e. G has no proper subgroups.
Remark. Cyclic subgroup generated by a. Let G be any group and G. Define aO :::: e the
aE ;
cyclic subgroup generated by a, denoted by where denotes the set of all powers of a, is defined
<a>, < a>
by <a> :::: {......
2 2 3
.....}
, a- , a-I , e, a, a , a ,
<a> contains the identity element closed under group operation, contains inverses.
e,
. . <a> is a subgroup of G and is called the
cyclic subgroup generated a. by
Example 11. Consider the group G = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} under multiplication modulo 7.
(a) Find the multiplication table of G
(b) Find ;51, [51, 6-1
(c) Find the orders and subgroups generated by 2 and 3
(d) Is G cyclic ? (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2013)
Sol. (a) By definition, a x7 b = The remainder when ab is divided by 7
For e.g., 5 x7 6 = 30 = 2 (when 30 is divided by 7, the remainder is 2)
The multiplication table is shown below Table 8.10
Table 8.10
X7 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 6 5 4 3 2 1
264 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(b) The identity element of G is 1. (As the first row inside the table is identical with the
top most row).
2-1 = 4 (In the table, the intersection of 2 and 4 is 1)
3-1 = 5
6-1 = 6
(c) We have 2=2
2 x7 2 = 4
2 x7 2 x7 2 = 8 = 1
0 (2) = 3
Hence <2> = The subgroup generated by 2 = { 1 , 2, 4}
Also 3=3
3 x7 3 = 9 = 2,
3 x 7 3 x 7 3 = 27 = 6
3 x 7 3 x 7 3 x 7 3 = 81 = 4
3 x 7 3 x 7 3 x 7 3 x7 3 = 243 = 5
3 x 7 3 x 7 3 x 7 3 x 7 3 x 7 3 = 729 = 1
.. 0(3) = 6. . . The group generated by 3 is given as
<3> = {1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = G
(d) Since 0(3) = 6 = o(G) => G is cyclic. Recall that a group G is cyclic if there exists an
element a E G such that o(a) = o(G).
Example 12. Let G = [1, 5, 7, 11J under multiplication modulo 12.
(a) Find the multiplication table of G
(b) Find the order of each element
(c) Is G cyclic ?
Sol. (a) We know a x ,2 b = The remainder when the product ab is divided by 12
Le., 5 x , 2 7 = 35 = 1 1 etc.
The multiplication table is shown below (Table 8.11)
Table 8.11
X, 2 1 5 7 11
1 1 5 7 11
5 5 1 11 7
7 7 11 1 5
11 11 7 5 1
(b) Order (1) = 1 (since 1 is the identity element)
To find order of 5. 5 x,2 5 = 25 = 1
.. 0(5) = 2
To find order of 7. 7 x,2 7 = 49 = 1
.. 0(7) = 2
To find order of 11. 11 x ,2 11 = 121 = 1
.. 0(11) = 2
(c) We know that a group G is cyclic if there exists an element aE G such that
o(a) = o(G). Since 0(1) = 1, 0(5) = 2, 0 (7) = 2, 0(11) = 2 i.e.,
There is no element of G whose order = 4
.. G is not cyclic.
Example 13. Consider the group G = {l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} under multiplication modulo 7.
(a) Find the multiplication table of G
(b) Prove that G is a group
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 265
(c) Find ;51, ,,1, ()1
(d) Find the orders and subgroups generated by 2 and 3
(e) Is G cyclic ? Justify your answer (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2009)
Sol. (a) and (b). Proceed yourself as in above example 12.
(c) 2-1 = 4, 3-1 = 5, 6-1 = 6
(d) < 2 > = {I, 2, 4}, < 3 > = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(e) Since o(B) = 6 = o(G) => G is cyclic.
Example 14. Let G be a reduced residue system modulo 15 say, G = {I, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13,
14}. Then G is a group under multiplication modulo 15
(a) Find the multiplication table of G.
(b) Find ;51, 7-1 , 1 1 -1
(c) Find the orders and subgroups generated by 2, 7 and 1 1 .
(d) Is G cyclic ?
Sol. (a) The multiplication of G is shown below (Table 8.12):
Table 8.12
x 1 2 4 7 8 11 13 14
1 1 2 4 7 8 11 13 14
2 2 4 8 14 1 7 11 13
4 4 8 1 13 2 14 7 11
7 7 14 13 4 11 2 1 8
8 8 1 2 11 4 13 14 7
11 11 7 14 2 13 1 8 4
13 13 11 7 1 14 8 4 2
14 14 13 11 8 7 4 2 1
(b) From the table, 2 x 1 5 8 = 1 i.e., 8 is the inverse of 2. Hence 2-1 =8
Also, 7 x 1 5 13 = 1 => 13 is the inverse of 7. Hence 7-1 = 13
Further 11 x 1 5 11 = 1 => 1 1 is the inverse of 1 1 . Hence 11-1 = 11.
(c) (i) We have 2 x 1 52 = 4
2 x 1 52 x 1 52 = 8
2 x 1 52 x 152 x 1 52 = 1
order of 2 = 0(2) = 4
The group generated by 2 is given by
< 2 > = {2°, 2\ 2 2 , 2 3} = {I, 2, 4, 8}
(ii) We have 7 x 157 = 4
7 X 15 7 X 1 5 7 = 4 X 1 5 7 = 13
7 x 1 5 7 X 1 5 7 X 1 5 7 = 13 X 1 5 7 = 1
order of 7 = 0(7) = 4
The group generated by 7 is given by
<7> = {70 , 7\ 72 , 73} = {I, 7, 4, 13}
(iii) 1 1 x 15 1 1 = 1 . . order of 1 1 = 0(11) = 2
The subgroup generated by 1 1 is
<11> = { 11 0 , 11'} = {I, l l}
(d) The group G is cyclic if 3 an element whose order equals to the order of G. Here
O(G) = 8
266 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
But we have proved that
2 x 15 2 X 1 5 2 X 1 5 2 = 1 0(2) = 4
4 X 15 4 = 1 . . 0(4) = 2
7 X ,5 7 X 15 7 X 15 7 = 1 . . 0(7) = 4
8 X 1 5 8 = 64 = 4
8 X 15 8 X 15 8 = 4 X 15 8 = 2
8 X 15 8 X 15 8 X 15 8 = 2 X ,5 8 = 1 0(8) = 4
1 1 x 1 5 11 = 1 0(11) = 2
Also, 13 X , 5 13 = 4
13 x 1 5 13 X 1 5 13 = 4 x 1 5 13 = 7
13 x 1 5 13 x 1 5 13 x 1 5 13 = 7 x 1 5 13 = 1 . . 0(13) = 4
14 X 1 5 14 = 1 0(14) = 2
Hence, there is no element a E G such that o(a) = o(G) = 8
. . G is not cyclic.

8.25. MORPHISMS
The word 'morphism ' is a combination of various terms like, homomorphism,
isomorphism, actomorphism, endomorphism etc.
8.25. 1 . Group Homomorphism
(P. T. U. B. Tech. May 2007, May 2006)
A mapping <p from a group (G,.). into a group (G, * ) is said to be a group homomorphism if
<p (a . b) = <p (a) * <p(b) \;j a, b E G
8.25.2. Group Isomorphism (P.T. U. B. Tech. Dec. 2007)
A homomorphism <p which is one-one and onto is called isomorphism and the groups G
and G' are called isomorphic, written as G G'. ==

A homomorphism which is onto is called epimorphism

A homomorphism which is one-one is called monomorphism.

8.26. KERNEL f

If f is a homomorphism of G to G , then kernel f is the set defined by

Ker f= [X E G : f(x) = e, e E G]

8.27. IMAGE f
The image f is the set of the images of the elements under f i.e.,
rm(!) = (b E G' : f(a) = b for a E G) where f is a homomorphism of G to G'.
'
The term 'range [ is also used for 'image [ .
'
Example 15. Let G be a group of real numbers under addition and let G' be the group of
positive real numbers under multiplication. Define f: G � G' by f(a) = 2".
Show that f is a homomorphism. Also show that G and G' are isomorphic.
Sol. Given fis a mapping from (G, +) to (G', .) defined by f(a) = 2a
Let a, b E G and consider
f(a + b) = 2a+ b = 2a . 2b = f(a) . feb)
Hence f : G � G' is homomorphism.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 267
To check f is one-one. Let f(a) = f(b)
2a = 2 b => a=b
f is one-one.
To check f is onto : For each a E R, we have 2a is a positive real number. Thus
f(a) = 2a is onto.
Hence f: G � G' is an isomorphism and the groups G and G' are isomorphic i.e., G G'. ==

Example 16. Let f : G --'> G' be defined by f(Z) = 1 Z 1 where G = group of non-zero
complex numbers under multiplication and 0' = group of non-zero real numbers under multi­
plication. Show that f is a group homomorphism. Also describe geometrically the Kernel K of
the homomorphism f.
Sol. Let Zl ' Z2 E G be any two non-zero complex numbers.
Consider f(Z, Z) = 1 Z, Z 2 1 = 1 Z, 1 1 Z2 1 = f (Z,) f(Z)
. . f is a group homomorphism.
Also by definition,
Kernel f = { Z E G : f (Z) = 1 , 1 is the identity of G'}
= { Z E G : 1 Z 1 = I},
which is a circle with unit radius.

Example 17. Let G be the group of two by two invertible matrices (� �)- ad - bc '" O.

A
Define 8 : G --'> G by 8 (A) = 2 . Show that 8 is a group homomorphism.
1 A1
A B
Sol. Let A, B E G such that 8 (A) = 2 , 8 (B) = TB7
1A1
AB AB
Consider 8(AB) = 2 = A 2 B I2
I AB I I I 1
A B
=
A
1 1
2 . TB7 = 8 (A) . 8 (B)
. . 8 is a group homomorphism.
Example 18. Let G be a group and g E G. Define a function f : G --'> G by f(x) = gxg-1
Show that g is an isomorphism of G to G.
Sol. Given f : G --'> G is a function defined by f(x) = gXg-l for each x E G
Let x, y E G and consider
f(xy) = g(xy)g-l = g(xg-1gy)g-1 = (gXg-l)(gyg-l) = f(x)f(y)
i.e., f is a homomorphism of G to G.
To show f is one-one : Let f(x) = fry)
gxg-' = gyg-l
(gxg-1)g = (gyg-l)g
268 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

=> gX(g-lg) = gy (g-'g)

=> gxe = gye
=> gx = gy
=> g-l (gX) = g-l (gy)
=> (g-lg)X = (g-'g)y
=> ex = ey
=> x=y
i.e., f is one-one.
To show f is onto : Let z E G and consider
f(g-l zg) = g(g -l zg)g-l = (gg-l) Z(gg-l) = eze = z
Thus for each z E G, we have g-l zg E G such that f(g-' zg) = z i.e., f is onto.
Hence G = G.
Example 19. Define 8 : Z6 to Z3 by 8 (n) = n(1) (the sum of n ones in Z3)
Show that 8 is a homomorphism. If so, find Ker 8 and Im(8).
Sol. By definition, Z6 = {O, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5} and Z3 = [0, 1 , 2]
Consider 8(0) = 0, 8(1) = 1, 8(2) = 1 + 1 = 2
8(3) = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 = 0, 8(4) = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4 = 1,
8(5) = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 5 = 2
Thus for each n, m E Z6) we have
8(n+6 m) = (n + m) (1) = n(l) +3 m(l) = 8(n) + 3 8(m)
Le., 8 is a homomorphism
To find ker a : Let x E Ker 8
8(x) = 0, the identity of Z3
x(l) = 0
::::::} The sum of x ones which equals to zero, which means
x = 0, 3
Le., Ker 8 = {O, 3}
Also Im(8) = (8(n) : n E Z6} = (n(l) : n E Z6} = [0, 1 , 2] = Z 3
Theorem XVI. Let f: G � G ' is a group homomorphism. Then
(a) f(e) = e: e E G, e' E G'
(b) f(a-i) = (f(a)fi \;j a E G.
Proof. (a) Given f : G � G' is a homomorphism from G to G'. For x E G, consider
f(x) e' = f(x) I e' is identity of G'
= f(xe) = f(x) f(e) I f is homomorphism
e' = f(e) I Left cancellation law
f(e) = e'
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 269

(b) From Part (a), e' = f(e) = f(aa-1)

= f(a) f(a-1) I f is homomorphism
=> f(a) f(a-1) = e'
=> (f(a» -l f(a) f(a-1) = (f(a» -l e'
=> f(a-1) = (f(a» -l
Theorem XVII. If f is a homomorphism of G to G with Ker f = K. Show that K is a
normal subgroup of G. (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2007)
Proof. By definition,
Ker f = (x E G: f(x) = e', e' E Gj =K
We first show that Ker fis a subgroup of G
Let x, Y E Ker f => f(x) = e', fry) = e'
Consider f(xy-l) = f(x) f(y-l) I Homomorphism
= f(x) (f(y» -l = e' (e;-' = e'
Xy-l E Ker f => Ker f is a subgroup of G.
Let g E G and x E Ker f, consider
f(gxg-1) = f(g) f(xg-1) I f is homomorphism
l
= f(g) f(x) f(g- ) = f(g) f(x) (f(g» - l
= f(g) e' (f(g» -l = f(g) (f(g» -l = e'
=> gXg-l E Ker f => Ker f is a normal subgroup of G.
Theorem XVIII. Let f be a homomorphism of a group G to a group Gc Let Im(f) be the
homomorphism image of G in Gc Then Im(f) is a subgroup of Gc
Proof. B y definition, 1m(/) = ([(x) : x E Gj
Take e E G => e' = f(e) E 1m(/)
i.e. 1m(/) '" <1>, we first show that 1m(/) is a subgroup of G'. Let X, y' E 1m(/)
=> There exists x, y E G such that f(x) = x, fry) = y'
Consider xy'-l = f(x) (f(y» -l
= f(x) f(y-l) I f is a homomorphism
= f(X(.,.-') E Im(f) I x, Y E G and G is a group :. Xy-l E G
x y'-l E Im (f)
=> 1m(/) is a subgroup of G'.
Theorem XIX. State and prove Fundamental Theorem ofGroup Homomorphism
(P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2012)
Statement. Let f : G --; G' is a group from G to G' homomorphism. Then G/K '" G',
where K = Ker f
Proof. Givenfis a group homomorphism of G to G'. Also, Ker fis a normal subgroup of G.
:. G/Ker f is defined.
Define 8 : G/K --; G' by 8(Kx) = f(x), K = Ker f
We show 8 is well-defined) homomorphism) one-one and onto.
270 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sis well-defined : Consider Kx = Ky
Xy-' E K = Ker f Ha = Hb <=? ab-1 E H
f(xy-l) = e, e E G'
f(x) try-I) = e I Homomorphism
1
f(x) ([(y» - = e
f(x) = f(y)
8(Kx) = 8(Ky)
=> 8 is well-defined.
e is homomorphism. Consider
8(KxKy) = 8(K xy) = f(xy) I H aH b = Hab
= f(x) f(y) = 8(Kx) 8(Ky)
===> 8 is a homomorphism.

S is one-one : Let 8(Kx) = 8(Ky)

=> f(x) = f(y)
f(x) ([(y» -1 = e
f(x) f(y-l) = e
f(Xy-l) = e
Xy-' E K = Ker f
Kx = Ky I Ha = H b <=? ab-1 E H
::::::} 8 is one-one.

We lastly show that 8 is onto. Let y E G'. Since G' is the Image of G under f, there exists
x E G such that f(x) = y => 8(Kx) = y i.e., 8 is onto. Therefore we have proved that 8 is
homomorphism) one-one and onto
G I K = G'.
Example 20_ Let Z be the additive group of integers. Examine whether the function
f: Z --; Z defined by f (x) = 2x 'd x E Z is a group isomorphism? (P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2013)
SoL Let x, y E Z and consider
f (x + y) = 2 (x + y)
= 2x + 2y
= f (x) + f (y)
. . f is a group homomorphism
To show f is one-one:
Let f (x) = f (y)
=> 2x = 2y
=> x = y 'd x, Y E Z
. . f is one-one
To show f is onto:
Let y E Z and consider x E Z such that
y = f (x) = 2x
y
x= -'
2
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 271

If y =
3
3 E Z, then x = "2 'l Z. f is not onto.
Hence f is not a group isomorphism.
Example 21. (a) Let G be a group of non-zero complex numbers under multiplication.
Let G/ be the group of non-zero real numbers under multiplication. Consider the mapping
f : G � G'defined by f(z) = I z I . Show that G 1 Ker f,= G�
(b) Define 8 : Z � Zl O by
8(n) = The remainder when n is divided by 10. Show that 8 is a homomorphism from Z
to Zl O ' Also find Ker 8 and prove that Z 1 Zl O Zl O'
=

Sol. (a) Given f : G � G' defined by

f(z) = 1 z 1
Let zp z2 E G and consider
f(Z, z) = 1 Z, z2 1 = 1 z, 1 1 z2 1 = f(Z,) f(z)
=> f is a homomorphism of G to G'.
By fundamental theorem of group homomorphism, G 1 Ker f '= G'.
(b) Given 8 : Z -; Z , D ' defined by
8(n) = The remainder when n is divided by 10
Let m) n E Z and consider
8(m + n) = m + 1 0 n = 8(m) + 10 8(n)
Thus 8 is a homomorphism
Now, Ker 8 = (n : 8(n) = 0, The identity of Z l O}
= {IOn : n E Z} = 10Z
By fundamental theorem of group homomorphism.
Z 1 Ker 8 '= Z l O
=> Z 1 10Z '= Z l O '
Example 22. Let S = N x N and * be the operation on S defined by
(a, b) * (a', b') = (a + a', b + b')
(a) Show that * is associative. Also, show that (S, *) is a semi-group
(b) Define f : (S, *) -; (Z, +) by f(a, b) = a - b. Show that f is a homomorphism.
(c) Find the congruence relation - in S determined by the homomorphism f. i.e., x - y if
f(x) = f(y)
(d) Describle SI-. Does SI- have an identity element? Does SI- have an inverse element?
Sol. (a) Let x, y, z E S be such that x = (a, b), y = (c, d), z = (e, f) where a, b, c, d, e, fare
elements of N. Consider.
x * (y * z) = (a, b) * «c, d) * (e, f))
= (a, b) * (c + e, d + f)
= (a + (c + e), b + (d + f)) . . . (1)
and (x * y) * z = «a, b) * (c, d» * (e, f)
= (a + c, b + d) * (e, f)
= «a + c) + e, (b + d) + f)
= (a + (c + e), b + (d + f)) . . . (2)
since a, b, c, d, e, f are elements of N, therefore
associativity under addition holds in N
272 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
From (1) and (2)
x * (y * z) = (x * y) * z \;f x, y, z E S
Also) given that S is closed under *. Therefore, (8, *) is a semigroup under *.
Consider f (x * y) = f«a, b) * (c, d)
= f(a + c, b + d)
= a + c - (b + d)
= (a - b) + (c - d)
= f(a, b) + f(c, d)
= f(x) + fry)
f is a homomorphism
(c) We know that a relation � on a non-empty set S is said to be a congruence relation on
S if
(i) � is an equivalence relation
(ii) If a - a', b - b'. Then ab - a'b'
Also, given x - y if f(x) = fry) \;f x, Y E S
Here S = N x N and if X E S, then 3 a, b E N s.t. x = (a, b) \;f a, b E N
Similarly, y = (c, d) \;f c, d E N
Therefore, "x - y iff(x) = f(y)" means (a, b) - (c, d) iff(a, b) = f(c, d)
a-b=c-d
a+d=b+c
Thus, (a, b) - (c, d) if a + d = b + c \;f a, b, c, d E N . . . (1)
Here, the relation - defined by (1) is an equivalence relation (see example 17 (b), page
65 in chapter-2 "Relations")
We next show that the relation � is a congruence relation on S. For this, we show if
(a, b) - (a', bi and (c, d) - (c', di. Then, we must have
(a, b) * (c, d) - (a', bi * (c', di . . . (2)
Now (a, b) - (a', bi => a + b' = b + a' . . . (3)
and (c, d) - (c', di => c + d' = d + c' . . . (4) I Using (1)
Therefore (2) will be true if
(a + c, b + d) - (a' + c', b' + di by the definition of *
or if a + c + b' + d' = b + d + a' + c'
or if a + b' + c + d' = b + a' + d + c' I Using (1)
or if a + b' + c + d' = a + b' + c + d' I Using (3) and (4)
which is true
Hence, � is the required congruence relation on S.
(d) We know that if R is a congruence relation on a non-empty set S, then SIR, the set of
all equivalence classes of elements of S, form a semi-group under the operation on the
equivalence classes, defined by
[a] [b] = lab]
To describe S/�. Since � is a congruence relation on
S, S/� is a semi-group under the
operation on the equivalence classes as defined above. By using fundamental theorem of
semi-group homomorphism, S/- is isomorphic to f(Z) where
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 273
f: (S, *)
--; (Z, +) is a semi-group homomorphism defined by f(a, b) = a - b where
S = N x N and a, b E N
f(Z) = (m E Z: There exists X E S for which f(x) = m}
= (m E Z: f(a, b) = m \;f a, b E N}
= {m E Z: a - b = m \;f a, b E N}
= {m E Z = a = b + m \;f a, b E N}
=Z
Hence, S/- is isomophic to (Z, +).
It implies that S/- and Z have same identity as well as same inverse (additive).
Since (Z, +) is an additive group under addition, (Z, +) has additive identity as well as
additive inverse. Therefore, S/� has additive identity as well as additive inverse.
Example 23. Let S = N x N be the set of ordered pairs of positive integers with the
operation* such that
(a, b) * (c, d) = (ad + be, bd)
(a) Find (3, 4) * (1, 5) and (2, 1) * (4, 7).
(b) Show that * is associative. Also S is a semi-group.
a
(c) Define r- (S, *) --; (Q, +) by f(a, b) = b ' Show that f is a homomorphism.
(d) Find the congruence relation - in S determined by the homomorphism f, i.e., x - y if
f(x) = f(y)
(e) Describe SI-. Does SI- have on identity elements? Does it have inverses?
Sol. (a) (3, 4) * (1, 5) = (15 + 4, 20) = (19, 20)
(2, 1) * (4, 7) = (14 + 4, 7) = (18, 7)
(b) Let (a, b), (c, d), (e, f) E N x N, then
«a, b) * (c, d» * (e, f) = (ad + be, b d) * (e, f)
= «a d + be) f + bde, bdf)
= (adf + bcf + bde, bdf) ... (1)
Also, (a, b) * «c, d) * (e, f) = (a, b) x (cf + de, df)
= (adf + b(cf + de), bdf)
= (adf + bcf + bde, bdf) ... (2)
From (1) and (2),
«a, b) * (c, d» * (e, f) = (a, b) * «c, d) * (e, f)
* is associative
Since, S is closed under * and * is associative. Hence S is a semi-group.
(c) Let x = (a, b), y = (c, d)
Then f (x * y) = f«a, b) * (c, d» = [(ad + be, bd)
ad + bc a c
= +-
bd b d
= f (a, b) + f (c, d) = [(x) + f ry)
Th us, f is a homomorphism.
274 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(d) We know that a relation � on a non-empty set S is said to be a congruence relation on

S if
(i) � is an equivalence relation
(ii) If a � a' b � b', then ab � a'b'
Given x � y if f(x) = fry) \;j x, Y E S
Here S = N x N and if X E S then, 3 a, b E N such that x = (a, b) \;j a, b E N
Similarly, y = (e, d) \;j e, d E N
Therefore, "x � y iff(x) = f(y)" means (a, b) � (e, d) if
f(a, b) = f(e, d)
e a
=
b d
ad = be
Thus, (a, b) - (e, d) if ad = be \;j a, b, e, d E N . . . (1)
Here, the relation - defined by (1) is an equivalence relation (See example 17(b), page
65 in chapter·2 "Relations")
We next show that the relation "'" is a congruence relation on S. For this) we show
If (a,b) � (a', bi and (e, d) � (e', di, then we must have
(a, b) * (e, d) � (a', bi * (e', di . . . (2)
(a, b) � (a', bi, then
ab' = ba' [Using (1)] . . . (3)
Again, if (e, d) � (e', di, then
cd' = dc' [Using (1)] . . . (4)
Also, (2) will be true if
(ad + be, bd) - (a'd' + b'e', b'di by the definition of *
or if (ad + be) b'd' = bd(a'd' + b'ei I Using (1)
or if (ad) (b'di + (be) (b'di = (bai (ddi + b(dei b'
or if (be) (b'di + (be) (b'di = (abi (ddi + b(edi b' I Using (3) and (4)
or if 2beb'd' = (ad) b'd' + (be) b'd'
or if 2beb'd' = (be) b'd' + (be) b'd' I Using (1) ad = be
or if 2bcb'd' = 2bcb'd') which is true
Hence) � is the requid congruence relation on S.
(e) We know that if R is a congruence relation on a non·empty set
S, then SIR, the set of
all equivalence classes of elements of S) form a semi-group under the operation on the
equivalence classes) defined by
[a] [b] = lab]
To describe S/�. Since � is a congruence relation on S) therefore) Sf,..., is a semi-group
under the operation on the equivalence classes defined above.
Also, by using fundamental theorem of semi-group homomorphism, S/- is
isomorphic to f(Q) where

f: (S, *) ....; (Q, +) is a homomorphism defined by f(a, b) = � where

b
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 275
S = N x N and a, b E N
Now f(Q) = (q E Q: there exists X E S for which f(x) = q}
= (q E Q: f(a, b) = q V a, b E N}

{
= qE Q : f = q V a, b E N}
= Q\ the set of +ve rational numbers
Hence, S/� is isomorphic to ( Q+ , +).
Further, since S/- and (Q + , +) are isomorphic, both S/� and (Q + , +) have same identity
as well as same inverse.
But, Q + , the set of positive rational number has no identity (additive) as well as no
inverse (additive) therefore) S/� has no identity and no inverse.
Example 24. Show that G = {I, - 1, i, - i} is a group under multiplication. Also G '" Z4 by
giving an explicit isomorphism r G --; Z4'
Sol. Given G = {I, - 1 , i, - i} such that i2 = - 1 . Clearly
G is a group under multiplication. (prove yourself)
Z4 = {O, 1 , 2, 3}
Define f: G --; Z4 by
f (l) = 0, [ (- 1) = 2 2
f (i) = 1 , [ (- i) = 3 ---,f----T+ 3
G ", Z4'
G Z4
Theorem xx. Any finite cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to Zn'
(P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2012)
Proof. Let G = <a> be a finite cyclic group, with a as its generator and let o(G) = n
Define f : Z --; G by f(m) = am
Let m, r E Z such that f(m) = am, f(r) = a'
Consider f(m + r) = am+, = am . a' = f(m) f(r)
Thus fis a homomorphism of Z to G.
By fundamental theorem of group homomorphism. Z I Ker f", G
But if s E Ker f, then by definition,
f(s) = e, e E G
<=?
<=? o(a)ls
<=? nls
<=? s = nk) for some k
<=? S
E <n>
<=? Ker f= <n>
Hence Z I <n> '" G or G '" Zn where Zn = Z/<n>.
'
276 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

8.28. DIHEDRAL GROUP

Let D n = {e, x, X2 , ... , xn-\ y, yx, yx2 , ... , yx"-l} be a set of 2n element satisfying
x" = e, y2 = e, xy = yx-1 , Then Dn is a group called as Dihedral group for n ;::: 3
or
3
Let D n = {e, y, y2 , y , ... , yn-\ x, xy, .xy 2 , ... , xyn-l} be a set of 2n elements satisfying
y = e. x" = e. xy = y-1x. then D n is a group called Dihedral group for n <: 3.
n
or
Let G = {x :I, i = 0); j = 0,
i 1, 2, ... n, satisfying x2 = e, yn = e, xy = y-1x}.
Then G is a group, known as Dihedral group,
Remark. The order of the dihedral group Dn is given as O(D) :::: 2n.
Example 1. Consider the dihedral group Dn, n <: 3 defined by
3
Dn - {e, y, y2, Y , ... , yn-1, x, xy, xy2, ... xyn-1j
-

satisfying yn = e, x" = e, xy = y-1x.

Find the product (a) (xy)(xy2) (b) yxy2 in terms of elements ofDn
Sol. (a) Consider xy = y-'X I By definition
=> (xy)x-' = (y-'X)X-' = Y-'(XX-') = y- l
=> xyx = y-l ... (1) I ': x2 = e => x = X-'
Further,
2 2
(xy) (xy ) = (xyx) y = (y-l)y 2 I Using (1)
=y
(b) Consider xy = y-'X
=> y(xy) = y(y-lX) = (yy-l)X = X
=> (yxy) (y) = xy
=> yxy2 = xy
3
Example 2. Let H = {y, y2, y , ..., yn-1, yn = e} be a subgroup of Dn, n :> 3. Show that H is
a normal subgroup of Dn
Sol. By definition,
3
D n = {e, y, y2 , y , ... , yn-\ x, xy, xy2 , ... , xyn-l}
satisfying yn = e, x2 = e, .xy = y-1x.
Let g E D n and y! E H, 1 s j s n
Case I. If g = y!, then
gy!g-l = y!y!y-J = y! E H
. . H is a normal subgroup of D n
Case II. If g = xy" 1 s i s n, then
gy!g-l = xyiY!(xyi)-l = xyi +Jy-iX-' (ab)-l = b-1 a-1
= xy!x-' = (xyx-')i I See remark below
= (y-IX x-')i I xy = y-'X
l
= (y- )i E H
. . H is a normal subgroup of D n o

Remark.
(xyx-l)i = (xyx-11) (xyx-l1) (xyx-') ... (xyx-l) (j times)
= xy(X- X) y (X- X) ... (yX-l) (j times)
:::: xyjxl
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 277
3
Example 3. Let G = Dn and H = {Yo y2. y yn-1. y n = e}
• . . .•

Then GIH is isomorphic to the Multiplicative group {i. -I}. where Dn is the dihedral
group of order 2n.
Sol. Define W = {I, -I} and 8 : G --; W by
8(yi) = 1, lsisn
i
8(xy ) = -1, 1 ::; i ::; n
We show 8 is a homomorphism from G to W.
By definition,

satisfying y = e = x2, xy = y-1x.

n
i k
Let y , xy be any two elements of D n ) where k = 0, 1 , 2, ... , n - 1
Consider
8(yixyk) = 8(yixyiyk-i)
= 8(yiy-ixyk-i) See remark below
= 8(xy k-i)
= -1 ... (1)
Also 8(y') 8(xyk) = 1 . (-1) = -1 ... (2)
From (1) and (2),
8(yixyk) = 8(yi) 8(xyk)
Similarly 8(xykyi) = 8(xy k+i) = -1
and 8(.ry k) 8(yi) = (-1) (1) = -1
8(xykyi) = 8(xy k) 8(yi)
8 is a homomorphism.
Also 8 is onto, therefore, By fundamental theorem of group homomorphism,
'"
Dn 1ker 8 W . But
ker 8 = (g E D n : 8(g) = I}
= {y', 1 s i s n}
=H
D nlH is isomorphic to W.

1 TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 8.3 1

L Consider the additive group of integers under +. Let 4Z is a subgroup of Z. List the distinct cosets
of 4Z in Z.
2. Is there any group with a subgroup H such that o(H) :::: 6 and [G: H] :::: 6. ? Is your answer unique ?
3. Let H be a subgroup of a group G and a, b E G. Then a E b * H b-1 * a E H. iff
4. If H is a finite subgroup of a group G. Show that H and any coset Ha have the same number of
elements.
Let H be a normal subgroup of a group G. Then the cosets of H in G form a group under coset
multiplication defined by (aH) (bH) abH
5.

Let f : G G' be a homomorphism with kernel K. Then K is a normal subgroup of G.

=

6. -----t

7. Show that any infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to additive group of integers.
8. What are the generators of the additive group z?
278 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
9. Which of the following groups are cyclic ? Explain
(i) [Q, +] (ii) [ , ,]
W (iii) [6z, +J,
10. Determine the order of the cyclic subgroup generated by the element
(i) Z 25' 15 (ii) Z64 ' 2,
11. Prove that if o(G) > 2 and G is cyclic, then G has atleast two generators.
12. Which of the following functions are homomorphism ?
(i) [ : R* -->
W defined by [(a) I a I
(ii) [ : Z 5 --> Z2 defined by [(n) 0 if n is even and [(n) 1 if n is odd,
=

(iii) [ : Zs --> Z2 defined by [(n) 0 if n is even and [(n) 1 if n is odd,

= =

How many homomorphism are there from ?

= =

13.
(i) Z 1 2 into Z 12 (ii) Z 1 2 into Z4 (iiL) Z9 into Z8·
14. If G is an abelian group and let f is a function from G into G, defined by [(x) x" Is [ a
homomorphism ? an isomorphism ?
=

15. Consider the group G :::: {a, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} under addition modulo 6.

(a) Find the multiplication table of G.
(b) Prove that G is a group,
(c) Find 2-1 , 3-1 , 5-1
(d) Find the orders and subgroups generated by 2 and 3.
(e) Is G cyclic ? Justify your answer.
16. Let (G, *) be a group and a G, Define [: G --> G by [(x) a * x
E

(a) Prove that f is a bijection

=

(b) On the basis of part (a), describe a set of bijection on the set of integers.
(P, T, U, B, Tech, May 2005)
17. Consider Z20 :::: {O, 1, ... , 19} under addition modulo 20. Let H be the subgroup generated by 5.
(a) Find the elements and order of H. (b) Find the cosets of H in Z20.
18. Consider G :::: {1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17} under multiplication modulo 18.
(a) Construct the multiplication table of G.
(b) Find 5-1, 7-1, and 17-1
(c) Find the order and subgroups generated by: (i) 5, (ii) 13,
(d) Is G cyclic ?
19. Consider G :::: {1, 5, 7, 11) under multiplication modulo 12. (a) Find the order of each element
(b) Is G cyclic? (c) Find all subgroups,
20. Let 8 N x N. Let * be the operation on 8 defined by (a, b) * (a', b') (aa', bb'),
(a) Show that * is associative. (Hence S is a semigroup.)
= =

(b) Define [: (8, *) --> (Q, x) by [(a, b) alb, 8how that [is a homomorphism,
(c) Find the congruence relation � in S determined by the homomorphism f, i.e., x � y if f(x) :::: fCy).
=

(d) Describe S/�. Does S/� have an identity element? Does it have inverses?
21. Consider the set N of positive integers and let * denote the operation of least common multiple
(l.c,m,) on N,
(a) Find 4 * 6, 3 * 5, 9 * 18, and 1 * 6,
(b) Is (N, *) a semigroup ? Is it commutative ?
(c) Find the identity element of *.
(d) Which elements in N, if any, have inverse and what are they ?
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 279
22. Let Q be the set of rational numbers and let * be the relation on Q defined by a * b :::: a + b - ab
(a) Find 3 * 4, 2 * (- 5) and 7 * "21
(b) Is (Q, *) a semi-group ? Is it commutative ?
(c) Find the identity element for *.
(d) Do any of the elements in Q have an inverse ? why ?

Answers
L 4Z, 1 + 4Z, 2 + 4Z, 3 + 4Z,
o(G) :::: 36 :::: 6.
Take G :::: Z36 and H :::: <6> i.e., a cyclic group with 6 as its generator :. [G : H] :::: o(H)
2.
6
Also by Lagrange's theorem, o(H) I o(G) is true. The answer is not unique.
8. 1, - 1 9. (iii), 6 is a generator
10. (i) 5, (ii) 32 12. (i) (i,) No (iii) Yes
14. Yes, Yes
15. (a) Table 8,13
Table 8.13
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
(c) 2- 1 1 1
4, 3- 3, 5- 1
(d) <2> {I, 2, 4} and <3> {I, 3}
= = =

(e) Yes,
= =

16. Required bijection is { : Z --> Z defined by {(x) x + a " x Z E

(a) H {O, 5, 10, 15} and o(H) 3
=
17.
(b) H H
= =

H + 1 {I, 6, 11, 16}

=

H + 2 {2, 7, 12, 17}

=

H + 3 {3, 8, 13, 18}

=

H + 4 {4, 9, 14, 19}

=

(a)
=

18. Table 8.14

XIS 1 5 7 11 13 17
1 1 5 7 11 13 17
5 5 7 17 1 11 13
7 7 17 13 5 1 11
11 11 1 5 13 17 7
13 13 11 1 17 7 5
17 17 13 11 7 5 1
- 1 - 1
(b) 5 11, 7 13, 17- 17 1
(c) (i) <5> the subgroup generated by 5 G and order « 5» 6
= = =

= = =
280 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(ii) <13> = the subgroup generated by 13 = {I, 7, 13} and order « 13» = 3
(d) Yes,
19. (a) 0(1) = 1, 0(5) = 2, 0(7) = 2, 0(11) = 2
(b) No
(c) G, {1J, {I, 7}, {I, 5}, {I, ll}
20. (c) The congruence relation is given as: (a, b) (c, d) if ad :::: be
� �

(d) yes
21. (a) 4 * 6 = 12, 3 * 5 = 15, 9 * 18 = 18, 1 * 6 = 6
(b) Yes, since the operation of least common multiple is associative. Also a * b :::: b * a i.e., the
operation of least common multiple is commutative. Hence, (N, *) is a commutative semi­
group.
(c) 1
(d) The only element which has an inverse is 1 and it is its own inverse
(a) 3 * 4 = -5, 2 * (-5) = 7, 7 * "2 = 4
1
22.
(b) Yes, (Q, *) is a commutative semi-group

aa-I_ .
(c) 0 is the identity element

(d) Yes, if a 1 Q, then a has an inverse and it is _

t:- E

Hints
4. See Proof of Lagrange's theorem.
9. (i), (ii) Let Q :::: <g> is a generated by g i.e., <g> :::: {nq : n Z}. But this set contains only integral
E
multiples of q, not every element in Q. Hence Q cannot be cyclic.
10. See example 10.
12. (ii) Consider [(2 +5 4) = [(6) = [(I) = 1
Also [(2) +, [(4) = 0 + 0 = O.
14. [(xy) = (xy)' = x'y' I Since G is abelian
= [(x) fry)
15. (d) (i)
2 +6 2 +6 2 = 0 .. 0(2) = 3
<2> = {I, 2, 4}
(ii) 3 +6 3 = 0 .. 0(3) = 2
<3> = {I, 3}
(e) 0(2) = 3, 0(3) = 2
4 +6 4 :::: 2, 4 +6 4 +6 4 :::: 2 +6 4 :::: 0
0(4) = 3
5 +6 5 :::: 4, 5 +6 5 +6 5 :::: 4 +6 5 :::: 3
5 +6 5 +6 5 +6 5 :::: 3 +6 5 :::: 2
5 +6 5 +6 5 +6 5 + 6 5 :::: 2 +6 5 :::: 1
.. 0(5) = 5
Also, 1 +6 1 +6 1 +6 1 +6 1 + 6 1 :::: 0
.. 0(1) = 6 = o(G)
G is cyclic as there is an element 1 G such that
E
0(1) = o(G).
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 281
16. Given G is a group under * and a E G. Also f: G G is defined by -----t

f(x) a * x \j E G X

(a) We show fis a bijection. i.e., fis one-one and onto.

=

f is one-one. Let x, Y E G such that f(x) fry) =

I Left cancellation law

::::::} f is one-one.
t is onto. Let a, x E G and since G is a group under * , G must be closed under * i.e.,
a*xE G.
Also given f(x) :::: a * x . Therefore for each x E G, there exists an element a * x E G, such that
f(x) a * x.
Hence f is onto. It implies f is a bijection.
=

(b) Let Z denotes the set of integers and a E Z.

Define f : Z Z such that f(x) + a x E Z. We show f is one-one and onto.
-----t :::: X 'r:/
Let f(x) fry) for x, Y E Z
I Right cancellation law
=

=> x + a :::: y + a
=> x :::: y.
Hence f is one-one
Let Y E Z such that f(x) Y =

x + a :::: y
Zx :::: y - a E
Also for each Y E Z, we can find x E Z such that f(x) :::: y. Hence f is onto.
Since f is one-one and onto,
f is a bijection.
17. See examples on "cosets" and example 14, Art. 8.24 (cyclic group) in this chapter
18. See examples 11, Art. 8.24 (cyclic group) in this chapter
19. See examples 12,13 Art. 8.24 (cyclic group) in this chapter
20. (c) We know that a relation on a non-empty set S is said to be a congruence relation on S if
�

(i) is an equivalence relation on S

�

(ii) If a a', b b', then ab a'b'

� � �

Given, x Y if f(x) fry) \j x, Y E S.

�

Here S N x N and if E S N x N a, b E N such that x (a, b)

=

X => 3
Similarly, Y (c, d) where c, d E N.
= = =

Therefore, "x Y if f(x) f(Y)" means (a, b) (c, d) if f(a, b) f(c, d)

=

� = � =

a c

b d
ad = be
Thus, (a, b) (c, d) if ad be
� ... (1)
Here, the relation defined by (1) is an equivalence relation (example 17 (b) page 65 chapter 2
=

"Relations" )
�

We next show that is a congruence relation on S.

�

For this, we show if (a, b) (a',b') and (c, d) (c', d,), then we must have
� �

(a, b) * (c, d) (a', b') (c', d')

� . . . (2)
282 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Now if (a, b) � (a', b') then
ab' :::: ba' ...(3) [Using (1)]
Again, if (c, d) � (c', d,), then
cd' :::: dc' ...(4) [Using (1)]
Also (2) will be true if
(ac, bd) � (a'c', b'd') by the definition of *
or if acb'd' :::: bda'c' I Using (1)
or if acb'd' :::: ba'dc'
or if acb'd' :::: ab' cd' I Using (3) and (4)
or if acb'd' :::: acb'd'
which is true
Hence, � is the required congruence relation on S.
(d) We know that if R is a congruence relation on a non-empty set S, then SIR, the set of all
equivalence classes of elements of S, form a semi-group under the operation on the equivalence
classes, defined by
[a] [b] = lab]
To describe S/'"-'. Since � is a congruence relation on S, therefore, S/� is a semi-group under the
operation on the equivalence classes as defined above.
Also, by using fundamental theorem of semi-group homomorphism, S/� is isomorphic to
f(Q)·

where f= (8, *) --> (Q, x) is a homomorphism defined by f(a, b) = � where 8 = N x N and a, b E N

But, f(Q) = {q E Q: There exists E 8 for which f(x) = q}
= {q E Q: f(a, b) = q \j a, b E N}
x

= {qE Q:�=q \ja,bE N}

:::: Q+, the set of positive rational numbers
Hence, S/� is isomorphic to (Q+, x). Further, since S/� and Q+ are isomorphic, therefore both S/�
and Q+ have same identities as well as same inverses.
But, since (Q+, x) is a set of +ve rational numbers and hence it forms a group under multiplica­
tion and hence has identity as well as inverse. Therefore, S/� has also identity (multiplicative) as
well as inverse (multiplicative).
21. (a) Let Y E N, Then * Y means l.c.m.,of andy. 2 4, 6
4 * 6 = l.c.m., of 4 and 6 = 12
x, x x

2 2, 3
(c) 1 * a :::: l.c.m., of 1 and a :::: 1 for any positive integer a. 3 1, 3
Also, a * 1 :::: l.c.m., of a and 1 :::: 1 1, 1
.. 1 is the identity element of N
(d) Let a E N and b is the inverse of a such that a * b :::: 1 l.c.m., of 4 and 6 = 2 x 2 x 3 = 12
::::} l.c.m. of a and b :::: 1, which is possible iff a :::: 1, b :::: 1
. . The only number which has an inverse is 1 and it is its own inverse.
22. (c) Let e is the identity element for *, then for every 1 a E Q, we have
-:f-
a * e :::: a ::::} a + e - ae :::: a
e - ae :::: O
=> 0
e(l - a) = => e= 0
Hence, the identity element is o.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 283

(d) Let a, x E Q are such that a * x 0 (identity)

+ x - ax :::: 0 a + x (1- a) :::: 0
=
=:::} a =:::}

a - x (1 - a) , a" 1
a
=> = => x = --

a-1
This a a-_1 is the inverse of a (a t:- 1).
_

8.29. DIRECT PRODUCT OF GROUPS

Let G , and G2 be any two groups and G = G, X G2 denotes the cartesian product of G ,
and G2 with the binary operation * defined by
(g1 ' g) * (g'1 ' g') = (g,g'1 ' g2g') \j g1 ' g, E G 1 ' g2' g'2 E G2

Theorem. Show that the direct product of Gl and G2' denoted by G = G X G2' is also a
The group G = G, X G2 , is know as direct product or external direct product of G, and G2 .
1

group under the binary composition defined by

(gl' g,) x (g" g',) = (gl g'l' g2 g',) \j gl' g� E G l' g2' g'2 E G2
Proof. Since G1 and G2 are groups) therefore)
g1 ' g, E G, and g2' g2 E G2 => g, g, E G, and g2 g'2 E G2
=> (g,g'1' g2g') E G, x G2 = G
Th us) G is closed under *
Associativity. Let g1 ' g'1 ' g'; E G, and g2' g;, g'� E G2
Consider (g1 ' g) * «(g'1 ' g;) * (g'; , g;)
= (g1 ' g) x (g, g'; , g'2 g'�)
= (g, (g, g';), g2<g; g'�»
= «g, g,)g'; , (g2 g;)g'�) . . . (1)
I As G, and G2 are groups . . associativity holds in G, and G2
Also
«g1 ' g) * (g'1 ' g;» * (g'; , g',0 = (g,g" g2g;) * (g'; , g',0 = «(g, g',)g'; , (g2 g')g'�) . . . (2)
From (1) and (2), we have
(g1 ' g) * «(g'1 ' g;» * (g'; , g',0) = «(g1 ' g) * (g'1 ' g;» * (g'; , g;)
Thus, associavity holds in G = G, X G2
Identity, let e, E G, and e2 E G2 be the identity elements of G, and G2 respectively.
Consider
(g1 ' g) * (e 1 ' e) = (g, e 1 ' g2 e) = (g1 ' g)
Also (e1 ' e) * (g1 ' g) = (e , g1 ' e2 g) = (g1 ' g)
thus, (e1 ' e) is the identity element of G, x G2 .
Inverse: Consider
(g1 ' g) (g,', gi') = (g, g,-', g2 g2-1) = (e1 ' e)
and (g,', g2-1) (g1 ' g) = (g,-' g1 ' g2-1 g) = (e1 ' e)
I ': For g, E G 1 ' 3 g,-' E G , s.t. g,g,-' = e , = g,-' g, etc.
Hence (g1 ' g)- = (g,-', g2-1) is the inverse element of (g1 ' g) .
l
Hence) G = G 1 X G2 is a group under the binary composition *.
Generalisation. The external direct product of G1 ' G2, ... Gn, denoted by G = G, X G2
X G3 X X G4 is also a group under the component wise multiplication.
•••
284 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Consider G = H x K where H and K are any two groups then,

(b) Describe and find the multiplication table of the group G = Z2 X Z2

(a) What is the order of G

(c) Is G abelian?
(d) Is G cyclic?
(e) Is G ", Zi
Sol. (a) By definition the direct product of the groups G, and G2, we know G = G, X G2
is the cartesian product of G , and G2 . Therefore
)
o(G) = o(G , x G = o(G ,) o(G )
(b) We know Z2
= {O, 1}
Here o( Z)=2
Therefore, o(G) = 0(Z2 Z) o(Z) (Z) = 4
x = x
G = Z2 X Z 2 contains 4 elements) hence
G= {(O, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1)} = {e, a, b, c}
where e = (0, 0), a = (1, 0), b = (0, 1), c = (1, 1).
The multiplication table of G is shown below (Table S.15).
Table 8.15
* I a b c

I I a b c

a a I c b
b b c I a

c c b a I
Here a * a = (1, 0) * (1, 0) = (1, 0) = a
b * b = (0, 1) * (0, 1) = (0, 1) = b
c * c = (1, 1) * (1, 1) = (1, 1) = c
(c) Also, the Table S.15 is symmetrical , therefore, G is abelian.
(d) Since a * a = a
=> o(a) = 2
Similarly, o(b) = 2, o(c) = 2
Thus, all the elements of G are of order 2. It means that G does not have any element
whose order equals to 4, the order of G. Hence G cannot be cyclic.
Zn'
(e) We know that a finite cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to the group of integers
modulo n. Here, G is not cyclic. Hence G ;;t' Z4'
Example 2. Let H and K be any two groups and G = H x K be the direct product of the
groups H and K under the binary operation * defined by
(h, k) (h', k') = (hh', kk') \;j h, h' E H, k, k' E K
*

Let H' = H x {e}. Then show that

(i) H' '" H (ii) H' � G where G = H x K
(iii) GIH' = K where G = H x K
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 285
:
Sol. (i) Define a mapping 8 H' --; H such that
8(h') = h \;j h' E H, h E H
we show 8 is well-defined) homomorphism) one-one and onto.
8 is well-defined, Let h'I ' h; E H' such that
h { = (h I ' e), h'2 = (h2 , e) \;j h I ' h2 E H
Consider h'l = h'2
(h I ' e) = (h2 , e) => h, = h 2
=> 8(h;) = 8(h;)

8 is well-defined
Homomorphism. Consider
8(h', h;) = (h , h2 , e) = (h I ' e) (h2 , e)
= 8(h',) 8(h ;)
8 is homomorphism
One-one. Consider
8(h;) = 8(h; )
h, = h2
(h I ' e) = (h2 , e)
h'l = h;
8 is one-one
Onto, Let h E H, e E Ie}, then by the definition of cartesian product of two sets.
(h, e) E H x (e) = H'
=> h' E H' where h' = (h, e)
Also 8(h') = (h, e)
8 is onto
Hence H' = H

(ii) To show H' � G (read as H' is a normal subgroup of G), we first show H' is non-empty
subset of G.
For e E H, (e, e) E H x= H'
(e)
=> (e, e) E H'. Thus H' '" <p .

Also, h E H, e E K
=> (h, e) E H x K = G => h' E G => H' (;; G
Hence, H' is a non-empty subset of G.
We next show H' is a subgroup of G
Let h;, h; E H' => h; = (h I ' e), h'2 = (h2 , e)
Consider h; h'i .' = (h I ' e) (h2 , e)-l = (h I ' e) (hi.'. e)
= (hI ' h2-1 , e) \;j h I ' h2 E H
E H x [e]
l
h; h;- E H
H' is a subgroup of G
286 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
We next show H' is a normal subgroup of G. Let g E G =Hx K => 3 h, E H, k, E K
such that g = (h I ' k,)
Let h' E H' h' = (h, e)
=>
Consider gh' g-I = (h I ' k,) (h, e), (h I ' k,)-'
= (h I ' k ,) (h, e) (h ," k,-')
= (h I ' k,) (hh,-" k,-') e E (e) is the identity
= (h , hh ,-" k, k ,')
= (h, hh,-" e) E H x (e) = H'
Since h I ' h E H and H is a group, therefore h,' E H => h,hh,' E H
=> gh'g-' E H' \j h' E H', g E G
Hence H' is a normal subgroup of G.
(iii) Since H' is a normal subgroup of G, therefore, G/H' is well-defined
Define [ : H x K --; K such that [(h, k) = k \j h E H, k E K
[ is well-defined: Consider
(h I ' k,) = (h2 , k)
k , = k2
[(h I ' k,) = [(h2 , k)
. . [is well-defined I :
[(h, k) = k \j h E H
.

f is a group homomorphism. Let gI ' g2 E G = H x K => 3 hI ' h2 E H and kI ' k2 E K

such that
g, = (h I ' k ,) and g2 = (h2 , k)
By the definition of cartesian product of H and K, we have
g,g2 = (h I ' k ,) (h2 , k)
= (h, h2' k, k2)
Therefore) [(g,g) = [(h , h2 , k, k) = k , k2
= [(h I ' k,) [(h 2 , k)
Hence f is a group homomorphism.
Ker [ =
{(h, k) E H x K: [(h, k) = e, e is the identity of K
= {(h, k) E H x K : k = e, e E K
= {(h, e) E H x {ell = H'
By fundamental theorem of semi-group homomorphism of groups.
H x KlKer [ "" K
H x KlH' "" K
G/H' "" K
Hence the theorem
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 287

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 8.4

L Consider G :::: Z2 X Z3. Describe and find the multiplication table of the group G :::: Z2 X Z3
(a) Is G abelian? (b) Is G cyclic?
(c) Is G = Z6?
Answer
L Z2 X Z3 = {(O, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2))
(a) Yes (b) Yes, G is cyclic group generated by (1, 1) ,
(d) Yes, G = Z6
Hints
(b) Consider (1, 1)= (1, 1)
(1, 1) + (1, 1)= (1 +2 1, 1 +3 1) = (0, 2)
(1, 1) + (1, 1) + (1, 1)= (1 +2 1 +2 1, 1 +3 1 +3 1) = (1, 0)
(1, 1) + (1, 1) + (1, 1) + (1, 1)= (1, 0) + (1, 1)
= (1 +2 1, 0 +3 1) = (0, 1)
(1, 1) + (1, 1) + (1, 1) + (1, 1) + (1, 1) (0, 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 2)
=
(1, 1) + (1, 1) + (1, 1) + (1, 1) + (1, 1) = (1, 2) + (1, 1) = (1 +2 1, 2 +3 1) = (0, 0)
Hence every element of G can be expressed in some powers of (1, 1).
Therefore, G is a cyclic group with (1, 1) as generator
(c) Since 0 (1, 1) = 6 = 0 (Z 2 X Z,)
G :::: Z 2 X Z 3 is cyclic group of order 6.
Also, any finite cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to Zn
" � X Z 3 = Z6 M G=�

PERMUTATION AND SYMMETRIC GROUP

8.30. BASIC TERMINOLOGY

Before, we define our symmetric groups, students are advised to go through the following
basic terminology_
Example consider a function f : S --; S defined on a nonempty set S = {I, 2, 3} such that
f(l) = 2, f(2) = 3, f(3) =
1

Fig. 8.6
Clearly, f is both one·one and onto (see Fig. 8.6) and we say, f : S --; S is a permutation
on S.
288 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

8.30. (a) PERMUTATION

Let S be any non-empty and a finite set) then a one-one and onto mapping from S to S is
called a permutation.
Notation: The set of all permutations on a non-empty set S is denoted by A(S).
Further, if A set S has n elements, then, the total number of bijections (one-one and

onto mappings from S to S is C3 = = 3! 6.

onto mapping) from S to S is n Cn = n!. In the above example, the total number of one-one and
3

Hence, we can say that if a set S contains n elements, thenA(S), the set of all permutations
on S) will contain n Cn = n! elements.
We next introduce a notation to represent these permutations.

3, (3)
The function f : S --; S defined on a non-empty and a finite set S = {I, 2, 3} such that

[1 3 31 J
f (1) = 2, f (2) =f = 1 can be expressed in array from as shown below:
2
f= 2

5, 3, 6,
Consider another example of a permutation g : S --; S, defined on S = {I, 2,
such that g(l) = g(2) = g(3) = 1 , g(4) = g(5) = 2, g(6) = then, g can be expressed in 6, 3, 4, 5, 6}
[15 3 31 46 5 46 J
array form as shown below:
2
g= 2

8.30. (b) COMPOSITION OF PERMUTATIONS IN ARRAY FORM

[1 4 33 45 51J [15 4 31 4 35J

Consider two permutations f and g) given in array form as
2 2
f= 2 '
g= 2
then the composition of f and g (denoted by gof or sometimes, by gf), in array form is

, 345 34
given as below:
1------------,

gof = (� 4j, 3) :,i (l, 4 3 5 �)

2
1 2 2
I __ J
2

Fig. 8.7
We wish to find the following elements (gof)(l), (gof)(2), (gof)(3), (gof)(4), (gof)(5).
To find (gof)(l): Notice that compositions of permutations expressed in array brackets,
is carried out from right bracket to left bracket, by going from top to bottom (in right bracket)
and then again from top to bottom (in left bracket). Hence, to find (gof)(l), we start from the
right bracket in the following manner:
In Fig 8.7, we notice that 4 4,
2 (right bracket), 2 --; (left bracket), => 1 --;
1 --;
This is equivalent to say that (gof)(l) = g(f(l» = g(2) = which means '1 ' goes to
4 '4'.
2 --; 4 4
To find (gof)(2): We start from '2' in the right bracket as shown below:
(right bracket), --; 2 (left bracket), => 2 --; 2
This is equivalent to say that (gof)(2) = g(f)(2» = g(4) = 2 => 2 --; 2
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 289
To find (gof)(3): Start from '3' (in the right bracket), 3 --; 3, 3 --; 1 => 3 --; 1.
To find (gof)(4): Here 4 --; 5, 5 --; 3 => 4 --; 3
To find (gof)(5): Here 5 --; 1, 1 --; 5 => 5 --; 5

Hence) go[= [ � 1 a� 2 3 4
4 2
2 3 4
4 3 5 �J
[1 1 J
:
2 3 4
_
- 4 2 3

8.30. (e) PERMUTATION AS A SINGLE ROW

Consider [ =
[1 2 3 4 5
2 3 5 6 4 1 6J
We try to express 'f ' in a single row:
Here, 1 � 2, 2 -----t 3, 3 -----t 5, 5 -----t 1, i.e., we started from '1 ' and ended in '1 '. This fact can
be represented as (1235).
Also,4 --; 6, 6 --; 4 it can be expressed as (46).
Hence [ = (1235)(46), is in a single row representation.
The product of (1235) and (46)

8.30. (d) ORBIT OF A PERMUTATION

[1
Consider a permutation [ given by

1 6J
2 3 4 5
[=
6 5 4 3 2
In cyclic notation, [= (1625)(34)
Here, (625) is called a cycle and the set {I, 6, 2, 5} is called an orbit of the elements 1,
6, 2 and 5.
Also {3, 4} is an orbit of the elements 3 and 4.

8.30. (e) DISJOINT PERMUTATIONS

Two permutations f and g on a non-empty set S are called disjoint permutations, for
any X E S, [(x) '" x => g(x) = x and
g(x) '" x => [(x) = x \;j X E S
e.g., [ = (12), g = (13) are not disjoint since [ (1) = 2 and g(l) = 3 '" 1
But [ = (132) and, g = (45) are disjoint permutations.

8.30. (f) CYCLIC PERMUTATIONS

Let S be a finite set containing n elements, then, a permutation f on S is called a cyclic
permutation or a cycle if there exists xp x2, x3, ...... , xn such that:
290 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

.-----------------------------------------------.
f(x,) = X2 , f(x,) = X3 , f(x3) = x4 , f(xn_l) = xn, f(xJ = x, •••

A cyclic permutation on n elements: xp x2 ) ..... ) xn is denoted by (x1x2x3 . . . xn) and is

called a cycle of length n or n-recycle. In particular, a cycle of length '2 ' it called a transposition
or 2-cycle.
Remark 1: Two permutations f andg are said to be disjoint of there is no common element in any
cycles of f and g.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1.
[
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Consider f = 2 4 6 1 7 3 5 . Express f as a product of disjoint J
cycles.
Sol. We wish to find the disjoint cycles of f.
.-----------------�
Here, 1 -> 2, 2 -> 4, 4 -> 1 => (124) is a cycle of f.

.----------�
Also 3 -> 6, 6 -> 3 => (36) is a cycle of f.
Further, 5 -> 7, 7 -> 5 => (57) is a cycle of f

f=
[12 4 6
2 3 4
1 7
5

[
= (124)(36)(57).

: J . Express fas a product of disjoint

4
1 2 3 5 6 7
Example 2. Consider f= 8 7 5 4 6 2 1
cycles.
.------------------------------------.
Sol. Here) 1 ---t 8, 8 ---t 3, 3 ---t 5, 5 ---t 6, 6 ---t 2, 2 ---t 7, 7 ---t 1
.. (1835527) is a cycle of f.
Also 4 -> 4 :. (4) is also a cycle off
Hence f= (1835627)(4), is expressed as a product of disjoint cycles.

8.31 . MULTIPLICATION OF CYCLES

[1
We now develop a procedure for multiplication of cycles (not necessarily disjoint).

J
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Consider f =
1 7
[1
4 6 8 3 5 2

J
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
g= 2 4 6 8 1 3 5 7
We find fog in cyclic notations.
We first express f and g a product of cycles (not necessarily disjoint).
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 291
f = (14387)(26)
g = (124875)(36)
'
a

Now fog = (14387)(26)(124875)(36) = (JToY, say ... (1)

Note that each cycle that does not contain on element fixes the element.
To find fog, Consider the elements 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
Start with '1 ' as shown in the below pattern.

1�4�4�8�8 � 1 � 8
'
As '1 goes to '8 , we start with '8' as shown in the below pattern.
'

8 �7�7 � 5� 5 � 8 � 5
As '8' goes to '5 ' , we start with '5' as shown in the below pattern

5 � 5 �5 �1 �1
This completes the cycle (185).
Now) we are left with the remaining elements 2, 3, 4, 6, 7.
Start with '2 ' as shown in the below pattern.

2 � 2�6 �6 �3

7 �1�1�2�2
This completes the cycle (237)
Now, we are left with the remaining elements 4 and 6 only.
Start with '4' as shown in the below patter.

4�3�3�3�6

6 �6�2�4�4
This completes the cycle (46) and there are no elements left with us.
Hence, the only cycles of f are (185), (237) and (46), which are disjoint also.
Hence from (1), fog = (14387)(26)(124875)(34)
= (185)(237)(46),
which shows that the composition of any two permutations on a finite set can be expressed as
a product of disjoint cycles
Example 3, Let f = (13)(27)(456)(8) and g = (1237)(648)(5)
What is the cycle form of fog? or Write fog as a product of disjoint cycles.
°1 °2 a3 °4 't"l 't"2 "3
SoL Let fog = (13)(27)(456)(18)(1237)(648)(5) , say . . . (1)
292 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Start with '1 ' as shown in the below manner.
1 � 3 � 3 °3 ) 3 °4 ) 3 � 7 � 7 � 7 => 1 --; 7
I A cycle that does not contain an element fixes the element
'
Start with '7 as shown in the following pattern.

7 � 7 02 ) 2 "s ) 2 04 ) 2 � 3 � 3 � 3 => 7 --; 3

Start with '3 ' as shown in the below manner.

3 � 1 °2 ) 1 � 1 °4 ) 1 � 2 � 2 � 2 => 3 --; 2
Start with '2 ' as shown in the below manner.

2�2 ) 7 0, ) 7 °4 ) 7 � 1 � 1 � 1 => 2 --; 1

°2

This completes the cycle (1732).

Now) we are left with the elements 4, 5, 6, 8.
Start with '4' as shown in the following manner.

4 � 4 °2 ) 4 � 5 °4 ) 5 � 5 � 5 � 5 => 4 --; 5
Start with '5' as shown in the following manner.

5�5 02 ) 5 03 ) 6 04 ) 6 � 6 � 4 � 4 => 5 --; 4

This completes the cycle (45).
Now, we are left with 6 and 8.
Start with '6' , as shown in the following manner.

6 � 6 02 ) 6 0, ) 4 04 ) 4 � 4 � 8 � 8 => 6 --; 8
Start with '8' , as shown in the following manner.

8�8 °2
) 8 0, ) 8 °4 ) 8 � 8 � 6 � 6 => 8 --; 6
This completes the cycle (68) and we are left with no element with us.
Thus, the only cycles of fare (1732), (45) and (68) and these cycles are disjoint also.
Hence, from (1),
fog = (13)(27)(456)(8)(1237)(648)(5)
= (1732)(45)(68)
which shows that the composition of any two permutations on a finite set can be expressed as
a product of disjoint cycles.
Remark 2. Every permutation on a finite set containing elements 1) can be expressed as
'n'
a product of (or and the decomposition of a permutation into a product of
(n >
transpositions 2-cycles) 2-
cycles is not unique. It means to say that
(a1a2a3 ... ak ) = (a1ak)(a1ak_1)(a1ak_2) ... (a1a2)
= (a2ak)(a2ak_1)(a2ak_2) ... (a2a1)
= (a,ak)(a3ak_1)(a3ak_2) ... (a3a2)(a3a1)

Example 4. Express (12345) as a product of 2-cycles in atleast 4 ways.

Sol. (12345) = (15)(14)(13)(12)
= (25)(24)(23)(21)
= (35)(34)(32)(31)
= (45)(41)(42)(43)
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 293

8.32. PROPERTIES OF PERMUTATIONS

We now study the following properties of permutations.
Property 1. Any two disjoint permutations on a finite set commute with each other.
Proof. Let f and g are any two disjoint permutations. We need to show fog = got.
For this, let X E S and consider f(x) '" x and since f and g are disjoint, then g(x) = x. (By
definition)
Let f(x) = y, then, since f(x) '" x => y '"
x

Consider ([og) (x) = f(g(x» = f(x) = y . . . (1)

and (gof)(x) = g([(x» = g(y) . . . (2)
We claim g(y) = y.
For if, g(y) '" y and since f and g are disjoint, then
fry) = y = f(x) => y = x (since fis a permutation), a contradiction.
Hence g(y) = y and therefore, from (1) and (2), we have
([og)(x) = (gof)(x)
fog = gof
Property 2. Any permutation on a finite set can be expressed as a product of transpo­
sitions (not necessarily disjoint).
[
J
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Consider f= = (1324)(56)(789)
3 4 2 1 6 5 8 9 7
= (14)(12)(13)(56)(79)(78), (See remark 2 above)
Here, the transpositions (14), (12) and (13) are not disjoint (as these 2-cycles have '1 ' as
a common element).
Property 3. Any permutation on a finite set can be expressed as a product of disjoint
cycles (see examples 1, 2, 3 above)
Property 4. The nth power of a n-cycle is 1.
Consider a 2-cycle (ab) containing two elements, then, we must show (ab)2 = 1.
°1 °2
Consider (ab )(ab)

Here, b � a � b => b --; b

2
Hence (ab) = I (since each element goes to itself).
Consider another example.
Let (1234) be a 4-cycle containing 4 elements.
We show (1234)4 = 1. For this,
°1 °2
Consider (1234)2 = (1234)(1234)

3 � 4 � 1 => 3 --; 1
294 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
This completes the cycle (13).

4 � 1 � 2 => 4 --; 2
This completes the cycle (24).
Hence, (1234)2 = (1234)(1234) = (13)(24) . . . (1)
°1 °2 a3
(1234)3 = (1234)(1234)2 = (1234)(13)(24) I using (1)

2 � 3 °2 1 1 0, 1 1 => 2 --; 1
This completes the cycle (1432).
Hence, (1234)3 = (1432) . . . (2)
Finally, (1234)4 = (1234)(1234)3 I using (2)
CJ1 CJ2
= (1234)(1432)

2 �3 02 ) 2 => 2 --; 2

4 � 1 � 4 => 4 --; 4
(1234)4 = (1234)(1432) = 1. (Since each element goes to itself).
Property 5. The product of a permutation on a finite set and its inverse is always
equals to 1.
Consider f = (a, b , )(a2 b) (a3 b ) (a4 b4) ' then
r' = «a, b ,)(a2 b ) (a3 b ) (a4b4» -
1
= (a4b4)(a3 b) (a2 b) (a, b,)
fri = (a, b,)(a2 b) (a3 b) (a4b 4)(a4b 4)(a3 b) (a2 b ) (a, b,)
= I (Prove it)

8.33. EVEN AND ODD PERMUTATIONS

A permutation on a finite set is called an even (odd) permutation if it can be expressed
as a product of even (odd) number of transposition (2-cycles).
Following results can be trivially proved.
I. The product of two even permutations is an even permutation (sum of two even
numbers is even)
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 295
II. The product of two odd permutations is an even permutation (sum of two odd numbers
is even)
III. The product of an even and an odd permutations is an odd permutation (sum of an
even and odd number is an odd number)
IV. Inverse of an even (odd) permutation is an even (odd) permutation.
V. Identity permutation is always an even permutation.
Example 5. Consider the following permutation on S = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Examine

whether it is an odd permutation 2 or even permutation: [� 2

4
3

1
4

5
5

6
6

7
7

2 J
.

[31
J
2 3 4 5 6 7
Sol. Let f=
4 1 5 6 7 2
We first express f as a product of transpositions (2-cycles)
Here f = (13)(24567) = (13)(27)(26)(25)(24) (See remark 2, above)
. . Since f is the product of 5 (odd) transpositions, hence f is an odd permutation
Theorem I. The order of a permutation on a finite set, written as a product of disjoint
cycles, is the least common multiple of the lengths of the disjoint cycles.
Proof. This is beyond the scope of the syllabus.
Example 6. Find the order of the following permutations
(i) (12)(13)(14)(15)(1 6)
(ii) (24)(26)(28)(13)(15)(1 7)
Sol. (i) Let f = (12)(13)(14)(15)(16) = (165432)
. . its order = 6 (number of distinct elements in f)
(ii) Let f = (24)(26)(25)(13)(15)(17) = (2864)(1753)
Clearly, right hand side is a product of two disjoint cycles.
. . Required order = Lc.m. of the lengths of (2864) and (1753) = 4
Example 7. Find the order of the following permutation.
f = (123)(234)(456)(67)
Sol. Given permutation is not a product of disjoint cycles. Hence) we first express it as
a product of disjoint cycles.
°1 0"2 a3 °4
Consider f = (123)(234)(456)(67) , say . . . (1)
The elements of the given permutation fare 1) 2) 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.
Start with '1 ' as shown in the following manner.
1 � 2 02 ) 3 °3 ) 3 04 ) 3 => 1 --; 3
Start with '3' as shown in the following manner.
3 � 1 °2 1 1 °3 1 1 °4 1 1 => 3 --; 1
This completes the cycle (13)
We are left with 2, 4, 6, 6 and 7
Start with '2' as shown in the following manner.
°2 °3 °4
2�3 )4 )5 ) 5 => 2 --; 5
296 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Start with '5' as shown in the following manner.
5 � 5 °2 ) 5 0, ) 6 °4
) 7 => 5 --; 7
Start with '7' as shown in the following
7 � 7 02 ) 7 03 ) 7 04
) 6 => 7 --; 6
Start with '6' as shown in the following manner.
6 � 6 °2 ) 6 °3 ) 4 °4 ) 4 => 7 --; 6
This completes the cycle (25764) and we are left with no elements.
Hence, the only cycles of f are (13) and (25764) which are also disjoint.
:. From (1)
f = (123)(234)(456)(67)
= (13)(25764)
Hence, order of f= l.c.m of the lengths of (13) and (25764) = l.c.m of 2 and 5 = 10
Example 8. Let f=
[� �:;: �J and

g=
[� �!:� �J
Compute each of the following:
(a) f-1 (b) gof (c) fog

[1 2 3 4 5 6
Sol. (a) f = 2 1 3 5 4 6
J
On expressing f as a product of transpositions) we get
f = (12)(3)(45)(6)
r' = «12)(3)(45)(6» -1 = (6) (45) (3) (12) ... (1)
We now express [-1 in the array form.
From (1), We notice that 6 --; 6, 4 --; 5 and 5 --; 4, 3 --; 3, 1 --; 2 and 2 --; 1.
[
1 2 3 4 5 6
f-1 = 2 1 3 5 4 6
J
(b) gof =
( 1 2 3 4 5 6) : (1 2 3 4 5 6 )
J,
1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I

: J..
6 1 2 4 3 5 : 2 1 3 5 4 6 , ,

[11 62
• __ 1

_ 3 4 5 6 J
2 3 4 5 (see Multiplication of cycles)
Example 9. Find a-i ba where a = (135)(12), b = (1579).
0"1 0"2
Sol. a = (135)(12) = (135)(12) , say
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 297

Consider the elements 1) 2) 3) 5.

Start with '1 ', 1 � 3 °2 ) 3 => 1 --; 3
°2
Start with '3', 3 � 5 ) 5 => 3 --; 5
°2
Start with '5', 5 � 1 ) 2 => 5 --; 2
Start with '2', 2 � 2 0, ) 1 => 2 --; 1
This completes the cycle (1352)
Hence, a = (135)(12) = (1352) => a-I = (1352)-1 = (2531)
To find a-I ba:
Gl G2 G3

a-I ba = (2531)(1579)(1352) = (253 1)(1579)(1352) , say, ... (1)

Consider the elements 1) 2) 3) 5) 7) 9
Start with '1 ', 1 � 2 0, ) 2 0,
) 1 => 1 --; 1
This completes the cycle ... (1)
0,
Start with '2', 2 � 5 0, ) 7 ) 7 => 2 --; 7
0, 0,
Start with '7', 7�7 )9 ) 9 => 7 --; 9
0, 0,
Start with '9', 9�9 )1 ) 3 => 9 --; 3
Start with '3', 3 � 1 0, ) 5 0, ) 2 => 3 --; 2
This completes the cycle (2793)
We are left with the element '5'.
Therefore, (2531)(1579)(1352) = (1)(2793)(5) = (2793)
Remark 3: Let A(S) denotes the set of all permutations on a finite set S, then, either all
permutations of A(S) are even or exactly half are even.
8.34. SYMMETRIC GROUP
Let Sn denotes the set of all permutations on a fmite set S = (1, 2, 3, ...,n) and let 0 S --; S
:

[
is a one-one and onto mapping defined by

J
1 2 3 ... n
0=
0(1) 0(2) 0(3) . . . 0(n)
Then, Sn forms a group under the composition of mappings and called symmetric group
of degree n.
Theorem II. Show that Sn (n :> 1) is a group under the composition of mappings.
Proof. Let f, g E Sn => f, g are both one·one and onto maps on a a finite set S. Since f, g
are both one-one and onto, their compostion maps fog, got are also one-one and onto maps
=> fog, gof are also permutations on S. Hence, fog, gof E Sn
Sn is closed under the composition of mappings.
298 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Also) Sn has identity mapping I) each permutation on Sn has its inverse. Further)
associativity under the composition of mapping also holds in Sn "
Hence) Sn forms a group under the composition of mappings.
Theorem III. Show that Sn (n :> 1) forms a group under the composition of mapping
with order o(Sn) = n!.
Proof. By definition, elements of Sn are of the form

[1
2 3 ...
° = o(1) o(2) o(3) . . . 0( )
nn J
where CJ is a one-one and onto map on the set S = (1) 2) 3) . . . ) n)
Now, there are 'n' choices of o(1). Once, o(1) is determined, there are (n - 1) choices for
o(2) (since ° is one·one, we must have o(1) "" o(2» . After o(2) is determined, there are (n - 2)
choices for o(3). Continuing in this manner, we observe that there is (n - (n - 1» = 1 choice for

(n-2) ... (n -n -1)

0(n).
Hence, Sn has n(n -1) = n! elements
:. o(Sn) = n!
Example 10. (a) Find the elements and the multiplication table of S3'
(b) Show that S3 is a non-abelian group.
Sol. (a) We know that Sn has n! elements, therefore, S3 has 3 ! = 6 elements.
.. S3 = {E, 0 ' 02' 03' <PI ' <P2}
1

These 6 elements are listed below:

E = [� 22 : J ' the identity element of S 3

° =
1 [11 23 �} [� 22 �J ; [� 21 :J
°2 = °3 =

<P, = [� 23 �} <P2 [� 21 �J=

In cyclic notation)
S3 = {E, 01' 02' 03' <PI ' <P2} = {E, (23), (13), (12), (132), (123)}
Also, the multiplication table of S3 is shown below
0 E °1 °2 °3 <P, <P2
E E °1 °2 °3 <P, <P2
0, 0, E <P, <P2°2 °3
°2 °2 <P2 E <P,°3 °1
°3 °3 <PI <P2 E °1 °2
<PI <PI °3 0, °2 <P2 E
<P2 <P2 °2 °3 °1 E <PI
Table 1
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 299
Explanations: Consider
0 1 00 1 = (23)(23) = (23)2 = I I The nth power of a n-cycle is I
'II T2
To find 0,002: 01002 = (23)(13), say,
The elements are 1) 2) 3.
Start with '1 ', 1 � 1 � 3 => 1 --; 3
Start with '3', 3 � 2 � 2 => 3 --; 2
Start with '2', 2 � 3 � 1 => 2 --; 1
This completes the cycle (132).
.. 0 1 002 = (23)(13) = (132) = <P,
1:1 "2
To find 0,003: :. Here, 01003 = (23)(12) = (23)(12) , say
The elements are 1) 2) 3.
Start with '1 ', 1 � 1 � 2 => 1 --; 2
Start with '2', 2 � 3 � 3 => 2 --; 3
Start with '3', 3 � 2 � 1 => 3 --; 1
This completes the cycle (123).
Therefore, 01 003 = (23)(12) = (123) = <P2
Similarly, it can be easily proved that
CJ1 04'1 = CJ2 ) CJ1 0CJ3 = 4'2 etc.
(b) Consider 01 002 = <P, and 0200 1 = <P2
::::::} CJ 1 0CJ2 t:- CJ2001
. . S3 is non-abelian.
Example 11. Consider the symmetric group S3 = {E , 01' 02' 03' <P1, <P"J and H = {E , 01}·
Show that H is a subgroup of S3' Find the right as well as left cosets of H in S3' Is H a normal
subgroup of S/
Sol. Consider the multiplication table of S3 under the composition of mappings, as shown
in Table 1.
Since E E H => H '" <p. Thus, H is a non-empty subset of S3'
We now find the cosets of H in S3'

6.
Consider H = (E, o,l where o(H) = 2.
Also, o ( S) = 3! =
o(S3)
:. Number of distinct right (or left) cosets of H in S3 = [S3 H] = o(H) = = 3.
:
6
"2
300 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Thus, there are 3 distinct right cosets as well as 3 distinct left cosets of H in S3'
We now find these cosets.
For any ° E S3' all left cosets of H in S3 are given below
0,H = {0 1 ' 0,00,} = {0 1 ' E } = H
02H = {02 , 0200,} = {0 1 ' <P2}
°3H = {03 , °3°0 ,} = {03 , <P,}
<p, H = {<P I ' <P, 00 I} = {<PI ' 03} = 03H
<p2H = {<P2 ' <P200,} = {<P2' O2} = 02H
Thus, H, 02H and 03H are the only distinct left cosets of H in S3'
Also, all right cosets of H in S3 are given below.
H = {E, 0,}
HO, = {0 1 ' 0 , 00 ,} = {E, 0 ,} = H = {0 1 ' E}
H02 = {02 , 0,002} = {0 1 ' <P,}
H03 = {03 , 0,00 3} = {0 <P2}
l'

H<P, = {<PI ' 0,0<P,} = (<PI ' o) = H02

H<P2 = {<P I ' 0,0<P2} = {<P2' 03 ,} = H03
Thus, H, H02, H03 are the only 3 distinct right cosets of H in S3'
Further, H02 ", 02H and H03 ", 03H
. . H is not a normal subgroup of S3 since the right cosets and the left cosets are not
equal.
Example 12. Consider the symmetric group S3 whose multiplication table is shown in
Table 1.
(a) Find the order and the group generated by each element of S3
(b) Find the number and all subgroups of S3
(c) Let A = (0 i' 0'), B = (<Pi' <P,). Find AB, 0�, A03·
(d) Let H = gp(0j), K = gp(0,) . Show that HK is not a subgroup of S3
(e) Is S3 cyclic?
(f) Is S3 abelian?
Sol. (a) By definition,
S 3 = {E, 0 1 ' 02' 03 ' <PI ' <P2} where E the identity element of S3 '
0 1 = (23), 02 = (13), 03 = (12), <P, = (132), <P2 = (123)
We fmd the order of E, ° 02' 03' <P, and <P2 respectively by using the multiplication Table 1.
l'

Consider E' = E => O(E) = 1

o f = 0 00 = E (using Table 1)
1 1
0(0,) = 2
Also 0� = 02002 = E => 0 (O) = 2
0� = 03 003 = E => 0 (O) = 2
Further) <P12 = <P,0<P, = <P2 '" E
<pf = <P,0<P,0<P, = <P,0<P2 = E => o(<p,) = 3
<pi = <P2 0<P2 = <P, '" E
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 301

<p� = <P20<P20<P2 = <P20<P, = E => O(<p) = 3

O(E) = 1, 0(0,) = 0(O) = 0(O) = 2, o(<p,) = o(<p) = 3
We next find the subgroups generated by each elements of 83,
For any x E 83, if o(x) = n, then the subgroup generated by x, denoted by gp(x) is given by
gp(x) = {E, x, x2, X", . . . , xn-1}
Here, gp(E) = {E}
gp(0,) = {E, 0,} since 0(0,) = 2
gp(0) = (E, o) since 0(O) = 2
gp(0) = {E, 03} since 0(O) = 2
gp(<p,) = {E, <PI ' <pf} = {E, <PI' <P2} since o(<p,) = 3
gp(<p) = {E, <P2, <p�} = {E, <P2, <P,} = (E, <PI' <p) since o(<p) = 3
(b) By Lagrange's theorem, if H is a subgroup of a finite group G, then order of H

6.
divides the order of G.
Therefore, any subgroup of 83 must have order 2 or 3 since its order must divide 0(8) =
Using part (a), the only subgroups of 83 are
H , = {E}, H2 = 83, H3 = {E, 0,}
H4 = {E, O2}, H5 = {E, 03} , H6 = {E, <PI ' <P2}
The subgroups H3, H4, H5 and H6 are either of order 2 or 3 since 2 or 3 divide = 0(8).6
6
Also, H, = {E} and H2 = 83 are trivial subgroups of 83,
Therefore, 83 has subgroups.
(c) (i) To find AB: Multiplying each element of A by each element of B, we get
AB = (01 ' 0){<p1 ' <p)
= {0, <PI' 0 1 <P2 ' 02 <P I' °2 <P2}
But 01 <P, = 02 (from the multiplication table of 83 (Fig. A»
°1 <P2 = °3
02 <P, = 03 = 01 <P2
02 <P2 = 01
.. AB = {02, 03' 0,} = {0 1' 02' Gal
(ii) To find 03A: Multiplying 03 by each element of A, we get
03A = {0PI' 0P2} = [<PI ' <P2] [see multiplication table of 83 (Table 1)].
(iii) To find A03: Multiplying each element of A by 03 ' we get
Ap = {0,03, 0203} = {<P2' <P,}
(d) Every subgroup of a finite group must divide the order of the group.
Here H = gp(0,) = {E, 0,}
K = gp(0) = {E, O2}
HK = {E, 0,}{E, O2}

6
= {E , EG2 , CJ l E , CJ 1 0"2} = {Ep CJ2 ' CJ p 4' 1}
o(HK) = 4, which does not divide
:. HK cannot be a subgroup of 83
302 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(e) A group G is cyclic if 3 on element of a E G such that o(a) = o(G).
Here o(S) = 6, but there is no element in S3 whose order is 6.
Hence, 83 is not cyclic.
(j) 83 is non-abelian since CJ 1 0CJ2 t:- °2°° 1 ,

8.35. ALTERNATING GROUP (An>

The set of all even permutations of Sn (n :> 2) is a group, under the composition of map­
pings, known as alternating group of degree n.
Theorem III. The set An ofall even permutations ofSin 2' 2) is a normal subgroup ofSn
l!!: and [S A i = 2.
and o(AJ = "2 :
n n
Proof. We know that an identity permutation on Sn is an even permutation.
Therefore, An '" q, i.e. An is a non-empty subset of Sn'
Let f, g E An => f, g are even permutations.
Since, the inverse of an even permutation is also an even permutation, therefore, g-l E

Again, f and g-l are even permutations and the product of two even permutation is an
even permutation, therefore, fOg-I E An vt, g E An
. . An is a subgroup of Sno
Let g E Sn and consider gofog-l .
The product of even permutations is an even permutation.
=> gofog-l E An E gf E S n
. . An is a normal subgroup of Sno
To find the order of An' Let (J is any odd permutation. Also, (12) being a transposition,
is also an odd permutation. This implies (12) (J is an even permutation (The product of two odd
permutation is an even permutation).
Thus, there are atleast as many even permutations as there are odd ones. On the other
hand, for every even permutation q" the permutation (12) q, is an odd permutation. It follows
that there are atleast as many odd permutations as there are even permutations. Hence,
there is an equal number of even and odd permutations. 20(An) = o(Sn)
o(Sn ) n!
o(An) = 2- '2
- =
Example 13. Consider the symmetric group S3 = {E, "1' ''2' "3' ¢4' ¢2,}.
Let A3 be the alternating group defined by A3 = (E , ¢1' ¢2 j.
Is A3 a normal subgroup of Sl.
Sol. We know that An is a subgroup of Sn (n :> 2) (Theorem III above)
0(S3 ) �
[S3:A3l = Index of A3 in S3 = 0(A3 ) = 3! = 2
2
Since index of A3 in S3 is 2, A3 is a normal subgroup of S3'
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 303

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 8.5

L Find the order of each of the following permutations

(a) (14) (b) (147)
(c) (14762) (d) (124)(357)
(e) (124)(356) (j) (124)(35)
(g) (124)(3578)
2. What is the order of the product of a pair of disjoint cycles of lengths 4 and 6.
3. Determine which of the following permutations are even? odd?
(a) (135) (b) (1356)
(c) (13567) (d) (12)(134)(152)
(e) (1243)(3521)
4. Show that An is a normal subgroup of Sn(n ;::.: 2).
f= [� J [
2 3 4 5 6 1 2 4
:J
3 5
5. Let 1 3 5 4 6 ' g = 6 1 2 4 3
Compute
(a) f-1 (b) gof c
( ) fog
6. Consider the symetric group 84.
[�
Let f= 4 2 � , g = 4 3
2 3
J [� 2 3
�J
(a) Find fog, gof, fof, tl (or find fg, gf, f, f- )
l
(b) Find the orders of f,g, fog
7. Let H = {E , (12)}, K = {E , (123), (132)} be any two subgroups of S4' Show that HK is a subgroup of
84 but H, k are not normal subgroups of 84.
Answers
L (a) 2 (b) 3
c5
() (d) 3
(e) 3 (j) 6
(g) 12
2. l.e.m of 4 and 6 = 12
3. (a) even (b) odd
(c) even (b) odd
(e) even

5. (a) f-1 = f (b) [� 2 3 4 5

6 2 3 4 :J
(c) [� 2 3 4 5
2 1 5 3 �J
6. (a) fog = [� 2 3 4J '.
1 4 2
gof = [ 41 2 3
1 2 :} fof = [� 2 3
1 4 J [
4 t1 1
3 '
=
4
2 3
3 1 :J
(b) o(j) = 4, o(g) = 3, o(jog) = 4
304 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

8.36. APPLICATIONS OF GROUPS IN CODING THEORY

Coding theory plays an important role in developing the techniques to provide reduant
information in transmitted data. These techniques are useful in detecting) and sometimes in
correcting) errors. Some of these techniques make use of group theory_ To understand these
techniques) we first introduce the basic terminology of coding theory_
8.37. MESSAGE
It is a basic unit of information. A message is a sequence of characters from a finite
alphabete defined by the set B = {D. 1}.
8.38. WORD

To represent data, every character or symbol is first expressed in binary form. Then a
'
'word is a sequenc of m O's and l 's.
Let B = {O, 1} and let + be the operation defined on B as in the following table.

�I� �
then, B is a group under +. Also every element in B is its own inverse
Generally, we define
Bm = B x B x B x B ... x B (m times)
then, B is also a group under the binary operation EB defined by
m
(xp x2 , ... xm) E8 (Y 1 ' Y2' ... , Ym) = (Xl + Y 1 ' x2 + Y2' ... , xm + Ym)
The identity of Bm is (0, 0, ... , 0) and every element is its own inverse. Now B has two
elements and since Bm = B x B x B x ... x B is a product of m factors) therefore Bm has 2m
elements. Thus) order of the group Bm is 2m.
Consider the basic process of sending a word from one point to another point over a
transmission channel as shown in the following figure.
Transmitted Transmission Received
channel

An element x E Bm is sent via a transmission channel and is received as an element

xt E B m. But in actual practice) the transmission may
)
suffer some disturbances
) because of
whether) electrical problems and this may cause a '0 to be received as a '1 or vice versa. Due
to this) we can have a situation where the word received is different from the word that was
sent. That is to say) x t:- xt where x) xt E Bm. To reduce the likelihood of receiving a word that
differs from the word that was sent) we define encoding function.
8.39. ENCODING FUNCTION
For n > m) consider a function e Bm � Bn such that e is a one-one function. Then
:

the function e is called (m, n) encoding function. If b E Bm, then e(b) is called code word
representing b.
To transmit the code words by means of a transmission channel) consider the following
figure.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 305
Encoded word
sent Received

If a word b E Bm is transmitted, then each code word x = e(b) is received as the word x,
in Bn. If different words in Bm will be assigned different code words in Bn. Then the encoding
function e : Bm � Bn is one-one.
For the transmission channel to be noiseless, we should have x = xt for all x E Bn.
Generally) errors in transmission do occur. We say that the code word x = e(b) has been
transmitted with k or fewer errors if x and xt differ in atleast one but not more than k positions.
Let e : Bm --; Bn be an (m, n) encoding function. We say that e detects k or fewer errors. If
whenever x = e(b) is transmitted with k or fewer errors; then xt is not a code word.
8.40. WEIGHT
If x E Bn, the number of l 's in x is called the weight of x and is denoted by 1 x I.
8.41 . PARITY CHECK CODE
B m --; Bm+ l
{ O,
Consider the following encoding function e : defined by e(b) = b, b2....bm
if I b I is even
where b E Bm and bm+l _

- 1, if I b I is odd
i.e.) b m l is zero iff the number of l 's in b is an even number and we say that every code word
+
e (b) has even weight. Also bm l is 1 iff the number of l 's in b is an odd number and we say
that every code word e(b) has+ an odd weight.
The function e : Bm --; Bm+l is called parity (m, m+1) check code.
It should be noted that if the received word has an odd weight, then we can say that the
code word was transmitted correctly_
The following illustration explains this concept more clearly. Consider the encoding
function e : B3 --; B4 defined by
e(OOO) = 0000 If b = 000, then
e(001) = 001 1 1 b 1 = Number of l 's in 000 = zero (even)
e(010) = 0101
e(Ol1) = 0110 If b = 010, then
e(100) = 1001 1 b 1 = Number of l 's in 010 = one (odd)
e(101) = 1010
e(110) = 1100
e(l 11) = 1 1 1 1
Further, if the received word has even weight) then we cannot conclude that the code
word was transmitted correctly) since the encoding function e : Bm � Bn does not detect an
even number of errors.
8.42. HAMMING DISTANCE
Consider x, y E Bm. Then, the Hamming distance d(x, y) between x and y is the weight
x EB y I of x EB y. i.e.) the distance between x = xp x2 ... x and y = yp Y2 ... ) Y is the number
m in which x and ymdiffer. Also the
of values of i such that xi '" Yi' that is, the number of positions
function d(x) y) is known as distance function.
306 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Theorem XXI. Properties of distance function

(ii) d(x, y) Co- 0

The distance function d(x, y) satisfies the following properties.

(iii) d(x, y) = 0 <=? x = y (iv) d(x, y) s d(x, z) + d(z, y) \;f x, y, Z E Bm .

(i) d(x, y) = d(y, x)

Proof, (i) Let x, y E Em, then, by definition,

d(x, y) = I x Ell y I = The weight of x Ell y
= The weight of y Ell x = I y Ell x I = d (y, x).

d(x, y) Co- 0 \;f x, Y E Em .

(ii) d(x, y) = I x Ell y I = The weight of x Ell y, which is always non-negative.

d(x, y) = 0 <=? I x Ell y I = 0

=>

The weight of x Ell y = 0 <=? x = Y

(iii)
<=?

(iv) d(x, y) = I x Ell y I = I x Ell 0 Ell y I = I x Ell z Ell z Ell y

= l x Ell z l + l z Eil y If a E Bm) then a EB a = 0 )
= d(x, z) + d(z, y) the identity element in Em
8.43. MINIMUM DISTANCE
The minimum distance of an encoding function e : Bm � Bn is the minimum of the
distances between all distinct pairs of code words. That is, min (d(e(x), e(y) : x, y E Em}
Theorem XXII. An (m, n) encoding function e : Bm � Bn can detect k or fewer errors iff
its minimum distance is at least k + 1.

k + 1. We show that the encoding function e can detect k or fewer errors.

Proof. Assume that the minimum distance between any two code words is at least

Let b E Em and let x = e(b) E En be the code word representing b, then x will be transmit­
ted and received as Xc

If x, # x, then d(x, x,) Co- k + 1. Hence x would be transmitted with k + 1 or more errors,
that is) if x is transmitted with k or fewer errors) then xt cannot be a code word. This means
that e can detect k or fewer errors.
Converse. Suppose that the minimum distance between code words is r where r ::; k.
Let X,y E Em such that d(x, y) = r. If x, = y, then x is transmitted and received as y, then r S k
k or fewer errors.
errors have been committed and have not been detected. Thus) it is not true that e can detect
Cor. A code can correct k or fewer errors iff the minimum distance between any two
code words is at least 2k + 1.
8.44. GROUP CODES
An (m, n) encoding function e : Em � En is called a group code if
e(E m) = (e(b) : b E Em} is a subgroup of En .

I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

L Find the
(i) 1011 (ii) 0110 (iii) 1110 (iv) 011101
Example weight of the given words

(v) 11111 (vi) 010101

MONOIDSAND GROUPS 307
Sol. (i) Let x = 1011, then the weight of x is given by I x I = Number of l's in x = 1011 = 3
(ii) Let x = 01 10, then the weight of x is given by I x I = Number of l 's in x = 0 1 10 = 2
(iii) If x = 1 1 10, then I x I = 3
(iv) If x = 01 1101, then I x 1 = 4
(v) If x = 1 1 1 1 1 , then I x 1 = 5
(vi) If x = 010101, then I x I = 3.
Example 2. Find the Hamming distance between x and y.
(i) x = 1100010, y = 1010001 (ii) x = 0100110, y = 01 10010
(iii) x = 001 11001, y = 10101001 (iv) x = 1 1010010, y = 0010011 1
Sol. (i) The required distance between x and y is given by d(x, y). (Note that 1 EB 1 = 0, 0
EB 1 = 0, 1 EB 0 = 0, 0 EB 0 = 0)
Here x = 1100010, y = 1010001 1100010
x EB y = 0 1 10011 + 1010001
0 1 1001 1
=> I x EB y I = Number of l 's in 0 1 10011 = 4
(ii) Here x = 0100 1 10, y = 01 10010 0100110
.. I x EB y l = 0010100 + 0110010
0010100
=> I x EB y I = Number of l 's in 0010100 = 2
(iii) Here x = 00111001, y = 10101001 0011 1001
.. x EB y = 10010000 + 10101001
10010000
=> I x EB y I = Number of l 's in 10010000 = 2
(iv) Here x = 1 1010010, y = 00100 1 1 1 11010010
.. x EB y = 1 1 110101 + 00100111

=> I x EB y I = Number of l 's in 11 110101 = 6.

1 1 110101

Example 3. Find the minimum distance of the (2, 4) encoding function e B2 � B4 :

defined as
e(OO) = 0000, e(10) = 0110
e(Ol) = 1011, e(11) = 1 1 00 (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2012)
Sol. We first find the distances between pairs of code words.
d(OOOO, 01 10) = I (0000) EB (0110) I =2 0110
d(OOOO, 1011) = I (0000) EB (1011) I =3 + 1011
d(OOOO, 1100) = I (0000) EB (1 100) I =2 1101
d(01 10, 1011) = I (0110) EB (1011) I =3 0110
d(01 10, 1 100) = I (0110) EB (1100) I =2 + 1100
1010
1011
+ 1100
0111
The required minimum distance is 2.
308 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 4. Consider (2, 6) encoding function e: B2 --; B6 defined as
e(OO) = 000000; e(10) = 101010
e(Ol) = 0111 10; e(11) = 1 1 1000
(a) Find the minimum distance of e
(b) How many errors will e detect ?
Sol. (a) We first find the distances between each pairs of code words.
d(OOOOOO, 101010) = I (000000) EB (101010) I = 3 101010
d(OOOOOO, 0111 10) = I (000000) EB (01 1 110) I = 4 + 011110
d(OOOOOO, 11 1000) = I (000000) EB (111000) I = 3 110100
d(101010, 0111 10) = I (101010) EB (01 1 110) I = 3
101010
d(101010, 11 1000) = I (101010) EB (11 1000) I = 2 + 11 1000
010010
The required minimum distance is 2.
(b) The code will detect k or fewer errors iff its minimum distance is at least k + 1. Since
the minimum distance is 2) we have
2 :> k + 1 or k+ 1 s2 or k s 1.
The code will detect one or fewer error.
Example 5. Consider the encoding function e : B2 --; B6 defined as
e(OO) = 001000 ; e(Ol) = 010100
e(10) = 100010 ; e(11) = 1 1 0001
How many errors it can detect and correct ?
6
Sol. Proceeding as in example 4) the minimum distance of e B2 � B is 3.
:

The code can detect k or fewer errors iff the minimum distance is at least k + 1. Here the
minimum distance is 3.
Therefore, 3 :> , k + 1 or k + 1 s 3 or k S 2.
Thus, the code will detect 2 or fewer errors.
The code will correct k or fewer errors iff the minimum distance is at least 2 k + 1. Here
2k + 1 s 3 or 2k S 2 or k S 1.
the minimum distance is 3.
So 3 :> 2k + 1 or
Thus) the code will correct 1 or fewer errors.
Example 6. Consider e B3 --; B8 defined by
:

e(OOO) = 00000000
e(OOl) = 1011 1000
e(OlO) = 00101101
e(Oll) = 10010101 Code words
e(100) = 10100100
e(101) = 10001001
e(1 l O) = 0001 1100
e(1 1 1) = 00110001
(a) How many errors will e detect ?
(b) How many errors will e correct ?
Sol. We first find the distances between pairs of code words. There are 28 distinct pairs
of code words. Proceeding as in example 4) the minimum distance is 3.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 309
(a) The code will detect k or fewer errors iff the minimum distance is at least k + 1. Here
the minimum distance is 3
. . 3 :> k + 1 or k + 1 S 3 or k S 2
Thus, the code will detect 2 or fewer errors.
(b) The code will correct k or fewer errors iff the minimum distance is at least 2k + 1.
Here the minimum distance is 3)
so 3 :> 2k + 1 or 2k + 1 s 3 or 2k S 2 or k S 1
Thus) the code will correct 1 or fewer errors.
Example 7. Consider e B2 � B5 defined by
:

e(OO) = 00000

I
e(Ol) = 01110 code words
e(10) = 10101
e(11) = 1 101 1
Show that the encoding function e B2 � B5 is a group code.
:

Sol. Let H = {OOOOO, 01110, 10101, 11011} be the set of all code words. Consider the
following table.
Ell 00000 0 1 1 10 10101 11011
00000 00000 0 1 1 10 10101 11011
0 1 1 10 01110 00000 11011 10101
10101 10101 1 1011 00000 01110
1 1011 11011 10101 01110 00000

From the above table, we observe that every element in the interior of the table belongs
to the set H. Hence H is closed under Ell.
The first row inside the table coincides with the elements listed in H = {OOOOO, 01110,
10101, 11011}
Identity element of B5 is 00000.
Also Ell is an associative operation. i.e. For x, y, Z E H, x Ell (y Ell z) = (x Ell y) Ell z is true.
Finally) each element of H is its own inverse. Since
00000 Ell 00000 = 00000
01110 Ell 01110 = 00000 01110
10101 Ell 10101 = 00000 + 01110
11011 Ell 11011 = 00000 00000
5
Hence H is a subgroup of B and the given encoding function is a group code.
8.45. MORE APPLICATIONS OF GROUPS (P.T. U. B. Tech. Dec. 2005)
By using group code, we can find the solutions of many coding problems by using the
concept of Group theory. A coding problem is a problem which is used to represent distinct
messages by means of a sequence of letters from a given alphabet. A sequence of letter from an
alphabet is called a word. A code is a collection of word that is used to represent distinct
messages. A word in a code is called codeword. A blackcode is a code consisting of words
that are of the same length. The concept of 'Group Theory' can be applied in many situations
which arise in coding problem which is clear from the following discussion.
310 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

In error correction : Suppose a codeword is transmitted from its origin to its destina­
tion. During the course of transmission) some of the information might cause some of the l 's in
the codeword to be received such as noises). Let A denote the set of all binary sequences of
length n. Let EB be a binary operation on A such that for x, Y E A. Let x EB Y denotes the
sequence of length n that has l 's when x and y differ and has O's when x and y are same. We
observe that (A, EB) is a group with all zero word as its identity and every word is its own
inverse. Further for x, Y E A, we define the distance between x and y denoted by d(x, y) to be
the weight of x EB y, say, w(x EB y). The weight of x means the number of l 's in x. For example,
the weight of 1 110000 is 3.
By using the Minimum Distance Decoding Criterian, it has been proved that a
code of distance 2t + 1 can correct t or lesser transmission error.
Group codes: A subset G of A is called a group code if (G, EB) is a subgroup of (A, EB)
where A is the set of binary sequences of length n.
By using Minimum Distance Decoding Criterion, we can determine the transmit­
ted word corresponding to a received word. Let (G, EB) is a group code.
Let y be a received word and d(xi, y) = The distance between and xi and y = w(xi EB y).
The weight of the word is the coset G EB y are the distances between the code words in G
and y. Let e denotes one of the words of smallest weight. Then, according to the Minimum
Distance Decoding Criterian, e EB y = is the transmitted code word. Thus, by using the
Xl

axioms of group theory, we can find the transmitted code words and group codes.

TEST YOUNOWLEDGE 8.6

L Find the weight of each of the following words in B5.

(a) 01000 (b) 1 1 100 (c) 00000 (d) 1 1 1 1 1
2. Find the Hamming distance between and x y:

(a) 110110, 000101

x= Y = (b) 001100, 010110
x= Y =

3. Consider the following (2, 5) encoding function e B2 B5 defined as

: -----t

e(OO) 00000
Code words.
=

e(10) = 001 1 1

e(01) = 0 1 1 10
e(l1) = 11111

Find the minimum distance of the encoding3 function e.

4. Consider the (3, 8) encoding function e B B8 defined by
: -----t

e(OOO) = 00000000
e(001) = 1011 1000
e(010) = 00101101
e(011) = 10010101 Code words
e(100) = 10100100
e(101) = 10001001
e(110) = 00011100
e(111) = 00110001
How many errors e will detect ?
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 31 1
5. Consider the (3, 9) encoding function e : B3 -----t B9 defined as
e(OOO) = 000000000 ; e(100) = 010011010
e(001) = 0 1 1 100101 ; e(101) = 1 1 1 101011
e(010) = 010101000 ; e(110) = 00101 1000
e(011) = 110010001 ; e(111) = 110000 1 1 1
(a) Find the minimum distance of e.
(b) How many errors will e detect ?
6. Show that the (3, 7) encoding function e : B3 -----t B7 defined by
e(OOO) = 0000000 ; e(100) = 1000101
e(001) = 0010110 ; e(101) = 1010011
e(010) = 0101000 ; e(110) = 1101101
e(011) 0 1 1 1 1 10 ; e(111) = 1 1 1 1011
is a group code.
=

Answers
L (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 0 (d) 5
2. 4
(a) (b) 3 3. 2
4. 2 or fewer errors. 5. (a) 3 (b) 2 or fewer.

MULTI PLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)

1. .
The matrices [
cos 8 - sin 8 and 0a
sin 8 cos 8 ] [ �]
commute under the multiplication
(a) if a = b or 8 = nn, n is an integer (b) always
(c) never (d) if a. cos 8 '" b. sin 8.
2. The set of integers Z with the binary operations '*' defined as a * b = a + b + 1 for
a, b E Z, is a group. The identity element of this group is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) - 1 (d) 12.
3. Which of the following is TRUE ?
(a) The set of all rational negative numbers forms a group under multiplication
(b) The set of all non·singular matrices forms a group under multiplication
(c) The set of all matrices forms a group under multiplication
(d) Both (b) and (c) are true.
4. Which of the following statement is FALSE ?
(a) The set of rational numbers is an abelian group under addition.
(b) The set of rational integers is an abelian group under addition.
(c) The set of rational numbers form an abelian group under multiplication
(d) None of these.
312 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
5. Let A be the set of all non·singular matrices over real numbers and let * be the matrix
multiplication operator. Then
(a) A is closed under * but <A) *> is not a semi group
(b) <A, *> is a semi group but not a monoid
(c) <A, *> is a monoid but not a group
(d) <A, *> is a group but not an abelian group.
6. Some group (G, 0) is knwon to be abelian. Then, which one of the following is TRUE for G ?
(a) g = g-l for every g E G (b) g = g2 for every g E G
(c) ( goh)-2 = g2oh2 for every g, h E G (d) G is of finite order.
7. For ring ZlO = {O, 1, 2, .... , 9} of integers modulo 10, units of ZlO are
(a) 0, 1, 3 and 7 (b) 1, 3, 7 and 9
(c) 1, 2, 3, and 7 (d) 3, 7 and 9.
8. If a and b are positive integers, define a * b = a where a * b = a (modulo 7), with this *
operation) the inverse of 3 in group G {I) 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is
(a) 3 (b) 1
(c) 5 (d) 4.
9. If the binary operation * is defined on a set of ordered pairs of real numbers as
(a, b) * (e, d) = (ad + be, bd) and is associative, then (1, 2) * (3, 5) * (3, 4) =
(a) (74, 40) (b) (32, 40)
(c) (23, 11) (d) (7, 1 1).
10. ' '
G = {e, a, b, e} is an abelian group with e as identity element. The order of the other
elements are
(a) 2, 2, 2 (b) 3, 3, 3
(c) 2, 2, 4 (d) 2, 3, 4.

( ) ( )
Answers and Explanations
C?S 8 - sin 8 B = a 0
1. (a) Let A = SIn
(
8 cos 8 ' 0 b
Then AB = ��: � - ���m� �) = (���:� -�����)

BA = (� �)(��:� -����) = (� ��:� -�����)

Now, the matrices A and B commute under matrix multiplication if AB = BA
(
a cos 8 -b sin 8 ) ( a cos 8 - a sin 8)
b cos 8 = b sin 8 b cos 8
Le.,
a sin 8

- b sin 8 = - a sin 8, a sin 8 = b sin 8

(a - b) sin 8 = 0
=> either a - b = 0 or sin 8 = 0
either a = b or 8 = nn, n E Z.
MONOIDSAND GROUPS 313
2. (c) Let e is the identity element such that a e = a
*

a + e + 1 = a � e + 1 = 0 � e = - l.
2 4 8
3. (b) If a = - 3' b = - 3' then ab = 9"' which is not a negative rational number. Hence the
set of negative rational numbers cannot form a group under multiplication.Hence the
alternative (a) is not true. Also the alternative (c) is not true since singular matrices do
not have inverses.
o
4. (c) If we take a = '1 ' then a-I does not exist. Hence, the alternative (c) is false.
5. (d) Since A is the set of all non·singular matrices over real numbers, then, if
AI' A2 E A � A" A2 E A. Hence A is closed under matix multiplication. Also matrix
multiplication is associative. Therefore (A) .) is a semigroup under matrices
multiplication.

Also, (� �) is the multiplicative identity. Therefore, A is a monoid. Also, since I A I '" 0

A-I exists. Hence A is a group. But A, A2 '" A2A, A is not an abelian group.
6. (c)
7. (b) The units of ZlO are those elements of ZlO which are prime to 10. Hence 1, 3, 7 and 9
are units of ZlO'
8. (c) Since 3 * 5 = 15 = 1 . . 3-1 = 5
9. (a) (1 , 2) * «3, 5) * (3, 4» = (1, 2) * (12 + 15, 20)
= (1, 2) * (27, 20)

10.
= (20 + 54, 40) = (74, 40).
(a) If a, b = c, a.c = b then a.a = e o(a) = 2
. . e a b c
If b.c. = a, then b . b = e . . o(b) = 2 e e a b c
Similarly, o(c) = 2. a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e
 9 RINGS

9.1 . RING (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2009, May 2008, 2007, Dec. 2006, May 2005)
Let R be a non·empty set with two binary compositions, addition (+) and multiplication (.).
Then R is called a ring iff it satisfies the following :
I. R is an additive group under + i.e.)
(i) For a, b E R => a + b E R i.e.,
R is closed under addition
(ii) For a, b, c E R, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c i.e.,
Associativity under addition holds in R.
(iii) For each a E R, 3 0 E R such that a + 0 = a = 0 + a i.e.,
R has additive identity.
(iv) For each a E R, 3 a E R such that a + ( a) = 0 i.e.,
- -

R has an additive inverse.

(v) For each a, b E R, a + b = b + a Le.,
R is additive.
II. For each a, b E R, a. b E R i.e.,
R is closed under multiplication.
III. For a, b, c E R, a. (b . c) = (a. b) . c i.e.,
Associativity under multiplication holds in R.
IV. For a, b, c E R,
(i) a . (b + c) = a. b + a. c (Left distributive law)
(ii) (a + b) . c = a. c + b . c. (Right distributive law)
Remark : The additive identity 0 ofR is unique. We call it 'zero' of the ring. The additive inverse
is also unique.
9.2. COMMUTATIVE RING

A ring R is called a commutative ring if a . b = b . a \;j a, b E R.

9.3. RING WITH UNITY (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2005)
A ring R is called ring with unity if for each x E R, 3 1 E R such that 1 . x = x = x . 1. The
element '1 ' is called multiplicative identity of R.

314
RINGS 315

9.4. FINITE AND INFINITE RING

A ring R with finite number of elements) is known as finite ring) otherwise it is known
as infinite ring.
Example. (i) Z6 = {O. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. + 6. x 6} is a finite commutative ring
(ii) The quanterian ring given by J = {± 1. ± i. ± j. ± k} satisfying
i2 = P = k2 = -1; i . j = k; j . i = -k etc. is a finite non-commutative ring
(iii) (Z. +, . ) , (Q, +, .), (R, + , .) and (C, + , . ) are infinite commutative rings with unity.
9.5. (a) RING WITH ZERO DIVISORS
Let R be a ring and 0 '" a, b E R. Then R is called ring with zero divisors if a. b = O. i.e.,
If product of two non-zero elements in a ring R is zero) then R is called ring with zero
divisors. Also we say that the element a is a zero divisor of b or b is a zero divisor of a.
9.5. (b) RING WITHOUT ZERO DIVISORS
A ring R is called ring without zero divisors if whenever
a . b = 0 => a = 0 or b = 0 \;j a, b E R.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Let Z be the set of integers, then (Z, +, .) is a ring. Also Z is a commutative
ring with unity.
Sol. We know that Z is an additive group under +. (See Chapter on 'Groups').
Also for a, b E Z => a. b E Z \;j a, b E Z i.e.,
Z is closed under multiplication.
For a, b, c E Z, a . (b . c) = (a. b) . c \;j a, b, c E Z i.e.,
Associativity under multiplication holds in Z.
For a, b, c E Z, a . (b + c) = a. b + a . c
(a + b) . c = a . c + b . c \;j a, b, c E Z
Hence we can say that Z is a ring.
Further, for a, b E Z, a . b = b . a \;j a, b E Z
. . Z is commutative also.
Also for a E Z, 3 1 E Z such that
1 .a=a=a. 1 \;j a E Z.
Z is a ring with unity (multiplicative identity).
Example 2. Show that E, the set of even integers is a commutative ring without unity.
Sol. Consider E = {... , - 4, - 2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ...}
For a, b E E, a + b E E \;j a, b E E. Le.;
E is closed under addition.
F or a, b, c E E, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c \;j a, b, c E E. i.e.,
E is closed under association.
For a E E, there exists 0 E E such that
a + 0 = a = 0 + a \;j a E E. i.e.,
o is the additive identity of E.
316 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
For a E E, there exists - a E E such that a + (- a) = 0 = (- a) + a \;j a E E. i.e.,
E has additive inverse.
Also, for a, b E E => a + b = b + a \;j a, b E E.
Hence E is an additive group.
Further) for a, b E E) a . b E E v a) b E E. i.e.)
E is closed under multiplication.
For a, b, c E E, a . (b . c) = (a . b) . c \;j a, b, c E E. i.e.,
E is closed under association w.r.t. multiplication.
Also for a, b, c E E, a . (b + c) = a . b + a . c
(a + b) . c = a . c + b . c \;j a, b, c E E.
Also for a, b E E, a . b = b . a \;j a, b E R
. . E is a commutative ring.
But for a E E, there exists no 1 E E such that a . 1 = a = 1 . a
E is a commutative ring without unity (multiplicative identity).
Example 3. Show that the set M of2 x 2 matrices over integers form a non-commutative
ring with unity under matrix addition and multiplication.
Sol. Let M = {(� �): a, b, c, d E z}. We show M is a ring under matrix addition and
multiplication.
Let A, B E M => A + B E M \;j A, B E M.
Since sum of two matrices of the same order is again a matrix. Therefore M is closed
under matrix addition.
For A, B, C E M, A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C \;j A, B, C E M.
i.e.) matrix addition is associative.
For A E M, there exists 0 E M such that
A + O =A = O + A
The element 0 is called additive identity of M.
For A E M, there exists - A E M such that
A + (- A) = 0 \;j A E M.
The element - A is called additive inverse of A.
For A, B E M, A + B = B + A \;j A, B E M i.e., matrix addition is commutative.
M is an additive group.
We know that matrix multiplication is associative. i.e.,
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C \;j A, B, C E M
Also A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C
(A + B) . C = A . C + B . C \;j A, B, C E M
i.e., left distributive law and right distributive law also hold.
Hence M is a ring under matrix addition and multiplication.
But matrix multiplication in general) is not commutative. i.e., we can have A, B E M for
which AB '" BA.
Hence M is non-commutative ring.
Lastly, For A = (� �) E M, there exists I = (� �) E M such that
A . I = A = I . A i.e.,
RINGS 317
I is the multiplicative identity of M.
Hence M is a non-commutative ring with unity.
9.6. RING OF INTEGERS MODULO m (m � 1 )
The set Zm = {O, 1, 2 , 3 , ... , m 1 , +m' xm} under the operation of addition and multipli­
-

cation modulo m is a ring) known as ring of integers modulo m.

Example 4. Consider the set X = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; +6' x6}. then X is a commutative ring
with unity under addition and multiplication modulo 6.
Sol. Consider the addition modulo table shown in Table. I
Table I

+, 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
6. 6
From Table I, we observe that each element inside the Table I is also in X. It means X is
closed under addition modulo Also addition modulo is associative. i.e.,
a +6 (b +6 c) = (a +6 b) +6 c V a, b, c E X.
The first row inside the table coincides with the top most row of the Table I. It means 0
is the additive identity of X.
From Table I, we observe that each element of X has an additive inverse. For e.g.,
Inverse of 1 is 5 (the element which is at the intersection of 1 and 5 is 0).
Similarly, Inverse of 2 is 4 etc. (2 +6 4 = 0)
. . X is an additive group under addition modulo (+6)' 6
Also Table I is symmetrical w.r.t. +6 It means a +6 b = b +6 a V a, b E X.
Consider the multiplication modulo table as shown in Table II.
Table II

x, 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 0 2 4 0 2 4
3 0 3 0 3 0 3
4 0 4 2 0 4 2
5 0 5 4 3 2 1
6
From Table II, we observe that each element inside the table is also in X. It means that
X is closed under multiplication modulo (X6)
Le.,

for
for a) b E X,
6
a x6 b E X v a, b E X.
Also multiplication modulo is associative i.e.,
a, b, c E X, a x6 (b x6 c) = (a x6 b) x6 C V a, b, c E X
318 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Further, a x6 (b +6 C) = a X6 b + a X6 c
(a +6 b) x6 C = a x6 c + b x6 C \;f a, b, c E X

6
i.e., left distributive law and right distributive law also hold.
Hence X is a ring under addition modulo and multiplication modulo Also 6.
Table II is symmetrical w.r.t. x6. It means that X is a commutative ring. The second row
inside Table II coincides with the top most row of Table II. It means 1 is the multiplicative
identity of X.
Example 5. Consider the set Z together with binary compositions EB and 0 defined by
a EB b = a + b - l
a 0 b = a + b - abo (P.T.V. B. Tech. Dec. 2010)
Show that (Z, EB, 0) is a ring.
Sol. We first show that Z is an additive group under EB. Let a, b E Z. Since Z is a group
under +, we have a + b - 1 E Z \;f a, b E Z
=> a EB b E Z \;f a, b E Z, i.e.,
Z is closed under EB.
Let a) b) C E Z and consider
a EB (b EB c) = a EB (b + c - 1) = a + b + c - 1 - 1
= a + b + c-2 ... (1)
Also (a EB b) EB c = (a + b - 1) EB c = a + b - 1 + c - 1
=a+b+c-2 ... (2)
Hence from (1) and (2), a EB (b EB c) = (a EB b) EB c\;f a, b, c E Z
Z is closed w.r.t. association under EB.
For a E Z) consider a EEl 1 = a + 1 - 1 = a
1 EB a = 1 + a - 1 = a
a EB 1 = a = l EB a
i.e. 1 is the additive identity.
Also for a, b E Z, consider a EB b = 1
=> a+b- 1 = 1
b = 2 -a
Le., for a E Z, 2 - a is the additive inverse of a. Since,
a EB 2 - a = a + 2 - a - 1 = 1
2 - a EB a = 2 - a + a - 1 = 1
a EB 2 - a = 1 = 2 - a EB a.
Further for each a, b E Z, we have
a EB b = a + b - 1 = b + a - 1 = b EB a
.. Z is an additive group under EB.
Let a, b E Z => a . b = a + b - ab E Z \;f a, b E Z
=> a . b E Z Le., Z is closed under 0
Also a 0 (b 0 c) = a 0 (b + c - be) = a + b + c - be - a (b + c - be)
= a + b + c - be - ab - ac + abc
(a 0 b) 0 c = (a + b - ab) 0 c = a + b - ab + c - (a + b - ab) c
= a + b + c - ab - be - ac + abc
= a 0 (b 0 c)
i.e., Z is closed w.r.t. association under 0.
RINGS 319

Finally) For a, b, C E Z) consider

a 0 (b EB c) = a 0 (b + c - 1) = a + b + c - 1 - a (b + c - 1)
= a + b + c - 1 - a b - a c + a = 2a + b + c - ab - ac - 1 ... (3)
Also a 0 b = a + b - ab
a 0 c = a + c - ab
a 0 b EB a 0 c = a + b - ab EB a + c - ac = a + b - ab + a + c - ac - 1
= 2a + b + c - a b - ac - 1 ... (4)
From (3) and (4), we get a 0 (b EB c) = a 0 b EB a 0 c
Similarly, (a EB b) 0 c = a 0 c EB b 0 c
i.e., left distributive law and right distributive law also hold.
Z is a ring under the binary composition EB and 0 .

9.7. BOOLEAN RING

A ring R is called a Boolean ring if x2 = x \;f E R

X

For example: The ring R = (O, 1, +2' x) under addition and multiplication modulo 2 is
a Boolean ring.
Example 6. If R is a ring such that a2 = a \;f a E R. Show that
(i) a + a = 0 \;f a E R
(ii) a + b = 0 => a = b
(iii) R is commutative. (P.T.V. B.Tech., May 2009)
Sol. (i) Given a2 = a \;f a E R
=> (a + a) 2 = a + a
=> (a + a) (a + a) = a + a
a . (a + a) + a . (a + a) = a + a I Distributive law
::::::} a . a + a . a + a . a + a . a = a + a

=> a+a+a+a=a+a I a2 = a ::::::} a . a = a

=> (a + a) + (a + a) = (a + a) + 0 I Left cancellation law
=> a + a = O \;f a E R
(ii) Let a+b=O=a+a I By part (a)
=> b=a Left cancellation law
(iii) Given a2 = a \;f a E R
=> (a + b)2 = a + b
=> (a + b) (a + b) = a + b
=> (a + b) . a + (a + b) . b = a + b
=> a . a + b . a + a . b + b . b = a + b
a2 + b . a + a . b + b2 = a + b
a + b . a + a. b + b = a + b I a2 = a \;f a E R
b.a+a. b+b=b Left cancellation law
b.a+a.b=O Right cancellation law
b.a=a.b From part (b), a + b = 0 => a = b
Hence R is commutative.
320 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

9.B. DIRECT PRODUCT OF RINGS

Let Rp R2) ... Rn be n rings under the operations +p +2) ... ) +n and .1 ' 2) ... on respectively.
The direct products of these n rings is defined by p. where
n
P = iIT Rr = R, x R2 x R3 x ... x Rn.
=1
l'
Theorem I. IfR R2, ... Rn be n rings under the operation of +" +2' ... +n and " 2' ... n'
respectively. Then the direct product of R" R2, ... Rn is also a ring under the operation of
componentwise addition and multiplication.
n
Proof. Let P = iIT Ri be the direct product of RI ' R2, ... Rn'
I
Let a, b E P, then a = (ap a2 ) ••• an») ai E R) 1 :::; i :::; n
b = (bl ' b2 , ••• bn), bi E R, 1 <: i <: n
We first show P is an additive group under the operation of componentwise addition
defined by
a + b = (al + 1 b I ' a2 +2 b 2 ) ... an +n bn)
As Ri (1 :::; i :::; n) is a ring) it must be closed under +i . i.e., if ai) bi E Ri =} ai +i bi E Ri vi
::::::} (al +1 bp a2 +2 b2 ) ... an +n bn) E Rl X R2 X ... X Rn
=> a+bE P
Hence P is closed under the operation of componentwise addition.
If a) b, C E P, then a = (ap a2 , an) ' b = (b I ' b2 ) bn), C = (e l ' c2 , en)
••• ••• •••

Consider a + (b + c) = (a, + , (b, + , C,), a2 +2 (b 2 +2 c) , ... an +n (b n +n cn)

= «a, + , b,) + , cl ' (a2 +2 b ) +2 c2' ... (an +n bn) +n cn)
= (a + b) + c
I Each Ri is a ring. Therefore associativity holds in Ri
Hence associativity holds in P.
For a E P, consider
a + ° = (ap a2 ) ... an) + (Op 0 2 ) ... On) = (al + I Op a2 +2 02 ) ... an +n O n)
= (ap a2 ) an) = a
•••

Similarly, ° + a= a

Hence a+O=a=O+a
° = (0 ' 0 2' ... O n) is the additive identity of P
1
Further for a E p) consider
a + (- a) = (al ' a2 , an) + (- al ' - a2 , - an) = (a, + , (- a,l, a2 +2 (- a) , ... an +n (- an»
••• •••

= (0 1 ' 0 2' ... O n) = °

Similarly, (- a) + a = °
P has an additive inverse.
Lastly, For a, b E p) we have
a + b = (a l + I bp a2 +2 b2 ) ... an +n bn) = (b l + I ap b2 +2 a2 ) ... ) b n +n an)
=b+a I Each Ri is additive group
Hence P is an additive group under the operation of componentwise addition.
We next show that associative law under multiplication holds in P.
Define
RINGS 321
For a, b, C E p) consider
a . (b . c) = (a, " (b, " c,), a2 '2 (b2 '2 c) , ... an 'n (bn 'n cn»
= «a, " b ,) " c, ' (a2 '2 b ) '2 c2' ... (an 'n b n) 'n cn)
= (a . b) . c I Each Ri is associative under
Thus associativity under multiplication also holds in P.
We now show that left distributive law and right distributive law also holds in P.
Consider a . (b + c) = (a, " (b, + , c,), a2 '2 (b2 +2 c) , ... an 'n (b n +n cn»
= (al °1 b I + 1 a1 °1 Cl ' a2 ·2 b 2 +2 a2 ·2 c2 ) ... an on b n +n an on en)
... (1)
Also a . b + a . c = (a1 °l b 1 + 1 a1 °1 Cl ' a2 °2 b 2 +2 a2 °2 c2 ) ··· an On bn +n an °n cn)
... (2)
From (1) and (2), we get
a . (b + c) = a . b + a . c \;j a, b, c E P
Similarly, (a + b) . c = a . c + b . c \;j a, b, c E P
Hence P is a ring under the operation of addition and multiplication defined by
a + b = (al + 1 b I ' a2 +2 b 2 ) ... an +n b n)
a . b = (al °1 b I ' a2 ·2 b2 ) ... an on b n) ·
Cor. If Rl ' R2) ... Rn are commutative rings with unity, then P = Rl X R2 X R3 X ... X Rn is
also commutative ring with unity (1, 1, 1, ... 1).
Example 7. If {Z4' +4' x4} and {Z3' +3' x3} are rings, then Z4 x Z3 is also a ring. Find the
unity, if it exists in Z4 x Z3'
Sol. We know that if Rp R2) are rings under the operation of componentwise addition
and multiplication then R, x R2 is also a ring.
Here Z4 = {a, 1, 2, 3, . +4 ' x4}
Z3 = {O, 1, 2, +3 ' x 3} are rings under the addition modulo 4 and
multiplication modulo 3.
o . Z4 X Z 3 is also a ring under the componentwise addition and multiplication.
I See Theorem 1. Direct Product of rings
To find the unity: Let (x, y) E Z4 X Z3 and consider (x, y) (m, n) = (x, y) = (m, n) (x, y)
=> (x x4 m, y x 3 n) = (x, y) = (m x4 x, n x 3 y)
::::::} x X4 m = x = m x4 x ... (1)
and y x3 n = y = n x3 y ... (2)
The only elements m in Z4 and n in Z3 which satisfies (1) and (2) are m = 1, n = 1
Hence the unity of Z4 x Z3 is (1, 1).
9.9. MORPHISM OF RINGS
The word 'morphism' is a combination of various terms like ring homomorphism) ring
isomorphism etc.
9.9. 1 . Ring Homomorphism

Let (R, +, -) and [R', +', -'] be two rings. Then a mapping f : R --; R' is called a ring
homomorphism
(i) f (a + b) = f(a) +' f(b) \;j a, b E R
(ii) f (a . b) = f(a) -' f(b) \;j a, b E R.
Also) a ring homomorphism and one-one is called monomorphism. A ring homomor­
phism and onto is called epimorphism.
Further) if in addition) fis one-one and onto) thenfis called on isomorphism and R and
R' are said to be isomorphic and we write R == R/.
322 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Remarks : To check whether the two rings are isomorphic, we should check the following :
(a) Both rings should have same cardinality.
(b) Both rings should be commutative.
(c) Both rings should have same unity.
(d) If there exists an equation which is solvable in one ring, but not solvable in another ring, then
two rings cannot be isomorphic.
Lemma: If 8 is a ring homomorphism from a ring R to a ring R'. Then
(i) 8 (0) = 0, 0 E R' (ii) 8 (-a) = - 8 (a) \;j a E R
Proof. (i) Consider
8 (a) = 8 (a + 0) = 8 (a) + 8 (0) 8 is a ring homomorphism
=> 8 (a) + 0 = 8 (a) + 8 (0) I Adding 0 E R on L.H.S.
=> 0 = 8 (0) I Left cancellation law
=> 8 (0) = 0
(ii) Consider 8 (a + (--{I» = 8 (a - a) = 8 (0) = 0 I Using part (i)
=> 8 (a) + 8 (-a) = 0
=> 8 (-a) = - 8 (a)
Example 8. Consider the rings [Z, + , 'J and [2Z, + , 'J and define
f : Z � 2Z by f(n) = 2n \;j n E Z (P.T.U. B. Tech. Dec. 2010)
Is f a group homomorphism ? Is f a ring isomorphism ?
Sol. Z and 2Z are groups under addition.
Consider f : Z � 2Z defined by f(n) = 2n \;j n E Z
For m, n E Z, consider
f(m + n) = 2(m + n)
= 2m + 2n = f(m) + f(n) \;j m, n E Z
Hence f : Z � 2Z is a group homomorphism.
To check whether f is a ring isomorphism.
For m, n E Z, consider f(mn) = 2 mn
and f(m) f(n) = 2m . 2n = 4 mn.
f(mn) '" f(m) f(n) \;j m, n E Z
. . f : Z � 2Z cannot be a ring isomorphism.
Alternatively: We know that Z is a ring with unity and 2Z is also a ring but without
unity. Hence both rings donot have same unity. Therefore Z and 2Z are not isomorphic, i.e.,
Z ", 2Z.
Example 9. Examine whether [2Z, + , J and [3Z, +, J are isomorphic rings ?
Sol. Consider the equation x + x = x . x ... (1).
This equation makes sense in both rings.
For x = 2, (1) gives 2 + 2 = 2 . 2 => 4 = 4, which is true.
Thus equation (1) has a solution x = 2 E 2Z.
For x = 3, (1) gives 3 + 3 '" 3 . 3. This means x = 3 is not a solution of (1).
Hence we conclude that equation (1) has a solution in 2Z, but does not have a solution in
3Z. Therefore 2Z and 3Z cannot be isomorphic rings. (See Remark (d) of Art. 9.9.1)
Example 10. Show that following rings are not isomorphic.
(i) [Z, + , 'J and [M2X2 (R), + , 'J (ii) [3Z, + , 'J and [4Z, + , 'J
(iii) [R, + , 'J and [Q, + , 'J (iv) [Z2 x Z2' + , 'J and [Z4' + , l
RINGS 323
Sol. (i) We know that Z is a commutative ring and M2X2 (R) is a non-commutative ring.
(since for A, B E M2X2 (R), AB = BA is not true)
. . The rings [Z, + , .] and [M2X2 (R) , + ,.] cannot be isomorphic rings. (Remark (a) of
Art. 9.9.1)
(ii) Consider the equation x + x + x = x . x ... ( 1)
This equation maks sense in both rings 3Z and 4Z.
For x = 3, (1) gives 3 + 3 + 3 = 3.3 => 9 = 9, which is true.
Hence equation (1) has a solution x = 3 in 3Z.
For x = 4, (1) gives 4 + 4 + 4 '" 4 . 4
=> 12 ", 16,
Hence equation (1) has does not have a solution in 4Z
Therefore, 3Z and 4Z cannot be isomorphic rings. (Remark (d) of Art. 9.9.1)
(iii) We know that the set of real numbers R is uncountable and the set of rationals Q is
countable (see chapter on 'sets').
Hence R and Q cannot have same cardinality and therefore cannot be isomorphic.
(iv) By definition, Z 2 = [0, 1, +2 ' x 2]
.. Z 2 X Z2 = [(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1 )]
For (m, n) E Z2 x Z2' consider (m, n) . (1, 1) = (m, n) = (1, 1) . (m, n)
Le., (1, 1) is the unity (multiplicative identity) of Z2 x Z2'
Now Z4 = [0 ) 1) 2) 3) +r x4]
1 is the unity of Z4'
Thus Z2 x Z2 and Z4 do not have same unity. Therefore they cannot be isomorphic rings.
Example 1 1. Let R and R' be two rings. Define 8 .- R --'> R' by 8 (a) = 0 \;j a E R. Show that
8 is a ring homomorphism.
Sol. Let a, b E R. Since R is a ring and a, b E R it implies a + b E R and ab E R. Consider
8 (a + b) = 0 = 0 + 0
= 8 (a) + 8 (b)
Also 8 (ab) = 0
= 0.0
= 8 (a) 8 (b)
Hence 8 is a ring homomorphism.
X
Example 12. Let R be a commutative ring and suppose px = 0 \;j E R, p is prime. Show
that the mapping f .- R --'> R defined by f (x) = xP, E R is a ring homomorphism.
X

Sol. Let x, y E R and consider

f (x + y) = (x + y)1', using Binomial theorem,
= Peo xP + Pel xP - 1 Y + PC2 xP - 2 y2 + ... + Pc yP
,
= xP + Pc, xP - 1 y + Pc, xP - 2 y2 + ... + yP
For x, Y E R => xP - 1 y E R. (Since R is a ring)
Using px = 0 \;j E R, we have pxp-1 y = 0
X

As we know that p I Pc. => Pc. = kp for some k.

Therefore) PC2 xP - 2 y2 = kpxP-2 y2 = 0 for some k, etc.
324 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Hence f (x + y) = xl' + yP = f (x) + f (y)
Further) f (xy) = (xy)P = xl'yP
= f (x) f (y)
f is a ring homomorphism.
9.9.2. Kernal f

If f: R --; R' is a ring homomorphism, then the kernel of f, is the set of all those elements
whose image is the zero element of R/. Thus
Kerf = (r E R : f (r) = OJ.
:
Example 13. Let 8 R --; R' be a ring homomorphism from a ring R to the ring R'. Show
that Ker 8 is a subgroup of R under addition.
Sol. By definition, Ker 8 = (r E R : f (r) = OJ
Since 8 : R -----7 R' is a ring homomorphism)
8 (0) = 0, 0 E R'
=> Ker 8 # q,
Let x, y E Ker 8 => 8 (x) = 0, 8 (y) = O.
Consider 8 (x -y) = 8 (x) - 8 (y) = 0 - 0 = 0
=> x - Y E Ker 8 \;j x, Y E R
=> Ker 8 is a subgroup of R.

9.10. SUBRING (P. T. U. Dec. 2005)

Let [R, + , 'J be a ring and S be a subset of R. Then S is called a subring of R iff S is itself
a ring under the operations of R.
Example. Let E = the ring of even integers, Z = the ring of integers. Then
E is a subring of Z. Also Z c Q, therefore Z is a subring of Q.
Theorem II. A non-empty subset of a ring R is a subring of R iff
(i) a, b E S => a - b E S \;j a, b E S
(ii) a, b E S => ab E S \;j a, b E S.
Proof. Let S be a subring of R. We prove (i) and (ii).
As S is a subring of R, S is itself a ring under the operations of R.
Hence S is additive group under +. that is) S is closed under addition. i.e.)
For a, b E S, a + bE S \;j a, b E S
Also for each b E S, there exists - b E S such that - b is the additive inverse of b.
Now a E S, - b E S => a + (- b) E S
=> a - b E S, which proves (i)
Further) as S is a subring of R, it must be a ring under the operations of R. Thus, S is
closed under multiplication i.e.;
For a, b E S => a . b E S \;j a, b E S, which proves (ii)
Converse. Let (i) and (ii) hold. We show S is a subring of R under the operations of R.
For a, a E S => a - a E S => O E S I Using (i)
Le., S has additive identity.
RINGS 325
Again o E S, a E S => O - a E S => - a E S I Using (i)
Leo) S has additive inverse.
For a E S, b E S => - b E S (Proved above)
From (i), a - (- b) E S
a + b E S \;j a, b E S
Leo) S is closed under addition.
Since S c R, elements of S are also in R
. . Associativity under addition holds in S
For a, b E S C R => a, b E R
a+b=b+a I R is additive group
Hence we can say that S is an additive group.
From (ii), a, b E S => a. b E S \;j a, b E S
Le., S is closed under multiplication.
Finally, a, b, C E S C R ::::::} a, b, C E R
a. (b + c) = a . b + a . c
(a + b) . c = a . c + b . c Distributive laws hold in R
Le., left distributive law and right distributive law holds in S.
Hence S is a ring under the operations of R.
Example 14. The set of integers Z is subring of Q.
Sol. We know that "A non-empty subset S of a ring R is a sub ring ofR
iff (i) a, b E S => a - b E S \;j a, b E S
(ii) a, b E S => a . b E S \;j a, b E S.
Since Z c Q i.e., Z is a subset of Q.
For a, b E Z => a - b E Z \;j a, b E Z is true.
Also for a, b E Z => a . b E Z \;j a, b E Z. I Theorem II
Hence Z is a subring of Q.
Example 15. (a) Show that 3Z is a subring of Z.
(b) Find all subrings of Zs '
Sol. (a) We know that "A non-empty subset S of a ring R is a subring ofR
iff (i) a, b E S => a - b E S \;j a, b E S
(ii) a, b E S => a . b E S \;j a, b E S
Let x, y E 3Z ::::::} x = 3m, m E Z, Y = 3n, n E Z

I:
Consider x - y = 3m - 3n = 3(m - n) E 3Z
nce m, n E Z => m - n E Z (Z is a ring)
3(m - n) E 3Z
=> x - Y E 3Z
Also x.y = 3m . 3n = 3(3mn) = 3k E 3Z
where k = 3 mn I since 3, m, n E Z and Z is a ring :. 3mn E Z I
Hence we can say that 3Z is a subring of Z.
(b) Consider the following subsets of ZS '
Z2 = [0, 1, +2' x 2l ; Z3 = [0, 1, 2, +3' X 3l
Z4 = [0, 1, 2, 3, +4 ' x 4] ; Z5 = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, +5' x 5]
Z6 = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, +6) x6] ; Z7 = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, +7 ) x7]
326 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
For a, b E Z2' we observe that a - b E Z2 V a, b E Z2
Also a . b E Z2 V a, b E Z2
Hence Z2 is a subring of Zs
For a, b E Z3' we observe that a - b E Z3 V a, b E Z3
Also a . b E Z3 V a, b E Z3
Hence Z3 is a subring of Zs
Similarly) we can prove that Z4' Z5) Z6) Z7 are all subrings of ZS"
9.1 1 . UNITS
Let (R, + , .) be a ring with unity. An element a E R is said to be a unit (or invertible) if
for 0 '" a E R, 3 b E R such that a . b = 1 = b . a or
An element is a unit if a has multiplicative inverse, a-I E R such that aa-1 = 1 = a-1a
Consider the rings (R, + ,.) and (Q, + , .). Every non-zero element in R (set of reals) and
4
Q (set of rationals) has a multiplicative inverse. For example, "3 E R has multiplicative inverse
3 4 3
- E R since - . - = 1.
4 3 4
The only elements in Z that have multiplicative inverses are - 1 and 1.
Theorem III. An element a in Zn is a unit iff a and n are relatively prime.
Proof. By definition, Zn = [0, 1, 2, 3, ... n - 1, +n' xn]
Let a E Zn be a unit. It means there exists an element b E Zn such that a xn b = 1 i.e., when
ab is divided by n, the remainder is 1. i.e., a xn b = 1 ::::::} ab = nq + 1, where q is the quotient.
=> ab - nq = 1 I For a, b E R, if3 x, y E R such that ax - by = 1, then g.c.d. (a, b ) = 1
=> (a, n) = l
Example 16. Determine the units (those elements which have multiplicative inverses)
for each of the following rings .-
(a) [Z, + , 'J (b) [Q, + , 'J
(c) [C, + , 'J (d) [M2x2(R) , + , 'J
(e) [Z2 ' +2' x 2J if) [Z6 ' + 6' x 6J
(g) [Zs ' +s' x sJ (h) [Z5' + 5' X 5J
(i) [Z x Z , +, 'J U) [Z/ , +, l
Sol. (a) The only units of Z are - 1 and 1. Since for each a E Z, a .l = a = 1 . a
a . (- 1) = - a = (- 1) . a
(b) Every non-zero element in Q has multiplicative inverse (unit)
(c) Every non-zero complex number in C has multiplicative inverse (unit)
(d) Every non-singular or invertible matrix is a unit of M2 2(R). x

(e) Consider Z2 = [0 , 1, +2 ' x 2J

For each x E Z2) we have x X2 1 = x = 1 x2 x
. . The only unit of Z2 is 1 .
if) Z6 = [0 , 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, +6' x6J
The only elements in Z6 which are relatively prime to 6 are 1 and 6.
( -: (1, 6) = 1, (6, 6) = 1
RINGS 327
Hence the units of Z6 are 1 and 5.
Also 1 x6 1 = 1, 5 x6 5 = 1 I Theorem III
(g) Zs = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, +s, xs]
The only units of Zs are those elements which are relative prime to 8.
The elements relative prime to 8 are 2) 3) 5) 7.
Hence the units of Zs are [1, 3, 5, 7].
(h) Z5 = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, +5 ' x 5]
The only units of Z5 are those elements which are relative prime to 5. The elements
relative prime to 5 are 1) 2) 3) 4.
Hence the units of Z5 are [1, 2, 3, 4] .
(i) The units of Z are 1 and - 1. Therefore units of Z x Z are
(1, 1) (1, - 1), (- 1, 1), (- 1, - 1).
3
(j) Z 2 = Z2 X Z2 X Z2 where Z2 = [0, 1, +2' x2]
The only unit of Z2 is 1. Therefore the only unit of Z23 is (1, 1, 1).
Theorem IV. For all a, b E R,
(i) a.O = O.a = 0 (ii) a.(- b) = (- a).b = - a.b
(iii) (- a) . (- b) = a.b (P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2012)
(iv) If R has a unit element 1, then (- 1) . a = - a, (- 1) . (- 1) = 1.
Proof. (i) For a E R, consider
a . 0 = a . (0 + 0) I 0 is the identity
=a.O+a.O Left distribution law
a.O + (- a) . 0 = a.O + a.O + (- a) . 0
(a + (- a» . O = a.O + (a + (- a» . 0 I Right distributive law
O=a.O+O
o = a. 0
Similarly, 0=0.a (Try yourself)
(ii) Consider a . (b + (- b» = a.O = 0 I by part (i)
a.b + a.(- b) = 0 I Left distributive law
a. (- b) = - a.b
Similarly, (- a) . b = - a.b (Try yourself)
(iii) (- a) . (- b) = - (a . (- b»
= - (- (a . b» I by part (ii)
=a.b
(iv) If R has a unit element 1, then
a + (- 1) . a = 1 . a + (- 1) . a l 1 .a=a
= (1 + (- 1» . a Left distributive law
=O.a=O I by part (i)
(- 1) . a = - a
In particular) if a = - 1) then
(- 1) . (- 1) = - (- 1) = 1.
328 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

9.12. INTEGRAL DOMAIN

Zero divisor
A non-zero element a E R is called a zero divisor if there exists a non-zero element b E R
such that ab = 0
A commutative ring R is called an integral domain if for every
o '" a. b E R. ab = 0 => a = 0 or b = 0
Thus) a commutative ring R is called an integral domain if R has no zero divisor.
Example (i) Z. the ring of integers is an integral domain. Also, Q, R, C are integral
domains.
(ii) Z5) Zs) Zl O etc. are not integral domains. Z3) Z5) Z7 are integral domains.
Theorem V. The element a in the ring [Zn' +n' xn1 is a zero divisor iff a is not relative
prime to n (i.e.; g.c.d. (a, n) '1" 1).
Proof. The proof of above theorem is beyond the scope of this book.
Theorem VI. (Zp' +P' \) has no zero divisors iffp is a prime number.
Proof. Let Zp has no zero divisors. We show p is prime.
For if) p = ab) 1 < a < p) 1 < b < p
::::::} a Xp b = 0 where a) b are non-zero numbers
::::::} Zp has a zero divisor) a contradiction) hence p is prime.
Converse. Let p is prime) we show Zp has no zero divisor. Let a xp b = 0 for a) b E Zp
=> ab = 0 (modp) => plab => pia or plb I p is prime
But a, b E Zp . . a, b < p.
Hence a = 0 or b = 0
. . Zp has no zero divisor.
Example 17. Consider (Zs' +s' xsJ· Find the zero divisors ofZs' Is Zsan integral domain ?
Sol. Zs = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7] .
Since 4 xs2 = 0 = 2 x8 4
2 and 4 are zero divisors.
Also
4 and 6 are zero divisors.
Zs cannot be an integral domain since 0 t:- 2) 4 E Zs ===> 2xs 4 = 0 Le.) Zs is a ring
with zero divisors.
Example 18. Show that Z, the set of integers is an integral domain.
Sol. We know that Z is a commutative ring. Also if a, b E Z then, gives a . b = 0
either a = 0 or b = 0
Z is a commutative ring without zero divisors i.e.) Z is an integral domain.

Example 19. Consider m = [(� �) b, c, d E R] as a ring under matrix addition and

a,

matrix multiplication. Show that A = (� �) and B (� �) are zero divisors.

=
RINGS 329

Sol. Given A= (� �) # 0, B = (�
AB -- (0 �) (� �) = (�
But
0
A and B are zero divisors.
Example 20, Show that the ring Z29 of integers modulo 29 is an integral domain.
Sol. By using theorem VI, Zp has no zero divisors iffp is prime. Here p = 29, which is a
prime. Therefore) Z29 has no zero divisors. Consequently) Z29 is an integral domain.
Example 21. Show that the ring Z1 05 of the integers modulo 105 is not an integral
domain.
Sol. By using theorem VI, Zp has no zero divisors iff p is prime. Here p = 105, which is
a composite number. Consequently) Zl05 has zero divisors.
. . Zl05 cannot be an integral domain.
Theorem VII. The cancellation laws hold in a ring (R, + ,.) iffR has no zero divisors.
Or
A commutative ring R is an integral domain iff for a, b, c E R (0 '" a)
ab = ac => b = c.
Proof. Let R be an integral domain and consider ab = ac (0 # a)
=> ab - ac = O
=> a.(b - c) = 0 Left distribution law
=> either a = 0 or b - c = O Since R is an integral domain)
so it has no zero divisors
=> b-c=O l a#O
=> b = c.
Converse. Let cancellation laws hold in R. We show R is an integral domain.
Let a, b E R and 0 # a. Consider
a.b=0
a.b=a.O I a.0=0
b=O Cancellation law
Hence R is an integral domain.
Example 22. Consider X = [0, 2, 4, 6, 8, +1!Y xl!). Is X an integral domain ? Justify your
answer.
Sol. We first check whether X is a commutative ring under addition modulo 10 and
multiplication modulo 10. The addition modulo 10 table is shown in Table I.
Table I

+10 0 2 4 6 8

0 0 2 4 6 8
2 2 4 6 8 0
4 4 6 8 0 2
6 6 8 0 2 4
8 8 0 2 4 6
330 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
From Table I, we observe that every element inside the table is also in X. It means that
X is closed under addition modulo 10. i.e.,
a, b E X => a+l O b E X \;ja, b E X
Addition modulo 10 is associative i.e.)
For a, b, c E X, a+ l O (b+ lOc) = (a+ l O b) + 10 c \;j a, b, c E X
The first row inside the table coincides with the topmost row of the Table 1. It means 0
is the additive identity of X.
Also each element of X has an additive inverse. For example
Inverse of 2 is 8 (the intersection of 2 and 8 at zero) 1 2+ 1 0 8 = 0
Inverse of 4 is 6 etc. 1 4+ 1 0 6 = 0
Table I is symmetrical w.r.t. +10' It means a+lOb = b+ Oa \;j a, b E X.
'
Hence X is an additive group under +10"
Now consider the multiplication modulo 10 table as shown in Table II.
Table II
XlO 0 2 4 6 8

0 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 4 8 2 6
4 0 8 6 4 2
6 0 2 4 6 8
8 0 6 2 8 4
From Table II, we observe that each element inside the table is also in X. It means that
X is closed under multiplication modulo 10 i.e.,
For a, b E X, ax lObE X \;j a, b E X
Multiplication modulo 10 is associative. Also for a, b, C E X,
ax l O (b+ , Oc) = aX , o b+ l Oax l Oc I Left distributive law
(a+, O b) x l O c = ax l O c +, O ax l O c \;j a, b, c E X Right distributive law
Hence X is a ring under addition modulo 10 and multiplication modulo 10.
Now to check commutativity of X, from Table II, we observe that the table is symmetri­
cal w.r.t. X 10. It means X is a commutative ring.
Finally, X is a ring without zero divisors as it is clear from Tabe II, i.e., there do not
exist non-zero elements whose product is zero.
Hence (X, +10' x lO) is an integral domain.
Example 23. Consider X = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, +6' xi Is X an integral domain ? Justify your
answer.
Sol. Proceeding as in example 4, we can prove that X is a commutative ring.
Also 2, 3 E X and 2 x6 3 = 0 i.e., product of two non-zero elements in X is a zero element.
Thus) X is a commutative ring with zero divisors. So X cannot be an integral domain.
Example 24. (i) Give an example of a finite integral domain
(ii) Give an example of an infinite integral domain ?
(iii) Give counter example to illustrate the fact that product of two integral domain may
not be an integral domain ?
RINGS 331
Sol. (i) We know that Zp is an integral domain iff p is prime. Thus Z2 = [0, 1, +2' x2] ,
Z 3 = [0) 1) 2 ) +3 ) x 3] are finite integral domain.
(ii) Z) the set of integers is an example of an infinite integral domain.
(iii) Consider Z2 = [0, 1, +2' x 2l ; Z3 = [0, 1, 2, +3 ' x 3l
Clearly) Z2 and Z3 are integral domains as 2 and 3 are primes.
Consider the product Z2 x Z3' We know that Z2 and Z3 are commutative rings with unity
so their product Z2 x Z3 is also a commutative ring with unity.
But (1, 0), (0, 2) E Z2 X Z3 are two non-zero elements and (1, 0) . (0, 2) = (0, 0) . i.e.,
Z 2 x Z3 has zero divisors and hence cannot be an integral domain.
Example 25. Find all zero divisors of Z1 5' Z6' Z20'
Sol. (i) Z,5 = [0, 1, 2, ...... 14, + 5 ' X, 5l
'
We know that an element m, in [Zn) +n' xn] is a zero divisor iff m is not relative prime to n.
Here n = 15. The only elements which are not relative prime to 15 are 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12.
Hence 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, are zero divisors.
Also 3 x 1 5 5 = 0, 9 x 1 5 10 = 0, 5 X , 5 6 = 0 10 x 1 5 12 = 0 etc.
(ii) Z6 = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, +6 ' x 6l
The only elements which are not relative prime to 6 are 2, 3, 4
. . The zero divisors of Z6 are 2, 3, 4
Also 2 x 63 = 0, 3 x 64 = 0 etc.
(iii) Z20 = [0, 1, 2, 3, ...... 19, +20 ' x 20l
The only elements which are not relative prime to 20 are 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18.
Hence the zero divisors of Z20 are 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18.
Example 26. Consider the ring Zl O = {D, 1, 2, 3, ....., 9} of integers modulo 1 D.
(a) Find the unit of Zl O
(b) Find - 3, - 8, [51
(c) Let f(x) = 2x2 + 4x + 4. Find the roots off(x) over Zl O' By finding roots off(x), Conclude
that can a polynomial of degree n have more than n roots ?
Sol. (a) The units of ZlO are those integers which are relatively prime to 10. Clearly, the
units of ZlO are 1, 3, 7, 9.
(b) By - a in a ring, we mean that element such that a + (- a) = 0 = (- a) + a. Therefore,
- 3 = 7 (Since 3 + 7 = 0 = 7 + 3)
- 8 = 2 (Since 8 + 2 = 0 = 2 + 8)
By a-I in a ring, we mean that element such that a . a-I = 1 = a-I a
Therefore, 3-1 = 7 (Since 3.7 = 1 = 7.3)
(c) The roots of f(x) will be those elements from 0 to 9 which will yield O.
Put, x = O, f (0) = 4,
f (1) = 2 + 4 + 4 = 10 = 0
x = 2, f (2) = 8 + 8 + 4 = 20 = 0
x = 3, f (3) = 4,
x = 4, f (4) = 2, [ (5) = 4, [ (6) = 0, [ (7) = 0, [ (8) = 4, [ (9) = 2
Thus, f (1) = 0, f (2) = 0, [ (6) = 0, [ (7) = 0
Hence, the roots of f(x) are 1, 2, 6, 7.
332 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Conclusion. This example shows that a polynomial of degree n can have more than n
roots over an arbitrary ring. But this cannot happen if the ring is a field.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 9.1

L Consider the following sets. The operations involved are the usual operations defined on the sets.
(a) [Z, + , 'J (b) [Q, + , J (c) [C, + , J
(d) [M2+2 (R), + , J (e) [Z 2' +2' X2J (j) [Z 6' +6' X6J
[Z +
(g) s ' s ' s x J (h) [Z + X
5' 5' 5 J (i) [Z x Z, + , 'J
3
(J) [Z2 , + , 'J
(i) Which of the above sets are rings ?
(ii) Which of the above rings are commutative ? Are they rings with unity? Determine the unity
of the above rings.
2. Perform the indicated operations on the [Z8; +8' XsJ:
(i) 2x s (- 4) (ii) (- 3) Xs 5
(iii) (- 2) Xs (- 4) (iv) (- 3) xs 5 +s (- 3) Xs (- 5)
3. (a) Determine all solutions of the equation x2 - 5x + 6 :::: 0 in Z 12. Find all elements of Z12 which
satisfy this equation.
(b) Find all solutions of the equation .x2 - 5x + 6 :::: 0 in Z. Can there be any more than two
solutions to this equations in Z ?
4. Solve the equation x2 - 4x + 4 :::: °
(a) in Z 1 2 (b) in Z
(c) in M2x2 (R) (d) in Z3 '
5. For any ring [R; + , 'J, simplify
(i) (a + b) (c + d) for a, b, c, d E R
(ii) If R is commutative, show that (a + b)2 :::: a2 + 2ab + b2 a, b E R 'r:/

(iii) Simplify (a + b) 5 in Z5 '

6. Consider the ring Z10 :::: [0, 1, 2, 3, ...... 9] of integers modulo 10.
(a) Find the units of Z 1 0 (P.T. U. B.Tech. May 2008)
(b) Find - 3, - 8 and 3- 1
(c) Let [(x) = 2X2 + 4x + 4. Find the roots of [(x) over Z IO (P.T. U. B.Tech. May 2008)
7. Consider Zso :::: [0, 1, 2, ...... 29, + s o ' Xs o]
(a) Find - 2, - 7 and - 11 (b) Find 7-1 , 11-1 and 26-1
8. Suppose a2 :::: a for every a E R (such a ring is called a Boolean ring.) Prove that R is commutative
given that x + y = O x = y for allx, Y E R.
=> (P.T. U. B.Tech. May 2009)
9. Let G be any additive group. Define a multiplication in G by a.b :::: ° for every a, b E G. Show that
this makes G into a ring.
10. Let R be a ring with a unity element. Show that R*, the set of units in R is a group under
multiplication.
11. Prove that if x2 :::: 1 in an integral domain D, then x :::: ° or x :::: l.
12. If R is a ring with unity, then this unity is unique.
13. Prove that the ring Z2 x Zs is commutative and has unity.
RINGS 333
Answers
L (i) All are rings
(ii) except (d), all rings are commutative. The unity for (a), (b), (c), (e), (f), (g), (h) is l.
The unity for (d) is I, = (� �). The unity for (i) is (1, 1). The unity for (j) is (1, 1, 1).
2. (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) 0 (iv) O.
3. (a) x = 2, 3, x = 2, 3, 6, 11 (b) x = 2, 3, No
4. (a) x = 4, 10 (b) x = - 2 (c) Any 2 x 2 matrix satisfying (X + 21)' = 0
(d) x = 1 5. (iii) (a + b)5 = a5 + b5 6. (a) 1, 3, 7, 9
(b) - 3 = 7, - 8 = 2, 3-1 = 7 (c) 1, 2, 6, 7.
7. (a) - 2 = 28, - 7 = 23, - 11 = 19
(b) 7-1 :::: 13, 11-1 :::: 11, 26-1 does not exist since 26 is not a unit.
Hints
2. By - a in a ring Z8' we mean that element, say, a, such that a + (- a) :::: 0 :::: (-a) + a
.. - 4 = 4, - 3 = 5 etc.
3. (b) Z l = [0, 1, 2, 3, ...... 11, + 1" X l ]
If x ='6, then x' - 5x + 6 = 36 - 30'+ 6 = 12 = 0
If x = 11, then x' - 5x + 6 = 121 - 55 + 6 = 72 = 0
4. (a) x' + 4x + 4 = 0 => (x + 2) (x + 2) x = - 2, - 2. But - 2 = 10
=>

Also if x = 4, then ex' + 4x + 4 = 16 + 16 + 4 = 36 = 0

(d) - 2 :::: 1 .. x :::: 1 is the only solution.
5. (i) (a + b) (c + d) = a.(c + d) + b.(c + d) = a.c + a.d + b.c + b.d I Left distributive law
(ii) (a + b)' = (a + b) (a + b) = a.(a + b) + b(a + b)
:::: a.a + a.b + b.a + b.b :::: a2 + a.b + b.a + b2
:::: a2 + a.b + a.b + b2 a2 + 2a.b + b2 I R is commutative
2
:::: a + 2a.b + b 2
(a + b)5 :::: 5co a5 + 5c1 a4b + 5c2 a3b24 + 5cs a2b3 + 5c4 ab4 + 5c5b5
:::: a5 + 5a4b + lOa3b2 + 5ab + b5
(iii)

I In Z5 ' 5 = 0, 10 = 0 etc.
2
8. Given a :::: a for all a E R ... (1)
Let a, b E R. Since R is a ring, it is closed under addition. a + b E R
Using (1), (a + b)' = a + b
=> (a + b) (a + b) = a + b
=> (a + b).a + (a + b). b = a + b Right distributive law
=> a.a + b.a + a.b + b.b :::: a + b
=> a + b.a + a.b + b :::: a + b I a.a :::: a2 :::: a
=> b. a + a . b + b = b Left cancellation law
=> b. a + a . b = 0 Right cancellation law
=> a.b = b. a Ifx + y = O x :::: y
=>

9. Given (G, +) is an additive group. Also a.b :::: 0 E G 'r:j a, b E G . G is closed under multiplication.
:

For a, b, c E G, a.(b.c) = a.O = 0 ... (1)

334 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Also (a.b) . c o.c 0 ... (2)
From (1) and (2), a.(b.c) (a.b) . c \j a, b, c E G I b, c E G b.c 0
= =

=>

:. Associativity holds in G.
= =

Also a.(b + c) a.b + a.c 0 + 0 0

a.b + a.c :::: 0 + 0 :::: 0 I a, E G a.c :::: 0
= = =

C =:::}

a.(b + c) a.b + a.c

Similarly, (a + b) . c a.c + b.c
=

(G, +,.) is a ring.

=

10. Let R* be the set of units in R. We show R* is a group under multiplication. Let a, b E R* i.e., a
and b are units in R there exist a-I , b-1 E R such that aa-1 :::: 1 :::: a-I a and
=:::}

bb-1 1 b-1 b
Consider (ab) (b-1 a-I) a(bb-1) a-I a . 1 . a-I aa-1 1
= =

Also (b-1 a-1 ) (ab) b-1 (a-1 a) b b-1 . 1 . b b-1 b 1

= = = =

(ab) (b-1 a-1) 1 (b-1 a-I) (ab)

= = = =

..
Hence ab is also a unit in R. Consequently ab E R* i.e., R* is closed under multiplication.
= =

Since R is associative and elements of R* are from R

R* is associative under multiplication. Finally, if a is a unit in R, then a-I is also a unit in R.
Consequently a-I E R*. Hence R* is a group under multiplication.
9.13. FIELD (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2009)
A commutative ring F with unity such that each non-zero element has a multiplicative
inversy is called a field. It is denoted by F. Alternatively, F is a field if its non-zero elements
form a group under multiplication.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example L Show that the following sets are fields.

(i) [Q; + , J (ii) [R; + , J (iii) [C; +, ].
SoL (i), (ii), (iii). We know that the sets Q, R and C and commutative ring with unity
(see prob. 1. Exercise 9.1). Also each non-zero element in Q, R and C has multiplicatve in­
verse. Hence they form fields.
Example 2_ Consider the set M of all 2 x 2 matrices of the type _ ( � �) where iT, b are
the conjugates of a and b. Is M a field ? Justify your answer.

SoL Consider A, B E M where A = (� n B = (_ � �)

Then AB = (� 32) (-11 11) = ( 11 55)
-

Also BA = (_ � �) (� �) = (� _ �) # AB
Hence M is not commutative and therefore cannot be field.
RINGS 335

Example 3. Consider Zr = [0, 1, 2, 3, ...... 6, +7' xl Show that Zr is a field.

Sol. Consider the addition modulo 7 table as shown in Table 1.
Table I

+, 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0
2 2 3 4 5 6 0 1
3 3 4 5 6 0 1 2
4 4 5 6 0 1 2 3
5 5 6 0 1 2 3 4
6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5
We first show that Z7 is a ring under addition modulo 7 and multiplication modulo 7.
From Table I, we observe that each element inside the table is also in Z7' It means that
Z is closed under + 7"
Addition modulo is always associative
The first row inside the table coincides with the top most row of Table 1. It means 0 is
the additive identity.
Each element of Z7 has additive inverse.
For example) Inverse of 1 is 6. Inverse of 2 is 5 etc. 1 1 +7 6 = 7 = 0
1 2 +7 5 = 7 = 0
Also Table I is symmetrical w.r.t. +7' It means Z7 is additive w.r.t. +7 i.e.)
For a, b E Z 7 ) a +7 b = b +7 a V a) b E Z7 '
. . Z7 is an additive group w.r.t +7"
Now consider the multiplication modulo 7 table as shown in Table II.
Table II
x7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 0 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 0 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 0 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 0 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 0 6 5 4 3 2 1
From Table II, we observe that each element inside the table is also in Z7' It means Z7 is
closed w.r.t. x7" i.e.) for a) b E Z7 ::::::} aX7b E Z7 v a) b E Z7
Finally) For a) b) C E Z7)
a x 7 (b+7 c) = aX 7 b +7 a x7 c
(a +7 b ) X 7c = a X7c +7 6X 7 C is true for all a, b, C E Z7"
Hence Z7 is a ring w.r.t. addition modulo 7 and multiplication modulo 7.
336 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Also the Table II is symmetrical w.r.t. x7. It means that Z7 is commutative i.e.,
aX 7 b = bX 7 a \;j a, b E Z7
Further, the second row inside the table coincides with the topmost row of Table II. It
means 1 is the multiplicative identity of Z7'
Hence) we have shown that Z7 is a commutative ring with unity. To show Z7 is a field)
we show each non-zero element of Z7 has multiplicative inverse.

6. 6.
The units of Z7 are those elements which are relative primes to 7. (See Topic on 'units')
The elements which are prime to 7 are 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Hence the units of Z7 are 1) 2) 3) 4)
5) We can also check the elements which are units as below :

6 6
1 x 7 1 = 1; 2 X 7 4 = 1; 3 X 7 5 = 1;
4 x 7 2 = 1; 5 x 7 3 = 1; x 7 = 1.
Hence) each non-zero element of Z7 has multiplicative inverse. Therefore Z7 is a field.
9.14. GAUSSIAN INTEGERS
Any number of the form a + ib) a) b E Z is called a Gaussian integer.
Example 4. Show that the set J[iJ of Gaussian integers form a ring under addition and
multiplication. Is it an integral domain ? Is it field ?
Sol. Let X = [a + ib, a, b E ZJ be the set of Gaussian integers. Then X is a ring.
We check X for integral domain.
Let a + ib) c + id E X such that a) b) c) d are non-zero integers.
Consider (a + ib) (c + id) = 0
=> ac - bd + i(ad + bc) = 0 = 0 + Oi
ac - bd = 0, ad + bc = 0,
which is possible if either a = 0 = b or c = 0 = d i.e., if either a + ib = 0 or c + id = 0
Hence X is without zero divisor. Therefore, X is an integral domain.
Further, if 0 ", a + ib E X be any non·zero element of X where a, b E Z, then the multipli·
cative inverse of a + ib is
1 _ 1 a - ib
a - ib _ --;;
-- _ -- X __ _
2 --.".
-
2
a + ib a + ib a - ib a + b
a
Since -"2- --.,,. is not necessary an integer.
a + b2
X cannot be a field.
Example 5. The set of numbers of the form [a + b..{2, a, b E QJ is a field.
Sol. Let X = [a + b,fi; a, b E QJ . We show X is a ring.
Let x, Y E X => X = a, + b,,fi, al ' b, E Q
Y = a2 + b2 ,fi , a2 , b2 E Q
x + y = a, + b,,fi + a2 + b2 ,fi = a, + a2 + (b, + b) ,fi E X
I ': al ' a2 E Q => a, + a2 E Q
i.e.) X is closed under addition.
Addition of rationals is associative.
RINGS 337

Further, 0 + 0 ,fi E X is the additive identity since

a + b ,fi + 0 + O,fi = a + 0 + (b + 0) ,fi = a + b ,fi
Also 0 + o ,fi + a + b,fi = 0 + a + (0 + b) ,fi = a + b ,fi
Also for a + b ,fi E X, - (a + b ,fi) is the additive inverse of a + b ,fi , since
a + b ,fi + (- a - b ,fi ) = a - a + (b - b) ,fi = O + O ,fi
Also for a + b ,fi , e + d,fi E X, we have
(a + b ,fi ) + (e + d,fi ) = a + e + (b + d) ,fi = e + a + (d + b) ,fi = (e + d ,fi ) + (a + b ,fi )
Hence X is an additive group.
Further, (a + b ,fi) (e + d,fi) = ae + 2bd + (ad + be) ,fi E X
i.e.) X is closed under multiplication.
In Q, the associative laws and distributive laws hold good. Multiplication in Q is com­
mutative and 1 + o,fi is the multiplicative identity.
. . X is a commutative ring with unity. We lastly show that each non-zero element in X
has a multiplicative inverse.
Let a + b ,fi , a, b '" 0 be any element of X. Let e + d,fi is the multiplicative inverse of
a + b ,fi such that
(a + b ,fi ) (e + d ,fi ) = 1 + o,fi = (e + d ,fi ) (a + b ,fi )
1 1 a - b,fi
=> e + d ,fi = = x
a + b ,fi a + b ,fi a - b,fi
a - b ,fi a b ,fi
= 2 = 2 2
a _ 2b 2 a _ 2b a _ 2b 2
2

= 2
a
a _ 2b 2 x 2
b
2b _ a 2
,fi E X ·I : a
'
b
a 2 - 2b 2 2b 2 _ a 2 E Q
Hence X is a field.
Example 6. The set of real numbers of the form fa + b,f2, a, b E Z] is an integral
domain. Is it a field ? (P.T.V. B. Tech. Dec. 2010)
Sol. Proceeding as in example 5, we can show that X = [a + b,fi, a, b E Zl is a commutative
ring. We show X is an integral domain. i.e., X has no zero divisor.
Let a + b ,fi , e + d,fi E X where a, b, e, d E Z
Consider (a + b ,fi) (e + d,fi) = 0
=> ae + 2bd + (ad + be) ,fi = 0 = 0 + o ,fi
=> ae + 2bd = 0, ad + be = 0,
which is possible only if either a = b = 0 or e = d = 0 Le., either a + b ,fi = 0 or e + d,fi = 0
Hence X is an integral domain.
338 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Finally, we check X for multiplicative inverse. Consider 0 '" 5 + 3,[2 E X and c + d,[2 E X
such that
(5 + 3,[2) (c + d,[2) = 1 + 0,[2 = (c + d,[2) (5 + 3,[2)
1 1 5 - 3,[2
c + d,[2 - -
- 5 3,[2 - x "'::"':'F
-=---

+ 5 + 3,[2 5 - 3,[2
5 - 3,[2 5 3 . 5 3
= = "7 - "7 ,[2 'l X. Smce "7 ' "7 'l Z
25 18
_

X cannot be a field.

Example 7. Let D be the ring of all real 2 x 2 matrices of the form (� - �). Show that
D is isomorphic to the complex number C where D is a field.

Sol. Given D is a ring of real 2 x 2 matrices of the form (� - �). Define f : D --; C, by
( )
a -b
f b a = a + ib

We show fis homomorphism, one·one and onto. Let (� ) (

-b c -d
a ' d c ED
)
Consider f [(� ) (� -�)] (�: �
-b
a + =f
-
� )
+ d»
+c
= a + c + i(b + d) = a + ib + c + id

( ) ( )
Thus f is a homomorphism.
a -b c -d
Further, Let f b a =f d c
a + ib = c + id
Equating real and imaginary part, we get a = c, b = d
Thus a + ib = c + id. . . f is one·one.

( )
Hence f : D --; C, defined by
a -b
f b a = a + ib is an isomorphism.
Theorem VIII. Every field is an integral domain. But the converse is not true.
(P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2010, May 2012)
Proof. Let F be a field. We show F is an integral domain. As F is a field, F must be
commutative. We show F is without zero divisors.
Let a, b E F such that a . b = 0 . .. (1)
RINGS 339
If a t:- 0) then as F is a field, each non-zero element of F has multiplicative inverse. i.e.,
for a E F, there exists a-I E F such that a a-I = 1 = a-I a
From (1), a.b = 0
1
a- (a.b) = a-I . 0 = 0 I a.O = 0 \;j a E R
(a-I a) . b = 0
lob = 0
b=O
Hence if a '" 0, then b=O
Similarly, if b '" 0, then a=O
Hence F is without zero divisors. Consequently F is an integral domain.
The converse is, however, not true.
Example of an integral domain, which is not a field. (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2013)
Z is an integral domain. But for 2 E Z, there is no a E Z such that 2a = 1 = a.2 i.e., 2 has
no multiplicative inverse.
Therefore, Z cannot be a field.
Theorem IX. Any finite non·zero integral domain is a field.
Proof. Let D = [ap a2) an] be a finite non-zero integral domain where each a/s are
••••••

distinct. We show D is a field. For this, we show F is commutative ring with unity and each
non-zero element of D has multiplicative inverse.
Since D is an integral domain, D must be commutative.
Let 0 t:- a E D and consider the set [aap aa2, aan] . We claim ••••••

D = [aap aa2) ....... aan]

Now ai E D (1 s i s n) and a E D => aai E D \;j 1 s i s n.
::::::} aap aa2 ) aan E D
••••••

::::::} (aap aa2) aan) C D

••••••

.. D = [aap aa2) aan] ••••••

We next claim that the elements aap aa2) aan are all distinct. For if) aai = aaj
••••••

=> aa - aa = 0 => a(a - a) = 0

r J r J
But 0 '" a E D and D is without zero divisors
.. ai - aj = 0 ::::::} ai = ap a contradiction as each a/s are distinct.
Hence D = (aap aa2) aan) has n distinct elements.
•••••

Now a E D ::::::} a = aa,· ) i E (1) 2) ..... n) c

0

We show aio is the multiplicative identity of x) x E D.

For this) we show that xaio = x = a · x '0
As x E D = (aap aa2) aan) ::::::} x = aaj ) 1 "5:.j "5:. n
••••••

Consider xai. = (aa) ai = a(a.ai )

v
J 0 J 0

= a( aio a) J
D is commutative
= (a aio ) a J
Associativity
= aa J
I a a· = a
'0

= x.
340 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Similarly, aio x = ai (aa ) = ( ai al a

0
J 0
J

= (a aio ) a I D is commutative
J

= aa· = x
J

Hence xaio = x = aio x i.e., aio is the multiplicative identity of x.

Lastly, 1 E D = [aap aa2 ) aan] ••••••

=> l = aa l <- j <- n

J
)

= a, a I D is commutative
J

aa· = 1 = a, a
J J

i.e., aj is the inverse of a that is) each non-zero element of D has multiplicative inverse.
Hence D is a field.
Example 8. [Zp' +p' Xj, p is prime, is a field.
Sol. We know that ZP ) p is prime) is an integral domain. Since Zp is finite and non-zero)
therefore Zp is a field (use theorem IX above)

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 9.2

L Write out the addition, multiplication and inverse (additive) table for the following fields:
(a) [Z,; +" x,l (b) [Z3 ; +3' X3l
(c) [Z5; +5' X5l
2. Find all numbers in Z2 :::: [0, 1, +2' X2] that satisfy the following equations:
(a) x'3 - 1 0 (b) x' + 1 0
(c) x + x' + x + 1 0 (d) x3 + x + 1 o.
= =

Determine all values of x from the given fields which satisfy the given equations:
= =

3.
(a) x + 1 - l over Z" Z3' Z5 (b) 2x + 1 2 over Z3' Z5
(c) 3x + 1 2 over Z5'
= =

Write out the operation tables for [Z22, +2' x2]. Is Z22 a ring ? an integral domain ? a field? Justify
=

4.
your answers.
Answers

1. a
( )

W: o
1
0 1
1 0
Addition Table
¥ o
1
0 0
0 1
Multiplication Table
f 1 1
Inverse Table
(b) +3 0 1 2 X3 0 1 2

if
0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 2
1 1 2 0 1 0 1 2 2 1
2 2 0 1 2 0 2 1
Addition Table Multiplication Table Inverse Table
RINGS 341
(c) + 5 ° 1 2 3 4
° ° 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 °
2 2 3 4 ° 1
3 3 4 ° 1 2
4 4 ° 1 2 3
Addition Table
X5 ° 1 2 3 4 a a-I

° ° ° ° ° ° 1 4
1 ° 1 2 3 4 2 3
2 ° 2 4 1 3 3 2
3 ° 3 1 4 2 4 1
4 ° 4 3 2 1
Multiplication Table Inverse (additive) Table
2. (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 1 (d) None.
(a) ° (over Z2) ' 1 (over Z,) , 3(over Z5) (b) 2(over Z,), 3(over Z,) (c) 2(over Z5)
x= x= x=

3.

4. +2 (0, 0) (0, 1) (1, 0) (1, 1)

(0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 1) (1, 0) (1, 1)
(0, 1) (0, 1) (0, 0) (1, 1) (1, 0)
(1, 0) (1, 0) (1, 1) (0, 0) (0, 1)
(1, 1) ( 1, 1) ( 1, 0) (0, 1) (0, 0)

x2 (0, 0) (0, 1) ( 1, 0) ( 1, 1)

(0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0)

(0, 1) (0, 0) (0, 1) (0, 0) (0, 1)
( 1, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0) ( 1, 0) ( 1, 0)
( 1, 1) (0, 0) (0, 1) ( 1, 0) ( 1, 1)

Z22 is a ring.
Z22 is not an integral domain. Since (1, 0), (0, 1) Z22 be any two non-zero elements and
E
is a ring with zero divisors.
( 1 , 0) . (0, 1) :::: (0, 0) i.e., Z2
2
Z2 2 can not be a field. For if, is a field, it must be an integral domain, which is not so.
Z22

9.14. IDEALS (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2013)

Left Ideal. A non·empty subset I of a ring R is called a left ideal of R if
(i) For a, b E l => a - b E l \;f a, b E l
(ii) For a E I, r E R => r a E I
Right Ideal. A non·empty subset J of a ring R is called a right ideal of R if
(i) For a, b E J => a - b E J \;f a, b E J
(ii) For a E J, r E R => ar E J.
342 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Ideal. A non-empty set K of a ring R is called an ideal (or two sided ideal) of R iff K is
both left ideal and right ideal of R i.e.,
(i) For a, b E K => a - b E K Va, b E K
(ii) For a E K, r E R => ra E K, ar E K.
Proper and Improper Ideals_ (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2007)
Every ideal other than <0> and R are known as proper ideals. The ideals <0> and R are
improper ideals of R.
Example_ (i) Let E = the set of even integers, Z = the ring of integers. Since E c Z, E is
an ideal of Z. But Z c Q and Z is not an ideal of Q.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example L Show that {OJ is an ideal in any ring R. (P.T.V. B.Tech May 2010)
Sol. Let 0 E {OJ and consider 0 - 0 = 0 E {OJ
For r E R, r . 0 = 0 E {OJ
o . r = 0 E {OJ
. . {OJ is an ideal of R.
Example 2_ Let M be the ring of 2 x 2 matrices over reaIs. Give an example of a left ideal,
which is not a right ideal and an example of a right ideal, which is not a left ideal.
Sol. Consider {(� �): E R}
L= a, b

Let A, B E L such that A (� �), B (� �), where

= = R
a, b, c, d E

Consider A B (� �) (� �) (� � � �) E L V a, b, c, d E R
- = =
Let R E M be any matrix over reals such that
R (� n= a, ER
�, y, 8

RA = (� �) (� ) ( )
a 0 au + �b
Consider b = O ya + 8b E L

AR = (� �) (� ) ( )EL
� ay a8
But 8 = by b8
Hence L is a left ideal, but not a right ideal of M
If we take K {(� �):
= E R} , then we can show that K is a right ideal, but not a left
a, b

ideal of M.
Example 3_ The set of even integers is an ideal of z.
Sol. Consider E, the set of even integers given by E = [2m : m E Zl
Let a) b E E ::::::} a = 2m) m E Z) b = 2n) n E Z
.. a - b = 2 m - 2 n = 2(m - n) E E l ·: m, n E Z => m - n E Z
For r E Z) consider
ra = r(2m) = 2(rm) E E
ar = (2m) r = 2(mr) E E
1
m E Z, r E Z => rm E Z
Similarly, mr E Z
Hence E is an ideal of Z.
RINGS 343
Example 4. Let M be a ring of 2 x 2 matrices over integers. Consider the set
(P.T.U. B. Tech. Dec. 2010)
L= [(� �) : E z] .
a, b Show that L is a left ideal of M. Is L right ideal of M?

Sol. Since (� �) E L L q, i.e., L is non·empty set of M.

=> '"

Let A, B E L A = (� �) ; a, b E Z ; B = (� �) ; c, d E Z
=>

A - B = (� �) - (� �) = (��� �) E L a-c E Z
=>
I b, d E Z b - d E Z =>

For a, �, y, 8 E Z, Let R = (� �) E M and consider

RA = (� �H� �) = (;:: �) E L
�, a, b E Z
a, a + �b E Z
=> a

8, a, b E Z
y, a + 8b E Z
=> y
L
Hence is a left ideal of M. Also
AR = (� �H� �) = (��
L is not a right ideal of M.
Example 5. Every ideal of a ring R is a subring of R. But the converse is not true.
K R,
Sol. Let be an ideal of then we have
For a, bEK => a - bEK EK \;j a, b ... (1)
E R) E K) E K
For r ra ar ... (2)
K R.
We show is a subring of i.e.,
We show (i) for a, b EK => a-bE K \;j a, bEK ... (3)
EK
(ii) for a, b EK
=> a . b EK
\;j a, b ... (4)
Now (3) is trivial by using (1). To show (4),
Let bE KeR => bE R. K R E K,
Since is an ideal of and a we have
abEK I Using (2»
Hence K is a subring of R.
Consider Z, the set of integers and Q, the set of rationals. We know that Z is a subring
of Q. We show Z is not an ideal of Q.
Take 3 Z,E i E Q, then 3 . i = % 'l Z i.e., Z cannot be an ideal of Q.
Example 6. If is an ideal of R and 1
K E K,
then K= R
Sol. Given K is an ideal of R, so K is a subset of R i.e., K c R. Also r E R and 1 E K
=> r.1 E K I K is an ideal of R
rE K RcK =>
K=R
344 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 7. If F is a field, then F has no proper ideals.
Or
If F is a field, then the only ideals of F are <0> and F itself.
Sol. Let, if possible. S is any proper ideal of F and 0 # a E S. As S c F => 0 # a E F.
But F is a field and 0 # a E F. There exists a-I E F (Every non·zero element of F has a multipli·
cative inverse).

6
Now a E S) a-I E F and since S is an ideal of F) then aa-1 E S ::::::} 1 E S
Hence S = F. I see example above
Hence the only ideals of F are 0 and F itself.
Theorem X. Intersection of two ideals of a ring R is an ideal of R.
(P.T.V. B. Tech. May 2013)
Proof. Let A and B are two ideals ofR, then, <jJ # A c R, <jJ # � c R => <jJ # A n B c R i.e.,
A n B is a non·empty subset of R. We show A n B is an ideal of R.
Let x, Y E A n B => x, Y E A and x, y E B. As A and B are ideals of R
x - Y E A, x - Y E B => x - Y E A n B
For r E R) X E A => rX E A and xr E A I A is an ideal of R.
Also for r E R, X E B => rX E B and xr E B I B is an ideal of R
Hence rX E A, rX E B => rX E A n B
Also xr E A, xr E B => xr E A n B
Hence the theorem.
Example 8. Let T : R --; S be a ring homomorphism. Show that the kernel of T is a two
sided ideal of R. (P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2013)
Sol. By definition:
Ker T = {r E R : f (r) = 0, where 0 E S}
Let x, Y E Ker T => T (x) = 0, T (y) = 0
Consider T (x -y) = T (x) - T (y) = 0 - 0 = 0
=> x- Y E Ker (T)
Further, if r E R and x E Ker T
Then T (rx) = T (r) T (x)
= T(r) · 0 = 0
Hence rx E Ker T
Similarly, T (xr) = T (x) T (r)
= 0 . T (r)
=0
xr E Ker T
Hence, kernel of T is a two sided ideal of R.
9.15. SUM OF IDEALS
Let A and B be two ideals of a ring R, then the sum of the ideals A and B, denoted by
A + B, is defined by A + B = [a + b : a E A, b E B]
Theorem XI. IfA and B are two ideals of R, then A + B is an ideal of R.
Proof. 0 = 0 + 0 E A + B => A + B # <jJ i.e., A + B is non· empty subset of R.
RINGS 345
Let x) Y E A+ B ::::::}
x = a1 + bp a1 E A) b I E B
Y = a2 + b2 ) a2 E A) b2 E B
x - y = a, + b, - (a2 + b) = a, - a2 + b, - b2 E A + B
.: a ' a2 E A and A is an ideal of R
l
a, - a2 E A. Similarly b, - b2 E B
Further, for r E R, x E A + B, consider rx = r(a, + b,) = ra, + rb, E A + B
I ': r E R, a, E A and A is an ideal of R. :. ra, E A Similarly, rb, E B
Also xr = (a, + b,) r = a, r + b , r E A + B
I ': r E R, a, E A and A is an ideal of R . . a, r E A. Similarly b , r E B
Hence A + B is an ideal of R.

9.16. QUOTIENT RING (P.T. U. B.Tech. May 2010, Dec. 2007, 2006, May 2005)

Let R be a ring and I be an ideal of R. Define RII, by

R/I = [x + I : x E R]
Then R/I is also a ring under the addition and multiplication defined by
(r + I) + (8 + I) = r + 8 + I \;j r, 8 E R
(r + I) (s + I) = rs + I \;j r, s E R.
The ring defined by R/I is known as quotient ring.

9.17. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF RING HOMOMORPHISM

Statement If f : R --; R' be a ring homomorphism. Then R I Ker [ --; R'
Proof. Define 8 : R I Ker [ --; R' such that
X
8(x + K) = [(x) \;j E R where K = Ker f.
We show 8 is well-defined) homomorphism) one-one and onto. Since Ker 8 is a two sided
ideal of R. Therefore, R I Ker 8 is defined
8 is well-defined: Consider
x + K = y + K => x - y E K = Ker [
=> [(x - y) = 0 => [(x) - [(y) = 0
=> [(x) = [(y) => 8(x + K) = 8(y + K)
. . 8 is well·defined
8 is homomorphism: Consider
8(x + K + y + K) = 8(x + y + K) = [(x + y) = [(x) + [(y) I [is a ring homomorphism
= 8(x + K) + 8(y + K)
Also 8«x + K) (y + K» = 8(xy + K) = [ (xy) = [ (x) [ (y) I [is a ring homomorphism
= 8(x + K) 8(y + K)
8 is homomorphism
8 is one-one
Let 8(x + K) = 8(y + K)
=> [(x) = [(y)
=> [(x) - [(y) = 0
346 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
f (X -y) = 0
X - y E Ker f = K
x+K=y+K
::::::}8 is one-one
8 is onto: Let r' E R'. Then there exists r E R such that f(r) = r'
=> 8(r + K) = r'
8 is onto.
Hence R I Ker f R''"

Example 9. (i) If R is commutative, then RII is also commutative.

(ii) If R is a ring with identity, then RII is also a ring with I as identity, where I is an
ideal of R.
Sol. (i) By definition, if I is an ideal of R, then R/I = {a + I : a E R}
Let a + I, b + I E R/I and consider
(a + I) (b + I) = ab + I
= ba + I I a, b E R and R is commutative
= (b + I) (a + I)
::::::} R/I is commutative.
(ii) Let 1 E R be the identity and if a + I E R/I, then consider
(a + I) (1 + I) = a . 1 + I = a + I
= 1 . a + I = (1 + I) (a + I)
Thus 1 + I is the identity of R/I.
:
Example 10. Let H4 = {4n n E Z} then show that H4 is an ideal of Z and hence Z I H4 is
a quotient ring given by Z I H4 = {H4, H4 + 1, H4 + 2, H4 + 3}
Sol. Let x, y E H4 => X = 4m, y = 4n for some: m, n E Z.
Consider x - y = 4n - 4m = 4 (n - m) E H4
Also for r E Z) x E H4) we have
rx = r(4m)
= 4rm E H4
xr = (4m) r
= 4mr E H4
Hence H4 is an ideal of Z.
Further H4 = {... -8, -4, 0, 4, 8, ...}
H4 + 1 = {... -7, -3, 1, 6, 9 ...}
H4 + 2 = {... -6, -2, 2, 6, 10, ...}
H4 + 3 = {... -6, -1, 3, 7, 11, ...}
H4 + 4 = {... -4, 0, 4, 8, 12, ...} = H4
H4 + 6 = {... -3, 1, 6, 9, ...} = H4 + 1
H4 + 6 = H4 + 2
H4 + 7 = H4 + 3
H4 + 8 = H4 and so on
Z I H4 = {H4 ' H4 + 1, H4 + 2, H4 + 3}.
RINGS 347

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 9.3

L Define proper and improper ideals.

2. Define quotient ring with example. (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2006)
Let I be an ideal of a ring R and RlI :::: {x + I :::: E R} under the addition and multiplication defined
X

by
3.

(x + J) + (y + J) x + + J = y

(x + J) (y + J) "y + J \j x, E R.
= y

Then RlI is a ring, called the quotient ring.

4. If J be an ideal of a ring R and E J be a unit in J. Then J :::: R.
U

5. If J and K are ideals in a ring R, then J + K and J K are also ideals in R.

II

Hint
2. Consider H4 {4n ; n E ZJ
=

We show H4 is an ideal of Z, the ring of integers.

Let b E H4
a, =:::} a ::::
4n, n E Z, b :::: 4m, m E Z
.. a - b 4n - 4m 4(n - m) E H4 n,
= = I mE Z =:::} n - mE Z
Also, If r E Z, E H4 ' then
a

(4n) r 4(nr) E H4
ar = = n, r E Z =:::} nr E Z
r r(4n) 4(rn) E H4
a = = r, n E Z =:::} rn E Z
Hence H4 is an ideal of Z
Further, H4 { ..... 8, - 4, 0, 4, 8, .....J
=

H4 + 1 {..... - 7, - 3, 1, 5, 9, .....J
=

H4 + 2 {.... - 6, - 2, 2, 6, 10, .....J

=

H4 + 3 {..... - 5, - 1, 3, 7, 11, .....J

=

H4 + 4 {.... - 4, 0, 4, 8, .....J H4
= =

Thus Z/H4 :::: {H4' H4 + 1, H4 + 2, H4 + 3} is a quotient ring.

9.18. PRINCIPAL IDEAL
Let R be a commutative ring with an identity element 1. Let a E R, then
the set = {ra : r E R} is an ideal, called the principal ideal generated by a.

9.19. PRINCIPAL IDEAL DOMAIN (P.!.D.)

A ring R is called a principal ideal domain if
(i) R is an integral domain
(ii) Every ideal in R is principal.
Example. Show that Z, the ring of integers, is a P.I.D.
Sol. We know that Z, the set of integers is an integral domain. Let J is an ideal in Z. We
show J is a principal ideal.
Case I. If J = {O}, then it is principal ideal and hence the result.
348 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Case II. If J '" {O}. Let 0 ", x E J. then
- x = (- 1) x E J for some positive x.
Hence J contains at least one positive integer. Let a be the smallest positive integer
in J.
We claim J = {ra : r E Z}
For x E J) using division algorithm)
x = qa + r) 0 :::; r :::; a) q E Z
But J is an ideal and a E J, q E Z
q a E J and x - q a E J => r E
J.
But a is the smallest positive integer in J satisfying 0 :::; r :::; a. Hence we must have r = O.
x = qa Le.,
J= {qa : q E Z}
Z is a P .LD.

9.20. EUCLIDEAN DOMAIN (P.T. U. B.Tech. May 2007, May 2006)

Let R be an integral domain and suppose that for every 0 t:- a E R) there exists a non­
negative number d(a) satisfying the following:
(i) For a, b E R, a ", 0, b '" 0, d(ab) :> d(a)
(ii) For 0 '" a E R, b E R, there exists q, r E R such that b = aq + r, where either r = 0 or
d(r) < d(a).
Then R is called Euclidean domain.
Remark. The condition (1) can be replaced by d(ab) ;> d(b).

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. The ring of integers is a Euclidean domain.

Sol. For 0 '" a E Z, define d(a) = I a I (non·negative integer)
Let 0 '" a, 0 '" b E Z. consider
d(ab) = I ab I = I a I I b I :> I a I = d(a)
=> d(ab) :> d(a)
Also for 0 '" a, b E Z, we can find q, r E Z such that b = qb + r, where r = 0 or d(r) < d(a).
Hence Z is a Euclidean domain.
Example 2. Every field is a Euclidean domain.
Sol. For 0 ", 0 E F, define d(a) = 1
I Since if 0 '" a E F and F is a field, we can find a-I E F such that aa-I = 1 = d(a) E F
Let 0 '" a, 0 '" b E F => ab E F
Now d(ab) = 1 :> d(a) => d(ab) :> d(a)
Also for 0 t:- b E F) we can write
a = (ab-I) b + 0 = qb + r where q = ab-\ r = 0
Hence every field is an integral domain.
RINGS 349

9.21 . ASSOCIATE
Let R be a commutative ring with unity. An element a E R is said to be an associate of
bE R if a = bu, where u is a unit in R. If a is an associate of b, we write a "'" b.
Example 3. (a) Find the associates of 4 in ZUY where Zl O denotes the integers modulo 1 D.
(b) Find the associates of 5 in Zl O'
(c) Find the associates of n in Z.
Sol. (a) The units of ZlO are those numbers which are relative prime to 10.
.. The units of Z l O are 1, 3, 7, 9.
Multiplying each of the units by 4, we get
1.4 = 4, 3.4 = 12 = 2, 7.4 = 28 = 8, 9.4 = 36 = 6
Thus, 2, 4, 6, 8 are the associates of 4 in Z lO 0
(b) Similarly, the associates of 5 can be obtained by multiplying each of the units by 5,
we get
1.5 = 5, 3.5 = 15 = 5, 7.5 = 35 = 5, 9.5 = 45 = 5.
Th us, the only associate of 5 in Z l O is 5 itself.
(c) The units of Z are - 1 and 1. Multiplying each of the units by n, we get - n and n, as
the associates of n in Z.
Example 4. Consider the ring
Z1 2 = {D, 1, 2, 3, ... , I I} of integers modulo 12.
(a) Find the units of Z1 2
(b) Find the roots of f(x) = x2 + 4x + 4 over Z1 2
(c) Find the associates of 2.
Sol. (a) The units of Z,2 are those elements which are relative prime to 12.
Hence, the units are 1, 5, 7, I I .
(b) Put x = 0, 1, 2, ..... , 11 in f(x) = x2 + 4x + 4, we get
when x = 0, f(O) = 4
x = 1, f(l) = 1 + 4 + 4 = 9
x = 2, f(2) = 4 + 8 + 4 = 16 = 4
x = 3, f(3) = 9 + 12 + 4 = 25 = 1
x = 4, f(4) = 16 + 16 + 4 = 36 = 0 etc.
Also, when x = 10, f(10) = 100 + 40 + 4 = 144 = 0
The roots of f(x) are x = 4, 10
(c) The units of Z, 2 are 1, 5, 7, 1 1
The associates of 2 are obtained by multiplying each unit by 2 , we get
1.2 = 2, 5.2 = 10, 7.2 = 14 = 2, 1 1.2 = 22 = 10
The associates of 2 are {2, 7}.
TheoremXII. Show that relation ofbeing associates is an equivalence relation in a ring R.
Proof. Reflexive. For x E R, we can write x = x . 1 where 1 is a unit in R. Hence x "'" x.
i.e., is reflexive.
,...,

Symmetric. Let a - b => there exist some unit u E R such that b = au.
350 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Now au-1 = (bu)u-1 = b(uu-1 ) = b
b = au-\ u-1 is also a unit in R
b-a
Hence "'" is symmetric.
Transitive. If a - b => there exists some unit u E R such that a = bu
If b - c => there exists some unit u , E R such that b = u , c. We show a - c.
Now a = bu = (u,c)u = c(u,u)
::::::} a "'" c.
As U,
u 1 are units in R and units form a subgroup.
Hence "'" is transitive.
Relation of being associates is an equivalence relation.

MULTI PLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)

1. Consider the ring Z l O = {O, 1, 2, ... 9} of integers modulo 10. The 3-1 is
(a) 3 (b) 7
(c) 6 (d) none.
2. Consider the ring Zs = {O, 1 , 2, 3, ... 7} of integers modulo 8 and f(t) = t2 + 6 t be a
polynomial in Zs' Then the number of roots of f(t) is
(a) 2 (b) 1
(c) 4 (d) none.
3. Consider the ring Z, 2 = {O, 1 , 2, ... 1 1} of integers modulo 12. The associates of 2 are
(a) 2, 10 (b) 2, 2
(c) 2, 4 (d) none.
4. Consider the ring ZlO = {O, 1 , 2, ... 9} of integers modulo 10. The units of Zl O are
(a) 1, 3, 7, 9 (b) 3, 7, 9
(c) 3. 1 (d) 1 .
5. Consider the ring Z7 = {O, 1 , 2, ... 6} of integers modulo 7, which of the following is true.
(a) Z7 is an integer domain (b) Z7 is a field
(c) Z7 has no zero divisors (d) all of the above.
6. If F is a field, then the number of proper ideals of F is
(a) 2 (b) 1
(c) ° (d) none.
7. If I and J are two ideals of a ring R. Which is false ?
(a)I n J is an ideal of R (b) I u J is an ideal of R
(c)I u J may or may not be an ideal of R (d) none.
S. Which of the following is true ? The ring of integers (Z, .) . +,
(a) is an integral domain (b) is a field
(c) is a division ring (d) none.
RINGS 351
9. Which of the following statement is not true ?
(a) Every field is an integral domain
(b) Any finite non·zero integral domain is a field
(c) Every ideal of a ring R is a subring of R
(d)
All are true.
10. Which of the following is a false statement ?
(a) The ring of integers is an integral domain
(b) The ring of integers is a Euclidean domain
(c) The ring of integers is a P.LD.
(d) None.

Answers and Explanations

1. (b) By a- in a ring R, we mean that element such that a . a-I = 1 = a-1 a
I
Here 3.7 = 1 = 7.3 . . 3-1 = 7
2
2. (c) f (t) = t + 6t
f (0) = 0, [ (2) = 4 + 12 = 16 = 0
f (4) = 1 6 + 24 = 40 = 0
f (6) = 36 + 36 = 72 = 0
Hence the roots of f(t) are 0, 2, 4, 6
3. (d) The units of Z,2 are those numbers which are relative prime to 12.
The units of Z,2 are
1, 5, 7, 1 1
Multiplying each of the units by 2 , we get
1 . 2 = 2, 5 . 2 = 10 = 2, 7 . 2 = 14 = 2
1 1 . 2 = 22 = 10 = 2
. . The associates of 2 are 2, 7
4. (a) The units of Zl O are those elements which are relative prime to 10. Therefore, the
units of Zl O are 1, 3, 7, 9
5. (d) Zp is a field iff p is a prime number. Also every field is an integral domain.
6. (d) A field has no proper ideals.
7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (d).
 10 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

1 0. 1 . PARTIALLY ORDERED RELATION

Consider a relation R on a set S satisfying the following properties :
1. R is reflexive i.e., xRx for every X E S.
2. R is antisymmetric i.e., if xRy and yRx, then x = y.
3. R is transitive i.e., if xRy and yRz, then xRz.
Then R is called a partially order relation and the set S together with partial order
relation R is called apartialiy order set or simply, an ordered set or PO SET and is denoted by
(S, s).
For example :

secondly, if x S y and y S x, then we have x = y and lastly if x S y and y S z, it implies x S z for all
1. The set N of natural numbers form a poset under the relation ':s;' because firstly x :::; x,

x, y, z E N.
2. The set N of natural numbers under divisibility i.e., 'x divides y' forms a poset be­
cause x/x for every x E N. Also if x/y and y/x, we have x = y. Again if x/y, y/z we have x/z, for
every X,y,Z E N.
3. Consider a set S = {I, 2} and power set of S is P(S). The relation of set inclusion C is a
partial order relation. Since, for any sets A, B, C in P(S), firstly we have A C A, secondly, if A
c B and B e A, then we have A = B. Lastly, if A c B and B e C, then A c C. Hence, (P(S), C) is
a poset.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Consider the set Z of integers. Define aRb by b = a', for some positive integer r.
Show that R is a partial order relation on Z
Sol. (i) Since a = a1 aRa i.e., R is reflexive
• •

(ii) Let aRb and bRa. Then there exist positive integers r and s such that
b = ar and a = b S
Now a = bS = (ar) S = ars
Consider the following possibilities
(a) If rs = 1 , then r = 1 , s = 1 and hence a = b. Therefore, R is antisymmetric
(b) If a = 1 , then b = l' = 1 = a. Therefore, R is antisymmetric

352
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 353
(c) If b = 1, then a = 1' = 1 =a
. . R is antisymmetric.
(d) If a = 1 , then b = (
- - 1)' = - 1 (since b # 1) and hence a = b. Therefore,
R is antisymmetric.
Hence) in all the cases) R is antisymmetric.
(iii) Let aRb, bRc, then there exist positive integers r and s such that
b = ar) c = bS
c = b S = (ary = ar\ for some positive integer rs. Hence aRc
R is transitive also.
Therefore) R is a partial order relation.

1 0.2. COMPARABLE ELEMENTS

Consider an ordered set A. Two elements a and b of set A are called comparable if
a :::; b or b :::; a where :::; is a partial order relation.

1 0.3. NON-COMPARABLE ELEMENTS

Consider an ordered set A. Two elements a and b of set A are called non-comparable if
neither a :::; b nor b :::; a.

1 0.4. LINEARLY ORDERED SET OR TOTALLY ORDERED SET

Consider an ordered set A. The set A is called linearly ordered set or totally ordered
set, if every pair of elements in A are comparable.
For example : The set of positive integers 1+ with the usual order S is a linearly ordered set.
Example 2. Let N = {I, 2, 3, 4, .. .} is ordered by divisibility. State whether each of the
following subsets of N are linearly (or totally ordered).
(a) {24, 2, 6} (b) {3, 15, 5} (c) {I, 2, 3, .. .}
(d) {5} (e) {2, 8, 32, 16}.
Sol. (a) Consider the set S = {24, 2, 6}
Since 2/6, 6/24 S is linearly ordered.
(b) 3 does not divide 5. Therefore, the set {3, 15, 5} is not linearly ordered.
(c) Let S = {I, 2, 3, ...}
As 2 does not divide 3 and 4 does not divide 7 This set is not linearly ordered.
(d) Any set consisting of one element is linearly ordered.
(e) As 2 divides 8, 8 divides 16, 1 6 divides 32,
.. This set is linearly ordered set.
Example 3. Consider N = {I, 2, 3, 4 .. .} with the relation '7ess than or equal to". Find all
linearly ordered subsets of N.
Sol. We know that the set N is a linearly ordered set under 's'. Therefore, every subset
of N is linearly ordered.
354 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 4. Let A = {2, 3, 6, S, 9, is} is ordered by divisibility.
(a) Find the non-comparable pairs of elements ofA.
(b) Find the linearly ordered subsets ofA with three or more elements.
Sol. (a) The non-comparable pairs are
{2, 3}, {2, 9}, {3, S}, {6, S}, {6, 9}, {S, 9}, {S, IS}
(b) We know that a set is called linearly ordered if every pair of its elements are compa­
rable. The linearly ordered set of A with three or more elements are {2, 6, IS}, {3, 9, IS}. Note
that the set {2, 6, S} is not linearly ordered since the elements 6 and S are not comparable.
Example 5. Consider the set Z of integers under the partial order relation defined by
aRb <=? b = a', for some +ve integers. Examine which ofthe following subsets ofZ are linearly
ordered
(i) {2, 4, 64} (ii) {3, 9, is} (iii) {S}
(iv) {3, 27, 729}
Sol. (i) As 4 = 22, 64 = 26 The set {2, 4, 64} is linearly ordered.
2 r
(ii) 9 = 3 ) 1 8 i:- 3 ) for some positive value r.
.. The set {3, 9, IS} is not linearly ordered set.
(iii) Any set with one element is always linearly ordered. Hence the set {S} is linearly
ordered.
3
(iv) 27 = 3 , 729 = 36
{3, 27, 729} is also linearly ordered set.

1 0.5. HASSE DIAGRAMS

It is a useful tool, which completely describes the associated partial order. Therefore, it
is also called an ordering diagram. It is very easy to convert a directed graph of a relation
on a set A to an equivalent Hasse diagram. Therefore) while drawing a Hasse diagram, the
following points must be remembered.
1. The vertices in Hasse diagram are denoted by points rather than by circles.
2. Since a partial order relation is reflexive) hence each vertex of A must be related to
itself, so the edges from a vertex to itself are deleted in Hasse diagram.
3. Since a partial order relation is transitive) hence whenever aRb, bRc, we have aRc.
Eliminate all edges that are implied by the transitive property in Hasse diagram i.e., Delete
edge from a to c but retain the other two edges.
4. If a vertex 'a' is connected to vertex 'b ' by an edge i.e., aRb, then vertex 'b ' appears
above vertex 'a' . Therefore, the arrows may be ommitted from the edges in Hasse diagram.
The Hasse diagram is much simpler than the directed graph of the partial order
relation.
Example 6. Describe the diagram of a partially ordered set.
Sol. The diagram of a partially ordered set S is the directed graph whose vertices are
the elements of S and there is an edge from a to b whenever aRb is S. (Instead of drawing an
arrow from a to b, we can place b higher than a and draw a line between them.)
Example 7. Let A = {i, 2, 3, 4, 6, S, 9, i2, is, 24} be ordered by divisibility. Draw the
Hasse diagram of A.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 355
Sol. The relation "x divides y" is given as:
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 6), (1, 8), (1, 9), (1,12), (1, 18), (1, 24), (2, 2), (2, 4),
(2, 6), (2, 8), (2, 12), (2, 18), (2, 24), (3, 3), (3, 6), (3, 9), (3,12), (3, 18), (3, 24), (4, 4),
(4, 8), (4, 12), (4, 18), (4, 24), (6, 6), (6, 12), (6, 18), (6, 24), (8, 8), (8, 24), (9, 9), (9, 18),
(12, 12), (12, 24), (18, 18), (18, 24), (24, 24)}
To draw the Hasse diagram) write down the elements 1 ) 2) 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 24. Draw
an arrow from the integer x to the integer y if x divides y.
The Hasse diagram of A is shown below.

Example 8. Consider a set S = {a, b, c}. Is the relation of set inclusion 'c' is a partial
order relation on P(S) where P(S) is a power set of S ?
Sol. The power set of S is
P(S) = {{a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}, q,}
Now consider any sets A, B and C in P(S).
1. Since every A c A, hence it is reflexive.
2. If A c B and B C A, we have A = B. Hence it is antisymmetric.
3. If A c B, B c C, we have A C C. Hence it is transitive.
. . (P(S), C) is a poset.
Example 9. Consider a set A = {4, 9, 1 6, 36}. Is the relation 'divides' a partial order
relation.
Sol. The relation 'divides' is a partial order relation if it satisfies the property of reflex·
ivity, antisymmetry and transitivity.
1. Since for every a E A, we have a/a. Hence, 'divides' is reflexive.
2. If alb and bla, we have a = b for any a, b E A. Hence, 'divides' is antisymmetric.
3. If alb and blc, we have alc for any a, b, c E A. Hence, the relation 'divides' is a partial
order relation and (A, f) is a poset.
Example 10. Consider A = {I, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} is ordered by divisibility. Determine
all the comparable and non-comparable pairs of elements ofA.
Sol. The comparable pairs of elements of A are :
{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 5}, {1, 6}, {1, 10}, {1, 15}, {1, 30}
{2, 6}, {2, 10}, {2, 30}
{3, 6}, {3, 15}, {3, 30}
{5, 10}, {5, 15}, {5, 30}
{6, 30}, {10, 30}, {15, 30}.
356 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
The non-comparable pair of elements of A are :
{2, 3}, {2, 5}, {2, 15}
{3, 5}, {3, 10}, {5, 6}, {6, 10}, {6, 15}, {10, 15}.
Example 11. Consider the set I = {I, 2, 3,..... .} is ordered by divisibility. Determine
whether each of the following subsets of I are linearly ordered or not.
(i) {2, 4, 8} (ii) {3, 6, 9, I I}
(iii) {I} (iv) {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ..... .}.
Sol. (i) The subset is linearly ordered, since every pair of elements is comparable i.e., 2 1 4 1 8.
(ii) The subset is not linearly ordered, since the pair (3, 11) is not comparable.
(iii) The subset is linearly ordered) since the set containing one element is always lin­
early ordered.
(iv) The subset is not linearly ordered since every pair of elements is not comparable i.e.,
neither 4/6 nor 6/4.
Example 12. Consider the set A = {4, 5, 6, 7}. Let R be
the relation S on A. Draw the directed graph and the Hasse
diagram of R.
Sol. The relation S on the set A is given by
R = {{4, 5}, {4, 6}, {4, 7}, {5, 6}, {5, 7}, {6, 7}, {4, 4},
6}--+_--{
{5, 5}, {6, 6}, {7, 7}}
The directed graph of the relation R is as shown in
Fig. 10.1.
To draw the Hasse diagram of partial order, apply Fig. 10.1
the following points : 7
1. Delete all edges implied by reflexive property i.e.,
6
(4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (7, 7).
2. Delete all edges implied by transitive property i.e.,
5
(4, 7), (5, 7) and (4, 6).
3. Replace the circles representing the vertices by dots. 4

Fig. 10.2
4. Omit the arrows.
The Hasse diagram is as shown in Fig. 10.2.
Example 13. Draw the directed graph of relation determined by the Hasse diagram on
the set A = {I, 4, 6, 8} as shown in Fig. 10.3.
Sol. The directed graph is shown in Fig. 10.4.

Fig. 10.3 Fig. 10.4

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 357
Example 14. Determine the Hasse diagram of the partial order relation having the
directed graph as shown in Fig. 10.5.
Sol. The Hasse diagram of the given partial order relation determined by the directed
graph is as shown in Fig. 10.6.

3 4

Fig. 10.5 Fig. 10.6

Example
15. Consider the set A = {k, I, m, n, p} and the corresponding relation R =
� � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � �� � � �� �� ��
Construct the directed graph and the corresponding Hasse diagram of this partial
order relation.
Sol. The directed graph of the partial order relation is as shown in Fig. 10.7.

m
k

Fig. 10.7 Fig. 10.8

The Hasse diagram of the partial order relation is as shown in Fig. 10.S.
Example 16. Consider the Hasse diagram on a set A as shown {1 . 2)

/ �
in Fig. 10.9. Determine the value of set A and also determine the set R
where R is the corresponding relation.
Sol. The set A = {{I}, {2}, {I, 2}, q,} and
{1 ) {2 )
R = {({I), (I}), ({2), (2}), ({I, 2), (I, 2}), {q" q,}, ({I),
(I, 2}), ({2), (I, 2}), (q" (I}), (q" (2}), (q" (I, 2})}. "" � /
Here the relation R is (set inclusion) c. Fig. 10.9
358 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 17. Let A = {i, 2, 3, 4}, and let r be the relation <: on A. Draw the digraph and
the Hasse diagram of r.
Sol. The elements of the relation <: on A which means first element is less than or equal
to the second element is as follows.
r = {(I, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}
Now, draw the directed graph of the relation r as shown in Fig. 10.10.

Fig. 10.10
After, drawing the directed graph, convert it into the Hasse dia·
gram. The Hasse diagram is shown in Fig. 10.11. 4

Fig. 10.11

Example 18. Let B = {2, 3, 4, 6, i2, 36, 48}, and let s b e the
48 36
relation, "divides" on B. Draw the Hasse diagram of S.
Sol. The Hasse diagram of the relation S onset B is shown
in Fig. 10.12. 12
The easy way to draw the Hasse diagram is to find the
elements of relation r, then draw directed graph of it and after
that convert it into Hasse diagram. 6 4

3 2
Fig. 10.12

Example 19. Let A be the set of strings of O's and i 's of length 3 or less. Define the
relation of d on A by xdy ifx is contained within y. e.g. (Oi)d(10i). Draw the Hasse diagram for
this relation.
Sol. Firstly find all the elements of the set A as given below.
A = {O, 1, 00, 01, 10, 1 1 , 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 11 1}.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 359
Now to draw the Hasse diagram, write all the elements having length 3 in one row at
the top as these elements are not contained in any other element. Then in the second row)
write all the elements having length 2 and connect them with elements having length 3 and
are contained in them. Repeat the above process for elements having length 1.
The Hasse diagram of the relation d is shown in Fig. 10.13.

000 001 100 010 101 110 01 1 111

Fig. 10.13
Example 20. Let A be the set of strings of O's and 1 's of length 3 o r less. Define the
relation of d on A by xdy if x is a prefix ofy e.g. (lO)d(lOl). Draw the Hasse diagram for this
relation.
Sol. Using the procedure followed in the previous example, the Hasse diagram is shown
in Fig. 10.14.

000 001 1 00 1 01 0 1 0 011 1 1 0 111

00 10 01 11

Fig. 10.14
360 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1 0. 1

L Let L = {1, 3, 5, 7, 15, 21, 35, 105} and let <; be a relation/(divides) on L. Then (L, <;) is a poset.
2. Let M = P(A), the power set of A where A = {a, b, c) and C be a relation on M. Show that (M, C) is
a poset. Also draw its Hasse diagram.
Let D30 {l, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} and let the relation/(divides) be a partial order relation on Dso.
Draw the Hasse Diagram of D30.
3. ::::

4. List the elements of the sets Dg. D50, D IOO1

5. If a poset L has a least element, then this element is unique.
6. Draw the Hasse Diagrams of
(a) D !2

Answers
2. See Fig. 10. 15
[a. b. el

[a. bl [b. el
[al [el

Fig. 10.15
3. See Fig. 10.16
30

6 15
2 5

Fig. 10.16
4. D s = {1, 2, 4, 8};
DSG = {1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50};
D!DO! = {1, 7, 11, 13, 77, 91, 143, 100l}
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 361
6.
186
4I
I
17
2
I
I
D 16
(a) (b) (c)

Hint
5. If aand b are distinct least elements, then
since a is least element
a :s; b
Also b :s; a since b is least element
� a = b due to antisymmetry, a contradiction
Hence a = b.
1 0.6. LATTICE
A lattice L is a poset in which every pair of elements has a least upper bound (LUB) or
supremum and a greatest lower bound (GLB) or infimum.
Alternative definition of lattice.
A lattice is a partially ordered set in which
a 1\ b = Inf(a. b) a v b = sup (a. b). exists
for any pairs of elements a and b.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Consider the lattice L on the set Dm. the divisors of a positive integer m.
where a v b = l.c.m.(a. b) and a 1\ b = g.c.d.(a. b). Draw the diagram of the partial order induced

/36�
by L for m = 36.
Sol. The required Hasse diagram is shown below (Fig. 10.17).

4 /12� /8�
6�
�2/ 3/
�1/
Fig. 10.17
362 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 2. Let P(S) be thepower set ofthe set S = {i. (1 . 2. 3)

2. 3}. Construct the Hasse diagram of the partial order
relation induced on P(S) by the lattice (P(S). /\, v) .
(1 . 2)
/ (1 .I 3) �(2. 3)
tX {2} X J}
Sol. The Hasse diagram obtained by a lattice is same
as obtained under the partial ordering of set inclusion. In
the lattice) a :::; b whenever a /\ b = a. Thus) in the above

�l/
case a :::; b) whenever a /\ b = a.
The required Hasse diagram is shown in Fig. 10.36.
Example 3. Determine which of the posets shown in
Fig. i 0. i9 are lattices. Fig. 10.18

6
7 4

4 6
2
2 5

II III

Fig. 10.19
Sol. All the posets shown in Fig. 10.19 are lattices.
Example 4. Determine whether the posets shown in Fig. i 0.20 are lattices or not.

5
z

4 3
x
/\ b y
2
�I/ a

II III

Fig. 10.20
Sol. The posets shown in Figs. 10.20(II) and 10.20(III) are lattices. The poset shown in
Fig. 10.20(1) is not lattice as (x, y) has three lower bounds i.e r. s and t but the Inf (x. y) does
.•

not exist. Also, Sup (r, s) does not exist.

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 363
Example 5. Determine whether the posets shown in Fig. 10.21 are lattices or not.
7 6

e
5 6 3 5

4
4

2 3
2
a b
II III

Fig. 10.21
Sol. The poset shown in Fig. 10.21(II) is a lattice. The poset shown in Fig. 10.21(1) is not
lattice since the elements e andfhave no upper bound, hence SUP (e, f) does not exist. Similarly,
the elements a and b have no lower bound, hence INF (a, b) does not exist.
The poset shown in Fig. 10.2 1 (III) is lattice.

1 TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 10.2 1

L Consider the Hasse Diagrams of posets in the given figures:
(a) (b)

8,

0
8,

86

84 8s

(d)
8 83
2

8,

(e)

8,
364 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

<g) ::
(i)
� a,
�
Which of the posets are lattices ?
Answer
1. (i) (a), (b), (c), (d) and (h) are lattices,

1 0.7. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

George Boolean an English mathematician) developed an algebra) which was useful in

designing logic circuits in the computer systems. This algebra is now known as Boolean alge­
bra. Boolean algebra provides us a straight forward approach in designing and analysing of
switching circuits.

1 0.B. UNARY OPERATION

Let S be a non-empty set. Then a function from S into S is called a unary operation on S.
A unary operation may be denoted by the symbols f, g, <p, 'If etc.
Thus, if [is a unary operation on a set S, then [(a) is unique element of S for all a E S.
For example. Let N be the set of natural numbers, and [ be a function from N to N
defined by [(n) = n2 for all n E N. Then [ is a unary operation on N. Also, for this unary
operation, [(3) = 9, [(8) = 64 etc.

1 0.9. BINARY OPERATION

S be a non-empty set. A function from S x S into S is called a binary operation.

Let
if * is a binary operation on
S) it means * is a function from S x S into S.
If (a, b) E S X S, then the image * (a, b) of (a, b) under the binary operation '*' is
written as a * b. Thus) in order to check, whether '*' is a binary operation on S, we should
check.
(i) a * b E S for all a, b E S
(ii) a * b is umque.
For example, ordinary addition '+' is a binary operation on Z, since, '+' is a function from
Z x Z into Z. Thus, if 4, 7, E Z,
then + (4, 7) = 4 + 7 = 1 1 E Z.
On the other hand, ordinary subtraction '-' is not a binary operation on N) since difference
of two natural numbers may not be a natural number. For example) if 4) 7 E N) then
(4, 7) = 4 - 7 = - 3 9' N.
Ordinary multiplication is a binary operation on N) Z) Q) R) C.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 365

1 0.10. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AS A LATTICE

A complemented distributive lattice is called a Boolean algebra. It is denoted by
(B) /\) V/, 0, 1), where B is a set on which two binary operations /\ (*) and v (+) and a unary
operation ' (complement) are defined. Here 0 and 1 are the least and the greatest elements
of B respectively.
Since (B, /\, v) is a complemented distributive lattice, therefore each element of B has a
unique complement.

1 0. 1 1 . ALTERNATE DEFINITION OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA (P.T. U. B.Tech Dec. 2013)

Consider a set B on which two binary operations * and + and a uniary operation' (com­
plement) are defined. Also let 0 and 1 are two distinct elements of B. Then it is called a
Boolean algebra, if the following laws are satisfied for any elements a, b and c of the set B by it.
1. Commutative Laws 2. Distributive Laws
(i) a + b = b + a (i) a + (b * c) = (a + b)* (a + c)
(ii) a * b = b * a (ii) a * (b + c) = (a * b) + (a * c)
3. Identity Laws 4. Complement Laws
(i) a + 0 = a (i) a + a' = 1
(ii) a * 1 = a (ii) a * a' = 0
The Boolean algebra is denoted by (B, + , *, " 0, 1). The elements 0 and 1 are called zero
element and unit element of B.
Note L If a finite lattice L does not contain 2/1 element for some positive integer n, then L cannot
be a Boolean algebra.
2. If I L I 2/1, then L may or may not be a Boolean algebra.
::::

Remark. The binary operations '+' and '.' used above have got nothing to do with ordinary addi­
tion and multiplication of numbers. In fact, +, *, . are just symbols to represent Binary operations.
Similarly '0' and '1' are two specific elements ofB satisfying certain properties. These two numbers have
no bearing with the numbers 0 and 1 of the set of integers.
I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Let S be a non-empty set and B denotes the set ofall subsets of S. Show that
{B, U, n, '} is a Boolean algebra. (P.T.V., B.Tech. May, 20 1 3)
Sol. Let X, Y, E B, Then X U Y, X n Y E B since X U Y, X n Y are also subsets of S.
.. u and n are binary operations on B.
If X' denotes the complement of X, then we write X' = S - X E B.
We verify the following laws :
Commutative laws. Let X, Y, E B, then
XuY=Yu X and X n Y = Y n X are always true. Hence commutative laws hold.
Distributive laws. Let X, Y, Z E B, then
X u (Y n Z) = (X u Y) n (X u Z)
366 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
X n (Y u Z) = (X n Y) u (X n Z),
are always true. Hence) distributive laws hold.
Identity laws, Let Q, S, X E B, then X u q, = X and X n S = X,
are always true. Hence, identity laws hold. Here q, is the zero element and S is the unit ele­
ment of B.
Complement laws. Let X E B, then
X u X' = X u (S - X) = S
X n X' = X n (S - X) = q"
are always true. Hence, complement laws also hold. Hence, {B, n, U, '} is a Boolean algebra.
Example 2. Let B = {O, I}. Define the binary operations '+' and '.' on B as below .-
o 1 o 1
o 1 o o o
1 1 1 o 1

Let the unary operation "' is defined by 0'= 1 and 1 '= O. Show that {B, +, ., '} is a Boolean
algebra.
Sol. From the Table, it is clear that a + b and a . b are unique elements of B. Therefore,
'+' and '. ' are binary operations on B. We verify the following :
Commutative laws. Consider the following Tables. I and II.
Table I Table II
a b a+b b+a a b a.b b.a
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
From the above Tables, a + b = b + a 'i a, b E B
Also a . b = b . a 'i a, b E B
Hence commutative laws hold.
Distributive laws. Consider the following tables. III and IV.
Table III
a b c b.c a + (b.c) a+b a +c (a + b). (a + c)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 367

From Table III, a + (b . c) = (a + b) . (a + c)

From Table IV, a . (b + c) = a . b + a . c 'i a, b, c E B
Table IV
a b c b+c a.(b + c) a.b a.c (a.b) + (a.c)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Distributive laws hold.

Identity laws. Consider the following Tables V and VI.
Table V Table VI
a 0 a+O a 1 a.1
0 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
From Table V, a + O = a 'i a E B
From Table VI, a.1 = a 'i a E B
.. Identity laws hold. Here '0 ' is the zero element and '1 ' is the unit element.
Complement laws. Consider the following Tables VII and VIII.
Table VII Table VIII
a a' a + a' a a' a.a'
o 1 1 o 1 o
1 o 1 1 o o

From Table VII, a + a' = 1 'i a E B

From Table VIII, a.a' = 0 'i a E B
{E, +, ., '} is a Boolean algebra.
Example 3. Let B = {I, 2, 3, 6} be the set ofpositive factors of 6. Let the binary operations
'+' and '. ' on B are defined as follows.
a + b = l.c.m (a, b) and a.b = g.c.d (a, b) 'i a, b E B. Let the unary operation on B is 'n

defined by a' = !'.- 'i a E B. Show that {B, +, ., ' } is a Boolean algebra.
a
368 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Sol. Given B = {I, 2, 3, 6} and the binary operations are '+' and '.'. The composition
tables for the binary operations are given as :
Table I Table II

+ 1 2 3 6 1 2 3 6

1 1 2 3 6 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 6 6 2 1 2 1 2
3 3 6 3 6 3 1 1 3 3
6 6 6 6 6 6 1 2 3 6
Each element inside the Table I and II are also element of B = {I, 2, 3, 6}. Therefore, '+'
'
and '. are binary operations on B. We verify the following :
Commutative laws. From Table I, it is clear that table I is symmetrical. Also Table II
is symmetricaL Therefore)
a+ b=b+ a and a. b = b . a \;f a, b E B
Identity laws. For a E B, consider the following tables. III and IV
Table III Table IV

a 1 a+1 a 6 a.6

1 1 1 1 6 1
2 1 2 2 6 2
3 1 3 3 6 3
6 1 6 6 6 6
From table III, a+ I=a \;f a E B
From table IV, a.6 = a \;f a E B
I is the zero element and 6 is the unit element. Hence Identity laws hold.
Table V Table VI

a a' a + a' a a' a.a'

1 6 6 1 6 1
2 3 6 2 3 1
3 2 6 3 2 1
6 1 6 6 1 1
Complement laws. From table V, a + a' = 6 and from table VI a.a' = I
Complement laws hold
Distributive laws. For a, b, c E B,
a + (b.c) = (a + b) . (a + c)
and a . (b + c) = a.b + a.c also hold
For example) a = 3) b = 6) c = 2.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 369

Then a + (b.c) = 3 + (6 . 2) = 3 + 2 = 6 6 . 2 = 2 = g.c.d (2, 6)

3 + 2 = 6 = l.c.m (2, 3)
Also (a + b) . (a + c) = (3 + 6) . (3 + 2) = 6 . 6 = 6
a + (b . c) = (a + b) . (a + c)
Further) a . (b + c) = 3 . (6 + 2) = 3 . 6 = 3
a.b + a.c = 3.6 + 3.2 = 3 + 1 = 3
a . (b + c) = a.b + a.c
Hence, distributive laws hold
.. B is a Boolean algebra
Example 4. Let D70 = {I, 2, 5, 7, 1 0, 1 4, 35, 70}, the divisors of 70. Show that D70 is a
boolean algebra under the binary operations '+', '. ' and ", defined by
a + b_= l.c.m (a, b) }
a · b - g.c.d (a, b) . . . (1)
70
a' = , where 1 is a zero element and 70 is a unit element.
-

a
Sol. We verify the following :
I. Commutative laws.
Given a + b = l.c.m (a, b) = l.c.m (b, a) = b + a
Also a · b = g.c.d. (a, b) = g.c.d. (b, a) = b ' a
Commutative laws hold.
II. Identity laws. Consider the following composition tables of the binary operations
'+' and '. ' defined in (1)

+ 1 2 5 7 10 14 35 70
1 1 2 5 7 10 14 35 70
2 2 2 10 14 10 14 70 70
5 5 10 5 35 10 70 35 70
7 7 14 35 7 70 14 35 70
10 10 10 10 70 10 70 70 70
14 14 14 70 14 70 14 70 70
35 35 70 35 35 70 70 35 70
70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70

1 2 5 7 10 14 35 70
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2
5 1 1 5 1 5 1 5 5
7 1 1 1 7 1 7 7 7
10 1 2 5 1 10 2 5 10
14 1 2 1 7 2 14 7 14
35 1 1 5 7 5 7 35 35
70 1 2 5 7 10 14 35 70
370 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

From the above tables, we observe that

a+ 1= a v a E D70
and a.70 = a \;j a E D70
Identity laws hold
Also, 1 is the zero element and 70 is the unit element.
III. Distributive laws. For a, b, c E D7O'
a + (b . c) = (a + b) . (a + c)
and a . (b + c) = a.b + a.c are true.
For example) Take a = 2, b = 5, c = 7
Consider
Also
a + (b . c) = 2 + (5 . 7) = 2 + 1 = 2
(a + b) . (a + c) = (2 + 5) . (2 + 7)
= 1 0 . 14 = 2
I 5.7 = 1 = g.e.d. (5, 7)
2 + 1 = 2 = l.e.m. (2, 1)

a + (b . c) = (a + b) . (a + c)
Also a . (b + c) = 2 . (5 + 7) = 2.35 = 1
and a.b + a.c = 2.5 + 2.7 = 1 + 1 = 1
a . (b + c) = a.b + a.c
IV. Complement laws. Consider the following table :

70
a a' = - a + a' :::: l.c.m. (a, a') a.a' :::: g.c.d. (a, a')
a
1 70 70 1
2 35 70 1
5 14 70 1
7 10 70 1
10 7 70 1
14 5 70 1
35 2 70 1
70 1 70 1

From the table, we observe that

a + a' = 70 and a.a' = 1 v a E D 70
Hence, D70 is a Boolean algebra with '1 ' as zero element and '70 ' as unit element.
Example 5. Consider the Boolean algebra D70 in above example. Find the value of
(i) x = 35 . (2 + 7) (ii) y = (35 . 10) + 14'
(iii) z = (2 + 7) . (14 . 10)'
,
Sol. We know that D70 is a Boolean algebra under the binary operations '+', '.' and "
defined by (see example 4 above)
a + b = l.c.m. (a, b)
a . b = g.c.d. (a, b)
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 371

70
a =­
,
a
70
(i) x = 35 . (2 + 7') = 35 . (2 + 10) 1 7' = - = 10

1
7
= 35.10 2 + 10 = i.c.m. (2, 10)
=5 35.10 = g.c.d. (35, 10) = 5
(ii) Y = (35 . 10) + 14'
70
=5 + 14' = 5 + 5=5 1 14' = =5
14
(iii) z = (2 + 7) . (14. 10)' = 14.2' = 14.35 = 7 14.10 = g.c. 1 (14, 10) = 2
Remark. The set B of all positive factors (or divisors) of a positive integer m w.r.t. the operations
defined as :
B and a'
a + b = I.c.m. (a, b), a.b = g.c.d. (a, b) \j a, b E
m
= -
a

is a Boolean algebra if can be expressed as a product of distinct primes,

m

For example, if B {l, 4, 6, the set of divisors of The binary operations '+', '.' are
:::: 2, 3, 1212}, 12.
defined as usual and '" is defined by a' :::: - . Since
12 :::: 3 .4 Product of distinct primes, hence B cannot
-:f-

a Boolean algebra. We can also verify that complement laws do not hold on B.
a

Let E B, then � :::: 6 and +

2 + 6 :::: 6
2':::: 2 2 2':::: 2 -:1- 12, the unit element.

1 TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 10.3 1

L Let B :::: {l, 7, be the set of all positive factors of Two binary operations '+' and '.' are
defined as follows :
5, 35} 35.
a + b I.c.m. (a, b), a.b g.c.d. (a, b) \j b E B.
= =

A unary operation on B is defined as a' :::: � \j a E B. Show that (B, + , . , ') is a Boolean
u,

algebra.
a

2. Let B be the set of all positive factors of Two binary operations '+' and '. ' are defined as
105.
follows :
a + b I.c.m. (a, b), a.b g.c.d. (a, b) \j a, b E B.
= =
105
A unary operation on B is defined as a' :::: \j a E B. Show that (B, +, . , ') is a Boolean
u,

algebra.
a

3. Let B :::: 4) be the set of all positive factors of 4. Two binary operations '+' and '. ' are defined
as follows :
(1, 2,
372 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
'r:j a, b E B. A unary operation ' " on B is defined as
a + b :::: l.c.m. (a, b), a.b :::: g.c.d. (a, b)

a' :::: .±. Va E B. Show that (B, +, ., ') is not a Boolean algebra.
a

4. Let B :::: {l, 2, 4, 8} be the set of positive factors of 8. Two binary operations '+' and '.' are defined
as follows :
a + b I.c.m. (a, b), a.b g.c.d. (a, b) \j a, b E B.
= =

A unary operation on B is defined as a' :::: � 'r:j a E B. Show that (B, +, ., ') is not a Boolean
u,

algebra.
a

5. Let B {�, {I}, {2), {3), {I, 2), {I, 3), {2, 3), {I, 2, 3}). Show that (B,
= ') is a Boolean algebra.
U, n,

6. In the Boolean algebra (B, +, ., ,), show that

(i) a + b + c.a' :::: a + b + 'r:j a, b, E B
C C

(ii) a.b + c. (a' + b') a.b + c \j a, b, c E B.

=

7. In the Boolean algebra (B, +, ., ,), simplify : x.(x + y) + ((y' + x).y)'.

8. If a, b, c are elements of the Boolean algebra (B, +, ., ), then find the complements of the following
expressions :
(i) a + b' (ii) a".b'
(iii) a.b.c' (iv) b + c.a'.
9. State and prove the following laws in a Boolean algebra :
(i) Idempotent laws (ii) Boundedness laws
(iii) Absorption laws (iv) Involution law.
10. State and prove the following laws in a Boolean algebra :
(L) Associative law of addition (ii) Associative law of multiplication.
11. In the Boolean algebra (B, +, ., ,), show that
(a + b) . (c + d) a.c + a.d + b.c + b.d \j a, b, c, d E B.
=

12. In the Boolean algebra (B, +, ., ') show that

(a + b) . (a' + c) a.c + a'.b \j a, b, c E B.
=

13. In the Boolean algebra (B, +, ., ,), show that for a, b E B

(i) a + b 0 if and only if a 0, b 0
= = =

(ii) a.b' 0 if and only if a' + b 1.

= =

14. In the Boolean algebra (B, +, ., ,), show that (a + b) . [a.b' + b]' 0 \j a, b E B.
=

15. In the Boolean algebra (B, +, ., ,), show that

(i) (a + b + c)' :::: a'.b'.c' 'r:j a, b, c E B (ii) (a.b.c)' :::: a' + b' + c' 'r:j a, b, c E B
(iii) a + a . (b + 1) a \j a, b E B
= (iv) (a + b) . (a + 1) a + b \j a, b E B.
=

16. Let (B, +, ., ') be a Boolean algebra. Prove that for a, b E B :

a.b' 0 if and only if a.b a.
= =
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 373
Answers
8. (i) a'.b (ii) a' + b (iii) a' + b' + c (iv) b'.(c' + a).

Hints
6. (i) L.H.S = (a + c.a') + b = (a + c) . (a + a') + b
(ii) L.H.8 = a.b + c.(a.b)' = (a.b + c) . (a.b)'
7. x.(x + y) + « (y' + x).y)' = x + (y'.y + x.y)'
= x + (0 + x.y)' = x + (x.y)' = x + (x + y') = (x + x') + y'
= 1 + y' = l.
12. L.H.8. = (a + b).a' + (a + b).c = a'.a + a'.b + c.(a + b) . (a + a')
:::: a'.b + c.(a + b.a') :::: a'.b + c.a + c.b.a'
:::: a'.b.l + a'.b.e. + a.c :::: a'.b.(l + c) + a.c
13. (i) Let a + b = O. Then
a = a + 0 = a + b.b' = (a + b) . (a + b') = 0 . (a + b') = O.

1 0.12. BOOLEAN SUB-ALGEBRA (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2013)

Let C be a non· empty subset of a Boolean algebra B. Then, C is said to be a Boolean
sub·algebra of B if C is itself a Boolean algebra w.r.t. the same operations as of B. or C is a
sub-algebra of B iff C is closed under the three operations) namely) '+', '.' and ' ' ' .

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Determine whether or not each of the following subsets of D7V' is a sub·
algebra ?
(i) A = {I, 5, 10, 70} (ii) C = {I, 2, 35, 70}
Sol. (i) Consider the following composition tables :
Table I Table II

+ 1 5 10 70 1 5 10 70

1 1 5 10 70 1 1 1 1 1
5 5 5 10 70 5 1 5 5 5
10 10 10 10 70 10 1 5 10 10
70 70 70 70 70 70 1 5 10 70

The binary operations are

a + b = l.c.m. (a, b)
a · b = g.c.d. (a, b)
70
a, = -
a
From Table I, each element inside the table is from the set A = {1, 5, 10, 70}. Therefore,
A is closed under '. '.
374 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

From Table II, each element inside the table is from A = {I, 5,10, 70}. Therefore, A is
closed under '. '.
For complement, consider the following table :

, 70
a a = -
a

1 70 Here complement of 5 = 5' = 14 'l A

5 14 A is not closed under ''' .
10 7 Hence, A is not a sub algebra of 70.
70 1
(ii) Consider the composition tables given below :
Table III Table IV

+ 1 2 35 70 1 2 35 70
1 1 2 35 70 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 70 70 2 1 2 1 2
35 35 70 35 70 35 1 1 35 2
70 70 70 70 70 70 1 2 35 70
From table III, each element inside the table III is from C. Therefore, C is closed under
'+'. From table IV, each element inside the table IV is from C. Therefore, C is closed under '. ' .
Also, consider the following table V.
Table V

'
70
a a :::: -
a

1 70 From table V, 1' :::: 70, 2' :::: 35, 35' :::: 2, 70' :::: 1. Hence, complement
2 35 of each element of C exists. Hence C is a Boolean algebra.
35 2
70 1

1 0.13. ATOMS OF A BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

A non-zero element in a Boolean Algebra {B, , Y, /\} is called an atom if for every x E B,
-

there exists a E B such that

x /\ a = a or X A a = O \i a
For example, consider the Boolean algebra {D 3O , V, A}. We find the set of atoms of D3 0
-
'
Since D 30 = {I, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}
Here 2 A 1 = g.c.d of 2 and 1 = 1
Also 2 A 2 = 2, 2 A 3 = 1, 2 A 5 = 1, 2 A 6 = 2, 2 A 10 = 2, 2 A 1 5 = 1 , 2 A 30 = 2
Thus, for all x E D30, we have x /\ 2 = 1 or XA2=2
2 is an atom of D30
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 375
Similarly, x 1\ 3 = 1 or x 1\ 3 = 3
3 is also an atom of D30 . Also 5 is an atom of D30
The set of atoms of D30 = {2, 3, 5}
Alternative. The atoms of Dm are the distinct prime divisors of m.
Here D30 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}
The prime divisors of 30 are 2) 3) 5
.. 2 , 3, 5 are atoms of D30.
Example 2. Consider the Boolean algebra D210•
(a) List its elements and draw its Hasse diagram.
(b) Find the set A of atoms.
(c) Find two Boolean subalgebra with eight elements.
(d) Is X = {I, 2, 6, 21O} a sublattice ofD21O ? A subalgebra ?
(e) Is Y = {I, 2, 3, 6} a sub lattice ofD21 0 ? A Boolean subalgebra ?
Sol. (a) The divisors of 210 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 21, 30, 35, 42, 70, 105, 210
D 2 10 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 21, 30, 35, 42, 70, 105, 210}
The Hasse diagram of D2 10 is shown in Fig. 10.22.

-----=::: 2 1 0 �
� 30
2 / ��1 05

6 10

Fig. 10.22
(b) The prime divisors of 210 are 2, 3, 5, 7. Hence the set A of atoms is A = {2, 3, 5, 7}
(c) (i) By definition (complement), a set B is called subalgebra if it contains the elements
o and 1 and is closed under /\, v and ' I '.

Take B = {1, 2, 3, 6, 35, 70, 105, 210}

The least element is 1 and the largest element is 210. Also B is closed under 1\ and v.
Since 2 1\ 3 = g.c.d. of 2 and 3 = 1 E B, 2 1\ 70 = 2 E B etc.
Also 2 v 3 = l.c.m. of 2 and 3 = 6 E B, 2 v 70 = 70 E B
Further 2 1\ 105 = g.c.d. of 2 and 105 = 1
2 v 105 = l.c.m. of 2 and 105 = 210
376 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

2 = 105, 105 = 2. Thus, xv 2, x /\ 2 E B for all x E B

Also 3 /\ 70 = 1 , 3 v 70 = 210
- -
3 = 70, 70 = 3
Also 6 /\ 35 = 1 , 6 v 35 = 210
- -
6 = 35, 35 = 6.
Finally, 1 /\ 210 = 1, 1 v 210 = 210

1 = 210, 210 = 1
Thus, each element of B has its complement
The set B = {1, 2, 3, 6, 35, 70, 105, 210} is a subalgebra.
(ii) Take C = {1, 5, 6, 7, 30, 35, 42, 210}
Proceeding as in part (i), we can show that C is also a subalgebra.
(d) Here X = {1, 2, 6, 210}. We know that a set X is called sublattice if
avbE X, a /\ b E X for all a, bE X
Since, 1 v 2 = l.c.m of 1 and 2=2 E X
1 /\ 2 = g.c.d of 1 and 2=1 E X
Also, 1 v 6 = 6, 1 /\ 6 = 1 , 1 v 210 = 210, 1 /\ 210 = 1
Further, 2 v 1 = 2, 2 /\ 1 = 1 , 2 v 6 = 6, 2 /\ 6 = 2, 2 v 210 = 210, 2 /\ 210 = 2 etc.
.. X is a sublattice of D2 10
But complement of 2 = 105 'l X :. X is not a subalgebra
(e) Here Y = {1, 2, 3, 6}
Let a, b E Y, then a v b, a /\ b E Y for all a, b E Y
Y is a sub lattice of D2 10
Also "2 = 105 'l Y Y is not a subalgebra.
Example 3. Find the number of subalgebras of D21O•
Sol. A subalgebra of D2 10 must contain two) four) eight or sixteen elements.
(i) There can be only one two-element subalgebra which consists of greatest element
210 and least element 1 , i.e., {1, 210}
(ii) Any four-element subalgebra is of the form {1, x, x , 210}, i.e., consists of the greatest
element, least element, and a nonbound element and its complement.
There are fourteen nonbound elements in D2 10 which are
2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 21, 30, 35, 42, 70, 105. Hence there are 14/2 = 7 pairs (x, x ).
Thus D 2 10 has seven four-element subalgebras.
(iii) An eight-element of subalgebra S will contain three elements s 1 ' s2 ) s3 where s1 ' s2
are any two of the four atoms of D 2 1 0 and s3 is the product of the other two atoms.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 377

Here the atoms are 2) 3) 5) 7.

If s, = 2, S2 = 3, then S3 = 5.7 = 35.
There are 4C2 = 6 ways to choose S1 and S2 from the four atoms of D21O '
Hence D210 has six eight-element sub algebra.
(iv) Since D210 contains 1 6 elements. :. The only sixteen-element subalgebra is D210 itself.
Total number of subalgebras of D210
= 1 + 7 + 6 + 1 = 15.
Example 4. Consider the lattice DlOor
(a) Draw the Hasse diagram of Dl OOi.
(b) Find the complement of each element of Dl OOi.
(c) Find the set A of atoms.
(d) Find the number of subalgebras of Diooi.
1 001
Sol. (a) The divisors of 1001 are 1, 7, 1 1 , 13, 77, 91, 143, 1001
D,oO ' = {1, 7, 11, 13, 77, 91, 143, 100l}
77
The Hasse diagram of D,OO' is shown in Fig. 10.23.
(b) 7 v 143 = l.c.m of 7 and 143 = 1001 (greatest element)
7 1\ 143 = g.c.d of 7 and 143 = 1 (least element)

7 = 143, 143 = 7
Also 11 v 91 = 1001, 1 1 1\ 91 = 1 Fig. 10.23
- -

1 1 = 91, 9 1 = 1 1 ,
Also 13 v 7 7 = 1001, 1 3 1\ 77 = 1

13 = 77, 77 = 13
Also 1 v 1001 = 1001, 1 1\ 1001 = 1

'1 = 1001, 1001 = 1

'1 = 100 1 , 7 = 143, 11 = 91, 13 = 77, 77 = 13, 91 = 1 1 , 143 = 7, 1001 = 1

(c) By definition, the atoms of D, DO' are prime divisors of 1001.
Here the prime divisors of 1001 are 7, 1 1 , 1 3 which are the required atoms.
(d) A subalgebra of D,OO' must contain two, four or eight elements.
(i) There can be only one, two-element subalgebra which consists of least element and
greatest element i.e., {1, 1001}

(ii) Any four-element subalgebra is of the form {1, x, x, 1001} i.e., consists of least
element) greatest element and a nonbound element and its complement.
There are six nonbound elements which are 7) 1 1 ) 13) 77) 91) 143. Hence there are

� = 3 pairs (x, x). Thus, DlOOI has three four-element subalgebra.

2
378 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(iii) Since D, OOl contains 8 elements. The only eight-element subalgebra is D, OO ' itself.
Total number of subalgebras
=1 +3+ 1 = 5.

1 0.14. ISOMORPHIC BOOLEAN ALGEBRAS

Two Boolean algebras B and B l are called isomorphic if there is a one-to-one corre­
spondence f : B � B l which preserves the three operations +) * and for any elements a, b in BI

Le.,
f(a + b) = f(a) + f(b)
f(a * b) = f(a) * f( b) and f(a') = f(a)'.
For example, the following are two distinct Boolean algebras with two elements, which
are isomorphic.
1. The first one is a Boolean algebra that is derived from a power set P(S) under c (set
inclusion). i.e., let S = {aj, then B = (P(S), u, n, '} is a boolean algebra with two elements P(S)
= {<p, {all ·
2. The second one is a Boolean algebra {B, v, A, '} with two elements 1 andp {here p is a
prime number} under operation divides, i.e., let B = {I, pl. So, we have 1 A p = 1 and 1 v p = p
also l ' = p and p' = 1 .

1 0.15. REPRESENTATION THEOREM

algebra of all subsets of the set A of atoms. Let 0 " x E B such that x = a, + a2 + a3 + ..... + a, then
Let B be a finite algebra : Let A be the set of atoms of B and let P(A) be the Boolean

the function
f = B --; P(A) defined by f(x) = (ap a2, a3, ••••• , a,l is an isomorphism.

Proof. If ap a2) ••••• , ar are atoms, then by definition, ai aj = {a�;

, ,
Let x, Y E B such that x = al + a2 + ..... + ar + 6 1 + b2 + ..... + bs
y = 6 1 + b2 + ..... + bs + c1 + c2 + ..... + ct
where, A = {ap a2) ...... , ar) bp b2) ...... , b s' cp c2) ...... , ct ' dp d2) ••••• , k
d}
is the set of atoms of B.
Consider x + y = (a, + a2 + ...... + a, + b, + b2 + ..... + b)
+ (b, + b2 + ..... + b, + c, + c2 + ..... + c,)
xy = (al + a2 + ..... + ar + 6 1 + b2 + ..... + b) ( b 1 + b2 + ...... + bs + c i + c2 + ..... + c)
= b, + b2 + ..... + b,

Hence) rcx + y) = {ap a2) ..... ) ar, bp b2) ..... ) bs) cp c2) ..... ) ct}
= {al) a2) .... ) ar) b l ) b2) ..... ) b) U {bl) b2) ..... ) bs) c I ) c2) ..... ) c)
= f (x) u f (y)
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 379
Also f(xy) = (b" b2 , , b)
•••

= rap a2) - ,ar) bp b2 ) - b) n {bp b2 ) - bs) cp c2) - c)

= f (x) n f(y)
Hence) f is a homomorphism.
Further) since the representation is unique, therefore fis one-one and onto. Hence, f : B
--'> P(A) is an isomorphism.

1 0.16. LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

I. Uniqueness of zero element unit element and complement element

Theorem. If (B, +, ., ') is a Boolean algebra, then
(i) The zero element is unique
(ii) The unit element is unique
(iii) The complement element is unique. (P.T.U. B.Tech. Dec. 2010, May 2010)
Proof. (i) If 0, and 02 are two zero elements of B, we show 0, = 02
Now 0 1 is zero element of B and 02 E B, then
02 + 0, = 02 = 0, + 02 ... (1)
Similarly, 02 is zero element of B and 0 1 E B, then
0, + 02 = 0, = 02 + 0, ... (2)
From (1) and (2), 0, = 02
Hence, the zero element is unique.
(ii) Let I , and 1 2 be two unit elements of B, we show I, = 12
Now I , is unit element of B and 1 E B, then
2
1 2 + I , = 12 = I , + 12 ... (3)
Similarly, 1 is unit element of B and I , + B, then
2
I, + 12 = I, = 12 + I, ... (4)
From (3) and (4), I , = 12
Hence, unit element is unique.
(iii) Let x E B be such that
a+x= l . . . (1)
ax = ° . . . (2)
i.e., x E B be the complement of a.
If a' be the another complement of a, then by definition of Boolean algebra,
a + a' = 1 . . . (3)
a . a' = 0 . . . (4)
Consider x=x ' 1 Identity law
= x . (a + a') I Using (3)
= x . a + x . a' Distributive law
= a . x + x . a' I Using (2)
= O + x · a' I Using (4)
= a . a' + x · a' Distributive law
= (a + x) . a' I Using (1)
= 1 . a' = a' which proves the uniqueness of the complement
I Identity law
380 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

II. Theorem. Let (B, +, ., ') is a Boolean algebra. For a E B, ifx E B be such that a + x = 1
and a . x = 0, then x = a'. Also 0' = 1 and l' = O.
Proof. Given a+x= l ... (1)
a.x = 0 ... (2)
Let a' be the complement of a, then by definition of Boolean algebra,
a + a' = 1 ... (3)
a . a' = 0 ... (4)
Consider x = x.l Indentity law
= x . (a + a') I Using (3)
= x . a + x . a' Distributive law
= a . x + x . a'
= 0 + x.a' I Using (2)
= a.a' + x.a' I Using (4)
= (a + x) . a' Distributive law
= 1.a' I Using (1)
= a' Identity law
Further) 1 is unit element of B) then
1.1' = 1' = 1'.1 ... (5)
Also, by complement laws, 1.1' = 0 ... (6)
From (5) and (6) l' = 0
Again) by complement law) 0 + 0' = 1 ... (7)
and if 0 is zero element of B) then
o + 0' = 0' = 0' +0 ... (8)
From (7) and (8), 0' = 1
III. Idempotent laws (P.T. U. B.Tech. May 2010)
Theorem. If {B, +, ., '} is a Boolean algebra, then
(i) a + a = a 'i a E B (ii) a.a = a 'i a E B.
Proof. (i) If 0 is zero element, then
a=a+O I Identity law
= a + a.a' Complement law
= (a + a) . (a + a') I Distributive law
= (a + a) . 1 Complement law
= a + a 'i a E B I Identity law
(ii) If 1 is unit element of B, then
a = a.l I Identity law
= a . (a + a') Complement law
= a.a + a.a' I Distributive law
= a.a + 0 I Complement law
= a.a I Identity law
IV. Boundedness law (P.T. U. B.Tech. May 2010)
Theorem. If (B, +, ., ') is a Boolean algebra, then
(i) a + 1 = 1 'i a E B (ii) a.O = O 'i a E B.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 381

Proof. (i) 1 is a unit element of B, therefore,

a + 1 = (a + 1) . 1
= (a + 1) . (a + aj I Complement law
= a + (1 . aj I Distributive law
= a + a' I Identity law
=1 I Complement law
a+ l = l VaE B
(ii) 0 is zero element of B, therefore,
a.O = a.O + 0
= a.O + a.a' I Complement law
= a.(O + aj I Distributive law
= a.(a' + 0)
= a.a' I Identity law
=0 I Complement law
a.O = 0 V a E B
V. Absorption laws
Theorem. If {B, +, ., '} is a Boolean algebra, then
(i) a + a.b = a V a, b E B
(ii) a.(a + b) = a V a, b E B.
Proof. (i) a + a.b = a.l + a.b I Identity law
= a.(l + b) Distributive law
= a.(b + l)
= a.l Boundedness law
=a I Identity law
(ii) a.(a + b) = (a + O).(a + b) I Identity law
= a + O.b I Distributive law
= a + b.O
=a+O I Boundedness law
=a I Identity law
VI. Involution laws
Theorem. If {B, +, ., '} is a Boolean algebra, then
a" = a v a E B where a" = (a')'.
Proof. Consider a" = a" + 0 I Identity law
= a" + a.a' Complement law
= (aN + a).(aN + aj I Distributive law
= (aN + a).(a' + a'j
= (aN + a).l I Complement law
= (a + aN).(a + aj I Complement law
= a + a". a' I Distributive law
= a + a'.a"
=a+O Complement law
=a I Identity law
a" = a 'tf a E B
382 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

VII. Associative laws. If {B, +, ., 'j is a Boolean algebra, then

OO a + (b + 0 = � + � + c V � � c E B
(ii) a .(b.c) = (a.b).c V a, b, c E B.
Proof.
(i) a + (b + c) = (a + (b + c» . 1 = (a + (b + c» . (c + ci I Complement law
= [(a + (b + c» .c] + [(a + (b + c» .c'] I Distributive law
= [c.(a + (b + c» ] + [c'.(a + (b + c» ]
= [(c.a) + (c.(b + c» ] + [(c'.a) + (c'.(b + c» ] I Distributive law
= [(c.a) + c] + [(c'.a) + «c'.b) + (c'.c» ] I Absorption law
= [(c.a) + (c.1)] + [(c'.a) + (c'.b) + 0] I Complement law
= [c.(a + 1) + c'.(a + b) I Distributive law
= (c.1) + c'.(a + b) I Boundedness law
= c + c'.(a + b)
= (c + ci.(c + (a + b» I Distributive
= l.«a + b) + c) I Complement law
= (a + b) + c
a+�+�=�+�+cV��cE R
(ii) a.(b.c) = a.(b.c) + 0 = (a.(b.c» + (c.ci I Complement law
= [(a.(b.c» + c].[(a.(b.c» + c'] I Distributive law
= [c + (a.(b.c» ].[c' + (a.(b.c» ]
= [(c + a).(c + (b.c» ] .[(c' + a).(c' + (b.c» ] I Distributive law
= [(c + a).c].[(c' + a).«c' + b).(c' + c» ] I Absorption law
= [(c + a).(c + O)].[(c' + a).«c' + b).l)] I Complement law
= [c + (a.O)].[c' + (a.b)] I Distributive law
= (c + O).[c' + (a.b)]
= c.(c' + (a. b»
= (c.ci + (c.(a.b»
= 0 + «a.b).c)
= (a.b).c
a.(b.c) = (a.b).c V a, b, c E R
VIII. De Morgan's laws
Theorem. If {B, +, ., '} is a Boolean algebra, then
(i) (a + by = a'.b' (ii) (a. by = a' + b' V a, b E B.
Proof. (i) By theorem II, For a E B, if x E B is such that a + x = 1 and a.x = 0, then x = a'
Consider (a + b) + a'.b' = «a + b) + ai.«a + b) + bi I Distributive
= (a + (b + ai).(a + (b + bi) I Associative law
= (a + (a' + b» .(a + 1) Complement law and commutative law
= «a + ai + b).l I Boundedness law
= (1 + b) Complement law and identity law
=1 ... (1) I Boundedness law
Also (a + b).(a'.bi = (a'.bi.(a + b) I Commutative law
= «a'.bi.a) + «b'.bi.b) I Distributive law
= «b'.ai.a) + (a'.(b'.b» I Associative law
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 383

= (b'.(a'.a» + (a'.(b'.b»
= (b'.O) + (a'.O) I Complement law
=0+0=0 ... (2) I Boundedness law
From (1) and (2),
(a + by = a'.b'
(ii) From Part (i), (a + by = a'.b'. Applying Principle of duality, (a. by = a' + b'.
IX. Cancellation laws. If {B, +, ., '} is a Boolean algebra, then
(i) If a + b = a + c and a' + b = a' + c, then b = c
(ii) If a.b = a.c and a'.b = a'.c, then b = c.
Proof. (i) Consider b = b + 0 I Identity law
= b + (a.a') I Complement law
= (b + a).(b + a') I Distributive law
= (a + b).(a' + b) I Commutative law
= (a + c).(a' + c) I Given
= (c + a).(c + a') I Commutative law
= c + (a.a') I Distributive law
=c+O Complement law
=c I Identity law
(ii) Consider b = b.l I Identity law
= b.(a + a') Complement law
= (b + a) . (b + a') I Distributive law
= (a + b).(a' + b) Commutative law
= (a + c).(a' + c) I Given
= (c + a).(c + a') Commutative law
=c+ (a.a') I Distributive law
=c+O Complement law
= c. I Identity law
Now we prove one more important theorem of Boolean algebra.
Theorem X. If {B, +, ., '} is a Boolean algebra. Then the following are equivalent
(i) a + b = b (ii) a.b = a
(iii) a' + b = 1 (iv) a.b' = O.
Proof. (i) => (ii) Let a + b = b and we show a.b = a
Consider a = a.(a + b) Absorption law
= a.b I Given
Let a.b = a and we show a + b = b
Consider b = b + (b.a) I Absorption law
= b + (a. b) Commutative law
=b+a I Given
=a+b Commutative law
Hence (i) and (ii) are equivalent
(i) => (iii) Let a + b = b and we show a' + b = 1
Consider a' + b = a' + (a + b) I Given
= (a' + a) + b Associative law
384 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

=l+b I Complement law

=1 I Boundedness law
If a' + b = 1, we show a + b = b
Consider a + b = 1.(a + b) I Identity law
= (a' + b).(a + b) I Given
= (a'.a) + b I Distributive law
=O+b I Complement law
=b I Identity law
Hence (i) and (iii) are equivalent
(iii) => (iv) Let a' + b = 1 and we show a.b' = 0
Consider 0 = I' = (a' + by = a".b' I De Morgan's law
= a.b' I Involution law
a.b' = 0
If a.b' = 0, we show a' + b = 1
Consider 1 = 0' = (a.b')' = a' + bl! De Morgan's law
= a' + b I Involution law
Hence (iii) and (iv) are equivalent
Accordingly, (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) are equivalent.
Example 5. Using Boolean Postulates and theorem, simplify the following expression :
a + ab + abc + abed + a + ab + abc + abed . (P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2009)
Sol. Given expression is
f(a, b, e, d) = a + ab + abc + abed + a + ab + abc + abed
= a(l + b) + abe(l + d) + a(l + b) + a be(l + d)
= a . 1 + abc . 1 + a . 1 + a be . 1 For any Boolean algebra
1 +x=x VXE B
= a + abc + a: + a; be I Idendity law
= a + a . (be) + a + a . (be)
= a + a: Absorption law :
a + a . b = a Va, b EB
= 1. I Complement law

1 0. 1 7. PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY

The dual of any expression E is obtained by interchanging the operations + and * and
also interchanging the corresponding identity elements 0 and 1, in original expression E.

Example 6. Write the dual of the following Boolean expressions :

(i) (Xl * x,) + (Xl * x3 ) (ii) (1 + x,) * (Xl + 1)
(iii) (a 1\ (b 1\ c)).
Sol. (i) (x, + x) * (x, + xa ) (ii) (0 * x) + (x, * 0)
(iii) (a v (b 1\ c» .
Note. The dual of any theorem in a Boolean algebra is also a theorem.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 385

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1 0.4

1. Show that {M; v. A. -} is a Boolean algebra where M = P(A). the power set of A and A = {a, b, c}.
2. Express each Boolean expression E (x, y, z) as a sum of products and then its complete sum of
products form
(a) E = x(>y' + x'y + y'z) (b) E = z(x' + y) + y'
3. Express E (x, y, z) :::: (x' + y)' + x'y in its complete sum of products form.
4. State the dual of
(a) a v (b A a) = a

( )
(c) a A b A b = a v b

5. Write the dual of each Boolean expression

(a) a(a' + b) = ab (b) (a + 1) (a + 0) = a
(c) (a + b) (b + c) = ac + b
6. Let [B; + , ., '] be a Boolean algebra and let f(x, y) be a Boolean function of the variables x and y. By
using the following table, find the Boolean expression.
x y f(x, y)

1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
7. Let [B; +, ., 1 be a Boolean algebra and let f(x, y, z) be a Boolean function of the variables x, y and
z.By using the following table, find the Boolean expression f(x, y, z).
x y z f(x, y, z)

1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0

8. Suppose B is a Boolean algebra with at least 100 elements. How many elements can B have ?
9. Using Boolean algebra, show that abc + abc + ab c + ab c = ab + be + ca.
(P. T. U. B. Tech. May 2008)
10. Consider the lattices Dm of divisors of m (where m > 1).
(a) Show that Dm is a Boolean algebra if and only if m is square-free, that is, if m is a product of
distinct primes. (P.T. U. B. Tech. Dec. 2013)
(b) If Dm is a Boolean algebra, show that the atoms are the distinct prime divisors of m.
386 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
11. Consider the following lattices: D20 ; D55 ; (c) Dgg ; (d) D13o. Which of them are Boolean
(a) (b)
algebras, and what are their atoms ?
12. Consider the Boolean algebra Dno. List its elements and draw its diagram. Find all its
(a) (b)
subalgebras. (c) Find the number of sublattices with four elements. (d) Find the set A of atoms of
Dno. (e) Give the isomorphic mapping f : Duo P(A) as defined in representation theorem.
-----t

13. Let B be a Boolean algebra. Show that :

For any x in B, 0 x :O:;: l.
((ab)) a b :0:;:

< if and only if < b' a'.

14. An element x in a Boolean algebra is called a maxterm if the identify 1 is its only successor. Find
the maxterms in the Boolean algebra D20.
15. Let B be a Boolean algebra. Show that complements of the atoms of B are the maxterms.
(a)
(b) Show that any element x in B can be expressed uniquely as a product of maxterms.
16. Let B be a 16-element Boolean algebra and let S be an 8-element subalgebra ofB. Show that two
of the atoms of S must be atoms of B.
17. Let B :::: (B, +, *, " 0, 1) be a Boolean algebra. Define an operation on B (called the symmetric
8
difference) by
x '" y
= (x * YJ + (x' * y).
Prove that R :::: (B, D, is a commutative Boolean ring.
*)
18. Let R :::: (R, EB, . ) be a Boolean ring with identity 1 0. Define -:f-

x' :::: l EB x, x + y :::: x EB y EB x . y, x * y :::: x . y

Prove that B :::: (R, + , *, " 0, 1) is a Boolean algebra.
Answers
2. ((ab))(i) xy' + xy'z (ii) xy'z + xy'z
(i) x'z + yz + y' (ii) xyz + xy'z + xy'z' + x'yz + x'y'z + x'y'z
3. xy'z + xy'z' + x'yz + x'yz' (b )
4. (a) a( A (b )v a) = a (b) a A A a vb = 0
(c) av vb=aAb
5. = +
(a) aba a'acb =a(a b )b
+ (b) a.O a.=1 = a +
(c) + +c 6. f(x, y) x . y' + x' . y
7. f(x, y. z) = (x' + z) . y. 4, 6, 8, 16, 32 or 64.
8. 2,
11. ((ab)) Thereatomsare eightandelements
D55 ; 5 11. atoms and 13.
(d) D I 3.; 2, 5
12. 1. 10, 11, 2. 5. 110. See Fig. (a).
22. 55,
(b) There
(c)
are five subalgebras : {1. 110}. {1, 110}, {1,
2, 55.
There are 15 sublattices which include the above three subalgebras.
110}, {1. 10. 11. 110},
5. 22. D uo .

(d) A = {2, 11}.

5,
(e) See Fig. (b).
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 387

110 1 2 5 11 10 22 55 110
10----- 212 �55
�>< 5 ><111 l� {2}l {5}l {11l } {2,l5} {2,l11} {5,l11} Al
_______ 1I ____
(a) D 10 (b) F : D, 1O --> PtA)

Hints
L We know that a lattice which contains a least element, a greatest element and which is both
complemented and distributive is called Boolean Algebra.
Here the least element is �, the greatest element is A. The complements of each element of B is
given below :
B Complement of B
� A
{aj {b, cj
{bj {c, aj
{cj {a, bj
{a, bj {cj
{b, cj {aj
{c, aj {bj
A �
Also {M, v, A, -} is a distributive lattice.
2. (a) Given E = x(xy' + x'y + y'z)
Express E as a sum of products forms, we get
E :::: xxy' + xx'y + xy'z :::: xy' + xy'z is the required sum of products forms.
Further E = xy' (z + z') + :q'z I xx' :::: 0
:::: xy'z + xy'z + xy'z
:::: xy'z + xy'z,
is the required complete sum of products form. l a + a :::: a
(b) Given E = z(x' + y) + y'
:::: x'z + zy + y', is the required sum of products form
Further, E = x'z (y + y') + (x + x')zy + (x + x') y' (z + z')
:::: x'zy + x'zy' + xzy + x'zy + y' (xz + xz' + x'z + x'z)
= � + � + = + � + ¢ + � + �� + ��
:::: x'yz + x'y'z + xyz + xy'z + xy'z' + x'y'z.
3. E :::: (x' + y)' + x'y :::: xy' + x'y, is the sum of products form I De Morgan's law
Further,
E = :q'(z + z') + x'y (z + z')
:::: xy'z + xy'z' + x'yz + x'yz', is the required complete sum-of-products form of E.
388 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 0.18. BOOLEAN EXPRESSION OR BOOLEAN FUNCTION

Let {B) +) .) '} is a Boolean algebra. An expression involving the variables xp x2 ) ••• xn and
the binary operations '+' , '. ' and '" is called Boolean expression. The Boolean expression or
Boolean function is denoted by f(xl , x2' ... , x) .
For example,
f(x. Y. z) = (x + y'z)' + (xyz' + x'y)'
f(x, y, z) = (:ry'z' + y)' + (x'z)',
are Boolean expression.

1 0. 1 9. LITERAL
A literal is a variable or complemented variable like x, x', y, y' etc in the Boolean expres-
SlOn.

1 0.20. FUNDAMENTAL PRODUCT

By Fundamental Product, we mean a literal or a product of two or more literals in
which no two literals involve the same variable. For example,
xy'z, x, y', yz', x'yz are fundamental products. But xyx'z, xyzy are not fundamental prod­
ucts as the first expression contains x and x' whereas the second expression contains y at two
places.

1 0.21 . SUM-OF-PRODUCTS FORM OR SOP FORM (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2013)

Let [(Xl ) X2 ) ... ) X) be a Boolean expression. Then) [is said to be in sum-oi-products form
or minterm form if [ is a fundamental product or sum of two or more fundamental products)
none of which is contained in another.
If P, and P2 are fundamental products. Then, P , is said to be contained in P2 if the
literals of P I are also literals of P2 • For example) x'z is contained in x'yz since x' and z are
literals in x'yz. However) x'z is not contained in xy'z) since x' is not a literal in xy'z.

1 0.22. COMPLETE SUM-OF-PRODUCTS FORM

A non-zero Boolean expression [(xp x2 ) ... ) x) is said to be in Complete-sum-oi-products
form if f is in sum·of·products form and each product involves all the variables.
Remarks L Every non-zero Boolean expression f(xl, x2' x,) can be put into
Complete-sum-of­
form and this form is unique.
" 'J

Products
2. A Boolean expressionf(xl, x2 ' , x,), in n variables can have a maximum of 2n such products.
•••

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES I
Example 1. Reduce the following Boolean products to either 0 or a fundamental product
(i) xyx' z and xyzy (ii) xyz'Xyx and xyz'Xy "z<
Sol. (i) xyx'z = xx'yz I Commutative law
=0 xx' = 0 (Complement laws)
Also, xyzy = xzyy I Commutative law
= xzy I Idempotent law
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 389
(ii) xyz'xyx = xxxyyzl Commutative law
= xyzl I
Idempotent law
xyz'xy'z' = xxyy'zlzl Commutative law
= xyy'z' I Idempotent law
= o. I yy' = 0 (Complement law)
Example 2. Let {E, +, ., ] is a Boolean algebra. Show that
(i) a.b + a.b' + a'.b + acb'= 1 (ii) (a + b).acb'= 0
(iii) (a + b)' + (a + b ) ' = a' (iv) a.b + ((a + b').b)' = 1.
Sol. (i) a.b + a.b' + a'.b + a' . b'
= a.(b + bi + a'.(b + bi I Distributive law
= a.I + a'.1 Complement law
= a + a' I Identity law
=1 Complement law
(ii) (a + b).a'.b' = (a + b).(a + by I De Morgan's law
=0 Complement law
(iii) (a + by + (a + bi'
= a'.b' + a'.bl! De Morgan's law
= a'.(b' + b'i I Distributive law
= a'.(b' + b) I Involution law
= a'.I. Complement law
= a'. I Identity law
(iv) Please Try Yourself.
Example 3. Prove that a Boolean algebra cannot have three elements.
Sol. Let, if possible, {B, +, . , '} has three elements, say,
0, 1 and a (other than 0 and 1)
We claim a' t:- 0 and a' t:- 1
a' = 0 ::::::} a" = 0' = 1 ::::::} a = 1)
which is a contradiction. Hence a' -::f:- 0 I Involution law
Similarly) if a' = 1 ::::::} a" = I' ::::::} a = 0)
which is also a contradiction. Hence a' t:- 1. Therefore, we must have a' = a
Now a.a' = 0 Complement law
a.a = 0 I a' = a
a=O Idempotent law
a contradiction as a t:- O.
Hence, there cannot be a Boolean algebra containing three elements.
Example 4. Consider the Boolean expressions
f1 = xz' + y z + xyz'
f2 = xz' + xyz' + xyz
Reduce these expressions into sum-oi-products form
Sol. f1 = XZ' + y'z + xyz'
is not in a sum-of-products form since xz' is contained in xyz'
f1 = xz' + y'z + xyz'
390 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
= xz' + xyzl + y'z
= xz' + y'z I Absorption law
which is a sum-oi-products form
Also f2 = xz' + x'yzl + xy'z is already in sum-of-products form.
Example 5. Consider a Boolean expression
fla, b, c) = ((ab)' c)' ((a' + c) (b' + c'))' into a sum-oi-products form
(P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 20 1 3)
Sol. f,(a, b, c) = «ab)' c)' «a' + c) (b' + c')'
= «ab)" + c') «a' + c)' + (b' + c')') De Morgan's law
= (ab + c') «a' + c)' + (b' + c')') I Involution law
= (ab + c') (aile' + bile") De Morgan's law
= (ab + c') (ac' + be) I Involution law
= abac' + abbe + c'ac' + c'bc
= aabc' + abbe + ac'c' + be'c Commutative law
= abc' + abc + ac' + 0 By idempotent law aa = a
= abc' + abc+ ac' By complement law, e'c = 0
= abc' + ac' + abc
= ac' + abc I Absorption law
Example 6. Consider a Boolean expression f (x, y, z) = x(y'zY Reduce it to complete sum­
oi-products form.
Sol. f(x, y, z) = x(y'z)'
= x(y" + z') De Morgan's law
= x(y + z') I Involution law
= xy + xz', which is in sum-of-products form
= xy(z + z') + x(y + y')z' By complement law, a + a' = 1
= xyz + xyzl + xyzl + xy'z'
= xyz + xyz' + xy'z' I a + a = a (Idempotent law)
which is in complete-sum-of-products form.
Example 7. Consider the Boolean expression
(i) flx, y, z) = z(x' + y) + y' (ii) fix, y, z) = (x' + y)' + xy
(iii) fix, y, z) = x(xy' + xy + y'z) (iv) fix, y, z) = (x + y)' (xy Y
Reduce to sum-oi-products form and hence to complete sum-oi-product forms.
Sol. (i) f,(x, y, z) = z(x' + y) + y'
= (x' + y) z + y' I Commutative law
= x'z + yz + y', which is sum-of-products form
= x'z(y + y)' + (x + x') yz + (x + x')y'(z+ z')
I By complement law, a + a' = 1
= x'zy + x'zy' + xyz + x'yz + (xy' + x'y') (z + z')
= x'yz + x'y'z + xyz + x'yz + xy'z + zy'z' + x'y'z + x'y'z'
I Commutative law
= x'yz + x'y'z + xyz + xy'z + xy'z' + x'y'z',
which is in complete sum-of products form.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 391
(ii) f2(x, y, z) = (x' + y)' + x'y
= x"y' + x'y De Morgan's law
= xy' + x'y, I Involution law
which is a sum-of-products form.
= xy' (z + z') + x'y(z + z') By complement law, a + a' = 1
= xy'z + xy'z' + x'yz + x'yzl
which is in complete-sum-of-products form.
(iii) f,(x, y, z) = x (xy' + x'y + y'z)
= xxy' + xxy + xy'z
= xy' + O + xy'z I Complement law and Idempotent law
= xy' + xy'z, which is in sum-of products form.
= xy'(z + z') + xy'z
= xy'z + xy'z' + xy'z
= xy'z + xy'z', a + a = a (Idempotent law)
which is in complete sum-of-products form.
(iv) Please try yourself Ans. x'y'z + x'y'z'.
Example 8. Let E = xy' + xyz' + x'yz', prove the following :
(i) xz' + E = E
(ii) x + E '" E (iii) z' + E ", E.
Sol. We know that A + E = E, A '" 0, iff the summands in the Complete sum-ai-products
form for A are among the summands in the complete sum-ai-products form for E.
Now E = xy' + xyzl + x'Y2, reduce it to Complete-sum-of-products form, we have
E = xy'(z + z') + xyz' + x'yz'
= xy'z + xy'z' + xyz + X'yzl
(i) Express xz' in complete-sum-of-products form.
xz' = x(y + y') z' = xyzl + xy'z'
Since the summands of xz' are among those of E, therefore xz + E = E
(ii) Express x in the complete-sum-oi-products form, we have
x = x(y + y')(z + z') = x(yz + yz' + y'z + y'z') I y + y' = 1 = z + z' (Complement law)
= xyz + xyzl + xy'z + xy'z', which is in complete-sum-oi-products form
Now the summand xyz of x is not a summand of E. Therefore) x + E t:- E
(iii) Express z' in Complete sum-oi-products form) we have
z' = (x + x') (y + y') z' I x + x' = 1 = y + y' (Complement law)
= (xy + xy' + x'y + xY)z'
= xyz' + xy'z' + :;:'yz' + :;:'y'z')
which is in Complete, sum-ai-products form.
But the summand :;:'y'z' of z' is not a summand of E. Therefore) z' + E t:- E.

1 0.23. MINTERM
Let {B) +) . /} is a Boolean algebra. Let xp x2) ... ) xn are n variables. A product of the form
Yl. Y2 .... ) Yn) where Yi = Xi or x/) i = 1) 2) ... ) n) is called a minterm in n variables Xl) x2) ... ) xn'
n
Total number of minterms in a Boolean function of n variables = 2 . For example)
392 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(i) Minterms in variables x) y are x.y) x.y') x'.y) r.y' (4 terms)
(ii) Minterms in variables x) y) z are x.y.z, x.y.z', x.y'.z, x.y.z, x.y'.z', x.y'.z', x.y'.z, x.y'.z'
(8 terms)
The following theorem (without proof) gives a method of expressing a Boolean function
in terms of the minterms in the corresponding variables.

1 0.24. BOOLEAN EXPANSION THEOREM

If {B, + , ./, 0, I} is a Boolean algebra and f(xp x2) is a Boolean function in 2 variables, xp
x2• then [(x" x2) = [(1. 1).x,.x2 + [(0, 1).x/.x2 + [(1, 0). x,.x,' + [(0 , O) .x/.x,'
Similarly, for 3 variables xp x2) x3) we have
[(xl ' x2 ' x,) = [(1, 1, 1).x,.x2.x3 + [(0, 1, 1).x;.x2.x3 + [(1, 0, 1).x,.x,'.x3
+ t(l, 1, O)xl x2·x/ + teo, 0, 1) .x/.xz'.x3 + teo, 1, O).x/.x2·x/
'

+ t(l, 0, O).x1·xz'.x/ + teo, 0, O).x/.xz'.x/

Example 9. Let {E, +, ., � 0, I} be a Boolean algebra and let [(x, y) be a Boolean [unction
o[ the variables x and y. Find the Boolean expression [rom the truth table given below :
x y f(x, y)

1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1

Sol. From the truth Table,

[(1, 1) = 0, [(1, 0) = 1, [(0, 1) = 0, [(0, 0) = 1
By Boolean expansion theorem,
[(x, y) = [(1, l).x.y + [(1, O).x.y' + [(0, l).x'.y + [(0, O) .x'.y'
= 0 + x.y' + 0 + r.y' = x.y' + r.y'.
= y'.x + y'.x' I Commutative law
= y'.(x + x') I Distributive law
= y'.l = y' I Complement law
Example 10. Let {B, +, ., � 0, I} be a Boolean algebra and [(x, y, z) be a Boolean [unction
o[ the variables x, y, z. Find the Boolean expression [rom the truth table given below :
x y z f(x, y, z)

1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 393
Sol. From the truth table,
[(1 , 1 , 1) = 1 , [(1, 1 , 0) = 0, [(1 , 0, 1) = 1 , [(0, 1 , 1) = 0
[(1 , 0, 0) = 0, [(0, 1 , 0) = 0, [(0, 0, 1) = 1 , [(0, 0, 0) = 1 .
By Hoole's expansion theorem, we have
[(x, y, z) = [(1 , 1, l).x.y.z + [(1 , 1 , O).x.y.z' + [(1 , 0, l).x.y'.z + [(0, 1 , l).xy.z
+ [(1 , 0, O).x.y'.z' + [(0, 1 , O).x.y.z' + [(0, 0, l).x'.y'.z
+ [(0, 0, O).xy'z'
= l .x.y.z + O.x.y.z' + l .x.y'.z + O.x'.y.z + O.x.y'.z' + O.x'.y.z'
+ 1.x'.y'.z + 1 .x'.y'.z'
= x.y.z 0 + x.y'.z + 0 + 0 + 0 + x.y'.z + x.y'.z'
+
f(x, y, z) = x.y.z + x.y'.z + x'.y'.z + x'.y'.z'
= (x.z.y + x.z.y') + (x.y'.z + x.y'.z')
= x.z.(y + y') + x.y'.(z + z')
= x.z.l + x.y'.l = X.z + x.y'. I Complement law

1 0.25. DISJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM OR SUM-OF-PRODUCTS (OR SOP) FORM

A Boolean expression over ({O) I}) v) A, ') is said to be in disjunctive normal form if it is
a join of minterms e.g.,
(x/ /\ xz ' /\ x3') v (x/ /\ x2 /\ x3 ') V (Xl /\ X
2 /\ x)
is a Boolean expression in disjunctive normal form.
Since there are three minterms x/ /\ xz' /\ x/ x/ /\ x2 /\ X3 and Xl /\ X2 /\ X3•
'
Maxterm. A Boolean expression of n variables xp x2' ..... , xn is said to be a maxterm if it
is of the form Xl v x2 v ...... V Xn , where xi is used to denote Xi or x/.

1 0.26. CONJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM OR PRODUCTS OF SUMS (OR POS) FORM

A Boolean expression over ({O) I}) v) /\) ') is said to be in conjunctive normal form if it is
a meet of maxterms e.g.,
(Xl v x2 V X) /\ (Xl V X2 V X) /\ (Xl V X2 V X) /\ (x/ V X2 V X3') /\ (x/ /\ xz' /\ X)
is a Boolean expression in conjunctive normal form consisting of five maxterms.

1 0.27. (a) OBTAINING A DISJU NCTIVE NORMAL FORM

Consider a function from {O, l}n to {O, I}. A Boolean expression can be obtained in
disjunctive normal form corresponding to this function by having a minterm corresponding to
each ordered n-tuple of O 's and l 's for which the value of function is 1 .

1 0.27. (b) OBTAINING A CONJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM

Consider a function from {O, l}n to {O, I}. A Boolean expression can be obtained in con­
junctive normal form corresponding to this function by having a maxterm corresponding to
each ordered n-tuple of O 's and l 's at which the value of function is O.
394 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 11. Express the following function in

(i) Disjunctive normal form (ii) Conjunctive normal form
f f
(0, 0, 0) 1 (1, 0, 0) °
(0, 0, 1) ° (1, 0, 1) 1
(0, 1, 0) 1 (1, 1, 0) °
(0, 1, 1) ° (1, 1, 1) 1
Sol. (i) (x/ /\ xz' /\ xa') v (x/ /\ x /\ xa') V ( /\ xz' /\ x) V ( /\ /\ x)
2 Xl Xl X2

(ii) (x/ v xz' v xa') /\ (x/ v V x) /\ ( V xz' v x/) /\ ( V V x/).

X2 Xl Xl X2

Example 12. If f(x, y, z) = (x v y) A (x V y') A (x' V z) be a given Boolean function.

Determine its DN form.
Sol. First determine all values of f(x, y, z) when x, y, z take values 0, 1 and then from
this table, we will find the DN form

x y z f(x, y, z) (x v y) A (x V y') A (x' V z)

0 0 0 0 =
(0 v 0) A (0 v 1) A (1 v 0)
0 0 1 0 =
(0 v 0) A (0 v 1) A (1 v 1)
0 0 0 =
(0 v 1) A (0 V 0) A (1 v 0)
0 0 (0 v 1) A (0 V 0) A (1 v 1)
1
=
1 1
0 0 0 =
(1 v 0) A (1 v 1) A (0 V 0)
0 (1 v 0) A (1 v 1) A (0 v 1)
1
=
1 1 1
1 1 0 0 =
(1 v 1) A (1 v 0) A (0 V 0)
1 1 1 1 =
(1 v 1) A (1 v 0) A (0 v 1)

The disjunctive normal form of the function is

f(x, y, z) = (x A y' A z) V (x A Y A z).
Example 13. Determine the disjunctive normal form of the following Boolean expres-
swn :
X A (y V z).
Sol. First determine all values of f(x, y, z) when x, y, z take values 0, 1 and then from
this table we will write disjunctive form. Thus,

x y z f(x, y, z) X A (y V z)

0 0 0 0 =
oA V (0 0)
0 0 1 0 =
(0
o A v 1)
0 1 0 0 =
o A (1 v 0)
0 1 1 0 =
o A (1 v 1)
1 0 0 0 =
1A (0 0)
V
1 0 1 1 =
1A (0 v 1)
1 1 0 1 =
1 A (1 v 0)
=
1 1 1 1 1 A (l v 1)
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 395
Thus, the DNF of the function is
f(x, y, z) = (x /\ Y /\ z) V (x /\ y' /\ z) V (x /\ Y /\ Z').

1 0.28. PRIME IMPLICANTS

We know that a fundamental product is a literal or a product of two or more literals in
which no two literals involve the same variable. A fundamental product, say, P, is called a
prime implicant of a Boolean expression E if P + E = E, but no other fundamental product
contained in P has this property.
We now discuss a method known as Karnaugh Map method for finding prime implicants
and minimal forms for Boolean expression involving atmost six variables. But in this chapter,
we will only discuss the cases of two, three and four variables.

1 0.29. KARNAUGH MAP

It is a graphical tool used to simplify a logic equation or to convert a truth table to its
corresponding logic circuit. A Karnaugh Map, hence forth, will be abbreviated as K-map.

1 0.30. ADJACENT FUNDAMENTAL PRODUCTS

Let P, and P2 are two fundamental products. Then P, and P2 are said to be adjacent if P,
and P2 have the same variables and if they differ in exactly one literal, it must be a comple·
mented variable in one product and uncomplemented in another.

I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES I
Example 1. Is P = xz� a prime implicant of E = xy' + xyzl + x'yz'?
Sol. We have proved in example 8 above,
xz + E = E, but x + E '" E, z' + E '" E
.. p = xz' is the prime implicant of E.
Example 2. Find the sum of adjacents products PI and P2 where
(i) PI = xyz� P2 = xy 'z' (ii) PI = x'yzt, P2 = xyz't
(iii) PI = x'yzt, P2 = xyz't (iv) PI = xyz� P2 = xyzt.
Sol. (i) PI + P2 = xyzl + XY'Z' = xz'y + xz'y' I Commutative law
= xz' (y + y')
= xz'.l I Complement law
= xz'
That sum of two adjacent products (squares) P and P2 is a fundamental product with one
1

less literal :
Note.

(ii) P, + P2 = xyzt + xyzt = xytz + xytz'

= xyt (z + z')
= xyt.1 I Complement law
= xyt
(iii) P I and P2 are not adjacent since they have two variables x and z. Here x and Z are
complemented in PI and uncomplimented in P2.
396 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(iv) P, and P2 are not adjacent since they have different variables. Thus, in particular,
they will not appear as squares in the same Karnaugh Map.

1 0.31 . KARNAUGH MAP FOR TWO VARIABLES

The Karnaugh map corresponding to Boolean expression f(x, y) of two variables is shown
in Table given below :

y y'
x xy
x' x'y xy'
Also) any complete sum-of-products Boolean expression f(x) y) of two variables) can be
represented in Karnaugh map by placing l 's in the corresponding squares. A prime implicant
of f(x, y) will be either a pair of adjacent squares or an isolated square (a square which is not
adjacent to any square of f(x, y» .
Also, the four possible fundamental products with two literals are :
xy, xy', x'y, x'y'.

1 0.32. KARNAUGH MAP FOR THREE VARIABLES

The Karnaugh map corresponding to Boolean expression f(x, y, z) of three variables is
shown in the Table given below :
yz yz' y'z' y'z
x
x'
Also, the eight possible fundamental products with three literals are :
xyz, xyz', xy'z', xy'z, x'yz, x'yz, :;:'y'z', :;:'y'z.

1 0.33. KARNAUGH MAP FOR FOUR VARIABLES

The Karnaugh map corresponding to Boolean expression f(x, y, z, t) of four variables is
shown in the Table given below :
zt zt' z't' z't

xy'
xy
Also, the sixteen possible fundamental with four literals are :
xyzt, xyzt', xyz't', xyz't ;
xy'zt, xy'zt', xy'z't', xy'z't ;
:;:'y'zt, x'y'zt', x'y'z't', x'y'z't ;
x'yzt, x'yzt', x'yz't', x'yz't.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 397

1 0.34. LOOPING
The expression for the output Boolean expression can be simplified by properly combin·
ing those squares in the K·map which contain l 's. This process for combining these l 's called
looping.

1 0.35. LOOPING GROUPS OF TWO z

Consider a K-map for there variables as shown below (Fig. xy 1 1
1
10.24). This map contains a pair of 1s that are vertically adjacent to
each other. r---
3'y 0

1
The first represents xyz and the second represents xyz . We
note that in these two terms) only x appears both in complemented
xy 0
and uncomplimented form while y and z remain unchanged. '--'
These two terms can be looped (combined) to give a resultant
that eliminates the variable x as it appears both in complemented
xy 0 0
and uncomplimented form. Thus) the corresponding Boolean expres­
SlOn IS
Fig. 10.24
f(x, y) = xyz + xyz = (x + xl yz = 1. yz = yz Complement law
Consider another example of a K-map of three variables as shown c c
below (Fig. 10.25) :
Xii 0 0
This map contains a pair of 1s that are horizontally adjacent.
The first represents ABC and the second represents ABC .
These two terms can be looped (combined) to give a resultant
AB (1 1)
that eliminates the variable C as it appears both in complemented
and uncomplimented form. Thus) the corresponding Boolean expres­ AB 0 0
SlOn IS
f(A, B) = ABC + ABC = AB (C + C ) = AB . 1 = AB AB 0 0
Consider another example of a K-map for three variables as F'19. 10.25
shown below (Fig. 10.26).
z
This map contains Is in the top row and bottom row respec­
tively_ These two squares are also considered to be adjacent. These xy o
two 1s can be looped (combined) to give a resultant that eliminates the
variables x as it appears both in complemented and uncomplimented
3'y o o
form. Thus) the corresponding Boolean expression is
f(x, y, z) = x y z + xyz = (x + xl yz = 1. y z = yz
xy o o
Hence, from above discussion, we conclude that
"Looping a pair of adjacent 1s in a K-map eliminates the vari­ xy o
able that appears in complemented and uncomplimented form".

1 0.36. LOOPING GROUPS OF FOUR Fig. 10.26

A K-map may contain a group of four l 's that are adjacent to each other. This group is
called a quad. Consider the following Fig. 10.27.
398 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
z
zt it zt zl it zt zt zl
xy 0 1 xy 0 0 0 0 xy 0 0 0 0
3'y 0 1 xy 0 0 0 0 xy 0 ;-;: '0 0
xy xy
xy 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
\.!:.. Y 0

xy 0 1 xy 0 0 0 0 xy 0 0 0 0

(a) (b) (c)

it it zt zl it it zt zl
y 0 0 0 0
- j)
xy 0 0
�
y 0 0 0 0 xy 0 0 0 0
xy
� 0 0
(t xy 0 0 0 0
xy
y 0 0
\. xy
V 0 0
Ci
(Ii) (e)
Fig. 10.27
In Fig. 10.27(a), the four Is are vertically adjacent. The four squares that contain a '1 '
are xyz, xyz, xyz, XYz . From these terms, we rate that the only variable that remains un­
changed is z ( as both x and y appear in complemented and uncomplimented form). Thus, the
corresponding Boolean expression is f(x, y, z) = z. We can also prove it mathematically as
below :
Here f(x, y, z) = xyz + xyz + xyz + xyz
= xzy + xyz + xyz + xzy I Commutative law
= xz ( y + y) + xz (y + y)
= x2 . 1 + xz . l = xz + xz I Complement law
= (x + x) . Z = 1.z = z
In Fig. 10.27 (b), the four Is are horizontally adjacent. The four squares that contain 1
are
xyzt, xyzt, xyzt, xyzt. From these terms, we note that the only variable that remains
unchanged is xy (as z and t appear in both complemented and uncomplimented form).
Thus, the corresponding Boolean expression is f(x, y, z) = xy. We can also prove it math­
ematically as below.
Here f(x, y, z) = xyzt + xyzt + xyzt + xyzt
= xyz(t + t) + xyz(t + t)
= xyz.l + xyz. l = xyz + xyz = xy (z + z) = xy.l = xy
In Fig. 10.27 (c). The four Is are in a square and there are considered to be adjacent to
each other. The corresponding Boolean expression is f(x, y, z, t) = yt (as x and z appear in both
complemented and uncomplimented form).
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 399
In Fig. 10.27 (d). The four Is are also adjacent. The four squares that contain Is are :
xyzt, xyzt, xyz t, xyz t . Only xl remains unchanged. Therefore, the corresponding
Boolean expression is
f(x, y, Z, t) = xt
In Fig. 10.27 (e), the top and bottom rows are also considered to be adjacent to each
other as are the left most and right most columns. The four squares containing Is are :
xyzt, xY z t, xyzt, xY z t . From these terms, we note that the term y t remains un­
changed. Therefore, the corresponding Boolean expression is
f(x, y, z, t) = y t
Thus, from the above discussion. We conclude that
"Looping a quad of adjacent Is eliminates the two variables that appear in both comple­
mented and uncomplemented form".

1 0.37. LOOPING GROUPS OF EIGTHS

A group of eight Is that are adjacent to one another is called a octet. When an octet is
looped in a four-variable K-map,
"Three of the four variables are eliminated and only one variable remains unchanged".
Consider the following Fig. 10.28.

zt zt zt zl zt zt zt zl
xy 1 0 0 0 xy 1 1 0 0
xy 1 1 1 1 xy 1 1 0 0
xy 1 1 1 1 xy 1 1 0 0
xy 0 0 0 0 xy 1 1 0 0
(a) (b)

zt zt zt zl zt zt zt zl
xy ? 0 0 Ii' xy 1 1 1 1)
xy 1 0 0 1 xy 0 0 0 0
xy 1 0 0 1 xy 0 0 0 0
xy 1 0 0 1 xy 1 1 1 1)
J

(c) (Ii)

Fig. 10.28
In Fig. 10.28 (a), only y remains unchanged
.. f(x, y, z, t) = y
400 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
In Fig. 10.28 (b), z remains unchanged
.. f(x, y, Z, t) = z
In Fig. 10.28 (c), t remains unchanged
f(x, y, Z, t) = t
In Fig. 10.28 (d), f(x, y, Z, t) = y .

1 0.38. KARNAUGH MAP METHOD FOR FINDING PRIME IMPLICANTS AND MINIMAL
FORM FOR A BOOLEAN EXPRESSION
First express the given Boolean expression in complete sum of products form.
The following algorithm can be used by which minimized Boolean expression can be
obtained.
1. Identify the ones which cannot be combined with any other ones and encircle them.
2. Identify the ones that can be combined in groups of two in only one way and encircle
them as groups.
3. Identify the ones that can be combined with three other ones, to make a group of four
adjacent ones) in only one way and encircle them as groups.
4. Identify the ones that can be combined with seven other ones, to make a group of
eight adjacent ones) in only way and encircle them as groups.
5. After identifying the essential groups of 2, 4 and 8 ones, if there still remains some
ones which have not been encircled) then these are to be combined with each other or with
other already encircled ones i.e., we should combine the left over ones in largest possible
groups and in as few groupings as possible.
Example 3. Use Karnaugh maps to find the prime implicants and minimal form of the
following Boolean expression
(i) flx, y) = xy + xy' (ii) !lx, y) = xy + xy + xy'
(iii) !lx, y) = xy + xy'. y y'
form.
Sol. (i) We first express f,(x, y) into complete sum·of·product
(1
x 1
Here f,(x, y) = xy + xy', which is already in complete sum·of·
products form. o o
The K·map for the two variables is shown below (Fig. 10.29)
Put 1s in the cells corresponding to the terms xy and xy' and 0 Fig. 10.29
elsewhere.
The two squares containing Is are .xy and xy'. From these terms) we note that the variable
x remains unchanged (as y appears in complemented and uncomplimented form). Hence) the
prime implicant of f,(x, y) is x. Hence
f/x) y) = x) is its minimal sum
(ii) f,(x, y) = xy + xy + xy', which is already in complete sum· y y'
'1'
of·products form.
x 0
The K·map for the two variables is shown below (Fig. 10.30).

l(i y
Put 1s in the cells corresponding to the terms xy, xy and as ,
x
else where. This map contains two pairs of adjacent squares.
(designated by the two loops). The vertices pair represents y and the
horizontal pair represents x. Hence y and x are the prime implicants.
Fig. 10.30
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 401

Therefore)
fz<x, y) = y + X, is its minimal sum.
(iii) f3(x, y) = xy + xy' y y'
Put Is in the cells corresponding to the terms containing xy
and x'y' and 0 elsewhere. This map consists of two isolated squares
x
CD 0
which represent xy and xy' (Fig. 10.31). Hence xy and xy' are prime
implicants. Therefore
x
.
0 CD
f,(x, y) = xy + xy' is its minimal sum. Fig. 10.31
1 0.39. BASIC RECTANGLE FOR THREE VARIABLE K-MAP
A basic rectangle in a Karnaugh map of three variables is a square or two adjacent
squares or four squares which form a one-by-four or two-by-two rectangle. These basic rect­
angles corresponds to fundamental products of three) two and one literal respectively. Hence,
the fundamental product represented by a basic rectangle is the product of just those literals
that appear in every square-of the rectangle.
Example 4. Find the fundamental product represented by each basic rectangle in the
following (Fig. 10. 32) Karnaugh maps
yz yz' y'z' y 'z yz yz' yz' y 'z
x 0 0 0 0 x 1 0 0 1

x' 0 1 1 0 x' 0 0 0 0

(a) (b)
yz yz' Y 2' y'z
x 1 0 0 1

x 1 0 0 1

(c)
Fig. 10.32
Sol. (a) The two 1s in Fig. 10. 32 (a) can be looped (combined) as shown in Fig. 10.33.
yz yz' Y2' y'z
x 0 0 0 0
x
'
0 Cl 0 0
Fig. 10.33
This map contains a pairs of 1s that are horizontally adjacent. The first represents xyz'
and the second represents x'y'z'. In these two forms, the variable y appears in complemented
and uncomplimented form) where x'z' remains unchanged. That is to say) x'z appear in all the
squares of the basic rectangle. Therefore, by definition, the fundamental product is P = xz'.
402 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(b) The two Is in the given Fig. 10.32 (b) can be com­ yz yz' y'z' y'z
bined or looped as shown in Fig. 10.34.
This map contains a pair of Is in the left row and
right row. These two squares are also considered to be
adjacent.
The first square represents xyz and the second rep­
Fig. 10.34
resents xy'z. In these two terms) y appears in complemented and uncomplimented form, while
xz remains unchanged. That is to say, xz appears in all the squares of the basic rectangle.
Therefore, by definition, the fundamental product P is given by
P = xz
(c) The four Is in given Fig. 10.32 (c) can be looped or yz yz y'z' y'z
combined as shown in Fig. 10.35.
The four Is in this map are considered to be adjacent
since the leftmost and rightmost columns are considered to
be adjacent. The fours squares that contain Is are
xyz, x'yz, xy'z, x'y'z. In these terms, we note that x Fig. 10.35
and y appears in complemented and uncomplement form whereas z remains unchanged. That
is to say, z appears in all the squares. Therefore, by definition, the fundamental product P is
given by
P=z
Example 5. Use Karnaugh map to find the prime implicants and minimal form for
each of the following complete-sum-of-products form
(i) flx, y, z) = xyz + xyz' + xyz' + xyz
(ii) fix, y, z) = xyz + xyz' + xy'z + xyz + x'y'z
(iii) fix, y, z) = xyz + xyz' + xyz' + xy'z'+ xy'z.
Sol. (i) Given Boolean expression, in complete-sum-of-products form is
f,(x, y, z) = xyz + xyz' + xyz' + xy'z ... (1) 1 yz yz' y'z' y'z
The K-map for three variables is shown in Fig. 10.36 x (1 1
1
given below :
Put Is in the cells corresponding to the terms xyz, x'
CD
xyz', x'yz', x'y'z and Os elsewhere.
All the four Is can be looped (combined) as shown @
in the figure.
Fig. 10.36
Corresponding to loop (1), the variable :ry appears
in both the squares since z appears in complemented and uncomplimented form. Therefore, .xy
is prime implicant of f,(x, y, z). Corresponding to loop (2), the term yz' appears in both the
squares since x appears in complemented and uncomplemented form. Therefore, yz' is prime
implicant of f,'(x, y, z).
Corresponding to loop (3), the prime implicant is xy'z. Hence, the required minimal
form is
f,(x, y, z) = xy + yz' + xy'z
(ii) Given Boolean expression in complete-sum-of-products form is
f (x, y, z) = xyz + xyz' + xy'z + xyz + xy'z
, ... (1)
The K-map for the three variables is shown in Fig. 10.37.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 403
Put 1s in the cells corresponding to the terms in (1)
and Os elsewhere. All the five 1s can be looped (combined)
as shown in the figure. The four 1s in the leftmost columns
and right most columns are considered to be adjacent.
Corresponding to loop (1), the variables x and y appear in x'
complemented and uncomplimented form while z remains
uncharged. That is to say, z appears in all the square.
Hence, the prime implicant of f,(x, y, z) is z. Fig. 10.37
Corresponding to loop (2), the variable z appears in complemented and uncomplemented
form and xy appears in both the squares. Therefore, the prime implicant of f,(x, y, z) is xy.
Therefore, required Boolean expression in minimal form is
f,(x, y, z) = z + xy
(iii) Given Boolean expression in complete-sum-of-products form is
f,(x, y, z) = xyz + xyz' + xyz' + xy'z' + xy'z
Proceed yourself as in part (i) and (ii), the minimal form is
f,(x, y, z) = xy + yz' + xy' (Corresponding to K-map of Fig. 10.38)
= xy + x'z' + x'y' (Corresponding to K-map of Fig. 10.39)

yz yz' y'z y'z yz yz' y'z y'z

Fig. 10.38
:' I c: I (� I (:) I �) I
Fig. 10.39
Example 6. Find the fundamental product represented by each basic rectangle in the
K-maps shown below (Fig. 10.40)
zt zt' zIt' zIt zt zt' zIt' zIt zt zt' z't' z't
xy 0 0 0 0 xy 1 1 0 0 xy 1 0 0 1
xy' 0 0 1 1 xy' 0 0 0 0 xy' 1 0 0 1
x!y' 0 0 0 0 x'y' 0 0 0 0 x!y' 1 0 0 1
x!y 0 0 0 0 x!y 1 1 0 0 x'y 1 0 0 1
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 10.40
Sol. (a) In Fig. 10.40 (a), the two 1s can be looped (or combined) as shown in Fig. 10.41
given in next page.
The variable t appears in complemented and uncomplemented form, while x, y', z appears
in both the squares. Hence,
404 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
The fundamental product P = xy'z'
zt zt' zIt' z't zt zt' z't' zIt
xy 0 0 0 0 xy
�lJ) 0 0

xy' 0 0 (1 1) xy' 0 0 0 0

x'y' 0 0 0 0 x!y' 0 0 0 0

x!y 0 0 0 0 x'y
(i� 0 0

Fig. 10.41 Fig. 10.42

(b) In Fig. 10.39 (b), all the four Is can be looped (combined) as shown in Fig. 10.42.
The four squares contain the terms xyzt, xyzt') x'yzt, x'yzt'. From these terms, we note
that, the variables x and t appear in complemented and uncomplemented form whereas y and
z appear in all the four squares. Hence, the fundamental prod- zt zt' z't' zIt

"i\ r
uct P is given by
xy 0 0
P = yz
(c) In Fig. 10.39 (c), all the Is can be looped (combined) xy' 1 0 0 1
as shown in Fig. 10.43 given below :
The left most column and right most column are con­ x!y' 1 0 0 1
sidered to be adjacent. In these squares, the variables x, y, z
appear in complemented and uncomplemented form where­
x!y
as the variable t appears in all the eight squares. Hence, the J/ 0 0
�
fundamental product P is given by P = t.
Fig. 10.43
Example 7. Find the minimal sum for the Boolean expressions f1 and f2 whose K-maps
are given below Fig. 10.44.
zt zt' zIt' z't zt zt' z't' zIt
xy 0 1 0 0 xy 1 0 0 1

xy' 1 1 1 1 xy' 0 1 0 0

x'y' 1 1 1 1 x'y' 1 1 1 1

x!y 0 0 0 0 x'y 1 0 0 1

Fig. 10.44
Sol. (a) All the Is can be looped (combined) as shown in Fig. 10.44 given in next page.
Corresponding to loop (1), the variables x, z, t appear in complemented and uncomplement
form whereas the variable y' appears in all the eight squares. Therefore, y' Is is the prime
implicant of f, (x, y, z, t).
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 405
Corresponding to loop (2), the variable y appears in complemented and uncomplemented
form whereas the variables x, z, t' remains unchanged. By definition) the prime implicant is
the fundamental product of x, z, t' which is P = xzt'
The minimal form of f, (x, y, z) = y' + xzt'
zt zt' z't' z't 2 zt zt' z't' z't
-
xy 0 '1 0 0 xy

xy' /1 1 1 1 xy'

�
'-'

x'y' \,,1 1 1 V
x'y'

x'y 0 0 0 0 x'y

Fig. 10.45 Fig. 10.46

(b) All the 1s can be looped (combined) as shown in Fig. 10.46.
The four Is in the four corner squares are considered to be adjacent. These four squares
contain the terms xyzt, x'yzt, xyzt) x'yz't. From these terms) we note that the variables x and z
appear in both complemented and uncomplemented form whereas the variablesy and t remains
unchanged. Hence, the prime implicant is the fundamental product of y and t, i.e., yt.
Similarly, corresponding to loop (1), the variables z and t appear in both complemented
and uncomplemented form whereas x) y' remain unchanged. The prime implicant is x'y'.
Similarly, corresponding to loop (2), the variable x appears in complemented and
uncomplemented form where as y') z) t' remains unchanged. The prime implicant is y'zt'. Hence)
the required minimal form is
f2(x, y, z, t) = yt + xy' + y'zt'.
Example 8. Use Karnaugh map to find the minimal sum for
f(x, y, z, t) = xy' + xyz + xy'z' + xyzt'.
Sol. The Karnaugh map for four variables is shown zt zt' ;ft' z't
1 1 1
as follows (Fig. 10.47).
xy
Given f(x, y, z, t) = :ry ' + xyz + xy'z' + xyzt' ... (1)
We express (1) in complete·sum·of·products form. xy' 1 1 1 ]\
Consider
xy' = xy'(t + t') (z + z') x!y' 1 1 2
= xy'(tz + tz' + t'z + t'Z)
= xy'tz + xy'tz' + xy't'z + xy't'z'
= xy'zt + xy'z't + xy'zt' + xy'z't'
x!y
Irl
I I

Also xyz = xyz(t + t') = xyzt + xyzt'

Fig. 10.47
... (2)
:;:'y'z' = :;:'y'z'(t + t') = x'y'z't + x'y'z't' ... (3)
From (1), (2), and (3), we have
f(x, y, Z, t) = xy'zt + xy'z't + xy'zt' + xy'z't' + xyzt + xyzt' + x'y'z't + x'y'z't' + x'yzt'
... (4)
406 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Enter Is in the cells corresponding to the terms in (4), and Os elsewhere. All Is in the
K-map can be looped (combined) as shown in Fig. 10.47.
Corresponding to loop (1), the variables y and t appear in complemented and
uncomplemented form whereas the variables x and z remains unchanged, that is to say, x
and z appear in all the four squares. Therefore, the prime implicant is the fundamental prod­
uct of these variable which appear in all the squares of the basic rectangle. Hence, the prime
implicant corresponding to loop (1) is xz. Corresponding to loop (2), the variables x and t ap­
pear in complemented and uncomplemented form whereas the variables y' and z' remains
unchanged. That is to say, y' and z' appear in all the four squares of the basic rectangle.
Therefore, the prime implicant corresponding to loop (2) is y'z'. Also, the two Is in the
top row and bottom row are also considered to be adjacent. The variable x appears in comple­
mented and uncomplemented form whereas the variables y, z and t' remains unchanged. The
prime implicant is the fundamental product of these variables which is yzt'.
Hence, the minimal sum is given by
f(x, y, z, t) = xz + y'z' + yzt'.
Example 9. Construct the K-map for the Boolean function whose truth table is given
below. Express the Boolean function, so obtained in its minimal sum
x y f(x, y)
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Sol. By Boolean Expansion Theorem, the Boolean function corresponding to the

variables x, y is given as
f(x, y) = f(l, 1).x.y + f(l, O).x.y' + f(O, 1).x'.y + f(O, O).x'.y'
= 1.x.y + 0 + 0 + 1.x'.y'
= xy + x'y' ... (1)
The K-map for the Boolean expression (1) is given below (Fig. 10.48) :

y y'
x
CD 0
x' 0
CD
Fig. 10.48
Enter Is in the cells corresponding to the terms xy and x'y' and Os elsewhere. The prime
implicants are xy and x'y'. The required minimal sum is f(x, y) = :ry + x'y'.
Example 10. Construct a K-map for the Boolean function whose truth table is given
below. Express the Boolean function, so obtained in its minimal sum.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 407

x y z f(x, y, z)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

Sol. By Boolean Expansion Theorem, the Boolean function corresponding to the

variables x, y, z is given as
[(x, y, z) = [(1, 1, 1) x.y.z + [(0, 1, l).x'.y.z + [(1, 0, l).x.y'.z + [(1, 1, O).x.y.z'
+ [(0, 0, l).x'.y'.z + [(0, 1, O).x.y'.z + [(1, 0, O).x.y'.z' + [(0, 0, O).x'.y'.z'
+
= l.x.y.z l.x'yz + 0 + 0 + l.x'.y'.z + l.x.y'.z + 0 + 0
= xyz + x'yz + x'y'z + xy'z ... (1)
The K-map for the Boolean function [(x, y, z) is shown in Fig. 10.49.
Enter Is corresponding to the terms in (1) and Os else­ yz yz' y'z y'z
where. All four Is can be looped (combined) as shown in
Fig. 10.49. All four squares in left most column and right
most column are considered to be adjacent.

x'y'z.
These squares contain the terms xyz) x'yz) xy'z and
The variables x and y appear in complemented and
Fig. 10.49
uncomplemented form whereas z remains unchanged.
Therefore) the prime implicant is z. Hence) the required minimal sum is
[(x, y, z) = z.

EXERCISE 1 0_5

L Let R be a basic rectangle in a Karnaugh map for four variables x, y, Z, t. Write the number of
literals in the fundamental product P corresponding to R interms of the number of squares in R.
2. Find the fundamental product P represented by each basic rectangle R in the Karnaugh map in
the figure given below :

,f ,f
zt zt' z't' z't zt zt' z't' z't zt zt' z't' z't
,f -/.
, ,f\ Ik xy
x'y ,f l' x'y
' -!/ 1'< x'y
x'y x'
y xy ,f ,f ,f ,f
(a) (b) (e)
408 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
3. Let E denotes the Boolean expression given in the Karnaugh map as shown below :
(a) Write E as a complete sum of products form.
(b) Find the minimal form of E.
zt zt' z't' z't
I\{; v'
' /j1;'\
x'y
x'y
'\( ,;;; 1/v'\

4. Consider the Boolean expressions El and E2 in variables x, y, z and t which are given by Karnaugh
maps in the following figure. Find the minimal forms of El and E2.
zt zt' z't' z't zt zt' z't' z't
xy
? v I�
, /./ ,/. v' IvI'\ xy' v' v'
x'y, \..v' v' v' v' x'y v' v' v' v'
,/
x'y x'y 7' IV
(a) E, (b) E2
5. Consider the Boolean expressions El and E2 in variables x, y, Z, t which are given by the Karnaugh
maps in the Figure. Find a minimal sum for (a) El (b) E2. ;

zt zt' z't' z't zt zt' z't' z't

xy
7' � V
\Z C./: v'
xy v' [-1'1
,

x'y, (v' v'

t ?J x'y r,.;'1,
v'
, ,
x'y x'y .l) - �
:-1":
' '

E, E2
(a) (b)
6. Use a Karnaugh map to find a minimal sum for :
(a) El :::: x'yz + x'yz't + y'zt' + xyzt'. (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2013)
(b) E2 :::: y't' + y'z't + x'y' zt + yzt'.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 409
zt zt' z't' z't zt zt' z't' z't
xy
7 7
'./ ,;)
xy v' v' 1/
x'y v' x'y'
GI v' v' v'
x'y v' v' Ir v'
I�v'
x'y
E, E2
(a) (b)
Find all possible minimal sums for each Boolean expression E given by the Karnaugh maps in
the Fig.
7.

x [2[IJZJ
yz yz' y'z' y'z yz yz' y'z' y'z yz yz' y'z' y'z
x
ITE0 x
ITE0
x'
EEIIJ x'
� x'
EEEEJ
(a) (b) (0)
8. Find all possible minimal sums for each Boolean expression E given by the Karnaugh maps in
the Fig.
zt zt' z't' z't zt zt' z't' z't zt zt' z't' z't
v' v' v' v' v' v' v'
xy v' v' v' v' v' v' v' v'
x'y v' v' x'y v' x'y v'
x'y v' v' v' v' x'y v' v' v' x'y v' v' v' v'
(a) (b) (0)

9. Use a Karnaugh map to find a minimal sum for each Boolean expression :
(a) E :::: xy + x'y + x'y'. (b) E :::: x + x' yz + xy 'z'.
Find a minimal sum for each Boolean expression :
(a) E :::: y 'z + y 'z't' + z't. (b) E :::: y'zt + xzt' + xy 'z'.
10.

11. Use Karnaugh maps to redesign each logic circuit L in the Fig. so that it becomes a minimal
AND-OR circuit.
A
AND B AND
C

AND AND

AND AND

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.50
410 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Answers
1.
R P
8 (squares) 1 (literal)
4 (squares) 2 (literals)
2 (squares) 3 (literals)
1 (square) 4 (literals)
2.(a) P = x'yt' (b) P = y't (c) P = y.
3. (a) E :::: x'y'zt + x' y'zt' + x'yz't' (complete sum of product from)
(b) = y'z + xyz' + yz't
E (minimal form)
4. (a) Ej = y' + xzt' (b) E2 = yt + x'y' + y'zt'
5. (a) El :::: xzt' + xy'z' + x'y'z + x'z't'
(b) :::: x'y + yt + xy't' + xy't' + y'zt':::: x'y + yt + xy't' + x'z't.
E2
6. (a) El :::: zt' + xy't' + x'yt (b) E :::: zt' + xy't' + x'y't.
7. (a) E = xy' + :<y + yz = + x'y + xz'.
>y
'
(b) E = xy' + x'y + z. (c) E = x' + z.
8. (a) E :::: x'y + zt' + xzt + xy'z :::: x'y + zt' + xz't + xy't.
(b) = yz + yt' + zt' + xy'z' .
E
(c) E :::: x'y + yt + xy't' + x'zt :::: x'y + yt + xy't' + y'zt.
9. (a) E = x' + y; (b) E = xz' + yz.
10. (a) E = y' + z't; (b) E = xy' + zt' + y'zt.
11.
A -.__---r-' A -----r-'
B ----j-l><>L� B ---,>----L�
AND AND

C ----i::»i._..-/ C --po-t._..-/
AND AND

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.51
1 0.40. APPLICATIONS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA TO SWITCHING CIRCUITS
Switching circuit. It is an arrangement of wires and switches connected together to
the terminal of the battery. A Switch is a two state device used for allowing current to pass
through it or not to pass through it.
If current is allowed to pass through a switch, then it is said to be 'closed' or 'ON'. If
the current is not allowed to pass through a switch, them it is said to be 'Open' or 'OFF'. The
switches are denoted by the letters x, y, z or a, b, c.
Methods of connecting Two switches. There are basically two methods of connect·
ing two switches :
(i) Connecting switches in parallel
(ii) Connecting switches in series.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 41 1
If x and y are two switches connected in parallel, then we say, the bulb is 'ON' iff atleast

x
one of the switches x and y are closed. (Fig. 10.52)

r o-,--, y
Fig. 10.52 Fig. 10.53
If x and y are two switches connected in series) then we say) the bulb is 'ON' iff x and y
are both closed. (Fig. 10.53)
Further, if a switch is 'ON' , then its value is denoted by '1 ' and if a switch is 'OFF' . Then
its value is denoted by '0' .

1 0.41 . TRUTH TABLE FOR THE SWITCHES CONNECTED IN PARALLEL

Let the switches x and y are connected in parallel. Then, the current will flow through
the circuit of x and y only when at least one switch is 'ON' . In other words, the value of the
circuit of x and y is 1 when at least one switch has value 1 . The circuit having switches x and
y in parallel is denoted by x + y. The truth table for the switches connected in parallel is shown
as : Truth table
x y x+y
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
Switches connected in parallel 1 1 1

1 0.42. TRUTH TABLE FOR THE SWITCHES CONNECTED IN SERIES

Let the switches x andy are connected in series. Then, the current will flow through the
circuit of x and y only when both switches are 'ON' . In other words, the value of the circuit of
x and y is 1 when both switches have value 1 . The circuit having switches x and y in series is
denoted by x.y. Truth table

x y x.y

.y
0 0 0
1 0 0
--_I X I •
•--- 0 1 1
Switches connected in series 1 1 1

If x and y are two switches such that y is closed when x is open and y is open when x is
closed, then y is written as x.
412 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Consider the circuit as shown below. Express the circuit as a Boolean func­
tion of the Boolean algebra of switching circuit (Fig. 10. 54).
ri X z i i X I
Y
i X'
1 '-----o � Y ...... z'..s-L-. Y'
......

Fig. 10.54
Sol. From the given circuit, the first portion represents x.y + z
The second portion represents x+ y.z'
The third portion represents x + y'.
All these three portion are connected in series.
The Boolean function of the given circuit is
f(x, y, z) = (xy + z) (x + yz') (x + y').
Example 2. Consider the Boolean function f(x, y, z) = (x.y.z') + x'.(y + z'). Construct a
circuit representing f(x, y, z) as a Boolean algebra of switching circuits.
Sol. Given Boolean function is
f(x, y, z) = x.y.z' + x.(y + z') ... (1)
From (1), the circuits corresponding to
x.y.z' and x.(y + z') are connected in parallel.
The term x.y.z' implies that the switches
x, y and z' are connected in series.
The terms x.(y + z') implies that the
switch x' and the circuit corresponding to y + z'
Fig. 10.55
are connected in series. The required circuit is
shown in Fig. 10.55.
Example 3. Consider the Boolean function
f(x, y, z) = (x.y. + z).(x' + y.z).(x' + z) (P.T.V. May 2012)
Construct the circuit corresponding to the Boolean function of the Boolean algebra of
switching circuits.
Sol. Given Boolean function is

re
f(x, y, z) = (x.y + z).(x + y.z').(x + z) ... (1)

i X'1 i X'
From (1), we observe that the
circuits corresponding to x.y + z ; x'
Y
+ y.z' and x' + z are connected in
...... i
z � y """' zl..s_L_. z
series. The term, x.y + z implies that
+
the circuit corresponding to x.y and
the switch z are connected in par­
allel. The term, x + y.z' implies that
the switch x' and the circuit corre­
sponding to y.z' are connected in Fig. 10.56
parallel.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 413
+
The term) x' z implies that the switches x' and z are connected in parallel. Hence, the
circuit of the given Boollean function is shown in Fig. 10.56.
Example 4. Simplify the circuit as shown below. (Fig. 10. 57)
Sol. Let f(x, y) denotes the Boolean function of the

1 Lx
� : = ::----+----0
given circuit in the Boolean algebra of switching circuits, .
then
f(x, y) = x.y' + x.y' + x.y ... (1) ...... y
We simplify (1). We have .
f(x, y) = x.y' + x.y' + x.y
= (x + x).y' + x.y
= 1.y' + x.y I Complement law Fig. 10.57
= y' + x.y
= (y' + X).(y' + y) I Disributive law
= (y' + X).1 Complement law
= y' + x
= x + y' ... (2)
Commutative law
From (2), we can say that the given circuit is equivalent
to the circuit in which the switches x' and y' are connected in Fig. 10.58
parallel. (Fig. 10.58)
Example 5. Simplify the circuits given below Fig. 10.59 by obtaining the Boolean ex­
pressions. Also construct the switching circuit for the simplified Boolean expression.

X J-[ X

Y z

�. a •
•--
....b. �

l""b' •
-<l •
. -

--
.....
..... c·
..../c o--+----,
(b)

+ a •
•---<l ....b. · •
•
-- .....c·...

(c)
Fig. 10.59
Sol. (a) Let f(x, y) denotes the Boolean function of the given circuit in the Boolean
algebra of switching circuits.
414 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
First portion of the circuit represents x + y'
Second portion of the circuit represents x' + Y
Third portion of the circuit represents x' + y'
All these three portions are connected in series. Therefore, the Boolean function is
f(x, y) = (x + yj.(x' + y).(x' + yj ... (1)
Now to simplify (1),we have
f(x, y) = (x + yj.(x' + y).(x' + yj
= (x + yj.(x' + y.yj I Distributive law
= (x + yj.(x' + 0) I Complement law
= (x + yj.x'
= x.x' + y'.x'
0
= + y'.x' I Complement law
= x'.y' ... (2) I Commutative law
Hence from (2), we conclude that the given circuit is equiva­
lent to the circuit in which the switches x' andy' are connected in
series. The circuit diagram for (2) is given in Fig. 10.60. Fig. 10.60
(b) Let f(x, y, z) denotes the Boolean expression of the given circuit in the Boolean alge­
bra of the switching circuits.
In the top row, the first portion represents that the switch x and the circuit y.z are
connected in parallel and hence the top row represents the circuit
(x + y.z).z ... (2)
In the bottom row of the circuit, First portion represents that the switches x and y are
connected in parallel and the second portion represents that the switches x and z are con­
nected in parallel. Both the circuits (x + y) {corresponding to the first portion of the bottom
row} and (x + z) (corresponding to the second portion of the bottom row) are connected in series
and hence the corresponding circuit is
(x + y).(x + z) ... (3)
The circuits represented by (2) and (3) are connected in parallel. Therefore, the Boolean
function is
f(x, y, z) = (x + y.z).z + (x + y).(x + z) ... (4)
Now to simplify (4), we have
f(x, y, z) = (x + y.z).z + (x + y).(x + z)
= X.z + y.z.z + y.z I Distributive law
= X.z + y.z + x + y.z I Idempotent law
= x + x.z + y.z I Idempotent law
= x + y.z ... (5) I Absorption law
From (5), we conclude that the given circuit is equivalent
to the circuit in which the switch x and the circuit y.z
are connected in parallel. The simplified circuit is shown in
Fig. 10.61.

Fig. 10.61
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 415
(c) Let f(a, b, c) denoted the Boolean function of the given circuit in the Boolean algebra
of the switching circuits. Proceeding yourself as in part (i) and (ii), we have
tea) b) c) = a.b.c' + a.b'.c + a.b'.c' ... (1)
To simplify (1), we have
tea) b) c) = a.b.c' + a.b'.c + a.b'.c'
= a.b.c' + a.b'.(c + ci I Distributive law
= a.b.c' + a.b'.1 Complement law
= a.b.c' + a.b'
= a.(b.c' + bi I Distributive law
= a.(b + bi.(c' + bi
= a.1.(c' + bi
= a.(c' + bi
Complement law �-[::
= a.(b' + ci ... (2)
From (2), we conclude that the given circuit is equivalent
to the circuit as shown in Fig. 10.62. Fig. 10.62

I TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1 0.6

L Express the following circuit (Fig. 10.112) as a Boolean function of the Boolean algebra of switching
circuits.

~......
+
y x'

Fig. 10.63 Fig. 10.64

2. Express the above circuit (Fig. 10.64) as a Boolean function of the Boolean algebra of switching
circuits.
Express the following circuit (Fig. 10.65) as a Boolean function of the Boolean algebra of switching
circuits.
3.

Fig. 10.65
4. Express the following circuit (Fig. 10.66) as a Boolean function of the Boolean algebra of switching
circuits.
416 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Fig. 10.66
5. Construct the circuit corresponding to the Boolean function x.(y' + z) + y.z' of the Boolean algebra
of switching circuits.
6. Construct the circuit corresponding to the Boolean function x.y + x'.(x + y + yj of the Boolean
algebra of switching circuits.
7. Construct the circuit corresponding to the Boolean function x.y + x.y' + x'.y of the Boolean algebra
of switching circuits.
8. Construct the circuit corresponding to the Boolean function x.y'.z + (y + z).x' of the Boolean algebra
of switching circuits.
Simplify the circuit (Fig. 10.67) given below :

r-C�Y'J-C· z
9.

x'

_ �z x ...... z'
Fig. 10.67
10. Simplify the circuit (Fig. 10.68) given below :

... z
x .
0---
- - ----
.--<0 y'

rt X. ..---.. --- ....-

.y•
• . -+--,
+ x' •
•
-------- __0
. Z 0--_---'

Fig. 10.68
11. Simplify the circuit (Fig. 10.69) : 12. Simplify the circuit (Fig. 10.70) given below :

z-------[ :
x }-( y
y z

Fig. 10.69 Fig. 10.70

13. Draw the logic circuit for ab' + a'b. (P.T. U B. Tech. Dec. 2012)
.•
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 417
Answers
1. x.y + x' 2. x.(y + z).x'.(y + z')
x.y'. z + (y + z) . x' 4. x.y' + (x' + z).y

X --[ Y'
3.
5. Fig. 10.71 6. Fig. 10.72

Ry. .: ,

Fig. 10.71 Fig. 10.72

7. Fig. 10.73 8. Fig. 10.74

Fig. 10.73 Fig. 10.74

9. Fig. 10.75

}-= z o Y'
10. Fig. 10.76

�
r-[ : �
1
Fig. 10.75
cp Fig. 10.76
11. Fig. 10.77
z 12. Fig. 10.78
z
�� ��
Fig. 10.77 Fig. 10.78
13. Fig. 10.78(a)
a b

Fig. 10.78(a)
418 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 0.43. APPLICATION OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA TO LOGIC CIRCUITS

Logic gates. A logic gate is simply an electronic circuit which operate on one or more
input signals to produce standard output signals. These logic gates are the building blacks of
all the circuits in a computer.
There are) basically) three logic gates) namely)
(i) OR gate (ii) AND gate (iii) NOT gate.
We shall use the fact that the lines entering the gate symbol from the left are input
lines and the single line on the right is the output line.
OR gate. An OR gate is an electronic circuit that generates the output signal of 1 if any
of the input signals is 1. Two or more switches connected in parallel behave as an OR gate.

---[X J- Y
Switches in parallel
(i) (ii)
If the switches x and y are connected in parallel then the input current will reach the
output point when anyone of the two switches are in the ON (1) state. There will be no output
when both the switches x and y are in the off (0) state. The OR gate for two input signals x and
y is shown in Fig. (ii).
Also the truth table for OR gate is shown below. An output of signal is 1 when any of the
input signals is 1 and output is zero when both the inputs are zero.
Truth table for an OR gate
Input Output
x y x+y
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
An OR gate may have more than two inputs. The figure given below shows an OR gate
having three inputs. The truth table for OR gate with three inputs x, y, z is shown below :
Truth table for an OR gate
Inputs Output
x y z x +y +z
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 419
AND gate. An AND gate is an electronic circuit that generates the output signal of 1 if
all the input signals are 1. Two or more switches connected in series behave as an AND gate.

-----ex...... y...-- xy AND ) x.y

Switches in series
(i) (ii)
If the switches x and y are connected in series) then the input current will reach the
output point only when both the switches are in ON (1) state. There will be no output when at
least one of the switches x and y is in the off (0) state the AND gate for two input signals x and
y is shown in Fig. (ii). An output of signal is 1 when both input signals are 1. Output is 0 when
at least one of the inputs is O.
Truth table for an AND gate
Input Output
x y x.y

0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
An AND gate may have more than two inputs. The truth table for an AND gate with
three inputs is given below. The figure given below shows an AND gate having three inputs.
The AND gate with inputs x, y, z has output 1 only if x, y, z have value 1.
Truth table for an AND gate
Input Output

x y z x.y.z

0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
-----ex...... y ...... z ...-- �===�=A�N�D=)I----X . y . z
420 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
NOT gate. A NOT gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output which is reo
verse of the input signal. A NOT gate is also called an inverter.

x----x--[>---- '
Input Output
x x'
0 1
1 0
We now list the various logic gates in the following Table :
SymbologicallBoolean Function

Operation read Input Output Mathe· Switch

matical theory
notation notation

AND and
::� }-
{(x"x,) {(x" x,) {(x" x,)
:::: X1X2 :::: Xl A X2 :::: Xl · X2

OR or
�=[>-
{(x" x,) {(x" x,) {(x" x,)

x,---[>-
:::: Xl + X2 :::: Xl V X2 = X1+ X2

NOT not {(x,) = x,

- {(x,) = x, {(x,) = x,
NAND not and
::� )--- .
{(x,. x,) {(x" x,)
--
{(x" x,)

xx2' =[>-
= (x, -"2) :::: (xl A X2 ) = x1 · :\2

NOR not OR
-- --- --
xx2,+c>-
{(x" x,) {(x" x,) {(x" x,)

+
:::: xl X2 :::: Xl V X2 + .::t2
:::: Xl
Exclusive exclusive {(x" x,) {(x" x,) {(x" x,)
OR or = xl · x2 :::: Xl · X2 :::: Xl · X2

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Find the Boolean expression {or the output o{ the given logic circuit

x
(Fig. Also draw the truth table {or the given logic circuit.
10. 79).

--------1 NOT>C>----,
x�
Y
,--
� __

Y ------1 NOT·.:>o-----'
(i) (ii)
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 421

z ----1
(ii )
Fig. 10.79
X ------1 NOT
Sol. (i) Given circuit is shown below. Let 1
the inputs are x and y.
At point 1, the output is x' OR 3

y-----j NOTDo"'-
At point 2, the output is y'.
2
. . The inputs to the OR gate at point 3 --'
are x: and y'. Hence, at point 3, the output of the
OR gate is x: + y' (Fig. 10.S0).
Also, the truth Fig. 10.80
table for the given logic circuit is shown below :
Truth table

Inputs Output
x y x' y' x' + y'
0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0
(ii) Given circuit is shown below. Let the inputs are x and y.
1,
At point the output is x + y
At point 2, the output is x.y
x
Y
� OR
AND
4
At point 3, the output is (x.y)' 2 3
AND NOT
At point 4, the inputs are x+ y and (x.y)'

(Fig.
..
10.Sl).
The output at point 4 is (x + y).(x.y)' Fig. 10.81
Also, the truth table for the given logic circuit is shown below :
Truth table

Inputs Output
x y x +y x.y (x.y)' (x + y).(x.y)'
0 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0
(iii) Given circuit is shown below. Let the inputs are x) y) z.
At point 1, the output is x + y
422 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
At point 2, the output is z'
(x + y).z'
At point 3, the output is 4
At point 4 , the output is «x + y).z')' z---i
(Fig. 10.82). Also, the truth table for the given
logic circuit is shown below : Fig. 10.82
Truth table

Inputs Output
x y z x +y z' (x + y).z' ((x + y).z)'
0 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Example 2. Express the output Y as a Boolean expression in the inputs A, B, C for the
logic circuit shown below. (Fig. 10. 83)

� =a:::;;:r:E��

Fig. 10.83
Sol. At point 1, the output is A' BC
At point 2, the output is AB'C'
At point 3, the output is AB'
+
At point 4, the output is A'BC AB'C' AB'+
+
. . The required Boolean expression is Y = A'BC AB'C' AB'. +
Example 3. Express the output Yas a Boolean expression in the inputs A and B for the
logic circuit shown below : (Fig. 10. 84)
A -_�------1
B --..-+....+-
.. ----i

Fig. 10.84
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 423
Sol. At point 1, the output is AB' (a small circle is the circuit)
At point 2, the output is (A + BY
At point 3, the output is (A' B')
At point 4, the output is AB' + (A + BY + (A'BY
The required Boolean expression is
Y = AB' + (A + B') + (A' BY = AB' + A'B' + A + B'.

1 0.44. CONVERSION OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSION TO LOGIC CIRCUIT

We can convert a given Boolean expression to a logic circuit. The process of conversion
is explained in the following examples:
Example 4. Find a logic circuit corresponding to the Boolean expression x.(x' + y).
Sol. Given Boolean expression is

�' �
f(x, y) = x.(x' + y)
Given expression contains comple­ x NOT x' + x . (x' + y)
ment of the variable x. So we draw NOT OR Y �
gate for x. In the next step, combine x' + Y
y --------'
-

by an OR gate. Next, combine x and x' + Y Fig. 10.85

by an AND gate. The required logic cir·
cuit of the given expression x.(x' + y) is shown in Fig.10.85.
Example 5. Find a logic circuit corresponding to the Boolean expression x.(y'+ z) + y.
Sol. Given Boolean expression is f(x, y) = x(y' + z) + Y ... (1)
As (1) contains the
x--------,
complement of only one vari­
able y, so we draw NOT gate y
for y in the first step.
z __+ __
____
__ .J
In the second step)
combine y' and z by an OR
gate. Fig. 10.86
In the third step, combine x and y' + z by an AND gate.
In the fourth step, combine x.(y' + z) and y by an OR gate.
10.86.
The required logic circuit of the given expression is shown in Fig.
Example 6. Find a logic circuit corresponding to the input!output table given below :
Inputs Output
x y
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
424 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. By Boole's Expansion Theorem, the Boolean expression [(x, y) is given by
[(x, y) = [(1, l).x.y + [(1, O).x.y' + [(0, l).x.y + [(0, O).x.y'
= 1.x.y + 1.x.y' + 1.x.y + 0
= xy + xy' + xy
= (x + x').y + xy'
= loy + x.y' I Complement law
= y + x.y' ... (1)
As (1) contains the complement of one variable y. So, in the first step, draw NOT gate.
In the second step, combine x and y' by an AND gate.

x-

Y-"'l---1�
-----
--,
y,
AND
�
x y' + y
OR .

Fig. 10.87
In the third step, combine x.y' and y by an OR gate. The logic circuit for the Boolean
expression (1) is shown in Fig. 10.87.
Example 7. Find a logic circuit corresponding to the input/output table given below :
Inputs Output
x y z

1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0

Sol. Let [(x, y, z) be the Boolean expression corresponding to the given input/output
table. By BoDle's expansion theorem,
[(x, y, z) = [(1, 1, l).x.y.z + [(1, 1, O).x.y.z' + [(1, 0, l)x.y'.z + [(1, 0, O).x.y'.z'
+ [(0, 1, l).x.y.z + [(0, 1, O).x.y.z' + [(0, 0, l).x.y'.z + [(0, 0, O).x.y'.z'
= l.x.y.z + O.x.y.z' + O.x.y'.z + l.x.y'.z' + O.x'.y.z' + O.x'.y.z' + l.x'.y'.z + O.x'.y'.z'
= x.y.z + 0 + 0 + x.y'.z' + 0 + 0 + x.y'.z + 0
= x.y.z + x.y'.z' + r.y'.z. ... (1)
As (1) contains the complement of x, y, z, so,
In the first step, draw NOT gate for x, y, z
In the second step, draw AND gate to get x.y.z ; X, y'.z' ; r.y'.z.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 425

x ---+----j AND x'.y'.z

x.y'.z x.y.z + x.y'.z'
y-�------j AND K������-J L-
S--' +x'.y'.z
�
X�
.
AND � �y.Z -�==
== � !_------�
z -�-----j

Fig. 10.88
In the third step, combine x.y.z ; x.y'.z' ; x.y'.z by an OR gate to get the required logic
circuit as shown in Fig. 10.88.
Example 8. Draw the logic circuit with inputs A, B and C and output Y which corre­
sponds to the Boolean expression. Y = AB'C + ABC' + AB'C'.
Sol. Given expression is Y = AB'C + ABC' + AB'C'
Since it contains the complements of the variables B and C. Draw NOT gate for B
and C. In the next step,
Combine AB'C by AND gate
Combine ABC' by AND gate
Combine AB'C' by AND gate
+ +
Next combine AB'C ABC' AB'C' by OR gate.
Hence, the required logic circuit is shown below. (Fig. 10.89)

AB ---.--.---1AND -----.,
C j....
- t... -�+_-{)o__j
t-t-Ttt--L-----'"
AND
AND
Fig. 10.89
Example 9. Find the disjunctive normal form and also the corresponding combinato­
rial circuit of the following Boolean functions :
W �

A B C I(A, B, C) A B C I(A, B, C)
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
426 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. (i) The disjunctive normal form of the Boolean function is
f= AB C + ABc + A B C + A B C + A B C + A B C
and the corresponding combinatorial circuit is shown in Fig. 10.90.

A
B \
C �
\ \ \
\
� I
\
�
I D-
\
�
\
�
\
�
Fig. 10.90.
(ii) The disjunctive normal form of the Boolean function is
f = A B C + A B C + AB C + A B C
and the corresponding combinatorial circuit is shown in Fig. 10.91.

"
A
B K \
C K
v �

\
� I ,

\ I
"
v �

... \
�
v �
Fig. 10.91.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 427

1 0.45. EQUIVALENT LOGICAL CIRCUITS

Two logical circuits are equivalent iff their input/output tables are same or whenever
the two circuits receive the same input, they produce the same unit.
Example 10. Show that the following circuits (Fig. 10. 92) are logically equivalent.

(a) (b)

Fig. 10.92

Sol. The inputs for the first circuit are

I'---r===
53 =[ AND
At point 1 , the output of the NOT gate •-
is x. x

r-----v
4
is y'.
At point 2, the output of the NOT gate AN D J----===:J
y

L----�5
--= AND
At point 3, the output of the AND gate
is x.y.
At point 4, the output of the AND gate
is r.y'. Fig. 10.93
At point 5, the output of the AND gate
is x.y'.
At point 6, the output of the OR gate is x.y + x.y' + x.y'. (Fig. 10.93)
The Boolean expression for the first circuit is f(x, y) = x.y + x.y + x.y' ... (1)
The input/output table for the Boolean expression (1) is given below.
Table I

Inputs Output
x y x' y' x�y x�y' x.y' x�y + x�y' + x.y'
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
428 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
x---1
For the second circuit) the inputs are x and y.
At point 1, the output of the NOT gate is r.
At point 2, the output of the NOT gate is y'.
At point 3, the output of the OR gate is x' + y' y __---j
(Fig. 10.94).
Boolean expression of given circuit is Fig. 10.94
r + y' . . .. (2)
The input/output for the Boolean expression (2) is given below :
Table II

Inputs Output
' ' /
x y x y x + y/
0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0
From table I and table II, we observe that the outputs for the Boolean expression (1)
and (2) are same. Hence both the given circuits are logically equivalent
Example 11. Consider a logic circuit as shown below (Fig. 10.95). Find the Boolean
function representing the logic circuit. Also

Fig. 10.95
(a) Draw the equivalent logic circuit corresponding to f.
Sol. At point 1 , the output is x2
At point 2, the output is X3
At point 3, the output is x" x2
At point 4) the output is X1·X2, Xa
At point 5) the output is X1· X2 ·Xa· X4
The Boolean function of the given logic circuit is
f(xl ) x2) x) = Xl . X2 . Xa . X4 ... (1)
We now draw the equivalent logic cir­
cuit representing (1), As (1) contains the
complement of x2 and x3) so
In the first step, draw NOT gate
representing x2
In the second step, draw NOT gate Fig. 10.96
representing X3
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 429

In the third step, draw an AND gate representing x,. x2 •

In the fourth step, draw an AND gate representing X3 . X4 •

In the fifth step, draw an AND gate representing ( x,. x2 ). (X 3 · x4 ) . Hence, the equivalent
logic circuit is shown below. (in Fig. 10.96)
Example 12. (a) Write the circuit diagram or gate diagram of
f( xl , X2' x
)=( Xl · x2
+ ) (( + ) + ) X . x2 x3 x3 ·

(b) Simplify the function in part (a) by using basic Boolean algebra laws.
(c) Write the circuit (gate) diagram of the result obtained in Part (b).
Sol. (a) Given Boolean expression is
f(xl ' x2 ' x,
)=( + )« + )+ )
X,.X2 X, . X2 x, x,

In the first step) draw an AND gate representing X1.X2•

In the second step) draw an OR gate representing X1·X2 + x3•

In the third step) draw an OR gate representing x2 x3• +

In the fourth step, draw an OR gate representing (x2 x,) + + X3

In the fifth step, draw an AND gate representing X,.X2

( + X)« . X2 + x, )+ )
x

.. The circuit (or gate) diagram for the given Boolean expression is shown in Fig. 10.97.

X, __ ----1

X3 --""=
"C == __ ---.J
Fig. 10.97
(b) To simplify f, we have
f(xl 'x2 ' x,
)=( + )«
X,.X2 X, . X2 +)+ )
x3 x,

=( + x3 )(X,.X2 · X2 +( + » x3 x,

=( + )( +
x3 X, . X3 )( + )
X2 . X2 x, I Distributive law and Idempotent law
=( + )( +
x3 X, . X2 )( + )
X, . X2 x,

=( + )( +
x3 X, . X2 x,) Idempotent law
=( + )( +
x3 X, . X3 x2)
= + X3 X1·X2 ... (1)
(c) The circuit diagram of f(x" x2 ' x, ) given by (1) is given in Fig. 10.98.

Fig. 10.98
430 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 13. Consider the given Fig. 10.99. __ -"
x..'_________ -,
(a) Write the Boolean function which represents
the given on-off circuit
(b) Simplify f algebraically obtained in
Part (a). Draw the on-off circuit diagram of this sim­
plified representation.
(c) Construct the circuit (or gate) diagram of
the given on-off circuit diagram. Fig. 10.99
(d) Find the minterm normal from by using Venn diagram of the Boolean function
obtained in part (a) or part (b).
(e) Write the relative simplicity and advantages of the circuit gate diagrams found in
(c) and (d).
Sol. (a) From the given switching circuit, we note that the last portion represents the
circuit Xl + x2 ·
Also the switch x2 and the circuit Xl + x2 are connected
in series) so it represents X2.( X1 + x2 ). Also the switch Xl and the
circuit x2 . ( Xl + x2 ) are connected in paralleL Therefore) the
Boolean function representing the given on-off circuit is Fig. 10.100
f(xl ) x2) x) = Xl + X2 · (X1 + x2 ) ... (1)
(b) To simplify f algebraically, we have
Let f(xl ' x2) = x, + (X2 ,X, + X2 · X2 ) Distributive law
= x, + (X2 ,X, + 0) I X2 , X2 = 0
= x, + X2.X, = x, ... (2) Absorption law: a v (a 1\ b) = a
Also, the on-off circuit diagram of (2) is shown in Fig. 10.100.
(c) To draw the circuit (gate) diagram of the given switching circuit, we have, the Boolean
expression) representing the given on-off diagram) as
f(xl ' x2) = x, + X2 , (X, + x2 ) ••• (1)
Here (1) contains the complement of the variable x2 ' so
In the first step, draw NOT gate representing x2
In the second step) draw an OR gate representing Xl + x2
In the third step, draw an AND gate representing X2 , (X, + x2 )
In the fourth step, draw an OR gate representing x, + X2 , (X, + X2 )
Therefore, the required logic circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 10.101.

>"'-'-'''-1-x-, (x, + x )

Fig. 10.101
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 431
(d) To find the minterm normal form of (1), consider the Venn diagram representing (2)
as given below : I (1) and (2) represents the same f(xl ' x2)
From the shaded portion I, the minterm is
X,
From the shaded portion II, the minterm
is X1 .X2
The required minterm normal form is
f(xl , x2) = X1 · X2 + X1 ·X2
(e) The circuit (or gate diagram) of the
Boolean function obtained in part (d) is given in Venn Diagram
Fig. 10.102.

Fig. 10.102
Relative advantages. There are three levels of gates in graph of part (c) and two
levels of gates in part (e) so the time 'cost' of the figure in part (e) is slightly less. For both
circuits, hardware costs are same.
Example 14. Consider the switching circuit
as shown in Fig. 10. 103.
(a) Find the Boolean expression representing
the switching circuit. X�X2
(b) Construct a logic or gate circuit
corresponding to the Boolean expression in Part (a)
(c) Simplify f algebraically
(d) Find the minterm normal form by using
Venn diagram and express it in a circuit gate dia-
gram Fig. 10.103
(e) Interpret the result. (P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2010)
Sol. (a) First portion of the given Fig. 10.103 represents that the switches x, and x2 are
connected in paralleL Therefore, the circuit is Xl + x2•
Second portion of Fig. 10.103 represents that the switches x, and X3 are connected in
parallel therefore, the circuit is Xl + x3•
Now, both the circuits Xl + x2 and Xl + X3 are connected in parallel, it represents
(x, x2) + (x, + x,). Also, the portion on R.H.S. of Fig. 10.103 represents that the switches x,
+
and x2 are connected in series.
Therefore, the Boolean expression is
f(xl ' x2 ' x,) = [(x, + x2) + (x, + x,)] . x, , X2 ... (1)
(b) Since the Boolean expression (1) contains the complement of the variable x2 ' so in
the first step, draw NOT gate.
In the second step, draw an OR gate representing Xl + x2
In the third step, draw an OR gate representing Xl + x3•
432 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
In the fourth step, draw an OR gate representing (x, + X2) + (x, + x,)
In the fifth step, draw an AND gate representing X,. X2
In the sixth step, draw an AND gate representing «x, + x2) + (x, + x,» ,X" X2
The logic or gate circuit of the Boolean expression (1) is shown in Fig. 10.150.

X, --'---,-"----\
x2 --f----i

Fig. 10.104
(c) To simplify [algebrically or minimize the Boolean function (circuit), we employ Boolean
algebra laws.
Here [(x" x2 ' x,) = [(x, + x2) + (x, + x,)l .x,. x2
I Idempotent law
= X1 ·X1 · X2+ X2,X1 , X2 + X3 ·X1· X2 I By distributive law
= Xl X2 + O'XI + X3 ·X1 ·X2 ( -: X" X, = xl ' X2 , X2 = 0)
= X1 , X2 + X3 ·X1 · X2
= X"( X2 + X2·x,) By distributive law
= X" X2 (1 + x,) By distributive law
I Boundedness law
(d) From part (c), the Venn diagram representing [(x" x2) = X" X2 is shown in Fig. 10.105
From this Venn diagram, we find the
minterms.
From the shaded portion I, the minterm is
X1·X2·Xa"
From the shaded portion II, the minterm is
X1·X2·Xa"
The required minterm normal form is

Fig. 10.105
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 433
Also, the circuit (or gate) diagram is shown in Fig. 10.106
X, _
_ ...r
- ,

X, _
_ ...r
- ,

X2
X3
Fig. 10.106
(e) Interpretation. We notice that f(x" x2 ' x,) = 1 when x, = 1, x2 = 0 and X3 = 0 or X3 = 1.
Thus current will b e conducted through the circuit when switch Xl is on) switch x2 is off, and
when switch Xl is either off or on.
Example 15. (a) Write all inputs and outputs from the given Fig. 1 0. 1 07 and show that
its Boolean function is f(xl' X
y
x,) = ((Xl + X2 ) ' X3 ) . (
X
,
+ x2).

Fig. 10.107
(b) Simplify f algebrically. (P.T.D. B.Tech. Dec. 2005)
(c) Find the minterm normal form off by using Venn-diagram.
(d) Draw and compare the circuit (or gate) diagrams ofparts (b) and (c)
(e) Draw the on·off switching diagram of f in part (a)
(j) Write the truth table of the Boolean function f in part (a)
(g) Interpret the result.
Sol. (a) The outputs are shown by the points 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in the following
Fig. 10.108 :

X3 ------'
Fig. 10.108
At Point 1, the output of the OR gate is x, + x2
At Point 2, the output of the AND gate is (x, + x2) • X
3

At Point 3, the output of the NOR gate is (x, + x2 ) · X3

At Point 4, the output of the AND gate is « x, + x2 ) · x3 ) (x, + x2)
•

The required Boolean function is given as f(xl ' x2 ' x,) = (x, + x2 ) . X3 • (x, + x2) ••• (1)
434 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
(b) To simplify of algebraically, we have
[(x" X2 ' x,) = (x, + X2 ) . X3 .(X, + X2)

= [(Xl + X2 ) + X3 ] . (X, + X2) I De Morgan's law

= « X, + X2 ) . (x, + X2» + X3 .(X, + X2)

= 0 + X3 . (x, + X2) I Complement law

= X3 . (x, + X2) Commutative law

= (x, + X2) X3
• ... (2)
(c) To find the minterm normal form, we draw
the Venn diagram of the function [(xl ' x2 ' x,)
= (x, + X2). X3 , which is shown in Fig. 10.109 X,

From the shaded portion I, the minterm is

X1·X2 · Xa
From the shaded portion II, the minterm is
X1·X2 · Xa
From the shaded portion III, the minterm is
X1· X2 · Xa
The required minterm normal form of tis Fig. 10.109
glven as
f(xp x2) x) = X1·X2·Xa + X1 , X2, Xa + X1· X2· Xa
(d) From part (b), [(x" x2 ' x,) = (x, + X2). X3
As it contains the complement of the variables x3) so
In the first step, draw an NOT gate representing X3 .
In the second step) draw an OR gate representing Xl + x2"
In the third step, draw an AND gate representing (x, + X2).X3 •
The circuit or gate diagram of the Boolean function (2) is given in Fig. 10.110.

Fig. 10.110
Also for part (c») the minterm normal form of f(xl , x2 ' x) is given as
f(xp x2) x) = X1· X2 , Xa + X1·X2 · Xa + X1. X2 . Xa ... (1)
To draw the circuit diagram, we proceed as follow.

Xl x2
Since (1) contains the complement of the variables Xl ' x2 ' x3 ' so, in the first step, draw an
OR gate representing " and x3 .
In the second step, draw an AND gate representing xl'x2 ,xa
In the third step, draw an AND gate representing X"X2 . X3
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 435

In the fourth step, draw an AND gate representing X,. X2 . X3

In the fifth step, draw an OR gate representing X1.X2 . Xa + X1 , X2, Xa + X1. X2 . Xa
Therefore, the logic circuit of the Boolean expression (1) is shown in Fig. 10. 1 1 1 .

X,

X2 -t--'-i::::----,

Fig. 10.111
Comparing the two circuits diagrams (Fig. 10. 1 10 and Fig. 1 1 1), we observe that the
circuit diagram shown in Fig. 10. 1 10 is less expensive as it involves less number of gates as
compared to the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 10. 1 1 1 .
(e) The on-off switching diagram off in Part (a) is shown in Fig. 10.112

Fig. 10.112
(f) The truth table of the Boolean function of f in Part (a) is shown below :

Xl X2 X3 Xl + X2 (Xl + X2 ) · X3 f
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0
(g) Interpretation_ Current will flow only when one of the switches x, or x2 is ON and
X3 is OFF.
436 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1 0.7

L Consider the logic circuit as shown in Fig. 10.113. Express the output f as a Boolean expression
in the inputs A, B, C.
�::�:3E=��::l:::�A�N�D))�----'
L�V:::::j�A��N:J I �1
D \r------- r--O R

1 AND J�
Fig. 10.113
2. Express the output f as a Boolean expression in the inputs A, B and C for the logic circuit in the
following figures (Fig. 10.114).

'�
AND
f
B OR

C AND
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.114
3. Determine a Boolean expression for each of the switching circuit given in Fig. 10.115.

[�J-c-1'1---------'
(a)
Fig. 10.115
1'1-----'
(b)

4. Express the output Y as a Boolean expression in the inputs A, B, C for the logic circuit in the
following Fig. 10.116
(b) AB = ---.- -====
- - ---1 -

AN D
C ��=t++ =L����
AND
AND
Fig. 10.116
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 437
5. Express the output Y as a Boolean expression in the inputs A, B and C for the logic circuit in Fig.
10.117 (a) and (b) :
A --.----.----1
B -t-t-t----cL/

c �+------1

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.117
6. Draw the logic circuit L with inputs A, B, C and output Y which corresponds to each Boolean
expression :
(a) Y AB'C + AC' + B'C.
= (b) Y NBC + NBC' + ABC'
=

(P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2013)

7. Draw a logic circuit corresponding to the Boolean expression f(A, B, C) :::: A + B. C + B. Recall that
NOR gate is equivalent to OR gate followed by NOT gate.
8. Draw a logic circuit corresponding to the Boolean expression Y :::: AE + A + C .
9. Show that the logical circuits given in Fig. 10.118 are equivalent :

�
�
x

�
x
Y AND
Y
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.118
10. Show that the logical circuits given in Fig. 10.119 are equivalent :

�-----1�»--'�
x
y
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.119
11. Show that the logical circuits given in Fig. 10.120 are equivalent :

�
x

� B-
x
y
y
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.120
438 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
12. Show that the logical circuits given in Fig. 10.121 are equivalent :

II � 8-
x
x

y t y
AND
(a) (b)

Fig. 10.121
(a) Consider the Booleanfunction/(x1 • x2 , xS' x4) :::: xI + (X2.(XI + x4) + xa . (x2 + x4» . Draw its circuit
(or gate) diagram.
13.

(b) Simplify f algebraically

(c) Draw the switching (on-off) circuit of f and the reduction of f obtained in Part (a)
(d) Draw the circuit (gate) diagram of the reduction of f obtained in (b).

Answers
1. f(A. B. c) = A.B.C + A R C + AB
2. (a) f(A. B) = AB + BC (b) f(A. B) = AB + AC
3. (a) f(A. B. C) = A(B + A).C (b) f(A. B. C) = A(C + Il) + B. C
4. (a) Y = NBC + NC' + BC'; (b) A + B + C + NBC + AB'C'.
5. (a) Y = (AB')' + (N + B + C)' + AC (b) Y = (NBC)' + NBC' + (AB'C)' + AB'C'
6. (a) See Fig. 10.122 (b) Fig. 10.123
AB ---...-..----1
---
AB --.--�><>-f- '
+ +-CX>--1 -..-1f---...+----1 AND
C ----.-+
- --...+-'----1 C -nrt-n-r-----i.-.-/
AND
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 439
13. Fig. 10.126
x, L...j "----"-- >"
X-,- --f-'
__
X4
, :.:
+ ",

X2_-+..L...j :>0----\-

X3 _-+y

X4 ---'----I ::::»----'
Fig. 10.126
1 0.46. SOME SPECIAL CASES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Consider the Boolean algebra {B, EB, *, '} where EB is a binary operation of addition
modulo 2. i.e .•

1 EB 1 = 0, 0 EB 1 = 1 ; 1 EB 0 = 1 , 0 EB 0 = 0
Generally, Xl X2
EB = X1X2 + X1X2 ·

I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES I
Example 1. Using laws of Boolean algebra. prove that xy + xz + yz = xy + (x EB y) z.
Sol. R.H.S. = xy + (x EB y) z
= xy + (xy' + x'y) z
= xy + xy'z + xyz = xy.1 + xy'z + xyz
= xy (1 + z) + :ry'z + xyz 1 1+a= l VaE B
= xy + xyz + xy'z + x'yz
= xy + xz (y + YJ + xyz
= xy + xz. 1 + xyz I Complement law
= xy + xz + xyz
= xy + xyz + xz
= Y (x + x'z) + xz
= y(x + Xl (x + z) + xz I Distributive law
= y.1.(x + z) + xz I Complement law
= yx + yz + xz = xy + xz + yz.
Example 2. Obtain the sum·oi-products canonical form of the Boolean expression

(x, EB x2 J EB (x, EB x3J.

Sol. Here

Consider

I De Morgan's law
440 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
I Involution law

= (x, + X2) (x, + X2 ) (XlX3 . XlX3 ) + ( Xl + X2) + (X, + X2») (X,X3 + X,X3 )
= (X, + X2) (X, + X2 ) (X, + X3) (X, + X3) + (X" X2 + X" X2) (X,X3 + X,X3)

= (Xl + X2) (Xl + X2) (Xl + Xa) + X1·X2 · X1· Xa + X1· X2 · X1· Xa

+ X1, X2 , X1 , Xa + X1· X2 · X1 · Xa I a.a = a \;j a E B

= (XI,XI + X1· X2 + X2 , X 1 + X2 · X2) (Xl + Xa)

+ O + X1. X2 . Xa + X1 . X 2 . Xa + 0 I aa =O VaE B

= (0 + X1· X2 + X1.X2 + 0) (Xl + x) + X1·X2·Xa + X1· X2 · Xa

= (X1·X2 + X1·X2) (Xl + Xa ) + X1· X2 · Xa + X1· X2 · Xa

= Xl ' X2 . Xl + Xl . X2 . Xa + Xl . X2 . Xl + Xl . X2 . Xa + Xl . X2 . Xa + Xl . X2 . :fa
= 0 + X1· X2 · Xa + X1,X2 + X1·X2 · Xa + X1, X2 , Xa + X1. X2 . Xa
= X1, X2 , Xa + X1·X2 ( 1 + xa) + X1·X2 · Xa + X1· X2 · Xa

= X1, X2 , Xa + X1, X2 + X1·X2 · Xa + X1· X2 · X3 ) is the required expression.

Example 3. Minimize the Boolean expression f(x, y) = xy EB :>y' EB xy'.
(P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2006)
Sol. We use Karnaugh map to minimize the given Boolean expression
f(x, y) = :>y EB xy' EB xy'
The K-map for two variables is shown in Fig. 10.127
Enter Is in the cells corresponding to the terms X)' ) xy' and 1
xy' and Os elsewhere. Y y'
All the Is can be looped (or combined) as shown in the figure. x 1 1
Corresponding to loop (1), the variable y appears in comple­ 2
mented and uncomplemented form and x remains unchanged.
X' 1
Therefore) the prime implicant is x
Fig. 10.127
Similarly, corresponding to loop (2), the variable appears
in complemented and uncomplemented form and y' remains unchanged.
The prime implicant is y'.
The required minimal Boolean expression is
X
f(x, y) = EB y'
Example 4. Minimize the Boolean expression
f (x, y) = xy EB xy EB xy'. (P.T.V. B. Tech. May 2007)
SoL Proceed yourself as in example 3(above). Ans. f(x, y) = x EB y
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 441
Example 5. Minimize the Boolean expression
f(x, y, z) = xy'z EB xyz' EB xyz' (P.T.V. B. Tech. Dec. 2007)
Sol. We use Karnaugh map of three variables to minimize the given Boolean expression
f(x, y, z) = xy'z EB xyz' EB xyz'
The K-map for three variables x, y, z is shown in Fig. 10.128
Enter Is in the cells corresponding to the terms x'y'z ; x'yzl ; xyzl and Os elsewhere.
All the three Is can be looped (or combined) as yz yz' y'z' y'z
1
shown in the figure. The two Is are vertically adjacent
and one Is in isolated square. x 0 o o
Corresponding to loop (1), the variable x appears xC 0 1
in complemented and uncomplemented form and y) z'
remains unchanged i.e., y) z' appear in the two squares.
Therefore) the prime implicant is yz� Fig. 10.128
Also the prime implicant corresponding to loop
(2) is xy'z. Hence, the minimal form is
f(x, y, z) = yz' EB xy'z.
Example 6. Minimize the following Boolean expression,
f(x, y, z, t) = y'z' EB xy' EB zt'
Sol. Given Boolean expression is
f(x, y, z, t) = y'z' EB xy' EB zt' ... (1)
We first express (1) in complete-sum-of-products form
Consider y'z' = (x + Xl y'z' (t + t')
= (xt + xt' + xt + xt') y'z'
= xy'z't + xy'z't' + x'y'z't + x'y'z'(' ... (2)
xy' = xy' (z + Z! (t + t')
= xy' (zt + zt' + z't + z't')
= x'y'zt + x'y'z(' + x'y'zt + x'y'z'(' ... (3)
zt' = (x + Xl (y + y! zt'
= (xy + xy' + xy + xy! zt'
= xyzt' + xy'zt' + x'yzt' + x'y'z(' ... (4)
Now, the K-map for the variables x, y, z, t is given in Fig. 10.129.
Enter Is in the cells corresponding to the terms zt zt' z't' z't
y'z' as
given in (2») x'y' as given in (3») and zt' as given
xy 0 '1 0 0
xy,
in (4),
and Os elsewhere. All the Is can be looped (or
1 1
�2
combined) as shown in the figure. 0 I t--
x'y, ( 1 1 1 1
Corresponding to loop (1), the variables x and y'
appear in complemented and uncomplemented form where
as z,t' remains unchanged. Therefore, the prime implicant
x'y
is zt'
0
� 0 0
Corresponding to loop (2), the variables z and t'
appear in complemented and uncomplemented form where
CD
as x', y' remains unchanged. Therefore, the prime Fig. 10.129
implicant is x'y'.
Corresponding to loop (3), the variables x and t appear in complemented and
uncomplement form where as y', z' remains unchanged. Therefore, the prime implicant is y'z'.
The required minimize Boolean expression is f(x, y, z, t) = zt' EB x'y' EB y'z'.
442 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 7. Minimize the Boolean function L m (2, 3, 4, 7, 10, I I, 12, 15).
Sol. Here, the greatest term is 15. Therefore, total number of variables for K-map is
24 = 1 6 I N = 2' for n = 4, N = 1 5
Let f(A, B , C, D) b e the required Boolean expression. Take A, B along vertical axes and
C, D along horizontal axes as shown in Fig. 10.130.

CD CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10
AB 00 0 1 3 2
AB 01 4 5 7 6
AB 11 12 13 15 14
AB 10 8 9 11 10
Fig. 10.130
Enter 1s in the cells corresponding to the terms in the given expression (Fig. 10.131)

CD CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 11
AB 00 0 1
1
3
AB 01 1 1
4 5 7
3 AB 11 1 1
12 13 15
1 1
AB 10 8 9 11

Fig. 10.131
Corresponding to loop (1), all the four 1s are vertically adjacent. The variables A and B
appear in complemented and uncomplemented form whereas the variables C) D remains un­
changed. Therefore, the prime implicant is CD.
Corresponding to loop (2), all the four 1s in the top and bottom row are considered to be
adjacent. The variables A and D appear in complemented and uncomplemented form whereas
the variables B and C remains unchanged.

The prime implicant is B C

Corresponding to loop (3), the variable A appears in complemented and uncomplemented
form whereas B) C , D remain unchanged. Therefore, the prime implicant is B C D .
The required minimize Boolean expression is
- --

f(A, B, C, D) = CD + BC + B C D .
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 443
Example 8. Minimize the following switching function
L m (0, 2, 8, 1 2, 13).
Sol. The largest term is 13, therefore, total number of variables
= 16 (N = 2', n = 4, N = 13)
Let f(A, B, C, D) be the required Boolean expression. The K-map for the variables A, B,
C, D is shown in Fig. 10.132.

C D CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10
AB 00 1 0 1 3
1
3
AB 01 4 5 7 6
AB 11 1 12 1 13 2 1 5 14
AB 10 1 8 1 9 11 10
Fig. 10.132
Corresponding to loop (1), the variable B appears in complemented and uncomplemented
form whereas the variables A) C ) D remains unchanged. Therefore) the prime implicant is
ACD.
Corresponding to loop (2), the prime implicant is AB C .

Corresponding to loop (3), the prime implicant is A B D

The required minimizing Boolean expression is
f(A, B, C, D) = A C D + ABC + A B D .

I TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1 0.8

L Minimize the following Boolean expressions

( ) fl (x, y, z) xyz Ell xyz Ell x'yz' Ell x'y'z
, =

(ii) f2(x, y, z) ::: xyz EB xyz' EB xy'z EB x'yz EB x'y'z.

2. Minimize the following switching functions
(i) L (1, 2, 3, 13, 15)
m
(ii) L (1, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 15)
m (P.T. U., B.Tech. Dec. 2007)
(iii) L (O, 2, 10, 11, 12, 14)
m (P.T. U., B.Tech. May 2007)
3. Design a three-input minimal AND-OR circuit with the following truth table
T {A, B, C; L} {OOOO, 1111, 0011, 0010, 0101, 0001, 1001, 11m} (P.T. U., B.Tech. May 2013)
= =

Answers
1. Ell yz Ell x'y'z
(i) fl(x, y, z) = xy (ii) f2(x, y, z) z Ell xy=

2. (ii) f(A, B, C, D) BD + AeD ABC + ACD + ABD

= +

(iii) f(A, B, C, D) ABD ABD ABC

= + +
444 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Hints
1. (i) The K-map is given in Fig. 10.133.
yz yz' y'z' y'z yz yz y'z' y·z

I I I tr::I
1
)
Fig. 10.133 Fig. 10.134
(iL) The K-map is given in Fig. 10. 134.
2. (i) The K-map is given in Fig. 10.135. (ii) The K-map in Fig. 10.136.
-- - -
- - - -
CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD
AB 00 0 11 1 0 AB 00 0 1 11 1 0
AB 0 0 1 1 2 AB 00 1) (1
1 2
4 r- 5 II 7
0 3 0 3
AB 0 1 1 1 6 AB 01 5 7 6
4
1 )12 1 5 (1 14
AB 1 1 1 12 111 3 "T 1 5 14 AB l l 13
(1
11 1) 10
- 1 -

AB 1 0 8 9 11 10 AB 10 8 9
Fig. 10.135 Fig. 10.136
3. See Fig. 10. 137(a) and 10.137(b)
CD ciS CD C A ---.-IDo----1
AB
J) if0 1'--' B -....-+1
.. Do----1
AB 1
y
AB CI 1 1 1 C -IDO--+--'"
AB
'0 D ----+-----1
Fig. 10.137 (a) Fig. 10.137(b)

I MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)

1. The simultaneous equations on the Boolean variables x, y, z and w

x+y +z= l ; xy = 0 ;
xz + w =1; .xy
+ zw = 0 ;
w
have the following solution for x, y, z and respectively.
(a) 0 1 0 0 (b) 1 1 0 1
(c) 1 0 1 1 (d) 1 0 0 0.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 445
2. What values of A, B, C and D satisfy the following simultaneous Boolean equations ?
A + AB = 0, AB = AC, AB + AC + CD = CD
(a) A = 1, B = 0, C = 0, D = 1
(c) A = 1, B = 0, C = 1, D = 1
(b) A = 1, B = 1, C = 0, D =0
(d) A = 1, B = 0, C = 0, D = O.

(a) S is replaced by :>

3. Principal of duality is defined as

(c) All properties not altered when S is replaced by :>

(b) LUB becomes GLB

(d) All properties not altered when S is replaced by :> other than 0 and 1 element.
4. The Boolean function x y + y + xy is equivalent to
(a) x + y (b) x + y
(c) x + y (d) x + y.
5. The logic expression for the output of the circuit shown in the figure below is :

A
B
c ..------1

D -------1

(a) AB C + CD (b) ABC + CD

(c) ABC + C D (d) A B + C D .

6. The Boolean expression A + BC equals

(a) (A + B) (A + C) (b) (A + B) (A + C)

(c) (A + B) (A + C) (d) None of the above.

7. After minimization of Boolean expression, Y = AC + AB + ABC + BC , we get

(a) A . B + C (b) AB + C
(c) AB + BC (d) None of the above.
8.
(a) 1
How many truth tables can be made from one function table
(b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 8.
9.
(a) AND function of several OR functions
The term sum·of·product in Boolean algebra means

(b)
(c)
OR function of several AND functions
AND function of several AND functions

10.
(d) OR function of several OR functions.

Simplifying Boolean expression Y = A B C D + A B C D , we get

(a) ABC (b) ABC

(c) A + BCD (d) AB + CD.
446 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Answers and Explanations
1. (c) Take x = 1, Y = 0, z = 1, = 1, then
w

(i) x + y + z = 1 + 0 + 1 = 1
(ii) xy = 1.0 = 0
(iii) xz + = 1.1 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 1
w
- - - -
(iv) xy + zw = 1.0 + (1.1) = 0 + ( 1 + 1 ) = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0
2. (a) 3. (c)
4. (d) Given expression is x y + y + xy
= x y + xy + y
= x(y + y) + y
= x + y. I y +y = l
5. (a) Given figure is shown below :

A
B
c -----1

0 -------1
The output at the point 1 AB
is

The output at the point 2 is A B C

The output at the point 3 is CD
The output at the point 4 is A B C + CD.
- - -
6. (a) Using distributive law, (A + B) (A + C) = A + BC.
7. (a) Given expression is
A C + A B + AE C + BC = A C (B + E) + A B(C + c) + AE C + (A + A) BC
= ACB + ACE + ABC + ABC + AB C + ABC + ABC
= ABC + AC (B + B) + ABC + AC(B + B)
= A BC + A C + ABC + AC I A CB + A BC = A BC, B + E = 1
= A BC + ABC + (A + A)C
= A BC + ABC + C = A B (C + C) + C I A+ A = l
= A B + C.
8. (b) 9. (b)
10. (b) Given expression is
 11 G RAP H S

1 1 . 1 . INTRODUCTION
In many problems dealing with discrete objects and binary relations) a graphical repre­
sentation of the objects and the binary relations on them is a very convenient form of repre­
sentation. This leads us naturally to a study of the theory of graphs.

1 1 .2. BASIC TERMINOLOGY

The graphs consist of points or nodes called vertices which are connected to each other
by way of lines called edges. These lines may be directed or undirected.

1 1 .3. DIRECTED GRAPH (P.T.U., B.Tech. Dec. 2013, Dec. 2006, May 2005)
A directed graph is defined as an ordered pair (V, E) where V is a set and E is a binary
relation on V. A directed graph can be represented geometrically as a set of marked points V
with a set of arrows E between pairs of points. Also
The elements in V are called vertices.
The ordered pairs in E are called edges.
For e.g., consider the Fig. 11.1 given below. It is a directed graph.
a

Directed graph
b
o Loop

Fig. 11.1 Fig. 11.2

Here, the vertices are a, b, d and the edges are (a, b), (b, a), (b, d), (d, a).
An edge is said to be incident with the vertices it joins. For example, the edge (a, b) is
incident with the vertices a and b. Also, we say that the edge (a, b) is incident from vertex a
and incident into vertex b.
447
448 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
The vertex a is called the initial vertex and the vertex b is called the terminal vertex
of the edge (a, b).
An edge that is incident from and into the same vertex is called a loop or self-loop.
(Fig. 1 1 .2).
Degree of a self-loop is two as it is twice incident on a vertex.
Corresponding to an edge (a, b), the vertex a is said to be adja­
cent to the vertex b and the vertex b is said to be adjacent from the
vertex a.
b
A vertex is said to be an isolated vertex if there is no edge inci­
dent with it.
For example, consider the following graph (Fig. 1 1 .3)
The vertex 'a' has a self-loop. . . deg a = 4 d '*'- _�,c
___

The vertex 'b' is a Pendent vertex since only one edge is inci­
dent on it. Fig. 11.3
The vertex 'e' is an isolated vertex as it has no edge incident on it. Also deg e = O.

1 1 .4. (a) UNDIRECTED GRAPHS

An undirected graph G consists of a set of vertices, V and a set of edges E. The edge set
contains the unordered pair of vertices. If (u, v) E E then we say u and v are connected by an
edge where u and v are vertices in the set V.
For example, let V = {I, 2, 3, 4} and E = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (3, 4), (2, 3)}. Draw the graph.
The graph can be drawn in several ways.
Two of which are as follows (Fig. 1 1.4 and Fig. 1 1 .5). These are directed graphs

2}--_--{

3}--___----{4
Fig. 11.4 Fig. 11.5
Consider the graph shown in Fig. 1 1 . 6 Determine the edge set and the vertex set of this
undirected graph.
2

3
Fig. 11.6
GRAPHS 449

The edge set is E = {(I, 2), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}
The vertex set is V = {I, 2, 3, 4}.

1 1 .4. (b) MIXED GRAPH

A graph G = [V, E] in which some edges are directed and some

are undirected is called a mixed graph. The graph shown in Fig. 1 1 . 7 is
a mixed graph.

1 1 .4. (e) FINITE GRAPH b c

A graph G = [V, E] is said to be finite if V and E are finite sets. Fig. 11.7
1 1 .4. (d) LINEAR GRAPH

A graph G = (V, E) is said to be a linear graph if its edges joining vertices lie along a line.
For example) •--• ..-- ...
. .
..-
- ...
. .
0--... . is a linear graph.

1 1 .4. (e) DISCRETE OR NULL GRAPH

A graph containing only vertices and no edge is called a discrete or null graph. The
set E of edges in a graph G = [V, E] is empty in a discrete graph. Also each vertex in a discrete
graph is an isolated vertex.

1 1 .5. SIMPLE GRAPH

(P.T.U., B.Tech. Dec. 2006, May 2005 ; M.G.A. May 2007, Dec. 2005, May 2013)
A simple graph is one for which there is no more one edge directed from any one vertex
to any other vertex. All other graphs are called multigraphs. (see Figs. 1 1 .8, 1 1 .9)

A . , D
A D
·4 .,

. , ·3

B ., c Br:== . :: 7C(
::: ::::;:,==
Simple graph Multigraph
Fig. 11.8 Fig. 11.9
In Fig. 1 1 .9, the edges e4 and e5 are called multi edges.
1 1 .6. COMPLEMENT GRAPH
The complement of a graph is defined to be a graph which has the same number of
vertices as in graph G and has two vertices connected iff they are not connected in the graph G.
450 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
1 1 .7. (a) DEGREE (P.T. U., B.Tech. Dec. 2006, May 2005)
Let v be a vertex of an undirected graph. The degree of v, denoted by d(v), is the number
of edges that connect v to the other vertices in the graph. The degree of a graph cannot be
negative.

1 1 .7. (b) INDEGREE AND OUTDEGREE (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2005)

If v is a vertex of a directed graph, then the outdegree of v,
denoted by outless (v), is the number of edges of the graph that initiate
v. The indegree of v, denoted by indeg(v), is the number of edges that
terminate at v. For e.g., consider the graph shown in Fig. 1 1 . 10. The
degrees of A) B) C) D are 3) 3) 5) and 3 respectively.

Multigraph

1 1 .8. SOURCE AND SINK

Fig. 11.10
A vertex with indegree 0 is called a source and a vertex with
outdegree a is called a sink.
For example, consider the graph shown in Fig. 1 1 . 1 1 . Here u4 is a
sink.
For example, consider the graph shown below (Fig. 1 1 . 12) Fig. 11.11
The graph shown in Fig. 1 1 .12 has 7 edges.
Indegree of 'a' = 3, Indegree of 'b' = 2;
Indegree of 'c' = 1 , Indegree of 'd' = 1
Also, outdegree of 'a' = 1 , outdegree of 'b' = 3
outdegree of 'c' = 0, . . c is a sink.
outdegree of 'd' = 3.
d c
1 1 .9. EVEN AND ODD VERTEX
Fig. 11.12
A vertex is said to be even vertex if its degree is an even
number. A D
A vertex is said to be an odd vertex if its degree is an
odd number.
For example, consider the graph, as shown in Fig. 1 1 . 13.
The vertices A and D are even vertices since deg(A) = 2, 81
deg(D) = 2
The vertices B and C are odd vertices since deg(B) = 3,
deg(C) = 3
A vertex of degree zero is called isolated vertex.
A vertex with degree one is called a pendent vertex. The
only edge which is incident with a pendent vertex is called the Fig. 11.13
pendent edge.
GRAPHS 45 1

1 1 . 1 0. ADJACENT VERTICES
Two vertices are called adjacent if they are connected by an edge. If there is an edge
(ep e2») then we say that vertex e 1 is adjacent to vertex e2 and vertex e2 is adjacent to vertex e 1 .
Theorem I. Show that the sum of degree of all the vertices in a graph G, is even.
Proof. Each edge contribute two degrees in a graph. Also, each edge contributes one
degree to each of the vertices on which it is incident.
Hence) if there are N edges in G) then we have
2N = d(v,) + d(v ) + ...... + d(v N)
Thus) 2N is always even.
Another statement. The sum of the degrees of the vertices of a graph G is equal to
twice the number of edges in G.
Theorem II. Prove that in any graph, there are an even number of vertices of odd de-
gree. (P.T.V., M.e.A. Dec. 2005, B.Tech. Dec. 2012)
Proof. Consider a graph having vertices of degree even and odd. Now) make two groups
of vertices. One with even degree of vertices vp v 2) ... ) v k and other with odd degree of vertices
up u2 ) ... , un '
Suppose,
d(v,) + d(v) + ... + d(v k)
v=
V = d(u,) + d(u) + ... + d(un).
Now, we know that sum of degree of all the vertices is even (Theorem I). So, V + V is
even.
Since, V is the sum of K even numbers. Hence, it is even. But U is the sum of n odd
numbers. So, to be U an even number, n must be even. Hence proved.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES I
Example 1. Verify that the sum of the degree of all the vertices is even for the graph
shown in Fig. 11. 14.

v, V2 V3

Fig. 11.14
452 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. The sum of degree of all the vertices is
= d(v,) + d(v ) + d(v ) + d(v4) + d(v 5) + d(v,) + d(v7) + d(vs)
= 2 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 2 + 2 = 22, which is even.
Example 2. Verify that there are an even number of vertices of odd degree in the graph
shown in Fig. 11. 15.

b c

a d
e

9 h

Fig. 11.15
Sol. The number of vertices of degree odd are 8 and each have degree three in the above
graph. Hence) we have even number of vertices of odd degree.

1 1 . 1 1 . PATH IN A GRAPH
Apath of length n is a sequence of n + 1 vertices of a graph in which each pair of vertices
is an edge of the graph.
1. A Simple Path
The path is called simple one if no edge is repeated in the path i.e., all the vertices are
distinct except that first vertex equal to last vertex.
2.
An Elementary Path. The path is called elementary one if no vertex is repeated in
the path i.e., all the vertices are distinct.
3. Circuit or Closed Path
The circuit or closed path is a path which starts and ends at the same vertex i.e., v 0 = v n 0
4.Simple Circuit Path. The simple circuit is a simple path which is a circuit.
Theorem III (a). Suppose a graph G contains two distinct paths from a vertex u to a
vertex v. Show that G has a cycle.
Proof. Consider two distinct paths from u to v be PI = (ep e2) e3) ...... ) en) and P2 = (e/)
e2') e3') ...... ) en')'
Now delete from the paths P , and P2 all the initial edges which are identical i.e., of we
have e 1 = e l ') e2 = e2') e3 = e3') ...... , ek = ek' but ek 1 t:- e'k l ' We will delete all the first k edges of
+ +

both the paths P, and P2 .

Now, after deleting the k edges both the paths start from the same vertex, (let u ,) and
end at v.
Now, to construct a cycle, start from vertex u, and follow the left over path ofP 1 until we
first meet any vertex of the left over path of P2 '
If this vertex is u2' then the remaining cycle is computed by following the left over path
of P2 which starts from u2 and ends at v.
GRAPHS 453
Theorem III (b). If a graph has n vertices and vertex v is connected to vertex w, then
there exists a path from v to w af length no more than n.
Proof. We prove this theorem by method of contradiction. Let us assume that v is
connected to w) and the shortest path from v to w has length m) where m is greater than n.
We know that, a vertex list for a path of length m will have m + 1 vertices. This path can
be represented as v O ) v I ' v2 ... v ) where va = v and v = w.
m m
Now since there are only n distinct vertices and m vertices are listed in the path after v O )
thus there must be same duplicated vertices in the last m vertices of the vertex list) that
represents a circuit in the path. Thus our assumption is not true and the minimum path
length can be reduced) which is a contradiction.

Example 3. Consider the graph shown in Fig. 11.16. Give an example of the following :
(i) A simple path from Vi to Ve ' V,
(ii) An elementary path from Vi to Ve '
(iii) A simple path which is not elementary from Vi to Ve '
(iv) A path which is not simple and starting from V2. �--+--� V2 V3
(v) A simple circuit starting from Vi '
(vi) A circuit which is not simple and starting from V2.
Sol. (i) A simple path from V, to VB is
V I ' v2 ) V3 ) V4) V5) V6 '
(ii) An elementary path from V, to VB is
V I ' V2 ) V3 ) V5) V4) V6 ,
(iii) A simple path which is not elementary from V, to VB is
V I ' V2 , V3 ) V5) V2 ) V4) V6 ,
(iv) A path which is not simple and starting from V2 is
V2 ) V3 ) V4) V5) V3 ) V4) V6 ,
(v) A simple circuit starting from V , is
Fig. 11.16
V I ' V2 , V4) V6 ) V5) V3 ) VI '
(vi) A circuit which is not simple and starting from V2 is
V2 , V3 ) V I ' V2 ) V5) V4) V2 ·
Example 4. Consider the graph shown in Fig. 11.17. Give an example of the following :
(i) An elementary path (ii) A simple path
(iii) A path which is not simple (iv) A simple path which is not elementary
(v) A simple circuit (vi) A circuit which is not simple.

a b c

d e
Fig. 11.17
454 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. There are many solutions to the above problems, but we will take only one for each.
(i) An elementary path is a, b, c, f, e, d.
(ii) A simple path is a, f, e, b, d.
(iii) A path which is not simple is a, b, e, e b, d.
(iv) A simple path which is not elementary is a, b, e, f, c, b, d.
(v) A simple circuit is a, b, c, f, a.
(vi) A circuit which is not simple is a, b, e, f, c, b, d, a.
Example 5. Consider the graph as shown in
Fig. 1 1 .18. V2
Determine the following :
(i) Pendent vertices
(ii) Pendent edges
(iii) Odd vertices
(iv) Even vertices
(v) Incident edges
(vi) Adjacent vertices.
Sol. (i) The vertex V5 is the pendent vertex. V3
(ii) The edge (V4 ' V5) or e5 is the pendent edge.
Fig. 11.18
(iii) The vertices V3 and V5 are odd vertices.
(iv) The vertices V V2 and V4 are even vertices.
F

(v) The edge e , is incident on V, and V2 . The edge e2 is incident on V, and V3 .

The edge e3 is incident on V2 and V3 . The edge e4 is incident on V3 and V4'
The edge e5 is incident on V4 and V5.
(vi) The vertex V, is adjacent to V2 and V3 . The vertex V2 is adjacent to V , and V3 .
The vertex V3 is adjacent to V, and V4' The vertex V4 is adjacent to V3 and V5.
The vertex V5 is adjacent to V4'

Example 6. Consider the graph G shown in Fig. 11. 19. Find the complement of this
graph.
V2
v,

L_---3-;;V
Fig. 11.19
Sol. The complement of above graph is shown in Fig. 1 1.20. Here, we consider a com·
4
plete graph of vertices and then delete the edges that are in G from the complete graph. The
remaining graph is the complemented graph.
GRAPHS 455
v,

Fig. 11.20 Complement of Graph G.

1 1 . 1 2. UNDIRECTED COMPLETE GRAPH (P.T. U., B.Tech. May 2013)
An undirected complete graph G = (V, E) of n vertices is a graph in which each vertex is
connected to every other vertex i.e., and edge exists between every pair of distinct vertices. It
is denoted by Kn' A complete graph with n vertices will have n(n 1)/2 edges.
-

The complete graph kn for n= 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6 are shown below:

k,
6 3

Example 7. Draw undirected complete graphs K4 and K6 .

Sol. The undirected complete graph of K4 is shown in Fig. 1 1.21 and that of K6 is shown
in Fig. 1 1.22.
v, V2
v, (,<-------»v2

V3 ��--�-'V--�---_+---3* 4

Fig. 11.21. K4 Fig. 11.22. K6

456 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 8. Draw the undirected graphs K3 and K5.
Sol. Undirected graphs K3 and Ks are shown in Figs. 1 1.23 and 1 1.24.

--
V2 .....--- - V3 .,...---vs
Fig. 11.23. K3 Fig. 11.24. Ks

1 1 . 1 3. CONNECTED GRAPH (P.T. U., B.Tech. Dec. 2006)

A graph is called connected if there is a path from any vertex u to v or vice-versa.

1 1 . 1 4. DISCONNECTED GRAPH

A graph is called disconnected if there is no path between any two of its vertices.

1 1 . 1 5. CONNECTED COMPONENT

A subgraph of graph G is called the connected component of G, if it is not contained in

any bigger subgraph of G, which is connected. It is defined by listing its vertices.

Example 9. Consider the graph shown in Fig. 11.25. Determine its connected components.

Fig. 11.25
Sol. The connected components of this graph is {a, b, c}, {d, e, fl, {g, h, i} and {j}.
Example 10. Consider the graphs shown in Figs. 11.26, 1 1.27 and 1 1.28. Determine
whether the graphs are (a) Connected graphs or (b) Disconnected graphs.
Also write their connected components.
GRAPHS 457
Vs
v,
Vs
Vs V6 9
Vs V7
V3 V4 v" V2
Vs
Fig. 11.26 Fig. 11.27 Fig. 11.28
Sol. (i) The graph shown in Fig. 1 1 .26 is a disconnected graph and its connected compo­
nents are
{VI ' V2 , V3 , V4}, {V5' VB' V7 , V8} and {Vg , V l Q}'
(ii) The graph shown in Fig. 1 1.27 is a disconnected graph and its connected compo­
nents are
(VI ' V) , {V3' V4}, {V5' VB}, {V7 ' V8}, {Vg , Vl Q}
and(VIl ' V,),
(iii) The graph shown in Fig. 1 1.28 is a connected graph.
Theorem IV. Let G be a connected graph with at least two vertices. If the number of
edges in G is less than the number of vertices, then prove that G has a vertex of degree 1.
Proof. Let G be a connected graph with n :> 2 vertices. Because graph G is connected, G
has no isolated vertices. Suppose G has no vertex of degree 1 . Then the degree of each vertex
is at least 2. This implies that the sum of the degrees of vertices of G is at least 2n. Hence, it
follows that the number of edges is at least n (': the sum of the degrees of vertices in any
graph is twice the number of edges), which is a contradiction. This implies that G contains at
least one vertex of degree 1.

1 1 . 1 6. SUBGRAPH (P.T. U., B.Tech. Dec. 2006, Dec. 2013)

A subgraph of a graph G = (V, E) is a graph G' = (V', E') in which V' c V and E' c E and
each edge of G' has the same end vertices in G' as in graph G.
Note. A single vertex is a subgraph.
Example 11. Consider the graph G shown in Fig. 11.29. Show the different subgraphs
of this graph.
B
A�-------+--� C

F �-------+--� D

E
Fig. 11.29
458 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. The following are all subgraphs of the above graph (shown in Figs. 1 1 .30, 1 1 . 3 1 ,
1 1 .32, 1 1 .33). There may b e another subgraphs o f this graph.

B A.-------� C

A C F �------_e D

Fig. 11.30 Fig. 11.31

B B
A C A C

F D D

E E

Fig. 11.32 Fig. 11.33

Example 12. Consider the directed graph as shown in Fig. 11.34. Show the four differ­
ent subgraphs of this graph having at least four vertices.

Fig. 11.34
Sol. The four subgraphs of the directed graph are shown in Figs. 1 1.35, 1 1 .36, 1 1 .37
and 1 1 .38. There may be another sub graphs of this graph.
GRAPHS 459

� __�
__�__
____ V2 V2

V3
Fig. 11.35 Fig. 11.36
v, V2 .V�' __
__ ��__
__ �V2

V3 V3
Fig. 11.37 Fig. 11.38
Exrunple 13. Consider the multigraph shown in Fig. 11.39. Show two different subgraphs
of this multigraph which are itself multigraphs.
a

Fig. 11.39
Sol. The two different subgraphs of this multigraph which are itself multigraphs are
shown in Figs. 1 1.40 and 1 1.41. There may be another sub graphs of this multigraph.

a b a

d c
Fig. 11.40 Fig. 11.41
460 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
1 1 . 1 7. (a) SPANNING SUBGRAPH
A graph G, = (V 1" E ,) is called a spanning subgraph of G = (V. E) if G, contains all the
vertices of G and E '" E , .
For example : The Fig. 1 1.42 is the spanning subgraph of the graph shown in Fig. 1 1 .29.
B

A C

F D
E
Fig. 11.42. Spanning Subgraph.
1 1 . 1 7. (b) COMPLEMENT OF A GRAPH

E) be a given graph. A graph G = (V, E) is said to be com­

D
Let G = (V,
plement of G = (V, E) If V = V and E does not contain edges of E. i.e., edges in
E are join of those pairs of vertices which are not joined in G.
Consider the graph shown in Fig. 1 1 .43.
The complement graph is shown in Fig. 1 1 .44 . Fig. 11.43
Note that a graph and its complement graph have same vertices.

then
If a graph G has n vertices and K" is a complete graph with n vertices,
x
Fig.
11.44
Consider K4• Then

X G
�-D G

Consider K6 . Then

G G
GRAPHS 461

1 1 . 1 7. (e) COMPLEMENT OF A SUBGRAPH

Let G = (V. E) be a graph and S be a subgraph of G. If edges of S be deleted from the
graph G, the graph so obtained is complement of subgraph S. It is denoted by S .

� A
S =G-S

Consider the graph and its sub graph Then the complement of

subgraph S is

Note that in a complement of a sub graph, the number of vertices donot change.

1 1 . 1 8. (a) CUT SET

Consider a connected graph G = (V, E). A cut set for G is a smallest set of edges such
that removal of the set, disconnects the graph whereas the removal of any proper subset of
this set, left a connected sub graph.

For example, consider the graph shown in Fig. 11.45. We determine the cut set for this
graph.
V2

V3

v,

Fig. 11.45
For this graph, the edge set {(VI V5), (V7' V5)} is a cut set. After the removal of this set,
'
we have left with a disconnected subgraph. While after the removal of any of its proper subset,
we have left with a connected subgraph.

1 1 . 1 8. (b) CUT POINTS OR CUT VERTICES

Consider a graph G = (V, E). A cut point for a graph G, is a vertex v such that G-v has
more connected components than G or disconnected.
The subgraph G-v is obtained by deleting the vertex v from the graph G and also delet­
ing all the edges incident on v.
462 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
1 1 . 1 9. EDGE CONNECTIVITY
Let G =
(V. E) be a connected graph. then cardinality of cut set of G is called edge
connectivity of graph G.
The edge connectivity of a connected graph cannot be more than the smallest degree of
a vertex in the graph. It is denoted as Jc(G)
Vertex connectivity
Let G be a connected graph. Vertex connectivity of a graph is the least number of verti­
ces whose removal disconnects the graph. It is written as K(G) and is given by
K(G) =n-1
for a complete graph with n vertices
For example, we find edge and vertex connectivity of following graphs (Figs. 1 1.46, 1 1 .47)
2

N=?I
b
(i) (ii)
3 4

Fig. 11.46 Fig. 11.47

In Fig. 1 1.47, removal of vertices 1, 2, 6 disconnects the graph while removal of any two
vertices does not.
o . vertex connectivity is 3.
It is a 3-regular graph. Only all edges incident on a vertex will disconnect it.
o . edge connectivity is also 3.
In Fig. 1 1 .48, edge and vertex connectivity is 4.
Theorem V. Prove that a simple graph with k-components and n vertices can have at
th e most 0f (n k) (n k + 1) edges.
- -
(P.T.V., M.e.A. Dec. 2006)
2
Proof. Let the number of vertices in each of the k-components of a simple graph G be
nl ' n2, . . . . . . , nk" Then
k
L ni = n , where ni ;:::: 1
i= l

We know that maximum number of edge in the i component of G = ni(ni2 - 1)

k
Maximum number of edges in a graph less G =�
L.,; n! (n!
2
- 1)
i= l

... (1)
GRAPHS 463
Now) we prove that
k
L ni2 S n2 - (k - 1)(2n - k)
i=l
k k
Since L n; = n ==> L ni2 - k = n - k
i=l i=l
k
L (ni - 1) = n - k, squaring both sides
i=l
=> [(n, - 1) + (n2 - 1) + ...... + (nk - 1)] 2 = (n - k) 2
=> (n, - 1) 2 + (n2 - 1) 2 + ...... + (nk - 1)2 + 2[n , - 1 ) (n2 - 1) + ...... + (nk - 1)] = (n - k) 2
=> n , 2 + n22 + ...... + nk2 - 2(n , + n2 + ...... + nk) + k + Non-negative terms = (n _ k) 2
k k
2
L ni - 2 L ni + k + Non-negative terms = (n - k)2
i=l i=l
k
L n; - 2n + k + Non-negative terms = n2 + k2 - 2nk
i=l
k
L n; + Non-negative terms = n2 + k2 - 2kn + 2n - k
i=l
= n2 - 2n(k - 1)(2n - k) - n
k
L nf S n2 - (k - 1)(2n - k)
i=l
From (1), we have
Maximum number of edges in the graph G.

= � [n2 - (k - 1)(2n - k) - n]
1 2
= -[n - 2nk + k2 + n - k]
2

= .2!.[(n - k)2 + (n - k)] = .2!.(n - k)(n - k + 1)

Hence the theorem.
Example 14. Give an example of a graph with six vertices that has exactly two cut
points.
Sol. The graph with exactly two cut points is shown in Fig. 1 1 .48.
464 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
a b

c
e
Fig. 11.48
The two cut points in this graph are c and d. The other vertices are not cut points since
removal of them does not divide the graph into more than one connected component.

Example 15. Give an example of a graph with six vertices that has no cut points.
Sol. The graph with no cut points is shown in Fig. 1 1.49. This graph does not contain
any cut point since removal of any vertex and the edges incident on it does not divide it into
more than one connected components.

a b

Fig. 11.49

Example 16. Consider the graph shown in Fig. 11.50. Determine the subgraphs
(i) G - v 1 (ii) G - v3 (iii) G - v5'

V, "'-------71 V2

V 3 "-
_ ______ -"V4

Fig. 11.50
Sol. (i) The subgraph G-V, is shown in Fig. 1 1.51.
(ii) The sub graph G-v3 is as shown in Fig. 1 1.52.
(iii) The sub graph G-V5 is as shown in Fig. 1 1.53.
GRAPHS 465

v,ec------" v2 v, .------. v2

V3�------� v, v3 __--------------------_e v,

Fig. 1 1.51 Fig. 11.52 Fig. 11.53

Exrunple 17. Consider the graph G shown in Fig. 11.54. Determine all the cut points otG.

a b c

d e �---_

Fig. 11.54
Sol. (a) The vertex b is cut point for G. Since, G-b has more than one connected compo·
nents as shown in Fig. 1 1 .55.
(b) The vertex e is also a cut point for G. Since G-e has more than one connected compo·
nents as shown in Fig. 1 1 .56.

a
•
c
• a c

9 9
d
•
e d .1
Fig. 11.55 Fig. 11.56

1 1 .20. BRIDGE (Cut Edges)

Consider a graph G = (V, E). A bridge for a graph G, is an edge e such that G-e has more
connected components than G or disconnected.
466 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 18. Consider the graph shown in Fig. 11.57. Determine the subgraphs
(i) G - e J (ii) G - e3 (iii) G - e4.

V, ""'::_
::- --'---__
e,

V3��--�
e3---·

Fig. 11.57
Sol. (i) The subgraph G-e, is shown in Fig. 1 1 .58.
(ii) The Subgraph G-e3 is shown in Fig. 1 1.59.

V, "":::----'---e
V, e,

V3 *"=-----;:-
e3---fiV, V3
Fig. 11.58 Fig. 11.59
(iii) The subgraph G-e4 is shown in Fig. 1 1 .60.

V, "":::----'---e
e,

e3---.. V,
V3 *"=-----;;-

Fig. 11.60
GRAPHS 467
Example 19. Consider the graph G shown in Fig. 11.61. Determine all the bridges of G.

Fig. 11.61
Sol. (a) The edge e, is a bridge for G. Since G--€, has more than one connected compo·
nents as shown in Fig. 1 1 .62.
(b) The edge e3 is a bridge for G. Since G-e3 has more than one connected components as
shown in Fig. 1 1.63.

v,

Fig. 11.62 Fig. 11.63

Example 20. Give an example of a graph with six vertices for the following :
(a) that has exactly two bridges.
(b) that has no bridges.
Sol. (a) The graph that has exactly two bridges is shown in Fig. 1 1.64.
The two bridges are e , and e2 •

b a b c

c e, e d e
Fig. 11.64 Fig. 11.65
(b) The graph with no bridges is shown in Fig. 1 1 .65. This graph does not contain any
bridge since removal of any edge does not divide it into more than one connected components.
468 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 21. Draw a graph whose every edge is a bridge.
Sol. The graph shown in Fig. 1 1 .66 is a graph whose every edge is a bridge because if
any edge is removed from the graph h, we got two components or a disconnected graph.

V, ....-
. ---.... V2

V3

Fig. 11.66

1 1 .21 . ISOMORPHIC GRAPHS

Two graphs G 1 and G2 are called isomorphic graphs if there is a one-to-one correspond­
ence between their vertices and between their edges i.e., the graphs have identical represen­
tation except that the vertices may have different labels.
Let G , = [VI E , l and G2 = [V2 E2l are two graphs. These graphs are said to be isomor-
' '
phic if there exists a function f : G, --; G2 such that
(i) f is one-one and onto
(ii) f preserves adjancies i.e., If (x, y) E E I ' Then ([(x), f(y» E E2
(iii) f preserves non-adjancies i.e., If (x, y) 'l E I ' Then ([(x), f(y) 'l E2
The function f is called isomorphism between G, and G2 .
Theorem VI. lff is an isomorphism ofgraphs G1 and G2, then, for any vertex v in Gl'
the degrees of v and f(v) are equal.
Proof. Let deg(v) = m : we can find exactly m vertices vp v2) ... , vm adjacent to v.
Since fis an isomorphism, f(v ,), f(v) , ... f(v,,) are adjacent to f(v).
Also as there is no other vertex adjacent to the vertex v in G F there is no other vertex
adjacent to f(v) in G2 .: deg f(v) = m. Hence the Theorem.
For example, consider the following graphs shown in Fig. 1 1 .67 and Fig. 1 1 .68. They are
isomorphic graphs.(use above theorem)
V, �-----� V2

V, i---��--�

V3�-------� V4 V3 ____-
Fig. 11.67 Fig. 11.68
GRAPHS 469
Example 22. Show that the graphs shown in Fig. 1 1 . 69 and Fig. 1 1 . 70 are isomorphic.
a._------_.b .-------��'V2

V3
e *-------�d v,
Fig. 11.69 Fig. 11.70
Sol. Compare the degrees of vertices of two graphs and find the vertices from both the
graphs having same degrees and make the pairs of the vertices in decreasing order of degree.
If both the graphs contain vertices having same degree) then they are isomorphic otherwise
not. The pairs of vertices in decreasing order of degree are as follows :
d(a) H d(v) , d(d) H d(v ) , d(b) H d(v ,), d(e) H d(v4), d(c) H d(v5).
Since) both the graphs contain vertices having same degrees) hence they are isomorphic.
Example 23. Show that the graphs shown in Fig. 11.71 and Fig. 11.72 are not isomorphic.
a�------" b

k __ --
---- +- --
---- �m

�---· d n
Fig. 11.71 Fig. 11.72
Sol. The graphs are not isomorphic because the vertices of the graph shown in Fig. 1 1 .72
is having degree 3 but the graph shown in Fig. 1 1 .71 contains two vertices having degree less
than three.
Example 23. (a) List any five properties of a graph which are invariant under graph
isomorphism. (P.T.V., B.Tech. May 20 1 3)
Sol. The five properties are as follows:
1. Order : The number of vertices.
2. Size : The number of edges
3. Vertex Connectivity: The smallest number of vertices whose removal disconnects
the graph.
4. Edge Connectivity: The smallest number of edges whose removal disconnects the
graph.
5. Vertex Covering Number: The minimal number of vertices needed to cover all
edges.
6. Edge Covering Number: The minimal number of edges needed to cover all vertices.
470 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 1 .22. ORDER AND SIZE OF GRAPH

Let G be a graph. The number of vertices in a graph G is called
order of G. The number of edges in a graph G is called size of G.
For example, Consider the graph G shown in Fig. 1 1 .70
Here order of G = 3
size of G = 4
b '-_---,,-_----' C
( -: number of edges in G = 4.)
Fig. 11.73
1 1 .23. HOMEOMORPHIC GRAPHS

Two graphs G , and G2 are called homeomorphic graphs if G2 can be obtained from G , by
a sequence of subdivisions of the edges of G 1 , In other words) we can introduce vertices of
degree two in any edge of graph G , . For example,
Consider the graph shown in Fig. 1 1 .74 and Fig. 1 1 .75. They are homeomorphic graphs.

Fig. 11.74. G,. Fig. 11.75. G2.

Example 24. Show that the graphs shown in Figs. 1 1 . 76 and 1 1 . 77 are homeomorphic.

v, ....-
. ------... v2

V3t1-------_.V,

Fig. 11. 76. G,. Fig. 11. 77. G2.

Sol.
The two graphs are homeomorphic because
G , can be obtained from G2 by introducing vertices of
degree 2 on edges (V I Val and (V2 , V4)·
'
Example 25. Consider the directed graph G
= (V,E) as shown in Fig. 1 1 . 78. Determine the vertex set
and edge set of graph G.

Fig. 11.78
GRAPHS 471
Sol. The vertex and edge set of graph G = (V, E) is as follows
G = {{1, 2, 3}, {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)}).

Example 26. Let G = {{a, b, c, d} {(a, b), (b, c), (c, c), (d, d), (d, a))}. Draw the graph G.
Sol. The graph of G = (V, E) is shown in Fig. 1 1.79.

Fig. 11.79

Example 27. Consider the directed graph shown in Fig. 11.80. Determine the indegree
and outdegree of each of vertices of the graph.

}---3--.r
Fig. 11.80
Sol. The indegree of digraph is indeg (1) = 2, indeg (2) = 1, indeg (3) = 3
The outdegree of digraph is outdeg (1) = 3, outdeg (2) = 2, outdeg (3) = 1 .

1 1 .24. WEAKLY CONNECTED (P.T. U., B.Tech. Dec. 2005)

A directed graph is called weakly connected if its undirected graph is connected i.e., the
graph obtained after neglecting the direction.

1 1 .25. UNILATERALLY CONNECTED DIGRAPH

A directed graph is called unilaterally connected if there is a directed path from any
node u to v or vice-versa) for any pair of nodes of the graph.

1 1 .26. STRONGLY CONN ECTED DIGRAPH

A directed graph is called strongly connected if there is a directed path from any node u
to v and vice-versa) for any pair of nodes of the graph.
472 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 1 .27. DISCONNECTED DIGRAPH

A directed graph is called disconnected if its undirected graph is disconnected.

Example 28. Consider the graphs shown in Figs. 11.81, 11.82 and 11.83 which of the
graphs are
(i) Unilaterally connected digraph (ii) Weakly connected digraph
(iii) Strongly connected digraph
(iv) Disconnected digraph (also find its connected components).
a b c a
V, �---'V---��- 2 d

c
9
b

V3__-------.------�V4 d e e h
Fig. 11.81 Fig. 11.82 Fig. 11.83
Sol. The graph shown in Fig. 1 1 .81 is strongly connected because there is a path from
u
every vertex to v and also there is a path from v to u.
It is also weakly and unilaterally
connected because a strongly connected digraph is both weakly and unilaterally connected.
The graph shown in Fig. 1 1 .82 is weakly connected but not unilaterally connected be­
cause there is no directed path from vertex a to b or a to c etc. but its undirected graph is
connected.
The graph shown in Fig. 1 1.83 is a disconnected graph. The components of this graph
are (g, a, c, f, h, b) and {e, d}.

1 1 .28. DIRECTED COMPLETE GRAPH

A directed complete graph G = (V, E) on n vertices is a graph in which each vertex is

connected to every other vertex by an arrow. It is denoted by Kn'

Example 29. Draw directed complete graphs K3 and K5.

Sol. Place the number of vertices at appropriate place and then draw an arrow from
each vertex to every other vertex as shown in Figs. 1 1 .84 and 1 1 .85.
v,

V2 V3
Fig. 11.84. K3. Fig. 11.85. K5.
GRAPHS 473

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1 1 . 1

1. (a) If V = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5} and E {(I, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5)). Find the number of edges and size
of graph G (V, E)
=

(b) Find the order and size of the graph G shown in the figure below :
=

a
d 0

(i) (ii) C
b

a b
d
(c) What is the difference between directed and undirected graph?
(d) Differentiate between paths and circuits. (P.T. U., B. Tech. May 2007)
2. (a) A graph G has 16 edges and all vertices of G are of degree 2. Find the number of vertices.
(b) A graph G has 21 edges, 3 vertices of degree 4 and other vertices are of degree 3. Find the
number of vertices in G.
(c) A graph G has 5 vertices, 2 of degree 3 and 3 of degree 2. Find the number of edges.
(a) How many nodes (vertices) are required to construct a graph with exactly 6 edges in which
each node is of degree 2?
3.

(b) Show that there does not exist a graph with 5 vertices with degrees 1, 3, 4, 2, 3 respectively.
(c) Can there be a graph with 8 vertices and 29 edges?
(d) How many vertices are there is a graph with 10 edges if each vertex has degree 2?
(e) Does there exist a graph with two vertices each of degree 4? If so, draw it.
4. (a) Draw a simple graph with 3 vertices
(b) Draw a simple graph with 4 vertices
(c) Give an example for
(i) simple graph (ii) non-simple graph (iii) Multigraph, with suitable diagrams
5. Show that the maximum number of edges in a graph with n vertices and no multiple edges are
n(n - 1)
2
6. Prove Handshaking theorem which states that the sum of degree of the vertices of a graph is
equal to twice the number of edges.
7. (a) Determine whether it is possible to construct a graph with 12 edges such that 2 of the vertices
have degree 3 and the remaining vertices have degree 4.
(b) Give an example of each of multigraph, weighted graph, simple graph, non-simple graph,
directed graph with suitable diagrams. (P.T. U., B.Tech. May 2005)
8. (a) Which of the graphs in the given figures are isomorphic ?

(i) _________ (ii) 1------7-

474 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(iv)

(v) (vi)

(viii)

(ix) (x)

(b) Show that the following graphs are not isomorphic.

b b

af----;lp c

e d
Fig. I Fig. II
GRAPHS 475
(c) Determine whether the following graphs are isomorphic or not.
a b s t

§
d
Fig. I
c
§
v
Fig. II
u

(d) Determine whether the following graphs are isomorphic or not

U, U U, U3
2
U

/
2

/
U
6

U4 U3 U5 u4

Fig. I Fig. II
9. (a) Draw the graph IT (complement of G) of the graph shown below. Also show that G and IT are
isomorphic. (P.T. U., B.Tech. Dec. 2002)

B f------'I D d c

A E a b
Fig. I Fig. II
(b) Draw the complement of the graph shown in the fig. II
10. Draw (a) a graph in which no edge is a cut edge.
(b) a graph in which every edge is a cut edge.
(c) only one cut vertex.
11. Find k, if a k-regular graph with 8 vertices has 12 edges. Also draw k-regular graph.
12. Consider the graph G shown below:

(a) Is G simple?
(b) What is order and size of incidence matrix for G?
(c) Find minimum and maximum degree for G.
476 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
13. Prove that in a simple graph with n vertices, each vertex has maximum degree (n - 1).
14. Prove that maximum degree of edges in a graph G with n vertices and no multiple edges are
n(n - ) 1
2
15. Suppose a directed graph has vertices. Show that if there is a path from vertex to v, then
m u

there is a path p' of length - 1 or less from to v.

m u

16. Construct a graph that has six vertices and five edges but is not a tree
(P.T. U., B.Teeh. Dec. 2012)

Answers
1. (a) Number of edges 4, Size of graph
= = 3 Order = 4, Size =
5 (b) (i) 6, (ii) Order 4, Size 7
= =
2. (a) 6 (b) 1
3. (a) 6 No
g
(c)

(d) 10. (e)

4. (a) a.,- _____ __.b or a

c c
7. (a) Not possible
8. (a) (i) and (vi) are isomorphic (ii) and (ix) are isomorphic
(iii) and (vii) are isomorphic (iv) and (v) are isomorphic
(viii) and (ix) are isomorphic
(c) Not isomorphic (d) Isomorphic

9. (b) d , Since G = K5 - G ::::

e"-I---\-...,,. c

10. (a) [><J b

()Z
(b)

11. 3, k3 = 6 12. (a) Yes (b) 6, 9 (c) 5, 2

GRAPHS 477

Hints
2. (a) Let V , V . vn be n vertices such that deg (v) = 2, 1 i n. � �
Since sum1 of2 degree of all vertices is equal to twice the number of edges, i.e.,
.. Ideg(v) � 2 (Number of edges)
� deg(v,) + deg(v2) + . + deg(v,,) � 2 16 x
� 2 + 2 + . + 2 (n times) � 32
2n �32
� n � 16
(b) Let n be the number of vertices in G.
Since, sum of degree of all vertices is equal to twice the number of edges i.e.,
n

L deg (v) = 2 number of edges

x
i=l
deg(v,) + deg(v2) + . + deg(v,,) � 2 21 x
(4 + 4 + 4) + (3 + 3 + . + 3) � 42
3 times (n - 3) times
12 + 3 (n - 3) � 42
3(n - 3) � 30
n � 13.
3. (a) Let n be the number of vertices
Since, Ideg(v) = 2 (number of edges)
� deg(v,) + deg(v2) + . + deg(v,,) � 2 6 x
� 2 + 2 + . + 2 (n times) � 12
2n � 12
n =6
(b) Using, Ideg(v) = 2 number of edges
x
=:::} 1 + 3 + 4 + 2 + 3 = 2 (number of edges)
number of edges = 123 which is not possible.
)

. number of edges = n(n - 8.7

(c) n = 8, e = 29. MaXImum �2
1)
2
28
(d) e = number of edges = 10. Sum of degree of all vertices = 2n
Also 2e=2n n = e = 10
=:::}

(e). . Here
Sum of degree of twothevertices
n = 2. Let e be number= of4 +edges.
4 = 8
Each vertex is of degree 4,
=:::} 2e = 8 e = 4 =:::}

5. Let n be the number of vertices of a graph G, Then degree of each vertices n - 1 �

sum of degree of n vertices n(n - 1) �
2 (number of edges) "n(n - 1)
x

number of edges n(n - 1) �

2
'

7. Let n be the number of vertices, then

n

L deg (v) = 2 number of edges

x
i=l
(Vl + v2) + (vs + v4 + . (n - 2» � 2 12 x
(3 + 3) + (4 + 4 + . (n -2» � 24
478 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
6 + 4 (n -2) 24 �
4(n -2) 18 �

n-2= - 18 = - 9
4 2
n = "2 + 2 = 21 3 ) not paSSl'ble.
9

8. (b) Both graphs have five vertices and six edges. However the graph (Fig. II) has a vertex of
degree namely, e, but the graph (Fig. I) has no vertex of degree 1. Hence the given graphs
are not 1isomorphic.
(c) Both graphs
vertices (Fig.2Iand
of degree andfour II) have 8 vertices and 10 edges. Also both graphs have four
Fig.vertices of degree 3. But deg(a) = 2, it must correspond to either
x, y, or
z. t4 in Fig. II. All these vertices in Fig. II is adjacent to another vertex of degree 2.
But this is not true for the vertex ain Fig. 1. Hence they cannot be isomorphic.
11. Given. V 8, E 12 � �
.. Sum of degree of all vertices = 2 12 = 24 x

=:::} degree of each vertex = 8 24 = 3

13. A simple graph is a graph without parallel edges or self loops.
If G = [V, E] is a simple graph with only one vertex, then the number of edges in G is zero
.. maximum degree of a vertex in G 1 - 1 (0) � �

Ifdegree
G = [V,of each
E] bevertex
a simple
is (2graph with 2 vertices, then the number of edges in G is 1 = 2 - 1 and
- I).

If G = [V, E] be a simple graph with n vertices, then maximum degree of each vertex = n - 1.
14. Let G be a simple graph with n vertices, then degree of each vertex in G is � n - 1
sum of degrees of n vertices in G � n(n - 1)
' n (n - 1)
2e <; n(n - 1) e � 2 where e is the number of edges in G.
=:::}

15. Suppose
sequencethere is a path
of vertices frompath
that the the meets
vertexwhento the
it is vertex
U v. Let [to v. If there are k edges
traced from U
." v] bein the
u 1 ' u2' . ' " ui' Uithe+1
'

path. There are k + 1 vertices in the sequence. Choose a number k > m - 1 such that the vertex,
say, should appear more than once in the sequence, that is,
ul' (u, . v).
. " ui' . " ue' . " u/ J "

Deleting the edges in the path that leads back to we have a path from to v that has fewer
ue ul' U

edges than
edges. Hencetheweoriginal one. Repeating
have proved that in athisdirected
processgraph
untilwith
we have a path that has (m - 1) or fewer
m vertices, if there is a path from
vertex to v, then there is also a path from to v of length m - 1 or less edges.
U U

16. The required graph is

0 1
1 1 .29. LABELLED GRAPHS
A graph G (V, E) is called a labelled graph if its edges are labelled with some name or
�

data. So, we can write these lab ells in place of an ordered pair in the edge set. For e.g.,
The graphs shown in Figs. 1 1.86 and 1 1.87 are labelled graphs.
G {{I, 2, 3, 4, 5}, ie"� e2 , e3 , e4 , e5}}.
� G {{a, b, c, d}, ie"� e2 , e3 , e4}} .
�
GRAPHS 479

e,

a}-------��--�

4 d
Fig. 11.86. Undirected Labelled Graph. Fig. 11.87. Directed Labelled Graph.
1 1 .30. WEIGHTED GRAPHS (P.T. U., B.Tech. May 2007, Dec. 2006, May 2005)
A graph G = (V, E) is called a weighted graph if each edge of graph G is assigned a
positive number w called the weight of the edge e. For example,
The graph shown in Figs. 1 1 .88 and 1 1 .89 is a weighted graph.

7
N A"--+- -"S

8 11
7

D E�-_-"" F
M o 9
Fig. 11.88 Fig. 11.89
1 1 .31 . MULTIPLE EDGES
Two edges e, and e/ which are distinct are said to be multiple edges if they connect the
end points i.e., if e, = (u, v) and e/ = (u, v) then e, and e/ are multiple edges.

1 1 .32. MULTIGRAPH (P.T. U., B.Tech. May 2007, Dec. 2006, May 2005)
A multigraph G = (V, E) consists of a set of vertices V and a set of edges E such that edge
set E may contain multiple edges and self loops. For example,
Consider the following graph shown in Fig. 1 1 .90.

e2
V,.-------� ----�

e,

V3
Fig. 11.90. Undirected Multigraph.
480 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
In the above Fig. 11.91, e4 and e5 are multiple edges, e6 is a self-loop.

Fig. 11.91. Directed Multigraph.

In the graph shown in Fig. 11.91) the edges ep e2 and e4, e5 are multiple edges e7 is a
loop.

1 1 .33. TRAVERSABLE MULTIGRAPHS

Consider a multigraph G = (V, E). If the multigraph G consists of a path which includes
all vertices and whose edge list contains each edge of graph exactly once. Then, the multigraph
G is called a traversable multigraph.
The sufficient and necessary condition for a multigraph to be traversable is that it
should be connected and have either zero or two vertices of odd degree.
Consider the multigraph shown in Fig. 11.92.

Fig. 11.92
The multigraph has three even degree vertices i.e., V3 , V4 and V5 and two odd degree
vertices i.e., VI and V2 " Hence it is a traversable multigraph.

1 1 .34. REPRESENTATION OF GRAPHS

There are two important ways to represent a graph G with the matrices i.e.,
I. Adjacency matrix representation.
II. Incidence matrix representation.

(a) Representation of Undirected Graph

(i) Adjacency matrix representation. If an undirected graph G consists of n verti­

{l'
ces, then the adjacency matrix of graph is an n x n matrix A = [ai) and defined by

_
if {vi ' Vj } is an edge i. vi is adjacent to vj
e. ,
aij - 0, if there is no edge between vi and vj
GRAPHS 481
If there exists an edge between vertex v i and vp where i is a row andj is a column then
value of aij = 1 .
If there is no edge between vertex v i and vp then value of aij = O.
Note that adjacency matrix of G is a symmetric matrix. Since simple graph does not
contain any self loop) so diagonal entries of adjacency matrix are all zero. Further) as adjacency
matrix contains 0 or 1 ) so it is also known as Boolean matrix.
Note. Degree of a vertex in G is equal to sum of entries in the ith row or ith column of the
vi

adjacency matrix.
For example, we find the adjacency matrix MA ofgraph G shown in Fig. 11.93.
B

Fig. 11.93
Since the graph G consists of four vertices. Therefore, the adjacency matrix will be a 4 x 4
matrix. The adjacency matrix is as follows in Fig. 1 1 . 94.
A B C D
degree of vertex ' is 3

T r
which is equal to sum of
'
1 1 c

B 1 0 1
MA = C 1 1 0 entries in third row 6/4 mm
D 1 1 1
of adjacency matrix.
Fig. 11.94
Adjacency List. In a adjacency list of a graph, we list each vertex followed by the
vertices adjacent to it. First write vertices of graph in a vertical column) then after each vertex)
write the vertices adjacent to it.
Consider the graph shown in Fig. 1 1 .95 the adjacency list is given below :
V I ; V2) V3

V2; Vp V3

V3; Vp V2) V4
Fig. 11.95
V4; V3

(ii) Incidence matrix or Binary matrix representation. If an undirected graph

consists of n vertices and m edges) then the incidence matrix is an n x m matrix C = [ci)

{0,l' ifotherwise
defined by

cij =
the vertex Vi incident by edge eJ

There is a row for every vertex and a column for every edge in the incidence matrix.
Note that incidence matrix of a graph need not be a square matrix. Entries in a row are
added to give degree of corresponding vertex.
482 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
For example ;
Consider the graph G = [V, E.]
where
shown in Fig. 1 1 .96.
The incidence matrix M l for G is shown below :

[� � �'
e 1 e2 e3

M, = �: 0
v4 0 1
Fig. 11.96

Since each edge in the graph is incident on vI '

. . first row for V I has all entries 1 .

.. degree v, =1+ 1+ 1=3
Also v2) v3) v4 are pendant vertices.
In incidence matrix of a graph) sum of entries in column is not degree of vertex. As an
edge is incident on two vertices in a graph) therefore) each column of incidence matrix will
have two l 's.
The number of one's in an incidence matrix of undirected graph (without loops) is equal
to the sum of degrees of all the vertices of the graph.
For example : Consider the undirected graph G as shown in Fig. 11.97. We find its
incidence matrix MJ .

Fig. 11.97
Sol. The undirected graph consists of four vertices and five edges. Therefore, the inci­
dence matrix is a 4 x 5 matrix) which is shown in Fig. 1 1.98
e , e2 e3 e4 e5
0 0 1
M, =
T
V2
V3
v4
0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
Fig. 11.98
1]
(b) Representation of Directed Graph

then the adjacency matrix of graph is an n x n matrix A = [ai) defined by

(i) Adjacency matrix representation. If a directed graph G consists of n vertices,
GRAPHS 483

{l. �f Vi ' Vj i.s an edge i.e., if Vi is initial vertex and Vj is final vertex
aiJ, = 0, If there IS no edge between vi and vj
If there exists an edge between vertex vi and Vj with v i as initial vertex and Vj as final
vertex, then value of aij = 1.
If there is no edge between vertex vi and Vj then value of aij = O .
The number of one's in the adjacency matrix of a directed graph is equal to the number
of edges.
For example : Consider the directed graph shown in Fig. 11.99. We determine its adjacency
matrix MA"
V, o-------�tOv2

V3 �------�V4

Fig. 11.99
Sol. Since the directed graph G consists of five vertices. Therefore, the adjacency matrix
will be a5 x 5 matrix. The adjacency matrix of the directed graph is as follows in Fig. 11.100.
V , v 2 v 3 v4 V 5
v, 0 1 1 0 0
v2 0 0 0 1 0
V3 0 1 0 1 1
MA = V4 0 0 0 0 1
V5 0 0 0 0 0
Fig. 11.100
(ii) Incidence matrix representation. If a directed graph consists of n vertices and
m edges then the incidence matrix is an n x m matrix C = [cijL defined by
1, if Vi is initial vertex of edge ej
c., = - 1, if Vi is final vertex of edge ej
'1
0, if Vi is not incident on edge ej
The number of one 's in the incidence matrix is equal to the number of edges in the
graph.
For example, Consider the directed graph G shown in
Fig. 11.101. Find its incidence matrix M['

V, e,
Fig. 11.101
484 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. The directed graph consists of four vertices and five edges. Therefore, the incidence
matrix is a 4 x 5 matrix which is shown in Fig. 1 1 .102.
e,e2 e3 e4 e5

l' T
0 0 0
M = V2a
I
v 1 1
0 -1
0 -1
1 0
v4 0 0 -1 1
Fig. 11.102.
(c) Representation of Multigraph
Represented only by adjacency matrix representation.

n x n matrix A = [ai) and is defined by

tN,
(i) Adjacency matrix representation of multigraph. If a multigraph G consists of n

N
vertices, then the adjacency matrix of graph is an
If there are one or more than one edges between vertex Vi and Vj' where
a =
'J
is the number of edges .
0, otherwise.
If there exists one or more than one edges between vertex Vi and Vj then aij = N, where
N is the number of edges between Vi and v/
If there is no edge between vertex Vi and Vj then value of aij = O. For e.g.,

For example : Consider the multigraph shown in Fig. 11.103. We determine its adjacency
matrix.

Fig. 11.103
Sol. Since the multigraph consists of five vertices. Therefore, the adjacency matrix will
be an 5 x 5 matrix. The adjacency matrix of the multigraph is as follows in Fig. 1 1 . 104.
V, v 2 v3 v4 V5
v,
0 3 0 0 1
v
2 3 0 0 0 2
MA = V3 0 0 0 1 1
v4 1 0 1 1 0
V5 0 2 1 0 1
Fig. 11.104.
GRAPHS 485

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Draw the undirected graph represented by adjacency matrix MA shown in

Fig. 11.105.
1
V V 2 V3 V4 U5
V, 0 1 1 0 0
v2 1 0 1 0 0
- V3 1 1 0 1 0
MA -
v4 0 0 1 0 1
V5 0 0 0 1 1
Fig. 11.105.
Sol. The graph represented by adjacency matrix MA is shown in Fig. 106.
v,

V2 .,::.-----� V3

V4
Fig. 11.106.
Example 2. Draw the undirected graph represented by incidence matrix MJ shown in
Fig. 11.107.
e, e2 e3 e4 e5 e 6
a 0 1 0 0 1 1
b 0 1 1 0 1 0
M, = c 0 0 0 1 0 1
d 1 0 0 0 0 0
e 1 0 0 1 0 0
Fig. 11.107.
486 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Sol. The graph represented by incidence matrix M] is shown in Fig. 11.108.

a

d e, e
Fig. 11. 108.

r� � � �lj
Example 3. Draw the multigraph G whose adjacency matrix MA is shown in Fig. 11.109.

MA =
o 1 2 o
Fig. 11. 109.
Sol. The multigraph corresponding to the adjacency matrix MA is shown in Fig. 11.110.
v, V2

v,
Fig. 11.110
Example 4. Draw the directed graph G whose adjacency matrix MA is shown in
Fig. 1 1 . 1 1 1 .
a b c d e f
a 0 0 1 0 0 0
b 0 0 0 0 1 0
c 0 0 0 1 0 0
MA = d 0 0 0 1 1 0
e
0 0 0 0 1 1
f 0 1 0 0 0 1
Fig. 11.111
GRAPHS 487
Sol. The directed graph corresponding to the adjacency matrix MA is shown in Fig. 1 1 .112.
a b

Fig. 11.112
Example 5. Draw the directed graph G whose incidence matrix MI '8 shown in
Fig. l l . 1 13.
e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e 7 e8 e9
a -1 -1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
b 1 0 1 0 0 0 -1 0 0
M1 = C 0 +1 -1 0 0 -1 0 0 1
d 0 0 0 -1 0 1 1 1 0
e 0 0 0 0 -1 0 0 -1 -1
Fig. 11.113
Sol. The directed graph corresponding to the incidence matrix MI is shown in Fig. 1 1. 1 14
a

d �----�e'-------. e
8
Fig. 11.114

1 1 .35. OTHER IMPORTANT GRAPHS

(a) Bipartite Graph (P.T. U., M.e.A. May 2008, 2007)

A graph G = (V, E) is called a bipartite graph if its vertices V can be partitioned into two
subsets VI and V2 such that each edge of G connects a vertex of VI to a vertex of V2. In other
words) no edge joining two vertices in VI or two vertices in V2. It is denoted by Km, n) where m
and n are number of vertices in VI and V2 respectively.
For e.g.; consider the graph shown in Fig. 1 1. 1 15. This graph is a bipartite graph.
Here V = [a, b, c, d]
Let VI = [a, b] , V2 = [c, d]
488 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

V, u V2 = [a, b, d] = V and V, n V2 = q,
c, a b
. . [VI' V2] is a partition ofV.
Consider another graph shown in Fig. 11.116
This graph is also a bipartite graph.
Here V = [a) b) x, y, z]
Let V, = [a, b] , V2 = [x, y, z]
.. V, U V2 = V and V, n V2 = q, c d
Bipartite graphs are also called 2-colourable graphs as one can think Fig. 11.115
vertices in VI of one colour and in V2 of another colour and vertex is a b
joined by an edge to a vertex of same colour.
(b) Complete Bipartite Graph. A graph G = (V, E) is called a
complete bipartite graph if its vertices V can be partitioned into two
subsets VI and V2' such that each vertex of VI is connected to each
vertex of V2' The number of edges in a complete bipartite graph is
x y z
m. n as each of the m vertices is connected to each of the n
vertices. It is denoted by Km. n and m '" n. Fig. 11. 116
For example, the graphs shown in Fig. 11.117 are complete
bipartite graphs.

Fig. 11.117
A complete Bipartite graph KI' n is called a star graph.
Example 6. Draw the bipartite graphs K2•4 and K3• 4 ' Assuming any number of edges.
Sol. First draw the appropriate number of vertices on two parallel columns or rows and
connect the vertices in one column or row with the vertices in other column or row. The bipar­
tite graphs �. and K3• are shown in Fig. 11.118 and Fig. 11.119 respectively.
4 4

u,

V, .,:'------.",. u2

V2 eE'------_ U3

Fig. 11. 118. Bipartite Graph �, 4 Fig. 11. 119 Bipartite Graph Ks, 4
GRAPHS 489
Example 7. Draw the complete bipartite graphs K3 4 and Kj 5'

Sol. First draw the appropriate number of vertices in two pa�allel columns or rows and
connect the vertices in first column or row with all the vertices in second column or row. The
graphs K3 4 and K, 5 are shown in Fig. 11.120 and Fig. 1 1.121 respectively.
• .
v, V2 V3

3, ��----"" b3

Fig. 11.120 K3• 4' Fig. 11.121 K,. 5'

Example 8. Draw the complete bipartite graphs K2 3' K2 4 and K2

Sol. The complete bipartite graphs K2 3' K2 and K; are" shown in: Figs. 11.122, 11.123
5'

4 5
. . .
and 1 1 .124 respectively.
u,

V, �::::",,---,-r-""". U2

Fig. l1.122 K2• 3. Fig. 11.123 K2• 4' Fig. 11.124. �. 5

1 1 .36. EULER PATH (OR CHAIN) (P.T. U., B.Tech. Dec. 2007, Dec. 2006)
An Euler path (or chain) through a graph is a path whose edge list contains each edge of
the graph exactly once.
Example. If a graph G has more than two vertices of odd degree, then there can be no
Euler path in G. (P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2008)
Sol. Given, the graph G has more than two vertices of odd degree. We are required to
prove that there can be no Euler path in G.
Let G has three vertices say vp v 2 and v 3 of odd degree. As these three vertices are of
odd degree) therefore) any possible Euler path in G must arrive at each of vp v 2 ) v3 with no
way to return. One vertex of these three vertices vp v 2 ) v3 may be the beginning of the Euler
path and another the end, but this leaves the third vertex at one end of an untravelled edge.
Hence there is no Euler path.

1 1 .37. EULER CIRCUIT (OR CYCLE) (P.T.U., M.C.A. May 2007, P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2006)
An Euler circuit (or cycle) is a path through a graph, in which the initial vertex appears
second time as the terminal vertex.
490 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 1 .38. EULER GRAPH

An Euler graph is a graph that possesses an Euler circuit. An Euler circuit uses every
edge exactly once but vertices may be repeated.
Example 9. The graph shown in Fig. 11. 125 is an Euler graph. Determine Euler circuit
for this graph.

V,

Fig. 11.125 Euler Graph.

Sol. The Euler circuit for this graph is
V l , � ' � ' �' � ' �' � ' �o , �, �, � , �, � , V l O ' � ' � ' � ' �' �'
We can produce an Euler circuit for a connected graph with no vertices of odd degree.
The following algorithm called Fleury's algorithm is helpful to construct an Euler's Path.
Theorem I. An undirected graph possesses an Eulerian path iff it is connected and has
either zero or two vertices of odd degree. Give suitable example.
Proof. Let the undirected graph possesses an Eulerian path. Then, by definition, the
graph must be connected. Now) since the graph has Eulerian path) it means that every time
the path meets a vertex, it goes through two edges which are incident with the vertex and
have not been traced before.
Thus, except for the two vertices at the two ends of the path, the degree of all other
vertices in the graph must be even.
If the two vertices at the two ends of the Eulerian path are distinct, then there are only
two vertices with odd degree.
Converse. Let the undirected graph is connected and two of its vertices are of odd
degree. We show the graph possesses an Eulerian path. Since the graph is connected) no edge
will be traced more than once. For a vertex of even degree) whenever the path 'enters) the
vertex through an edge, it can always 'leave' the vertex through another edge that has not
been traced before. Therefore) when the construction is completed) we must have reached the
other vertex of odd degree. Tracing all the edges in this way, we will get an Eulerian path. If
not all of the edges in the graph were traced, we shall remove those edges that have been
traced and obtain a subgraph formed by the remaining edges. The degrees of the vertices of
this subgraph will be even. Starting from one of these vertices) we can again a
construct a path that passes through the edges. Because the degrees of the
bk---�c
vertices are all even) this path must return to the vertex at which it starts.
Combining this path with the path we have constructed to obtain one which
starts and ends at the two vertices of odd degree, the path so obtained is
Eulerian path.
For example, consider the graph (Fig. 11.126) as shown below.
This graph has only two vertices of odd degree, by above theorem, it d e
has an Eulerian path. Fig. 11.126
GRAPHS 491
Theorem II. An undirected graph possesses an Eulerian circuit iff it is connected and
its vertices are all of even degree. Prove with the help of suitable example.
Proof. Let the undirected graph possess an Eulerian circuit. Then, by definition, the
graph must be connected. Now since the graph has Eulerian circuit, it means that every time
the graph meets a vertex, it goes through edges which are incident with the vertex and have
not been traced before. Thus, the degree of all vertices in the graph a
must be even.
Converse. Let the undirected graph is connected and all its ver·
tices are of even degree. We show that the graph possesses an Eulerian
circuit. Since the graph is connected, no edge will be traced more than
once. As all the vertices are of even degree, whenever the circuit 'en­
ters' the vertex through an edge, it can always 'leave' the vertex through
another edge that has not been traced before and also the circuit must
return to the vertex at which it starts. Hence the circuit is an Eulerian
circuit.
For example, consider the graph shown in the Fig. 11. 127.
The graph is connected and all vertices are of even degree. There· Fig. 11.127
fore, it has an Eulerian circuit.
Theorem III. Let G be a connected graph such that each vertex is of degree 2. Prove that
G is a cycle.
Proof. Because G is a connected graph such that every vertex is of even degree, it
follows that G has an Euler circuit. This circuit contains all the vertices and all the edges of G.
Because the degree of each vertex is 2) it follows that in the above circuit) a vertex) except the
starting vertex) cannot appear more than once. Hence) the above circuit is a cycle. This shows
that graph G is a cycle.
1 1 .39. FLEURY'S ALGORITHM
Input
Let G = (V, E) be a connected graph with every vertex of even degree.
Step 1. Select a vertex Vo of V as the starting vertex to construct the circuit and desig·
nate P : Vo as the starting of the path to be constructed.
Step 2. Consider that P : vo) vp v2) ... ) vk as been constructed so far. If at vk there is only
one edge say {vk) vk + I}) then extend P to P : vo) vp v2 , vk + Remove {vk' vk + I} from edge set
••• l'

E and vk + from V. If at vk there are several edges) choose one that is not a bridge to the
1

remaining graph) say {vk' Vk + I}' Extend P to P : vo) vp v2) ... ) vk) Vk + and remove {vk) Vk + I} from
1

edge set E.
Step 3. Repeat step 2 until no edges left in E.
Example 10. Use Fleury's algorithm to construct an Euler circuit for the graph shown
in Fig. 11.128.
P P

K Q

Fig. 11.128
492 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. Start from any vertex) as per step 1. So, choose vertex k as the starting vertex. The
summary of the results applying step 2 repeatedly is shown in the table-

Current path Next edge to Reason

traverse
P:k {k, I} No edge from k is a bridge. Choose any one.
P : k, I {I, m} Only one edge from I.
P : k, I, m {m, n} No edge from m is a bridge. Choose any one.
P : k, l, m, n {n, k} Only one edge from n.
P : k, l, m, n, k {k, m} No edge from k is a bridge. Choose any one.
P : k, l, m, n, k, m {m, o} Only one edge from m remains.
P : k, l, m, n, k, m, 0 {o, p} No edge from k is a bridge. Choose any one.
P : k, l, m, n, k, m, 0, p {p, q} Only one edge from k remains.
P : k, l, m, n, k, m, 0, p, q {q, r} No edge from k is a bridge. Choose any one.
P : k, l, m, n, k, m, 0, p, q, r {r, o} Only one edge from r remains.
P : k, l, m, n, k, m, 0, p, q, r, 0 {o, q} Only one edge from 0 remains.
P : k, l, m, n, k, m, 0, p, q, r, 0, q {q, k} Only one edge from q remains.
P : k, l, m, n, k, m, 0, p, q, r, 0, q, k

1 1 .40. HAMILTONIAN PATH (OR CHAIN) (P.T.U., B.Tech. Dec. 2007)

A Hamiltonian path (or chain) through a graph is a path whose vertex list contain each
vertex of the graph exactly once, except if path is a circuit.

1 1 .41 . HAMILTONIAN CIRCUIT (OR CYCLE)

(P. T. U., M. CA. May 2007 ; B. Tech. Dec. 2007)
A Hamiltonian circuit (or cycle) is a path in which the initial vertex appears a second
time as the terminal vertex.

1 1 .42. HAMILTONIAN GRAPH (PT.U., B.Tech. May 2007)

A Hamiltonian graph is a graph that possesses a Hamiltonian path. A Hamiltonian
path uses each vertex exactly once but edges may not be included.

Theorem IV. A graph G has a Hamilton circuit ife :> n -3n +

2

2
6 where n is the number

n2 -32n + 6
of vertices and e the number of edges in G. (P.T.V., M.C.A. May 2007)

Proof. Let, if possible, the graph G is non·Hamilton and we show e S

By Dirac's theorem which states that the connected graph G with I v I :> n vertices
has a Hamiltonian circuit if deg (v) ;::: nl2 for each vertex n) there, exists a pair of non-adjacent
vertices u and v such that
deg(u) + deg(v) S n - 1 ... (1)
Let H be the subgraph of G obtained by deleting vertices u and v from G. So graph H has
n
[deg(u) + deg(v)] edges. Thus maximum number of edges in H will be -2 C2
n - 2 vertices and e -
and hence
GRAPHS 493
e - [deg(u) + deg(v)] S n-2 C2
(n -2) ! (n -2) ! (n - 2Xn - 3) (n - 4) ! 1 2
= = (n - 5n + 6)
-

2 ! (n - 2 - 2) ! 2 (n - 4) ! 2 (n - 4) ! 2
1
e S "2 ( n2 - 5n + 6) + [deg(u) + deg(v)]
1
e S "2 ( n2 - 5n + 6) + (n - 1)

e S -"---'''-
-' --::---=c..:.__=_
...
n 2 - 5n + 6 + 2n - 2
2

1
Thus e S "2 (n2 - 3n + 6). Hence the theorem.
Remark. The converse of above theorem, however, is not true.
1 1 .43. RULES F O R CONSTRUCTING HAMILTON PATHS (OR CHAINS) A N D
HAMILTON CIRCUITS (OR CYCLES) I N A GRAPH
Rule I. If a graph G has n vertices, then a Hamilton path in G must contain exactly
(n - 1) edges and a Hamilton circuit in G must contain exactly n edges.
Rule II. In a Hamilton circuit, there cannot be more than three or more edges incident
with one vertex. i.e., every vertex V in a Hamilton circuit will contain exactly 2 edges incident
on V.
Also, If V is a vertex in G, then a Hamilton path must contain atleast one edge incident
on V and atmost 2 edges incident on V.
Remarks
(i) Multigraph cannot have Hamilton circuit.
(ii) Hamilton path, if it exists, is the longest simple path in a graph.
(iii) Each graph which has Hamilton cycle will have Hamilton path, the converse, however, is not
true.
(iv) Every complete graph Kn is Hamilton for n ;::': 3.
(v) A Hamilton graph with n vertices must have atleast n edges.
Example 11. The graph shown in Fig. 1 1 . 129 is a Hamiltonian graph. Determine
Hamiltonian circuit for this graph.
Sol. The Hamiltonian circuit is shown in Fig. 1 1 . 1 30.

2 6

Fig. 11.129 Hamiltonian Graph. Fig. 11.130 Hamiltonian Circuit.

494 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 12. Give an example of a graph that has an Euler circuit which is also a
Hamiltonian circuit.
Sol. The graph having an Euler circuit which is also a Hamiltonian circuit is shown in
Fig. 1 1.131.
V, t-------"f V2

V3 __--------------.. V4
Fig. 11.131
In this graph V V2) V3) V VI is both an Euler circuit as well as Hamiltonian circuit.
F
4)

Since using this path, we can traverse both vertices and edges exactly once.
Example 13. Give an example of a graph that has an Euler circuit and a Hamiltonian
circuit, which are distinct. (P.T.V., M.e.A. Dec. 2006)
Sol. The graph having an Euler circuit and a Hamiltonian circuit which are distinct is
shown in Fig. 11.132.

v,

V3
Fig. 11.132
The Euler circuit is V V3' V2' V3' V V2' V which visits each edge exactly once.
F
4' p

The Hamiltonian circuit is V V2' V V3' V which visits each vertex exactly once.
F
4' p

Example 14. Give an example of a graph which has an Euler circuit but not a
Hamiltonian circuit.
Sol. The graph having an Euler circuit but not a Hamiltonian circuit is shown in
Fig. 1 1.133.

V3
v,

Vs
Fig. 11.133
GRAPHS 495
The Euler circuit is Vp V5) V2) V5) V3) V4) V6) V3) V2) VI "
There is no Hamiltonian circuit. Since it is not possible to traverse each vertex of this
graph exactly once.
Example 15. Give an example of a graph which has a Hamiltonian circuit but not an
Euler circuit. (P.T. U., M.G.A. May 2008)
Sol. The graph having a Hamiltonian circuit but not an Euler circuit is shown in
Fig. 11.134.
V, "-----' V2

V3�------� V,

Fig. 11.134
The Hamiltonian circuit is V V2) V4) V3) V There is no Euler circuit. Since it is not
F
l'

possible to traverse each edge of this graph exactly once.

Example 16. (a) Give an example of a graph that has neither an Euler circuit nor a
Hamiltonian circuit.
(b) Show that the graphs in Fig. 11. 135 has a Hamiltonian circuit where as the graph in
Fig. 1 1.136 has no Hamiltonian circuit.

Fig. 11.135 Fig. 11.136

Sol. (a) The graph having neither an Euler circuit nor a Hamiltonian circuit is shown in
Fig. 11.137. It does not contain Euler circuit since each vertex is not of even degree.
v, V3 v,

Fig. 11.137
496 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(b) We know that if there is a path in a graph G that uses each

vertex of the graph exactly once) except initial vertex that appears twice
as the terminal vertex) then such a path is called a Hamiltonian cir­
cuit.
The graph in Fig. 1 1.138 has Hamiltonical circuit given as
Up ep u2 ) e 2 ) u 3 ) e3 ) u 2 ) e6 n u 5 ) e7 ) u6) e S ) u 1
Also, we know that a connected graph G with Fig. 11.138
I v I :> n vertices has a Hamiltonian circuit if deg(v ) :> n/2 for each
vertex ni.
The graph in Fig. 1 1.139 has 5 vertices. Here deg(u,) = 2 :j> 5/2
The graph in Fig. 1 1.139 has no Hamiltonian circuit.
Example 17. Consider the graph G shown in the following Fig. 11.139
Fig. 11.140.
(a) Find the Euler's path if it exists.
(b) Is the graph G Eulerian?
(c) Is the graph bipartite?
(d) Is the graph hamiltonian?
Sol. (a) Consider the vertices 'c' and 'd'. The degree of these ver·
tices is 5(odd)
G has Euler's path between c and d.
The Euler's path is c, a, b, d, [, b, d, [, e, a, d, e, c, d Fig. 11.140
'
(b) A graph G can have Euler s circuit if each vertices of G are of
even degree. Since the vertices 'c' and 'd' are of odd degree, therefore, G cannot have Euler's
circuit.
(c) The graph G has odd cycle a, c, d, a
it cannot be a bipartite graph
(d) Yes, the Hamiltonian circuit is a, b, [, e, d, c, a.
Example 18. Consider the graph G shown below in Fig. 11.141.
(a) Is it a complete graph?
(b) Is G connected and regular?
(c) Is it a planar graph? If so, find the number of regions.
(d) Is G Eulerian?
Sol. (a) Since the edge between a and d is not present in the given graph. It cannot be
complete graph. (Every pair of vertices must be joined by an edge.)
(b) Given graph is a 4·regular graph. Also it is connected because there is a path from
every vertex to other.
(c) The given graph is planar graph as it can be re·drawn as shown in Fig. 1 1.142 in
which no two edges cross
Here V = 6, E = 12
By Euler's theorem, V - E + R = 2
=> 6 - 12 + R = 2
=> R= 8
GRAPHS 497
a

f-+---\--'lr b

e '<---\-----,1--1' c

d
Fig. 11.141 Fig. 11.142
(d) Given graph is 4-regular. every vertex is of degree 4 (even)
_ _G has an Euler' s circuit and hence G is an Eulerian graph.
Example 19_ State and prove Eulerian theorem on graph to show that Konigsberg's
graph is not proved to a solution.
SoL The word Konigsberg is the name of a town, situated on the bank of a river, Pregel
in Germany. This city has seven bridges. In 1736, L. Euler, the father of graph theory, proved
that it was not possible to cross each of the seven bridges once and only once in a walking tour.
A map of the Konigsberg is shown in the following Fig. 1 1. 143.

D
Konigsberg in 1 736
Fig. 11.143
Euler replaced the islands and the two sides of the river by points and the bridges by
curves as shown in Fig. 11. 144.
Figure 11. 144 is a multigraph. A multigraph is a said to be traversable if it can be
drawn without any breaks in the curve and without repeating any edges. i.e., if there is a path
which includes all vertices and uses each edge exactly once and such a path is called Travesable
TriaL
According to Euler, the walk in Konigsberg is possible iff the multigraph in Fig. 1 1. 144
is traversable. But Euler proved that the multigraph in Fig. 1 1 . 144 is not traversable and
hence the walk in Konigsberg is impossible. We prove it.
498 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
We know that a vertex is even or odd according as its C
degree is even or odd. Suppose a multigraph is travesable
and that a traversable trail does not begin or end at a vertex,
say, P. We claim that P is an even vertex. For whenever the
traversable trail enters P by an edge, there must always be
an edge not previously used by which the trail can leave P. �------�. B
Thus, the edges in the trail incident with P must appear in
pairs and so P is an even vertex. Further, if a vertex, Q is
odd, the traversable trail must begin or end at Q. Hence, a
multigraph with more than two odd vertices cannot be tra· D
versable. Fig. 1 1 . 144
Now the multigraph corresponding to the Konigsberg
bridge problem has four odd vertices. Thus, one cannot walk through Konigsberg so that each
bridge is crossed exactly once.
Euler actually proved the converse of the above statement, which is contained in the
following theorem, called Euler theorem.
Theorem V. A finite connected graph is Eulerian iff each vertex has even degree.
(P.T.V., M.C.A. May 2008, B.Tech. Dec. 2012)
Proof. We know that a graph G is called an Eulerian graph if there exists a closed
traversable Trial, called an Eulerian Trial. Suppose G is Eulerian and T is a closed Eulerian
trial. Let v be any vertex of G. We show the vertex v is of even degree. Since the trail T enters
and leaves the vertex v the same number of times without repeating any edge. . . v is of
even degree.
Conversly, Let each vertex of G has even degree. We construct an Eulerian Trial. Start
with a trial T 1 at any edge e. Extend T 1 by adding one edge after the other. If T 1 is not closed
i.e., IfT, begins at u and ends at v " u, then only an odd number of edges incident on v appear
in T,. Hence we can extend T, by another edge incident on v. Thus, we can continue to extend
T, until T, returns to its initial vertex u. i.e., until T, is closed.
IfT, includes all the edges in G, then T, is the required Eulerian Trial.
If T 1 does not include all edges of G, consider the graph H obtained by deleting all edges
of T, from G. Now H has each vertex of even degree (since T, contains an even number of the
edges incident on any vertex). Since G is connected, there is an edge e' of H which has an end
point u' in T l' We construct a trail T 2 in H begining at u' and using e'. Since all the vertices in
H have even degree, we can continue to extent T, in H until T, returns to u' as shown in the
following Fig. 11. 145. We can clearly put T, and T2 together to form a larger closed trial in G.
Proceeding the above process until all the edges of G are used, we finally obtain an Eulerian
trial and hence G is Eulerian.

U'

T, T,
Fig. 1 1 . 145
GRAPHS 499

1 1 .44. REGULAR GRAPH

A graph is said to be regular or K-regular if all its vertices have the same degree K. A
graph whose all vertices have degree 2 is called 2·regular graph. A complete graph Kn is
regular of degree n - 1.
Example 20. Draw regular graphs of degree 2 and 3.
Sol. The regular graphs of degree 2 and 3 are shown in Figs. 11.146 and 1 1.147.
v, .-----------------.. v2 V, ,,------1fV2

V3 __----------------.. V4 V3 �------�V4
Fig. 11.146. 2·regular Graph. Fig. 11.147. Regular Graph.
Example 21. Draw a 2-regular graph offive vertices.
Sol. The 2-regular graph of five vertices is shown in Fig. 11.148
V, .---2----��V

V3 __----------�J\V4

Fig. 11.148
Example 22. Draw a 3-regular graph of five vertices.
Sol. It is not possible to draw 3-regular graph of five vertices. The 3-regular graph must
have an even number of vertices.
Theorem VI. Prove that K-regular graph must have even number of vertices when the
value of K is odd.
Proof. Consider a graph with n vertices. Let T is the sum of degrees of all the n vertices
of a K-regular graph. Then, we have
T=K.n
The sum T must be even (from the theorem V).
Now) suppose that K is odd, so the value of n must be even.
500 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 1 .45. PLANAR GRAPH (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2013)

A graph is said to be planar if it can be drawn in a plane so that no edges cross.

For e.g., the graph 6 is a planar graph. Also � is a planar graph because
K4 =

it can be re-drawn as
@ in which edges do not cross each other.

For example: The graphs shown in Fig. 11.149 and Fig. 11.160 are planar graphs.
v, ..
----
----
-- �
--

v "f"'-------jfV 2

V3�------�
V3 �------�
Fig. 11.149 Fig. 11.150
Theorem VII. A planar and connected graph has a vertex of degree less than or equal
to 5.
Proof. Let G be connected and planar and suppose) if possible) degree of each vertex x
E G is greater than 6.
Le., deg x > 6 => deg x :> 6 i.e., sum of degree of all vertices :> 6v
=> 2e ;::: 6v) where e and v are the number of edges and vertices respectively.
=> e ;::: 3v) which contradicts e :::; 3u - 6 < 3v.
Hence deg x S 6.
1 1 .46. REGION OF A GRAPH

Consider a planar graph G = (V, E). A region is defined to be an area of the plane that is
bounded by edges and cannot be further subdivided. A planar graph divides the plane into one
or more regions. One of these regions will be infinite.
(a) Finite Region. If the area of the region is finite, then that region is called finite
reglOn.
(b) Infinite Region. If the area of the region is infinite, that region is called infinite
region. A planar graph has only one infinite region.
Example 23. Consider the graph shown in Fig. 11. 151. Determine the number of re­
gions, finite regions and an infinite region.
GRAPHS 501

V, ,c-----�

rs r3 V3

V4 r,
r, Vs

Fig. 11.151
Sol. There are five regions in the above graph i.e., rp r2) r3J r4 and r5.
There are four finite regions in the graph i.e., r2) r3, r4 and r5•
There is only one infinite region i.e., r r

Example 24. Draw aplanar representation ofgraphs shown in Figs. 1l. 152and 11.153.

v, v,

V2 �-------3" V3 V2 �-----\-----3"v3

V4*'"-------:i. Vs

Fig. 11.152 Fig. 1 1.153

Sol. The planar representation of graph shown in Fig. 11.154 is shown in Fig. 11.155.

v,
v,

V�
2 � ____ � V2·��-----3.V3

I!E------..".
V4'�-----�VS Vs

Fig. 11.154 Fig. 11.155

502 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 1 .47. PROPERTIES OF PLANAR GRAPHS (P.T. U. B.Tech. Dec. 2013)

. 2
Theorem I. If a connected planar graph G has e edges and r regwns, then r <C "3 e.
Theorem II. If a connected planar graph G has e edges and v vertices, then 3v - e :> 6.
Theorem III. A complete graph Kn is planar if and only if n < 5.
Theorem IV. A complete bipartite graph Km. n is planar if and only if m < 3 or n > 3.
I. Proof. In a connected planar graph, each region is bounded by at least 3 regions
. . r regions are bounded by minimum 3 r edges
=> Number of edges in graph :> 3r
But number of edge in the graph = 2e (as each edge belongs to two regions)
2e :> 3r
2e
r- <­
3
II. Let r be the no. of regions in a planar representation of G. By Euler formula
v+r-e=2 . .. (1)
Now sum of degrees of the regions = 2e. But each region has degree 3 or more.
2e
2e :> 3r => r <: -.
3
2e e
From (1) we get 2 = v + r - e :S; v + - - e = v - -
3 3
6 <: 3v - e
=> e <: 3v - 6 Hence proved.
III. If G has one or two vertices, then the result is true. If G has at least 3 vertices then
e <: 3v - 6 or 2e <: 6v - 12 ... (1)
L deg v) we would have
If degree of every vertex were at least 6) then using 2e = ceV
2e :> 6v, which contradicts the inequality (1), Hence there must be a vertex with degree not
greater than 5.
IV. Proof is beyond the scope of the book.
Example 25. Prove that complete graph K4 is planar.
Sol. The complete graph K4 contains 4 vertices and 6 edges.
We know that for a connected planar graph 3v - e :> 6. Hence for K4, we have
3 x 4 - 6 = 6 which satisfies the property (3).
Thus K4 is a planar graph. Hence proved.
1 1 .48. STATE AND PROVE EULER'S THEOREM ON GRAPHS
(PT.U., B.Tech. Dec. 2007, 2006, May 2006)
Statement. Consider any connected planar graph G = (V; E) having R regions, V verti­
ces and E edges. Then
V + R - E = 2. (P.T.V., B.Tech. May 2012, May 2005; M.e.A. Dec. 2005)
GRAPHS 503
Proof. Use induction on the number of edges to prove this theorem.
Assume that the edges e = 1. Then we have two cases) graphs of which are shown in
Figs. 1 1.156 and 11.157.

o
Fig. 11.156 Fig. 11.157
In Fig. 11.156 we have V = 2 and R = 1. Thus 2 + 1 - 1 = 2
In Fig. 1 1.157 we have V = 1 and R = 2. Thus 1 + 2 - 1 = 2. Hence. the result holds for
e = 1.
Let us assume that the formula holds for connected planar graphs with K edges.
Let G be a graph with K + 1 edges.
Firstly) we suppose that G contains no circuits. Now) take a vertex v and find a path
starting at v. Since G is circuit free) whenever we find an edge) we have a new vertex. At last
we will reach a vertex v with degree 1. So we cannot move further as shown in Fig. 11.158.
Now remove vertex v and the corresponding edge incident on v . So) we are left with a
graph G* having K edges as shown in Fig. 1 1.159.

G G'

Fig. 11.158. G. Fig. 11.159. G* .

Hence) by inductive assumption) Euler's formula holds for G*.
Now, since G has one more edge than G\ one more vertex than G* with same number
of regions as in G*. Hence, the formula also holds for G.
Secondly, we assume that G contains a circuit and e is an edge in the circuit shown in
Fig. 11.160.
504 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

v , ....
--------- �V2 v , ..
--------- .... v2

V3 �------e V4 V3 __
--------- __ V4
Fig. 11.160 Fig. 11.161
Now) as e is the part of a boundary for two regions. So) we only remove the edge and we
are left with graph G* having K edges (Fig. 1 1.161).
Hence) by inductive assumption) Euler's formula holds for G*.
Now, since G has one more edge than G\ one more region than G* with same number
of vertices as G*. Hence the formula also holds for G which, verifies the inductive step and
hence proves the theorem.
Example 26. Show that V E + R = 2 for the connected planar graphs shown
- m

Figs. 11.162 and 11.163.

a c e 9

b d h

Fig. 11.162 Fig. 11.163

Sol. (i) The graph shown in Fig. 11.162 contains vertices V = 10, edges E = 9 and
regions R = 1. Putting the values, we have 10 9 + 1 = 2. Hence proved.
-

(ii) The graph shown in Fig. 11.163 contains vertices V = 8, edges E = 15 and regions R
= 9. Putting the values, we have 8 15 + 9 = 2. Hence proved.
-

1 1 .49. NON PLANAR GRAPHS

A graph is said to be non planar if it cannot be drawn in a plane so that no edges cross.
For example : The graphs shown in Figs. 11.164 and 1 1.165 are non planar graphs.
GRAPHS 505

a 'O:------At

c d

d iE,-----..,.

Fig. 11.164 Fig. 11.165

These graphs cannot be drawn in a plane so that no edges cross hence they are non
planar graphs.
1 1 .50. PROPERTIES OF NON PLANAR GRAPHS

A graph is non-planar if and only if it contains a subgraph

homeomorphic to K5 or K3. 3 [KURATOWSKI'S THEOREM] .
Example 27. Show that K5 is non-planar. Fig. 1 1 . 1 66.
Sol. Clearly K5 is a connected. Also we show K5 is non planar.
For)
v = 5, e = 10
If) K5 is planar then) e <: 3v - 6
=> 10 <: 3(5) - 6 Fig. 11. 166
=> 10 <: 15 - 6
10 :::; 9) a contradiction
The graph K5 is non planar.
- 6 does not hold, then G is always non planar. But if this condition holds, then
we can not conclude that G is planar.
Remark. If e :S; 3v

Example 28. Show that the graphs shown in Figs. 1 1 . 1 67 and 11.168 are non-planar by
finding a subgraph homeomorphic to K5 or K3• 3.

V3 �---V--+----��- 4

Fig. 11. 167. Gj. Fig. 11.168. G2.

Sol. If we remove the edges (VI' V4), (V3' V4) and (V5' V4), the graph Gj becomes
homeomorphic to K5. Hence it is non planar.
506 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

If we remove the edge (V2' V7)' the graph G2 becomes homeomorphic to K3' 3' Hence it is
non-planar.
Theorem. Prove that every planar graph has at least one vertex of degree 5 or less
than 5.
Proof. Consider a graph G) whose all vertices are of degree 6 or more) then the sum of
the degrees of all the vertices would be greater than or equal to 6v. We know that the sum of
the degrees of the vertices is twice the number of edges. Therefore) we have
6v <: 2e
e
or <­
v- ... (1)
3
But, any planar graph have the property,
2e
<­
r- ... (2)
3
Also) from Euler's formula, we have
2=v-e+r ... (3)
Now, putting the value of v and r from (1) and (2) in (3), we have
e 2e
2 <: - - e + - = 0
3 3
Since, the statement 2 :::; 0 is not true, hence we conclude that there must exist some
vertex in G with degree 5 or less than 5.
Example 29. Let G = [V, EJ be a graph having at least 11 vertices. Prove that G or its
complement G is non planar.
Sol. Let if possible, G and G are planar. We know that G and G have same number of
vertices say, n. . . we have n ;::: 11
Now

n(n - 1)
E + I E I = set of edges in Kn = ... (1)
2
Since G and G are planar
I E I <: 3n - 6, E I <: 3n - 6
=> I E I + I E I <: 3n - 6 + 3n - 6
n(n - 1)
<: 6n 12
_
I Using (1)
2
n(n - 1) <: 12n - 24, which is not true for n :> 1 1
Hence G or G is non-planar.
GRAPHS 507

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1 1 .2

L Consider the graph shown in the given Fig. I. A

(a) Find all simple paths from A to F.
(b) All Trials (distinct edges) from A to F.
(c) d(A, F), the distance from A to F.
(d) Diam (G), the diameter of G.
(e) All cycles which include vertex A. D E F
(j) All cycles in G. Fig. I
2. Consider the graph shown in the given Fig. II Find.
(a) All sample paths from A to G. A B c D
(b) All trials (distinct edges) from B to C.
(c) d(A, C), the distance from A to C.
(d) Diam G, the diameter of G.
Find the adjacency matrix A :::: {ai) of the graphs shown E F G H
below : Fig. II
3.

", r-------,, "4 ", -----"7 "4

"2 "3 "2 "3

(a) (b)
4. Draw the graph G corresponding to each adjacency matrix.

(a) A =
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
(b) A = [� �l3 0
0 1
1 2
1 2

5. (a) Consider the graph (Fig. I) G show in the given figure. Verify Euler Theorem i.e., V + R - E :::: 2.
B
A B c D
A�--�----�� C

E F G H
D

Fig. l. Fig. II.

(b) Verify Euler Theorem i.e V + R - E = 2 for the graph Fig. II.
.•
508 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
6. Consider each graph as shown below :

(a) (b) (c)

(i) Which of the graphs (a) , (b), (c) has Euler path ? Which have Euler circuit. If not, explain
why ?
(ii) Which of the graphs (a), (b), (c) have a Hamiltonian circuit ? If not, explain why ?
7. (a) Verify Euler's formula for the following graphs :

(b) Show that if G is a bipartite simple graph with vertical and e edges, then e :::: "4 .
u
u

(P. T. U., M. e.A. Dec 2006)

(a) (b) (c)

8. Let G be a finite connected planner graph with at least three vertices. Show that G has at least
one vertex of degree 5 or less.
(a) Suppose a graph G contains two distinct paths from a vertex a to a vertex b. Show that G has
a cycle.
9.

(b) If a graph G has more than two vertices of odd degree, then prove that there can be no Euler
Path. M
(P.T. U., B.Tech. ay 2008)
10. Show that a connected graph G with n vertices must have atleast (n - 1) edges.
GRAPHS 509
11. Consider each graph G in the given figures:
B

A�---7B

A �--+---�--� C B
C �-*---7 D
D
EL----.3.IF
(a) (b)
(i) Find an Euler path or Euler circuit, if it exists. If not, explain why ?
(ii) Find a Hamilton path or a Hamilton circuit, ifit exists. If not, explain why ?
12. Draw the following graphs
(a) K" 5
, (b) K4 (c) K2, 3
13. If G is a simple, connected and planner graph with more than one edge, then

aXb
(i) 2 I E I ;> 3 I R I
�
(ii) II EV II ) the
3 I Vnumber
- I 6, where I E I denotes the number of edges, I R I ) the number of regions and
of vertices.
14. Show that Ks, 3 is non-planar graph.
15. Does the graph shown below has a Hamiltonian circuit?
(P, T. u,. Tech, Dec,
B 2012)
c d
Answers Fig. Q.15
1. (a) There are seven simple paths from A to F,
A� B � C � F, A �B � C � E � F,
A� B � E � C � F, A � D � E � F,
A�D � E � B � C � F, A �D � E � C � F
(b) There are nine trials. The seven simple paths of part and (a)
A�D � E � B � C � E � F; A� D � E � C � B � E � F
(c) d(A, F) 3 � �
(d) d(G) 3
(e) There are three cycles including the vertex A;
A�B � E � D; A� B � C � E � D � � A � B � C � F � E � D � A
if) There are six cycles in G. The three cycles are of part (e) and
B � C � E � B; C � F � E � C;B � C � F � E � B
2. (a) ABG, ABFG, AEBG, AEBFG (b) BGC, BFGC, BAEBGC, BAEBFGC
(c) d(A, C) 3 � �
(d) dim(G) 4

� II
[0 1 1
[0 00
3. (a) A � �
� �
(b) A o 2
1 1 1 1
510 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

4. (a) (b)

6. (a) Has Euler path (b) Has Euler circuit

(c) Has not Euler path
1 1. (L) (a) Is Eulerian since all vertices are even. The Eulerian path is ABCDEACEBDA
(b) Not an Eulerian Path, not an Eulerian circuit
(c) Has Eulerian path, BADCBED
(i,) (a) ABCDEA (b) ABCDEFA
(c) has not Hamilton path and Hamilton circuit
1L M (�

V2 V3

Hints
5. Here deg(A) = 3, deg(B) = 3, deg(C) = 4, deg(D) = 2, deg(E) = 2
Sum of degrees :::: 3 + 3 + 4 + 2 + 2 :::: 14
Also number of edges :::: 7
6. A graph G has an Euler path or 2 vertices have odd degree. A graph G has an Euler circuit
iff 0
if all the vertices are of even degree.
13. (a) Assume I E I > 1. If G has only one region (unbounded), then I R I = 1.
Since I E I > 1 => I E I �2
2 l E I � 3 l R l is true
GRAPHS 51 1
If I R I > 1, then each region is bounded by at least 3 edges. But in a planar graph, each edge
touches at most 2 region. Thus 2 I E I ;::.: 3 I R I
(b) From Part (a), we have
2 1 E I �3 1 R I � I R I <; "32 I E 1
I V I + I R I <; "32 I E I + I V I
I E I + 2 <; "32 I E I + I V I I Euler's formula
3 1 E I + 6 <; 2 I E I + 3 I V I
1 E 1 <; 3 1 V 1 - 6.
14. IfKSa3 is a planar graph, then we must have 2 I E I ;::.: 3 I R I . Where each region is bounded by
at le st three edges. But for K3, 3' each region is bounded by at least 4 edges . . We have
2 1 E I �4 1 R I
2 1 E 1 � 4 { I E 1 - 1 V 1 + 2) I Euler's formula
2 x 9 � 4 (9 - 6 + 2) For K3• 3 , 1 E 1 = 9, 1 V 1 = 6
18 ;::.: 20, a contradiction
Hence Ks, 3 is non-planar.
No, the graph does not contain Hamiltonian circuit. Since ;::.: n2 -Sn + 6 does not hold.
15. e
2
1 1 .51 . GRAPH COLOURING
Suppose that G = (y, E) is a graph with no multiple edges. A vertex colouring of G is an
assignment of colours to the vertices of G such that adjacent vertices have different colours. A
graph G is M·colourable if there exists a colouring of G which uses M·colours.
Proper Colouring, A colouring is proper if any two adjacent vertices and v have u

different colours otherwise it is called improper colouring.

A graph can be coloured by assigning a different colour to each of its vertices. However)
for most graphs a colouring can be found that uses fewer colours than the number of vertices
in the graph.
1 1 .52. CHROMATIC NUMBER OF G
(P.T. U B.Tech. Dec. 2013. May 2006. Dec. 2005; M.C.A. May 2007)
.•

The minimum number of colours needed to produce a proper

colouring of a graph G is called the chromatic number of G and is
denoted by X(G).
The graph shown in Fig.1 1.169 is minimum 3·colourable, hence
X (G) = 3.
Similarly, for the complete graph K,; we need six colours to
colour K6 since every vertex is adjacent to e�ery other vertex and we
need a different colour for each vertex. :. The chromatic number for
K6 is X(K6) = 6. Similarly, the chromatic number of Kl O is x(K,ol = 10.
Fig. 11.169
512 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. The chromatic number of Kn is n. (P.T.V., B.Tech. Dec. 2012)

Sol. A colouring of Kn can be constructed using n colours by assigning a different colour
to each vertex. No two vertices can be assigned the same colour, since every two vertices of
this graph are adjacent. Hence the chromatic number of Kn = n.
Example 2. The chromatic number ofcomplete bipartite graph Km. n where m and n are
,

positive integers is two. (P.T.V., B.Tech. Dec. 20 1 3)

Sol. The number of colours needed does not depend upon m and n. However, only two
colours are needed to colour the set of m vertices with one colour and the set of n vertices with
a second colour. Since, edges connect only a vertex from the set of m vertices and a vertex from
the set of n vertices, no two adjacent vertices have the same colour.
Note L Every connected bipartite simple graph has a chromatic number of 2 or l.
2. Conversely, every graph with a chromatic number of 2 is bipartite.

Example 3. The chromatic number of graph cn' where cn is the cycle with n vertices is
either 2 or 3. (P.T.V., B.Tech. Dec. 20 1 3)
Sol. Two colours are needed to colour cn ' when n is even. To construct such a colouring,
simply pick a vertex and colour it black. Then move around the graph in clockwise direction
colouring the second vertex white, the third vertex black, and so on. The nth vertex can be
coloured white since the two vertices adjacent to it, namely the (n - l)th and the first are both
coloured black as shown in Fig. 1 1 . 1 70.
d
White

c Black

b White 9

Black White
a h

Fig. 11.170
When n is odd and n > 1, the chromatic number of cn is 3. To construct such a colouring,
pick an initial vertex. First use only two colours and alternate colours as the graph is tra­
versed in a clockwise direction. However, the nth vertex reached is adjacent to two vertices of
different colours, the first and (n - l)th. Hence, a third colour is needed. (Fig. 1 1 .171)
GRAPHS 513

White

C Black Black e

b White White

Black Red

3 9

Fig. 11.171
Theorem I. The following are equivalent for a graph G :
(i) G is 2-colourable
(ii) G is bipartite
(iii) Every cycle of G has even length.
Proof. (i) => (ii)
If G is 2-colourable, then G has two sets of vertices V, and V2 with different colours, say,
red and blue respectively.
Since no vertices of VI or V2 are adjacent (being of same colour)
. . (VI' V) is a partition of G => G is bipartite.
(ii) => (iii)
Let G be bipartite and [VI' V2] be partition of vertices of G. Let x E V, be any vertex and
a cycle begins atx. Join this vertex to another vertex) say) y E V2 and then to a vertex in VI and
so on. This cycle will return to x E V, after it gets completed and will be of even length. (Since
G is a bipartite graph). Hence G has no odd cycle.
(iii) => (i)
Let each cycle in G is even. Let some vertex) say) x is coloured red) then its adjacent
vertex will have different colour) say, blue, and its adjacent vertex will have red colour because
every cycle has even length.
. . sequence of vertices of even cycles is RBR, RBRBR and so on.
Thus only two colours are used to colour the graph.
G is 2-colourable.
Example 4. Determine the chromatic number of the graphs shown in Fig. 1 1 . 1 72.

32 32

3, 3,
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.172
514 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Sol. The graphs shown in Fig. l1.172(a), has the chromatic number X(G) = 2.
The graph shown in Fig. l1.172(b) has the chromatic number X(G) = 2, when n is an
even number and X(G) = 3, where n is odd.
Theorem II. Ifan undirected graph has a subgraph K3• then its chromatic number is at
least three.
Proof. Let G be an undirected graph. As G contains a complete graph K3, which is 3·
colourable. . . G cannot be coloured with one or two colours
IJf(G) :> 3.
Four Colour Theorem. Every planar graph is four colourable.
Five Colour Theorem. Every planar graph has chromatic number S 5.
Theorem III. The vertices of every planar graph can be properly coloured with five
colours.
Proof. We will prove this theorem by induction. All the graphs with 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5
vertices can be properly coloured with five colours. Now let us assume that every planar graph
with n - 1 vertices can be properly coloured with five colours. Next) if we prove that any planar
graph G with n vertices will require no more than five colours) we have done.
Consider the planar graph G with n vertices.
Since G is planar) it must have at least one vertex with degree five or less as shown in
theorem V. Assume this vertex to be 'u'.
Let G, be a graph of n - 1 vertices obtained from G by deleting vertex 'u'. The G, graph
requires no more than five colours (Induction hypothesis). Consider that the vertices in G,
have been properly coloured and now add to it 'u' and all the edges incident on u. If the degree
of u is 1, 2, 3, or 4, a proper colour to u can be easily assigned.
Now, we have one case left, in which the degree of u is 5, and all the 5 colours have been
used in colouring the vertices adjacent to u, as shown in Fig. 11.173.

V,
V
o
Colour 1 Colour 2

Colour 5
V2
V3
Colour 3
Colour 4

Fig. 11.173
Suppose that there is a path in G, between vertices Vo and v3 coloured alternately with
colours 1 and 4 as shown in Fig. 11.174.
GRAPHS 515

V
Colour 4 o
Colour 1
Colour 2
v4
Colour 5 u v2
Colour 3
Colour 1
Colour 4
V3
Colour 4
Colour 1

Fig. 11.174
Then a similar path between v, and v" coloured alternately with colours 5 and 3, can
not exist ; otherwise, these two paths will intersect and cause G to be non-planar.
Thus, ifthere is no path between v, and v, coloured alternately with colour 5 and 3 of all
vertices connected to v, through vertices of alternating colours 5 and 3. This interchange will
colour vertex v, with colour 5 and yet keep G, properly coloured. As vertex v, is still with
colour 5, the colour 3 is left over with which to colour vertex u which proves the theorem.
Example 5_ Consider the following graphs

Fig. 11.175. Fig. 11.176

(a) which graph(s) are bipartite graphs ? Colour the vertices of the bipartite graph.
(b) If graph is not bipartite,justify your answer.
SoL Consider the graph shown in Fig. 1 1 . 177 Let V, = [R, R, R], V, = [E, E, E]
Let V be the set of vertices of the given graph such that V = V, U V, and V, " V, = <I>
Hence V can be partitioned into two sets V, of red colours and V, of blue colours.
516 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

.. This graph is a bipartite graph .

R

R B
B B R

R R R B
B B R

Fig. 11.177 Fig. 11.178

(b) However, the graph shown in Fig. 1 1. 178 is not a bipartite graph as it is not 2·
colourable. If we try to label the vertices using two colours red (R) and Blue (B), we get the
graph (Fig 1 1 . 1 78) with adjacent vertices of same colour.
Example 6. Consider the graph (Fig. 11.1 79) G shown below.
(a) Find the shortest and longest simple path between A and F
(b) What is the diameter of the graph ? B
(c) Is there Euler's path in G?
(d) Is G planar and connected?
(e) Find chromatic number of G. C

Sol. (a) The shortest path between A and F is A, D, E, F. It

is of length 3.
The longest path between A and F is A, D, E, B, C, F. It is of
length 6. E
(b) We know that the diameter of a graph is the maximum Fig. 11.179
distance between any two vertices.
:. diameter (G) = 3
(c) Since the vertices B and C are of odd degree.
:. G has an Euler path between B and C.
(d) Since no two edges in the graph intersect and there B (B)
is a path between each pair of vertices.
:. G is connected and planar
(e) Consider the subgraph EBC(K,)
:. The chromatic number of the graph is 2: 3
But three colours are sufficient to paint the vertices
property (see Fig. 11.180). A(Red), B(Blue), C(Red), D(Green),
E(Green), F(Blue)
E (G)
:. required chromatic number = 3
Fig. 11.180
GRAPHS 517

Example 7. Write any three applications of colouring ofgraph.

(P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2009)
Sol. (i) Scheduling. Vertex coloring models to a number of scheduling problems. In
the cleanest form, a given set of jobs need to be assigned to time slots, each job requires one
such slot. Jobs can be scheduled in any order, but pairs of jobs may be in conflict in the sense
that they may not be assigned to the same time slot, because they both rely on a shared
resource. The corresponding graph contains a vertex for every job and an edge for every
conflicting pair of jobs. The chromatic number of the graph is exactly the minimum makespan,
the optimal time to finish all jobs without conflicts.
Details of the scheduling problem define the structure of the graph. For example, when
assigning aircrafts in band with allocation to radio stations, the resulting conflict graph is a
unit disk graph, so the coloring problem is 3·approximable.
(ii) Register allocation. A compiler is a computer program that translates one computer
language into another. To improve the execution time of the resulting code, one of the techniques
of compiler optimization is register allocation, where the most frequently used values of the
compiled program are kept in the fast processor register. Ideally, values are assigned to registers
so that they can all reside in the registers when they are used.
The textbook approach to this problem is to model it as a graph coloring problem.
The compiler constructs an interference graph, were vertices are symbolic registers and an
edge connects two nodes if they are needed at the same time. If the graph can be colored with
k color, then the variables can be stored in k registers.
(iii) Other applications. The problem of coloring a graph has found a number of
applications, including pattern matching. The recreational puzzle Sudoku can be seen as com­
pleting a 9·coloring on given specific graph with 81 vertices.
1 1 .53. APPLICATIONS OF GRAPH THEORY
1 1 .53 . 1 . Shortest Path in Weighted Graphs (P.T. U., B.Tech. May 2007)
Weighted graphs can be used to represent highways connecting the different cities. The
weighted edges represent the distance between different cities and the vertices represent the
cities. A common problem with this type of graph is to find the shortest path from one city to
another city. There are many ways to tackle this problem one of which is as follows :
Shortest Paths from Single Source. We will find shortest paths from a single vertex
to all other vertices of the graph. The first algorithm was proposed by E. Dijkstra in 1959.
Some common terms related with this algorithm are as follows :
Path Length. The length of a path is the sum of the weights of the edges on that path.
Source. The starting vertex of the graph from which we have to start to find the short·
est path.
Destination. The terminal or last vertex upto which we have to find the path.

1 1 .54. DIJKSTRA'S ALGORITHM FOR SHORTEST PATH (P.T. U., M.G.A. Dec. 2005)
This algorithm maintains a set of vertices whose shortest path from source is already
known. The graph is represented by its cost adjacency matrix, where cost being the weight of
the edge. In the cost adjacency matrix of the graph, all the diagonal values are zero. If there is
no path from source vertex Vs to any other vertex Vi' then it is represented by + In this
00.

algorithm, we have assumed all weights are positive.

1. Initially there is no vertex in sets.
2. Include the source vertex V, in S. Determine all the paths from V, to all other vertices
without going through any other vertex.
518 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

3. Now, include that vertex in S which is nearest to V, and find shortest paths to all the
vertices through this vertex and update the values.
4. Repeat the step 3 until n - 1 vertices are not included in S if there are n vertices in
the graph.
After completion of the process, we get the shortest paths to all the vertices from the
source vertex.
Example 8. Find the shortest path between K and L in the graph shown in Fig. 11. 181
by using Dijkstra's Algorithm.
a 7 b

K�---+----�--���� L

c 6 d

Fig. 11.181
Sol. Step I. Include the vertex K in S and determine all the direct paths from K to all
other vertices without going through any other vertex.
S Distance to all other vertices
K a b d c L
K o 4(K) 2(K) 20(K)
Step II. Include the vertex in S which is nearest to K and determine shortest paths to
all vertices through this vertex and update the values. The nearest vertex is c.

S Distance to all other vertices

K a b d c L
K, c 0 3(K, ) c 7(K, ) 2(K)
c 8(K, ) 18(K, ) c c

Step III. The vertex which is 2nd nearest to K is a, included in S.

S Distance to all other vertices
K a b d c L
o 3(K, )c 7(K, )
c 2(K) 7(K, c, a) 18(K, ) c

Step IV. The vertex which is 3rd nearest to K is b, is included in S.

S Distance to all other vertices
K a b dc L
o 3(K, ) c 7(K, ) 2(K)
c 7(K, a) c, 8(K, b)
c,

Step V. The vertex which is next nearest to K is d, is included in S.

S Distance to all other vertices
K a b d c L
K, a, b, d
c, o 3(K, )c 7(K, )
c 2(K) 7(K, c, a) 8(K, b).
c,
GRAPHS 519

Since) n 1 vertices included in S. Hence we have found the shortest distance from K to
-

all other vertices.

Thus, the shortest distance between K and L is 8 and the shortest path is K, b, L. c,

Example 9. Find the shortest path between a and z in the graph shown in Fig. 1 1 . 1 82.

b 3 e

2 2

a z
c

4 2 3

d 4

Fig. 11.182
Sol. Step I. Include the vertex a in S and determine all the direct paths from a to all
other vertices without going through any other vertices.
S Distance to all other vertices
a a b c d e f z

o 2 (a) l(a) 4(a)

Step II. Include the vertex in S which is nearest to a and determine shortest path to all
the vertices through this vertex. The nearest vertex is c.

S Distance to all other vertices

a, c a b c d e f z

o 2 (a) l(a) 3(a, ) 6(a, )

c c 8(a, ) c

Step III. Include the vertex in S which is 2nd nearest to S and determine shortest path
to all the vertices through this vertex. The 2nd nearest vertex is b.
S Distance to all other vertices
a, b c, a b c d e f z

0 2 (a) l(a) 3(a, ) c

5(a, b) 8(a, ) c =

Step IV. Next vertex included in S is d.

S Distance to all other vertices
c,
a, b, d a b c d e f z

0 2 (a) l(a) 3(a, ) c

5(a, b) 7(a, ) c =

Step V. Next vertex included in S is e.

S Distance to all other vertices
c,
a, b, d, e a b cd e f z

0 2 (a) 1 (a) 3(a, ) c

5(a, b) 7(a, )
c 6(a, b, e)
Step VI. Next vertex included in S is f.
520 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

S Distance to all over vertices

a, c, b, d, e, f a b c d e f z

o 2(a) 1 (a) 3(a, c) 5(a, b) 7(a, c) 6(a, b, e).

This ends our procedure as n 1 vertices are included in S. Thus) the shortest distance
-

between a and z is 6 and the shortest path is a, b, e, z.

Example 10. Using either breadth first search algorithm or Dijkstra's algorithm, find
the shortest path from s to t in the following weighted graph. (Fig. 11.183)

14
23
s
20�� __oo__
__��

Fig. 11.183
Sol. Let S be the set of vertices of the given weighted graph. i.e., S = {s, a, b, c, d, t} as
shown in the Fig. 11.184.

Fig. 11.184
Step I. Include the vertex s in S and determine all the direct paths from s to all other
vertices without going through any other vertex.
S Distance to all other vertices
s a b c d
8 o 23(8) 20(s)
Step II. Include the vertex in S which is nearest to s and determine shortest paths to
all vertices through this vertex and update the values. The nearest vertex is C.
S Distance to all other vertices
s a b c d
s, c o 23(s) 39 (s,c) 20(s) 42(s, c)
Step III. The vertex which is 2nd nearest to 8 is a. Include this vertex in S
S Distance to all other vertices
s a b c d
S, C,
a o 23(s) 37(s, a) 20(s) 42(s, c)
Step IV. The vertex which is 3rd nearest to s is b. Include this vertex in S.
S Distance to all other vertices
s a b c d
S, c, a, b o 23(8) 37(s, a) 20(s) 40(8, a) 63(s, a, b)
GRAPHS 521

Step V. The vertex which is next nearest to s is (d). Include this vertex in S.
S Distance to all other vertices
s a b c d
S,c, a, b, d o 23(s) 37(s, a) 20(s) 40(s, a) 63(s, a, b)
Since n - 1 = S vertices are included in S. Hence we have found the shortest distance
from s to all other vertices. Thus, the shortest distance between s and t is 63 and the shortest
path is s, a, b, t.
Example 11. Show that e :> 3 V - 6 for the connected planar graphs shown in Figs.
1 1 .185 and 11. 186.

Fig. 11.185 Fig. 11.186

Sol. (i) The graph shown in Fig. 11.185 contains vertices V = 8 and edges e = 17. Putting
the values we have e = 3 x 8 - 6 = 18 :> 17. Hence proved.
(ii) The graph shown in Fig. 11.186 contains vertices V = 5 and edges e = 6. Putting the
values, we have 3 x 5 - 6 = 11 > 6. Hence proved.

I TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 1 1 .3

L Find the chromatic numbers of the following graphs.

(a) (b) 0
*
(d)

(g) Complete bipartite graph KS,4

�� (P.T.U., B.Tech. May 2013)
522 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

2. Find the shortest path, by using either Breadth first search or Dijkstra's algorithm, from P to Q
in the following weighted graph.

3. Find the chromatic number of the following graphs.

4. Find the shortest path and its length from to by using Dijkstra's algorithm in the following
s t
graph.
(a)
A 3 D 4

C 6 F 4
(b)
a 7 b
2

s 3
e 6

3
c 4 d

Answers
L (a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 3 (d) 3 (e) 2 (j) 4 (g) 2 2. P Aj A2 A, A3 A6 Q.
3. 2 4. (a) s - A - D E H
- - - t. length = 13
(b) r- C - d - t.
GRAPHS 523

MULTI PLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)

1. Which of the following statement is FALSE about undirected graphs?

(a) The sum of degrees of all the vertices in a graph is even.
(b) There is an even number of vertices of odd degree.
(c) The degree of a vertex is the number of edges incident on it.
(d) The self loop is counted once, when degree is counted.
2. How many edges do a complete graph contains having n vertices?
(a) 2n (b) 2n/2
(c) n(n - 1)/2 (d) Any number of edges.
3. Which of the following is FALSE statement about planar graphs?
(a) A complete graph of five or more vertices is not a planar graph.
(b) A complete bipartite graph having m :> 3 and n :> 3 is a planar graph.
(c) Every planar graph has at least one vertex of degree 5 or less than 5.
(d) Every planar graph having edges and v vertices has 3v - e :> 6.
e

4. The chromatic number of a complete graph Kn is

(a) n - 1 (b) n
(c) 2 (d) Any number.
5. Which of the following bipartite graph has Hamiltonian circuit?
(a) K" 2 (b) K2, 3
(c) K3, 3 5
(d) K3,
6. Which of the following statement about the directed graphs is not TRUE?
(a) The in·degree and the out·degree of the directed graphs are equal.
(b) The in·degree and out·degree is not same as the number of edges.
(c) The sum of in·degree and out·degree is even.
(d) The self loop has one in·degree and one out·degree in the directed graph.
7. Suppose you run Dijkstra's single source shortest path algorithm on the following
weighted directed graph with vertex 0 as the source vertex

In what order do the nodes get included into the set of vertices for which the shortest
path distances are finalized?
(a) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 (b) 0, 4, 1, 3, 2
(c) 0, 4, 3, 2, 1 (d) 0, 1, 4, 3, 2
8. How many edges are there in a graph with 20 vertices and the sum of the degrees (in·
degree and out·degree) is 100?
(a) 50 (b) 100
(c) 20 (d) 40
524 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

9. If G is a directed graph with 10 vertices, how many Boolean values will be needed to
represent G using an adjacency matrix?
(a) 50 (b) 100
(c) 200 (d) 1000
10. Which of the following is Not TRUE about the directed graphs?
(a) If a digraph is reflexive, then the diagonal elements of the adjacency matrix are 1.
(b) If G is a simple digraph whose adjacency matrix is A then the adjacency matrix of
GC, is the transpose of A.
(c) The diagonal elements of A . AT show the out degree of the vertices.
(d) The adjacency matrix of a directed graph is a symmetric matrix.
Answers and Explanation
1. (d) The self loop is counted twice, when degree is counted.
2. (c) The number of edges in a complete graph is n(n - 1)/2
3. (b) A complete bipartite graph having m :> 3 and n :> 3 is not a planar graph.
4. (b) The chromatic number of a complete graph of n vertices is n.
5. (c) K3• 3 has Hamiltonian circuit.
6. (b) The in·degree and out·degree is same as the number of edges.
7. (b) Apply the algorithm and it will be 0, 4, 1, 3, 2
8. (a) One edge contributes two degree.
9. (b) The adjacency matrix is of N x N dimension, where n is the number of vertices.
10. (d) The adjacency matrix of a directed graph is not a symmetric matrix.
 12 TREES

1 2. 1 . INTRODUCTION
In this chapter. we will discuss a special class of graphs. called trees. The concept of
trees is frequently used in both mathematics and sciences. To understand the concept of trees)
it is essential to know the various common types of trees. Their basic properties and applica­
tions.
1 2.2. TREE
A graph which has no cycle is called an acyclic graph. A tree is an acyclic graph or graph
having no cycles.
A tree or general tree is defined as a non-empty finite set of elements called vertices or
nodes having the property that each node can have minimum degree 1 and maximum degree
n. It can be partitioned into n + 1 disjoint subsets such that the first subset contains the root
of the tree and the remaining n subsets contains the elements of the n subtree. (Fig. 12.1)

Fig. 12.1. General Tree.

1 2.3. DIRECTED TREES
A directed tree is an acyclic directed graph. It has one node with indegree 1, while all
other nodes have indegree 1 as shown in Figs. 12.2 and 12.3.

525
526 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Directed trees

Fig. 12.2

Fig. 12.3
The node which has outdegree 0 is called an external node or a terminal node or a leaf.
The nodes which has outdegree greater than or equal to one are called internal nodes or branch
nodes.
1 2.4. ORDERED TREES
If in a tree at each level) an ordering is defined, then such a tree is called an ordered
tree.
e.g., the trees shown in Figs. 12.4 and 12.5 represent the same tree but have different orders.

Fig. 12.4 Fig. 12.5

TREES 527

1 2.5. ROOTED TREES

If a directed tree has exactly one node or vertex called root whose incoming degree is 0
and all other vertices have incoming degree one, then the tree is called rooted tree.
* A tree with no nodes is a rooted tree (the empty tree).
* A single node with no children is a rooted tree.
Example. Suppose 8 people enter a Badminton tournament use a rooted tree model of
the tournament to determine how many games must be played to determine a champion if a
player is eliminated after one loss. (P.T.V. B.Tech. May 2009)
Sol. As there are 8 people in the badminton tournament, there will be four games to be
played in the first round two games to be played in the second round, one game to be played in
the final round
Hence, total number of games in the tournament is 7. (See Fig. 12.6).

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Players
Fig. 12.6

1 2.6. PATH LENGTH OF A VERTEX

The path length of a vertex in a rooted tree is defined to be the number of edges in the
path from the root to the vertex.
For example, we find the path lengths of the nodes b, f, I, q in Fig. 12. 7a.

Fig. 12.7a Fig. 12.7b

The path length of node b is one.

The path length of node f is two.
The path length of node I is three.
The path length of node q is four.
Theorem I. Prove that there is one and only one path between every pair of vertices in a
tree T.
528 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Proof. We know that T is a connected graph, in which there must exist at least one
path between every pair of vertices. Now assume that there exists two different paths from
some node a to some node b of T. The union of these two paths will contain a cycle and therefore
T cannot be a tree. Hence, there is only one path between every pair of vertices in a tree.
1 2.7. FOREST
If the root and the corresponding edges connecting the nodes are deleted from a tree, we
obtain a set of disjoint trees. This set of disjoint trees is called a forest. (Fig. 12.7b)
1 2.8. BINARY TREE
If the outdegree of every node is less than or equal to 2, in a directed tree then the tree
is called a binary tree. A tree consisting of no nodes (empty tree) is also a binary tree.
1 2.9. BASIC TERMINOLOGY
(a) Root. A binary tree has a unique node called the root of the tree.
(b) Left Child. The node to the left of the root is called its left child.
(c) Right Child. The node to the right of the root is called its right child.
(d) Parent. A node having left child or right child or both is called parent of the nodes.
(e) Siblings. Two nodes having the same parent are called siblings.
if) Leaf. A node with no children is called a leaf. The number of leaves in a binary tree
can vary from one (minimum) to half the number of vertices (maximum) in a tree.
(g) Ancestor. If a node is the parent of another node, then it is called ancestor of that
node. The root is an ancestor of every other node in the tree.
(h) Descendent. A node is called descendent of another node if it is the child of the
node or child of some other descendent of that node. All the nodes in the tree are descendents
of the root.
(i) Left Subtree. The subtree whose root is the left child of some node is called the left
subtree of that node.
(j) Right Subtree. The subtree whose root is the right child of some node is called the
right subtree of that node.
(k) Level of a Node. The level of a node is its distance from the root. The level of root is
defined as zero. The level of all other nodes is one more than its parent node. The maximum
number of nodes at any level N is 2N
(l) Depth or Height of a Tree. The depth or height of a tree is defined as the maximum
number of nodes in a branch of tree. This is one more than the maximum level of the tree i.e.,
the depth of root is one. The maximum number of nodes in a binary tree of depth d is 2d - 1,
where d :> 1.
(m) External Nodes. The nodes which has no children are called external nodes or
terminal nodes.
(n) Internal Nodes. The nodes which has one or more than one children are called
internal nodes or non-terminal nodes.
Theorem II. Let G be a graph with more than one vertex. Then the following are equiva-
lent :
(i) G is a tree.
(ii) Each pair of vertices is connected by exactly one simple path.
(iii) G is connected, but if any edge is deleted then the resulting graph is not connected.
TREES 529

(iv) G is cycle tree, but if any edge is added to the graph then the resulting graph has
exactly one cycle.
Proof. To prove this theorem, we prove that (i) => (ii), (ii) => (iii), (iii) => (iv) and finally
(iv) => (i). The complete proof is as follows :
(i) ::::::} (ii) Let us assume two vertices u and v in G. Since G is a tree, so G is connected
and there is at least one path between u and v. More over, there can be only one path between
u and v, otherwise G will contain a cycle.
(ii) => (iii) Let us delete an edge e = (u, v) from G. It means e is a path from u to v.
Suppose the graph result from G e has a path p from u to v. Then P and e are two distinct
-

paths from u to v, which is a contradiction of our assumption. Thus, there does not exist a path
between u and v in G e, so G e is disconnected.
- -

(iii) => (iv) Let us suppose that G contains a cycle c which contains an edge e = {u, v}. By
hypothesis, G is connected but G' = G e is disconnected with u and v belonging to different
-

components of G'. This contradicts the fact that u and v are connected by the path P = C e, -

which lies in Q'. Hence G is cycle free.

Now, Let us take two vertices x and y of G and let H be the graph p
obtained by adjoining the edge e = {x, y} to G. Since G is connected, there c
is a path P from x to y in G ; hence C = Pe forms a cycle in H. Now
suppose H contains another cycle C1 0 Since G is cycle free, C1 must con­
tain the edge e, say C, = P,e. C,
Then P and P, are two paths in G from x to y as shown in Fig. 1. p'
Fig. I
Thus, G contains a cycle, which contradicts the fact that G is cycle free.
Hence H contains only one cycle.
(iv) => (i) By adding any edge C = (x, y) to G produces a cycle, the vertices x and y must
be connected already in G. Thus, G is connected and is cycle is free i.e., G is a tree.
Theorem III. Let G be a finite graph with n > 1 vertices. Then the following are
equivalent :
(i) G is a tree.
(ii) G is cycle free and has n 1 edges.
-

(iii) G is connected and has n 1 edges.

-

To prove this.
Proof. We use induction on the number of vertices n of G.
Let us assume n = 1 i.e., G has only one vertex. Then G has 0 edges and so G is con·
nected and cycle free. Thus the theorem holds for n = 1.
Now, assume that n > 1 i.e., G has more than one vertex. Assume that (i), (ii) and (iii)
are equivalent for all graphs with less than n vertices.
We have to show that they are equivalent for G.
(i) => (ii) Suppose G is a tree. Then G is cycle free, so we have to show only that G has
n 1 edges. We know that G has a vertex of degree 1. Deleting this vertex and its edge, we
-

obtain a tree T which has n 1 vertices. Thus the theorem holds for T, so T has n 2 edges.
- -

Hence G has n 1 edges.

-

(ii) => (iii) Suppose G is cycle free and has n 1 edges. We have to show only that G is
-

connected. Suppose G is disconnected and has k components) T T2) ... , Tk' which are trees
l'

since each is connected and cycle free, i.e., Ti has ni vertices and ni < n. Hence the theorem
holds for Ti, so Ti has ni 1 edges. Thus,
-
530 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

n = n1 + n2 + ... + n k
and n 1 = (n , 1) + (n2 1) + ... + (n k 1)
- - - -

= n1 + n2 + ... + nk k = n k
- -

Hence k = 1. But it contradicts our assumption that G is disconnected and has k > 1
components. Hence G is connected.
(iii) => (i) Suppose G is connected and has n 1 edges. We have to show only that G is
-

cycle free. Suppose G has a cycle containing an edge e. Deleting e, we obtain the graph H =
G e) which is also connected.
-

But H has n vertices and n 2 edges and therefore must be disconnected. Thus G is
-

cycle free and hence it is a tree.

I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 1. For the tree as shown in Fig. 12.8.
(i) Which node is the root ?
(ii) Which nodes are leaves ?
(iii) Name the parent node of each node.

Fig. 12.8
Sol. (i) The node A is the root node.
(ii) The nodes G, H, I, L, M, N, 0 are leaves.
(iii) Nodes Parent
B, C A
D, E B
F C
G, H D
I, J E
K F
L, M J
N, O K
TREES 531

Example 2. For the tree as shown in Fig. 12.9.

Fig. 12.9
(i) List the children of each node. (ii) List the siblings.
(iii) Find the depth of each node. (iv) Find the level of each node.
Sol. (i) The children of each node is as follows :
Node Children
A B, C
B D, E
C F
D G, H
E I, J
F K
K L, M
(ii) The siblings are as follows :
Siblings
B and C
D and E
G and H
I and J
L and M are all siblings.
(iii) Node Depth or Height
A 1
B, C 2
D, E, F 3
G) H, I, J, K 4
L, M 5
(iv) Node Level
A o
B, C 1
D, E, F 2
G, H, I, J, K 3
L, M 4
532 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 3. Show that if in a graph G there exists one and only one path between every
pair of vertices, then G is a tree.
Sol. The graph G is connected since there is a path between every pair of vertices. A
cycle in a graph exists if there is at least one pair of vertices (vp v2) such that there exist two
distinct paths from v , to v 2 • But the graph G has one and only one path between every pair of
vertices. Thus) G contains no cycle. Hence) G is a tree.
Example 4. Draw two different binary trees with five nodes having only one leaf
Sol. The two trees out of many possible trees with five nodes having only one leaf is
shown in Fig. 12.10.

(i) (ii)
Fig. 12.10
Example 5. (a) Draw two different binary trees with five nodes having maximum number
of leaves.
(b) Let T be a tree with n vertices. Determine the number ofleafnodes in a tree.
(P.T.U. B.Tech. Dec. 2008)
Sol. (a) There are many possible trees, out of which two different binary trees are shown
in Fig. 12.11.

(i) (ii)
Fig. 12.11
(b) Given T is a binary tree with n vertices.
Therefore, the tree with n vertices has
(n - 1) edges. Also, if L denotes the number of leaves and I be the number of internal nodes,
then
n=L+1
n -1
But 1= --

2
Using (2) in (1), we have

n -1 n -1 2n - n +1 n +1
n=L+ -- => L=n- --

2 2 2 2
Example 6. (a) How will you differentiate between a general tree and a binary tree ?
(b) Define a rooted tree with an example and show how it may be viewed as directed
graph.
TREES 533

Sol. (a)

General Tree Binary Tree

1. There is no such tree having zero nodes or an 1. There may be an empty binary tree.
empty general tree.
2. If some node has a child, then there is no such 2. If some nodes has a child, then it is distin-
distinction. guished as a left child or a right child.
3. The trees shown in Fig. 12.12 are same, when 3. The trees shown in Fig. 12.12 are distinct,
we consider them as general trees. when we consider them as binary trees,
because in (i), 4 is right child of 2 while
in (ii), 4 is left child of 2.
2 3 2 3

4
4

(i) (ii)

Fig. 12.12
(b) Rooted tree: We first define the term 'directed tree' . A directed graph is said to be a
directed tree if it becomes a tree when the directions of the edges are ignored. For example,
the Fig. 12.13 is a directed tree.

> <E
�

�
Directed tree

Fig. 12.13
A directed tree is called a rooted tree if there is exactly one vertex whose incoming
degree is 0 and incoming degree of all other vertices are 1 . The vertex with incoming degree 0
is called the root of the rooted tree. The Fig. 12.14 is an example of a rooted tree.

Rooted tree

Fig. 12.14
534 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

In a rooted tree) a vertex whose outgoing degree is 0 is called a leaf or a terminal code
and a vertex whose outgoing degree is non zero, is called a branch node or an internal node.
Rooted tree may be viewed as directed graph. We know that a tree is a graph
which is connected and without any cycles. A rooted tree T is a tree with a designated vertex r)
called the root of the tree. Since there is a unique simple path from the root r to any other
vertex v in T, this determines a direction to the edges of T. Thus T may be viewed as a directed
graph.

1 2.10. BINARY EXPRESSION TREES

Algebraic expression can be conveniently expressed by its expression tree. An expres-

sion having binary operators can be decomposed into
< left operand or expression > (operator) < right operand or expression >
depending upon precedence of evaluation.
The expression tree is a binary tree whose root contains the operator and whose left
subtree contains the left expression and right subtree contains the right expression.

*
Example 7. Construct the binary expression tree for the expression (a + b) (die).
Sol. The binary expression tree for the expression (a + b) * (die) is shown in Fig. 12.15.
*

Fig. 12.15

Example 8. Determine the value of expression tree shown in Fig. 12. 1 6.

Fig. 12.16

Sol. The value of expression tree is 2.

TREES 535

Example 9. Determine the value of expression tree shown in Fig. 12. 1 7.

Fig. 12.17
Sol. The value of expression tree is 7.
1 2. 1 1 . COMPLETE BINARY TREE

Complete binary tree is a binary tree if all its levels, except possibly the last, have the
maximum number of possible nodes as for left as possible. The depth of complete binary tree
having n nodes is log2 n + 1 .
For example : The tree shown in Fig. 12.18 is a complete binary tree.

Fig. 12.18
1 2. 1 2. FULL BINARY TREE
Full binary tree is a binary tree in which all the leaves are on the same level and every
non·leaf node has two children.

Fig. 12.19
536 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

For example : The tree shown in Fig. 12.19 is a full binary tree.

Theorem I. Prove that the maximum number of nodes on level n of a binary tree is 2n,
where n ;::: O.
Proof. This can be proved by induction.
Basis ofInduction. The only node at level n = 0 is the root node. Thus, the maximum
number of nodes on level n = 0 is 2° = 1.
Induction Hypothesis. Now assume that it is true for levelj, where n ?-j ?- O. There·
fore) the maximum no. of nodes on levelj is 2'.

Induction Step. By induction hypothesis, the maximum number of nodes on levelj - 1

is 21 - 1 . Since) we know that each node in binary tree has maximum degree 2. Therefore, the
maximum number of nodes on levelj is twice the maximum number of levelj - 1 .
Hence, at levelj, the maximum number of nodes is
= 2 . 21 - 1
= 21 . Hence proved.
Theorem II. Prove that the maximum number of nodes m
a binary tree of depth d
is 2" - 1, where d ?- 1 .
Proof. This can b e proved by induction.
Basis of Induction. The only node at depth d = 1 is the root node. Thus, the maximum
number of nodes on depth d = 1 is 2 ' - 1 = 1.
Induction Hypothesis. Now assume that it is true for depth K, d > k ?- 1. Therefore,
the maximum number of nodes on depth K is 2k - 1 .
Induction Step. By induction hypothesis, the maximum number of nodes on depth
K - 1 is 2 k - 1 - 1. Since, we know that each node in a binary tree has maximum degree 2,
therefore, the maximum number of nodes on depth d = K is twice the maximum number of
nodes on depth K - 1 .
So, at depth d = K, the maximum number of nodes is = (2 . 2 K - 1) - 1
= 2K - 1 + 1 - 1 = 2K - 1 . Hence proved.
Theorem III. Prove that in a binary tree, if nE is the number ofexternal nodes or leaves
and nI is the no. of internal nodes, then nE = nI + 1.
Proof. Let n be the total number of nodes in the tree. Then, we may have three types of
nodes in the tree.
n E = the number of nodes having zero degree.
n I = the number of nodes having two degree.
n o = the number of nodes having one degree.
So, we have n = nE + n] + no ... (1)
Let us assume that the number of edges of the tree is E. So, with these E edges we can
connect E + 1 nodes.
Hence n=E+1 . .. (2)
Since) all edges are either from a node of degree one or from a node of degree two)
therefore, E= no + 2n] ... (3)
TREES 537

Put this value in the eq. (2), we have

n = no + 2n] + 1 ... (4)
Subtract eq. (4) from eq. (1), we get
nE = nI + l
Hence proved.

1 2.13. TRAVERSING BINARY TREES

Traversing means to visit all the nodes of the tree. There are three standard methods to
traverse the binary trees. These are as follows :
1. Preorder traversal 2. Postorder traversal
3. Inorder traversaL
1. Preorder traversal. The preorder traversal of a binary tree is a recursive process.
The preorder traversal of a tree is
(i) Visit the root of the tree.
(ii) Traverse the left subtree in preorder.
(iii) Traverse the right subtree in preorder.
2. Postorder traversal. The postorder traversal of a binary tree is a recursive process.
The postorder traversal of a tree is
(i) Traverse the left subtree in postorder.
(ii) Traverse the right subtree in postorder.
(iii) Visit the root of the tree.
3. Inorder traversal. The inorder traversal of a binary tree is a recursive process. The
inorder traversal of a tree is
(i) Traverse in inorder the left subtree.
(ii) Visit the root of the tree.
(iii) Traverse in inorder the right subtree.
Example 10. Determine the preorder, postorder, and inorder traversal of the binary tree
as shown in Fig. 12.20.

10

Fig. 12.20
538 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Sol. The preorder, postorder and inorder traversal of the tree is as follows :
Preorder 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Postorder 3 5 4 2 7 10 9 11 8 6 1
Inorder 3 2 5 4 1 7 6 9 10 8 11.

Example 1 1. Give the preorder, inorder and postorder traversals of the tree shown in
Fig. 12.21.

Fig. 12.21

Sol.
Preorder A, B, D, H, I, E, C, F, J, K, G, L, M
Inorder H, D, I, B, E, A, J, F, K, C, G, L, M
Postorder H, I, D, E, B, J, K, F, M, L, G, C, A.

1 2.14. ALGORITHMS
(a) Algorithm to Draw a Unique Binary Tree When Inorder and Preorder Traversal
of the Tree is Given
1. We know that the root of the binary tree is the first node in its preorder. Draw the
root of the tree.
2. To find the left child of the root node, first use the inorder traversal to find the nodes
in the left subtree of the binary tree. (All the nodes that are left to the root node in the inorder
traversal are the nodes of the left subtree). After that the left child of the root is obtained by
selecting the first node in the preorder traversal of the left subtree. Draw the left child.
3. In the same way, use the inorder traversal to find the nodes in the right subtree of
the binary tree. Then the right child is obtained by selecting the first node in the preorder
traversal of the right subtree. Draw the right child.
4. Repeat the steps 2 and 3 with each new node until every node is not visited in preorder.
Finally) we obtain the unique tree.

Example 12. Draw the unique binary tree when the inorder and preorder traversal is
given as follows :
Inorder B A D C F E J H K G I
Preorder A B C D E F G H J K I.
TREES 539

Sol. We know that the root of the binary tree is the first node in preorder traversal.
Now check A, in the inorder traversal, all the nodes that are left of A, are nodes of left subtree
and all the nodes that are right of A, are nodes of right subtree. Read the next node in preorder
and check its position against the root node, if it is left of root node, then draw it as left child,
otherwise draw it as right child. Repeat the above process for each new node until all the
nodes of preorder traversal are read and finally we obtain the binary tree as shown in Fig. 12.22.

Fig. 12.22
Example 13. Draw the unique binary tree when the following is given :
Inorder d b h e a f c ] g
Preorder a b d e h c f g ]
Sol. Thefirst node In preorder is a and hence a is the root node. Unique binary tree
is shown in Fig. 12.23.

Fig. 12.23

Example 14. Draw the unique binary tree when inorder andpreorder traversal of tree is
given as follows :
Preorder 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Inorder 10 8 9 7 6 4 5 2 3 1
540 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

10

Fig. 12.24

Sol. Unique binary tree is shown in Fig. 12.24.

(b) Algorithm to Draw a Unique Binary Tree When Inorder and Postorder Traversal
of the Tree is Given
1. We know that the root of the binary tree is the last node in its postorder. Draw the
root of the tree.
2. To find the right child of the root node, first use the inorder traversal to find the
nodes in the right subtree of the binary tree. (All the nodes that are right to the root node in
the inorder traversal are the nodes of the right subtree). After that the right child of the root
is obtained by selecting the last node in the postorder traversal of the right subtree. Draw the
right child.
3. In the same way, use the inorder traversal to find the nodes in the left subtree of the
binary tree. Then the left child is obtained by selecting the last node in the postorder traversal
of the left subtree. Draw the left child.
4. Repeat the steps 2 and 3 with each new node until every node is not visited in postorder.
After visiting the last node) we obtain the unique tree.
Example 15. Draw the unique binary tree for the given Inorder and Postorder traversal
Inorder 4 6 10 12 8 2 1 5 7 11 13 9 3
Postorder 12 10 8 6 4 2 13 11 9 7 5 3 1
Sol. We know that the root node is the last node in postorder traversal. Hence one is the
root node.
Now check the inorder traversal) we know that root is at the centre, hence all the nodes
that are left to the root node in inorder traversal are the nodes of left subtree and all that are
right to the root node are the nodes of the right subtree.
Now, visit the next node from back in postorder traversal and check its position in
inorder traversal, if it is on left of root then draw it as left child and if it is on right, then draw
it as right child.
TREES 541

Repeat the above process for each new node and we obtain the binary tree as shown in
Fig. 12.25.

13

Fig. 12.25
Example 16. Draw the binary tree when Inorder and Postorder traversal is given :
Inorder m k n ] o u s v q p r
Postorder m n k o u v s q r p I J.

Sol. We know that the last node in Postorder is the root node. hence j is the root. Now
applying the algorithm as above, we obtain the tree shown in Fig. 12.26.

Fig. 12.26
Example 17. Draw the unique binary tree when inorder andpreorder traversal oftree is
given as follows :
* * *
Inorder 3 a + b 6 c + d
* * *
Preorder + 3 a b + 6 c d
Sol. Unique binary tree is shown in Fig. 12.27.
542 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Fig. 12.27
Example 18. Draw the binary expression tree, when inorder and postorder traversal of
the tree is given as follows :
*
Postorder k -m + n p q r t-I +
* *
Inorder k I +m n p + qlr
Sol. Binary expression tree is shown in Fig. 12.28.
•

Fig. 12.28
(c) Algorithm to Convert General Tree into the Binary Tree
1. Starting from the root node, the root of the tree is also the root of the binary tree.
2. The first child C , (from left) of the root node in the tree is the left child C, of the root
node in binary tree and the sibling of the C , is the right child of C , and so on.
3. Repeat the step 2 for each new node.
Example 19. Convert the following tree as shown in Fig. 12.29 into binary tree.

Q
Fig. 12.29
TREES 543

Sol. The root of the tree is the root of the binary tree. Hence A is the root of the binary
tree. Now B becomes the left child of A in binary tree, C becomes the right child of B, D
becomes right child of C and E becomes right child of D in the binary tree and similarly
applying the algorithm we obtain the binary tree as shown in Fig. 12.30.

Fig. 12.30
Example 20. Convert the general tree as shown in Fig. 12.31 into binary tree.

Fig. 12.31
Sol. The root node 1 in general tree is the root node of the binary tree. Now applying the
above algorithm we obtain the binary tree as shown in Fig. 12.32.
544 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

7
8

13

Fig. 12.32
Example 21. Convert the forest shown in Fig. 12.33 into binary tree.

Fig. 12.33
Sol. The root of the binary tree is the root node of the first tree (from left) and the root
node of the second tree becomes the right son of the root node in binary tree and the root node
TREES 545

Fig. 12.34

of the third tree becomes the right son of the right son in binary tree. Repeat this procedure for
each level and we obtain the binary tree as shown in Fig. 12.34.

1 2.15. BINARY SEARCH TREES

Binary search trees has the property that the node to the left contains a smaller value
than the node pointing to it and the node to the right contains a larger value than the node
pointing to it.
It is not necessary that a node in a 'Binary Search Tree' point to the nodes whose values
immediately precede and follow it.
For example : The tree shown in Fig. 12.35 is a binary search tree.

Fig. 12.35

1 2.16. INSERTING INTO A BINARY SEARCH TREE

Consider a binary search tree T. Suppose we have given an ITEM of information to

insert in T. The ITEM is inserted as a leaf in the tree. The following steps explains a procedure
to insert an ITEM in the binary search tree T.
546 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1. Compare the ITEM with the root node.

2. If ITEM > ROOT NODE, proceed to the right child and it becomes root node for the
right subtree.
3. If ITEM < ROOT NODE, proceed to the left child.
4. Repeat the above steps until we meet a node which has no left and right subtree.
5. Now if the ITEM is greater than node, then the ITEM is inserted as the right child
and if the ITEM is less than node, then the ITEM is inserted as the left child.
Deleting in a Binary Search Tree. Consider a binary search tree T. Suppose we
want to delete a given ITEM from binary search tree. To delete an ITEM from a binary search
tree, we have three cases, depending upon the number of children of the deleted node.
1. Deleted Node has no Children. Deleting a node which has no children is very
simple, as just replace the node with null.
2. Deleted Node has Only One Child. Replace the value of deleted node with the
only child.
3. Deleted Node has Two Children. In this case, replace the deleted node with the
node that is closest in the value to the deleted node. To find the closest value, we move once to
the left and then to the right as far as possible. This node is called immediate predecessor.
Now replace the value of deleted node with immediate predecessor and then delete the reo
placed node by using case 1 or 2.

Example 22. Show the binary search tree after inserting 3, 1, 4, 6, 9, 2, 5, 7 into an
initially empty binary search tree.
Sol. The insertion of the above nodes in the empty binary search tree is shown in
Fig. 12.36.

I A
Insert 3
(i)
Insert 1
(ii)
Insert 4
(iii)
~
Insert 6
(iv)

Insert 9 Insert 2 Insert 5 Insert 7

(v) (vi) (vii) (viii)

Fig. 12.36
TREES 547

Example 23. Show the binary tree shown in Fig. 12.36 (viii) after deleting the root node.
Sol. To delete the root node, first replace the root node with the closest element of the
root. For this, first move one step left and then to the right as far as possible to the node. Then
delete the replaced node. The tree after deletion is shown in Fig. 12.37.

Fig. 12.37
Example 24. A binary search tree contains the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The tree is
traversed in pre-order and the values are printed out. Determine the sequence of the print out
values.
Sol. First of all draw the binary search tree shown in Fig. 12.38.
Now traverse the tree in pre-order and get the output as below 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9.

Fig. 12.38
Example 25. A binary search tree is generated by inserting in order thefollowing integers :
50, 15, 62, 5, 20, 58, 91, 3, 8, 37, 60, 24.
Determine the number of nodes in the left subtree and right subtree of the root.
548 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Sol. First of all draw the binary search tree as shown in Fig. 12.39.

I A
15 15 62

5
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

50 50

(vii) (viii) (ix)

24

(x) (xi)

Fig. 12.39

Thus, the number of nodes in left subtree of the root is 7 and right subtree of the root is 4.
Example 26. Consider the binary tree as shown in Fig. 12.40. Draw the binary tree for
each of the following operations, if applied to the binary tree.
(i) Delete the node V (ii) Delete the node E
(iii) Delete the root node R.

Fig. 12.40
TREES 549

Sol. (i) The binary tree after deleting node V is shown in Fig. 12.41.
(ii) The binary tree after deleting node E is shown in Fig. 12.42.
(iii) The binary tree after deleting root node R is shown in Fig. 12.43.

Fig. 12.41 Fig. 12.42 Fig. 12.43

1 2.17. SPANNING TREE

Consider a connected graph G = (V, E). A spanning tree T is defined as a subgraph of G
if T is a tree and T includes all the vertices of G.

Example 27. Draw all the spanning trees of the graph G shown in Fig. 12.44.
A E

Fig. 12.44. Graph G.

Sol. All the spanning trees of graph G is as shown in Fig. 12.45.

A E A E A E

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 12.45
550 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 2.18. APPLICATIONS OF TREES

1 2. 1 8 . 1 . Minimum Spanning Tree

Consider a connected weighted graph G = (V. E). A minimal spanning tree T of the
graph G is a tree whose total weight is smallest among all the spanning trees of the graph G.
The total weight of the spanning tree is the sum of the weights of the edges of the spanning
trees.
The minimum weight of the spanning tree is unique but the spanning tree may not be
unique because more than one spanning tree are possible when more than one edges exist
having the same weight.
Theorem IV. Prove that a simple graph is connected iff it has a spanning tree.

(P.T.V. B.Tech. Dec. 2008)

Proof. First of all, suppose that a simple graph G has a spanning tree T. The tree T
contains every vertex of G. Further) there is a path in T between any two of its vertices. Since
T is subgraph of G) there is a path in G between any two of its vertices. Hence) G is connected.
Now) suppose that G is connected. If G is not a tree, then it must contain a simple
circuit. Remove an edge from one of these simple circuits, the resulting sub graph has one
fewer edge but still contains all the vertices of G and is connected. If this sub graph is not a
tree, it has a simple circuit, so again remove an edge that is in simple circuit. Repeat this
process untill no simple circuits remain. This is possible because there are only a finite number
of edges in the graph. The process terminates when no simple circuits remain. A tree is produced
since the graph is still connected as edges are removed. This is a spanning tree since it contains
every vertex of G. Hence the theorem.

1 2.19. KRUSKAL'S ALGORITHM TO FIND MINIMUM SPANNING TREE

This algorithm finds the minimum spanning tree T of the given connected weighted
graph G.
1. Input the given connected weighted graph G with n vertices whose minimum span-
ning tree T) we want to find.
2. Order all the edges of the graph G according to increasing weights.
3. Initialise T with all vertices but do not include any edge.
4. Add each of the graph G in T which does not form a cycle until n - 1 edges are added.

Example 28. Determine the minimum spanning tree of the weighted graph shown in
Fig. 12.46.
A 6 B 5 C

4 4

2
D 6 E 5 F
Fig. 12.46
TREES 551

Sol. Using KruskaY s algorithm, arrange all the edges of the weighted graph in increasing
order and initialise spanning tree T with all the six vertices of G. Now start adding the edges
of G in T which do not form a cycle and having minimum weights until five edges are not
added as there are six vertices. (Fig. 12.47).
Edges Weights Added or Not Minimum Spanning Tree
(B, E) 2 Added
A B 5 c
(C, D) 3 Added
(A, D) 4 Added 3
(C, F) 4 Added 4 4
(B, C) 5 Added 2
(E, F) 5 Not added
(A, B) 6 Not added D E F
(D, E) 6 Not added Fig. 12.47
(A, F) 7 Not added.
Example 29. Write a shortnote on Prim's and Kruskal's algorithms and execute them
by giving a suitable example. (P.T.U. B.Tech. May 2008)
Sol. Prim's Algorithm. Let R be a symmetric and connected relation with n vertices.
The Prime's algorithm involves the following steps.
Step I. Choose a vertex v, of R. Let V = {v,} and E = { }

and for which the edge (V i ' V) does not form a cycle with members of E. Add
Step II. Choose a nearest neighbour Vi of V which is adjacent to Vj where Vi' Vj E V
V to V and (V ' V) to E.
i i
Step III. Repeat the step II until we get E = n 1 -

Then V contains all n vertices of R and E contains the edge of a minimum spanning tree
for R.
Example 30. We /ind the minimal spanning tree for the graphR shown below (Fig. 12. 48).

B
3 C A B

c D D
4
E
F
F
(i) ( i,)

Fig. 12.48
Sol. This graph R [Fig. 12.48(i)] has 6 vertices, namely, A, B, C, D, E, F. Therefore, any
spanning tree of R will have 5 edges. By Prim's algorithm, the edges are ordered by decreasing
lengths and are successively deleted (without disconnecting R) until we have five edges remain.
This gives the following data.
552 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Edges AF BC AC BE CE BF AE DF BD
Length 9 8 7 7 6 5 4 4 3
Deleted edges ./ ./ ./ X X ./ X X X

Hence the minimal spanning tree of R will contains the edges {BE, CE, AE, DF, BD}.
This spaning tree has length 24 as shown in Fig. 12.48(ii) .
Kruskal's algorithm. Let R be a symmetric and connected relation with n vertices
and let S = [e" e2 , ... , ek] be the set of weighted edges ofR.
The Kruskal "algorithm involves the following steps".
Step I. Choose an edge e, in S of least weight. Let E = {e,}. Replace S with S - {e}
Step II. Select an edge in S of least weight that will not make a cycle with members of
{e) and S with S - {eJ
Step III. Repeat step II until we get E = n - 1
Example 31. Consider the graph R as shown below (Fig. 12.49). We find the minimal
spanning tree ofR.
A B B
9 6
C B
4 9
G
F 6 G F
()
, (ii)
Fig. 12.49
Sol. The graph R [Fig. 12.49(i)] has 7 vertices namely A, B, C, D, E, F and G. Therefore,
any spanning tree of R will have 6 edges. By Kruskal is algorithm, the edges are odered by
increasing length and are successively added (without forming any cycle) until 6 edges are
included. This gives the following data.
Edges CD CF DG DF BC BE FG DE AB BD AC EG
Length 4 4 4 5 6 6 6 7 8 8 9 9
Added edges ./ ./ ./ X ./ ./ X X ./ X X X

Therefore, the minimal spanning tree ofR will contain the edges {CD, CF, DG, BC, BE,
AB}. The minimum spanning tree of the graph [Fig. 12.49(i)] is shown in Fig. 12.49(ii).
Example 32. Find a minimum spanning tree of the labelled connected graph shown in
Fig. 12. 50.
A B
3

C D

E F
Fig. 12.50
TREES 553

Sol. Using KRUSKAL'S ALGORITHM, arrange all the edges of the graph in increasing
order and initialize spanning tree with all the vertices of G. Now, add the edges of G in T
which do not form a cycle and have minimum weight until n 1 edges are not added) where n
-

is the number of vertices. The spanning tree is shown in Fig. 12.51.

Edges Weights Added or Not Minimum Spanning Tree
(B, D) 3 Added
A B
(A, E) 4 Added
(D, F) 4 Added 3
(B, F) 5 Not added
C
4
D
(C, E) 6 Added
6 4
(A, C) 7 Not added
(B, C) 7 Added E F
(A, F) 8 Not added
Fig. 12.51
(E, B) 9 Not added
The minimum weight of spanning tree is = 24.
Example 33. Find all the spanning trees of graph G and find which is the minimal
spanning tree of G shown in Fig. 12.52.

a d 3 e

6 2
2

b 3 c

Fig. 12.52

Sol. There are total three spanning trees ofthe graph G which are as shown in Fig. 12.53.
a d 3 e a d 3 e a d 3 e
- --"--... ---"--....

2 6 6 2
2 2 2

b 3 c b 3 c b c
(i) (ii) (iii)
Fig. 12.53

To find the minimal spanning tree, use the KRUSKAL' S ALGORITHM. The minimal
spanning tree is shown in Fig. 12.54.
554 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Edges Weights Added or Not Minimal Spanning Tree

(E, F) 1 Added a d 3 e
(A, B) 2 Added
(C, D) 2 Added

2
(B, C) 3 Added
2
(D, E) 3 Added
(B, D) 6 Not added.
The first one is the minimal spalUling having the mini­
mum weight = I I . b 3 c
Example 34. What are the properties of minimum
spanning tree. Fig. 12.54
Sol. Properties of Minimum spanning tree
A minimum spanning tree T of a graph G is a tree whose total weight is the smallest
among all the spanning trees of the graph G. It has the following properties.
(i) The total weight of the spanning tree is the sum of the weights of the edges of the
spanning trees.
(ii) The minimum weight of the spanning tree is unique.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

L Draw all trees with exactly six vertices. (P.T. U. B. Tech. Dec. 2013)
2. Draw all trees with five or fewer vertices.
3. Find the number of trees with seven vertices.
4. Find a minimum spanning tree of the weighted graph shown below :
A B

E F
5. Find all spanning trees of the graph shown below :

6. Find all spanning trees of the graph shown in the following figure.
TREES 555
7. Find the minimal spanning tree of the following graph
A

(a) C D (b)

G
(c) Find the minimal spanning tree T for the weighted graph shown below :
2

2 2 2
2

3 3 3

Show that the sum of the degrees of the vertices of a tree with vertices is
3 3
8. n 2n -2.
Answers
L There are six such trees shown below :

(i) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

2. There are eight such trees shown below :
--L
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

(vi) (vii) (viii)

3. 15

t AD
4. C
W .A
F E
556 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

5. There are eight such spanning trees shown below :

T "'" 7 V
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

V "'V � V
(v) (vi) (vii) (viii)
6. There are twelve such spanning trees shown below.

A B
7. (a) (b)

G
F

MULTI PLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)

1. For the given binary tree) the preorder traversal is

A
/ "
B C
/ " / "
D E F G
I I
H I
(a) A B D E C F H G I (b) A B C D EF GHI
(c) D E B A C F G H I (d) D B E A H F C I G.
2. Let T be a full binary tree with I internal nodes. Then which of the following statements
is TRUE?
(a) T has 2i + 1 total nodes and i + 1 terminal nodes.
(b) T has 2i total nodes and i + 1 terminal nodes.
(c) T has 2i + 2 total nodes and i + 2 terminal nodes.
(d) T has 2i2 total nodes and i2 terminal nodes.
TREES 557

3. The maximum number of nodes in a binary tree of depth d is

(a) 2d - 1 (b) 2d - 1
(c) 2d + 1 (d) 2d+ l.
4. The number of external nodes in a full binary tree with 500 internal nodes are
(a) 501 (b) 1000
(c) 500 (d) Any number.
5. The total number of edges in any tree with n vertices is
(a) n(n - 1)/2 (b) n/2
(c) n (d) n - l.
6. Suppose T is a binary tree with 20 nodes. What is the minimum possible depth of T?
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5.
7. If the height of a tree is 15, the highest level of the tree is
(a) 15 (b) 14
(c) 3 (d) 5.
8. In a postorder traversal) the ___ is processed first
(a) Left subtree (b) Right subtree
(c) Root (d) Any of the three.
9. Which of the following traversal techniques lists the nodes of binary search tree in
ascending order?
(a) Preorder (b) Postorder

10. (c) Inorder (d) Level order.

Which traversal of the EST would print result in original order of input?
(a) Preorder (b) Postorder
(c) Inorder (d) Level order.

1.
Answers and Explanations
(a) Apply the algorithm and check.
2. (a) External nodes in a tree are one more than internal nodes.
3. (b) The maximum number of nodes in a binary tree at depth d is one less than 2"-
4. (a) The number of external nodes is one more than number of internal nodes.
5. (d) The number of edges needed to connect vertices of a tree is one less than the number
of vertices.
6. (d) Draw the tree and see.
7. (b) The level of the tree is one less than its height.
S. (a) First the left subtree, then right subtree and then root.

10.
9. (c) Inorder traversal of EST gives nodes in ascending order.
(c) Preorder traversal of EST gives nodes in original order.
 3 * PROPOSITIONAL
1 CALCULUS

1 3. 1 . BASIC LOGIC OPERATIONS

The following are the main logic operations in this chapter :
(i) p 1\ q. called as " conjunction ofp and q '" and read as "p and '1".
(ii) p v q, called as "disjunction ofp and '1" and read as "p or '1".
(iii) p, called as "negation ofp'" and read as "notp'".
-

(iv) T, read as "True"

(v) F, read as "False'".
1 3.2. STATEMENT
A statement is any collection of symbols or sounds which is either true or false, but not
both. The truth or falsity of a statement is called its truth value.
For example, consider the following :
(a) Delhi is in France
(b) Where are you going ?
(c) 2 + 3 = 5
The expression (a) is a statement and it is a false statement.
The expression (b) is not a statement since it is neither true nor false.
The expression (c) is a true statement.

1 3.3. PROPOSITION (P.T. U., M.G.A. May 2007)

A proposition is a statement which is either true or false. It is a declarative sentence.
For example : The following statements are all propositions :
(i) Jawahar Lal Nehru is the first prime minister of India.
(ii) It rained yesterday.
(iii) If x is an integer, then x2 is a + ve integer.
For example : The following statements are not propositions :
(i) Please report at 11 a.m. sharp
(ii) What is your name ?
(iii) x2 = 13.
* Not meant for P.T.V. B.Tech., "Discrete Structure" (BTCS-402) Course.
558
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 559

1 3.4. PROPOSITIONAL VARIABLES

The lower case letters starting from p onwards are used to represent propositions e.g.,
p : India is in Asia
q : 2 + 2 = 4.
Example. Classify the following statements as propositions or non-propositions.
(i) The population ofIndia goes upto 120 million in year 2012.
(ii) x + y = 30
(iii) Come here
(iv) The Intel Pentium-III is a 64-bit computer.
Sol. (i) Proposition (ii) Not a proposition
(iii) Not a proposition (iv) Proposition.
1 3.5. TRUTH TABLE
The truth value of a proposition depends upon the truth values of its variables. Once
the truth values of the variables are known, the truth value of the proposition is also known.
The table to show this relationship is known as truth table. For e.g., consider the proposition
- (p A - q). The truth table for this proposition is given in Fig. 13.1.

P q -q pA-q -(p A - q)

T T F F T
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T F T
Fig. 13.1
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Construct the truth tables of.-

OO p A 0 � (� � A � v � A � v (r A �
(iii) (- p) v (- q) (iv) p v q v r.
Sol. The truth table for these propositions are as follows: (Fig. 13.2 to Fig. 13.5)
(i) p q -q P A (- q)
T T F F
T F T T
F T F F
F F T F

Fig. 13.2
560 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(ii) p q r p Aq q Ar r Ap (P A q) v (q A r) v (r A p)

T T T T T T T
T T F T F F T
T F F F F F F
T F T F F T T
F T T F T F T
F F T F F F F
F T F F F F F
F F F F F F F
Fig. 13.3

(iii) p q -p -q (- p) v (- q)

T T F F F
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T
Fig. 13.4

(iv) p q r p vqvr

T T T T
T T F T
T F F T
T F T T
F T T T
F F T T
F T F T
F F F F
Fig. 13.5

1 3.6. COMBINATION OF PROPOSITIONS

We can combine the propositions to produce new propositions. There are three
fundamental and three derived connectors to combine the propositions. These are explained
as follows one by one.
(a) Fundamental Connectors
1. Conjunction. It means ANDing of two statements. Assume p and q be two proposi·
tions. Conjunction of p and q to be a proposition which is true when both p and q are true)
otherwise false. It is denoted by p A q. (Fig. 13.6)
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 561

Truth tables are used to determine the truth or falsity of the combined proposition.
p q P Aq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Fig. 13.6. Truth Table ofp A q.
2. Disjunction. It means ORing of two statements. Assume p and q be two proposi·
tions. Disjunction of p and q to be a proposition which is true when either one or both p and q
are true and is false when both p and q are false. It is denoted by p v q. (Fig. 13.7)
p q p vq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Fig. 13.7. Truth Table ofp v q.
3. Negation. It means opposite of original statement. Assume p be a proposition. Nega·
tion of p to be a proposition which is true when p is false) and is false when p is true. It is
denoted by - p. (Fig.13.S)
p -p
T F
F T
Fig. 13.8. Truth Table of - p.
Example 2. Consider the following :
p : He is rich
q : He is Generous.
Write the proposition which combines the proposition p and q using conjunction (A),
disjunction (v), and negation (-).
Sol. Conjunction. He is rich and generous i.e., p A q.
Disjunction. He is rich or generous i.e., p v q.
Negation. He is not rich i.e., - p
He is not generous i.e., q.,...,

It is false that he is rich or generous i.e., - (p v q).

He is neither rich nor generous i.e., P /\ q. ,..., ,...,

It is false that he is not rich i.e., - (- pl.

562 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 3. Let p be "It is hot day" and q be "The temperature is 45"C". Write in simple
sentences the meaning offollowing :
(i) - p (ii) - (p v q) (iii) - (p /\ q)
(iv) - (-p) (v) p v q (vi) p /\ q
(vii) - p /\ - q (viii) - (- p v - q).
Sol. (i) It is not a hot day.
(ii) It is false that it is hot day or temperature is 45"C.
(iii) It is not true that it is hot day and temperature is 45"C.
(iv) It is false that it is not a hot day.
(v) It is hot day or temperature is 45"C.
(vi) It is hot day and temperature is 45"C.
(vii) It is neither a hot day nor temperature is 45"C.
(viii) It is false that it is not a hot day or temperature is not 45"C.
Example 4. Consider the following statements :
p : He is coward.
q : He is lazy.
r : He is rich.
Write the following compound statements in the symbolic form.
(i) He is either coward or poor.
(ii) He is neither coward nor lazy.
(iii) It is false that he is coward but not lazy.
(iv) He is coward or lazy but not rich.
(v) It is false that he is coward or lazy but not rich.
(vi) It is not true that he is not rich.
(vii) He is rich or else he is both coward and lazy.
Sol. (i) p /\ - r (ii) - p /\ - q (iii) - (p /\ - q)
(iv) (p v q) /\ - r (v) - «P v q) /\ - r) (vi) - (- r)
(vii) r v (p /\ q).
(b) Derived Connectors
1. NAND. It means negation after ANDing of two statements. Assume p and q be two
propositions. Nanding of p and q to be a proposition which is false when both p and q are true,
otherwise true. It is denoted by p t q. (Fig. 13.9)
p q p tq
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F T
Fig. 13.9
2. NOR or Joint Denial. It means negation after ORing of two statements. Assume
p and q be two propositions. NOring of p and q to be a proposition which is true when both p
and q are false, otherwise false. It is denoted by p t q. (Fig. 13.5)
p q p .J, q
T T F
T F F
F T F
F F T
Fig. 13.10
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 563

3. XOR. Assume p and q be two propositions. XORing ofp and q is true if p is true or if
q is true but not both and vice versa. It is denoted by p EB q. (Fig. 1 3 . 1 1)
p q P ffi q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
Fig. 13.11.

Example 5. Generate the truth table for following :

(i) A EB B EB C (ii) A t B t C.
Sol. The · 1 truth table for above formulas are as shown in Figs. 13.12 and 13.13.
(i) A B C A ffi B A ffi B ffi C
T T T F T
T T F F F
T F T T F
T F F T T
F T T T F
F T F T T
F F T F T
F F F F F
Fig. 13.12

(ii) Truth table for (ii) is

A B C AtB AtBtC
T T T F T
T T F F T
T F T T F
T F F T T
F T T T F
F T F T T
F F T T F
F F F T T
Fig. 13.13

Example 6. Prove that X EB y", (X 1\ - Y) V (- X 1\ Y).

Sol. Construct the truth table for both the propositions. (Fig. 13.14)
x Y Xffi Y -Y -x XI\ - Y - XI\ Y (X 1\ - Y) (- X 1\ Y)
V

T T F F F F F F
T F T T F T F T
F T T F T F T T
F F F T T F F F

Fig. 13.14
564 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
As the truth table for both the proposition are same.
X EB Y = (X 1\ - Y) V ( X 1\ Y). Hence proved.
-

Example 7. Show that (p EB q) v (p J. q) is equivalent to p t q.

Sol. Construct the truth table for both the propositions.
p q (p q)
fB (p .j, q) (p q) v (p .j, q)
fB ptq
T T F F F F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F F T T T
Fig. 13.15
Since, the values of (p EB q) v (p J. q) is same as p t q as in Fig. 13.15. Hence, they are
equivalent.

Example 8. Show that ( p t q) EB (p t q) is equivalent to (p v q) 1\ (p J. q).

Sol. Construct the truth table for both the propositions
p q ptq (p t q) (p t q)
fB pvq p .j, q (p v q) 1\ (p .j, q)
T T F F T F F
T F T F T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T F F T F
Fig. 13.16
Since, the values of (p t q) EB (p t q) and (p v q) 1\ (p J. q) are same as in Fig. 13.16. Hence,
they are equivalent.
(c) Some Other Connectors
1. Conditional. Statements of the form "Ifp then q" are called conditional statements.
It is denoted as p � q and read as "p implies q" or "q is necessary for p" or "p is sufficient
for q".
Conditional statement is true if bothp and q are true or ifp is false. It is false ifp is true
and q is false. The propositionp is called hypothesis and the proposition q is called conclusion.
The truth table of conditional statement is (Fig. 13.17)
p q p --> q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Fig. 13.17. Truth Table ofp --> q.
For example : The followings are conditional statements :
1. If a = b and b = c, then a = c.
2. If I will get money, then I will purchase computer.
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 565

1 3.7. (a) LAWS OF THE ALGEGBRA OF PROPOSITIONS

I. Idempotent Laws
(i) p v p = P (ii) p /\ p = p
II. Associative Laws
(i) (p v q) v r = p v (q v r) (ii) (p /\ q) /\ r = p /\ (q /\ r)
III. Commutative Laws
(i) p v q = q v P (ii) p /\ q = q /\ P
IV. Distributive Laws
(i) p v (q /\ r) = (p v q) /\ (p V r) (ii) p /\ (q V r) = (p /\ q) V (p /\ r)
V. Identity Laws
(i) p v f = p (ii) p /\ t = p
(iii) p v t = t (iv) p /\ f= f
where t denotes the true value and f denotes the false value.
VI. Complement Laws
(i) p v - p = t (ii) p /\ - P = f
(iii) - - p = P (iv) - t = f, - f = t
VII. De Morgan's Laws
(i) - p(v q) = - P /\ - q (ii) - (p /\ q) = - p v - q
Example 9. Show by using laws of algebra ofpropositions, the logical equivalence of
(p v q) /\ -P = - P /\ q.
Sol. (p v q) /\ - P = - P /\ (p V q) I Commutative law
= (- P /\ p) V (- P /\ q) I Distributive law
= f v (- p /\ q) I Complement law
= - P /\ q I Identity law
Example 10. Show that p v (p /\ q) = p by using laws of algebra ofpropositions t
Sol. p v(p /\ q) = (p /\ t) v (p /\ q) I Identity law
= P /\ (t v q) I Distributive law
= P /\ t Identity law
=p I Identity law
Example 11. Use the laws of algebra of logic propositions, show that
- (p v q) v (- P /\ q) = - p.
Sol. - (p v q) v (- P /\ q) = (- P /\ - q) V (- P /\ q) I De Morgan's law
= - P /\ (- q V q) I Distributive law
CO - P A t Complement law
= -p I Identity law.
566 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 3.7. (b) VARIATIONS IN CONDITIONAL STATEMENT

Contrapositive. The proposition - q --; - p is called contrapositive of p --; q.
Converse. The proposition q --; p is called the converse ofp --; q.
Inverse. The proposition - p --; - q is called the inverse of p --; q.
Example 12. Show that p --; q and its contrapositive - q --; -p are logically equivalent.
Sol. Construct truth table for both the propositions. (as in Fig. 13.1S)
p q -p -q p --> q - q --> -p
T T

rn rn
F F
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
Fig. 13.18
As, the values in both cases are same, hence both propositions are equivalent.
Example 13. Show that proposition q --; p and - p --; - q is not equivalent to p --; q.
Sol. Construct truth table for all the above propositions :
p q -p -q p --> q q -->p - p --> - q
T T F F T T T
T F F T F T T
F T T F T F F
F F T T T T T
Fig. 13.19
As the values of p --; q in table is not equal to q --; p and - p --; - q as in Fig. 13.19. So
both of them are not equal to p --; q but they are themselves logically equivalent.

Example 14. Prove that the following propositions are equivalent to p --; q.
(i) - (p 1\ - q) (ii) - p v q (iii) - q --; - p.
Sol. Construct the truth table for all the above propositions :
p q -p -q -p v q - q --> -p (p 1\ - q) - (p 1\ - q) p --> q
T T

rn rn rn rn
F F F
T F F T T
F T T F F
F F T T F

Fig. 13.20
In the above table (Fig. 13.20) the values ofp --; q is equivalent to (i), (ii) and (iii), hence
they are equivalent to p --; q. Hence proved.
2. Biconditional. Statements of the form "if and only if" are called biconditional state­
ments.
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 567

It is denoted as p H q and read as "p if and only if q". The proposition p H q is true if
p and q have the same truth values and is false ifp and q do not have the same truth values.
Fig. 13.21. The name of biconditional comes from the fact that p H q is equivalent to (p --; q)
/\ (q --; pl·
The truth table of p H q is
p q pHq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Fig. 13.21. Truth Table of p H q.
For example : (i) Two lines are parallel if and only if they have same slope.
(ii) You will pass the exam if and only if you will work hard.
Example 15. Prove that p H q is equivalent to (p --; q) /\ (q --; p).
Sol. Construct the truth tables of both propositions :
p q pHq p q p --> q q --> p (p --> q) A (q --> p)

IT rn
T T T T T T
T F T F F T
F T F T T F
F F F F T T

Fig. 13.22 Fig. 13.23

Since, the truth tables are same, hence they are logically equivalent. (Fig. 13.22 and
Fig. 13.23). Hence proved.

1 3.8. PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY

Two formulas A, and A2 are said to be duals of each other if either one can be obtained
from the other by replacing /\ (AND) by v (OR) and v (OR) by /\ (AND). Also if the formula
contains T (True) or F (False), then we replace T by F and F by T to obtain the dual.
Note L The two connectives and are called dual of each other.
A v
2. Like AND and OR, t (NAND) and .j, (NOR) are dual of each other.
3. If any formula of proposition is valid, then its dual is also a valid formula.

Example 16. Determine the dual of each of the following :

(a) p /\ (q /\ r) (b) -p v - q (c) (P /\ - q) V (- P /\ q)
(d) (p t q) t (p t q) (e) ((- p v q) /\ (q /\ - s)) V (p v F), here F means false.
Sol. To obtain the dual of all the above formulas, replace /\ by v and v by /\, and also
replace T by F and F by T.
Also replace t by J. and vice versa.
(a) p /\ (q /\ r) = p v (q v r) (b) - p v - q = - P /\ - q
(c) (p /\ - q) V (- P /\ q) = (p v - q) /\ (- P V q)
(d) (p J. q) J. (p J. q)
(e) «- p v q) /\ (q /\ - s» v (p v F) = «- p /\ q) V (q V - s» /\ (p /\ T)
568 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 3.9. LOGICAL IMPLICATION

A proposition P(P. q ) is said to logically imply a proposition Q (p, q, ....) , written as
• ...

P(P, q, ...) => Q (p, q, ...) if Q(P, q, ...) is true whenever P(P, q, ...) is true.
Example 17. Show that p H q logically implies p H q.
Sol. Consider the truth tables ofp H q and p --; q as in the following table. Fig. 13.24
p --; q is true whenever p H q is true. Hence p H q logically implies p --; q

p q pHq p --> q

T T T T
T F F F
F T F T
F F T T
Fig. 13.24
Example 18. Show that p logically implies p v q.
Sol. Consider the truth tables for p and p v q as in Fig. 13.25 Now p v q is true when­
ever p is true. Hence p logically implies p v q.

p q pvq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Fig. 13.25
Example 19. Show that p 1\ q logically implies p H q.
Sol. Consider the truth tables of p 1\ q and p H q as in Fig. 13.26. Now p H q is true
whenever p 1\ q is true. Thus p 1\ q logically implies p H q.

p q p l\ q pHq

T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F F T
Fig. 13.26
Exmaple 20. Show that p H q does not logically imply p --; q.
-

Sol. Construct the truth tables ofp H q andp --; q as in Fig. 13.27. Recall that p H ­
-

q logically implies p --; q ifp --; q is true whenever p H q is true. But p H

- - q is true when p
--; q is false. Hence p H q does not logically imply p --; q.
-

p q -q pH-q p --> q
T T F F T
T F T T F
F T F T T
F F T F T
Fig. 13.27
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 569

1 3.10. LOGICALLY EQUIVALENCE OF PROPOSITIONS

Two propositions are said to be logically equivalent if they have exactly the same truth
values under all circumstances. The table 1 contains the fundamental logical equivalent
expreSSlOns :
Table 1.
L De Morgan's Laws 6. Complement Properties
� (P A q) "" � P V � q p "" � � P
- (p V q) "" -P A � q 7. Transposition
2. Commutative Properties (p --> q) "" (� q --> � p)
p v q "" q vp ; P A q "" q AP. 8. Material Implication
3. Associative Properties (p --> q) ",, (�p v q)
(p v q) v r ""p v (q v r)
(p A q) A r ""p A (q A r) (p H q) "" [(p --> q) A (q --> p)]
9. Material Equivalence

4. Distributive Properties (p H q) "" [(p --> q) v (� P A - q)]

p A (q V r) "" (p A q) V (p A r) 10. Exportation
p v (q A r) "" (p v q) A (p V r) [(p A q) --> r] "" [p --> (q --> r)]
5. Idempotent Laws
p v p ""p andp AP ""p
Example 21. Consider the following propositions
- p v - q and - (p A q).
Are they equivalent ?
Sol. Construct the truth table for both (as in Fig. 13.28).
p q -p -q �p v � q PAq � (p A q)
T T T

rn rn
F F
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T F

Fig. 13.28

Since) the final values of both the propositions are same) hence the two propositions are
equivalent.
Example 22. Show that the propositions -(p A q) and -p v - q are logically equivalent.
Sol. Construct the truth tables of - (p A q) and -p v - q as in Fig. 13.29. Since the truth
tables are the same) i.e.) both propositions are false in the first case and true in the other three
cases) the propositions "'" (p /\ q) and ,..., p v ,..., q are logically equivalent and we can write
- (p A q) = - p v - q
p q P Aq - (p A q) p q -p �q �p v � q
T T T F T T F F F
T F F T T F F T T
F T F T F T T F T
F F F T F F T T T
(a) (b)
Fig. 13.29
570 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 23. Prove the associative law: (p 1\ q) 1\ r = p 1\ (q 1\ r).
Sol. Construct the required truth tables as in Fig 13.30. Since the truth tables are
identical) the propositions are equivalent.

p q r p 1\ q (p 1\ q) 1\ r q l\ r p l\ (q l\ r)

T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F
T F T F F F F
T F F F F F F
F T T F F T F
F T F F F F F
F F T F F F F

t j
F F F F F F F

Fig. 13.30
Example 24. Prove that disjunction distributes over conjunction; that is, prove the dis­
tributive law p v (q 1\ r) = (p v q) 1\ (p V r).
Sol. Construct the required truth tables as in Fig. 13.31. Since the truth tables are
identical) the propositions are equivalent.
p q r q l\ r p v (q l\ r) pvq p vr (p v q) 1\ (p V r)

T T T T T T T T
T T F F T T T T
T F T F T T T T
T F F F T T T T
F T T T T T T T
F T F F F T F F
F F T F F F T F

t i
F F F F F F F F

Fig. 13.31

1 3. 1 1 . TAUTOLOGIES (P.T. U., M.G.A. May 2007)

A proposition P is a tautology if it is true under all circumstances. It means it contains
only T in the final column of its truth table.
Example 25. Prove that the statement (p --; q) H (- q --; - p) is a tautology.
Sol. Make the truth table of above statement :
p q p --> q -q -p - q --> -p (p --> q) H (- q --> - p)
T T T F F T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T
Fig. 13.32

As the final column contains all T's, so it is a tautology. (Fig. 13.32)

PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 571

Example 26. Prove that p v p H P is a tautology.

Sol. Construct the truth table of the given statement :
p p vp p VP H P
T T T
F F T
Fig. 13.33
As the last column contains all T's, so it is a tautology. (Fig. 13.33)

1 3.12. CONTRADICTION (P.T. U., M.C.A. May 2007)

A statement that is always false is called a contradiction.
Example 27. Show that the statement p 1\ -P is a contradiction.
p
T F F
F T F
Fig. 13.34
Sol. Construct the truth table of above statement.
Since, the last column contains all F's, so it is a contradiction. (Fig. 13.34)

1 3.13. CONTINGENCY
A statement that can be either true or false depending on the truth values of its vari·
abIes) is called a contingency.

p q p --> q P 1\ q (p --> q) --> (p 1\ q)

T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F F
F F T F F
Fig. 13.35
Example 28. Prove that the statement (p --; q) --; (p 1\ q) is a contingency.
Sol. Construct the truth table of above statement.
As, the value of final column depends on the truth value of the variables, so it is a
contingency. (Fig. 13.35)
Example 29. From the following formulae, find out tautology, contingency and contra­
diction.
(i) A '" A 1\ (A v B) (ii) (p 1\ - q) V (- P 1\ q) (iii) - (p v q) v (- p v - q).
572 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. (i) Construct the truth table for A --; A 1\ (A v B).
A B A vB A A (A vB) A --; A A (A v B)
T T T T T
T F T T T
F T T F T
F F F F T
Fig. 13.36
Since, the last column of the table contains all T's, hence it is a tautology. (Fig. 13.36)
(ii) Construct the truth table for (p 1\ q) V ( - - P 1\ q) as in Fig. 13.37.

p q -p -q P A -q -P A q (P A - q) V (-p A q)
T T F F F F F
T F F T T F T
F T T F F T T
F F T T F F F

Fig. 13.37
Since, the value of the final column depends on the value of the different variables,
hence it is a contingency_
(iii) Construct the truth table of the proposition - (p v q) v ( p v q) as in Fig.
- - 13.38.

P q -P -q P 1\ q - (p 1\ q) -P v - q - (p v q) v (-p v - q)
T T F F T F F F
T F F T F T T T
F T T F F T T T
F F T T F T T T
Fig. 13.38
Since) the value of final column depends upon the value of different variables) hence it
is a contingency_
Example 30. Verify that proposition p v (p 1\ q) is tautology.
-

Sol. Construct the truth table for above proposition. (Fig. 13.39)
p q P 1\ q -(p 1\ q) p V - (p l\ q)
T T T F T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F T T
Fig. 13.39

Since) the last column contains all T' s, hence it is a tautology_

PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 573

Example 31. Determine whether the following is a tautology, contingency and a contra­
diction :
(i) p --; (p --; q) (ii) p --; (q --; p) (iii) p 1\ p. -

Sol. (i) Construct truth table for p --; (p --; q) as in Fig. 13.40.
p q p -> q p -> (p -> q)
T T T T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
Fig. 13.40

Since) the value of last column depends on the value of different variables) hence it is a
contingency_
(ii) Construct truth table for p --; (q --; p) as in Fig. 13.41.
p q q -> p p -> (q ->p)
T T T T
T F T T
F T F T
F F T T
Fig. 13.41

Since) the last column contains all T's, hence it is a tautology_

(iii) Construct truth table for p 1\ - P
as in Fig. 13.42.
'
Since, the last column contain all F s, hence it is a contradiction.

p -p
T F F
F T F

Fig. 13.42

1 3.14. FUNCTIONALLY COMPLETE SETS OF CONNECTIVES

We have three basic and two conditional connectives i.e., /\, v, ,..., ::::::} and ¢::}. If we have
given any formula containing all these connectives, we can write an equivalent formula with
certain proper subsets of these connectives.
A set of connectives is called functionally complete if every formula can be expresses on
terms of an equivalent formula containing the connectives from this set.

Example 32. Write an equivalent formula for P 1\ (R <=? 8) v (8 <=? P) which does not
involve biconditional.
Sol. We know that P <=? Q (P => Q) 1\ (Q => P)
'" ... (i)
So. apply eqn. (i) to formula to obtain the formula equivalent to
[P 1\ (R <=? S) v (S <=? P)],
which does not involve biconditionaL
= [P 1\ «R => S) 1\ (S => R» v «S => P) 1\ (P => S» ] .
574 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 33. Write an equivalent formula for R v (S <=? T), which does not involve
biconditional as well as conditional.
Sol. We know that
(P <=? Q) = (P => Q) 1\ (Q => P) ... (i)
(P => Q) = - P I\ Q ... (ii)
So, applying the eqn. (i) and (ii) on the above formula, we can obtain an equivalent
formula) which does not involve biconditional as well as conditionaL
[R v (S <=? T)] = [R v «S => T) v (T => S» ]
= [R v «- S v T) v (- T v S» ] .

Example 34. Show that {-, I\} is functionally complete.

Sol. Take any formula which involve all the five connectives /\) v) """') ::::::} and ¢::}. We can
obtain an equivalence formula by first replacing biconditional and then replacing conditional
and finally we can replace v.
As P <=? Q = (P => Q) 1\ (Q => P)
= (- P v Q) 1\ (- Q v P) = (- (--P 1\ - Q» 1\ (- (- - Q 1\ - P»
Hence, {-, I\} is functionally complete.
Similarly, we can show that (-, v) is functionally complete.

Example 35. Show that { -, --'>} is functionally complete.

Sol. We know that P => Q '" - P v Q.
So, we have P v Q '" - P => Q.
Since, { -, v} is functionally complete. Hence from above, {-, =>} is also functionally
complete.
i.e.,
given any formula which involve all the five connectives) we can obtain an equivalence
formula using {-, --'>} by first replacing biconditional and then replacing (1\) ANDing and fi·
nally replacing v.
Example 36. Express P <=? Q in terms of { -, I\} only.
Sol. (P <=? Q) = (P => Q) 1\ (Q => P) (P <=? Q) = (P => Q) 1\ (Q => P)
= (- P v Q) 1\ (- Q v P) P => Q = - P v Q
= (- (- - P 1\ - Q» 1\ (- (- - Q 1\ - P» P v Q = - (- P I\ - Q).
Example 37. Express (P 1\ - Q) v (- P 1\ - Q) in terms of (-, v) only.
Sol. (P 1\ - Q) v (- P 1\ - Q) = (- (- P v - - Q» v (- (- - P v - - Q» .: P 1\ Q = - (- P v - Q)
1 3. 1 5. ARGUMENT
An argument is an assertion ; that a group of propositions called premises) yields an­
other proposition) called the conclusion. Let PF P2 ) P3)''') Pn is the group of propositions that
yields the conclusion Q. Then, it is denoted as P l' P2 , Pn" ' " Pn 1 - Q.
Conclusion. The conclusion of an argument is the proposition that is asserted on the
basis of other proposition of the argument.
Premises. The propositions) which are assumed for accepting the conclusion) are called
the premises of that argument.
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 575

(a) Valid Argument

An argument is called valid argument if the conclusion is true whenever all the premises
are true.
The argument is also valid if and only if the ANDing of the group of propositions implies
conclusion is a tautology i.e., P (Pp P2 ) P3)''') Pn) � Q is a tautology. Where P (Pp P2 ' P3" '" Pn)
is the group of propositions and Q is the conclusion.
Some common valid argument forms are given in Table 2.

(b) Falacy Argument

An argument is called falacy or an invalid argument if it is not a valid argument.

Elementary Valid Argument Forms

Table 2.
L Modus ponens 2. Modus tollens
p --> q p --> q
p -q
q
3. Hypothetical syllogism 4. Disjunctive syllogism
p --> q p vq
q --> r �p
.. p�r q
5. Constructive dilemma 6. Absorption
(p --> q) A (r --> s) p --> q
p vr p --> (p A q)
q vs
7. Simplification 8. Conjunction
p Aq p
.. P q
P Aq
9. Addition
p
.. p v q.

Example 38. Show that the following rule is valid :

p I - p v q or p . . p v q.
Sol. We can prove this rule from the truth table (Fig. 1 3.43)
p q p vq

T T T
T F T

F T T
F F F

Fig. 13.43

P is true in line 1 and 2 andp v q is also true in line 1 and 2. Hence, argument is valid.
576 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 39. Show that the rule modus ponens is valid.
p --> q
p
q
Sol. The truth table of this rule is as follows : (Fig. 13.44)

p q p --> q

I T T T
I
T F F
F T T
F F T
Fig. 13.44
The p is the true in line 1 and 2 andp --; q andp both are true in line 1 andp, p --; q and
q all are true in line 1 . Hence) argument is valid.

Example 40. Show that the rule of hypothetical syllogism is valid

p --> q
q --> r
P -----t r.
Sol. The truth table of above rule is as in Fig. 13.45.

p q r p --> q q --> r p --> r

T T T T T T

T T F T F F
T F F F T F
T F T F T T

F T T T T T

F T F T F T

F F T T T T
F F F T T T

Fig. 13.45
p � q is true in lines 1 , 2, 5, 6, 7, 8.
q � r is true in lines 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8.
Both p -----7 q and q � r is true in lines 1 , 5, 7, 8 p � r is also true in lines 1, 5, 7, 8. Hence,
argument is valid.

Example 41. Show that the rule of Modus Tollens is valid

p --> q
�q
� p.
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 577

Sol. The truth table of above propositions are (Fig. 13.46)

p q -p -q p --> q

T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F T

F F
I T T T
I
Fig. 13.46
P --; q is true in line 1, 3 and 4. - q is true in line 2 and 4. Both p --; q and - q are true in
line 4. ,..., p is alsotrue in line 4. Hence) the argument is valid.

Example 42. Show that the rule of disjunctive syllogism is valid

p vq
-p
q.
Sol. The truth table of above rule is as follows : (Fig. 13.47)
p q -p p vq

T T F T
T F F T

F
F
I T
F
T
T
T
F
I
Fig. 13.47.
P v q is true in line 1, 2 and 3. - p is true in line 3. Both p v q and - p is true in line 3.
As q is also true in line 3. Hence) argument is valid.

Example 43. Show that the rule of simplification is valid

p Aq
p.
Sol. The truth table of above argument is as follows : (Fig. 13.48)
p q P Aq

I T T T
I
T F F
F T F
F F F
Fig. 13.48
P A q is true in line 1 and p is also true in line 1. Hence) the argument is valid.
578 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 44. Show that the rule of conjunction is valid.
p
q
P A q.
Sol. The argument is valid if p A q --; P A q is a tautology. The truth table for the above
proposition is as follows : (Fig. 13.49)
p q PAq P A q --> P A q

[
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Fig. 13.49
As the proposition is a tautology_ Hence) the argument is valid.

Example 45. Show that the rule of absorption is valid

p --> q
p --> (p A q).
Sol. We have to show that (p --; q) --; [p --; (p A q)] is tautology. The truth table of the
above argument is as follows : (Fig. 13.50)
p q P Aq p --> q P --> (p A q) (p --> q) --> [p --> (p A q)]

rn
T T T T T
T F F F F
F T F T T
F F F T T

Fig. 13.50
Since) the argument is a tautology_ Hence) it is a valid argument.

1 3. 1 6. PROOF OF VALIDITY
We can test the validity of any argument by constructing the truth tables. But as the
no. of variable statements increases) the truth tables grow unwieldly. So) a more efficient
method to test the validity of the argument is to deduce its conclusion from its premises by a
sequence of elementary arguments each of which is known to be valid.

Example 46. Prove that the argument p --; � q, r --; q, r f- � p is valid without using
truth tables.
Sol. (i) p --; � q (Given)
(ii) r --; q (Given)
(iii) � q --; � r Contra positive of (ii)
(iv) p --; - r Hypothetical syllogism using (i) and (iii)
(v) r --; - p Contrapositive of (iv)
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 579

(vi) r is true (Given)

(vii) ,..., p is true Modus ponens using (v) and (vi).
Example 47. Prove that the argument p ---, q, q ---, r, r ---, s, - s, p v t f- t is valid without
using truth tables.
Sol. (i) p ---, q (Given)
(ii) q ---, r (Given)
(iii) r ---, s (Given)
(iv) -s (Given)
(v) pvt (Given)
(vi) p ---, r Hypothetical syllogism using (i) and (ii)
(vii) p ---, s Hypothetical syllogism using (vi) and (iii)
( viii) -p Modus tollens using (vii) and (iv)
(ix) Disjunctive syllogism using (v) and (viii).

Example 48. Prove that the argument p, q I- (p v r) 1\ q is valid without using truth
tables.
Sol. (i) p (Given)
(ii) pvr Rule of addition using (i)
(iii) q (Given)
(iv) (p v r) 1\ q Rule of conjunction using (ii) and (iii).
Example 49. Prove that the argument p ---, q, P 1\ r I- q is valid without using truth
table.
Sol. (i) p ---, q (Given)
(ii) p l\ r (Given)
(iii) p Rule of simplification using (i)
(iv) q Modus ponens using (i) and (iii).
Example 50. Prove that the argument (p ---, q) 1\ (r ---, s), (p v r) 1\ (q V r) I- q v s is valid
Sol. (i) (p ---, q) 1\ (r ---, s) (Given)
(ii) (p v r) 1\ (q V r) (Given)
(iii) (p v r) Simplification using (iii)
(iv) qvs Constructive dilemma using (i) and (iii).

Example 51. Prove that the argument (p 1\ q) V (r ---, s), t ---, r, - (p 1\ q) I- t ---, s is valid
without using truth tables.
Sol. (i) (p 1\ q) V (r ---, s) (Given)
(ii) t ---, r (Given)
(iii) - (p l\ q) (Given)
(iv) Disjunctive syllogism using (i) and (iii)
(v) Hypothetical syllogism using (ii) and (iii).

Example 52. Prove that the argument (p ---, q) 1\ (r ---, s), q ---, s, (q ---, s) ---, (p v r) I- q v s
is valid using deduction method.
580 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. (i) (p --; q) 1\ (r --; s) (Given)
(ii) q --; s (Given)
(iii) (q --; s) --; (p v r) (Given)
(iv) pvr Modus ponens using (iii) and (ii)
(v) qvs Constructive dilemma using (i) and (iv).

Example 53. Prove that the argument p --; (q v r), (s 1\ t) --; q, (q v r) --; (s 1\ t) I- p --; q
is valid without using truth table.
Sol. (i) p --; (q v r) (Given)
(ii) (s 1\ t) --; q (Given)
(iii) (q v r) --; (s 1\ t) (Given)
(iv) p --; (s 1\ t) Hypothetical syllogism using (i) and (iii)
(v) p --; q Hypothetical syllogism using (ii) and (iv).

Example 54. Prove that the argument p v (q --; p), -p 1\ r I- - q is valid without using
truth tables.
Sol. (i) p v (q --; p) (Given)
(ii) ""' p A r (Given)
(iii) -p Rule of simplification using (ii)
(iv) q --; p Disjunctive syllogism using (i) and (iii)
(v) -q Modus tollens using (iv) and (iii).

Example 55. Test the validity of following argument. If I will select in lAS examina­
tion, then I will not be able to go to London. Since, I am going to London, I will not select in lAS
examination.
Sol. Let p be "I will select in lAS examination" and q be "I am going to London". Then
the above argument can be written in symbolic form as follows :
p -> - q
q

Construct the truth table for above argument (Fig. 13.51)

p q -p -q p -> - q

T T F F F
T F F T T

F I T T F T
I
F F T T T

Fig. 13.51
P --; - q is true in line 2, 3 and 4. q is true in line 1 and 4 and - p is true in line 3 and 4.
Hence) all three are true in line 4. So it is a valid statement.
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 581

Example 56. Consider the following argument and determine whether it is valid.
Either I will get good marks or I will not graduate. If I did not graduate I will go to
Canada. I get good marks. Thus, I would not go to Canada.
Sol. Let p be "I will get good marks" and q be "I will graduate" and r be "I will go to
Canada". Thus) the above argument can be written in symbolic form as follows :
p v-q
�q�r
p

The truth table of above proposition is (Fig. 13.52)

p q r -q -r p v-q - q -----t r
T T T F F T T

I T T F F T T T
I
T F F T T T F
T F T T F T T
F T T F F F T
F T F F T F T
F F T T F T T
F F F T T T F
Fig. 13.52
P v ,..., q is true in line 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8 and ,..., q � r is true in line 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 andp is true
in line 1 , 2, 3 and 4. ,..., r is true in 2, 3, 6 and 8. All the above are true in line 2. Hence, the
argument is valid.

Example 57. Determine the validity of the following argument without using truth tables.
Either I will pass the examination, or, I will not graduate. If I do not graduate, I will go
to Canada. I failed : Thus, I will go to Canada.
Sol. Let p be "I will pass the examination" and q be "I will graduate" and t be "I will go
to Canada". Thus the above argument, in symbolic form can be written as
p v-q
- q --+ t
-p

Thus to prove the validity of the argument, use the standard results as follows :
(i) pv-q (Given)
(ii) - q --; t (Given)
(iii) -p (Given)
(iv) -q Disjunctive syllogism using (i) and (iii)
(v) Modus ponens using (ii) and (iv)
Hence proved.
582 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 58. Determine the validity of the following argument using deduction method.
If I study. then I will pass examination. If I do not go to picnic. then I will study. But I
failed examination. Therefore, I went to picnic.
Sol. Let p be "I study" and q be "I will pass examination" and t be "I go to picnic". Then
the above argument is written in symbolic form as follows :
p --> q
� t - -> p
-p

Thus to prove the validity of the argument use the rules o f inference.
(i) p --'> q (Given)
(ii) - t --'> p (Given)
(iii) -p (Given)
(iv) --t Modus tollens using (ii) and (iii)
(v) Complement property using (iv)
Hence proved.

Example 59. Prove the validity of the following argument using truth tables as well as
deduction method.
"If the market is free then there is no inflation. If there is no inflation then there are price
controls. Since there are price controls, therefore, the market is free".
Sol. Let p be "The market is free" and q be "There is inflation" and r be "There are price
controls". Then the above argument can be written in symbolic form as follows :
p --> � q
�q�r
r
p
1st Method. By using truth tables
Construct the truth table of above argument (Fig. 13.53)

p q r -q p --> � q �q�r
T T T F F T
T T F F F T
T F F T T F

I T
F
F
T
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
T
I
F T F F T T
F F T T T T
F F F T T F
Fig. 13.53
P � ,..., q is true in line 3) 4) 5) 6) 7 and 8 ,..., q � r is true in line 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 r is true in
line 1 , 4, 5, 7. All the above three are true in line 4 and 5. Also p is true in line 4. Hence the
argument is valid.
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 583

lInd Method. Using deduction method

(i) p --'> - q (Given)
(ii) (Given)
(iii) Hypothetical syllogism using (i) and (ii)
(iv) Transposition using (iii)
(v) (Given)
(vi) - -p Modus tollens using (iv) and (v)
(vii) p Complement of (vi).

1 3. 1 7. QUANTIFIERS
The following notation and theorem involving the universal quantifier 'i and the exis·
tential quantifier 3 will be used throughout this section:
('i x E A) p (x) or 'i x, p(x) , for every x E A, p(x) is true.
(3 x E A) p (x) or 3 x, p(x) , there exists x E A such that p(x) is true.
Here p(x) is a propositional function (or open·sentence or condition) on A, that is, p (a) is
true or false for every a in A.
Theroem (De Morgan): Let p(x) be a propositional function on A. Then
(i) -('i x E A) p (x) = (3 x E A) - p(x)
(ii) -(3 x E A) p (x) = ('i x E A) - p(x)
Remark: The above says, in words, that the following two statements are equivalent:
"It is not true that, for every a A, p (a) is true".
(i) E
"There exists an a A such thatp(a) is false".
(ii) E
and similarly, the following two statements are equivalent:
(i) "It is not true that there exists an a A such thatp(a) is true".
E
(ii) "For all a A, p(a) is false".
E

1 3. 1 8. EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER
If p(x) is a proposition over the universe U. Then it is denoted as CIx p(x) and read as
"There exists at least one value in the universe of variable x such that p(x) is true. The quan·
tifier 3 is called the existential quantifier.
There are several ways to write a proposition, with an existential quantifier i.e.,
(3x E A) p(x) or CIx E A such that p(x) or (CIx) p(x) or p(x) is true for some x E A.

1 3.19. UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIER

If p(x) is a proposition over the universe U. Then it is denoted as 'i x, p(x) and read as
"For every x E U, p(x) is true". The quantifier 'i is called the universal quantifier.
There are several ways to write a proposition, with a universal quantifier.
'ix E A, p(x) or p(x), 'ix E A
or 'ix, p(x) or p(x) is true for all x E A.

Example 60. Let A(x) : x has a white colour, B(x) : x is a polar bear, C(x) : x is found in
cold regions, over the universe of animals. Translate the following into simple sentences :
(i) 3x (B(x) 1\ - A(x)) (ii) (3x) (- C(x))
(iii) (\fx) (B(x) 1\ C(x) --'> A(x)).
584 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. (i) There exists a polar bear whose colour is not white.
(ii) There exists an animal that is not found in cold regions.
(iii) Every polar bear that is found in cold regions has a white colour.
Example 61. Let K(x) : x is a two-wheeler, L(x) : x is a scooter. M(x) : x is manufactured
by Bajaj. Express the following using quantifiers.
(i) Every two wheeler is a scooter.
(ii) There is a two wheeler that is not manufactured by Bajaj.
(iii) There is a two wheeler manufactured by Bajaj that is not a scooter.
(iv) Every two wheeler that is a scooter is manufactured by Bajaj.
Sol. (i) (V x) (K(x) --; L(x»
(ii) (3 x) (K(x) A M(x»
(iii) (3 x) (K(x) A M(x) --; - L(x»
(iv) (V x) (K(x) A L(x) --; M(x»
Example 62. Determine the truth value of each of the following statements. (Here R is
the universal set.)
(i) V x, I x I = x (ii) 3 x, x" = x
(iii) V x, + 1 > x (iv) 3 x, x + 2 = x.
Sol. (i) False. Note that if Xo = 3 then I Xo I '" xo '
-

(ii) True. For if Xo = 1 then Xo2 = xo '

(iii) True. For every real number is a solution to x + 1 > x.
(iv) False. There is no solution to x + 2 = x.
Example 63. Negate each of the statements in equation
Sol. (i) - V x, I x I = x = 3 x - ( I x I = x) = 3 x, I x I '" x
(ii) -3 x, x2 = X = V X -(x2 = x) = V x, x" '" x
(iii) - V x, x + 1 > x = 3 x - (x + 1 > x) = 3 x, x + 1 <: x
(iv) - 3 x, x + 2 = x = V x -(x + 2 = x) = V x, x + 2 '" x
Example 64. (a) Let A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Determine the truth value ofeach of the following
statements:
(i) (3 x E A) (x + 3 = 1 0) (ii) (V x E A) (x + 3 < 1 0)
(iii) (3 x E A) (x + 3 < 5) (iv) (V X E A) (x + 3 <: 7)
(b) Negate each of the statements.
Sol. (a) (i) False. For no number in A is a solution to x + 3 = 10.
(ii)True. For every number in A satisfies x + 3 < 10.
(iii)True. For if Xo = 1) then Xo + 3 < 5) i.e.) 1 is a solution.
(iv)False. For if Xo = 5, then Xo + 3 J;7. In other words, 5 is not a solution to the given
condition.
(b) (i) - (3 x E A) (x + 3 = 10) = (V X E A) - (x + 3 = 10) = (V X E A) (x + 3 '" 10)
(ii) - (V X E A) (x + 3 < 10) = (3 X E A) - (x + 3 < 10) = (3 X E A) (x + 3 :> 10)
(iii) - (3 x E A) (x + 3 < 5) = (V X E A) - (x + 3 < 5) = (V X E A) (x + 3 :> 5)
(iv) -(V x E A) (x + 3 <: 7) = (3 x E A) - (x + 3 <: 7) = (3 x E A) (x + 3 > 7)
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 585

Example 65. Determine the truth value of each of the following statements (where R is
the universal set):
(i) 'd x2 = x;
X, (ii) 3 x, 2x = x; (iii) 'd x, x- 3 < x;
(iv) 3 x, x" - 2x + 5 = O
Sol. (i) False, for x = 2 does not satisfy x" = x.
(ii) True, for x = 0 satisfies 2x = x.
(iii) True) since every real number satisfies x - 3 < x.
(iv) False, since x2 - 2x + 5 = 0 has no real roots.
Example 66. Let A = {I, 2, 3, 4} be the universal set. Determine the truth value of each
statement:
(i) 'd x, x + 3 < 6 ; (ii) 3 x, x + 3 < 6; (iii) 3 x, 2x2 + x = 1 5
Sol. (i) False, since x = 4 does not satisfy x + 3 < 6.
(ii) True) since x = 1 satisfies x + 3 < 6.
(iii) False, since no number in A satisfies 2x2 + x = 15.
1 3.20. NEGATION OF QUANTIFIED PROPOSITIONS
When we negate a quantified proposition i.e., when a universally quantified proposition
is negated, we obtain an existentially quantified proposition and when an existentially quan­
tified proposition is negated, we obtain a universally quantified proposition.
The two rules for negation of quantified proposition are as follows. These are also called
De Morgan's law.
(i) - 3 x p(x) '" 'd x - p(x) (ii) - 'd x p(x) '" 3 x - p(x).
Example 67. Negate each of the following propositions :
(i) All boys can run faster than all girls.
(ii) Some girls are more intelligent than all boys.
(iii) Some students do not live in hostel.
(iv) All students pass the semester exams.
(v) Some of the students are absent and the classroom is empty.
Sol. (i) Some boys can run faster than some girls.
(ii) All girls are more intelligent than some boys.
(iii) All students live in hostel.
(iv) Some students do not pass the semester exams.
(v) All students are present and the class·room is full.
Example 68. Negate each of the following propositions :
(i) 'dx P(x) I d y q(y) (ii) 'd x p(x) 1\ 'd y q(y)
(iii) 3 xp(x) v 'd y q(y) (iv) 3 xp(x) v 3 y q(y)
(v) (3 x E U) (x + 6 = 25) (vi) ('dx E U) (x < 25).
Sol. (i) - ('d x p(x) 1\ 3 y q(y»
'" - 'd xp(x) v - 3 y q(y) ( -:
- (p 1\ q) = - p v - q)
'" 3 x - p(x) v 'd y - q(y)
586 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(ii) - ('i X p(x) 1\ 'i y

q(y»
'" - 'i xp(x) V - 'i y q (y) ( ": - (p 1\ q) = - p - q)
'" 3 - p(x) V 3 y - q(y)
X

(iii) - (3 p(x) V 'i y q(y»

X

'" - 3 xp(x) 1\ - 'i y q (y)

'" 'i - p(x) 1\ 3 y - q (y)
X

(iv) - (3 p(x) V 3 y q (y»

X

'" - 3 p(x) 1\ - 3 y q(y)

X

'" 'i - p(x) 1\ 'i y - q (y)

X

(v) - (3 X E U) (x + 6) = 25
", 'ix E U - (x + 6) = 25
'" ('ix E U) (x + 6) # 25
(vi) - ('i X E U) (x < 25)
'" 3 X E U - (x < 25)
'" (3 X E U) (x :> 25)

1 3.21 . PROPOSITIONS WITH MULTIPLE QUANTIFIERS

The proposition having more than one variable can be quantified with multiple quanti·
fiers. The multiple universal quantifiers can be arranged in any order without altering the
meaning of the resulting proposition. Also the multiple existential quantifiers can be arranged
in any order without altering the meaning of proposition.
The proposition which contains both universal and existential quantifiers) the order of
these quantifiers can't be exchanged without altering the meaning of proposition e.g., the
proposition 3 X 'i y p(x, y) means " There exists some X such that p(x, y) is true for every y".

Example 69. Write the negation for each of the following. Determine whether the result­
ing statement is true or false. Assume U = R.
(i) 'i 3 m(:x2 < m)
X (ii) 3 m 'i x(:x2 < my.
Sol. (i) Negation of 'i x 3 m(:x2 < m) is 3 x 'i m (:x2 :> m). The meaning of 3 x 'i m(:x2 :> m)
is that there exists some x such that x2 ;::: m) for every m. The statement is true as there is some
greatest x such that x2 ;::: m) for every m.
(ii) Negation of 3 m 'i x (x2 < m) is 'i m 3 x (x2 :> m). The meaning of 'i m 3 x (x2 :> m) is
that for every m) there exists some x such that (x2 ;::: m). The statement is true as for every m)
there exists some greatest x such that x2 � m.

Example 70. Check the validity offollowing formula under given interpretation.
(a) 'i x 3 y P(x, y) under interpretation domain = {1, 2} and P(1, 1) = T, P(1, 2) = F, P(2, 1)
= T, P(2, 2) = T where T and F refer to true and false respectively.

(b) 'i x P(x) -; Q(a, f(x)) under interpretation domain = {1, 2} and a = 1, f(1) = 2, f(2) = 1,
P(1) = F, P(2) = T, Q(1, 1) = T, Q(1, 2) = T, Q(2, 1) = F and Q(2, 2) = T. Here T and F refer to true
and false respectively.
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 587

Sol. (a) \;j x 3 y P(x, y) means for every x, there exists some y such that P(x, y) is true.
Since P(l, 1) = T and P(2, 1) = T. Hence, the formula is valid under the domain = {I, 2}.
(b) \;j x P(x) --; Q(a, f(x» means for every x, whenever P(x) is true implies Q(a, f(x» is also
true. So, under the domain {I, 2}, the different values of \;j x P(x) --; Q(a, f(x» are as follows :
x P(x) Q (a, {(x))
1 F T
2 T T
So, when P(x) is true, Q(a, f(x» is also true. Hence, the formula is valid.

I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES I
Example 1. Translate the following statements in proposition logic :
(i) If you study, you will get good marks. If you do not study, you will enjoy. Therefore,
either you will get good marks or you will enjoy.
(ii) If the catalogue is correct, then if the seeds are planted on April, flowers will bloom in
July.
(iii) If John is elected class representative, then either Mary is elected treasurer or Alice is
elected vice-treasurer.
(iv) Either taxes are increased or if expenditures rise, then the debt ceiling is raised.
Sol. (i) Let p be "You study" and q be "You will get good marks" and r be "You will
enjoy". Then the proposition logic is
p --> q
�p�r
q vr
(ii) Let p be "The catalogue is correct" and q be "Seeds are planted in April" and r be
"The flowers bloom in July". Then, proposition logic is
p --; (q --; r)
(iii) Let p be "John is elected class representative" and q be "Mary is elected treasurer"
and r be "Alice is elected vice-treasurer". Then) proposition logic is
p --; q v r
(iv) Let p be "Taxes are increased" and q be "Expenditures rise" and r be "The debt
ceiling is raised". Then proposition logic is
p v (q --; r).
Example 2. The meaning of proposition p --; q is "If p then q" or "q is a necessary
condition for p" or "p only if q" or "p is a sufficient condition for q".
Write the following statements in terms of above.
(a) p : New Delhi is capital of India q : India is in Asia.
(b) p : x" = 4 q:x=2
(c) p : x" = y 2 q : x = y.
(d) p = he works hard q : he is a Gold Medalist.
588 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. (a) (i) If New Delhi is capital of India, then India is in Asia.
(ii) India is in Asia is a necessary condition for New Delhi to be capital of India.
(iii) New Delhi is capital of India only if India is in Asia.
(iv) The fact that New Delhi is capital of India is a sufficient condition that India is in
Asia.
(b) (i) Ifx2 = 4, then x = 2
(ii) x = 2 is necessary for x2 = 4
(iii) x" = 4 only if x = 2
(iv) x2 = 4 is sufficient for x = 2.
(c) (i) If x" = y2 then x = y
(ii) x = y is necessary fo r x2 = y2
(iii) x" = y2 only if x = y
(iv) x2 = y2 is sufficient for x = y.
(d) (i) If he works hard then he is a Gold Medalist.
(ii) Gold medal is necessary for hard work.
(iii) He works hard only if he is a Gold Medalist.
(iv) Hard work is sufficient condition for Gold Medalist.
Example 3. Construct the truth table for the following statements
(i) (p --; p) --; (p --; - p) (ii) (- q --; - p) --; (p --; q).
Sol. (i) The truth table for (p --; p) --; (p --; -p) is as follows. (Fig. 13.54)
p -p p --+ p
T F T F F
F T T T T

Fig. 13.54
(ii) The truth table of statement (- q --; - p) --; (p --; q) is as follows. (Fig. 13.55)

p q -p -q - q --+ - p p --+ q (- q - -+ -p) - -+ (p --+ q)

T T F F T T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

Fig. 13.55
Example 4. Construct the truth table for following statements
(i) (p --; (q --; r)) --; ((p --; q) --; (p --; r))
(ii) p H (- p v - q)
(iii) (p --; p) v (p --; - p).
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 589

Sol. (i) Truth table for (p --; (q --; r» --; «P --; q) --; (p --; r» is as follows. (Fig. 1 3.56)

p q r q --> r p --> q p --> r � (p --> (q --> r)) «P --> q) --> (p --> r)) K --> L

T T T T T T T T T
T T F F T F F F T
T F F T F F T T T
T F T T F T T T T
F T T T T T T T T
F T F F T T T T T
F F T T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T T
Fig. 13.56
(ii) Truth table for p H (- P v - q) is as following. (Fig. 13.57)

p q -p -q -p v � q p H (-p v � q)
T T F F F F
T F F T T T
F T T F T F
F F T T T F
Fig. 13.57
(iii) The truth table for (p --; p) v (p --; - p) is as follows. (Fig. 13.58)

p -p p --> p (p --> p) v (p --> � p)

T F T F T
F T T T T
Fig. 13.58
Example 5. Assume the value ofp --; q is false. Determine the value of (- p v - q) --; q.
Sol. Construct the truth table for both the statements and determine the value of
(- p v - q) --; q against the false values ofp --; q. (Fig. 13.59)

p q -p -q p --> q -p v - q ( pv
� � q) --> q

T T F F T F T
T F F T I F T F I
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T F

Fig. 13.59
So. when p --; q is false, the value of (- p v - q) --; q is also false.
590 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 6. Given the value ofp --; q is true. Determine the value of - p v (p H q).
Sol. Construct truth table for both statements. (Fig. 13.60)

p q -p p --> q pHq -P V (p H q)

T T F
I T T T I
T F F F F F

F T T I T F T I
F F T I T T T I
Fig. 13.60

So, when the value of p --; q is true i.e., in line 1, 3 and 4. The value of - p v (p H q) is
also true.

Example 7. Prove that the negation ofconditional statement - (p --; q) is equivalent of

p A - q.
Sol. The truth table of the above propositions are as follows. (Fig. 13.61)

p q -q p --> q - (p --> q) p A-q

T T F T F F
T F T F T T
F T F T F F
F F T T F F

Fig. 13.61

As the values of both the propositions are same, hence '=

- (p --; q) p A - q.
Example 8. Prove that the negation of biconditional statement - (p H q) is equivalent to
p H - q or - p H q.
Sol. The truth table of all the above propositions is as follows. (Fig. 1 3.62)

p q -p -q pHq - (P H q) p H-q -p H q

rn rn [
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
Fig. 13.62

As the values of - (p H q) and p H -q and -p H q are same, hence they all are
equivalent.
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 591

Example 9. From the following formulae find out tautology. contingency and
contradiction.
(i) - (A --; B) v (- A v (A 1\ B)) (ii) (H --; (J 1\ J)) --; - (H --; J)
=
(iii) (p H Q) (p 1\ Q) v (- P 1\ Q) .
Sol. (i) Construct the truth table for - (A --; B) v (- A v (A 1\ B» as in Fig. 13.63.

A B -A - A v (A I\ B) A --> B - (A --> B) - (A --> B) v ( A v (A 1\ B»

-

T T F T T F T
T F F F F T T
F T T T T F T
F F T T T F T
Fig. 13.63
As the last column of the table contains all T's, hence it is a tautology.
(ii) Construct truth table for (H --; I 1\ J) --; - (H --; I) as in (Fig. 13.64)

H 1 J (I 1\ J) H --> (I 1\ J) H --> 1 - (H --> I) (H --> 1 1\ J) --> - (H --> I)

T T T T T T F F
T T F F F T F T
T F F F F F T T
T F T F F F T T
F T T T T T F F
F F T F T T F F
F T F F T T F F
F F F F T T F F
Fig. 13.64
As the value of last column depends upon the value of the variables, hence it is a contin­
gency.
(iii) Construct the truth table for (p H q) --; (p 1\ q) V (- P 1\ q) as in (Fig. 13.65)
p q -p pHq P 1\ q - P 1\ q (p 1\ q) V ( p 1\ q)
- (p H q) --> (p 1\ q) V ( P 1\ q)
-

T T F T T F T T
T F F F F T T T
F T T F F T T T
F F T T F F F T
Fig. 13.65
As the last column contains all T's, hence the above formulae is a tautology.

Example 10. Prove that following is a tautology

A v (B I\ C) oo (A v B) v C.
592 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Sol. Construct the truth table for A v (B 1\ C) --; (A v "8) v C as in (Fig. 13.66)

A B C B C B I\ C A v (B I\ C) (A v B) (A v B) v C A v (B 1\ C) --> (A v B) v C

T T T F F F T T T T
T T F F T T T T T T
T F F T T T T T T T
T F T T F T T T T T
F T T F F F F F F T
F T F F T T T F T T
F F T T F T T T T T
F F F T T T T T T T
Fig. 13.66
As the last column of the table contains all T's, hence it is a tautology.

Example 11. Determine whether the following are equivalent, using biconditional
statement.
(i) p H q '" (p 1\ q) ( P 1\ q)
V - -

(ii) (p --; q) --; t '" (p 1\ q) --; t.

-

Sol. To prove that the above pairs are equivalent. Prove that (p H q) H ((p 1\ q) ( P 1\ q)) V - -

and ((p --; q) --; t) H ((p 1\ q) --; t) are tautologies.

-

(i) Construct truth table for (p H q) H ((p 1\ q) ( P 1\ q)) as in (Fig. 1 3.67)

V - -

p q -p -q p H q P 1\ q - p l\ - q (p 1\ q) V (- P 1\ - q) (p H q) H (p 1\ q) V (- p 1\ - q)

T T F F T T F T T
T F F T F F F F T
F T T F F F F F T
F F T T T F T T T
Fig. 13.67
As the proposition (p H q) H ((p 1\ q) ( V - P 1\ - q)) is a tautology, hence they are
equivalent.
(ii) Construct the truth table for ((p --; q) --; t) H ((p 1\ q) --; t) as in Fig.
- 13.68.

p q t -q p --> q (p --> q) --> t p l\ - q pA�q�t ((p --> q) --> t) H ((p 1\ - q) --> t)

T T T F T T F T T
T T F F T F F T F
T F F T F T T F F
T F T T F T T T T
F T T T T T F T T
F T F F T F F T F
F F T T T T F T T
F F F F T F F T F
Fig. 13.68
Since) the proposition is not a tautology) hence they are not equivalent.
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 593

Example 12. Determine the dual of each of the following :

(a) (P /\ Q) v (- P v (- P v Q))
W - P /\ 0 Q /\ � v � /\ � v (p /\ �
(c) (P 1- Q) t R.
Sol. The dual of above propositions are as follows :
(a) (P /\ Q) v (- <jJ v (- P v Q» = (P v Q) /\ (- P /\ (- P /\ Q»
(b) - P /\ (- Q /\ R) v (Q /\ R) v (P /\ R) = - P v (- Q v R) /\ (Q v R) /\ (P v R)
(c) (P 1- Q) t R = (P t Q) 1- R.
Example 13. Express P => Q using Nand t only.
Sol. P => Q '" - P v Q '" - (- - P /\ - Q) P v Q '" - (- P /\ - Q)
", - (p /\ - Q) - - p oo p
", p t - Q p t Q oo - (p /\ Q)
", p t Q t Q - P = P t p.

Example 14. Express P 1- Q using t only.

Sol. P 1- Q '" - (P v Q) '" (P v Q) t (P v Q)
'" [(P t P) t (Q t Q) ] t [(P t P) t (Q t Q) ] .: P v Q '" (P t Q) t (P t Q)

Example 15. Express the following formula using only - and /\.
(P 1- Q) t R
where 1- denotes NOR and t denotes NAND.
Sol. (P 1- Q) t R '" - (P v Q) t R P 1- Q ", - (P v Q)
'" - «- P v Q) /\ R) p t Q ", - (p /\ Q)
'" - «- - - (P /\ - Q» /\ R) P v Q '" - (- P /\ - Q)
'" - «- (P /\ - Q» /\ R) - -P = P
Note. t (NAND) and .j, (NOR) are dual of each other.
Example 16. Show that the connective t (Nand) is functionally complete.
Sol. To show that the connective t is functionally complete. We have to show that the
set of connectives (/\ , ,...)., and (v , ,...)., can be expressed in terms of t alone which is shown as
follows :
- P '" -P v - P '" - (P /\ P) '" P t P
P v Q '" - (-P /\ - Q) '" - P t - Q '" (P t P) t (Q t Q)
and p/\ Q '" - (P t Q) '" (P t Q) t (P t Q)
Since the above expresses /\, v and ,..., in terms of t alone. Hence t is functionally complete.

Example 17. Prove the validity of following arguments without using truth tables.
1. p v q, -p 1 - q 2. p, p --; q, q --; r 1 - r
3. p, q, (p /\ q) --; r 1 - r 4. p, (p /\ - q) --; - p 1 - p --; q.
Sol. 1 . (i) pvq (Given)
(ii) -p (Given)
(iii) q Disjunctive syllogism
594 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

2. (i) p (Given)
(ii) p --; q (Given)
(iii) q --; r (Given)
(iv) p --; r Hypothetical syllogism using(ii) and (iii)
(v) r Modus ponens using (iv) and (i)
3. (i) p (Given)
(ii) q (Given)
(iii) (p 1\ q) --; r (Given)
(iv) p l\ q Rule of conjunction using(i) and (ii)
(v) r Modus ponens using (iii) and (iv)
4. (i) p (Given)
(ii) (p 1\ - q) --; - p (Given)
(iii) - (p l\ - q) Modus tollens using (ii) and (i)
(iv) - - (p --; q) As - (p --; q) '" (p 1\ - q)
(v) p --; q Complement property using (iv).
Example 18. Prove that the argument (p 1\ q) --; r, p --; q 1- p --; «P 1\ q) 1\ r) is valid
without using truth table.
Sol. (i) (p 1\ q) --; r (Given)
(ii) p --; q (Given)
(iii) p --; (p 1\ q) Rule of absorption using (ii)
(iv) (p 1\ q) --; «P 1\ q) 1\ r) Rule of absorption using (i)
(v) p --; «P 1\ q) 1\ r) Hypothetical syllogism using (iii) and (iv).

Example 19. Prove that the following arguments are valid without using truth tables.
1. (p v q) --; - r, r v t, p 1- t
2. (p 1\ q) --; r, (r --; q), (r --; q) --; (q 1\ r) 1- (p 1\ q) --; (q 1\ r)
Sol. 1. (i) (p v q) --; - r (Given)
(ii) rvt (Given)
(iii) p (Given)
(iv) pvq Rule of addition using (iii)
(v) -r Modus ponens using (i) and (iv)
(vi) Disjunctive syllogism using (ii) and (v)
2. (i) p l\ q --; r (Given)
(ii) r --; q (Given)
(iii) (r 1\ q) --; (q 1\ r) (Given)
(iv) r --; (r 1\ q) Rule of absorption using (ii)
(v) (p 1\ q) --; (r 1\ q) Hypothetical syllogism using (i) and (iv)
(vi) (p 1\ q) --; (q 1\ r) Hypothetical syllogism using (v) and (iii)
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 595

Example 20. Prove the validity offollowing argument using deduction system.
(l) A � B OO B � - C
(3) - C I\ D (4) A � D
:. B.
Sol. (i) A�B (Given)
(ii) B�-C (Given)
(iii) - C I\ D (Given)
(iv) A�D (Given)
(v) A�-C Hypothetical syllogism using (i) and (ii)
(vi) -C Simplification of (iii)
(vii) -A�C Transposition of (iv)
( viii) A Modus tollens using (vii) and (vi)
(ix) B Modus ponens using (i) and (viii)

Example 21. Prove the validity of following by deduction method.

(A) (i) P � Q (B) (i) P v Q (C) (i) (Q � R) 1\ (S � T)
(ii) - Q v R (ii) Q � R (ii) (U � V) 1\ (W � X)
(iii) - (R 1\ - S) (iii) R 1\ S (iii) Q v U
(iv) P (iv) P � S :. R v V
:. S (v) P
:. S
Sol. (A) (i) P�Q (Given)
(ii) -QvR (Given)
(iii) - (R I\ - S) (Given)
(iv) P (Given)
(v) Q Modus ponens using (i) and (iv)
(vi) Rv-Q Commutative property using (ii)
(vii) -R Rule of Modus tollens using (vi) and (v)
( viii) -RvS De Morgan's Law using (iii)
(ix) S Modus ponens using (viii) and (vii)
(B) (i) PvQ (Given)
(ii) Q�R (Given)
(iii) R I\ S (Given)
(iv) P�S (Given)
(v) P (Given)
(vi) S Modus ponens using (iv) and (v)
(C) (i) (Q � R) 1\ (S � T) (Given)
(ii) (V � V) I\ (W � X) (Given)
(iii) QvV (Given)
(iv) (Q � R) Simplification using (i)
(v) (V � V) Simplification using (ii)
(vi) (Q � R) 1\ (V � V) Conjunction using (iv) and (v)
(vii) RvV Constructive dilemma using (vi) and (iii)
Example 22. Prove the validity offollowing argument using truth tables.
"If it rains then it will be cold. If it is cold then I shall stay at home. Since it rains
therefore, I shall stay at home".
596 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Sol. Let p be "It rains" and q be "It will be cold" and r be "I shall stay at home". Then the
above argument in symbolic form is
p --'> q
q --,> r
p
r
Construct the truth table of (p --'> q) 1\ (q --'> r) 1\ p --'> r as in (Fig. 13.69).
p q r p --> q q --> r (p --> q) 1\ (q --> r) (p --> q) 1\ (q --> r) 1\ p (p --> q) 1\ (q --> r) I\ p --> r

T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F T
T F F F T F F T
T F T F T F F T
F T T T T T F T
F T F T F F F T
F F T T T T F T
F F F T T T F T
Fig. 13.69
As the last column contain all T's, hence the argument is valid.

Example 23. Translate the following into symbolic form and test the validity of the
argument.
If 6 is even then 2 does not divide 7. Either 5 is not prime or 2 divides 7. But 5 is prime,
therefore, 6 is odd.
Sol. Let p be "6 is even" and q be "2 divide 7" and r be "6 is primed". Thus, the above
argument in symbolic form can be written as
p --> � q
�rvq
r
�p
Construct the truth table to test the validity. (Fig. 13.70)
p q r -p -q -r p --> - q �rvq
T T T F F F F T
T T F F F T F T
T F F F T T T F
T F T F T F T T
F
F
T
T
I T
F
T
T
F
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
I
F F T T T F T F
F F F T T T T F
Fig. 13.70

in line 1 , 4, 6 and 7. All the three are true in line 4 and 6 and p is true in line 6. Hence,
P -----t ,..., q is true in line 3) 4) 5) 6) 7 and 8) ,..., r v q is true in line 1 ) 2) 3) 4, 5 and r is true
-

argument is valid.
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 597

Example 24. Determine the negation of the following statements

(i) 'i x 'iy 'iz, p(x, y, z) (ii) 'i x 3 y' p(x, y)
(iii) 3y 'i x 'iz' p(x, y, z).
Sol. (i) - ('ix 'iy'iz, p(x, y, z» 3 x 3y 3z - p(x, y, z)
=

(ii) - ('ix 3y, p(x, y» 3x'iy, - p(x, y)

=

(iii) - (3 y 'ix 'iz' p(x, y, z» 'iy 3x 3z, -p(x, y, z).

=

Example 25. Determine the negation of the following statements

(i) 3x 'iy (p(x) v q(y)) (ii) 'ix 3y (p(x, y) --; q(x, y))
(iii) 'ix 'iy (P(x) 1\ q(y)).
Sol. (i) - (3x 'iy, (P(x) v q(y» 'ix 3y - (P (x) v q(y»
=

= 'ix 3y (- p(x) 1\ - q(y»

(ii) - 'ix 3y (P (x, y) --; q(x, y» 3x 'iy - (P (x, y) --; q(x, y»
=

(iii) 'ix 'iy (P (x) 1\ pry»� 3x 3y - (P (x) 1\ pry»� 3x 3y (- p(x) v - pry»�.

= = =

Example 26. Let U = Q. Use quantifiers to express the following statements

(i) J5 is not rational.
(ii) Subtraction of any two rational numbers is rational.
Sol. (i) -(3 x) (x2 = 5)
(ii) ('ix) ('iy) (x - y is a rational).

TEST YOU R KNOWL EDGE

Statements, Basic Operations

L Let p be "It is cold" and q be "It is raining". Give a verbal sentence which describes each of the
following statements :
(a) - p (b) p l\ q
(c) p v q (d) q v -p
(e) - p l\ - q (j) - (- q)
2. Let be "He is tall" and q be "He is handsome". Write the following statements in symbolical
form using and q.
p
p
He is tall and handsome.
(a) (b) He is tall but not handsome.
It is false that he is short or handsome. (d) He is neither tall nor handsome.
(c)
He is tall or he is short and handsome. (j) It is not true that he is short or not handsome.
(e)
Let be "Andrey speaks French" and q be" Andrey speaks Danish". Give a simple verbal sentence
which describes each of the following
3. p

(a) p v q (b) p l\ q
(c) p l\ - q (d) - p v - q
(e) - (- p) (j) - (- P 1\ - q) (P. T. U. M.C.A. Dec. 2002)
Truth Value of Compound Statement
4. Determine the truth value of each of the following statements:
(a) 4 + 2 = 5 and 6 + 3 = 9 (b) 3 + 2 = 5 and 6 + 1 = 7
(c) 4 + 5 = 9 and 1 + 2 = 4 (d) 3 + 2 = 5 and 4 + 7 = 1 1 .
5. Determine the truth value of each of the following statements
(a) 1 + 1 = 5 or 2 + 2 = 4 (b) 2 + 5 = 9 or 3 + 7 = 8
(c) 1 + 1 = 5 or 3 + 3 = 4 (d) 2 + 5 = 9 or 1 + 7 = 8
598 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Truth Tables
6. Find the Truth Table of
(a) � p A q (b) � (p v q)
(c) � (p v � q) (d) � (p q) p
¢c> = ¢c> �q = p
� ¢c> q.
(P.T. U M.C.A. May 2008)
Find the Truth Table for
.•

7.
(a) p v � q
Tautologies and Contradictions
8. Verify that the propositionp v � (p A q) is a tautology.
9. (a) Verify that the proposition (p A q) A � (p v q) is a contradiction.
(b) Prove that the sentence "It is raining or it is not raining" is a tautology.
M.C.A. Dec. 2006)
(c) Let c denotes contradiction. Then for any statement p,
(P.T. U .•

(i) p v c p
= (ii) P A C c.
= (P.T. U .• M.C.A. Dec. 2006)
Logical Equivalence
10. Show that the propositions � (p A q) and � p v � q are logically equivalent.
11. Show thatp v q � ( p A � q) by using Truth Tables.
= -

Exclusive Disjunction, Joint Denial

12. Show that p A q (p .j, p) .j, (q .j, q) by using Truth Tables.
=

13. (a) Show that � p p .j, P =

(b) p v q (p .j, q) .j, (p .j, q)

=

Negation and De Morgan's Law

14. Using De Morgan's Law. Show
(a) � p v � q = (p A q)
- (b) � p A � q =(p v q)
-

(c) � p v � q � P A q
= (d) � (� p A q) P v � q
=

15. Simplify each of the following statements.

(a) It is not true that his mother is English or his father is French.
(b) It is not true that he studies physics but not mathematics.
16. Write the negation of the following statements.
(a) He is tall but handsome. (b) He has blond hair or blue eyes.
(c) He is neither rich nor happy.
(d) He has lost his job or he did not go to work today.
(e) Paris is in France and London is in England. (P.T. U M.C.A. Dec. 2006)
.•

Conditional Statements and Variations

17. Determine the contrapositive of each of the following statements.
(a) If John is a poet, then he is poor (b) Only if Marc studies he will pass the test.
18. Determine the contrapositive of each statement.
(a) If he has courage, he will win. (b) It is necessary to be strong in order to be a sailor.
(c) Only if he does not tire will he win.
(d) It is sufficient for it to be a square in order to be a rectangle.
Biconditional
19. Determine the truth value of the following statements.
(a) 2 + 2 = 4 iff 3 + 6 = 9 (b) 2 + 2 = 7 iff 5+ 1=2
(c) 1 + 1 = 2 iff 3 + 2 = 8 (d) 1 + 2 = 5 iff 3+ 1= 4
20. Find the truth table for (p --> q) v � (p H � q)
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 599

Argumen t and State men ts

21. Show that the following statements are valid statements
(a) p H q, q I- p (b) p --> q, � q I- � p
22. Determine the validity of the argument � p -----t q, P � � q
Logically Implication
23. Show that p H q logically implies p q -----t

24. (a) Show that p A q logically implies p H q

(b) Show that p q = (p v q) --> (p A q) using (a) truth tables (b) algebra of propositions,
¢c>

(P,T, U,. M,CA May 2008)

Quan tifiers
25. Determine the truth value of the following statements.
(a) \j x, I x I = x (b) x, x' = x 3
(c)\j x, x x + 1> (d) 3 x, x 2 = x
+
(e)\j x, 2x = x (j) \j x, x - 3 < x
(g) x, x' - 2x
3 +5 =0

Answers
L (a) It is not cold, (b) It is cold and raining.
(c) It is cold or it is raining. (d) It is raining or it is not cold.
(e) It is not cold and it is not raining.
(/) It is not true that it is not raining or it is false that it is not raining.
2. (a) p A q (b) p A � q
(c) � (� p v q) (d) � P A � q
(e) p v (� p A q) (j) � (� p v � q),
3. (a) Andrey speaks French or Danish.
(b) Andrey speaks French and Danish.
(c) Andrey speaks French but not Danish.
(d) Andrey does not speak French or Andrey does not speak Danish.
(e) It is false that Andrey does not speak French.
(j) It is false that Andrey speaks neither French nor Danish.
4. The Statement " p and q" is true only when both statements are true.
(a) false (b) True (c) False (d) True,
5. The statement "p or q" is false when both statements are false.
(a) True (b) False (c) False (d) True,
6. (a) p q �p �P A q (b) p q pvq � (p v q)

T T F F T T T F
T F F F T F T F
F T T T F T T F
F F T F F F F T
(c) p q �q pv�q � (p v � q)
T T F T F
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T T F
600 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(d) p q � (p ¢"> q) p ¢"> � q � p ¢"> q

T T F F F
T F T T T
F T T T T
F F F F F
7. (a) p q �q pv�q (b) p q �p �q �PA�q

T T F T T T F F F
T F T T T F F T F
F T F F F T T F F
F F T T F F T T T
11. p q pvq �p �q �P A � q � (� P A � q)

T T T F F F T
T F T F T F T
F T T T F F T
F F T T T
r r
Since the truth tables are identical, the propositions are equivalent
15. (a) His mother is not English and his father is not French.
(b) He does not study physics or he studies mathematics.
16. (a) He is not tall or not handsome.
(b) He has neither bland hair nor blue eyes.
(c) He is rich or happy.
(d) He has not lost his Job and he did go to work Today.
(e) Paris is not in France or London is not in England.
17. (a) If John is not poor, then he is not a poet.
(b) If Marc does not study, then he will not pass the test.
18. (a) If he does not win, then he does not have courage.
(b) If he is not strong, then he is not a sailor.
(c) If he tires, then he will not win.
(d) If it is not a rectangle, then it is not a square.
19. p H q is true whenever p and q have the same truth values.
(a) True (b) True (c) False (d) False.
20. p q p --> q v � P H � q
T T T T T T T T F F T
T F T F F F F T T T F
F T F T T T F F T F T
F F F T F T T F F T F
22. False
25. (a) False (b) True (c) True (d) False (e) True (j) True (g) False.
PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 601

I MULTI PLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs) I

1. Which of the following is not a proposition?
(a) India is in Asia (b) 2 + 2 = 4
(c) The Intel Pentium-III is a 64-bit processor
(d) X + Y = 30.
2. Let p: He is coward and q: He is rich. Which of the following is the symbolic form of the
statement? "He is neither coward nor rich".
(a) - (p A q) (b) - p A - q
(c) - p - q (d) - (p A - q).
3. Let p --; q is a proposition, which of the following is false?
(a) - q --; - p is contra positive of p --; q (b) q --; p is converse of p --; q
(c) - p --; - q is inverse ofp --; q (d) - (q --; p) is inverse ofp --; q.
4. The biconditional statement p B q is equivalent to
(a) (p --; q) A (q --; p) (b) (p --; q) v (q --; p)
(c) (p v q) A (q --; p) (d) (p v q) v (q --; pl.
5. Which of the following statements is true about the formula? (p --; q) B (- q --; - p)?
(a) It is a contradiction (b) It is contingency
(c) It is tautology (d) None of these.

Answers and Explanations

1. (d) A proposition is either true or false.
2. (b) The statement is negation of the original one.
3. (d) - p --; - q is inverse of p --; q
4. (a) Biconditional statement is equal to Anding of (p --; q), (q --; pl.
5. (c) Draw the truth table for the statement and then check it.
 4 *
1 MATRIX ALGEBRA

1 4. 1 . (a) MATRIX
A set of mn numbers (real or complex) arranged in a rectangular array having m
rows (horizontal lines) and n columns (vertical lines). the numbers being enclosed by brackets
[ l or ( ). is called an m x n matrix (read as "m by n matrix").
An m x n matrix is also called a matrix of order m x n. Each of the mn numbers is
called an element of the matrix.

For example, [� - � !] is a 2 x 3 matrix or matrix of order 2 x 3. It has two rows and

three columns. The numbers 2) - 1) 5, 3, 0, 4 are its elements.
an a12 al3 . . . . a1n
a21 a22 a23 . . . . a2n
An m x n matrix is usually written as a3 I a32 a33 . . . . aa n

Here each element has two suffixes. The first suffix indicates the row and the second suffix
indicates the column in which the element lies. Thus, a23 is the element lying in the second
row and third column, ai is the element lying in the ith row andjth column.
j
For brevity, a matrix is usually denoted by a single capital letter A or B or C etc.
Thus, an m x n matrix A may be written as
A = [ai) m x n or A = [ai) , where i = 1 , 2, 3, ..... , m ; j = 1 , 2, 3, ..... , n.
1 4. 1 . (b) KINDS OF MATRICES

[../5o - - 3 1] IS.
Real Matrix. A matrix is said to be real if all its elements are real numbers.
a reaI rnatn. x.
r.;
e.g.,
,,2 7
Square Matrix. A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns
is called asquare matrix, otherwise) it is said to be a rectangular matrix.
Thus) a matrix A = [ai) m x n is a square matrix if m = n and a rectangular matrix if m t:- n.

* Not meant for P.T.V. B.Tech., "Discrete Structure" (BTCS-402) Course.

602
MATRIX ALGEBRA 603

A square matrix having n rows and n columns is called "a square matrix of order n" or
"an n-rowed square matrix")
a'3

a23 is a 3-rowed square matrix.

a31 a32 aa3

The elements alP a22) a33
of a square matrix are called its diagonal elements and the
diagonal along which these elements lie is called the principal diagonal.
In a square matrix A = [ai) )
(i) for elements along the principal diagonal,
(ii) for elements above the principal diagonal,
(iii) for elements below the principal diagonal, i >j
(iv) for non-diagonal elements, i #j
The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix is called its trace.
n
Thus) trace of the n rowed square matrix A = [ai) all a22 a33
is) + + + ..... + ann = iL aij .
= 1
Row Matrix. A matrix having only one row and any number of columns i.e., a matrix of
order 1 x n is called a row matrix. e.g., 5 [2
3 0] is a row matrix.
-

l�J
Column Matrix. A matrix having only one column and any number of rows i.e., a

matrix of order m x1 is called a column matrix. e·g·, is a column matrix.

Null Matrix. A matrix in which each element is zero is called a null matrix or a zero
matrix. A null matrix of order m x n is denoted by Om x n'
l� l � = 03 X 2 ' [� � � �] = 02 X4
Sub-matrix. A matrix obtained from a given matrix A by deleting some of its rows or

�l
column or both is called a sub-matrix of A.

= [� �] = I� � �
-

II
B is a sub-matrix of A
26 4 -

obtained by deleting the first row, second and fourth columns of A.

Diagonal Matrix. A square matrix in which all non-diagonal elements are zero is
called a diagonal matrix.
Thus, A = [ai)n n
x is a diagonal matrix if aij =
0 for i i:- j ,
2 0 0
For example, A =0 -1 o is a diagonal matrix,

o o o
604 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
An n-rowed diagonal matrix is briefly written as diag. [dl ' d2 ) ) dnL where •••••••

dp d2 ) ...... ) dn are the diagonal elements. Thus) the above diagonal matrix A can be written
as diag. [2, - 1 , 0].
Scalar Matrix. A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are equal to a
scalar) say k) is called a scalar matrix.
Thus a scalar matrix is a square matrix in which all non-diagonal elements are zero

{O
and all diagonal elements are equal to a scalar) say k.

. . . when i '" j

�l r- � - � j �tJ
Leo) A= [ai) n x n IS a scalar matnx If aij = k when i = j

For example, I�l � re scalar matrices.

o ° 2
0 0 ° -5
Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix. A scalar matrix in which each diagonal element is
unity (i.e., 1) is called a unit matrix or identity matrix.
Thus) a unit matrix is a square matrix in which all non-diagonal elements are zero and

{O
all diagonal elements are equal to 1.
when i '" j
A = [aij ] n x n IS
. a unI. t matn. x 1. f aij =
1 when i = j
A unit matrix of order n is denoted by In ' If the order is evident, it may be simply
denoted by I.

Upper Triangular Matrix. A square matrix in which all the elements below the
principal diagonal are zero is called an upper triangular matrix.
Thus) A = [ai)n x n is an upper triangular matrix if aij = 0 for i > j.
2 3 4

For example, 5 is an upper triangular matrix.

Lower Triangular Matrix. A square matrix in which all the elements above the
principal diagonal are zero is called a lower triangular matrix.
Th us, A = [ai)n x n is a lower triangular matrix if aij = 0 for i < j.

-1 o o
For example, 5 6 o is a lower triangular matrix.

3 2 o
MATRIX ALGEBRA 605

Triangular Matrix. A square matrix in which all the elements either below or above
the principal diagonal are zero is called a triangular matrix. Thus) a triangular matrix is
either upper triangular or lower triangular.
Equal Matrices. Two matrices A and B are said to be equal (written as A = B) if and
only if they have the same order and their corresponding elements are equaL
Thus, if A = [ai)m x n and B= [bi)p x q' then A = B if and only if
(i) m = p and n =q (ii) ail bi}
= for all i andj.

1 4.2. ADDITION OF MATRICES

Two matrices are said to be conformable for addition if they have the same order.
If A and B are two matrices of the same order) then their sum A + B is a matrix each
element of which is obtained by adding the corresponding elements of A and B.
In general) if A = [ai) mx
n and B = [bi)m x
n ) then A + B = C = n ) where = + [ci)mx cij aij bi)
Similarly, if A and B are two matrices of the same order, then their difference A - B is
a matrix whose elements are obtained by subtracting the elements of B from the correspond­
ing elements of A.

For example) if

then A+B=
[23-21
+ 5-6 - 1 2] = [31 1 111]
+ -

[3 2-(-1-2) 1-2] = [1 11 -3-3] .

0 +5 4 +7 5

_
5 - (- 6) -
and A B=
0-5 4- 7 5 -5

1 4.3. MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX BY A SCALAR

The product of a matrix A = [ai) k
k.
by a scalar is denoted by kA and is obtained by
multiplying every element of A by
kA [kai)
ka2 ka3 ]
Thus, =

If A=
[b,a, ab22 ab; ] , then kA = [ka,
kb, kb2 kb3
In particular, - A = (-1)
[-ab:
A= _
-b3 ] •
-b22 -a3
-a
1 4.4. PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION
(i) Matrix addition is commutative i.e., A + B = B + A.
(ii) Matrix addition is associative i.e., (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
(iii) For any matrix A, there exists a null matrix 0 of the same order as A such that
A + O = O + A = A.
(iv) For any matrix A, there exists a matrix - A of the same order as A such that
A + (- A) = (- A) + A = O.
606 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

EXample 1. Find X' Y' Z and W if3 [� �] � [_ � 2 !] + [Z ; W x +3 Y] .

Sol. The given equatlOn IS [3zX 3w] _- [ _ 1 ++Z + w 2w

. . . 3 3Y x 4 6 + x + Y]
+3
Equating the corresponding elements on the two sides) we get
3x x +
� 4, �6 3y + x + y, 3z - 1 + z + w,
� 3w � 2w + 3
2y � 6 + x, 2z = - 1 + w, w�3
y � 4, z � 1.

l 2 - :7l
5
Example 2. Express -9 12 as the sum of a lower triangular matrix and an
15 - 13

upper triangular matrix with zero leading diagonal.

Sol. Let
l� � Jl
L� be the lower triangular matrix

and
l� � �l
U�

- 0
l- � 7l l 0 l l00 00 0l
be the upper triangular matrix with zero leading diagonal such that
5 a ° O p q
12 4 � b c o + r
15 - 13 6 d e f

=>
l - 7l l 00
2
-9
5
12
15 - 13
4
6
� l
a +
b +
O+ p
c+O
d + e+O
o+ q
O+r
f+O
Equating the corresponding elements on the two sides
2 = a, 5 �p,
0 �l � 0 - 7
-7� q, -9� b, 12 = c, 4 = r, 15 � d, - 13 = e, 6� f

l- �
5
. . L�
l 0 0l 12
15 - 13
and U � 4 .

1 4.5. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION (P.T. U., M.C.A. May 2007)

Two matrices A and B are said to be conformable for the product AB (in this very
order of A and B) if the number of columns in A (called the pre·factor) is equal to the number
of rows in B (called the post·factor).
Thus, if the orders of A and B are m x n and p x q respectively, then
(i) AB is defined if number of columns in A � number of rows in B, i.e., if n � p.
(ii) BA is defined if number of columns in B � number of rows in A, i.e., if q � m.
MATRIX ALGEBRA 607
Let A = [ai)m x n and B = [bi) n Xp be two matrices conformable for the product AB, then
n
AB is defined as the matrix C = [ci) m x p where cij = ai l b ) + ai2 b2j + ...... + ainbnj = L aik bkj
I
k=l
i.e., (i, j)th element of AB = sum of the products of the elements of ith row of A with the
corresponding elements of jth column of B.
The rule for multiplication of two conformable matrices is called row-by-column
method.

Consider A=
l
a ll a'2 a 13 l bll b12
a2 1 a22 a23 and B = b2 1 b22
l l
a3 I a32 a33 b3 1 b32

l l
Orders of A and B are 3 x 3 and 3 x 2 respectively. AB is defined and is of order 3 x 2.

Cll C 12
AB = C = C21 C22
C3 l C32
where cll = Sum of products of elements of 1st row of A and 1st column of B

= [a21 a22 a23l

l
I��:
lb32 = a2,b ' 2 + a22 b22 + a23b32

ll
C31 = Sum of products of elements of 3rd row of A and 1st column of B
b ll
= [a31 a32 a33l b2 1 = a31 b ll + a32b21 + a33b31
b3 1
c32 = Sum of products of elements of 3rd row of A and 2nd column of B
608 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Note. Another useful notation to remember matrix multiplication.
R :::: 1st Row
where R21 :::: 2nd Row
Ra � 3rd Row
l ��� l :::: [C1 C2],
B :::: I���
b3 1 b3 2 J
where C1 :::: 1st column, C2 :::: 2nd column

AB I�� 1 [C C21 I��g� ��g:1 .

lRa j , lRaC , RaC2 j
�

l � ; 1l l� ! �l ,
�

- -
-
Example 3. If A = and B = form the products AB and BA

l -m l
and show that AB '" BA.

� �
1 -2 0
Sol. AB = 2 3 1

=
l l(l) + + + + +
-3 1 2
+ ll l
- 2(0) 3(1) 1(0) - 2(1) 3(2) 1(2) - 2(2) 3(0)
2(1) 3(0) - 1(1) 2(0) 3(1) - 1(2) 2(2) 3(2) - 1(0) �
4 4 -2
1 1 10
- 3(1) 1(0) 2(1) - 3(0) 1(1) 2(2) - 3(2) 1(2) 2(0) -1 5 -4

J�II � � l ll � � �l
+ + + + + -
+
BA -

=
ll(l) ++ ++
2 0 -3 1 2
++ l l 7l
0(2) 2(- 3) 1(- 2) 0(3) 2(1) 1(3) 0(- 1) 2(2)
++ ++ ++
0(1) 1(2) 2(- 3) 0(- 2) 1(3) 2(1) 0(3) 1(- 1) 2(2) �
-5 0
-4 5 3
1(1) 2(2) 0(- 3) 1(- 2) 2(3) 0(1) 1(3) 2(- 1) 0(2)
+ + + + + + 5 4 1
Orders of AB and BA are the same but their corresponding elements are not equal.
Hence AB tc BA.
Example 4. fllustrate with the help of examples that multiplication of matrices is not
commutative in general, i.e., AB -::f:- BA. Point out the various possibilities.
Sol. Case I. AB is defined, but BA is not defined.
Let A be a matrix of order 2 x 3, and B be a matrix of order 3 x 4.
Then AB is defined and is a matrix of order 2 x 4, whereas BA is not defined.

Case II. AB and BA are both defined but their orders are different.
x 3 and B be a matrix of order 3 x 2.
Let A be a matrix of order 2
The product AB is defined and is a matrix of order 2 x 2.
The product BA is defined and is a matrix of order 3 x 3.
Since orders of AB and BA are different, AB tc BA.
Case III. AB and BA are both defined and are matrices of the same order, yet AB tc BA
(since corresponding elements are not equal).
MATRIX ALGEBRA 609

Let A= [� !] and B = [! �]
Here AB and BA are both defined and are of order 2 x 2.
AB = [� !] [! �] = [�� �]
BA = [
! �m !] = [! �]
Clearly, AB '" BA.
Hence multiplication of matrices is not commutative in general) i.e.) in generalAB t:- BA.
Note. If AB :::: BA, we say 'A and B commute' .
Example 5. Show by means of an example that the matrix AB = 0 does not necessarily
mean that either A = 0 or B = 0, where 0 stands for the null matrix.
Sol. Consider the matrices A = [� �] and B = [_ � �]
Here A ", 0, B '" O.
But AB = [ � �l � �] = [� = � � : �] = [� �] = O.
Example 6. Prove by an example that AB = AC does not imply that B = C.
Or
Give an example of matrices A, B, C such that B '" C, but AB = AC.

[� �] , B = [� �] , C = [� �]
[1 4] [1 5] [1(1) ++ 4(2) 1(5) ++ 4(1)] 0
Sol. Let A=

Then AB = o 0 2 1 = 0(1) 0(2) 0(5) 0(1) = [9 90]

4] [ 1 1] = [ 1(1) + 4(2) 1(1) + 4(2)] = 9
AC = [�
0 2 2 0(1) + 0(2) 0(1) + 0(2) [0 0]9
Clearly, B ", C but AB = AC.

1 4.6. PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

(i) Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general i.e., AB '" BA.
(ii) Matrix multiplication is associative i.e., (AB)C = A(BC).
(iii) Matrix multiplication is distributive with respect to matrix addition.
Le., A(B + C) = AB + AC.
(iv) If A and I are square matrices of the same order, then AI = IA = A.
(v) If A is a square matrix of order n, then A x A = A2, A x A x A = A3,
A x A x A ..... m times = Am are all square matrices of order n.
Also, we define A = I 0

(vi) For any positive integer n, r n = I.

If A is a matrix such that A2 :::: I, then A is called an involutory matrix.
If A is a matrix such that A2 :::: A, then A is called Idempotent matrix.
Note. (i)
(iL)
(P.T. U., M.C.A. May 2007)
610 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

3
Example 7. Evaluate A2 - 3A + 91, ifI is the unit matrix of order = I� 3
3 and A l-3
-2
1
-1
2 l .

Sol. A2 = A x A J- 3 �1
l
� �l ll � � �l
-
-
-
-
l l(l) 2 -3 1 2

l
- 2(2) + 3(- 3) 1(- 2) - 2(3) + 3(1) 1(3) - 2(- 1) + 3(2)
2(1) + 3(2) - 1(- 3) 2(- 2) + 3(3) - 1(1) 2(3) + 3(- 1) - 1(2)
l�l
=
- 3(1) + 1(2) + 2(- 3) - 3(- 2) + 1(3) + 2(1) - 3(3) + 1(- 1) + 2(2)
- 12 - 5
=
l -7
11 4
11 - 6

. . A2 - 3A + 9I =
l l
- 12 - 5 11
I I l I
I �l
11 4 1 - 3 2 3 - 1 + 9 0 1
-7 11 - 6 -3 1 2
-2 3
0 0
0

l -7 1 1 1 1 �l
- 12 - 5 11 3 -6 9 9 0
= 11 4 1 - 6 9 - 3 + 0 9
11 - 6 - 9 3 6 0 0

l l - �l ·
- 12 - 3 + 9 - 5 - (- 6) + 0 11- 9 + 0 -6 1
=

Note. Mathematical Induction

l 11 - 6 + 0
- 7 - (- 9) + 0
4-9+9
11 - 3 + 0
1 - (- 3) + 0 = 5 4
-6-6+9 2 8
Mathematical induction is a very useful device for proving results for all positive integers. If the
result to be proved involves n, where n is a positive integer, then the proof by mathematical induction
consists of the following two steps :
Step L Verify the result for n :::: l.
Step 2. Assume the result to be true for n :::: k and then prove that it is true for n :::: k + l.

A [3 ] ]
Example 8. By Mathematical Induction, prove that if
=
1 -1 '
A [
- 4 then n = 1 + 2n - 4n where n �s' any posawe
n 1 2n _
. . .
�nteger.

[1 +n2n ]
Sol. We prove the result by mathematical induction.

When n = 1, An =
- 4n
1 - 2n
- [ 1 1 - 2. 1 - 1 - 1
A' -
][ ]
1 + 2. 1 - 4. 1 3 - 4 =A

=> The result is true when n = 1

[1 +k2k ]
Let us assume that the result is true for any positive integer k.

let Ak =
- 4k ... (1)

[ ] ]
1- 2k
Now l
Ak+ = Ak . A =
1 + 2k - 4k [3 - 4 [Using (1)]
k 1 - 2k 1 - 1
MATRIX ALGEBRA 61 1

_ [3(1 + 2k) - 4k - 4(1 + 2k) + 4k] [31++2kk -- 41-- 2k4k]

-
3k + 1- 2k - 4k - 1 + 2k �

_ [1 + k2(k+ 1+ 1) 1-- 4(k2(k+ 1)1)]

-
+
=> The result is true for n � k+ 1
Hence) by mathematical induction) the result is true for all positive integers n.

I TEST YOU R KNOWL EDGE 1 4. 1

L Given (xx +-yy +- 11 zz +-tt +- 33) (32 :) , find x, y, z, t,

�

6 1
2. IfA J = � - �t nd B � 2 1 �1j , find 3A - 4B.
II 2 2j 1 5 -3
3. (a) If Am n and B
x
p are two matrices, state the conditions for the existence of
Xq

(i) A + B (ii) AB (iii) BA (iv) AB + BA.

(b) Matrix A has x rows andx+ 5 columns. MatrixB hasy rows and l1 -ycolumns. BothAB and
BA exist. Find x and y.
2 3 4 j
4. If A � � � �1j and B � 1 2 3 , form the products AB and BA and show that AB " BA.
o 0 2 1 1 2
j
5. If A J� � �1 and B � 1 0 , obtain the product AB and explain why BA is not defined.
1 -2
l2 3 4 j 2 -1
IfA J= � � = �tnd B J � � = �1j , verify that AB � BA � I3'
6.
l - 6 9 - 4j l3 0 - l

7. compute AB - BA, whereA � [! �l and B � [� �l

If A J� � � �1 and B � I� � �1 , find AB or BA, whichever exists,
8.
l3 1 0 5 j l 1 0 1j
9. IfA� [_ � �l B [; �l and C � [-; �l , verify that (AB)C �A(BC) andA(B + C) � AB + AC,
,
�

10. IfA � [� �l l [� �l show that (2I - A)(10l - A) � 9L

and I �

11. (a) IfA + B � [� - �l and A - B � [� �l , calculate the product AB,

If AB :::: A, BA :::: B where A and B are square matrices of same order, then show that A2 :::: A
and B' � B,
(b)
612 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

� �] , show that A2 - 5A + 7I :::: where I is a unit matrix of second order.

If A :::: [ 0,

l
12. _

0 - tan �1
IfA = Cf.
J show that I + A = (I A) [smc� -sin a] .
cos
CI.

tun -2
_
13. ' CI. CI.
o

14. Show that A is an involutory matrix where A = li

15. Given A = l! --�3 - �] B JI�I -24
-1
'
1
1 1
1
- 52
-
1 -1
-1
-1
-2
]
-� , show that AB = AC.
16. Evaluate :
(i) [21 - 01
17. IfA = [� �] , B = [� -�] where i' = - l, verify that (A + B)' = A' + B'.
18. IfA = [� - �] , B = [i �] , verify that
(i) (A + B)' "A' + 2AB + B' (ii) (A + B)(A - B) " A' - B'.
19. If A = l� -1
1 -1
o
2
] II ]-1
3
3 , B = 0 ! , C = [21 02 ; - i] , verify that A(BC) = (AB)C.
_

20. IfA = [� !] , B = [! �] , C = [� �] , verify that

(i) A(B + C) = AB + AC (ii) (B + C)A = BA + CA.
21. l� ] l - �]
2 -1 3 -1
If A = 0 ; , B = � 0 , verify the result (A + B)' = A' + AB + BA + B'.
1 3
If A = l� �] , compute A' - 4A - 51.
2
22.
2
1

2 3]
23. (a) Show that A = l� 4 satisfies the matrix equation A3 - A2 - 18A - 301 ::::
-1 O.
1 1

(b) Prove that A3 - 4A' - 3A + 11 1 = where A = l� � -!] .

0,
 l� j
MATRIX ALGEBRA 613

o 1
f[ x
I ( ) = ex' - 5x + 6, find [(A), where A = 1 3 ,
-1 0
24.

[Hint. [(x) = x' - 5x + 6

" [(A) = A' - 5A + 61 = A' - 5A + 6Is]
COS. sin a] , show that An :::: [ cos. na sin na] , where n IS. a pOSItive
If A :::: [-SIn CI.
mteger.
cos a - sm na cos na
. . .
25.

[� J
CI.

1 O 0 0 O
26.
0 1 0 J
If E = O l and F = [ 1 0 0 , calculate EF and FE and show that E'F + FE' = E.
o 0
]
If A = [� �] , prove that An = [k; nkknn- 1 for all positive integers n.
[
27.

28. IfA = l� J 1 O
o 1
1 n l.n(n - 1)1
1 1 , then An = 0 1 2 � j for all positive integers n,
0 0
29. IfA = (� �J, 1 2 :::: (� �J and n is a positive integer, then prove that (aI 2 + bA) n :::: anI2 + nan-1 bA.

Factorise the matrix A :::: I� � - �l into the form LV, where L is lower triangular with each
-
30.
l3 7 4]
diagonal element one and U is upper triangular matrix.
Answers

2.

j
3. (a) (i) m = P. n = q (ii) n = p (iii) q = m
(iv) m = n = p = q x 3,
(b) = Y = 8
1 12 11
4. AB J-� ; !1 , BA J= i 7 8
l- 2 2 4] l-2 - 1 5
5. AB :::: I� = �l, no. ofcOls. in B -:f- no. ofroWS in A
l7 - 8 ]
8. BA J1� � 1� �� 1 [-20 - 26]
7. [
43 4]
3 - 43 l 4 3 3 9]
1 1 . (a) _

16. (i) [: �] (ii) [7(x' + y' + z') + 6xy + 8yz]

lj i -- 11 --103 j
-5 4 4
22. Os 3 24' -

II
x

0 -2 1
30. 7/5
3/5 41/ 19
1
�m 19/5 - 32/5 ,
0 327/19
614 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 4.7. TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX (P.T. U., M.C.A. May 2008, May 2007)
Given a matrix A) then the matrix obtained from A by changing its rows into columns

[i r
and columns into rows is called the transpose of A and is denoted by A' or A'.

'o, ,�,'e '" 0 [i � ; ;]

. '>en A 0

Clearly, (i) if the order of A is m x n then order of A' is n x m.

(ii) (i, j)th element of A' = (j, i)th element of A.
In symbols) if A = [ai)m x n) then A' = [ bi) n x m) where bij = aji"
1 4.S. PROPERTIES OF TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
If A' and B' denote the transposes of A and B respectively, then
(a) (A'Y = A i.e., the transpose of the transpose of a matrix is the matrix itself.
x
Let A = [ai)m n be any matrix)
Order of A' is n x m. . . Order of (A')' is m x n
.. The matrices (Ai' and A are of the same order.
Also, (i, j)th element of (A')' = (j, i)th element of A' = (i, j)th element of A.
Since (A')' and A are of the same order and their corresponding elements are equal
(A')' = A.
(b) (A + BY = A' + B' i.e., the transpose of the sum of two matrices is equal to the
sum of their transposes.
x x
Let A = [ai)m n and B = [ bi) m n b e two matrices.
Order of A + B is m x n. . . Order of (A + BY is n x m.
A' and B' are both n x m matrices. Order of A' + B' is n x m.
Thus (A + BY and A' + B' are of the same order.
Also (i, j)th element of (A + BY = (j, i)th element of A + B
= (j, i)th element of A + (j, i)th element of B
= (i, j)th element of A' + (i, j)th element of B'
= (i, j)th element of A' + B'
Since (A + BY and A' + B' are of the same order and their corresponding elements are
equal.
(A + BY = A' + B'.
(c) (ABY = B'A' i.e., the transpose of the product of two matrices is equal to the
product of their transposes taken in the reverse order.
x
Let A = [ai)m n and B = [ bi) n p
be two matrices conformable for the product AB.
X

Order of AB is m x p . . Order of (ABY is p x m.

Order of B' is p x n and order of A' is n x m.
. . Order of B/A' is p x m.
Thus, (ABY and B'A' are of the same order.
MATRIX ALGEBRA 615

Also (i, j)th element of (AB)'

= U, i)th element of AB
= Sum of the products of the elements of ph row of A with the corresponding
elements of ith column of B
= Sum of the products of elements of ith column of B with the corresponding
elements of the ph row of A
= Sum of the products of elements of ith row of B' with the corresponding
elements of the ph column of A'
= (i, j)th element of B'A'.
Since (AB)' and B'A' are of the same order and their corresponding elements are equaL
.. (AB)' = B'A'.

1 4.9. SYMMETRIC MATRIX

A square matrix A = [ai) is said to be symmetric if A' = A i.e., if the transpose of the
matrix is equal to the matrix itself.
Thus, for a symmetric matrix A = [aij L aij = aji
Le., (i, j)th element of A = U, i)th element of A

g�l
-1 2 3
h
For example, 2 b are symmetric matrices.
f
3

1 4.10. SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX (OR Anti-Symmetric Matrix)

A square matrix A = [ai) is said to be skew-symmetric if A' = - A i.e., if the transpose of
the matrix is equal to the negative of the matrix.
Thus, for a skew-symmetric matrix A = [aij L aij = - aji
Le., (i, j)th element of A = negative of U, i)th element of A
Putting j = i, aii = - aii ::::::} 2aii = 0 or aii = 0 for all i.

- �l,ll- � Jl
Thus, all diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are zero.

l1- �3 - �1 �
-

g
For example, are skew-symmetric matrices.
0 -f 0

1 4 . 1 1 . EVERY SQUARE MATRIX CAN UNIQUELY BE EXPRESSED AS THE SUM OF A

SYMMETRIC MATRIX AND A SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX
Proof_ Let A be any square matrix.
Consider B = t (A + Ai and C = t (A - Ai
B + C = t (A + Ai + t (A - Ai = A
Also B' = t (A + AT = t [A' + (AT] = t (A' + A) = t (A + Ai = B
616 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
::::::} B is a symmetric matrix.
C' = t(A - Ai' = t [A' - (Ai'] = t(A' - A) = - t (A - Ai = - C
::::::} C is a skew-symmetric matrix.
Hence every square matrix A can be expressed as A = B + C, where B = t (A + A')
is a symmetric matrix and C = t(A - A') is a skew-symmetric matrix.
To prove that there is only one way in which A can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric
matrix and a skew-symmetric matrix) suppose
A=P+Q ... (1)
is another such representation in which P is a symmetric matrix) and Q is a skew-symmetric
matrix.
P' = P and Q' = - Q
Then A' = (P + Q)' = P' + Q' = P - Q ... (2)
From (1) and (2), A + A' = 2P and A - A' = 2Q
P = t(A + Ai = B and Q = t (A - Ai = C so that P + Q = B + C
Hence the result.

1 4.12. ORTHOGONAL MATRIX

A square matrix A is called an orthogonal matrix if AA' = I = A'A.
1 4.13. FOR ANY TWO ORTHOGONAL MATRICES A AND B, SHOW THAT AB IS AN
ORTHOGONAL MATRIX
Proof. A and B are orthogonal matrices
=> AA' = I = A'A and BB' = I = B'B ... (1)
Now (AB)(AB)' = (AB)(B'Ai
= A(BBi A' = AIA' [Using (1)]
= (AI) A' = AA' = I [Using (1)]
::::::} AB is an orthogonal matrix.

I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. IfA and B are symmetric matrices, prove that AB -BA is a skew-symmetric
matrix.
Sol. A and B are symmetric matrices
=> A' = A and B' = B ... (1)
Now (AB - BA)' = (AB)' - (BA)' [.: (A - B)' = A' - B']
= B'A' - A'B' [.: (AB)' = B'A']
= BA - AB [Using (1)]
= - (AB - BA)
(AB - BA) is a skew-symmetric matrix.
MATRIX ALGEBRA 617
Example 2. Express the following matrix as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric
matrix,

l-� :l 7
3
0

Sol. Given matrix is A= l- 251 7 :l 3 A' =l- 711 2 55l 3 0

1 5 l- 2
0 4

5 + 5l �l
+ 9
4 +0 = 9 6
4 l
1
6

t2
l
3
B = t(A + A,) =
325 .@.
2 3

1 + 1 7- 2 41-5- 0 l-50 05
A - A' = l- 2-7
5-1 0 - 4 5-5l 4 - 4 - �l
-
3-3 =

2 -2 �l
0 5
5
"2

-
. . C = t(A - A,) = "2 0

1
2 !l 2 -2 �l
9 0 5
"2 "2
A=B+C= .@. 3 + II 0
2 2
3
where B is a symmetric and C is a skew-symmetric matrix.

Example 3. Show that A = l cos 8

0
- sin 8
o

o
l
sin 8

l
O is orthogonal. Find the value of 1 A I .
cos 8

Sol. Here A' = leas 8

0
sin 8
1
0
0
- sin 8
0
cos 8 l
AA' = l eas 8
0 1
0 sin 8
0
ll eos 8
0 1
0 - sin 8
0
l
l
- sin 8 0 cos 8 sin 8 0 cos 8

=
2
cos 8

o
0
+ sin 2 8
�
o sin 2 8
�
+ eos2 8
l
l J� � �
J lo 0 l =I
618 DISCRETE STRUCTURES
Since AA' = I) A is an orthogonal matrix.

cos 8 o sin 8
IAI= 0 1 0
- sin 8 0 cos 8

1
Expanding by second column)

IAI= 1 C?S 8 sin 8 = cos2 8 sin2 8 =

- SIn 8 cos 8
+ 1.

1 4. 1 4. ADJOINT OF A SQUARE MATRIX

The adjoint of a square matrix is the transpose of the matrix obtained by replacing each
element of A by its co· factor in A I I.
l l l l
Adjoint of A is briefly written as adj A.

a l b, CI AI A'
Thus, if A = a2 b2 c2 , then adj A = Transpose of A2 B,
� � � A, C,
where the capital letters denote the co-factors of corresponding small letters in

a 1 b I c1
IAI= a2 b2 C2
aa ba ca

1 4.15. AN IMPORTANT RELATION BETWEEN A SQUARE MATRIX A AND adj A

[ a ll a'2 . . . . . . aln
��.1 ��� :::::: ���
.
Theorem. If A is an n-rowed square matrix, then A(adj A) = (adj A) A = I A I In '

[
Proof. Let A=
anI an2 . . . . . . ann
A ll . . . . . . A ln l
�
A 21 n
then adj A = Transpose of
... :::::: �.

[
A nI . . . . . . A nn
)
(where Ai is co-factor of aiJ in I A I)
A ll A 21 . . . . . . A nl l
A 12 A 22 . . . . . . A n2
... ... ..... .
A m A 2n . . . . . . A nn

(i, j)th element in A (adj A) = ai lAJ I + ai2AJ2 + ai3AJ 3 + ...... + ainAJn = {6 AI if , = J

if i " j
In the product A (adj A), each diagonal element is I A I and each non-diagonal
element is O.
 r: °
MATRIX ALGEBRA 619

iAl
A(adj A) = IA I
. .

Similarly,
Hence

Example 4. If A
II �l ,
J� i 2 3
verify that A(adj A) = (adj A)A = I A I I.

I� � ;l Jl�� �� �� l
Sol. A=
II 2 3 a3 b3 c3
AI = I � � 1 - 1, 1 � ; 1 3, 1 � � 1
= A2 = - = A3 = =-1

B, = - I � � 1 - 7, 1 i ; 1 3,
= B2 = = B3 = - 1� �1 5
=

1 � � 1 5, - I i � I = -3, 1 � i 1
+ + 2(- 1) + 1(- 7) + 3(5) 6
C, = = C2 = C3 = =-1

l l l �: �: l J=�l 5 -3; -�- 1l

IA I
= a,A, b,B I C, C, = =
A I B, C I AI
adj A = Transpose of A 2 B2 C 2 = B,
A 3 B3 C3 C , C 2 C3

A(adj A) =
IIl�2(I -2�1) +3�l1(-7)ll 5� +-33(5); --�2(3)1l + 1(3) + 3(- 3) 2(- 1) + 1(5) + 3(- l)
=

1(- 1) ++ 2(-7) + 3(5) 1(3) + 2(3) + 3(- 3) 1(- 1) + 2(5) + 3(- 1)l
= 3(-1) 1(- 7) + 2(5) 3(3) + 1(3) + 2(-3) 3(- 1) + 1(5) + 2(- 1)
I�l � � l J�l �0 �l I I I
o°6 o
= = = A

Jl � -3; --�1l l�l 1 2� 3�l

=
-l-7(2)51(2) ++ 3(3)3(3) +- 5(1)1(1) -7(1)
(adj A)A

- 1(1) ++ 3(1)
3(1) +- 5(2) - 1(3) + 3(2) - 1(3)l
1(2) -7(3)
= + 3(2) + 5(3)
6l0 °6 °0l 0I 01 �l I I I
5(2) -3(3) - 1(1) 5(1) -3(1) - 1(2) 5(3) -3(2) - 1(3)
o 0 6 I0 0
= = 6 = A

Hence A(adj A) = (adj A)A = I A I I.

620 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 4.16. SINGULAR MATRICES AND NON-SINGULAR MATRICES

A square matrix A is said to be singular if I A I = 0 and non·singular if I A I # O.

1 4. 1 7. INVERSE (or Reciprocal) OF A SQUARE MATRIX

(P. T. U., M.G.A. May 2007, Dec. 2005)
Let A be an n-rowed square matrix. If there exists an n-rowed square matrix B such
that
AB = BA = I
then the matrix A is said to be invertible and B is called the inverse (or reciprocal) of A.
Note L Only square matrices can be invertible.
2. From the definition, it is clear that if B is the inverse of A, then A is the inverse of B.
3. Inverse of A is denoted by A-I, thus B :::: A-I and AA-1 :::: A-1A :::: 1.

1 4.18. THE INVERSE OF A SQUARE MATRIX, IF IT EXISTS, IS UNIQUE

Let A be an invertible square matrix. If possible, let B and C be two inverses of A. Then
AB = BA = I
AC = CA = I (By definition of inverse)
Now B = BI = B(AC)
= (BA)C [.: Matrix multiplication is associative]
= IC = C
Hence the inverse of A is unique.
1 4.19. THE NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR A SQUARE MATRIX A
TO POSSESS INVERSE IS THAT I A I # 0 (i.e., A is Non-Singular)
Proof. (a) The condition is necessary :
Given that A has inverse, to show that I A I #0
Let B be the inverse of A, then AB = BA = I => I AB I = I BA I = I I I
=> I A I I B I = I B I I A I =l => I A I # O .
(b) The condition is sufficient :
Given that I A I to show that A has inverse.
# 0,
I A I #0
dA
B= a j
!AT
Consider
( )
AB = A adj A _l_ (A(ad]' A» = _
IAI IAI
_ ( I A I I)
IA I
1
[.: A(adj A) = I A I I]
( ) 1
=I
dA
BA = a j A = __ «ad]' A)A) = _ _ ( I A I I)
1
IA I IAI IAI
=I [.: (adj A)A = I A I I]
Thus AB = BA = I
. and A-I = B = adj A
!AT
.
The mverse of A eXIsts '
MATRIX ALGEBRA 621
Note. From the above theorem, we conclude that A has inverse if and only if I A I t:- O and then
= adj A
A-I .
IAI
= l� ;l -3
-3 (i) find A-l (ii) show that A3 = A-1

A = l� -3-3-1 441l l C'l

Example 5. IfA '
-1
a, b,
Sol. (i) = a2 b2 c2

= 032 -3-3-1 441

a3 b3 c3

I A I Operating C2 � C2 C3 +
= 32 011 441 Expanding by third row

= 1 1� � 1 = 3 -2= 1
o

= 1 '" 0
= 1 -3-1 i l = 1, = - 1 -3-1 i l =- 1, = 1 -3-3 44 1 -_ 0
I A I :. A-' exists.
A, A2 A3

B, = -I � i 1 =-2, B2= 1 � i 1 = 3, B3 = - I � ! 1 =- 4
I � -1-3 1 = -2, =- 1 � -1-3 1 = 3, = I � -3-3 1 =- 3
2l B2B,B3 l lB, B2 B3 l l-2-21 -133 --3�l
C, = C2 C3

.. = A,
adj A Transpose of A
C
C 2' =
A , A2 A 3
=

= I�I l � -133 --3�l

A3 C3 C, C2 C3

A-' adj A = = C': I A I = 1)

(ii) = = l� -3-3-1 m� -3-3-1 ;l
A2 A x A

= l3(2(0(333)))-3(-3(-1(222))) +++ 4(4(1(000))) 2(3(0(--- 3)3)3) -3(-3(-1(--- 3)3)3) +++ 4(4(1(--- 1)1)1) 3(2(0(444))) -3(-3(-1(444))) +++ 4(4(1(111)))l
J � = i �l
l-2 2 -3
 l 30 -4- 1
622 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

A4 = A2 A2 =
l 3(3)0(3)-4- 1(0)(0) 4(-2)-2) 3(0(--4)4)-4(- 1(-- 1)1) 40(2)(2) 3(0(44))-4(0) 4(-3)l
X

-2 2
+ + +

-2(3) 2(0) -3(-2) -2(-4) 2(- 1) -3(2) -2(4) - 2(0) 1(0) -3(-3)
0(-3)
= + O( + +

0I 001 0°1l
+ + +

Now A4 = I
=
Io
=1

=> A.A3 = A3. A = I

=>
3
A is the inverse of A
Le., A3 = A-I
1 4.20. IF A IS INVERTIBLE, THEN SO IS A-' AND (A-')-' = A
A is invertible => A-I exists and AA-1 = A-I A = I
By definition of inverse of a matrix) A-I is invertible and inverse of A-I is A.
(A-1)-1 = A.
1 4.21 . IF A AND B BE TWO NON-SINGULAR SQUARE MATRICES OF THE SAME
ORDER, THEN (AB)-' = B-' A-'
Proof. A and B are non-singular square matrices
=> I A I # O, I B I # O
=> I 1
A- and B- both exist.
Also I AB I = I A I I B I # O
=> AB is non-singular and (AB)-l exists.
Now (AB)(B-1A-1) = A(BB-1) A-I = AIA-1 = (AI)A-1 = AA-1 = I ... (1)
Again (B-'A-')(AB) = B-'(A-' A)B = B-IIB = B-l (IB) = B-IB = I ...(2)
From (1) and (2),
we get (AB)(B-'A-') = (B-'A-')(AB) = I
Inverse of AB = B-IA-l i.e., (AB)-l = B-IA-I
Note. The result can be extended for more than two matrices.
l
Le., (AIA2A3 ..... An_1A)-1 :::: An-l An_I-I ..... AS-IA2-1 A 1-
Putting we have
A I :::: A2 :::: As :::: ...... :::: A. I :::: An :::: A
-
(A.A.A..... n times)-l :::: A-I . A-I ..... n times
.. (An)-I = (kI)n.

1 4.22. IF A IS A NON-SINGULAR SQUARE MATRIX, THEN SO IS A' AND (A')-' = (A-'),

A is a non-singular square matrix
=> I A I # 0 and A-I exists
.. I A' I = I A I #O
=> A' is non-singular and (A;-' exists.
MATRIX ALGEBRA 623

Now AA-I = A-I A = I

Taking transpose = (AA-I), = (A-IA) , = l'
(A-')'A' = A'(A-')' = I [.: (AB)' = B'A']
=> Inverse of A' = (A-I) , i.e., (A,)-l = (A-I)',

1 4.23. IF A AND B ARE TWO NON-SINGULAR SQUARE MATRICES OF THE SAME

ORDER, THEN

adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A)

Proof. A) B are non-singular => I A I '" 0, I B I '" 0
I AB I = I A I I B I ", O
::::::} AB is non-singular => (AB)-l exists.
Now (adj AB) AB = I AB I I ... (1)
Also, (adj B) (adj A) AB = (adj B) (adj A . A) B = (adj B) ( I A I I) B
= I A I (adj B) IE = I A I (adj B) B = I A I I B I I = I AB I I
...(2)
From (1) and (2),
(adj AB) AB = (adj B) (adj A) AB
Post-multiplying by (AB)-I , we have
(adj AB)(AB)(AB)-l = (adj B) (adj A) (AB)(AB)-l
(adj AB) I = (adj B) (adj A) I

II j
adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A).
0 -2
Example 6. If A = 2 2 4 , verify A2 - 3A + 21 = 0 and hence find A-1
0 0 2

l 02 02 -24l l61 40 -612l

Sol. A2 = AA =
� 0 -m� 0 2 0 0 4 =

+ 21 l� 40 -6I!l -3 I 02 -2�l + 2 �I 1 00l

I� 0 I 1
o
. . A2 - 3A =
0
l- 3 + 2 4 - 6 + 2 12- 6-+126 ++ 00l l00 00 l
l6-6+0
o

4-6+2 0 0 �
o
= =
0 o
=> A2 - 3A + 2I = O ... (1)
To find A-I , multiplying (1) by A-I , we get A - 31 + 2A-I = 0
624 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

+-l 0
2A-1 = - A 31

-l l
=>

= l 0 0 -2 0� 0
-2 -2 ! 3 01
+

A-l = I
H I 112oo -2112 .

TEST YOU R KNOWL EDGE 1 4.2

L If A is a square matrix, prove that

(i) A A' is symmetric (ii) A - A' is skew-symmetric.
Prove that
2.
+
(i) if A, B are symmetric, then so is A B
(ii) if A, B are skew symmetric, then so is A B
+ +
(iii) if A is a square matrix, then and A'A are both symmetric
AA'
(iv) if A is symmetric, then B' AB is symmetric.
(v) if A and B are symmetric matrix of order n, show that AB BA is also symmetric.
Express each of the following matrices as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric
+
matrix :
j
3.

(i) � � = �1 j
aab
(ii) e b b .
lc a e
�j
6 0 -7

(a) IfA J � - �tnd B J� � , verify that (AB)' B'A'.

�
oj
4.
l4 lo 1
=
6

(b) If A [! n B [; n find (A B)T

= = +
6. If A [� ;] verify that (A")' (Ai'-
=
_
, =

�4 �4 �lj is its own adjoint.

3
- -
6. Show that the matrix

Given the matrix A :::: I� � �l . Compute adj A and verify that

7.
j II 6 12
A(adj A) = (adj A)A = I A I 1.

l3 3 j II 334 343j .
8. Find the inverse of each of the following matrices :
l� � �j
2 5
(i) (ii) 1 2 (iii) 1
1 2 1 1
9. If diag.
D = where
[d l ' d2, dsl, d,d2d3 " 0, then show that D-l = diag. [d,-' , d2-1 , d3-1].

10. If A t � � ; 1 prove that

_
A-' = A'.
- lj
= ,

2 2
MATRIX ALGEBRA 625

JI i � �1j ,BJ�I � _�1j verify that (AB)-l = B-1A-1

I I
11. IfA ,

4 -1 3

Show that [cos - sin ] [ ] [-

2

12.
sin cos
8
8
8
8
= 1
tan 8/2
- tan 812
1
1
tan 812
tan 812
l r '

13, Prove that (ABC)-l = C -lB-1A-l

iI
2 1
Prove that the matrix is orthogonaL
"3 "3
14, 2 2
"3 "3
1 2
"3 "3

- �J
Answers
3

J
4 -4 0 1
3
"2 "2
3, (i) 3 -3 + 1 0
"2 "2

[ I[
4 -3 -7 -1 3

t (a + c) t (b + c) t (a - c) t (b - c)

I [� �]
a 0

(ii) t(a + c) b t(a + b) + t(c - a) 0 t(b - a) 4, (b) 1

t (b + c) t (a + b) c t (c - b) t (a - b) o

8, (i)
1
2
1
2
1
4
3
4
11
4
3
4

(ii)
3
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
7
4
5
4
(iii) l- �-3 -3
1
j
O.
-1 0 1
1 1 5 6 1 13
2 4 4 4 4 4

1 4.24. SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS BY MATRIX INVERSION

METHOD OR MATRIX METHOD
(a) Non-homogeneous system of linear equations
Let AX = B be a given system of n linear equations in n-unknowns. Then
(i) if I A I '" 0, we say that the system is consistent and has a unique solution given by
l
X = A- B.
(ii) if I A I = 0 and (adj A)B = 0, we say that the system is consistent and has infinitely
many solutions.
(iii) if I A I = 0 and (adj A)B '" 0, we say that the system is inconsistent and has no
solution.
(b) Homogeneous system of linear equations
Let AX = 0 be a given homogeneous system of n linear equations in n-unknowns. Then
(i) if I A I '" 0, we say that the system is consistent and has a unique solution or trivial
solution or = 0) y = 0) z = o.
x

(ii) if I A I = 0, we say that the system is consistent and has infinite solution or non­
trivial solution.
Remark. A homogeneous system is always consistent.
626 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

1 4.25. IF A IS NON-SINGULAR MATRIX, THEN THE SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS AX = B

A AX = B A-I
HAS A UNIQUE SOLUTION GIVEN BY X = A-1 B
Proof. Let is non·singular. exists.

A-(A-''A(A)X)X == A-' BB I A-I

. .

Now
A-' Pre-multiplying by

IXX ==A-IA-IBB
Thus the system of equations AX = B has a solution given by X = A-I B.
X, X2 AX, = B AX = B,
Uniqueness :
Let and be two solutions of then

AXAX,2== AXB 2
=>
=> A-(A-I' A(A) X,X,) == (A-A-I' A(A)XX2)
=>
=> IX,Xl == XI�2i.e., the solution is unique.

I I
1.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example Solve the following equations

x +y +z = l
x 2y + 3z = 6

AX = B)
+
x + 3y + 4z = 6, by matrix inversion method.

A = l� 231 H X = m , B =lil
Sol. In matrix notations) given system of equations can be written as where

I A I = 111 231 341 = - - (4 - 3) + (3 -2) = - 1 - 1 + 1 = - 1

(8 9) ,, 0

X = A-I B . .(1)
A-I: Al = 1 � ! 1 = - = - 1 ; A'2 = - I � ! 1 = - (4 - 3) = - 1
. . The given system has a unique solution given by
To find 8

A'3 = 1 � 23 1 = 3 _ 2= 1'' A21 = - I ; � I =- (4 - 3) =- 1

9

A2 = 1 � 41 1 = 4 _ 1 = 3'' �3 =- 1 � ; 1 = - (3 - 1) = - 2
MATRIX ALGEBRA 627

A3I = I � ;I = 3- 2 = 1 ; A32 = - I � ; I = - (3 - 1) = - 2
A33 = 1 � � 1 = 2 - 1 = 1

l
All A '2 A 13 T l - l 3I ll
l
-
adj A = A 2I A 22 A 23 = - 1 -2

� = J=� ; - �l J�I - ; -�l

A 3I A 32 A 33 1 -2 1

ll
A
A-I = a
l I -2 -2 -1
I 1

Hence, from (1),

=> x = 1, y = - 5, Z = 5 is the required solution.

Example 2. Solve the following system of simultaneous linear equations by matrix
method.
x + y + 2z = 4

B,
2x - y + 3z = 9
3x - y - z = 2.
Sol. In matrix notations, given system of equations can be written as AX =

l� Jl X = m, B = lil
1
where A= -1
-1
1 1 2
I A I = 2 -1
3 -1 -1
3 = (1 + 3) - (- 2 - 9) + 2 (- 2 + 3)

= 4 + 11 + 2 = 17 # 0
The given system has a unique solution given by = A-I X B ... (1)
To find A-I : 1 31
A11 = --11 - 1 = 1 + 3 = 4 ''

1
1 = - (- 1 - 3) = 4
-1

A31 = 1 11 23 1 = 3 + 2 = 5 '' A32 - - I 21 � I = - (3 - 4) = 1

_
_

A33 = 1 � _ � 1 = - 1 - 2 = - 3
628 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

4 -1
l rl Jl
A ll A '2 A 13
adj A = A 21 A 22 A 23
A 3 1 A 32 A 33
= 111 -74
4 -1 5
17 17 171
H �l
A-I = ��� = 17 -7
1 -1 11 -7 =
4 -3 171 174 -317
X =A-' B
17 17 17
From (1),
4 -1 5 16 -9 + 10 17
Hl
1711 -717 171 17 + 2 1717
l�l = lil
44 -63 = =
171 174 -317 4 + 3617 -6 3174
17 17 17 17 17
::::::} x 1) y - 1) z 2 ) is the required solution.
= = =
Example 3. Solve, by matrix inversion method.
x +y +z = 6

B,
x + 2y + 3z = 10
x + 2y + 4z = 1. (P.T.V., M.e.A. May 2007)
Sol. In matrix notations, given system of equations can be written as AX =

l� !l X =l�l B =ll�l
1
where A= 2
2
1 1 1
Here IAI = 123 6) - (4 - 3) + (2 - 2) 2 - 1 1 ,, 0
= (8 - = =

. .
124
The given system has a unique solution given by A-I X B = ... (1)

To find A-I : All 1 4 1

=
�
3
' A'2 - I � ! I
= 8_ 6 = 2 ' = = - (4 - 3) = - 1

A'3 1 � � 1 A21 - I �I
�
= =-2 -2 = 0 ; = = - (4 - 2) = - 2

A22 1 � 4 1
1
' A23 1 1 1 - (2 - 1) 1 1

�
= = 4_ 1 = 3 ' =_ = =-

A31 1 1 1
1 � 1 - (3 - 1) - 2
�
1
=
3 '
=3_2= 1 ' A32
1 =_ = =
MATRIX ALGEBRA 629

A ll
adj A = A 21 l A '2
A 22
A 13
A 23
Tl =
2
l 0 -1 1
- 1 -2
3 II
-2
A 31 A 32 A 33

- l J�
-�1 - �l
l0
adj A
A-' =
IAI
-
From (1), X = A-'

lXl 2l -23 -2lll106l l-126 -2300-2ll l-227l

-1
B
+
Y =
z 0 - 1 1 1 0 -10 1 - = +
+
=
9
x = - 7) Y = 22)
- z = 9) is the required solution.

TEST YOU R KNOWL EDGE 1 4.3

L Apply Matrix method or matrix inversion method to solve the equations :

((ii)) x3x yy 2z= 0=, 2x3, 2x5y-3y3-zz ==1-3,, -xx 2y2y ==24
+
+
+
+
Z + + +
+
+Z
+ Z

+ + + + +
((iivi)) xx y2y z::3z:: 1=, 6,2x2x3y4y2z::=:: 2,7,3x3x 3y2y 4z::9z =:: 114 +
+ + + + Z + +
+ + +Y+
((vvi)) 57xx -6ylOy 4z5z==15,42,7x13x4y6y-3z2z= 1=9,31,2x llx 6z14y= 468z = 63
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
((vviii)) x2x 3yy 6z::4z =:: 2,2, x3x -y3y = 4z::2z :: 9,7, x5z-4y-8 = 2z::5x :: 73y +
+ + + +
+ + Y+Z + +
(i(xx)) x2yzy-zx =x6.y6::,:: x3xyz,- 3yz= 2.2zx2, x 4xy2y :::: 139zxyz,= 15.6yz2. tzx -xy :::: 17xyz.
Z

+ + + +

[Hint.Divide the equations by xyz and put ...!.. :::: u, ...!.. ::::
yX
w] v, � ::::
Z

(xi) + +Z + + 2x +Y o. (P.T. U., 2008)

2.
(xSolvei ) xlOxthey yfollowing
+ +Z
= 9,= 2x12, x5ylOy72 = 5z,= 12, x -z 1=0z = 12.
+ + Z

system of equations by matrix method

+Y+
M.C.A. May
+
2Xl -x2x2 -xs::3xs :::::: -19
Xl+ x2 -X 3 :: :: 0 , by matrix method.
3. Solve by matrix method
x-y-z=l=y-z-x=z-x-y
630 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

4. (a) Solve : x + y -z :::: 21 =

2x-y+z
x -y -2z:: :: -3 by matrix method.
(b) Solve for x, y, z, the following equations
x+y+z::
2x-y+z:: ::
:: 223
5. these x-2y + 3z
Does the system x -2y + 3z :::: 2x + y -4z:::: x-y + z:::: have non-trivial solutions ? If so, find
=

solutions.
0, 0, 0

Determine the value of). for which the equations 3x-2y + z::::
have non-trivial solutions.. Find the solutions.
6. 0, AX-
14y + 15z:::: + 2y -3z:::: 0, X 0

7. Find the values of for which the equations A

(are\consistent, = 0,
-l)x + (3\and+ lfind)y + the2\zratios(\of-lx,)y,x +z when(4\ -2)hasy + (the\ +smallest 3)z 2xofthese+ (3\ values. 0,
+ l)y +What3(\ -lhappens
= )z = 0

when has the greatest of these values ?

A
A
Prove that the equations x:::: ay + z, y + z:::: + y, are consistent (have non-zero
if ax,
solution), then + 1
8. :::: Z X
a3 :::: o.
9. Test the consistency of the following equations :
10.
xTest+for2y consistency
+ 3z + 14 the5xfollowing
= 0, 0, + 16 it2xexists+ 7y +: 5z + 30
+ 9y + llzsystem+ 56 and3findx + 5ythe+solution,
= Z = 0,
if
= 0,

3x + 3y + 2z 1, x + 2y 4, lOy + 3z -2, 2x -3y -z 5,

=

Answers
= = =

1. (i) = Y = 0,
xx -1y , z 1 z 1 xx 3,1, 4,2, zz -16
= (ii) = Y = = xx 3,1, 2, zz -23 (iii) = Y = 0, =

(iv) = = = (v) = Y = = (vi) = Y = =

1
(vii) x -3, 4, z 1 x 2, -1, z (ix) x 1.2, 2,2, z 3,2
= Y = = (viii) = Y = = "2 = Y= =

1
"2 '3
1
(x::x):: x1, y 1::,:: 2,z:::: 3 z
= Y = ' = (xi)
xx:::: -11,, y::::3,-1,z z::5 :: -1 (xi ) x 1, 1, z 1.
= Y = = = Y = =

2. 3.
4. (a) (b)
5. Yes\ x5; x::; x1,:: 2y::k,2,:: 2zk,5z::k1, z:: where isxarbitrary.
6. =
= Y =

k,
= Y =
=

k,
= 4k,
1, 1, z 1
k
= Y = =

9.
,3; when x:::: y:::: z; whenConsistent3, equations
0Inconsistent.
7. A :::: A :::: 0,
10.
A :::: become identical.
; x:::: 2, y :::: 1, z:::: -4.
1 4.26. RANK OF A MATRIX (PT. u" M.GA May 2007)
Let A be any m x n matrix. It has square sub·matrices of different orders. The
determinants of these square sub· matrices are called minors of A. If all minors of order (r 1) +
are zero but there is at least one non-zero minor of order r, then r is called the rank of A.
Symbolically, rank of A = r is written as p(A) = r or r(A) = r.
MATRIX ALGEBRA 631

From the definition of the rank of a matrix A, it follows that :

(i) If A is a null matrix, then p(A) = O. r·: every minor of A has zero value.]
(ii) If A is not a null matrix, then p(A) :> 1.
(iii) I f A is a non-singular n x n matrix, then p(A) = n
[.: IAI '" 0 is the largest minor of A.]
If I n is then x n unit matrix, then I In I = 1 '" 0 => p(In) = n.
(iv) If A is an m x n matrix, then p (A) S minimum of m and n.
(v) If all minors of order r are equal to zero, then p (A) < r.

1 4.27. TO DETERMINE THE RANK OF A MATRIX A

We adopt the following different methods :
Start with the highest order minor (or minors) of A. Let their order be r. If any one of
them is non-zero, then p(A) = r.
If all of them are zero, start with minors of next lower order (r - 1) and so on till you
get a non-zero minor. The order of that minor is the rank of A.
This method usually involves a lot of computational work since we have to evaluate
several determinants.
We generally find the rank of a matrix by reducing it to echelon form.

1 4.28. ECHELON FORM OF A MATRIX

A matrix A is said to be in echelon form if it satisfies the following properties:
(i) All entries below the leading element are zero.
(ii) The number of zeros before the first non-zero element in a row is more than the
number of such zeros in the previous row.

For example A =
l�
0
3
0
�l is in echelon form

where as B= l�
0
3
3
�l is non-echelon form

1 4.29. RANK OF A MATRIX BY USING ECHELON FORM

The rank of a matrix is equal to number of non-zero rows in its echelon form.

For example II 2l
r(A) = 3, where A = 0 3 0 .
0

0 0 4
632 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

I L LUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Find the rank of the matrices

(.) [
,
-2
1 2
0
3
5
4
7
]
Sol. (i) Here A = [� _ � � �] is a 2 x 4 matrix.

r (A) S 2 (smaller of 2 and 4)

Operating R2 --; R2 + 2Rl we get
'

A- [� ! 3
11 1
�l which is in echelon form

r(A) = 2 (No. of non-zero rows in echelon form)

(ii) Here A = l� 4 l 2

6
3
2 is a 3 x 3 matrix.
5
r(A) S 3

l� -�l
2
A- 2 operating R3 --; R3 - R2
2 -1

- l� -�l 2
2
0
which is in echelon form.

..

"
r (A) = 2 (No. of non-zero rows in echelon form) .

[
Example 2_ Find the rank of the matrices

(i) l;
-4
3
2
5
4
0
12
-1
-1
-1 l . (ii) 2
3
4
2
"
3 2
1 3
,
. (P.T.V., M.C.A. May 2008)

D [;
6 8 7 5

3 -1

']
-1 -2 -4
-2
.
��� 3 1 3

- ll
6 3 0 -7

Sol. (i) Here A= l

-4
2
5
3
2
5
4
12
0 - 1 is a 3 x 4 matrix.
-1
r (A) S 3 (smaller of 3 and 4)

l- l
Interchanging C , and C4' we get
3 4 2
A- -1 2
-1 5 12
o
- 45 l , operating R2 --; R2 - Rl ' R3 --; R3 - R,
 -l l
MATRIX ALGEBRA 633

- 0 -1 -4
3
0 2 8 -6
4
�l operating R3 --; R3 + 2R2

- -l l 0 -1 -4
0 0 0
3 4
�l which is in echelon form.

.. r(A) = 2 (No. of non-zero rows in echelon form) .

2 3 01
(ii) Here

..
A0

r(A) <: 4.
[! 4 3 �2 IS. a 4 x 4 matrix.
2 1
8 7
.

R2 --; R2 - 2RI' R3 --; R3 - 3RI ' R4 --; R4 - 6RI ' we get

n
Operating

[1
2 3
0
A-
-3 in''"'_'" '' =,' R,
-4 - 8
- 4 - 11

- [1 2 3
-4 - 8
0 -3
- 4 - 11
n
o�m'' ' R, > R, - "
'

- [1 2 3
-4 - 8
0 -3
0 -3
!l
""m'in, R, > R, - "

[�
- 0 0 -- 38
-
0
4
2 3

0
!l
w,", ill in �,,'"" 'O<ill
0
.. r(A) = 3 (No. of non-zero rows in echelon form) .

[!
3 -1
1 - 2 = � , interchanging R, and R
']
(iii) Here A0
-
1 3 2
3 0 -7

- [!
- 1 - 2 - <1
3 -1 -1
1 3 -2
3 0 -7
Operating R --; R - 2RI ' R3 --; R3 - 3RI ' R4 --; R4 - 6RI '

- [1
- 1 - 2 - <1
2 2

4 9 1� , operating R3 --; R3 + R2
5 3

9 12 17
634 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

- [j -15
99
-2
12123 117; ,
' 1 operating R4 --; R4 - R3

- [j -1
905
-2
1203
']
1707 '
. 9
operatmg R3 --; R3 - 5 R2

- [l -15
0
0
-2
333
50
-4
27
50
) which is in echelon form.

.. r(A) = 3 (No. of non·zero rows in echelon form) .

1. Find the rank of the matrices

TEST YOU R KNOWL EDGE 1 4.4
I
(i) [� - 31 01 �l (ii) II !j 2
(iii) l� 0 �j
3 4
2 6

(iv) r� l
2 4
3 6 l 5 l

l(P.T.U.� , M.C.A.J
0
n
o 1 2
0
1 -l
1 (v) 3 4 (v,) -3 4 .

-�j
o 1 1 1 -2 3
(P.T.U., M.C.A. May 2007) (P.T.U., M.C.A. May 2007) 2008)
l�
Dec.
1 3
2. Determine the rank of the matrix A =
l 3 9
2 6

16 4 12 15
3. Find the rank of

l j l� j
j
3 2

i( v) l -Jj
(i)
3 -1 2 2
-6 2 4 (ii) 3 5 1
-3 1 2 3 4 6

li
-1 2 - 3 1 -3

�
(iii) 1 0 0 1
0
2
3 1 1
0
4
1 2 1 -2

(v)
l� j 2
1
3
-2
2
1
. (P.T.U., M.C.A. Dec. 2006)
MATRIX ALGEBRA 635
4. Determine the rank of AB where
-�
r� 1 1
1 -1 1 -2
A= -3 4 , B= 6 12
-2 3 6 10

Answers
L (i) 2 (ii) 2 (iii) 3 (iv) 3 (v) 3
(vi) 2,
2. 2 3. (i) 2 (ii) 2 (iii) 4 (iv) 2
(v) 3,
4. does not defined.
1 4.30. SOLUTION OF A SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS (Rank Method) or (Gauss

}
Jordan Method)

a ,x + b,y + c,z = d'

Consider the system of equations a2x + b2y + c2z = d2 (3 equations in 3 unknowns)
aa x + baY + ca z = da

l lll
In matrix notation) these equations can be written as
a ,x + b,y + c,z d'
a2 x + b2 y + c2z = d2
aa x + baY + ca z da

or

l l l�l
or
a , b, C '
where A = a2 b2 C2 is called the co·efficient matrix, X = is the column matrix of

l�:l
aa ba ca

unknowns, B = is the column matrix of constants.

If d, = d2 = d3 = 0, = 0 and the matrix equation AX = B reduces to AX = O.

then B
Such a system of equations is called a system of homogeneous linear equations.
If at least one of dp d2 ) d3 is non-zero, then B t:- O.
Such a system of equations is called a system of non-homogeneous linear equa­

l� l
tions.

Solving the matrix equation AX = B means finding X. i,e" finding a column matrix

l�l l�l ·
such that

X= = Then x = a, y = �, z = y.
636 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

The matrix equation AX = B need not always have a solution. It may have no solution or
a unique solution or an infinite number of solutions.
A system of equations having no solution is called an inconsistent system of equa­
tions.
A system of equations having one or more solution is called a consistent system of
equations.
Thus for a system of non-homogeneous linear equations AX = B.
(i) if p[A : B] '" p(A), the system is inconsistent.
(ii) if p[A : B] = p(A) = number of unknowns, the system has a unique solution.
(iii) p [A : B] = p(A) < number of unknowns, the system has an infinite number of solutions.
The matrix [A : B] in which the elements of A and B are written side by side is called the
augmented matrix.
For a system of homogeneous linear equations AX = 0
(i) X = 0 is always a solution. This solution in which each unknown has the value zero
is called the Null Solution or the Trivial Solution. Thus a homogeneous system is always
consistent.
A system of homogeneous linear equations has either the trivial solution or an infinite
number of solutions.
(ii) if P (A) = number of unknowns, the system has only the trivial solution.
(iii) if P (A) < number of unknowns, the system has an infinite number of non·trivial
solutions.

1 4.31 . THEOREM : IF A IS A NON-SINGULAR MATRIX, THEN THE MATRIX EQUA­

TION AX = B HAS A UNIQUE SOLUTION
Proof. The given equation is AX = B ... (1)
A is a non-singular matrix) - I
. . A exists.
Pre·multiplying both sides of (1) by A-I , we get
A-'AX = A-' B or (A-'A)X = A-' B
or IX = A-I B or X = A-I B
which is the required unique solution (since A-I is unique).

I I L LUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Solve, with the help of rank method or by Gauss Jordan method, the simul­
taneous equations :
x + y + z = 3, x + 2y + 3z = 4, x + 4y + 9z = 6.

Sol. Augmented matrix [A ' B] � � � : !l'

II ;
I49 : 6

Jl�o 3� �8 �3l '

Operating R2 --; R2 - Rl R3 --; R3 - Rl we get
' '

[A : BJ operating R3 --; R3 - 3R2

MATRIX ALGEBRA 637

�
l� � � �l ' which is in echelon form

r(A B) = 3, r(A) = 3, no. of unknowns = 3

:

. . The system has a unique solution.

From 3rd row) 2z = 0 => z = o
From 2nd row) y + 2z = 1 => y = l
From 1st row) x + y + z = 3 ::::::} x = 2
.. x = 2) Y = 1) z = 0
Example 2. Solve the system of equations by using Gauss Jordan method
2X1 + x2 + 2x3 + x4 = 6
4X1 + 3x2 + 3x3 � 3x4 = � 1
6x1 � 6x2 + 6x3 + 12x4 = 36

[4 X[Xl [�1
2X1 + 2x2 � x3 + x4 = 10.
Sol. In matrix notation, the given system of equations is AX = B, where

2 1 2 1� � 6�
3 3 �3
6 12 ' X = x : B = 36
A= 6 �6 ,
2 2 �1 1 x4 10

3
1
� �; : �
� J
�6 12 : 36
6
2 � 1 1 : 10

[A nl � [! 1 2 1
1 �1 �5
�9 0 9
1 -3 0
� 13
I!
OJ
.
' operatmg R3 --; R3 + 9R2 , R4 --; R4 - R2

- [j
OJ
(- '9)1
1 2 1
1 -1 -5
0 - 9 -36
- 13
_ 99 , operating R3
0 -2 5 17

- [j
1 2 1 OJ
1 -1
0 1
-54 - 13
11 ' operating R4 --; R4 + 2R3
0 -2 5 17

- [j
1 2 1
1 -1
0 1
0 0 13
-54 - ::1
39
' w'"' i, in '0" '"" '.<ill
638 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

r [A : = 4, r(A) = 4,
B] =4
number of unknowns
. . The system has a unique solution.
From 4th
row, 13x4 = 39 ::::::} x4 = 3
From 3,d x3 + 4X4 = 11
row, x3 + 12 = 11 x3 = 11 - 12 = - 1
=> =>
From d
2n x2 -x3 - 5x4 = - 13
row,
=> x2 = - 13 - 1 + 15 = 1
From 1st 2Xl + x2 + 2x3 + x4 = 6
row,
=> 2x, + 1 -2 + 3 = 6
=> 2X, = 4 x, = 2. =>
Hence Xl = 2, x2 = 1, x3 = - 1, x4 = 3 is the required solution
Example 3. Show that the equations
3x + 3y + 2z = 1, lOy + 3z = - 2, X + 2y = 4, 2x- 3y - z = 5,
are consistent and hence o btain the solutions for x, y, z by using Rank method.
Sol. In matrix notation, the given system of equations can be written as AX = B, where

'",m,"',,' ='.rix [A • nl 0
[1 1032 03
-3 -1
2
-ll m""'"",",,, R, """ R,. w. ..,

[A n 1 - [! 102 032
-33 -1
,.
-2! , operating R3 --; R3 - 3RI' R4 --; R4 -2R,

- [; 10
-3
2 0
-7 -1
32 -2
-11
-3
,

, operating R3 --; R3 + R4

- [; -10
2 03
10
-7 -11
-2
-14
-3 '] , operating R3 --; R3 + R2

- [; 2 0
100 43
-7 -1
-2'1
-16
-3
. R4--; R4 + 107 R2
, operatmg

01 1002 430 -24

- 0 -16
44 , operating R4 [��]
0 0 1110 10
MATRIX ALGEBRA 639

1200 403 -1-26 -1

[1
"
. 4" R3
0 1 -4
� , operatmg R4 --; R4

--, l}
1200 403
[= 3,1 0 =03, w",,' " m ,,','on 'o,m.

r [A : B] r (A) number of unknowns = 3.

.. The system has a unique solution.
3rd 4z = => z = - 4
=> lOy - 12 = - 2 => y = 1
From row, - 16
From 2nd lOy + 3z = - 2
row,
From pt row, x + 2y = 4 => x = 2.
Hence x = 2, = 1, Z = - 4,
Y is the required solution

x - 3y - 8z = - 1 0 ; 3x + y - 4z = 0 ; 2x + 5y + 6z = 13 and hence solve it.

Example 4. Test for consistency the equations

l l l X = B,
Sol. In matrix notation, the given system of equations can be written as A

where
1 -3 -8 -1
A = 1l� ! -� ' X = lIX� , B = 1l l °�

Augmented matrix [A : B] I= I23 -351 -- 846 ::: -l1°30l

[A : B] - l� -31110 -82022 - !�l33 operating R2 C�). U1)
R3

- l� -311 -822 -l;°l , operating R3 --; R3 - R2

I- I0o -301 -820 -l�l

r [A : B] =r =2 3=
(A) < number of unknowns.
The system has infinite solution. Take z=k
640 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

From 2nd row) y+ z=3 2 y=3- 2k

From pt row, x - 3y - 8z = - 10 => x- 9 + 6k - 8k = - 10
x = - 10 + 9 + = - 1 2k + 2k
:. The required solution is
2k, y 3 2k, k.
x=- 1 + = - z=

Example 5. For what values of A and " do the system of equations :

x y + = 6, x 2y 3z = 10, x 2y AZ
+z + + + + ="
have (i) no solution (ii) unique solution (iii) more than one solutions ?
Sol. In matrix notation) the given system of equations can be written as
AX = B

where A= II 1
1 2
1 2
Augmented matrix [A : B]

=
l�
1 1
2
2 A3 l�l '
operating R2 --; R2 - Rl ' R3 --; R3 - R,

- l� 1
1
1 A-1
1
2
,, - 6
� l '
operating R3 --; R3 - R2

- l� �l
1 1
1 2
0 A-3 "-1
Case I. If A = 3, " '" 10, then
p(A) = 2, p(A : B) = 3 => p(A) '" p(A : B)
The system has no solution.
Case II. If A ", 3, " may have any value, then

p(A) = p(A : B) = 3 = number of unknowns

The system has unique solution.
Case III. If A = 3, ,, = 10, then p(A) = p(A : B) = 2 < number of unknowns
The system has an infinite number of solutions.

Example 6. Solve the equations by using Guass Jordan method

Xl + 3x2 + 2x3 = 0) 2X1 - x2 + 3x3 = 0) 3xl - 5x2 + 4x3 = 0) Xl + 1 7x2 + 4x3 = o.
MATRIX ALGEBRA 641

Sol. In matrix notation) the given system of equations can be written as AX = 0

Operating R2 - 2RI' R3 - 3RI' R4 - Rl' we get

3 - 2�1 -7
1414 22 _
R3 --; R3 - 2R2, R4 --; R4 2R2
_
'
operating +
3 21
-� � ,
-
which is in Echelon form
o 0
2 3
p(A) = < = number of unknowns
=> The system has an infinite number of non-trivial solutions given by (take x =
Xl 3x2 2X3 2 k)
+ + - 7X2 - X3
= 0) X3 7k =0 or =-
Leo) Xl 1 1k, =
x2 = k, 7k, k x3 = - where is any number.
Different values of k give different solutions.
Example 7. Solve the following system of homogeneous equations
2x + 3y - z = 0
x- y - 2z = 0
3x + y + 3z = O.
Sol. In matrix notation, the given system of equations can be written as AX = 0,

- 31
where A=
l� =Hx=m,o=ln
1
21 - 31 -- 21 2(- 3 2) - 3(3 + + + 3)
Here I A I = = 6) - 1(1
3 1 3
=- - =- "0 2 - 27 4 33
The system has a unique solution or trivial solution given by x = 0, y = 0, Z = o.

1 TEST YOU R KNOWL EDGE 14.5 1

L Write the following equations in matrix form AX :::: B and solve for X by finding A-I :
(i) 1
2x+-2y2y ++2z::=:: 2
Z (ii) 2xjXl -x2+ x2 ++XXs33 =::::
4
x2x+y-2z=7 1
Xl -3x2 -2X :::: 2.
642 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

2. Using the loop current method on a circuit, the following equations were obtained :
7il -4i2 :::: 12, - 4ili+l' i122i2 -6iis.s :::: 0, -6i2 + 14is
By matrix method, solve for and
:::: o.

3. Solve the following systems of equations by matrix method :

((ii(ii))) xxx +++ yy2y+++ZZ3==z6,8,= 1, 2xxx+--3y+++2z2z2z===5,2,6, 33xx3++x3y5y+y+z::
Y
Y -7z =:: 814
+ 4z = 1.
Show that the equations x + 2y -z:::: 3, 3x -y + 2z:::: 1, 2x-2y + 3z :::: 2, x-y + z:::: -1 are consistent
and solve them.
4.

5. Test for consistency the equations 2x -3y + 7z :::: 5, 3x + y -3z :::: 13, 2x + 19y -47z:::: 32.
6. Solve the equations x + 3y + 2z:::: 0, 2x -y + 3z :::: 0, 3x -5y + 4z:::: 0, X + 17y + 4z:::: o.
7. For what values of a and do the equations x + 2y + 3z :::: 6, x + 3y + 5z :::: 9, 2x + 5y + az:::: have
b b

8.
(i) no solution (i ) a unique solution (i i) more than one solution ?
Find the value of k so that the equations x + y + 3z :::: 0, 4x + 3y + kz:::: 0, 2x + + 2z:::: have a °
non-trivial solution.
Y

9. Show that the equations 3x + 4y + 5z :::: a, 4x + 5y + 6z:::: 5x + 6y + 7z :::: do not have a

solution unless a + :::: 2b.
b, c
C

10. Investigate the values of A and )..t so that the equations 2x + 3y + 5z :::: 9, 7x + 3y -2z :::: 8,
+ 3y + AZ :::: )..t have (i) no solution, (i ) a unique solution and (i i) an infinite number of
2xsolutions.
11. Determine the values of A for which the following set of equations may possess non-trivial solu­
tion. 3x1 + x2 -AXs :::: 0, 4Xl -2X2 -3xs :::: 0, 2AX1 + 4X2 + A.xs :::: 0. For each permissible value of
determine the general solution.
A,Investigate
12. for consistency of the following equations and possible find the solutions :
if

13.
4x -2y +
k 6z = 8, xY + -3 z = -1 , 1 5 x -3 y + 9z =
For what values of the equations x + y + z:::: 1, 2x + + 4z:::: , 4x + + 10z:::: k2 have a solution
k 21.
and solve them completely in each case.
Y Y

14. Show that A 5, the system of equations 3x-y + 4z:::: 3, x + 2y -3z :::: -2, 6x + 5y + AZ:::: -3 have
if -:1- -
a unique solution. If A:::: -5, show that the equations are consistent. Determine the solutions in
each case.
15. Find the values of a and for which the equations x + ay + z:::: 3, x + 2y + 2z::::
b b,
are consistent. When will these equations have a unique solution ?
xShow+ 5ythat+ 3z::the:: 9simultaneous
16. linear equations -2x + + z:::: a; x -2y + z:::: ; x + y -2z:::: have
b c,
no solution unless a + + 0. In which case, the system has infinitely many solutions ? Find the
Y

solution when a = = 1 and = -2.

b c ::::
b c (P.T. U., M.C.A. Dec. 2006)

Answers 9631 224 1

L (i) x = 2, = 15, Z = -14 2 i1 = 75�' 5 ' 3 75
. = i =�
'-2
Y
•

3. "3 Z = "3
(x::i) x:: -1= 5,, y::=:: 4, z::' :: 4 (i,) xInconsistent
Y Y = 1, = 2, Z = 3 (i ') x=- 7' y 7' 7 =� Z = -�

4. 5.
6.
7.
x::(i) a:: 11=k8,, y:::: k15, z:::: -7k, where
b" (i-:I-
) a b
k8,is arbitrary
may have any value (i i) a = 8,b= 15
8. k=8 I-' (i ) A " 5, arbitrary (i i) A = 5, = 9 I-'
MATRIX ALGEBRA 643

11. For A :::: 1, solution is

A :::: 1, - 9. 2k. For A
x :::: kJ Y =- kJ z :::: =- 9, solution is x :::: 3k, y :::: 9k, z =- 2k .
12. Consistent ; 1, 3k - 2,
x :::: y :::: z :::: k where k is arbitrary.

13. k = 1, x = - 3A, Y = 1 + 2A, Z = A ;k where A is arbitrary.

2, x = 1 - 3A, Y = 2A, Z = A

.:,--".
-, 9
=

A - 5,
t:- x
:::: "7
4
- '7 :::: 0 ; A :::: - 5, ::::
9
:::: z
4 - 5k ,,
1.:::
3k
x -k where k is arb'ltrary.
-,Y
14. ' '
7 7
- .
Y - , Z ::::

15. If a :::: - 1, b :::: 6, equations will be consistent and have infinitely many solutions
If a :::: - 1, b -:f- 6, equations will be inconsistent.
If a -:f- - 1, b is arbitrary, equations will be consistent and have a unique solution.
Infinite solution when a + b + :::: o. When a :::: 1, b :::: 1, :::: - 2, the solution is k - 1, :::: k - 1,
c c x ::::
k, where k is arbitrary.
16. Y
z ::::

1 4.32. GAUSS ELIMINATION METHOD

In this method the unknowns are eliminated successively by transforming the given
system into an equivalent system with upper triangular co-efficient matrix (i.e.) a matrix in
which all the elements below the principal diagonal are zero) by means of elementary row
operations) from which the unknowns are found by back substitution. Here we shall explain it
by considering a system of three equations in three unknowns. Consider the system

a ,x + b,y + c,z = d,
a2 x + b2 y + c2z = d2 ... (1)
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3
where x) y) z are unknowns. The system in matrix form is AX = B) where

Consider the augmented matrix [A : B]

... (2)
Now) our aim is to reduce (2) to an upper triangular matrix. Let a1 t:- o. Then

c,
c�
: d'
j d�
l ... (3)
c3, :: d'3
Here a1 is called the first pivot and b2') c2') d2') b3') c3') d3' are transformed elements.
Now take 62' as the pivot (6 2' '" 0). Then

��2 R2 J�' �� c,

lo 0
R 3 ---> R 3 - ... (4)
644 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Now if c3" t:- 0) from (4») the given system of linear equations is equivalent to
+ +
a lx b 1y c1z = d1
+
b 2'y c2'y = d2'
c3"z = d3"
Using back substitution Z = d3''1c3''
1
-
y- {d2' C3" - C2' d3''l
b'2C3"
1
and X- _

a
2 3"
b'c
I
I II
{d , b 2 c3 - b , d2 c3 I II
+ b,c2 d3 - b2 c,d3 }
I II "

L This method fails if any one of the pivots b2' or cs" becomes zero. In such cases by

::::
ap

interchanging the rows we can get the non-zero pivots.

Notes :

2. Partial pivoting. From the first column of (2) [called the pivot column if -:f- 0, i 1, 2, 3] ai

select the component with the largest absolute value. This is called the pivot. Then at the second stage
i.e., from the second column of (3) select once again the component with the largest absolute value as the
pivot. Continue this process. This procedure is called partial pivoting. [Refer example (1)]
3. Complete pivoting. If we are not interested in the elimination of in a particular order, x, y, z
then we can choose at each stage the numerically largest co-efficient of the entire co-efficient matrix.
This requires an interchange of equations and also an interchange of the position of the variables.
Example 1. Solve the system of equations 3x + y - z = 3, 2x - 8y + z = 5, x - 2y + 9z = 8
using Gauss-elimination method.
-
Sol. The given system is equivalent to

:. The augmented matrix is

A X=B

[A : B] = l� 1 -1 ;
-8 < -53 1
-2 9 i 8
Now we will make A as upper triangular choosing 3 as pivot

2 3 1 -1 3
R 2 --; R 2 - - R,
3 0
26 5 -7
1R
R --; R - - 3 3
3 3 , 7 28
3 0 7
3 3

26
Now choosing -3 as the pivot from the 2nd column

3 1 -1 3

R3 --; R3 -
7
R2 - 0
26 5 -7
26 3 3
693 231
0 0
78 26
MATRIX ALGEBRA 645

From this we get 3x + y - z = 3 ;

26 5 693 231
-- y+-z=-7 and --
Z = -- .
3 3 78 26
Now by back substitution z = 1
26 5 5 26
-- y = - 7 - - z = - 7 - - = - - :. y = 1
3 3 3 3
1 1
and x = "3 [3 - y + z] = "3 [3 - 1 + 1] = 1
.. x = 1, y = 1, z = 1 .
Example 2. Solve by Gauss-elimination method :
2x + 3y + z = 2,
x + 2y - z = 6,
3x + z = 2,
Sol. The given equations in matrix notation are

or AX = B

The augmented matrix is [A : B] = l2 3 1 2

1 2 -1 6
3 0 1 2
1
In First column, the component with largest absolute value is 3. So interchange R, and
R3 ) we get

[A : B] = l
3 0
1 2
2 3

3 0 1 i 2
o 2 _� ! 16
3 i 3
1 i 2
o 3
3 3
In second column, the component with largest absolute value is 3. So interchanging R2
and R3 ) we get

0
� R2
3 1 2
operating R3 --; R3 -
1 2
[A : B] - 0 3
3 3 3
4 16
0 2
3 9
646 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

3 0 1 2
1 2
0 3
3 3
14 44
0 0
9 9

From third row, - -

14
9
z �-
44
9
=>
22
z = --
7
z 2
From second row, 3y + "3 = "3

3y = � - % � � - �( -
22
7 )
2 22 14 + 22 36 12 4
= - +- = = = => y=-
3 21 21 21 7 7
From first row, 3x + z = 2
22 14 + 22 36 12
3x = 2 - z = 2 + - = => x= -
7 7 7 7
Hence, the required solution is
12 4 22
x= Y= ,z= -
7' 7 7'
Example 3. Solve
2x + 3y + z =
9,
x + 2y + 3z = 6,
3x + y + 2z = 8, by Gauss-elimination method.
Sol. The given equations in matrix notations are

l� � m�l � lil or AX = B

The augmented matrix is [A : B] =

l�
li
In first column, the component with largest absolute value is 3. So interchanging
R, and R3, we get

l
3 1 2 18
[A : B] = 1 2 3 6 , operating R2 --; R2 - �Rl'
3
R3 --; R3 - �R,
3
2 3 1 19

3 1 2 8
o
5 7 10
3 3 3
7 1 11
o
3 3 3
MATRIX ALGEBRA 647

7
In second column) the component with largest absolute value is "'3' So interchaning R2
and R3 ) we get

f
3 1 2 8
7 1 11
0 operating R3 --; R3 - R2 ,
3 3 3
5 7 10
0
3 3 3

3 1 2 8
7 1 11
- 0
3 3 3
54 15
0 0
21 21

54 15 15 5
From third row) - Z� ::::::} z =
- �- -

21 21 54 18
7 1 11 7 1 1 z 11 5
From second row , -y - - z = - ::::::} -y = - + - = - + -
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 54
7 203 203 3 29
3Y � 54 => Y � 54 x 7 � 18
From first row, 2x + 3y + z � 9 => 2x � 9 - 3y - z
87 5 162 - 87 - 5 70 35
or 2x � 9 - - -- � :_::_ - -- - - ::::::} x = -

18 18 18 18 18
Hence) the required solution is
35 29 5
x � 18 , y � 18 ' z � '
18

TEST YOU R KNOWL EDGE 1 4.6

Solve the following system of linear equations by (i) Gauss-elimination method (ii) Gauss Jordan method.
L 3x + 4y - z :::: 8 ; - 2x + y + Z :::: 3 ; x + 2y - z :::: 2
2. lOx + Y + z 12 ; x + lOy + z 12 ; x + y + 10z 12
� � �

3. 3x + Y + 2z 3 ; 2x - 3y - z - 3 ; x - 2y + z - 4
� � �

4. 2x - 6y + 8z 24 ; 5x + 4y - 3z 2 ; 3x + Y + 2z 16
� � �

5. x + 2y - z 3 ; 3x - Y + 2z 1, 2x - 2y + 3z 2
� � �

6. 2x - 3y + z - 1, x + 4y + 5 25, 3x - 4y + z 2
� � �

7. 2x + Y + 4z 12, 8x - 3y + 2z 20 ; 4x + lly - z 33
� � �

8. 2x + Y + z 10, 3x + 2y + 3z 18, x + 4y + 9z 16
� � �

9. x + 2y + z 8 ; 2x + 3y + 4z 20, 4x + 3y + 2z 16
� � �

10. 5x1 + 2X2 + xs :::: 12 ; - Xl + 4X2 + 2xs :::: 2, 2Xl - 3x2 + lOxs :::: - 45
648 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

11. Xl - X2 - X3 - X4 :::: 2 ; 2Xl + 4X2 - 3xs :::: 6, 3x2 - 4xs - 2X4 :::: - 1 ; - 2Xl + 4xs + 3x4 :::: - 3
12. Xl + 2X2 + 3xs + 4x4 :::: 20 ; 3x1 - 2X2 + 8xs + 4X4 :::: 26, 2Xl + x2 - 4xs + 7X4 :::: 10 ; 4Xl + 2X2 - 8xs - 4X4
=2
13. 5x1 + x2 + Xs + x4 :::: 4 ; Xl + 7X2 + Xs + x4 :::: 12, Xl + x2 + 6xs + x4 :::: - 5 ; Xl + x2 + X3 + 4X4 :::: - 6
14. 2Xl + x2 + 5X3 + x4 :::: 5 ; Xl + x2 - 3X3 + 4X4 :::: - 1, 3x1 + 6x2 - 2xs + x4 :::: 8 ; 2Xl + 2X2 + 2xs - 3x4 :::: 2
15. x + y + 2z - w :::: 5 ; x + 3y + 2z + w :::: 17, x + Y + 3z + 2w :::: 20 ; x + 3y + 4z + 2w :::: 27.

Answers
1. 1, 2, 3 2. 1, 1, 1 3. 1, 2, - 1 4. 1, 3, 5
5. - 1, 4, 4 6. 8.7, 5.7, - 1.3 7. 3, 2, 1 8. 7, - 9, 5
9. 1, 2, 3 10. 2, 3, - 4 11. 2, - 1 , - 2, 3 12. 4, 3, 2, 1
1 4
13. 1, 2, - 1, - 2 14. 2, - , 0, - 15. 1, 2, 3, 4.
5 5
 ARITHMETIC
1 5A PROGRESSION

1 5.1 . SEQUENCE
Consider the following arrangement 3, 7, 11, 16, .
Each term of the above arrangement is four more than the proceeding term. We call it

uA
sequence Le.,
succession of numbers formed according to a certain rule, arranged in a certain
order ) is called a sequence."
The nth term of a sequence is denoted by Tn' tn' an' a(n) etc.

A A
1 5.2. FINITE AND INFINITE SEQUENCE
sequence containing finite number of terms is called a finite sequence. sequence
having infinite number of terms is called an infinite sequence.
For e.g., the sequence I, 3, 5, 7, 9 is a finite sequence and the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, .
) is an infinite sequence. Consider some more examples given below :
. . n(n + 1) (2n + 1)
Example 1. Wnte the first three terms oithe sequence < an>' where an = .
6
Sol. For n = 1, 2, 3, we have
Ix 2 x 3 2x3x5 3x4x7
a1 = = I, a2 = = 6, a3 = = 14.
6 6 6

Tn1
Example 2. Find Tw ior the sequence < Tn> where T, = 1, T2 = 6, Tn =T
n
' n :> 3.
-2
. Tn- 1
Sol. GlVen T, = 1, T2 = 6, Tn = - , n :> 3. Put n = 3, 4, 6, . . . . . , so that
Tn- 2
T2 6 T3 6 T4 1 1
T3 = = 1 = 6, T4 = = 6" = 1 T5 -
- - =-=-
T, T2 T3 6 6
1 1

6 6
Ts 6 Tg 6
Similarly, T g = -- = 1 = 6, T lO = = 6" = 1 .
T7 Ts

649
650 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 3. Find the second term of the sequence where Tn = {_ 1)n-1 2n-1, n E N
(P.T.U., M.B.A. May 2003)
Sol. Given Tn (_ 1) n-1 2 n -1
= (1)
Put n = 2 in (1), T, = (- 1) ' 2 ' = - 2.

1 5.3. ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (A.P.)

<
A sequence an> is said to be an arithmetic progression (written as AP.) if there exists
a number, say, d such that an +1 - an = d 'if n ;::: 1 i.e.,
If the difference of each term of a sequence except the first one, from its proceeding
term is always same, then the sequence is called Arithmetic Progression.
For e.g., the sequence 4, 8, 12, 16, ... , is an AP. since 8 - 4 = 12 - 8 = 16 - 12 = ... . The
constant number d is called the common difference of the concerned A.P. Also the first
term of an AP. is denoted by a.
Theorem I. If ' a' and 'd ' be the first term and common difference of the A.P. given by
< Tn >' then Tn = a + (n - 1) d, n E N

Proof. We apply principle of mathematical induction to prove

Tn = a + (n - 1) d, n E N
Step I. For n = 1, L.H.S. = T, = First term = a
R.H.S. = a + (1 - l)d = a
The result holds for n = 1
Step II. Assume the result holds for n = m i.e., Tm = a + (m - 1) d ( 1)
Step III. Take n = m + 1. By definition, Tm + 1 - Tm = d
=> Tm + 1 = T m + d = a + (m - l)d + d I Using (1)
= a + md = a + (m + 1 - l)d

i.e, the result holds for n = m + 1, which completes the induction. Therefore by the principle of
mathematical induction, the given result holds for each n i.e.,
Tn = a + (n - l)d, n E N.

I I L L U STRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Find the 20th term and nth term of the sequence 4, 9, 14, 19 ...
Sol. Given sequence 4, 9, 14, 19, ... , is an AP. Here a = 4, d = common difference = 9 -
4 = 5. Using T n = a + (n - l)d, we have
T20 = 4 + (20 -1) (5) = 4 + 95 = 99
Also Tn = 4 + (n - 1) (5) = 5n - 5 + 4 = 5n - 1.

Example 2. Show that the sequence log a, log b' log b2' ... is an A.P.
a2 a3

Sol. Consider I lOg m - lOg n = IOg :

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 651

a3 a 2 a b 3 a
T3 - T = log - - log - = log - x - = log -
' b2 b b 2 a2 b
a
Thus T, - T, = T3 - T, = ... = log b
.. The given sequence is an AP.
Example 3. Which term ofA.P. 3, 15, 27, 39, ... will be 132 more than its 54th term ?
(P.T.U., M.B.A. May 2006)
Sol. Here a = 3, d = 12, Let T, be the required term such that
T, + 132 = T5,
=> a + (r - l)d + 132 = a + (54 - l)d
=> (r - l)d + 132 = 53d (1)
12(r - 1) + 132 = 53 x 12 = 636
12(r - 1) = 636 - 132 = 504
504
r-l= - = 42
12
=> r = 43 i.e., the required term = T' 3 '
Example 4. Iflog10 2, log10 (2' - 1), log10 (2x + 3) form an A.P., /ind the value ofx.
Sol. Given loglO 2, loglO (2X _ 1), loglO (2X + 3) are in AP.
=> logl O (2X_ 1) - logl O 2 = log l O (2X + 3) - logl O (2X - 1)

2X - 1 2" + 3 2" + 3
2" - 1 --
=> log lO -- = log lO => --2
=
2 2" - 1 2" - 1
t-l t+3
=> = t = 2x => (t - I)' = 2t + 6
t - 1'
-- --

2
=> t' + 1 - 2t = 2t + 6 => t' - 4t - 5 = 0
=> t' - 5t + t - 5 = 0 => t(t - 5) + (t - 5) = 0
=> (t + 1) (t - 5) = 0 => t = - I, t = 5
When t = - 1, we have 2X = - 1, not possible
When t = 5, we have 2X = 5 => x = log, 5.
Example 5. Show that the sequence {n2 + 4} is not an A.P.
Sol. Let Tn = n' + 4 ' n E N .
T, = (I)' + 4 = 5, T, = (2)' + 4 = 8,
T3 = (3)' + 4 = 13, T, = (4)' + 4 = 20,

.. The sequence is 5, 8, 13, 20, .

Here T, - T, = 8 - 5 = 3
T3 - T, = 13 - 8 = 5

The given sequence is not an AP., because the differences T, - T" T3 - T" ...... are
not equal.
652 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 6. For what value of n, the nth term of the series ,'
"3 + 10 + 1 7 + ...... " and "63 + 65 + 67 + ...... " are equal.
Sol. 1st series. We have 3 + 10 + 17 + .
Here a, = 3 and d, = 10 - 3 = 17 - 10 = 7
.. Tn = a, + (n - l)d, = 3 + (n - 1) 7 = 7n - 4.
lInd series. We have 63 + 65 + 67 + .
Here a, = 63 and d, = 65 - 63 = 67 - 65 = 2
.. Tn = a, + (n - 1) d, = 63 + (n - 1) 2 = 2n + 61.
Let nth term af given series be equal.
.. 7n - 4 = 2n + 6 1 ar 5 n = 65 i.e., n = 13.
Example 7. Determine the Ist term and the 40th term of the A.P. whose 7th term is 34
and 15th term is 74.
Sol. Let a be the first term and d, the camman difference af the A.P.
:. We have T7 = a + 6d = 34 (1)
and T, 5 = a + 14d = 74 (2)
(2) - (1) => Sd = 40 => d = 5.
Putting d = 5 in (1), we get a + 6(5) = 34 ar a = 34 - 30 = 4.
First term = a = 4 and 40th term = T,o = a + 39d = 4 + 39 (5) = 199.

4 2
-
Example 8. The 2nd, 31st and last terms ofan A.P. are 7 � , 2 and 6 2 respectively.
2
Find the first term and the number of terms.
Sol. Let a be the first term and d, the camman difference af the A.P.

:. We have
3 31
T2 = 7 - = -
4 4 '
1
2
1
T3 1 = - and last term ' I = - 6 - = -
2
13
2
. -
Naw T, = a + d and T3 1 = a + 30d.

a + d=
31
4
- (1)

1
and a + 30d = - (2)
2

(2) - (1) =>

1 31 2 - 31
29d = - - - =
2 4 4
-- 29
= - - ar d = - - x
4
29 1
4 29
-
1
= --
4

Putting d = - .!.4 in (1), we get a + (-.!.)

4
=
31
4
31 1
ar a = - + - = 8.
4 4

( )
Let number af terms be n.
1 32 - n + 1 ' 33 - n
1 = Tn = a + (n - l)d = S + (n - 1) - - = = -- .
4 4 4

-- - -
33 - n
4
-
13
2
33 - n = - 26 "e., n = 59.
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 653

Example 9. If (p + l)th term of an A.P. is twice the {q + l)th term, prove that the
{3p + l)th term is twice the (p + q + l)th term.
Sol. Let a be the first term and d, the common difference of the AP.
We have Tp +1 = 2Tq+1 '
=> a + (p + 1 - l)d = 2[a + (q + 1 - l)d]
a + pd = 2a + 2qd => a = (p - 2q)d ... (1)
Now Top+l = a + (3p + l - l)d = (p - 2q)d + 3pd = 2(2p - q)d (Using (1 »
and Tp+q+1 = a + (p + q + 1 - l)d = (p - 2q)d + (p + q)d = (2p - q)d
.. T3P+1 = 2Tp+q+1'
Example 10. The fourth term of an A.P. is equal to three times the first term and the
seventh term exceeds twice the third term by one. Find the first term and the common difference.
Sol. Let a be the first term and d, the common difference of the AP.
.. Tn = a + (n - l)d , n E N
By the given conditions, T, = 3 T, (1) and T7 = 2T3 + 1 (2)
3d
(1) => a + 3d = 3a or a=- (3)
2
(2) => a + 6d = 2(a + 2d) + 1 or 2d = a + 1
3d d
or 2d = - + 1 or - = 1 or d = 2 [by (3)]
2 2
3
.. (3) => a = - (2) = 3.
2
Example 11. If m times the mth term of an A.P. is equal to n times its nth term,
then show that {m + n)th term of the A.P. is zero.
Sol. Let a be the first term and d, the common difference of the A P.
.. Tm = a + (m - l)d and Tn = a + (n - l)d
By the given condition, mTm = nTn
=> m{a + (m - l)d) = n {a + (n - l)d) => ma - na + m(m - l)d - n(n - l)d = 0
=> (m - n)a + (m2 - m - n 2 + n)d = O => (m - n)a + (m - n)(m + n - 1)d = O
(m - n){a + (m + n - l)d) = 0 => a + (m + n - l)d = 0 ( .,' m r' n)
.. Tm+n = O.
Example 12. Ifpth, qth, rth terms of an A.P. be a, b, c respectively, then prove that
p(b - c) + q (c - a) + r{a - b) = o.
Sol. Let A be the first term and d, the common difference of the AP.
We have Tp = a, Tq = b and T, = c
.. A + (p - l)d = a, A + (q - l)d = b and A + (r - l)d = c.
-
L.HB. = pCb c) + q(c - a) + rea - b)
= pleA + (q - l)d) - (A + (r - l)d] + q[(A + (r - l)d) - (A + (p - l)d)] + r[(A + (p - l)d)
- (A + (q - l)d)]
= p [d(q - 1 - r + 1)] + q [d (r - 1 - P + 1)] + r [d(p - 1 - q + 1)]
654 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

� pd (q - r) + qd (r - p) + rd (p - q) � d [(pq - prj + (qr - qp) + (rp - rq)]

� d(O) 0� � RH.S.
Theorem II. If a, b, c, are in AP., then
(i) a + k, b + k, c + k are also in AP. (ii) a - k, b - k, e - k are also in AP.

(iii) ka, kb, ke, k 'l" 0 are also in AP. (iv) � '�'I' k 'l" 0 are also in AP.
Proof. Given a, b, c are in AP.
.. b -a=e-b
(i) a + k, b + k = e + k will be in AP. if b + k - (a + k) = e + k - (b + k) i.e., if b - a = e - b,
which is true
(ii) a - k, b - k, e - k will be in AP. if b - k - (a - k) = e - k - (b - k) i.e., if b - a = e -b,
which is true
(iii) ka, kb , ke are in AP. if kb - ka = ke - kb i.e., if k(b - a) = k(e - b) i.e., if b - a = e - b,
which is true
a b c b a e b b-a e-b
(iv) k ' k ' k will be in AP if k - k � k - k i.e, if � i.e., if b - a = c - b, which
-- --

k k
is true
Theorem III. If each term of an AP. is
(i) increased by the same number (ii) decreased by the same number
(iii) multiplied by the same number (iv) divided by the same number,
then the resulting sequence is also an AP.
Proof. Let the given AP. is a, a + d, a + 2d (1)
(i) Let each term is increased by "k' , then the new sequence will be
a + k, a + k + d, a + k + 2d, .
This is again an AP. with common difference d and first term a + k.
(ii) Let each term of (1) is decreased by k. The new sequence will be
a - k, a - k + d, a - k + 2d, .
It is again an AP. with common difference d and first term a - k.
(iii) Let each term of (1) is multiplied by k '" 0 the new sequence will be
ka, k(a + d), k (a + 2d), .
It is again an AP. with common difference kd and first term ka.
(iv) Let each term is divided by k, k ", 0 the new sequence will be
a a + d a + 2d or a a d a 2d .
k '
- - +- - + -
k' k ' k k'k k 'k
d
It is again an AP with common difference , k '" 0 and first term !!:.- , k '" O.
k k
1 5.4. IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS
(i) If sum of three numbers in AP. is given, the numbers are a - d, a, a + d.
(ii) If sum of four numbers in AP. is given, the numbers are a - 3d, a - d, a + d, a + 3d.
(iii) If sum offive numbers in AP. is given, the numbers are a - 2d, a - d, a, a + d, a + 2d.
Note. If sum of numbers in A,P, is not given, then the numbers are a, a + d, a + 2d, '
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 655

Example 13. If a, b, c are in A, P, show that ,'

1 1 1
(,') - , - , - are �n
' A. P. (ii) a2 (b + e), b2 (e + a), e2 (e + b) are in AP,
be ea ab
" ' a(b + e) b(e + a) e(a + b) , A, P,
(m) , , are m
' A, P, (w
' ) b + e - a, e + a - b, a + b - e are m
be ea ab
1 1 1
(v) vb
h + "Ie r' r
r + va
r ' "Ie h
are in A,P
va + vb

(v i) (b + e)2 - a 2 , (e + a)2 - b2, (a + b)2 - e2 are in AP,

Sol. (i) � , � , � are in AP,
abe abe abe
if , , are in AP,
be ea ab be ea ab
(Multiplying each term by abc)
if a, b, c are in AP " which is given to be true,
� , � , � are in AP,
be ea ab
Alternative method
� , � , � are in AP, if 1
- - -
1 1
=- --
1 ,
if
b-a
--
e-b
= -­
be ea ab ea be ab ea abc abc )
if b - a = c - b, if a, b, c are in AP " which is given to be true,
1 1 1
" - , - , - are in A.P.
be ea ab
(ii) a 2 (b + e), b2(e + a), e2(a + b) are in AP,

if a 2b + a 2C, b2c + b2a, c2a + c2b are in A.P.

if a2b + a2c + abc , b2c + b2a + abc , c2a + c2b + abc are in A.P.
(Adding abe to each term)
if arab + ac + be), b(be + b a + ac), e (e a + eb + ab) are in AP,
if a, b, e are in AP, which is given to be true,
(Dividing each term by ab + be + ea)
" a2(b + e), b2(e + a), e2(a + b) are in AP,
a (b + e ) b(e + a) e(a + b)
",", """,, ,
(iii) - ;- , are ill
' A. P .
be ea ab
ab + ae be + ba ea + eb
if --:-- , , are ill
' A. P .
be ea ab
ab + ae be + ba ea + eb
if --:-- + 1 , + 1, + 1 are ln
' A. P .
be ea ab
(Adding ' 1' to each term)
�+�+� �+�+m m+�+�
if ----::--- are in AP,
be ea ab

if � , � , � are in AP, (Dividing each term by ab + be + ea)

be ea ab
656 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

abc abc abc

if , , are in A.P. (Multiplying each term by abc)
be ca ab
if a, b, c are in AP., which is given to be true.
a(b + c) b(c + a) c(a + b) .
bc ' ea ' ab are In A.P.
(iv) b + C - a, c + a - b, a + b - c are in AP.
if (b + c - a) - (a + b + c), (c + a - b) - (a + b + c), (a + b - c) - (a + b + c) are in AP.
(Subtracting a + b + C from each term)
if - 2a, - 2b, - 2c are in AP.
if a, b, c are in AP. which is given to be true.
b + C - a, c + a - b, a + b - c are in AP.
1 1 1
(v) ,
$ + ../c ' ../c + .,fa .,fa + $ are in AP.
1 1 1 1
if

$ + ../c - ../c - .,fa ../c + .,fa - .,fa - $ $ - .,fa ../c - $

if (../c + .,fa)($ + ../c) (.,fa + $)(../c + .,fa) if �

$ + ../c .,fa + $
if b - a = c - b if a, b, c are in AP., which is given to be true.
1 1 1 .
are m A. P .
hb i ' i r ' i h
", + -yc -yc + -ya va + "b
(vi) (b + C)2 a 2 , (c + a)2 - b 2 , (a + b)2 c 2 are in AP.
_ _

if (b + c + a) (b + c - a), (c + a + b) (c + a - b), (a + b + c) (a + b - c) are in AP.

if b + c - a, c + a - b, a + b - c are in AP. (Dividing each term by a + b + c)
if (b + c - a) - (a + b + c), (c + a - b) - (a + b + c), (a + b - c) - (a + b + c) are in A
P.
if - 2a, - 2b, - 2c are in AP.
if a, b, c are in A.P., which is given to be true.

Example 14. The sum of the first three consecutive terms of an A.P. is 9 and the sum of
their squares is 35. Find Tn'
Sol. Let the first three consecutive terms of the AP. be a - d, a, a + d.
Sum = (a - d) + a + (a + d) = 9 (Given)
3a = 9 Le., a = 3.
. . The numbers are 3 - d, 3 , 3 + d.
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 657

Also, sum of squares = (3 - d)2 + (3)2 + (3 + d)2 = 35 (Given)

(9 + d 2 - 6d) + 9 + (9 + d 2 + 6d) = 35
2d 2 = 35 - 27 = 8 Le., d 2 = 4 or d = ± 2.
Case I. d = 2. . . The numbers are 3 - 2 = I , 3, 3 + 2 = 6.
.. The AP. is I, 3, 6, . and Tn = a + (n - I)d = 1 + (n - 1)2 = 2n - 1 .
Case II. d = - 2. . . The numbers are 3 - (- 2) = 6, 3, 3 + (- 2) = 1.
The AP. is 6, 3, I , . and Tn = a + (n - l)d = 5 + (n - I) ( - 2) = - 2n + 7.
Example 15. Find four numbers in A.P. whose sum is 20 and the sum of whose squares
is 120.
Sol. Let the numbers be a - 3d, a - d, a + d, a + 3d.
.. Sum = (a - 3d) + (a - d) + (a + d) + (a + 3d) = 20 (Given)
4a = 20 i.e., a = 6
The numbers are 6 - 3d, 6 - d, 6 + d, 6 + 3d.
Also, sum of squares = (5 - 3d)2 + (5 - d)2 + (5 + d) 2 + (5 + 3d)2 = 120 (Given)

(25 + 9d2 - 30d) + (25 + d2 - 10d) + (25 + d 2 + 10d) + (25 + 9d 2 + 30d) = 120
20d2 = 20 i.e., d2 = I or d = ± 1.
Case I. d = 1. The numbers are 6 - 3(1), 6 - (1), 6 + (I), 6 + 3(1) or 2, 4, 6, 8.
Case II. d = - 1. The numbers are 6 - 3(- 1), 6 - ( - 1), 6 + (- I), 6 + 3(- 1) or 8, 6, 4, 2.
Example 16. If Xi8 = y2i = Z28, prove that 3, 3 logy x, 3 logz y and 7 log z are in A.P.
x

Sol. Let X'8 = y21 = Z28 = k.

Taking common logarithms, we get
log X'8 = log y 21 = log Z 28 = log k
18 log x = 21 l0g y = 2 8 10g z = log k .

[ ) [
y (log k)/ 21 18
)
IOg X = 3 (lOg k) / 18 = 3 X 2l = 7..
3 10gy x = 3 log
2
_ 3 [ lOg y ) -_ 3 [ (lOg k)/ 21 ) -_ 3 x 28 _
3 10gz y - -4
log z (log k) / 28 21

and 7 10g Z = 7 [ IOg Z ) = 7 [ (lOg k) / 28 ) = 7 x 18 = � .

x log x (log k)/ 18 28 2
3, 27 ' 9
4, 2 are in AP. with
1
Now the numbers c.d. = 2' Given numbers are in
AP.
658 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 15.1

1. Show that 4, 10, 16, 22, """ is an Find its 7th and 9th terms.
A,P,

Show that 6,5 -,4 1 2 is an Find its 10th and kth terms.
2.
3 -,4, 3 " "
' A,P,

3. Find the 20th, 25th and nth terms of the given by 21, 16, 11, 6, .
AP.
4. Show that log a, log ab, log ah2, is an Find its 7th and nth terms.
" " " A,P,

5. If 32 ' k, 85 k are In. fmdA,P

. the value of k.
'J

6. Each term of an is doubled. Is the resulting sequence also an ? If it is, write its first
A,P, A,P,
term, common difference and the nth term.
7. Determine the number of terms in the sequence 17) 14"21 ) 12, """) -38.
8. Which term of the 1, 6, 11, 16, ...... is 301
AP. ?
9. Which term of the series 20 + 16 + 12 + " is - 96 ? " "

10. Is 310 a term of the sequence 3, 8, 13, "",, ?

1 1. If the 9th term of an be zero) show that its 29th term is twice its 19th term.
A,P,
12. In a certain the 24th term is twice the 10th term, Show that its 72nd term is twice the 34th
A,P,)
term,
13. Determine the 25th term of the whose 9th term is - 6 and common difference is 5/4,
A,P,
14. The 3rd term of an is 1 and the 6th term is - 11, Determine its 15th and rth terms,
A,P,
15. Determine the 2nd and rth terms of an whose 6th term is 12 and the 8th term is 22,
A,P,
16. Determine x so that 2x + 1, x2 + + 1 and 3x2 - 3x + 3 are consecutive terms of an
X A,P,
17. If5 times the 5th term of an is equal to the 10 times the 10th term, find the 15th term of the
A,P,
AP.
18. Which term of the 8 -6i, 7 -4i, 6 - 2i, """ is (i) purely real purely imaginary,
A,P, (h)
19. If a, b, c are in show that :
A,P"

5b, 5e are in
2 2 2
(ii) - , - , - are in
(i) 5a, AP.
bc ca ba AP.

(iii) b +
c, c + a, a + b are in b + e -4a ' e + a - 4b ' a + b -4e are In. ,
(,'v)
A,P,
3 3 3 A P,

b + c --,
c+a a + b 111
20. (i) If a + b + C -:f-
a b c are in show that a , -b , -c are also in
0 and --, --
A,P" - A,P,

(ii) If the numbers a2 , b 2 , c2 are in show that -b +1-c ' c +1 a , a+1 b are also in
A,P" - -- --
A,P,

(iii) If the numbers a2 , b2 , c2 are in show that -b--a ' -- b ' -- e are in
A,P"
+ c c + a a+ b A,P,

2 1. If log5 2, log5 (2X - 3), log5 ( 127 + 2X-1) are in then find the value of x,
A,P"

22. The sides of a right angled triangle are in show that these are in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5,
A,P"
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 659

23. The pth term of an AP, is q and the qth term is show that its rth term is p + q - r.
P,
24. If pth, qth, rth terms of an A.P. be a, b, c respectively, then show that a(q - r) + b(r - p)
+ c(p - q)�O.
25. Find the 8th and nth terms of the series n1 + 2nn+ 1 + 4nn+ 1 +
- --- ---

Can the 8th term be deduced from the nth term. If not, why ?
26. In any A,P, show that Tm+n + Tm_n 2Tm ,=

27. How many numbers of two digits are divisible by 7 ?

29. If a, b, c are inA'P' J show that bc_a2 ,ca_ b2 ,ab _ c2 are in A,P,
30. If the roots of the equation (b -c)x2 + (c - a)x + (a -b) 0 are equal, then show that a, b, c are in
=
AP.
31. Find three numbers in A,P, whose sum is -3 and product is 8.
32. (i) The sum of three numbers in A,P, is 9 and the sum of their squares is 59.Find the numbers.
(ii) The sum of three numbers in A,P, is 15 and the sum of the squares of the two extremes is 58,
Find the numbers,
33. Split 69 into 3 parts in A,P, such that the product of two smaller parts is 483,
34. Four numbers are in A,P" their sum is 16 and sum of their squares is 84, Find the numbers,
35. Divide 32 into four parts which are in A,P, such thatthe product of the extremes is to the product
of means as 7 15,
:

Answers

1. 40, 52 2. 0,
20- 2k 3. -74, -99, 26 - 5n 4. log ab6 , log abn- 1
3
5. 16/33 6. yes 7. 23 8. 61
9. 30 10. No 13. 14 14. - 47, 13- 4r
15. -8, 5r - 18 16. 1, 2 17. 0 18. 4, 9

14n + 1 2n2 - 2n + 1
21. 3 25
•

n , n N , 0 27. 13

28. 4/5 31. - 4, - I,2 or 2, - - 4

I,
32. (,) - 1, 3, 7, or 7, 3, - 1 (ii) 3, 5, 7, or 7, 5, 3
33. 21, 23, 25
Hints
6. Let the A,P, be a, a + d, a + 2d, ' .. New sequence is 2a, 2a + 2d, 2a + 4d, '
This is also an A,P, with first term 2a, common difference 2d and nth term 2a + (n - 1)2d,
=
T 310 implies n 62,4, which is not in N,
= =
5Tn 5 � 10TlO 5(a + 4d) � 10(a + 9d) 5a + 70d � 0 a � - 14d
10.
17. � � �

.. T �a+ 14d �- 14d+ 14d �0.

18. Tn � 815-6i + (n - 1)(- 1 + 2,) � 9 - n + i(2n - 8)
(,) If Tn � 0 � 2n -8 � O.
660 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

17 + 2x
2 (2" -3)
:. Sides are 4d - d, 4d, 4d + d.
22. (a + d)' � a2 + (a - d:j2 � a � 4d '0
I
ro
25. Ts cannot be deduced from Tn because 'c.d,' is in terms of n,
27. Required numbers are 14, 21, 28, """) 98. a

a7 3 les a1 + =-3 Le., a1 = 3d

28.
a4 2 lmp
If c.d, = dI then -=- . a, + 2 .
I'
3d
,
&i

29. be - a2, ea - b2, ab - e2 are in AP. if (ea - b2) - (be - a2) � (ab - e2) - (ea b2). _

30. Disc. �O � (e-a)2 -4(b-e)(a- b) � O � a2 + 4b2 + e2 - 4ab -4be + 2ac � O

� (a - 2b + e)' �O.
33. Let the parts be - + where d > O . .. - d) + + + d ) � implies (23 - d:j23 � 483.
a d, a, a d (a a (a 69

1 5.5. SUM OF FIRST n TERMS OF AN A.P.

<
If Tn> denotes the nth term of an AP. then the sum of first n terms is denoted by S n
'
where S n � T, + T, + T3 + ' " + Tn '
Theorem IV. If 'a' and 'd' be the first term and common difference ofan A.P., then show
that the sum offirst n terms is given by Sn � � [2a + {n - l)d}, n E N
(P.T.U., M.B.A. Dec. 2001)
Proof. We apply principle of mathematical induction to prove
n
S n � '2 [2 a + (n - I ) d] (I)
Step I. For n � I in (I),
1
L.H.S. � S, � T, � a, R.H.S. � '2 (2a + 0) � a => L.H.S. � R.H.S.
The result holds for n � 1.
. m
Step II. Assume the result holds for n � m "e., Sm = 2 (2a + (m - I)d)
(2)
Step III. Consider
8m + 1 = T1 + T2 + T3 + ... Tm + Tm + 1 = 8m + Tm + 1

m
= 2 (2a + (m - I)d) + a + (m + I - I) d I Using (2)

= ma + -m2 (m - I)d + a + md = (m + I)a + md -- + 1

( m2- 1 )
= (m + I)a + -
md
2
(m - I + 2) = (m + I)a + -
md
2
(m + I)
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 661

m+ l m+l
=- - (2a + md) = -- (2a + (m + 1 - 1)d)
2 2
i.e., the result holds for n = m + 1, which completes the induction. Therefore by the principle of
mathematical induction, the given result is true for each n i.e.,
n
8 n = "2 (2a + (n - l)d).
Particular Cases
n n n
(a) We know 8 n = - (2a + (n - 1)d) = - (a + a + (n - l)d) = - (a + l) '
2 2 2
The above form is used when the last term is known to us.
(b) We know 8 n = T, + T, + T3 + ". Tn
= (T, + T, + T3 + " . + T n_1 ) + T n = 8 n _ 1 + T n
===> Tn = Sn - Sn _ 1 J n > L For n = I, T l = 8 1 >

I I L L U STRATIVE EXAMPLES I
Example 1. Evaluate
(i) 2 + 4 + 6 + " . 50 terms (ii) 45 + 47 + 49 + ". + 99
"' 1 2 1
('") - + - + - + ". 25 terms.
9 9 3

Sol. (i) Here a = 2, d = 2, n = 50. Using 8n = � [2a + (n - l)d], we have

50
8fi) = 2 (2 x 2 + 49 x 2) = 25 (4 + 98) = 25 x 102 = 2550.
(ii) Given series is an A.P. with a = 45, d = 2, 1 = 99
. . To find n, 1 = 99
=> a + (n - l)d = 99
=> 45 +(n - 1) x 2 = 99
=> 2(n - 1) = 99 - 45 = 54 => n - 1 = 27 => n = 28.
n
Using 8 n = "2 (a + I), we have

28
88= (45 + 99) = 14 (144) = 2016.
' 2
2 1 1 1 2 3-2 1
(iii) Here T, - T, = 9 - 9 = 9' T3 - T, = 3 - 9 = -9- = 9
l I n
. . Given series is an A.P. with a = 9' d = 9 ' n = 25. :. Using 8 n = "2 (2a + (n - 1)d),
we have
662 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 2. Find theA.P. in which the sum ofany number of terms is always three times
the square of the number of these terms.
Sol. Let the AP. be a, a + d, a + 2d, ...... .
By the given condition, 5n = 3n'.
Using Tn = Sn - Sn_ l J we have
Tn = 3n 2 - 3(n _ 1) 2 = 3n2 _ 3(n 2 - 2 n 1) = 6n - 3
+
T, = 6(1) - 3 = 3, T2 = 6(2) - 3 = 9, T3 = 6(3) - 3 = 15, .

3.
. . The AP. is 3, 9, 15, .
Example Find the sum ofall integers which are divisible by 7 and lying between 50
and 500.
Sol. Integers lying between 50 and 500 and divisible by 7 are 56, 63, 70, . . . . . . , 497.
:. Required sum = 56 + 63 + 70 + . . . . . . + 497
This is an AP. with a = 56 and d = 7
Let n be the number of terms . . . 497 = Tn
=> 56 + (n - 1)7 = 497 Solving, we get n = 64
64
.. Required sum = 5 4 =
6 2
+
(56 497) = 32(553) = 17696.

Example 4. How many terms of the sequence - 12, - 9, - 6, - 3, ...... must be taken to
make the sum 54 ?
Sol. The given sequence is - 12, - 9, - 6, -3, .
Here T2 - T, = 9 (- 12) = 3
- -

T3 - T2 = - 6 - (- 9) = 3
T4 - T3 = - 3 - (- 6) = 3

The given sequence is an AP. with a = - 12 and d = 3.

Let 54 be the sum of the first n terms.
n
2
+
- [2a (n - l)d] = 54 => n[2(- 12) + (n - 1)3] = 108
n(3n- 27) = 108 => n' - 9n - 36 = 0 => n = - 3, 12
.. n = 12, because n = - 3 is impossible.
Example 5. Determine the sum of the first 35 terms ofanA.P' if its second term is 2 and
seventh term is 22.
Sol. Let the AP. be a, a + d, a + 2d, ......
T, = a + d = 2 (1)
and T7 = a + 6d = 22 (2)
(2) - (1) => 5d = 20 i.e., d = 4
Putting d = 4 in (1), we get a + 4 = 2 Le., a = 2 - 4 = - 2.

35 35
2
- +
53 5 = - [2( 2) (35 - 1)4] = - x 132 = 2310.
2
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 663

Example 6. If the first term of an A.P. is 2 and the sum offirst five terms is equal to
0
one-fourth of the sum of the next five terms, then :
(,) show that T2 = - 1 1 2 (i,) find the sum offirst 30 terms.
Sol. Let the AP. be a, a + d, a + 2d, ......
1
We have T, + T2 + T3 + T4 + Ts = "4 [T6 + T7 + Ts + Tg + TlO ]

[ Sum = � (first term + last term)]

5 5 1
- [a + (a + 4d)] = - [(a + 5d) + (a + 9d)] => 2a + 4d = - [2a + 14d]
2 8
4a + 8d = a + 7d => d = - 3a => d = - 3(2) - 6
4
=
(.: a = 2 is given)
a = 2 and d = - 6.
(,) T,o = a + (20 - IX/ = 2 + 19 (- 6) =2 - 114 = - 1 12.
(i,) 530 =
3; [2(2) + (30 - 1)(- 6) 15(- 170)
]= = - 2550. [Sn = � [2a + (n - l)d]]
Example 7. If the sum of the first n terms ofa sequence is of the form An2 + Bn, where A
and B are constants, independent of n, show that the sequence is an AP. Is the converse true ?
Justify your answer.
Sol. We have 5n = An' + Bn .
Replacing n by n - I, we get 5n_1 = A(n _ 1) 2 + B(n - 1) = An 2 - 2An + A + Bn - B
.. Tn = 5n - 5n_1 = (An' + Bn) - (An' - 2An + A + Bn -B) = 2An - A +B.
Replacing n by n - I, we get Tn_1 = 2A(n - I) - A + B
.. Tn - Tn_1 = (2An - A + B) - (2An - 2A - A + B)
= 2A, a constant independent of n.
The sequence is an AP.

( )
Conversely, let a, a + d, a + 2d, ...... be an AP.
n n d d n
5n =- [2a + (n - 1)d] = - [nd + (2a - d)] = - n2 + a - -
2 2 2 2
d d
= An2 + Bn, where A = - 2 and B = a - -.
2
5n = An2 + Bn, where A andB are constants, independent ofn.
Converse is also true.
Example 8. If the sum ofm terms ofanA.P. be n and the sum ofn terms be m, show that
the sum of m + n terms is - (m + n).
Sol. Let a be the first term and d, the common difference of the AP.
m
.. 5m = n => - [2a + (m - l)d] = n => 2am + m(m - 1)d = 2n (I)
2
n
and 5n = m => - [2a + (n - l)d] = m => 2an + n(n - l)d = 2 m (2)
2
664 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

(I) - (2) => 2a(m - n) + d(m 2 - m - n2 + n) = 2n - 2m

=> 2a(m - n) + d«m' - n') - (m - n» = - 2(m - n)
Dividing by m - n, we get 2a + d(m + n - I) = 2 - (3)
m + n [2a + (m + n I)d]
5 =
m+n -- -

2
m + n (-2) = - (m + n).
= -- (Using (3»
2
Example 9. If the sum offirst n, 2n, 3n terms ofan A.P. are 51' 52' 53 respectively show
that 83 = 3(82 - 81 ).
Sol. Let a be the first term and d, the common difference of the A.P.
n 2n 3n
= 2"""
.. 5, = "2 [2a + (n - I)d], 82 = 2""" [2a + (2n - I)d] and 83 [2a + (3n - I)d]

R.H.S. = 3(82 - 8, ) = 3 [ 2; [2a + (2n - I)d] - � [2a + (n - I)d]]

3n
= -[2 [2a + (2n - I)d] [2a + (n - l)d]]
-

2
3n 3n
= -[4a + 4nd - 2d - 2a - nd + d] = [2a + (3n - l)d] = 83 = L.H.S.
-

2 2
Example 10. If the sum of m terms of an A.P. is to the sum of n terms of the same A.P.
is as m 2 : n2 ; prove that the ratio of its mth and nth terms is 2m - 1 : 2n - 1.
Sol. Let a and d be respectively the first term and common difference of the A.P.
8 m2
--"'- - -
By the given condition,
S n n2
m
- [2a + (m - l)d] 2a + (m 1)d m
2 -

n 2a + (n 1)d n
"2 [2a + (n - l)d]
-

=> 2an + (m - l)nd = 2am + (n - I)md => 2a(n - m) = (nm - m - mn + n)d

=> ']a = d ... (1)

Required ratio =
m
T a + (m - l)d a + (m - 1).2a
[by (I)]
T a + (n - l)d a + (n - 1).2a
n
1 + 2m - 2 2m - 1
=
1 + 2n - 2 2n - 1 .
(.: a ", 0. For if a = 0, then d would also be zero.)

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 15.2

1. (0 Find the sum of first 50 natural numbers

Find the sum of first 35 even natural numbers.
(ii)
Find the sum of first 65 odd natural numbers.
(iii)
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 665

2. Find the sum of indicated number of terms of each of the following A,P,
C') 5, 2, -1, ...... n terms. Cii) 0. 9 , 0.91, 0. 9 2, ...... 100 terms.
3. Find the following sums :
C') 2 + 5 + 8 + ..... + 44
2 1
C") 6+ 5 + 5 + ...... + .
.. 2
"3 "3 "3
4. If Sn denotes the sum of n terms of an A,P, whose common difference is d, show that
= d Sn - 2Sn_1 + Sn_2J n 2.
>
5. (0 Find the sum of 10 terms of the sequence (x + y)2 , x2 + y2 , (x y)2 , .....
_ .

x Bx - 2y 5x - By
(ii) Find the sum of 27 terms of the sequence -- ,
x+y x+y , x+y ,
-Y
. . . . . •

6. (0 Find the sum of all odd numbers between 100 and 200.
(ii) Find the sum of first 100 even natural numbers divisible by 5.
(iii) Find the sum of all natural numbers between 200 and 400 and divisible by 7.
(iv) Find the sum of all positive integers less than 500 and divisible by both 3 and 7.
7. (0 Find the rth term of the A,P., the sum of whose first n terms is 2n + 3n2 ,
(ii) Find the sum of first n terms of the A, P , whose kth term is given by 5k + 1,
(iii) Find the sum of first n terms of an A, P , whose nth term is 5 -6n, n N. E

8. (0 How many terms of the A,P, 4, 7, """ are needed to give sum 715 ?
I,
(ii) How many terms of the A, P , -6, - 11/2, -5, """ are needed to give sum -25 ?
9. (0 How
answer,many terms of the A,P, 18, 16, 14, """ are needed to give sum 78 ? Explain the double
(ii) If the first term of an A, P , is 22, the common difference is -4 and the sum to n terms is 64, find
n. Explain the double answer,
10. Solve the equation : 1 + 6 + 11 + """ + x 148, =
11. If Sl ' S2' Ss are the sums of n terms of three A,P,s, the first term of each being unity and the
respective common differences being 2, 3, show that Sl + Ss 2S2 ,
I, =
12. (0 Find the sum of first n terms of an A,P, whose 7th term is 30 and 13th term is 54,
(ii) If the 5th and the 12th terms of an A, P , are 30 and 65 respectively, what is the sum of the first
20 terms ?
13. If Sn denotes the sum of n terms of an A,P, show that S3 0 = 3 (S2 0 - S lO ) '
14. Find the common difference of an A,P, whose first term is 100 and the sum of whose first six terms
is five times the sum of the next six terms,
15. Show that the sum of first n even natural numbers is equal to (1 + �) times the sum of first n odd
natural numbers,
16. If the 12th term of an A,P, is - 13 and the sum of the first four terms is 24, what is the sum ofthe
first 10 terms ?
17. The sum f filrst n terms f an A, P . zero, show that the sum f next terms . am (m + ,
0 0 , IS 0 m IS -
n-l
n)

a being the first term,

18. The sum of n terms of two A,P, are in the ratio 5n + 4 : 9n + 6, Find the ratio of their 18th terms,
666 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

19. The first, second and the last terms of a finite are a, b, respectively. Show that the sum of AP, c

all terms of the is (a + c)(b 2(b - a) .

AP.
+ c 2a) -

20. If the sums of the first p, q, r terms of an be a, b, respectively, show that A,P, c

a- � - � + -b � - � +-(p c - 0 ��
p q r
21. If the sum of first p terms of an is equal to the sum of first qterms, show that the sum of first
A,P,
p + q terms is zero,
22. If the pth term of an is ...!.q . and qth term is -..!.., show that the sum of pq terms is �2 (pq + 1).
A,P,
P

23. If Sn denotes the sum of n terms of an and If Sl 6, S7 105, show that -_ nn +- 33 .

A.P.
.
= = -
�
Sn-3
--

Answers
L (,) 1275 1260 (h) (iii)4225
2. ( ) n ( 13 - 3n) / 2
, 139.5 (h) 3. (i) 345 .. 5 2
(��) 6 -

27 [ 27Xx -+ y14Y ]
3
6. ( ) 10 (x2 + y2 - 7xy)
, (h) 6. (i) 7500 (ii) 50500

(iii) 8729 (iv) 5796 7. (i) 6r - 1 (ii) n(5n + 7)/2

(iii) n(2 -3n) 8. (i) 22 (ii) 5. 20 9. ( ) 6. 13
,

(ii) 4. 8 10. 36 12. (i) 2n(n + 2) (ii) 1150

14. - 10 16. 0 18. 179 : 321.

Hints
4. Sn - 2Sn_1 + Sn_2 = (Sn - Sn_l) - (Sn_l - Sn_2 ) = Tn - Tn_1 = d .
7. (,)
T, � S, - S,_l'
The is 5(l) + 5(2) + 5(3) + ......
(ii) AP. 1, 6. 11. 16
1, 1, Le.. • .

n
10. We have x � 1 + (n - 1)5 and 148 � -(1 + x).
2
14. S � 5(S -S ) 12 6S � 5S =c} 6 [� (200 + 5d)] � 5 [� (200 + lld)]
12 =c}
6 6 26 2
16. Solve a + 11 d � - 13 and
4 [2a + 3d] � 24 . -
2
17. If the be a. a + d. a + 2d then 2 [2a + (n - 1)d] � 0 implies d � �
AP. • . . . . . .

n-1. �

Required sum = Sm+n - Sn = Sm+n -

0 = Sm+n "
18. Let and be the first terms and common differences of the two ,s respectively,
aI' a2 dl, d2 A,P

-n2 [2a, + (n - 1) d,) 5n+ 4 5n+ 4

9n + 6 9n + 6
Now put n - 1 � 18 _ 1 . n = 35, Le.,
2
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 667

19. =::::}
c-a =n_l =:::}
b -a b-a
:. Sum � "2n (a + c) .
. p D
a � - (2A + (p - 1)D] lmplIes - � A + (p - 1) -
. . a
20.
2 p 2 etc.
21. Sp = implies � [2 a + (p - 1)d] � % [2a + (q - 1)d]
Sq

� 2a(p - q) + (p - q)(p + q - l)d � 0 i.e 2a + (p + q - l)d � 0

.• etc.
� a� 105 � '2 �
7
23. SI � 6 6, S7 � [2(6) + (7 - 1)d] � 105 d � 3.
1 5.6. ARITH METIC MEANS
If three or more than three numbers are in AP., then all the numbers lying between the
first and the last numbers are called the arithmetic means (A.M.s) between them.
Equivalently, if a, AI ' A2 , . . . . . . , An ' b are in A.P., then AI ' A2 , . . . . . . , An are called the n
arithmetic means between a and b .
For example,
(,) 5, 10, 15 are in AP. 10 is the single AM. between 5 and 15.
(i,) 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 are in AP. . 10, 15, 20, 25 are the four AM.s between 5 and 30.
:

1 5.7. SINGLE A. M . BETWEEN ANY TWO GIVEN N U M BERS

Let a, b be any two numbers. Let A be the single AM. between a and b .
By definition, a, A, b are in AP.
A-a� b-A (each � common difference)
2A � a + b or A � a + b .
2
Remark The single between any two numbers is simply referred as the
AM , AM , between the
numbers. Thus, the between given two numbers is equal to half their sum,
A, M ,

A, M ,
7 + 29 36
For example, the between 7 and 29 is ---2
� - = 18.
2
1 5.8. n A. M.s BETWEEN ANY TWO GIVEN NU MBERS
Let a, b be any two numbers. Let A" A2 , . . . . . . , An be the n AM.s between a and b .
. . By definition, a, A" A2 , ...... , An ' b are in AP. Let d be the common difference of this
AP.
b-a
Now b � Tn +2 a + (n + l)d.
� d � -­
n+l
A1 � a + d � a + --
b-a
n+ 1
668 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

[--)
b-a
� = a + 2d = a + 2 n + 1

[ )
� = a + nd = a + n ��: .

. . The n A.M.s between a and b are a +

b-a .
n+l a
b
+ 2 -a
n+l
[ ) • ......•
[ )
b a
a + n n -+ l .
Theorem V. The sum of n A.M. s between any two numbers is equal to n times the A.M
between them.
Proof. Let A" A2' . . . . . . ' An be the n AM.s between numbers a and b.
.. Sum ofnAM.s between a and b
=A, + A2 + . . . . . . + An = Ca + A, + A2 + . . . . . . + � + b) - Ca + b)
= --
n+2
Ca + b)- Ca + b) C': a, A" A2 , ...... , An ' b is an AP. of n + 2 terms)
[ ] ( )
2
n + 1 - 1 n a +- b .
= Ca + b) - - = - = n t,mes the AM. between a and b.
2 2
Sum of n A.M.s between a and b = n (A.M. between a and b).
Note. The five A,M,s between a and b are given by a + b, a + 2d, a + 3d, a + 4d, and
a + 5d, respectively. CP. T. U.
M.B.A. 2002, May 2002)
Dec.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAM P L ES

Example 1. Insert three A.M s between 11 and 14.

Sol. Let A" A2 , A3 be the three AM.s between 11 and 14.
11, A" A2 , A3 , 14 are in AP. Let d be the common difference of this AP.
Now 14 = Ts = 11 + 4d. :. d = 3/4
3 47 A A, +
A, = 1 1 + d = 1 1 + 4" 47 3 25
= 4' 2 = d = 7 + 4" = 2
50 + 3 53
A3 = A2 + d = 4
and 4" = 4 '
Example 2. Prove that if the number of terms of an A.P. is odd, then the middle term is
the A.M. between the first and the last terms.
Sol. Let the AP. be a, a + d, a + 2d, ...... C2n + I) terms. CNote that 2n + I is odd)
. . Middle term = Tn + , = a + (n + l - l)d = a + nd.
AM. between first and last term
a + Ca + C2n + 1 - 1)d) 2a + 2nd
= a + nd = Tn+ ,
2 2
The result holds.
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 669

3.
Example The sum of two numbers is 13/6. An even number ofA.Ms are being inserted
between them and their sum exceeds their number by 1. Find the number of A.M.s inserted.
Sol. Let the numbers be a and b. . . a + b = 13/6.
Let A" A" ...... , A n be the 2n (even number) AM.s between a and b .
'
.. A, + A2 + ....... + A2n= 2n (AM. between a andb)
=2n ( )
a+b
2
= n(a + b) = n x E = E n
6 6
Also A, + A2 + ...... + A2n = 2n + 1 (Given)
13 n . n =6.
6 n = 2n + 1 or "6 = 1 "e.,

No. of AM.s inserted = 2n = 2(6) = 12 .

an + bn
Example 4. Find n such that n 1 1 may be the A.M. between distinct numbers
a + bn
a and b.
a+b
Sol. The AM. between a and b is a + b . Let
2 2

=> a n- lea _ b) = bn- l(a - b)

(.,' a # b => a - b # O)
a n-1
.. -- = 1 => n - l = O Le., n = l.
b n-1
Example 5. There are n A.M.s between 7 and 85 such that {n - 3)th mean ,' nth mean is
as 11 " 24. Find n.
Sol. Let A" A" ...... , An be the n AM.s between 7 and 85.
. . 7, A" A" ...... , An' 85 is an AP. of n + 2 terms. Let d be the common difference of this
AP.

Now 85 = Tn+2 = 7 + (n + l)d d =�

n+1
We are given
(n - 3)th A. M.
nth A.M.
-11
- 24

1(n-3)+ 1 - -11
78
7 + (n - 3) --
=>
7 + (n - 2 - 1)d 11 => n + 1 11
Tn + l 24 7 + (n + 1 - 1)d 24 78
7 + n -- 24
n+ 1
=>
7n + 7 + 78n - 234 11
7n + 7 + 78n - 24
- =>
85n - 227 11 => 2040n 5448 = 935n + 77
85n + 7 24 -
=> l 105n = 5525 => n = 5.
670 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 6. If the A.M between pth and qth terms of an A.P. be equal to the A.M
between rth and sth terms of the A.P., show that p + q = r + s.
Sol. Let the AP. be a, a + d, a + 2d, .
Tp = a + (p - lXl, Tq = a + (q - lXl, T, = a + Cr - lXl, T, = a + (s - lXl.
We are given that :
AM. between Tp and Tq = AM. between T, and T,

=> [a + (p - l)d] + [a + (q - l)d] = [a + (r - l)d] + [a + (s - l)d]

=> (p - 1 + q - l) d = (r - 1 + S - l) d => p + q-2= r+ s-2
=> p + q = r + s. .. The result holds.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 15.3

1. Findthe A,M. between 5 and 9. 2. Findthe AM. between (x y)2 and (x + y)2 .
_

3. Find the sum of 500 A,M,s between 2 and 3.

4. If a, b, c are in AP show that (a -cJ' = 4(b2 ac).
.• -

5. If x, y, z are in AP. show that (x + 2y -z) (2y + z - x) (z + x -y) = 4xyz.

6. Find the ratio of the sum of m A, M , s between any two numbers to the sum ofnA, M , s between the
same numbers.
7. Insert 3 A, M , s between 3 and 19. 8. Insert 5 A, M , s between 8 and 26.
9. Insert 6 A,M,s between 3 and 24. 10. Insert p A,M,s between 1 andp2 ,
11. A,Insert 8 A, M , s between
M. between 2 and 29. 2 and 29. Also verify that the sum of these 8 A,M,s is equal to 8 times the
12. Find n such that ana+1n ++ bbnn+1 may be the A,M. between a and b.
13. n2 A,: 11.M,Find
s aren.inserted between 5 and 86 such that the ratio of the first and the last mean is as
14. Thereofaren. nA,M,s between 3 and 17, The ratio of the last mean to the first mean is 3 : 1. Find the
value
Answers
L 7 2. x2 + y2 3. 1250 6. m :n
7. 7, 11. 15 8. 11, 14. 17. 20, 23 9. 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21
10. p, p l. 3p 2 . ....... p2 -p + l
2 - - 11. 5, 8, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26
II,
12. ° 13. 8 14. 6.
Hint
4. Use b = 2 in the RH.8,
a+
C
 GEOMETRIC
1 58 PROGRESSION

1 5.9. GEOM ETRICAL PROGRESSION

A sequence of non·zero numbers is said to form a geometric progression (G.P.) if the
ratio of each term (except the first one) to its proceeding term is always same.
1 1 1
For example, I, 2' 4' 8' . . . ) is a G.P. or A sequence < Tn>' with Tn t:- 0 is said to be a
T
geometric progression if there exists a number r, r fc 0, such that � =
r \;j n :> 1. The number
Tn
'r' is called the common ratio of the concerned G.P.
Remark. 1, ,p,
The first term of a G is generally denoted by 'a',
2. Incase ofa G,P" a-:f-O, r-:f-O.
Theorem VI. If 'a' and 'r ' be the first term and common ratio of the G.P. <Tn>' then show
that Tn arn - 1 n E N.
=
J

Proof. We apply principle of mathematical induction to prove Tn arn - 1 ... (1)

=

Step I. For n 1 in (1), L.H.S. T, a ; R.H.S. ar

= = = '-' a = =

.. The result holds for n 1. =

Step II. Assume the result holds for n m i.e., Tm arm- 1

= =
(2)
Step III. Take n m + 1 and consider
=

Tm + l
-- =
r ::::::} Tm+1 =
r Tm r' arm-1 arm arm + 1 - 1
= = =
I By definition
Tm
i.e., the result holds for nm + 1. It completes the induction. Therefore by the principle of
=

mathematical induction, the given result holds for each n

Le., Tn = arn- 1 , n E N.

1 5. 1 0. I M PORTANT OBSERVATIONS
a
(,) If product of three numbers in a G.P. is given, then the numbers are - , a, ar.
r
(i,) If product offour numbers in a G.P. is given, the numbers are '!!:'" !!:., ar, ar3 .
r3 ' r
(ii,) If product offive numbers in a G.P. is given, the numbers are '!!:'" !!:. , a, ar, ar'.
r2 ' r
Remark. Ifproduct of numbers in G,P, is not given, the numbers to be taken as a, ar, ar2, '
671
672 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAM P L ES

Example 1. Find the 12th term and general term of the sequence 3, 6, 12, 24,...
Sol. Given sequence 3 , 6, 12, 24, ... is a G.P. with a = 3, r = 2
Using Tn = arn - 1 , we have
T 2 = ar " = 3 x 2 " = 6144
'
Also Tn = arn-1 = 3 x 2 n -1 .

Example 2. Which term of the series � � + 1 + ... , is 256 ?

-

1 1
Sol. Given series is 4 '2 + 1 +..
-

= -112 = _ 2, 3 = 1_ = _ 2 and so on
T2 T
Here _

T, 114 T2 112 -

1
.. Given series is a G.P. with a = 4 ' r = 2. -

3.
n - 1 = 10 => n = 11 i.e., Tll = 256.
Example For what value ofn, the nth term of the series 5 + 10 + 20 + ... and 1280
+ 640 + 320 + ... are equal ?
Sol. In first series, a = 5, r = 2 . . Tn = arn -1 = 5 x 2n- 1
1 1
In second series, a = 1280, r = .. Tn = arn-1 = 1280 x --
2 n- 1
-

2
If nth term offirst series and second series are equal, then we must have

2n-1 + n-1 = 256

2n -2 = 8 => 2n = 10 => n = 5
i.e., 5th term of the two series are equal.
Example 4. The 6th, 12th and 18th terms ofa G.P. are a, b and c respectively. Show that
b 2 = ac.
Sol. LetA be the first term andR, the common ratio of the G.P.
.. The G.P. is A, AR, AR 2 , .
.. a = T6 = AR 5 , b = T' 2 = AR " and c = T, S = AR ' 7
.. b2 = (AR ") 2 = A'R22 and ac = (AR5) (AR 17) = A'R 22
b2 = ac.
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION 673

Example 5. The first term ofa G.P. is 1. The sum ofthird and fifth terms is 90. Find the
common ratio of the G.P.
Sol. Let r be the common ratio of the G.P. Here a = 1. We are given T3 + T5 = 90.
=> ar' + ar' = 90 => r' + r' = 90 (.; a = 1)

=> r' + r2 - 90 = 0 => r2 =

- l±�:+ 360 =
:
- 1 19
= 9, _ 10

r' = 9 implies r = - 3, 3 r2 = - 10 is impossible.

Common ratio = - 3 or 3.
Example 6. If the 4th, 10th and 16th terms of a G.P. are x, y, z respectively, prove that
x, y, z are in G.P. Generalise the result.
Sol. LetA be the first term andR, the common ratio of the G.P.
.. The G.P. is A, AR, AR', .
3
x = T, = AR , Y = T O = AR9 and z = T = AR 15 .
l '6
Now Y = AR9 = R9-3 = R 6 and '-
-
z --
=
AR'5
= R ' 5-9 = R 6
--
X AR3 Y AR9
y z . G. P.
- = - Le.,
. x, y, z are ill
X Y
Generalisation. Let X = T = ARP-l ) Y = T = AR q-l and z = Tr = AR,-l '
P q
y A q- l
R
= ---':-7 -p
1 = Rq-l +1 = R
q-p and
x AR P

x, y, z are in G.P. if ;L = � Le., if R q-p = R'-q or if q -p = r -p

x Y
or if p, q, r are in A.P.
. . In general, if p, q, r are in A.P., then T T T, of any G.P. are also in G.P.
p' q'

Example 7. If the 5th term of a G.P. is 16 and the 10th term is i, find the G.P. Also
find its 15th term.
Sol. Let a be the first term and r, the common ratio of the G.P.
Tn = arn-1 ) n E N.
1
We have T5 = 16 and Tl O = '2

1 1
ar 9
__
ar' = 16 and ar9 = - = __
2
2 ar ' 16
1
r=-
2

ar' = 16 => a(�r = 16 => a = 256

674 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

The G.P. is or 256, 128, 64, .

Also, T15 = ar 14 = 256 (�)'

2
4 =
1
64
Example 8. Ifp, q, r are in A.P. and x, y, z are in G.P', prove that xq-'. y'-P . zP-q = 1.
Sol. p, q, r are in A.P. Let d be the common difference
.. q = p + d and z = p + 2d
Also, x, y, z are in G.P. Let R be the common ratio
y = xR and z = xR'.
Putting the values of q, r, y, z in L.H.S. we get
L.H.S. = xq-'y '-Pzp-q= xip + d) - ip + 2d) (xR) ip + 2d) -P (xR'Y' - ip + d)
= ;rd (XR)' d (XR') -d = x-d . x' dR' d . x-dR-' d
o
= x-d + 'd - d . R ' d - ' d = xOR = 1 x 1 = 1 = R.H. S.
Example 9. Find all the sequences which are simultaneously arithmetic and geometric
progressions.
Sol. Let T" 3 , . . . . . . be a sequence which is A.P. as well as G.P.
T" T
Let Tn = a + (n - l)d ¥ n E N
The sequence is a, a + d, a + 2d, .

This is also a G.P. n E N.

a + (n -":-:-:-
a-'-
---" + nd a + (n + l)d
IX/ = a + nd => (a + nd)' = [(a + nd) + d] [(a + nd) - d]
(a + nd)' = (a + nd)' - d' => d' = 0 i.e., d = 0
.. The sequence is a, a + 0, a + 2 (0) , ...... Le., a, a, a, .
. . Only a constant sequence can be both A.P. and G.P.
Example 10. If a, b, c, d in G.P', show that the following are also in G.P.
(i,) a2 + b 2 + c 2, ab + be + cd, b2 + c 2 + d2.
Sol. a, b, c, d are in G.P.
Let r be the common ratio of this G.P. b = ar, c = ar2 , d = ar3 ,
(,) a' - b', b' - c', e' - d' are in G.P.
(ar)2 _ (ar 2 )2 (ar2 )2 _ (ar ' )2
if if
a 2 _ (ar)2 = (ar)2 _ (ar2 )2
a 2r 2 ( 1 - r 2 ) a 2r 4 ( 1 - r2 )
if = 2 2 if r2 = r 2 , which is true.
a 2 (l _ r 2 ) a r (l _ r 2 )
(Since a, b, c, d are in G.P. therefore, a ", O. We also assume that r '" 1.)
.. a2 - b2 , b2 - c2 , c2 - d2 are in G,P.
(i,) a' + b' + c' , ab + bc + cd, b' + e' + cf2 are in G.P.
ab + bc + cd b2 + c2 + d2
a 2 + b 2 + c2 - ab + bc + cd
if
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION 675

a 2 + (ar 2 ) + (ar2 )2
if

a 2r (l + r 2 + r4 ) a 2r 2 ( I + r 2 + r 4 )
= 2 if r = which is true.
T,
a2 ( 1 + r2 + r4 ) a (1 + r2 + r 4 )
if

.. a' + b' + c' , ab + bc + cd, b' + c' + d' are in G.P.

Example 11. Find four numbers forming a G.P. where the third term is greater than
the first by 9 and the second term is greater than the fourth by 18.
Sol. Let the faur numbers in G.P. be a, ar, ar' , and ar3 .
. . By the given canditians : ar' = a + 9 ... (1) and ar = ar3 + 18 ... (2)
(1) => a(r' - 1) = 9 ... (3)
(2) => ar ( l - r') = 18 => - ar(r' - l) = 18 ... (4)
Dividing (4) by (3), we get - r = 2 "e., r = - 2
Putting r = - 2 in (3), we get a ((- 2)' - 1) = 9 i.e., 3a = 9 ar a = 3.
3 i.e., 3, - 6, 12, - 24.
. . The numbers are 3, 3(-2), 3(-2)', 3(-2)
Example 12. The sum ofthree numbers in G.P. is 13112 and theirproduct is - 1. Find the
numbers.
a
Sol. Let the numbers be -, a and ar.
r
a
.. Praduct = -. a . ar = - l (Given)
r
if = - 1 => a = (- 1)
3 3 ar a = - l.
-1
The numbers are - , - 1 and - l(r) = - r.
r
Also, sum ( �) + (- l) + (- r)
= - = �� (Given)
.
(
- .! + 1 + r = �
r
)
12
=> - 12 - 12r - 12r' = 13r
12r' + 25r + 12 = 0 => r = - 3/4, - 413
r = - 3/4 and r = - 413
1 1
(- 4tJ) ,
The numbers are - -- , - 1, - (- 3/4) The numbers are _ __ - 1, - (- 413)
- 314
ar 4/3, - 1, 3/4 ar 3/4, - 1, 413.

Example 13. The product of three numbers in G.P. is 1000. If we add 6 to its second
number and 7 to its third number, the resulting three numbers form an A.P. Find the numbers
in G.P. (P.T.U., M.B.A March 1999)
a
Sol. Let the numbers in G.P. be -
r , a and ar.
a
Praduct = - . a . ar = 1000 (Given)
r
if = 1000 "e., a3 = (10)3 ar a = 10
676 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

10
The numbers are - , 10 and lOr.
r
10
New numbers are - , 10 + 6, lOr + 7. These are in A.P.
r
10 10
16 - - = (lOr + 7) - 16 => 16 - -r = lOr - 9
r
16r- 1O = lOr' - 9r => 2r' - 5r + 2 = 0 => r = 112, 2.
1 10
Case I. r = -
2 ' The numbers in G.P. are - , 10, 10 (112) Le., 20, 10, 5 .
112

Case II. r = 2. The numbers in G.P. are � , 10, 10(2) Le., 5, 10, 20.
2
Example 14. The sum of the first three terms of a G.P. is 7 and sum of their squares is
21. Determinate first five terms of the G.P.
Sol. Let the G.P. be a, ar, ar' , .
By the given conditions, a + ar + ar' = 7
(4)
(1) and (a)' + (ar)' + (ar')' = 21 ... (2)
(1) => a(1 + r + r') = 7 (3) (2) => a' (1 + r' + r') = 21 ...

(3) and (4) implies

a 2 (1 + r2 + r ' )
[a (1 + r + r2 )] 2 -
21
(7)2 '
(1 + r 2 + r) (1 + r 2 - r) 3 1 + r2 - r 3
=
7 7
1
7 + 7r' - 7r = 3 + 3r + 3r' => 2r' - 5r + 2 = 0 => r = 2, 2 '

4
Case I. r = 2. In this case, (3) => a(1 + 2 +
. 4) =7 => a=1

4
. . The G.P. is 1, 1(2), 1(2)2, ...... i.e., 1, 2,
The first five terms are 1, 2, , 8, 16.

Case ll. r = �. In this case, => a ( + � + �)

(3) 1 =7 => a = 4

The G P is 4, 4 (H4(H, 4, ...... i.e., 2, 1, .

. .
The fIrst fIve terms are 4, 2, 1 1
1, 2' 4'
Example 15. The sum of three numbers in G.P. is 56. If we subtract 1, 7, 21 from these
numbers in this order, we obtain an A.P. Find the numbers.
Sol. Let the numbers in G.P. be a, ar, ar'.
By the given conditions : a + ar + ar' = 56 (1)
and a - I, ar - 7, ar' - 2 1 are in A.P. (2)
(1) => a(l + r + r') = 56 (3)
(2) => (ar - 7) - (a - 1) = (ar' - 21) - (ar - 7)
ar - a - 6 = ar' - ar - 14 = a - 2ar + ar' = 8
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION 677

a(l - 2r + r') = 8 (4)

a (l + r + r 2 ) 56 l + r + r2
Dividing (4) by (3), we get 2 = "e., =7
a (I - 2r + r ) 8 1 - 2r + r 2
1 + r + r' = 7 - 14r + 7r' => 6r' - 15r + 6 = 0 => 2r' - 5r + 2 = 0
r = 112, 2.
1 7a
Case I. r = 2' = 56 Le., a = 32
4
.. The numbers are 32, 32(112), 32(112)' i.e., 32, 16, 8.
Case ll. r = 2. (1) => a (I + 2 + 4) = 56 => 7a = 56 "e., a = 8
. . The numbers are 8, 8(2), 8(2)' i.e., 8, 16, 32.
Example 16. There are four numbers such that the first three of these form an A.P. and
the last three form a G.P. The sum of the first and the third numbers is 2 and that of the second
and fourth is 26, what are these numbers ?
Sol. Let the numbers be a, b, c, d. By the given conditions :
a+c=2 (1) b + d = 26 (2)
(1) => c =2-a and (2) => d = 26 - b.
. . The numbers are a, b, 2 - a, 26 - b.
Also, a, b, 2 - a are in A.P. .. b - a = (2 - a) - b Le., 2b = 2 or b = 1.
. . The numbers become a, 1, 2 - a, 26 - 1 = 25.
2-a 25
Also, last three numbers are in G.P. = -- . --

1 2-a
=> (2 _ a) ' = 25 => a2 - 4a - 2 1 = 0 => a = - 3, 7
Case I. a = 3. In this case, the numbers are - 3, 1, 2 - (- 3), 25 i.e., - 3, 1, 5, 25.
-

Case II. a = 7. In this case, the numbers are 7, 1, 2 - 7, 25 i.e., 7, 1, - 5, 25.

I TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 15.4

1. Findthe common ratio ofthe following G,P, .

(,) 0.01, 0. 0 001, 0.000001, . a, a2, .
(���) 't/2 , J2 2.J2
(ii) I, -

... r;:: ! ! .
'
, ...... am-n , am , am+n ) ,
(w)

(,) 128, 64, 32, . 5/2,5/4, 5/8, .

2. ,p,
Show that each of the following is a G Also find nth term in each case :
(h)
(iii) ../3 3 3../3 (iv) ak, ak3 , ak', .
, , ,
......
3. ,p,
Each term of a G is doubled. Is the resulting sequence also a G ,P, ?
4. If a, b, e are in G.P. and k (* 0) E R, then show that :
(,) a+ k, b +k, e+ k may not bein G.P. (i,) a - k, b - k, e - k may not be in G.P.
(iii) ka, kb, ke are in G. P . (iv) a/k, b/k, elk are in G. P .
5. If each term ofa G,P, is :
(0 multiplied by the same nOll-Zero number
(ii) divided by the same nOll-Zero number, then show that the resulting sequence is also a G,P,
678 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

6. (0 Find the sequence whose nth term is 3n-1 , What type of sequence is it? What is the 5th term ?
(ii) Find the sequence whose nth term is 3 n - 1. Is it a G,P, ? What is its 6th term ?
7. Determine the number of terms in the sequence 5/2, 5, 10, "" ") 640.
8. (,) Which term of the G.P. 2, 2./2 , 4, ...... is 128?
(ii) Which term of the series 5 + 10 + 20 + " " " is 2560 ?
9. Is 512 a term of the sequence 11256, 1164, 1116, "",, ?
10. (0 The 5th, 8th and 11th terms of a G,P, are q and r respectively. Show that q2 = pr.
Pi
(ii) In any G,P, prove that Tn_r Tn+r = (Tn?'
x
11. (,) The 3rd term of a G.P. is 24 and 6th term is 192. Find the lOth term.
(ii) The 5th term of a G.P. is 16 and lOth term is 1/2. Find the G.P. Also find the 15th term.
12. (0 The fourth term of a G,P, is square of its second term and the first term is -3. Determine the
seventh term of the G ,P,
,p,
(ii) Find the G for which the sum of the first two terms is -4 and the fifth term is 4 times the
third term,
13. Ifa, b, c are in A,P" then show that for any non-zero real number k, the numbers ka, kb, ke are in G,P,
14. If x+y
__
1 � 1 are inA, P " show thatx,y, zare in G, P ,
, ,
__

2y y + z
15. (,) Find the value of x if -217, x, -7/2 are in G.P.
(ii) For what value(s) of k, the numbers 1 + k, � + k,
13 + k are in G,P, ?
6 18
16. If a, b,careinG,P" showthat __1_ , __1_ , __1_ areinA,P ,
loga m 10gb m loge m

If aX = bY= and x, y, z are in G,P" show that 10g a = loge b,

CZ

If the mth, nth andpth terms of a G,P, are in G,Pb" show that
17.
18. m, n andp are in A,P,
19. If the pth, qth and rth terms of a G,P, are x, y andz respectively, show that :
(,) X'-' y'-P zp-q � 1 (h) (q- r) log x + (r - p) log y + -q) log z � O.
(p
20. ,p,
Find the value of x for which x + 9, x -6 and 4 are the first three terms of a G and calculate the
fourth term of the progression,
21. Ifthe pth, qth, rth and sth terms of an A,P, are in G,P" show that p -q, q-r, r - are also in G,P,
s

22. ,p"
If a, b, c are in G show that :
(,) a2, b2, are in G.P.
c' ( " a1 b1 c1 areln. G ,P ,
H! 2 ' 2 ' 2

(iii) b2c2 ,C2a2 ,a2b2 areinG, P " (iv) a2 + b2 , ab + bc, b2 + c2 are in G, P ,

23. If a, b, c, d are in G,P" show that :
(0 a + b, b + c, c + d are in G,P, (h) a2 + b2 , b2 + c2 + d2 are in G,P,
C2,
(iii) (a-e)'+(b - e) 2 +(b-d)'�(a - d:j2 (iv) (a2 + b2 + c2) (b2 + e2 + d") � (ab + be + ed:j2
24. If�(aT:)a ben/2 the first term of a G,P" the nth term andP, the product of first nterms, showthatP
l

25. If the (m +m!n)th term of a G,P, is p and (m - n)th term is q, show that mth and nth terms are ,J"Pq
andp(q/p) 2n respectively,
26. The
e be-<Jpth, qth and rth terms of anA,P , aswell asofa G,P, are a, b, crespectively, Provethatab-
=
ca-b 1 ,
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION 679

27. p, q, r are in G and the equations px2 + 2qx + r 0 and d::xf! + 2ex + f 0 have a common root, then
Ifshow that ,p, = =

d e f
-,-,-
p q r are inA,P,
28. If a, b, c are in A,P.) b, c, d are in G,P, and .c! , J:.d. , .e! are in A,P, ; prove that a, c, e are in G,P,
29.
39
(0 The sum of first three terms of a G,P, is 10 and their product is 1, Find the three terms.
(ii) Obtain three consecutive terms a, b, c of a G,P, if a + b + 93 and abc 3375.
C= =

30. (0 The lengths of the sides of a triangle form a G. 8 , If the perimeter of the triangle is 37 eill ,and
the shortest side is of length 9 m ; find the lengths of the other two sides.
e

(ii) Find three numbers in G,P.) whose sum is 19 and the sum of their squares is 133.
31. (0 The sum of three numbers in G, P , is 56. Ifwe subtract 7, 21 from these numbers in this order,
I,
we obtain an A,P, Find these numbers,
(ii) The sumbyof 1three
reduced whilenumbers
the which
third is are consecutive
increased by 1, termsconsecutive
three of an A,P,terms
is 21. ofIf atheG second
,p, are term is
formed,
Find these numbers,
(iii) The sum of three numbers inA,P, is 15, If 1, 4 and 19 are added to these numbers respectively,
the resulting numbers are in G,P, Find the numbers,
32. (0 In a set of four numbers, the first three are in G,P, and the last three are in A, P , with common
difference 6, If the first number is the same as the fourth, find the four numbers,
(P. T. u., M.B.A. Dec.2000)
(ii) The sum offour numbers in G,P, is 60 and the AM, between the first and the last is 18, Find the
numbers,
Answers
L (,) 0.01 (ii) -an (iii) 1/2nf2 (iv) an n
2. (,) 28� (ii) 5/2 (iii) 3 (iv) ak2 -1
3. yes 6. (i)l, 3, 9, 27, """ ; G, P , ; 81
(ii) 2, 8, 26, 80, ...... ; This is not a G.P. ; 728 7. 9. 8. (,) 13th
(ii) lOth 9. No

1 L (,) 3072 (ii) 256, 128, 64, ...... , 641

12. (,) - 2187 (ii) 4,-8, 16, """ or--,34 --,- 8 16
3 -3 , . 15. (i) 1 ±

(ii) - 1/2 20. x�O, T4 �-8/3 ; x� 16, T4 �8/5

2 5 5 2
29. . -, 1, - or - , 1,-
(�)
5 2 2 6
(ii) 3, 15, 75, or 75, 15, 3 30. (i) 12 em, 16 em (ii) 4, 6, 9 or 9, 6, 4
3L (,) 8, 16, 32 or 32, 16, 8 (h) 3, 7, 11 or 12, 7, 2 (iii) 2, 5, 8 or 26, 5, - 16
32. (,) 8, -4, 2, 8. (ii) 4, 8, 16, 32, or 32, 16, 8, 4.
Hints
4. (,) Let a� l, b �2, c�4, k�2 . .. a, b, c are in G.P.but a+ k�3, b +k� 4, c+ k �6 are not
inG,P,
12. (,) Ifthe G.P. be a, ar, ar', ...... then a � -3 and a"s � (ar)'.
kb k e
13. -
ka kb
� - implies b -a c - b. =
680 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

16. ___ . _
1
__ . __
1 1_ are in A,P, iflogm a, logm b, logm are in A,P, iflogm !:... = logm
c .£ .
loga m 10gb m loge m a b

X� ak �log k.y�log k.z �log k

..
log
loge
, a b c

' logk b
lagk C

19. (I) Let X �ARp--l etc.

a + (q - l)d a+(r - 1)d a + - l)d (8

21. LettheAP. be a, a+d, a+2d, . a + (p - 1)d a + (q - l)d a + (r - l)d
. . . [a + (q - 1)d] - [a + (r - 1)d] = [a + (r - l)d] - [a + - l)d] --
Thlslmphes (8 q-r � r . --
-8
[a + (p -l)d] - [a + (q - l)d] [a + (q - 1)d] - [a + (r -l)d] -q q-r
Le.,
P

22. Let b=ar, =ar2 c

24. If the G,P, be a, ar, ar2, ) then = arn-1

""" l
(n - 1)n
and P=a. ar. ar2 ...... ar-l =anrl+ 2 + . . . +(n -l) = anr 2 = an(rn-l)nI2 = an(l/a)nI2 ,
25. p = arm+ n-1 and q = arm-n-l implies pq = a2r2m -2 = (arm-l)2 = Tm2 ,
Al so, -pq = -,m + n-l-m+ n+ 1 = r2n
Now Tn = arn-1 = arm + n-l . rm =p [(p/q) lf2 n]-m
26. Let the AP. andG.P. be A, A + D, A + 2D, . and B, BR, BR2, ..
a �A + (p - l)D � BRp--l
b �A + (q- 1)D � BRq-l
and C � A + (r - l)D � BR'-l
.. b - � (q-r)D, a� D(r-p), a - b � D(P -q)
c c-

27. We have q2 = pro

Roots of px2 +2qx+r=Oare - 2q -+ �2p4q2 _ 4pr or __ :c..: lq_
q ±": V'-"-
p
2 _--"-pr'-- or - q ± O or - q q
Pp p
p is a root of dx2 + 2ex + /=0,
_.!l.

D " illng by pq2) we get -pd - -q + -

1Vl
pf2 � or -dp - -q + '-
q
2e 0pf = or
pr
2e 0

We have b= - 1 1 (1 1)
2- =bd, d = 2 :;- + ; or d� .
28.
a+c ' c
2 2 ce
--

c+e

32. (ii) Take numbers as a, ar, ar2, ar3 and use 1 + r + r2 + r3 = (1 + r)(1 + rZ).
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION 681

1 5.1 1 . SUM OF n TERMS OF A G.P.

If <Tn> be the nth term of a G.P. , then the sum offirst n terms of the G.P. is given by Sn
.
where S n = T, + T2 + T3 + . . . + Tn , n E N
Theorem. If 'a' and 'r ' be the first term and common ratio of a G.P. respectively, then
f a (l - rn )
, r ic 1
show that Sn = l-r .
na ,r = 1

Proof. Case I. r ic 1:
Let Tn = nth term of the given G.P. = arn-1 , n E N
.. S n = T, + T 2 + T3 + ··· + Tn_, + Tn
= a + ar + ar2 + ... + arn-2 + arn - 1 (1)
::::::} r S n = ar + ar2 + ar + ... + arn -1 + arn (2)
Subtracting (1) and (2), we get
(1 - r) Sn = a + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 - arn = a(l - rn)

a (1 - rn)
Sn= .
1-r
Case II. When r = 1, then from (1)
S n = a + a + a + .. + a(n times) = na

1 5. 1 2. PARTICULAR CASES

a (l - r n )
(a) We have Sn = , r < l.
l-r

Sn = _
a (rn - 1) a (rn - 1)
If r > l, then =
- (r - 1) r-1
(b) Using l = Tn = arn-1 , we have
l a (l - rn )
,r<l
1-r
Sn =
a (rn
- '--- - 1)
- -'- , r > 1
r-1

l a - arn _I r
,r<1
_ 1-r
-
a_
_ n-l__
r_ -1
. r__ ,r > 1
r-1

l a - Ir
-- r < 1
l -r '
= Ir - 1
-- , r > l
r -1
682 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAM P L ES

Example 1. Find the sum of the following series upto 50 terms.

1 - '3 + '32 - '32 + 37 '"
1 1 1 1
(P T U, M.BA May 2003)

. a =1, r = - 3 ' n = 50. 1

Sol. Given series is a G.P. wIth

Using S n = a [_l1_-_-r_rn) ,we have S50 =

1-
(-�r- 1- 1
3 50 =
� ( 1 1 ).
_
_

1+ 4 4 350
3 3
2 2 2
Example 2. Evaluate + + + 50
625 125 25 . . . .

2
. a= 2 125 = 5, 1 = 50.
Sol. Given series is a G.P. wIth 625 ' r = - 2-
625
2
50 x 5 - 625 156248 39062
Required sum = -- ' r > 1 =
Ir - a
=

3.
r- 1 5-1 625 x 4 625
Example Determine the number of terms in the G.P. (Tj if T1 = 3, Tn = 96 and
Sn = 189.
Sol. Let the G.P. be a, ar, ar' , . ..... We are given : Tl = 3, Tn = 96, Sn = 189.
a(l - rn) = 189
a = 3, arn-1 = 96,
1-r
189 = a -arn . r = __
1-r
-l 3 - 96r
1-r
_
Crass·multiplying, we get 189 - 189r = 3 - 96r. Solving, we get r = 2 .
.. arn-1 = 96 implies 3(2) n-l = 96 or 2 n-1 = 32 = 2 5 => n - 1 = 5 "e., n = 6.
./3
Example 4. How many terms of the G.P. ../3, 3, 3. , . . . . . . sum up to 39 + 13../3 ?
Sol. The given G.P. is ../3, 3, 3../3, . . . . . .

a = ../3 , r = ../3 = ·../3 ,

. 3
Here

Let 3 9 + 13../3 be the sum of n terms of the G.P. Sn = 39 + 13../3

../3 (1- (../3)n ) rc;
= 39 +
rn
13,,3
1 - ,,3
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION 683

.,/3 (1- (.,/3)n ) = 39 - 39.,/3 + 13.,/3 - 39 => .,/3 (1- (.,/3 )n) = - 26.,/3

1 - 3nl2 = - 26 => 3nl2 = 27 = 3 => -

3 n = 3 => n = 6.
2
Example 5. The second and fifth terms ofa G.P. are- 112and 1116 respectively. Find the
sum of the G.P. upto 8 terms.
Sol. Let a be the first term and r, the common ratio of the G.P.
T = ar2-1 = ar and T5 = ar5-1 = ar4 .
2
1 1
ar = - - (1) and ar4 = - (2)

_
2 16
ar 4 1/16 1 1
Dividing (2) by (1), we get . r
--;;;: - - 1/2 Le., = - '8 or r = - -,
2
putting r = - � in (I) We get a -
'
( �) �=- Le., a = 1.

1--
1
256 = 255 X _
3
85
2 =-__
.
[8n =
a( l - r n ) r
1-r
lor r < 1
)
256 3 128
2
Example 6. Find the sum of 50 terms of the sequence 7, 7. 7, 7. 77, 7. 777, .
Sol. The given sequence is 7, 7.7, 7.77, 7.777, .
Required sum = 550
= 7 + 7. 7 + 7.77 + ...... 50 terms = 7 (1 + 1. 1 + 1 . 11 + ...... 50 terms)
7 7
= \) (9 + 9.9 + 9.99 + . . . . . . 50 terms) = \) [(10 - 1) + ( 10 - 0. 1) + ( 10 - 0.01)
+ ...... 50 terms]
7
= \) [(10 + 10 + 10 + ...... 50 terms) - (1 + 0. 1 + 0.01 + ...... 50 terms)]
7
= \) [500 - (Sum of G.P. of 50 terms with a = 1, r = 0. 1)]

9
[
= � 5 00 _

1 - 0.1
=
9
]
1 ( 1 - (0.1)50 ) � 500 � 1
9
1_
10 50
[ _ ( _ _
)]
= � (4500 - 10 + 10-4 9) = � (4490 + 10-4 9) .
81 81
Example 7. Find the sum of n terms of the sequence x + y, x2 + xy + y2, :x;3 + x2y + xy2
+ y3, ......
Sol. The given sequence is x + y, x2 + xy + y2 ) ;i3 + x2y + xy2 + y3 ) .
Required sum = (x + y) + (x2 + xy + y2) + (x3 + x2y + xy2 + y3) + ...... n terms
2 2 3 3 4 4
x y x y X y
-
_ _ _

= + ----". + + ...... n terms

x-y x-y x-y
684 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

= --
1
x-y
[(x' - y') + (x" - y3) + (X4 - y4) ...... n terms]

= -- [(x' + x" + X4 + ...... n terms) - (y + y + y4 + ...... n terms)]

1 2 3
x-y

= -- [(Sum of G.P. of n terms with a = x', r = x)

1

[ )] .
x-y
- (Sum of G.P. of n terms with a = y', r = y)]
1 X 2 ( l - xn ) y 2 (1 - y n
= __ _

X -y I -x l -y
Example 8. If S be the sum, P be the product, and R be the sum of reciprocals ofn terms

of a G.P., show that p2 = (�r (P.T.V., M.B.A. Dec. 2002)

Sol. Let the G.P. is a, ar, ar',

a(l - r n )
Given S = a + ar + ar' + . . . n terms = --'-
:---'­
- (1)
l-r
P = a . ar . ar2 ... n terms
= an . r1+2+3 +", (n-l)
(n - l)n

= an . r 2 .. (2)
1 1 1
R = - + - + -- + .. n terms
a ar ar 2

[ 1
1--
�
1 n r rn - 1
= -;;- = (3)
1- a (r -1) rn 1

(n
l '
I) =
(n- l)n
From (2), p2 = a .r 2 a2n r(n-lj n (4)

From (1) and (3),

S
R
- '-----
a (l
l-r
r n-'-) a (r - l) r n-1
x
rn - l
= a2 rn-1

()
S
R
n
= a2n rn-1)n (5)

From (5) and (4), p' = (�r

Example 9. What is the difference between geometrical progression and arithmetical
progression ? (P.T.V., M.B.A. May 2004, Dec. 2003)
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION 685
Sol. Difference between A.P. and G.P.
G.P. A.P.
• The common ratio remains same. • The common difference remains same.
o In A.P., first term may be zero
o In G.P., first term cannot be zero. o In A. P . , sum of kth term from thE
o In G.P., product of kth term from the be· beginning and kth term from the end if
ginning and kth term from the end is in· independent of k and equals the sum a
dependent of k and equals the product of first and last terms.
first and last terms.

I TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 15.5

L Find the sum of the series : .J2 + 2 + J8 + 12 terms

......

2. Find the sum of the series ...!.4 . + ...!.2 . + 1 + """ terms.

n

3. Find the following sums :

� - .! +.! -
(,) ../3 + 3 + 3 ../3 + ...... + 729 (h)
9 B 2 +�B2
4. ,p,
Given a G with first term = 729) T7 = 64 determine S?,
;
5. (0 How many terms of the sequence 3, 32 , 33 , """ are needed to give the sum 120?
(ii) How many terms of the G,P, 3, 3/2, 3/4, """ are needed to give the sum 3069/512 ?
6. Evaluate the following :
11 8

(,) L (2 + Bi) (h) i

L (2 + Bi-I)
j= 1 j= 1

.
7. If a + b + """ + l IS. a geometrIc. serles,
. show that Its sum IS. Nb -- �a .
---

8. (0 The fourth and seventh terms of a G,P, are 1127 and 11729 respectively. Find the sum of n
terms of the G ,P,
(ii) The first term of a G, P , is 27 and its 8th term is 1181, Find the sum of its 10 terms,
n
US + """ + un = 1 - u .
1
9. Ifu= -- 1+ "
-
, , show that u+ u2 + --

A
10. The sum
common ratio of first
of thethree
,p,G terms of a G,P, to the sum of first six terms is as 125 : 152, Find the
Determine ,p,
11.
2186. the third term of a G whose common ratio is 3 and the sum to first seven terms is
12. Find the following sums :
(,) 9 + 99 + 999 + ...... terms
n (i,) 5 + 55 + 555 + ...... terms.
n
(iii) 0.6 + 0.66 + 0.666 + ...... terms
n (iv) 4 + 0. 4 + 0. 4 4 + 0.444 + ...... terms.
n
13. (0 Find the sum of the first terms of the sequence 7, 77, 777, 7777, '
n
(ii) Find the sum of the first 50 terms of the sequence 7, 7, 7 , 7, 7 7, 7, 7 77, '
686 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

14. Find the following sums :

(I) (a+b) + (a2 +2b)+(a3 +3b) + ...... nterms
4
(ii) a + br +ar2 + br3 + ar + b-r + 2nterms. """

15. Find the following sums :

(I x (x + y) +
) + y2) + x' (x3 + yS) + ...... n terms
x' (x'
(ii) 1 + (1 + x) + (1 + x + + (1 + x + x2 + + ...... n terms
x') x')
(iii) 1 + (1 + a)x+ (1 + a +a2) x2 + nterms. """

16. If S" S2' S3 be the sums of n, 2n, 3n terms of a G.P., show that S, (S3 -S2) (S2 -S,)2 �

Answers

L 63(../2+ 2) 2.
2n--
-1
3. (i) 364 (3 + ./3) n
463
11 -- .
4 288
4. 463, 2059 ()
6. I 4 (il) 10
6. ()
I 265741 (ii) 3790 8. (i) % ( 3�J
l-
81
(ii) 2'" ( J
1 - 3'"
1

10.
3 1 L 18
5
( ) - ( 10n +1 (il) �81 ... 272 (9
(m) -
9 - - IOn J
1
12. I 9n - 10) (10n +1 9n - 10) n- 1 +-- 1

� [ � (IOn J
'
1
(iv) 4 + -.!. (9 +�
81 n - 10
lOn-, J 13. (i) - 1) - n

14. (
, a -an) + .:.b
II
(1 n (n
c.:...
=:- + l)
.c, =:-", (11)
· (a + br) 2
2
(1 - r n )
I-a 2 l-r

16. (11)
·
--
1
I-x
[ n
X (I_Xn) ]
I-x
(iii) _
[ _ X_n _ .a::,(-,l= -,=an--=-x,-n'-).]
1_ l_
__
I-a I-x I-ax _
_

Hints
3. (i) Use sum = Ir -a -­
r-1
(h) Use sum = a - r -
-
1
- Ir
­

8
6. (ii) L (2i + 3i (2' + 2 2 + ...... + 28) + (1 + 3 + ...... + 37)
- 1) �

j= 1

7. Sum = a r a (b(bla)la)
- Ir
1- 1-
-I

8. I Let the G. P . be a, ar, ar2 , .

() ar3 = 1127 and ar6 = 11729,
· .

27
729 Le., r=-3 i.e., a= 1.
1
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION 687

a(l - r3 )
10.
1-r 125 =:::}
1
= 125
� r3 �
152
_1
a(l - r6) 152 1 + r3 152 125
1-r
(iv) 4 + 0. 4 + 0. 4 4 + 0.444 + ...... n terms
1 ) . . . . . . (n - 1) terms ]
4+ i[(l-�) + ( 1 1001 ) + ( 1 1000
12.

9 10
__ __
+
4 + i [e n - 1) -(� + __ + __ + . . . . . . (n - 1) terms) ]
�
1 1
9 10 100 1000
(�) Reqd. sum = 7 + 77 + 777 + " " " nterms
-97 [(10 - 1) + (100 - 1) + (1000 - 1) + . . . . . . n terms]
13.

(ii) Reqd. sum = 7 + 7. 7 + 7. 7 7 + """ 50 terms

� 7 + 97 [9.9 + 9.99 + . . . . . . 49 terms]
15. (i) Reqd. sum (x' + X4 + + ...... n terms + (xy + x'y2 + xf3y3 + ...... n terms)
� xf3

(iii) Reqd. sum -- [(1 -a) + (x -a2x) + (x2 -a3x2) + ...... n terms1
1
�

I-a
� -- 1
I-a [(1 + x+x2 + """ nterms)-a(l + ax+ a2x2 + """ nterms)]
1 5. 1 3. SUM TO INFINITY OF A G.P.

=n fa (l-r n ) '
We know that for the G.P. a, ar, ar', ...... , the sum offirst n terms is given by

5 l-r iff rr::f:-= 1

na ,
' I

This sum is defined for any natural number n.

1,2, = 11(2n -1=) 2.

Now we shall explore the possibility offinding the sum to infinity of a G.P.
Consider the G.P. 4, 8, .

" = 2-1 = 2" 1.

For this G.P., a and r

2n - 1
5 _

. Sn
As n increases, increases very rapidly.
keep on increasing as n increases. In this case, we do not expect to have a number
which may be equal to the sum to infinity of the G.P.
In the next theorem, we shall derive a formula to find the sum to infinity of a G.P.,
provided the common ratio of the G.P. is within certain limits.
Theorem VII. If a and r be respectively the first term and common ratio ofa G.P. such

S = _1 a-_r . 2000)
that I r I < 1, then prove that the sum to infinity (5) of this G.P. is given by

(P.T.D., M.B.A. Dec.

688 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Proof. Let Sn denotes the sum of the first n terms of the given G.P.
a CI - rn )
Sn = ( -: r I < 1 implies r # 1)
l-r
n
lim a -a r

lim S = lim a CI - rn ) = -- .:.: '-"-- = a - a CO) = a ' n -+ �

n ----'t = n n ----'t = l - r ---:I--r l-r l-r

c·: I r I < 1 => rn --; 0 as n --; = )
a
S= - .
l-r
Remark The sum up to infinity of a G,P, is also denoted by 800 '

I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAM P L ES I
Example 1. Find the sum of the infinite series, 1 + 2 + 2
4
+2
8
+ ...

2
CP.T.V., M.B.A May 2000)
. a 1
Sol. Given series is an infinite G.P. with a = 1, r = ' Usmg S� = - ' we have
2 1 r
Sum of the given series = �
--
= 2.
1
2
Example 2. Prove that 91/3 . 91/9 . 91127 • ...... to = = 3.
Sol. 9'/3 . 9'/9 . 9'/27 ...... to =
1 1 1
-+-+-+ 00 1 1 1
= 9 3 9 27 .....
= 9 s where S is - + - + - + ..... to =.
3 9 27
We have 1 1 1
S = - + - + - + ...... to =
3 9 27

This is an infinite G.S. with a= i, r = t: = i and I r I =

IiI = i< 1

S=� =
1 - .!
1/3 -.!
2/3
=
2
(s
l
__
a
l-r
)
3
.. Required product = 9'" = 9 '/2 = 3.

Example 3. Find S� of the G.P. whose first term is 28 and the fourth term is �
4 '

Sol. Let a and r be respectively the first term and common ratio of the G.P.
By the given conditions
4
T, = a = 28 and T4 = ar = - .
49
4 I 1
28r = - => r = __ ::::::} r = - '
4 9 343 7
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION 689

I r l = I�I � = <l

S� is defined and is given by, S� = : =

1 r
8
1 .!
= 28 � (-�) =
98
3
7
Example 4. The first term ofa G.P. exceeds the second term by 2 and the sum to infinity
'8 50, find the G.P.
Sol. Let a be the first term and r ( I r I < 1), the common ratio of the G.P.
.. The G.P. is a, aT, ar2 , .
By the given conditions, T, = T, + 2 (1) and S� = 50 (2)
(1) => a = ar + 2 a - ar = 2 => a(1- r) = 2 (3)

(2) => --a

1-r
= 50 a = 50 (1 - r) (4)

_ _
Putting the value of a in (3), we get [50 (1 - r)] (1 - r) = 2
, 2 1 1
(1 - r) - - - - 1 -r=±-
50 25 5
1 1 4
Case I. 1 - r = '5 ' In this case, r = 1 - '5 = '5 and I r l = I�I = �<l 4.
. . r = - ls vaI'd
5
1 .

(4) => ( �)
a = 50 1 - = 10
The G.P. is 10, 1 0 (415), 10(415) 2 , . "e., 10, 8, 32/5, .

Case II. 1 - r = - �. In this case, r = 1 + � = � and I r I = I � I = � > 1 This is

impossible.
Example 5. The sum of infinite number of terms of a G.P. is 23 and the sum of their
squares is 69. Find the G.P.
Sol. Let the required G.P. is a, ar, ar' , .
Given a + ar + ar2 + . . . . . . = 23
00

a
__ = 23 (1)
1-r
Also a' + (ar)' + (ar2)' + ...... = 69 =

=> a2 + a2 r2 + a2r4 + ...... = 69 00

=> a' (1 +r' + r' + ...... ) = 69

--
=

1
a"
1 - r2
= 69

(23) ' (1 - r) ' x --

1
1 - r2
= 69 I Using (1)

529 ( 1 - r) 2
69
(l - r) ( l + r)
1-r 69 3
1+ r 529 23
690 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

23( 1 - r) = 3 + 3r
23 - 3 = 26r
26r = 20
20 10
r=- - =
From
10 ( )
3 69
(1), = 23(1 - r) = 23 1 - ]"3 = 23 x ]"3 = ]"3
26 13

. . 69 69 10 69 10
2
. . The requrred G.P. lS -, - X - , - X - , ..
13 13 13 13
( )13
Example 6. Find the sum the following infinite series O. 7 + 0.07 + 0.007 + . . .
(P.T.V., M.B.A. Dec. 2005)
Sol. Given series is
0.7 + 0.07 + 0.007 + . . . = = 7(0. 1 + 0.01 + 0.001 + ... =)

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 15.6

1. Findthe sum of the following series :

( ) 1 - "3 + 9 - 27 + . . . . . .
,
1 1 1
(h) + 0.18 + 0.108 + 0.0648 + .
0. 3
2. Find the sum of the following sequences :
( ) 2. - 1. 1/2. -1/4
, • . (h) .J2 + 1. 1 .J2 - 1 • • .

3. Find the sum of the following sequences :

(h) 1 ' -3 ' -2 ' 2 1 1
' 2 ' -33 , ..... .
3 2
1 1 1

4. Show that :
(0 xl!S =x
Xl/2 , Xl/4 . "
""
00
(h) =
31/2 , 3 1/4 , 31/8 , " " ,,
00
3
y-l
5. If I x 1 < 1 andy= 1 + x + x' + ...... =. showthat x= y . --

6. If l I < 1. 1 I < l andx=1 +a+a2 + =. y = 1 + + + ...... =. show that

a b ...... b b2

1 + + + = x --"
ab a2 b2 """
00
xy
.,.
+y-l '
- -

7. ( 0 The sum of an infinite G,P, is 6 and its first term is 2, Find the series.
(ii) The common ratio of a G,P, is - 4/5 and the sum to infinity is 80/9, Find the first term,
8. If the first term of a G,P, is 729 and the seventh term is 64, find S"",.
9. Find the value(s) of p if S� forthe G.P. p. 1. lip is 25/4. • . . . . . .

10. The
commonsum ratio.
of an infinite G,P, is 6 and the sum ofits first two terms is 9/2. Find the first term and the
11. The
series.sum of infinite number of terms in G.P. is 15 and the sum of their squares is 45. Find the
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION 691
12. The sum of an infinite is 57 and the sum of their cubes is 9747, find the
G,P, G,P,
(0 The first term of an infinite
13.
follow it, Find the series. is unity and any term is equal to the sum of all the terms that
G ,p,

(ii) If each term of an infinity is twice the sum ofthe terms following it, then findthe common
G,P,
ratio of the G ,P,

Answers

L
3
C') -
3
C"n) - 2. Ci)
4
3" Cii)
4 + 3 .J2
4 4 2
a + br2
5
C"n) -
, 4 8
C') 2 + - + - + . Cii) 16
3. C')
1- --
r 2 7.
3 9

8. 2187 or 2187 5-- 9. 5, '45 10 . a=3) r = -21 )" a=9) r=- -21
5+- 10 + - 20 12. 19, 383 76
1L
3 +. 9
•

13. C,) l + -21 + -1 + .

4
" 3"1
Cn)

Hints
3. (0 a+ br + ar2 + br3 + ar + br + """ = (a +ar2 + ar4 + "" ..) + (br + br3 + br5 + "" ..)
4 5
� a + br --2
l_r
--2 '
l_r

9. Use _ p_ � 25
I-lip 4
10. Eliminate a from _a_ �6 a +ar = -2 ,
l-r
'
9

1L Eliminate a from a �15 . -- --

a2 2 �45.
l-r l-r

=:::}
2a .
ar -1 =2arn [1 +r+ .. " ..] = -- rn
l-r

1 5. 1 4. GEOMETRIC MEAN
lfthree or more than three numbers are in G.P., then all the numbers lying between the
first and the last numbers are called geometric means between them. i,e,
lf a, G" G2 , ... Gn , b, be a G.P., then, G" G2 , ... G n are called geometric means CG.P.s)
between a and b.
Theorem VIII. To find single G,M between two givenpositive numbers,
Proof. Let a and b be two positive numbers and G be the single G.M. between them. Then,
by definition, a, G, b are in G.P.
G b
=> G2 = ab => G = .J;J;
a G
692

n
DISCRETE STRUCTURES

nn+' 1
Theorem IX. To find n G.M.s between two given positive numbers.
Proof. Let a and b be any two positive numbers and G" G2 , ... G , be n G.M.s between

rn +1 ab (b)n+a 1 1
them. Then, by definition, a, G" G" ... G , b are in G.P.
Now b =T = arn+1

(b)n+1
- -
= ::::::} r =

(b)n+a 21
G, = T, = ar = a -;;

n
G2 = T3 = ar2 = a -

n n+l a 1
G =T n (b)n+
= ar = a - .

Theorem X. The product of n G.Ms between any two positive numbers is equal to the
nth power of the G.M. between them.

la . (�)n�ll (�)n!l J H�f'J

Proof. Proceeding in above theorem, we have, product of n G.M.s between a and b
= G, . G2 · G3 · ...... G n

2 + 3 + +n
=

=
)n
an [(� �l f
[[:j':']"" ", 4[:l% "'
i ,,% 0 .% ,,%

b)n.
o .
0 ."

= (,JaJ;j" = (G.M. between a and

I ILLUSTRATIVE EXAM P L ES I
Example 1. Insert 5 Geometric means between 320 and 5. (P .T.V., M.B.A. May
2(03)
Sol. Let G" G" G3, G4 , G5 be the required 6 G.M.s between 320 and 6. Then, by definition,
320, G" G" G3 , G 4 , G 5 , 6 are in G.P.
Now 6 = T7 = ar6 = 320 r6

r6 =
3:0 � 6� � (H � r= �
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION 693

1
G " = T = ar = 320 x -=160
2
1
G = T3 = ar' = 320 x = 80-

' 4
1
G3 = T, = ail = 320 x = 40
-

8
1
G = T5 = ar' =320 x = 20
-

' 16
1
G5 = T6 = ar5 = 320 x
= 10' -

32
Example 2. The A.M. between two positive numbers is 34 and their G.Ms is 16. Find the
numbers.
Sol. Let the positive numbers be a and b.
a+b
.. A.M. = 34 => -- = 34 => a + b = 68 (1)
2
and G.M. = 16 => .,Jab = 16 => ab = 256 (2)
Now (a + b)' - (a - b)' = 4ab => (68)' - (a - b)' = 4(256)
=> (a- b)' = 3600 => a - b = 60 (3)
(We assume a > b)
(1) + (3) => 2a = 68 + 60 => a = 64
. . (1) => 64 + b = 68 => b=4
:. The numbers are 64, 4.
Example 3. Insert 5 G.M.s between 1/3 and 9 and verify that their product is the 5th
power of the G.M. between 1/3 and 9.
Sol. Let G" G" G3 , G" G5, be the 5 G.M.s between 113 and 9.
:. i , G " G" G3 , G" G5 , 9 are in G.P.
Let r be the common ratio of this G.P.
1
9 = T7 = - ,-6
3

G, = i �
r= = .]a, G, = G,r = ]a ../3 = 1, G3 = G,r = 1 ../3 = ../3 ,

G, = G3 r = ../3 . ../3 = 3 and G5 = G,r = 3.,/3 = 3,/3.

Product of 5 G.M.s = G, G,G3 G, G5 = (]a). (1) . (../3). (3) . (3 ../3) = 9../3 .

Also, 5th power of the G.M. between i and 9 = [�i · 9 r = (../3) 5 = (../3) 4 ../3 = 9./3 .
Hence the result holds.
694 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 4. If two G.M s gl and g and one A.M A be inserted between two numbers, then
2

2 2
show that 2A = '& + .& .
g2 gl

Sol. Let the numbers be a, b.

a, gl ! g2 ! b are in G.P. (: g" g2 are G.M.s between a, b)
g, _
- - Jk _-� g� = ag2 and g� = bg,
a g, g2
g2 g22
_, = a and _ =b (1)
g2 g,
Also a, A, b are in A.P. ( .: A is A.M. between a, b)
a+b
A - a = b-A .. A = or 2A = a + b
2
2 2
. . (1) => 2A = fu... + Jk.
g2 g,
Example 5. IfA and G be respectively the A.M and G.M. between two positive numbers,
prove that the numbers are
A ± �A 2 G2.
_
Sol. Let the positive numbers be a, b. Let a > b.
a+b
.. A= or a + b = 2A (1)
2

and G = J;J; or ab = G2 (2)

Now (a + b) 2 = (a - b) 2 + 4ab
=> 4A2 = (a- b) 2 + 4G2 => (a - b) 2 = 4 (A2 - G2)
=> a - b = 2�A 2 - G 2 (3)

(1) + (3) => 2a = 2A + 2 �A 2 _ G 2 => a = A + �A 2 _ G2 .

(1) - (3) => 2b = 2A - 2 �A 2 _ G 2 => b = A - �A 2 _ G 2 .
The numbers are A ± A 2 � _ G2 .

an + b n
Example 6. Find n such that n 1 1 may be the G.M. between distinct positive
a + bn
numbers a and b.
Sol. The G.M. between a and b is J;J; .

Let
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION 695

n - -1 1 -1 n - -1
n n
a +b = a 2 b + 2 b 2
2 a

2 b2 = a ..!.2 bn - "!'2
n - "!' 1
::::::} an _
a _
bn
n - -I n - -I
=> a 2 (all2 _
b'/2 ) = b 2 (all2 _
b '/2 )
n - -I n - -I
a 2 =b 2 (: -

(ir� (:r
I

a:��
1
= 1 => = ::::::} n - - = 0 Le.,
2
b 2
Example 7. Ifthe A.M. between positive numbers a and b be equal to n times their G.M,
find the ratio of a to b.
a+b
Sol. We have A.M. = and G.M. = .,Jab .
2
By the given canditian, A.M. = n (G.M.)
a+b
= n .,Jab ar (Note this step)
2
a + b + 2.,Jab n + l
ar = I Companenda and dividenda
a + b - 2.,Jab n - l
e../a + $)2 n+l
(Assuming a > b)
e../a - $)2
ar ar
n-l
e../a + $) + e../a - $) .In+i + �
e../a + $) - e../a - $) .In+i - .In - 1
ar = I Companenda and dividenda

ar
2../a
=
.In+i + �
2$ .In+i - .In - 1
ar
a - en + 1) + en - 1) + 2.Jen + 1) en - 1)
-
(On squaring)
b en + 1) + en - 1) - 2.Jen + 1) en - 1)

2n + 2� n + �
=
�
2n - 2Vn-
=
�
- 1 n - Vn- -l
.

a : b = n + ·� : n - � .
696 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 15.7

L (,) Find the G.M. between -89 and -. 49

50 (h) Find the G.M. between 0.008 and 0.2.
2. The G,M. between two positive numbers is 16. If one number is 32, find the other number.
3. If k - 1 is the G,M. between k -2 and k then find the value of k.
+ I,
4. If A and
show that A are
G
> G.
the A,M. and G,M. between distinct positive numbers a and b respectively, then
5. IfandA and
b are thebe the
G
rootsA,ofMthe
. andequation
G,M. between
x2 -2Axpositive
+ 02 numbers a and b respectivly, then show that a
= a.
6. If a, b) are in A,P,) x is the G ,M. between a and b) y is the G ,M. between bare show that b2 is the
c c,
A,M. between andy2 ,
J?
7. Find two positive numbers whose difference is 2 and whose AM. exceeds the G,M. by 112.
8. If the A,M. between two positive numbers exceeds their G,M. by 2 and the ratio of the numbers be
1 : 4, find the numbers,
9. The A,M, between two positive numbers, whose sum is 100, is to their G,M, as 5 : 4, find the
numbers,
10. Insert 4 G,M,s between 112 and 512, 11. Insert 6 G,M,s between 1 and 2187,
12. Insert 4 G,M,s between
G.M. between 1/9 and 27.119 and 27 and verify that their product is equal to the fourth power of the
13. If is the first of G,M,s between positive numbers a and b, then show that G�+ l a b,
G1 n = n

14. If ana+1n bbnn+1 is the G,M, between positive numbers a and b, then find the value of
+
+
n,

15. If the AM, between positive numbers a and b is twice their G,M" then show that
16. If a, b, be in G,P, and x, y be the A,M, between a, b and b, respectively, show that :
c c

( ) 1 y1 b2
, -+- �-
x
(,,! - + - �
., a
xY 2.
c

17. If one geometric

quantities. mean 2 and
show that (2p -twoq)(2qarithmetic
G means p and q be inserted between two positive
G � - p).
18. If and are the two geometric means between band and ais the arithmetic mean, then show
G1
that
G2
G 13 + G23 = 2abc,
c

Answers
L (,) .!:! (ii) 0. 0 4 2. 8 3. 3
15
1 9 4. 16 9. 20, 80 2, 8, 32, 128
4'4
7. 8. 10.

11. 3. 9, 27, 81, 243, 729 1

3 , 1, 3, 9
12. - 14. - 21 .
-
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION 697
Hints
2
4. Establish : A (ra .,Jb)
_ G�
-
.
2
6. Reqd. equation is x2 - (a + b)x + ab = 0

6. We have --b=
a+e
2
, x = -.Jab he ,
= , y = ..;be ab + be b(a + e) � b2
2
�
2

7. If the numbers are then

a, a + 2,
a + (a + 2)
�a(a + 2) + -21 Le.,

If the numbers are then ---

2
a + 4a �
8. a, 4a, = ",a . 4a + 2 .
2
a + (100 - a)

�a (100 - a) 4
9. If the numbers are a, 100 - a, then 2 5

16.

17. Let the numbers be c, b.

18. Let be of
r c.r. b, G 1, °2 ) C
.. G l � br. G2 � br2. c � brS .
.. G 13 + G23 � b3rS + b3r" � b3rS (1 + r3)

and b+e
( )
2abc � 2 -- be � (b + br3)b . br3 � bSrS (l + r3).
2
 16 SEQUENCES

1 6. 1 . SEQUENCE OF NATU RAL NU MBERS : 1 , 2, 3, ..... .

The sum of first n terms of the sequence 1, 2, 3, ...... is denoted by Ln.
. . Ln = 1 + 2 + 3 + ..... + n. This is an arithmetic series of n terms with a = 1 and d = 1.
n
Ln = 2 [2(1) + (n - 1)1]
n
. S = [2a + (n - l)d])
.. (Usmg n 2
n(n + 1)
Lll = , II E N.
2
8
Under the notation Ln, we write
Lk as (Ln) n = S '
k=l

Remark. Ln i.e., 1 + 2 + 3 + " " " + n

L
can also be written as k .
n

k=l

1 6.2. SEQUENCE OF SQUARES OF NATURAL NUM BERS : 1 2, 22, 32, •••••• •

The sum of first n terms of the sequence 1', 2', 3' , ...... is denoted by Ln'.
.. Ln' = I' + 2' + 3' + ...... + n'.
In the next theorem, we establish a formula to find the value of Ln'.
2
-
2 2 2
+ 2 + 3 + ...... + II -
2 _ . n(n + lX2n + 1)
Theorem. P rove that Lll - 1 , II E N •

Proof. For any x, we have (x + 1)3 = x3 + 3x' + 3x + 1.

=> (x + 1) 3 - x'l = 3x' + 3x + 1. (1)
Putting x = 1, 2, 3, ...... , n in (1), we get
23 - 1 3 = 3.1' + 3. 1 + 1
33 - 2 3 = 3.2' + 3.2 + 1
43 _ 3 3 = 3.3' + 3. 3 + 1

(n + 1) 3 - n3 = 3.n' + 3.n + 1

698
SEQUENCES 699
Adding these vertically, we get
(n + 1)3 - 13 = 3(1' + 2' + 3 ' + ...... + n') + 3(1 + 2 + 3 + ...... + n) + n
(n + 1) 3 - 1 = 3Ln' + 3Ln + n
3Ln' = (n + 1) 3 - 3Ln - n - 1 = (n + 1) 3 3 n
(n + 1) - (n + 1)
_

2
(n + 1) [2(n + I)' 3n 2] = n + 1 [2n' + n] = (n + 1) n (2n + 1) .
= _ _

�
Ln -
2
2
_
n(n + 1) (2n + 1)
, ll E N.
6
2 2

n
Remark. Ln2 Le., 1 2 + 22 + 32 + """ + n2 can also be written as Lk2 . k=l

10
Illustration. L k2 = I' + 2' + 3' + ...... + 10' = 10 (10 + 1) (20 + 1)
6
= 385.
k=1

10
Under the notation Ln' , we write Lk2 as (Ln') n = 10'
k=l

1 6.3. SEQUENCE OF CUBES OF NATURAL NUM BERS : 1 3 , 23 , 33 , ..... .

The sum of first n terms of the sequence 13 , 23 , 3 3 , ...... is denoted by Ln3 .
.. Ln3 = 1 3 + 23 + 33 + ...... + n3 .
Now, we prove a result regarding the value of Ln3 .

Theorem I. Prove that .. Ln - 1

3 - 3 3 3
+ 2 + 3 + ...... + n
3 _[
-
n (n + 1)
2
] 2
' n E N.
Proof. For any x, we have (x + I)' = x' + 4x'l + 6x' + 4x + l.
=> (x + I)' - x' = 4x'l + 6x' + 4x + 1 (1)
Putting x = 1, 2, 3, ...... , n in (1), we get
2' - I' = 4. 1 3 + 6. 1' + 4. 1 + 1
3' - 2' = 4.2 3 + 6.2' + 4.2 + 1
4' - 3' = 4.3 3 + 6.3' + 4.3 + 1

(n + I)' - n' = 4.n3 + 6.n' + 4.n + 1

Adding these vertically, we get
(n + I)' - I' = 4(1 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 + ...... + n3) + 6(1' + 2' + 3' + ...... + n')
+ 4(1 + 2 + 3 + ...... + n) + n
3
(n + I)' - 1 = 4Ln + 6Ln' + 4Ln + n
4Ln3 = (n + I)' - 6Ln' - 4Ln - n - 1
= (n + I)' 6 n (n
+ 1) (2n + 1) + 1)
_
4 n (n (n + 1) _ _

6 2
= (n + 1) [(n + 1) 3 - n(2n + 1) - 2n - 1]
700 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

= (n + 1) [n3 + 3n' + 3n + 1 - 2n' - n - 2n - 1]

= (n + 1) (n3 + n') = (n + l)n' (n + 1) = [n(n + I)]'.

[n(n2+ l)r
Ln3 =

Remark. Ln3 Le., 13 + + + """ + can also be written as L

23 33 n3
n

k=l
k3 .

Illustration.
k=l
[7(72+ ]
± k3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + ...... + 73 = 1) 2
= 784.

7
Under the notation Ln3 , we write L k 3 as (Ln3) n = T
k=l

Theorem II. If for a sequence, Tn an3 + bn2 + en + d, then prove that

=

Sn aLn3 + bLn2 + CLn + nd.

=

Proof. We have Tn = an3 + bn2 + en + d.

T, = a. 13 + b.12 + c . 1 + d.
T, = a.23 + b.22 + c .2 + d.
T3 = a.3 3 + b.32 + c .3 + d.

Tn = an3 + bn2 + cn + d.
Adding vertically, we get Sn = T, + T, + T3 + ...... + Tn
= a(1 3 + 23 + 33 + ...... + n3 ) + b(l' + 2' + 32 + ...... + n2) + c (1 + 2 + 3 + . . . . . . + n) + nd
Sn = aLn3 + bLn2 + cLn + nd.
The result holds.

WORKING RULES TO FIND THE SUM OF SERIES

Step I. Write the nth term Tn of the given series.
Step II. Simplify Tn and write it as a polynomial in n. Let Tn = an3 + bn2 + cn + d.
Step III. Write the sum Sn of the first n terms of the series as aLn3 + bLn2 + CLn + nd.

Step IV. Put L n(n2+ l)

n= , Ln2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
and Ln3 = [ n Cn2+ ]
1) 2
in the

expression : Sn = aLn3 + bLn2 + CLn + nd and simplify.

I I L L U STRATIVE EXAMPLES I
Example 1. Find the following sums :
(i) 12 + 13 + 14 + ...... + 37 (ii) 12 + 22 + 32 + ...... + 202
(iii) 182 +192 + 202 + ...... + 472 (iv) 11 3 + 12" + 13" + ...... + 253
(v) 2" + 43 + 63 + ...... + 18".
SEQUENCES 701
Sol. (i) 12 + 13 + 14 + ....... + 37 = (1 + 2 + . . . . . . + 11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + ...... + 37)
- (1 + 2 + ...... + 11)
37(37 + 1) 11(11 + 1)
= (Ln) n=37 - (Ln) n=l1 = - = 703 - 66 = 637.
2 2
(ii) I' + 2' + 3' + ...... + 20' = (Ln') n=' O
20(20 + 1)(2(20) + 1) 20(21X41)
= =
6
= 2870.
6
(iii) 18' + 19' + 20' + ..... + 47' = (I' + 2' + 3' + ...... + 47') - (1' + 2' + 3' + ...... + 17')
= (Ln')n=47 - (Ln') n=17
47(47 + 1)(2(47) + 1) 17(17 + 1X2(17) + 1)
= 6 6
= 47(48) (95) _ 17(18) (35) = 35720 _ 1785 = 33935.
6 6
(iv) 11 + 12 + 13 + ..... + 25 = (1 + 23 + 3 3 + ...... + 25 3) - (1 3 + 2 3 + 33 + ...... + 103)
3 3 3 3 3
= (Ln3)n='5 - (Ln3) n=1O

= [ 25 (2:+ 1) r _ [ 10 (1� + 1) r = 105625 - 3025 = 102600.

(v) 23 + 43 + 63 + ...... + 183 = (2 X 1) 3 + (2 X 2) 3 + (2 X 3) 3 + ...... (2 x 9)'

= 23 [1 3 + 23 + 33 + ...... + 93] = 8(Ln3)n=9 = 8 [

9 (9 + l)
2
f= 16200.

Example 2. Find the sum offirst n terms of the series : 12 + 32 + 52 + . . . . . .

Sol. The given series is I' + 3' + 5' + .
Let Tn be the nth term.
.. Tn = (nth term of 1, 3 , 5, ...... )'
= (1 + (n - 1)2)' = (2n - I)' = 4n' - 4n + 1.

( n (n + 1)6(2n + 1») - 4 ( n (n2+ 1»)

.. Sum of n terms = Sn = LTn* = L(4n' - 4n + 1) = 4Ln' - 4Ln + n
=4 +n
2
n (4n _ 1)
= n [2(n + 1) (2n + 1) - 6 (n + 1) + 3] =
- .
3 3
Alternative method. I' + 3' + 5' + ...... n terms.
= (I' + 2' + 3' + 4' + 5' + 6' + ...... 2n terms) - (2' + 4' + 6' + ...... n terms)
= (I' + 2' + 3' + ...... 2n terms) - 2'(1' + 2' + 3' + ...... n terms)
2n (2n + 1) (2 (2n) + 1) _ n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
= 4
6 6
2
n(4n - 1) .
= 2n (2n + 1) [4n + 1 - 2(n + 1)] = n (2n + 1) [2n - l] =
6 3 3
702 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 3. Find the sum of the series ,' 1.2.3 + 2. 3.4 + 3. 4. 5 + ...... to n terms.
1 4 4
Sol. The given series is . 2. 3 + 2. 3 . + 3. . 5 + ...... Let Tn be the nth term.

• •
nth term of nth term of nth term of
Tn = ( 1, 2, 3, ...... ) ( 2, 3, 4, ...... ) ( 3, 4, 5, ..... . )
= n(n + l)(n + 2) = n3 + 3n' + 2n.
Sum of n terms = 5n = 'ETn = 'En3 + 3'En' + 2'En
= [ n (n2+ 1)f + 3 n (n + 1�(2n + 1) + 2 n (n2+ 1)
lXn2 6) .
= n (n4+ 1) [n(n + 1) + 2(2n + 1) + 4] = + + +n(n
4
5n

Example 4. 5um the series ,' 1.32 + 2.52 + 3. 72 + ...... to 20 terms.

Sol. The given series is 1 . 3' + 2.5' + 3 . 72 + .
Let Tn be the nth term
nth term Of nth term Of
Tn = ( 1, 2, 3,...... ) ( 3, 5, 7, ..... . )2 = n (3 + (n - 1) 2)' = n(2n + I)' = 4n3 + 4n' + n.
Sum of 20 terms = 5' 0 = (L T) n 20 = 4 (Ln3) n 2 0 + 4 (Ln') n 2 0 + ('En) n

= 4 [ 20 (2�+ 1)r + 4 [ 20(20 + 1):2(20) + 1) ] + 20(2�+ 1)

= = = = 'd·

= 176400 + 11480 + 2 10 = 188090.

53 (1 + 851) = 98%.
Example 5. If 5 52' 53 are the sums of the first n natural numbers, their squares and
l'

their cubes respectively, show that

Sol. We have 5 = n (n2+ 1) 52 = n (n + 1)6(2n + 1) 53 = ( n (n2+ 1»)2

1 ' '

53(1 + 85,) = [ n(n2+ 1)f [ 1+ 8. n(n2+ 1)] = n2 (n4+ 1)2 [1 + 4n' + 4n]
_ n2 (n + 1)2 (2n + 1)2
4
and
952' = 9 [ n(n + 1)(2n + 1)]2 = n2 (n+ 1)2 (2n + 1)2
2
6 4
.. S3 (l + 8S,) 9S2 • =

Example 6. Find the sum of all possible products of the first n natural numbers taken
two at a time.

time.
5 = Sum of all possible products of the first n natural numbers taken two at a
Sol. Let
'
We have (1 + 2 + 3 + . . . . . . + n)' = (1 + 2 2 + 3' + ...... + n') + 2 5 (Note this step)
=>
� �[(
(Ln)' = 'En' + 2 5 => 25 = ('En)' - 'En'

5 = [(Ln)' - (Ln2)] = n(n2+ 1)r _ n(n + 1�2n + 1) ]

SEQUENCES 703

[
n (n + 1) n (n + 1) 2n + 1
3
]
_
4 2
n (n + 1) [3 ' 3 n(n + 1)(3n 2 - n - 2)
n + n - 4n - 2] - .
24 24
. 1 3 13 23 13 + 23 + 33
Example 7. Sum of the senes " - + + + + ...... to n terms.
1 1+3 1+3+5
Sol. Let Tn be the nth term of the given series.

3 3 3
1 + 2 + 3 + . . . . . . n terms (n + 1)2
Tn = ----
1 + 3 + 5 + . . . . . . n terms --- n
2 [2 (1) + (n - 1)2] 4

1
= - (n' + 2n + 1).
4
1
Sum of n terms = Sn = "LTn = - "L(n' + 2n + 1)
1
4
= -("Ln' + 2"Ln + n] = -
'[
1 n (n + 1) (2n + 1) + 2 n (n + 1) + n
6 2
( ) ]
4 4
n(2n 2
= !':...- [en + 1) (2n + 1) + 6 (n + 1) + 6] = + 9n + 13)
.
24 24

I TEST YOU R KNOWLEDGE I

Find the following sums (Q. No. 1-3) :
1. (i) 1 + 2 + 3 + ...... + 30 (ii) 12 + 22 + 32 + ...... + 452
(iii) 13 + 23 + 33 + """ + 223,
2. (i) 5 + 6 + 7 + ...... + 100 (ii) 52 + 62 + 72 + ...... + 202
(iii) 153 + 163 + 173 + ...... + 30S.
3. (i) 15 + 30 + 45 + ...... + 390 (ii) 32 + 62 + 92 + ...... + 422
(iii) 43 + 83 + 123 + """ + 403,
Find the sum of the first n terms of the series whose nth term is given by (Q. No. 4-9) :
4. n(n + 2) 5. n(n + 3) 6. n2 + n + 1
7. n(n + 1) (n + 4) 8. n2 + 2n 9. n3 _ 4n
10. Find the sum of the series 12 + 42 + 72 + " " " to n terms.
11. Find the sum of the series 3.8 + 6.11 + 9.14 + " " " to n terms.
12. Find the sum of the first n terms of the series 3.12 + 5.22 + 7.32 + ,
13. Find the sum of the first 25 terms of the series 5.6 + 6.7 + 7.8 + ,
14. Find the sum of the first n terms of the series 12 + (12 + 22) + (12 + 22+ 3� + ,
15. Evaluate : 13 + 33 + 53 + .. " .. + (2n _ 1)3,
16. Show that 11.22 .22 ++ 22.32 .32 ++ ............ ++ nn(n2 (n+ +1)1)2 3n3n ++ 5I '
17. Show that the sum of the cubes of any number of consecutive positive integers is divisible by the
sum of those integers.
704 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Answers
1. (,) 465 (ii) 31395 (ii,) 64009
2. (,) 5040 (ii) 2840 (ii,) 205200
3. (,) 5265 (ii) 9135 (ii,) 193600

n (n + 1) (2n + 7) n (n + 1) (n + 5) n (n + 1) (3n 2 + 23n + 34)

4. 5. 7.
6 3 12

n (n + 1) (2n + 1) + 2(2 n n2 (n + 1)2 4 (4

n - 1)
8. 1) _ 9. -"--"'-:.C.-=--
6 4 3

10.
n (6n2 - 3n -1) + 1) (n + 3)
1 1 . 3n (n 12. -'-+--=-
n (n
-'-' (3n2 +=
1) = 5 n + 1)
- --=.
2 6
n (n + 1)2 (n + 2)
13. 8950 14. 15. n2 (2n2 - 1).
12

Hints
2 + 22 + 32 + ...... + n2 n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
14. Tn
� 1 � Ln2 �

L k3 + 2 L k2 + L k
n n n

In3 + 2 I n2 + In
16. L.H.8. k=l k=l k=l k=1
I n3 + I n2

17. Let the positive numbers be m + m + """) m + n, I, 2,

:. Sum of cubes (m + 1)3 + (m + + ...... + (m + n)'
� 2)'
[1 ' + 23 + ...... + (m + n)3] - [1 3 + 23 + ...... + m3]
[(m + r [ m (�+ r
�

� L(m + n)' Lm3 _ �

n) (; + n + 1) _
1)

Also, sum of these numbers = (m + + (m + + """ + (m + n)1) 2)

[1 + 2 + ...... + (m + n)] - [1 + 2 + ..... + m]
(m (m m (m
�

( )
= L m + n - Lm = - '-:---
+ n) + n + 1)-'--- --'--
+ 1) --'-

(m (m m (m
2 2

Sum of cubes of numbers + n) + n + 1) + - + 1)

Sum of numbers 2 =-
2 -'-
'-- -

[ .: x2 y2 (x - y)(x + y)]
_ �

� [1 + 2 + ...... + (m + n)] + [1 + 2 + ...... + m] E N.

.. Sum of cubes of numbers is divisible by sum of numbers.
 17 PARTIAL FRACTIONS

1 7. 1 . INTRODUCTION
We know that the quotient of any two polynomials is called a rational function. In the
present chapter, we shall learn the techniques of resolving a fraction into partial fractions.
This method will help us to integrate any given rational function.
1 7.2. RESOLUTION OF A FRACTION INTO PARTIAL FRACTIONS
We know the method of finding the sum of two or more algebraic fractions by reducing
the denominators of fractions to a common denominator, which is their L. C.M. For example :
2 5 2x + 4 + 5x - 15 7x - l l
+-- = -- =� - --
x -3 x + 2 (x - 3)(x + 2) x2 - x - 6 '
The reverse process of breaking up a single fraction into simpler fractions whose
denominators are the factors of the denominator of the given fraction is called the resolution
of a fraction into its partial fractions.
2x 1 1
For example, = -- + -- .
--

2
x -1 x-1 x+1
1 1
Here __ and __ are the partial fractions of the fraction
x-1 x+1 x -1
+- .
1 7.3. METHOD OF RESOLUTION INTO PARTIAL FRACTIONS

( x)

((X))
If{(x) and g(x) are polynomials, then is a rational function or a rational fraction.
g(x)
If deg. {(x) < deg. {(x), then the rational fraction
( x)
g(x)
is called proper, otherwise
gx
is called
improper.
.
For exampIe, the ratlOnaI fractlOn
'
X
x2 + + 3
---'-'-----'.
- " ,--"
(x + 2)(x 2 + 7)
-
.
IS proper
.
an d th e ratlOnaI fractlOn
'

x3 + x + 9 .
IS �mproper.
x 2 + 5x - 6
( x) .
If is an improper rational fraction, then we can divide {(x) by g(x) so as to write ( x)
g( x ) g(x)
as the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational fraction.
. . Any improper fraction can be expressed as the sum of a polynomial and a
proper fraction.
705
706 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

It can be proved mathematically that any proper fraction may be resolved into partial
fractions and :
(i) if ax + b is any linear non-repeated factor in the denominator, then there corre-
A
sponds a partial fraction of the form __ .
ax + b
(ii) if ax + b is any linear factor repeated r (E N) times in the denominator, then there
A B C
corresponds partial fractions of the form __ , , ...... r terms.
ax + b (ax + b )2 ' (ax + b )3
(iii) if ax' + bx + c is any irreducible quadratic factor in the denominator, then there
Ax + B
ax 2 + bx + c '
corresponds a partial fraction of the form and

(iv) if ax? + bx + c is any irreducible factor repeated r (E N) times in the denominator,

Ax + B Cx + D
then there corresponds partial fractions of the form , ...... r terms.
ax 2 + bx + c ' (ax 2 + bx + C) 2
The quantities A, B, C, D, ...... are all constants independent of x.
. . The given proper fraction can be expressed as the sum of its partial fractions. The
constants A, B, C, D, ______ occurring in the numerators of the partial fractions are
determined by simplifying the sum of partial fractions and then giving various val­
ues to x, to obtain equations involving unknown constants or by comparing the coef­
ficients of like powers of x.
x -1
Illustrations_ (i) The partial fractions of the proper fraction are of
(x + 1)(x - 2)(x + 3)
3

A B C D E
the types -- , -- , -- 2 and
x + 1 x - 2 x + 3 ) (x + 3) (x + 3)3
2
(ii) The partialfractions of the proper fraction
x :\ are of the types
(x - 7)(x + 2) (x + 2x + 3)
A B C Dx + E
x - 7 ) x + 2 ) (x + 2)2
-- and 2
X + 2x + 3
x3 + X + 7
(iii) The partial fractions of the proper fraction ----- ,,-- � _,;_ are of the types
-

(x - 1)(x + 2) 2 (X 2 + 5) 2
A B C Dx + E Fx + G
--;;,---- and 2
x - l ' x + 2 ' (x + 2) 2 ' x 2 + 5 (x + 5) 2

I L L U STRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example L Resolve the following fractions into partial fractions :

3x - 1 6x3 + 5x2 -7 ... 2x + 1
(i) 2 (ii) (m)
x -1 3x2 - 2x - 1 (x + 2)(x - 3/
2x + 3 x
(iv) (vi)
(x2 + l)(x + 1) (x - 1)(x2 + 1/
PARTIAL FRACTIONS 707

3x - 1
Sol. (i) x2 _ 1 is a proper fraction and the denominator has linear non· repeated factors.

Let ---
3x2 -l - 3x - 1
= -- + -- '
A B 3x - 1 A( x + 1) + B(x - 1)
x _1 (x - 1)(x + 1) x - 1 x + 1 (x- 1)(x + 1) (x - 1)(x + 1)
Multiplying by (x - 1)(x + 1), we get, 3x - 1 = A(x + 1) + B(x - 1) (1)
Now we find the values of A and B.
Method I. By comparing the coefficients of like powers ofx.
(1) => 3x - 1 = (A + B)x + (A - B).
A + B = 3 and A - B = - 1. Solving these equations, we get A = 1 and B = 2.
Method II. By giving specific values to x.
Let us put x = 1 and x = 2 in (1).
x = 1 => 3(1) - 1 = A(1 + 1) + B(1 - 1) => 2A = 2 => A = 1
x = 2 => 3(2) - 1 = A(2 + 1) + B(2 - 1) => 3A + B = 5 => B = 5 - 3A = 5 - 3(1) = 2.
. . A = 1 and B = 2.
Method III. In this method, it is always convenient to use those values of x which make
linear factors in the denominator zero.
Here x - 1 = 0 => x = 1 and x + 1 = 0 => x = - 1. We put x = 1 and x = - 1 in (1).
x= 1 => 3(1) - 1 = A(1 + 1) + B(O) => A = 2/2 = 1
-4
x=- 1 => 3(- 1) - 1 = A(O) + B(- 1 - 1) => B = _2 = 2.

A = 1 and B = 2.
3x - 1 1 2
-:-
--:- --
c-;- :-:-
--:
= -- + -- .
(x - 1)(x + 1) x - 1 x + 1
Remark. In the second method, we observe that
3x - l 3x - l
A= Value of � when x = 1 and B = Value of � when x=- l.
The value of A can be found out by putting x = 1 in the given proper fraction, after omitting x
-1 from..the denominator.+Similarly, the value of B can be found out by putting x = - 1 in the given proper
fraction, after omitting x 1 from the denominator.
Thus, when the factors in the denominator are and linear we can decompose the
non-repeated,
given proper fraction into partial fractions as follows :
= __ + = -- + --
(x - 1)(1 + 1) ( "' l C, l )':-
3x - 1 3( - 1) --=1C, 1 2
---,3",(::.:1)_--=1,--- + -::-_""' _""' 2 -4
(x - lXx + 1) l) (x - 1)2 ( - 2Xx + 1) x - l x + l "
(x + :7
This is called the short cut method of finding the values of A, B etc. It is very important to bear
in mind that this short cut method is to be used only when the denominator has only linear and non­
repeated factors.
(ii) Given fraction is not a proper fraction. Dividing 6:0 + 5x2 - 7 by 3:0 - 2x - 1, we get
6:0 + 5x2 - 7 = (2x + 3)(3x2 - 2x - 1) + (8x - 4).

(.
6x 3 + 5x 2 - 7 8x - 4
= 2x + 3 + -:---:-=--::-;­ 3:0 - 2x - 1 = (x - 1)(3x + 1»
3x 2 - 2x - 1 (x - 1)(3x + 1)
 [ ]
708 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

2x + 3 + 8(1) - 4 + 8 -�) 4 (
-
(� )
=
(x - 1)( 3(1) + 1) _ _ 1 < 3x + 1)

1_
(Using short-cut method)

4 - 20/3 2x + 3 + _ + 5
( )
= 2x + 3 + (x -I)4 +
4
=
x - I 3x + I
- "3 (3x + 1)
(iii)
2x + 1 is a proper fraction. Let the partial fraction corresponding to the fac-
(x + 2)(x - 3)2
tor x +
x + 2 and the partial fractions, corresponding to the factor (x - 3)' be �
2 be �
x -3
and
C
(x -3)"
.. 2x + l = A + B + -'-:-: C
(x + 2)(x - 3)' -+-
x-2 ---3 -:-(x-_ 3)O,
x-
Multiplying both sides by (x + 2)(x - 3)', we get
2x + 1 = A(x - 3)' + B(x + 2)(x - 3) + C(x + 2) (1)
Now x + 2 = 0 => x = - 2 and x - 3 = 0 => x = 3.
x = - 2 in (1) implies - 3 = A(- 5)' + B(O) + C(O) =>
-3
A=-
25
x = 3 in (1) implies 7 = A(O) + B(O) + C(5) => C = �
Comparing the coefficients of x' in (1), we get 0 = A + B.
B = -A=- (;:) =
3
25 '
-3 3 7
2x + 1 = ....2.iL + ....2.iL + 5 - - 3 + 3 + 7
-,-,,
-,---
(x + 2)(x -3)2 x + 2 x - 3 (x _ 3)2 25(x + 2) 25(x -- 3)
c-
-, -::-:-
5(x-'-_ cco
3)2

(,'v)
2x + 3 IS a proper fractlOn. . . I fractlOn
Let the partla ' correspond'mg to the
(x + I)(x 2 + 1)
factor x + 1 be � and the partial fraction corresponding to the factor x' + 1 be �
B +C .
x+1 x +1
--=
2x'--+-".-
3 = --
-
A + ---
Bx + C .
(x + 1)(x2 + 1) x + 1 x2 + 1
Multiplying both sides by (x + l)(x' + 1), we get
2x + 3 = A(x' + 1) + (Ex + C)(x + 1) (1)

x = - 1 in (1) => 1 = A(2) + (- B + C)(O) => A = .!.2

Comparing the coefficients of x' in (1), we get 0 = A + B. .. 1
B = - A = - "2 '
PARTIAL FRACTIONS 709

Comparing the coefficients of x, we get 2 = B + C.

2x + 3 = lI2 + ( - lI2)x + 512 = 1 + -::-,5 ---=x,,-:-:-
___

x2 + 1 2 1) •
2(x + 1 ) 2(x-;;
(x + 1)(x 2 + 1) x + 1 +

(v)
x2 + 5 is a proper fraction with non·repeated irreducible quadratic
(x2 + x + 1)(x 2 - X + 2)
factors x' + x + 1 and x'5- x + 2.

Let
x2 + =
Ax + B + Cx + D
(x2 + + l)(x2 - x + 2) x 2 + x + 1 x 2 -x + 2
X

Multiplying both sides by (x' + x + l)(x' - x + 2), we get

x' + 5 = (Ax + B)(x' - x + 2) + (Cx + D)(x' + x + 1) ... (1)
Comparing the coefficients of r, x' , x and the constant terms, we get
O =A+ C . . . (1) l =-A+ B + C + D ... (2)
O = 2A - B + C + D . . . (3) 5 = 2B + D ... (4)
(1) => C = - A. . . (2) => - A + B - A + D = 1 i.e., - 2A + B + D = 1 ... (5)
(3) => 2A - B - A + D = O i.e., A - B + D = O ... (6)
(5) + 2(6) => - B + 3D = 1 ... (7)
Solving (4) and (7), we get B = 2 and D = 1.
(5) => - 2A + 2 + 1 = 1 or A = 1. (1) => C = - A = - 1.
.. A = 1, B = 2, C = - 1, D = 1.
x2 + 5 1.x + 2 + -1.x +1 = x +2 x-I
= 2
C'(x-';- 1-
2 +-x-':':
+ -"' 2-
)(x"';- 2) x 2 + X + 1 x2 - X + 2 x + + 1 x" - x + 2 '
_ x-+-""- X

(vi)
x
(x - l)(x2 + 1)2 is a proper fraction. Let
x __
A
+
Bx + C + Dx + E
(x - 1)(x2 + 1) 2 x - 1 x 2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2
Multiplying by (x - l)(x' + I)', we get
x = A(x' + I) ' + (Bx + C)(x - l)(x' + 1) + (Dx + E)(x - 1) ... (1)

x= 1 in (1) => 1 = A(4) + (B + C)(O)(2) + (D + E)(O) => A = �

Comparing the coefficients X4 , x3 , x2 , X, in (I), we get
O=A+B . .. (2) O=-B+C ... (3)
O = 2A + B - C + D . . . (4) l=-B+C-D+E ... (5)
(2) => B = - A = - 4"
1 1 1
(3) => C = B = - 4' (4) => D = - 2A - B + C = - 2' + 4' - 4' = - 2'
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
(5) => E = 1 + B - C + D = 1 - - + - - - = -
4 4 2 2
.. A= 4
1' , B = 1' , C = 1' 1 1
-4 - 4 , D = - 2' , E = 2'

___--;;-x _ =
lI4
___
+
(- lI4)x + (- lI4) + (- lI2)x + lI2
(x - 1)(x 2 + 1)-;c2 x - I x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2
1 x+l x-I
4(x2 + 1 ) 2(x2 + 1)2
=
4(x - 1)
710 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Example 2. Resolve the following fractions into partial fractions

1 2x + 1 x2
(i) (ii) (x + 1) (x - 2) (iii)
(x + 1) (2x + 1) (x - 1) (x - 2)

(iv) 2x - 1
(v)
x2 + 2 (vi) 3x + 4
(x - 1) (x + 2) (x - 3) 2
(x + 1) (x2 + 4) x 2 - 5x + 6

Sol. (i) Let

1 = A
+
B
(x + 1)(2x + 1) x + 1 2x + I '
Multiplying by (x + 1)(2x + 1), we get 1 = A(2x + 1) + B(x + 1) (1)
x+ 1=0 => x = - 1 and 2x + 1 = 0 => x = - 112,
In (1), x = - 1 => 1 = A(- 2 + 1) + B(O) => A = - 1
x = - 112 => 1 = A(O) + B (- t + 1) => B = 2
1 1
+
2
=- --

(x + 1)( 2x + 1) x+1 2x
--

+1'
(ii) The factors in the denominator are linear and non-repeated, We use the short cut

[ ]
method to break up the given fraction
2x + 1 = 2: - 1) + 1 + 2) + 1 = - 1 + 5 = 1 1 + 5
2:
(x + 1)(x - 2) (x + 1)( - 1 - 2) (2 + 1)(x - 2) - 3(x + 1) 3(x - 2) 3 x + 1 x - 2 '
(iii) Since the given fraction is not a proper fraction, we have by long division,
3x - 2 = 1 + 3x - 2
::-:-
x2 x2
7:--
(x --: = = ' " (1)
-:-
1 +
- l)(x - 2) x2 -3x + 2 x2 - 3x + 2 (x - 1)(x - 2)
By short cut method :
3x - 2 = 3(1) - 2 + 3(2) - 2 = 1 4 1 4
- -- + = - -- + --

-,-(x --
- 1)::-
(x-,:- - ::-:-
2) (x -1)(1 - 2) (2 - l)(x - 2) (x - 1)( - 1) l(x - 2) x -I x -2
2 -,-,.,-
x,--- _' 1 4
(1) => -,-----,,-
(x -- l)(x -- 2) = 1 x - 1 + x - 2 '
__ --

(iv) The factors in the denominator are linear and non-repeated,

2x - 1 2(1) - 1 2(- 2) - 1 2(3) - 1
" (x - l)(x + 2)(x - 3) = (x - 1)(1 + 2)(1 -3) + (- 2 - l)(x + 2)( - 2 - 3) + cc(3::---
_ 1)"'
(3-::7 ::..:+-:2::-)(7-x-_-:3::-)
5 5
= - 6(x1 - 1) + 15(x- + 2) + = HXx -::-::-
3) ' -

x2 + 2 = z +2
(v) Let z = x2 ,
+ I)(x + 4) z + l-'-
-(-x';2 -- - -'
;
2 -
- - -'-
C - ':-
X-z-+-4:-:-)
z + 2 = -- A B
Let
(z + l)(z + 4) z + 1 z + 4 ' " z + 2 = A(z + 4) + B(z + 1)
+ --

z = - 1 => 1 = 3A + B(O) => A = 113

z = - 4 => - 2 = A(O) + (- 3)B => B = 2/3
PARTIAL FRACTIONS 711

z + 2 = � + 2/3 . . x2 + 2 = 1 + 2 .
(z + l)(z + 4) z+1 z+4 ' (x2 + 1)(x2 + 4) 3(x 2 + 1) 3(x2 + 4)
3x + 4 = 3x + 4 = A + B
(vi) Let
x 2 5x + 6 (x - 2)(x - 3) -
_ --2 -
x- x---3 .
Multiplying by (x - 2) (x - 3), we get 3x + 4 = A(x - 3) + B(x - 2) (1)
x - 2 = O � x = 2 =d x - 3 = O � x = 3.
We put x = 2 and x = 3 in (1)
x=2 � 3(2) + 4 = A(2 - 3) + B(2 - 2) � 10 = - A + 0 � A = - lO
x=3 � 3(3) + 4 = A(3 - 3) + B(3 - 2) � 13 = 0 + B � B = 13
3x + 4 = - 10 + 13 .
')(-x"----:3::) :- -
-;-(x---'"-=2:c: --2 -
x- --3
x-
Example 3. Resolve the following fractions into partial fractions

(i)
12x 2 -2x - 9
(4x2 - l)(x + 3)
(ii) -
x2 + 8x-
".---
+4
x3 - 4x-
2x
(iii)
(x2 + 2)(x2 + 3) '
Sol. (i) The factors of (4x' - 1)(x + 3) are linear and non-repeated.

Let 12x 2 - 2x - 9
(2x - 1)(2x + 1)(x + 3) = --A + --
2x - 1
B + C
+ 1 --
x +3
2x

=
A(2x + 1)(x + 3)+ B(2x - 1)(x + 3) + C(2x - 1)(2x + 1)
( 2x - 1)(2x + l)(x + 3)
12x2 - 2x - 9 = A(2x + 1)(x + 3) + B(2x - 1)(x + 3) + C(2x - 1)(2x + 1)
(1)
1
Now, 2x - l = O � 2x + 1 = 0 � x = - -
2 and x + 3 = 0 � x = - 3.
x=� � 3 - 1 - 9 = A(2) GJ + 0 + 0 � - 7 = 7A � A = - 1

x=-�� 3 + 1 - 9 = O + B(- 2) (%) +O � - 5 = - 5B � B = 1

and x=-3 � 108 + 6 - 9 = 0 + 0 + C(- 7)(- 5) � 105 = 35C � C = 3.

-
12x 2=--
-;-:::-
(2x -=
-9
- 2x .,--
1)(2x --:-:
+ 1)(x ---:c-
+ 3)
-1
= -- + -- +
2x - 1
1
2x + 1
3
x +3 . -­

x2 + 8x + 4 x2 + 8x + 4 - A B C
(ii) x3 - 4x = x(x + 2)(x - 2) = x + -- x + 2 + --
x -2 (1)

A(x + 2) (x - 2) + Bx(x - 2) + Cx(x + 2)

=
x(x + 2)(x - 2)
712 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

,
• • X + 8x + 4 = A(x + 2)(x - 2) + Bx(x - 2) + Cx(x + 2)
x=O => 0 + 0 + 4 = - 4A or A = - l
x = - 2 => 4 - 16 + 4 = 8B or B = - 1
x=2 => 4 + 16 + 4 = 8C or C = 3.
.
Hence (1) can be wntten as
x 2 + 8x + 4 = - 1 - 1 + . 3 .
3
x - 4x - x -- x-2
x + 2 --
...)
('" 2x Ax + B + Cx + D
(x + 2)(x + 3) "'x=02-+--=2=- x 2 + 3
2 2
(Ax + B) (x2 + 3) + (Cx + D) (x 2 + 2)
=
(x 2 + 2Xx2 + 3)
Multiplying by (x' + 2)(x' + 3), we get
2x = (Ax + B) (x' + 3) + (Cx + D) (x' + 2)
Equating the coefficient of :0 , both sides, we get
O=A+C (1)
Equating the coefficient of :0' , both sides, we get
O=B+D (2)
Equating the coefficient of x, both sides, we get
2 = 3A + 2C (3)
Equating the constant term, we get
0 = 3B + 2D (4)
From (1), C = - A and from (3), 2 = 3A - 2A => A = 2
.. C=-2
From (2) B = - D and from (4) - 3D + 2D = 0
=> D = 0, B = 0
2x 2x 2x

Example 4. Resolve the following fractions into partial fractions ,'

(i)
5x3 + 18x2 - lOx - 6 (ii)
X4 + x3 + 2X2 + 4x + 1
x(x + 3)(5x - 2) x(x + 1)
Sol. (i) Since the given fraction is not a proper fraction, we have by long division,
5x3 + l8x 2 - lOx - 6 = 1 + 5x2 - 4x - 6 (1)
x(x + 3)(5x - 2) 5x3 + l3x2 - 6x
We resoIve
5X 2 - 4x - 6 lnto
. partia . I fractlOns.
·
2
5x + 13x 2 - 6x
Let
5x 2 - 4x - 6 = - A + B + -- C
(2)
x(x + 3)( 5x - 2) x x + 3-- 5x -2
=
A(x + 3)(5x - 2) + Bx(5x - 2) + Cx(x + 3)
x(x + 3)(5x - 2)
PARTIAL FRACTIONS 713
.. 5x' - 4x - 6 = A(x + 3)(5x - 2) + Bx(5x - 2) + Cx(x + 3) (3)
When x = 0, (3) => - 6 = - 6A => A = l
When x = - 3, (3) => 45 12 - 6 = B(- 3)(- 15 - 2)
+ => B = 1

"When x = � ) (3) => C = - 5.

5
5x 2 - 4x - 6 .!. 1 _ _5
+ __
:. (3) =>
x(x + 3)(5x - 2)
=
x x+3 _
5x - 2
(ii) Since the given fraction is not a proper fraction, we use long division to get
x 4 + x 3 + 2x 2 + 4x + 1 x2 + 2 + 2x + 1
x(x + 1) x2 + x -- (1)

We reso1ve --
2x + 1 .
x2 + x
lnto partia
' I fractlOns.
'

Let
2x + 1 =
A
+
B A(x + 1) + Ex
= (2)
-;-
x(x + 1) -
x-+-1 --x(-;-x--
+:-:
1-)
.. 2x + 1 = A(x + 1) + Bx. (3)
When x = 0, (3) => 1 = A
When x = - 1, (3) => - 2 + 1 = - B or B = 1.

:. (2) =>
2x + 1 1
x(x + 1) = x - --1
x +1.
+
Example 5. Resolve the following fractions into partial fractions ,'
x2 + 1 3x + 1
(i) -----
- -,; ­ (ii)
(x _ 1)2 (x + 3) (x -2f(x + 2) .
Sol. (i) Let
x2 + 1 = A + B + C
--
(x - 1)2 (x + 3) x - 1 (x - 1)2 X + 3 . --
.. x' + 1 = A(x - l)(x + 3) + B(x + 3) + C(x - I)' (1)
x= 1 => 1 + 1 = A(0)(4) + B(4) + C(O) => B = 112
=
x = - 3 => 9 + 1 A(- 4)(0) + B(O) + C(16) => C = 5/8
Let us put x = 0 in (1).
.. 0 + 1 = A(- 1)(3) + B(3) + C(l)

3A = 3B + C - 1 = 3
(-21) -5 -
+
8
-1=
9
8
A= �
8
.

x 2 +-=1 = 3/8 + 112 + 5/8

C'(x-_"'1:C x---1 (x - 1)2 -
) 2:-(x-+-;-3-;-) - x-
+-3
= � +
(ii) Let
3x + 1 B
+�
(x - 2) 2(X + 2) x - 2 (x - 2)2 X + 2 .
:. 3x + 1 = A (x - 2) (x + 2) + B(x + 2) + C(x - 2)' (1)
x=2 => 7 = A(0)(4) + B(4) + C(O) => B = 7/4
x = - 2 => - 5 = A(- 4)(0) + B(O) + C(16) => C = - 5/16
714 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Let us put x = 0 in (1).

.. 1 = A(- 2)(2) + B(2) + C(4)

1 = - 4A + 2 (f) ( ) 5
+ 4 - 16
7 5
2 - -4 - I = -4 => A = 16
=> 4A = -
5 5

3x + l = &16 + 7/4 - 5 / 16
(x 2)2(x + 2) -
- --2 (x - 2)2
x-
+
x +":::":' 2C-.
-"":
Example 6. Resolve the following fractions into partial fractions:
X4
-- X4
(i)
X4 -1 (ii)
-X-'-4---1-6
X 1
(iii)
X
x3 + x2 + +
Sol. (i) By long division, +- = 1 + --f:--
x
4
-1 x -1

X4 - (x2 - 1)(x2 +
Let
1 1
=
1 ex + D
=
A
+
B
+
-1 1) (x - I)(x + 1)(x2 + I) -
x---l -
x-+-l -"xC,2'-+--'- =-
I
(1)
Multiplying by (x - 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 1), we get
. . 1 = A(x + l)(x2 + 1) + B(x - 1)(x2 + 1) + (Cx + D)(x2 - 1)

x= 1 => 1 = A(2)(2) + B(O)(2) + (C + D)(O) => 1 = 4A => A = '41

1
x=-1 => 1 = A(O)(2) + B(- 2)(2) + (- C + D)(O) => 1 = - 4B => B = - -
4
Comparing the coefficient of:0, we get 0 = A + B + C.
1 1
.. C = - A - B = - '4 + '4 = O
Comparing the coefficient of x2 , we get 0 = A - B + D.
1 1 1
.. D = B - A = - '4 - '4 = - i
1 1 1
.. A = '4 , B = - '4 , C = O, D = - i
1
4 =
-- --]/4 --
- ]/4 O. x + (- 1I 2)
x -1 x - I x + 1
+
x2 + 1
+
1
= --,---,,-
1
4(x -l) 4(x + l) 2(x 2 + 1)
1

=> X4
X4 - I 4(x 4(x +
1 1 1
(1) -- = 1 + --;-;-
----:
c­
- 1) 1) 2(x 2 + 1)

X4X4 X4
16
(ii) By long division, =1+ (1)

-_
- 16 - 16
16 16 16
Consider -""4-­ = where y x2 .
x - 16 (x 2 _
4)(x 2 + 4) (y - 4)(y + 4)
PARTIAL FRACTIONS 715

16 16 2 2 2 2
=
7(y- y-+-4"") + ( - 4 + 4)(y + 4) = y - 4 - Y + 4 = x 2 - 4 - x 2 + 4
)(-
_--:4--:
(1) =>

x Ax + B C
(iii) Let
2
(x + l)(x + 1) =
x2 + 1
+
x+1 .
--

x = (Ax + B)(x + 1) + C(x' + 1) (1)

x = - 1 => - 1 = (- A + B)(O) + C(2) => C = - 112
Comparing the coefficients of like powers of x in (1), we get
O=A+C ... (2) l=A+B (3)
(2) => A = - C = - (- 112) = 112
(3) => B = 1 - A = 1 - (112) = 112

-x
'-_
_,-----' --- _
-21 x + -12 _2_
1
x+1 1
x2 + 1 x + 1 2(x 2 + 1) 2(x + 1) .
= + =
(x 2 +l)(x 1) +
Example 7. Resolve the following fractions into partial fractions :

( .) 22x 2
3
(ii)
x - x + 4x3 - 4x2 + Sx - 4
5 4

, (x + 1) (x2 + 2)3
2x3 Ax +B Cx + D
Sol. (i) Let =
(x2 + 1)2
2x3 = (Ax + B) (x' + 1) + (Cx + D)
=> 2x3 = Ax3 + Bx3 + (A + C)x + B + D
Comparing the coefficients, we get A = 2, B = 0, A + C = 0, B + D = °
Solving, we get A = 2, B = 0, C = - 2, D = 0.
2x 3
----,-
2x + 0 - 2x + 0 --
, -,;- = -- + =
2x--:-;;-
2x - ---",=
(x 2 + 1)2 x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2 x2 + 1 ex2 + 1)2
4
.. Let x5 - x + 4x3 -4x2 + 8x - 4 = A x + B + Cx + D + ' Ex + F
(,,)
(x2 + 2)3 x2 + 2 (x2 + 2)2 (x 2 + 2)'
:. x5 - X4 + 4x3 - 4x' + 8x - 4 = (Ax + B) (x' + 2)' + (Cx + D) (x' + 2) + (Ex + F)
= Ax' + BX4 + (4A + C)x3 + (4B + D)x3 + (4A + 2C + E)x + (4B + 2D + F)
Comparing the coefficients, we get
A = 1, B = - l, 4A + C = 4, 4B + D = - 4, 4A + 2C + E = 8, 4B + 2D + F = - 4.
A = 1, B = - l, C = O, D = 0, E = 4, F = 0.

X5 - x 4 +...:
'-'-
--'-'
- ::.:,2 -=:;--.::.----=.
4x3;-- - 4x 2 + 8x -.:.:... 4 = --
x - 1 + 4x .
ex + 2)3 x 2 + 2 ex 2 + 2)3
716 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

TEST YOU R KNOWLEDGE

1. Resolve the following fractions into partial fractions :

(i) (x - 3x+ 2 (h)
x (iii) (x + x1)-(x1 - 2)
1) (2x + 3) (x + 2) (3 - 2x)
(iv) (x2x_1)-52 (v) xx(x3 --5x2)22+(x6x- -1)2 .
2. Resolve the following fractions into partial fractions :
(i) (xx+2 1)+6x
2 (x++63)
3 2
2x x(x -+ 1)x (x+ +1 2) 2x-:-2-'--'
(iii) -:-(X--" + 9x -6
(h)
- l) " (x +""3:-):-'(X'-+--:2::-)
(iv) (x2 + 4)x(x2 + . 9)
3. Resolve the following fractions into partial fractions :
(i) (x3x2 +2 4)-x(x3 -+ 4x1) (x+ 52-2) (h) 2 172
(x + 4) (x + 2x+ 5) ( ...) (x - 1) (x3x+-2)33(x2 +
'"
9)

4. Resolve the following fractions into partial fractions :

(i) (x -l)(x +1 1)(x 2 + 1) x2 -3x +3 1
(h) ( ...) (1 -x) (x +5x1) (x2 + 4)
'"
(x _1)
(iv) x2x(x2 ++ 11)2 (v) (x(x22 ++ 3)1) (x(x22 ++ 2)4)
Answers

1. (,). --1 + -­
x -l 2x +3
1 (ii) 7(x2+ 2) + 7(3 -3 2x) (iii) 2 3 2
x -1 (x _1)
. x 2-1 3 2 (v) 2x1 + -::-:-----:::-
(w) -­ -
1 1
2(x -2) (x _ 2)2 .
(x _1)
(i) 4(x7+ 1) + 2(x 1+ 1)2 4(x 3+ 1)3 4x 2x 2 --
2. .. -1 ---+
(n)
1 1 + 1
-
x -1 4(x + 2)
(iii) 12(x5 -1) 4(x15+ 3) + 3(x16+ 2) (iv) 5(x21+ 4) 5(x21+ 9)
PARTIAL FRACTIONS 717

-4 - 2x
3.
2 x-6 + 1 _ ::2x +:::.
3_
-- + -- + -­ (ii) �
x + 1 x - 1 x2 + 4
(i) + -;;-
x +4 x + 2x + 5
2 2

(m) (w) -2 - --
""" -1 1 3 " 1 1
-- + -- + --­
x - 1 x + 2 x2 + 9 x
2
x +1

1 1 1 "" 1 1 1
(")
1 )3
4. (i) 2 -­

4(x - 1) 4(x + 1) 2(x + 1) x -1 _

(x

(iii)
1 1
+
x
(iv) _ � + 12 + 2 +
__ __ _ 2�
..::
2(x - 1) 2(x + 1) (x2 + 4) x x X +1 (x + 1)3
2 6 "
(v) 1 + -- - --
x +3 x + 4
2 2
 INDEX

A B

Abelian group 245 Barred row 101

Absolute complement 5 Basic counting principles 138
Absorption 575 Basic rectangle 401
Absorption laws 381 Basic set operations 4
Addition of matrices 605 Basic terminology 528
Adjacency list 481 Biconditional 566
Adjacency matrix representation 480, 482, 484 Bijective functions 94, 96
Adjacent fundamental products 395 Binary expression trees 534
Adjacent vertices 451 Binary matrix representation 481
Adjoint of a square matrix 618 Binary operation 217, 364
Algebra of sets 5 Binary relation 50
Algebraic structure 217 Binary search trees 545
Algebra of propositions 565 Binary tree 528, 533
Algorithm 538, 540, 542 Bipartite graph 487
Alternating group 302 Boolean algebra 439, 364, 365
Ancestor 528 Boolean expansion theorem 392
AND gate 418 Boolean function 388
Anti-symmetric relation 52, 60 Boolean ring 319
Applications of Boolean algebra 410 Boolean sub-algebra 373
Applications of graph theory 517 Boundedness law 380
Applications of groups 304, 309 Bridge 465
Applications of trees 550 Bridge (cut edges) 465
Argument 574 Builder form of a set 1
Arithmetic mean 667
Arithmetic progression 650 c
Associate 349 Cancellation laws 221, 329, 383
Associative laws 6, 382, 565 Cardinality of a set 1 1
Associative property 219, 569 Cartesian product 12, 50
Asymmetric 52 Cells 28
Asymmetric relation 60 Chain 489, 492
Atoms of a Boolean algebra 374 Characteristic equation 183

718
I NDEX 719

Chromatic number 511 Coset representative system 252

Circuit 452 Cosels 252
Circular permutations 148 Countable set 42
Closed path 452 Countably infinite 42
Closure property 55, 218 Counting principles 138
Co-domain 91 Cross partition 28
Coding theory 304 Cut edges 465
Column matrix 603 Cut points 461
Combination 152 Cut vertices 461
Combination of propositions 560 Cut set 461
Commutative laws 6, 7, 365, 565 Cycle 489, 492
Commutative properties 219, 569 Cyclic group 261
Commutative ring 314 Cyclic permutations 289
Comparability 3 Cyclic sub group 261, 263
Comparable elements 353
Compatible relation 54 D
Complement graph 449 De Morgan's laws 6, 8, 33, 382, 565, 569, 598
Complement laws 6, 10, 365, 565 Deduction method 595
Complement of a graph 460 Degree 450
Complement of a relation 73 Degree of recurrence relation 180
Complement of a set 5 Denumerable 42
Complement of a subgraph 461 Dependent variable 101
Complement properties 569 Depth or height of a tree 528
Complete binary tree 535 Derived connectors 562
Complete bipartite graph 488 Descendent 528
Complete graph 502 Description of a function 92
Complete pivoting 644 Destination 517
Complete sum-of-products form 388 Diagonal elements 603
Composition of functions 114 Diagonal matrix 603
Composition of permutations 288 Difference between A.P. and G.P. 685
Composition of relations 56 Difference of Sets 5
Concatenation 225 Digraph 70
Conditional 564 Digraph of a relation 57
Congruence relation 226, 232, 271, 273 Dihedral group 276
Conjunction 560, 575 Dijkstra's algorithm 517
Conjunctive normal form 393 Direct product of groups 283
Connected component 456 Direct product of rings 320
Connected graph 456 Directed or diagraph of a relation 57
Connectives 573 Directed complete graph 472
Constant function 98 Directed graph 57, 354, 534
Constructive dilemma 575 Directed trees 525
Contingency 571 Disconnected digraph 447, 456, 472
Contradiction 571 Discrete or null graph 449
Contrapositive 566 Disjoint permutations 289
Converse of Lagrange's theorem 255 Disjoint sets 2
Conversion of Boolean expression 423 Disjunction 561
720 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Disjunctive normal form 393 Finite graph 241, 449

Disjunctive syllogism 575 Finite region 500
Distance function 306 Finite ring 315
Distributive laws 6, 7, 365, 565 Finite set 2
Distributive properties 569 Five colour theorem 514
Distributivity 221 Fleury's algorithm 491
Division method 99 Folding method 99
Domain 51 Forest 528
Domain and range of a relation 51 Form 393
Domain of a function 91 Formation of recurrence relations 181
Four colour theorem 514
E Free semi-group 225
Edge connectivity 462, 469 Full binary tree 535
Edge covering number 469 Function 90
Edges 447 Function as a relation 94
Elementary path 452 Functionally complete sets of connectives 573
Empty set 3 Functions 95, 99, 109
Encoding function 304 Fundamental connectors 560
Enumerable 42 Fundamental Product 42, 388
Epimorphism 266 Fundamental theorem of group homomorphism 269
Equal functions 98 Fundamental theorem of ring homomorphism 345
Equal matrices 605 Fundamental theorem of semi-group homomor­
Equality of sets 2 phism 232, 274
Equivalence classes 79, 272 G
Equivalence of propositions 569
Equivalence Relation 53, 70, 78 Gauss elimination method 643
Equivalent logical circuits 427 Gaussian integers 336
Error correction 310 General exclusion-inclusion principle 168
Euclidean domain 348 General tree 533
Euler circuit 489 Generating functions 205, 207
Euler graph 489, 490 Geometric mean 691
Euler's theorem on graphs 502 Geometrical progression 671
Even and odd vertex 450 Graph colouring 511
Even vertex 450 Graph of a function 93
Everywhere defined function 93 Graphical representation 109
Existential quantifier 583 Greatest integer function 123
Exportation 569 Group 237
Extended pigeonhole principle 155 Group codes 310, 306
External nodes 528 Group homomorphism 266
F H

Factorial 142 Hamilton circuits 492, 493

Falacy argument 575 Hamilton paths 492, 493
Family of sets 2 Hamiltonian graph 492
Fibonacci sequence 212, 213 Hamming distance 305
Field 334 Handshaking theorem 473
I NDEX 721

Hashing function 99 Inverse of an element 240

Hasse diagram 354, 357, 358 Inverse relation 51, 69
Homeomorphic graphs 470 Invertible functions 99
Homogeneous linear recurrence relation 183 Involution laws 6, 381
Homogeneous solution 194 Irreflexive relation 52, 60
Homomorphism of semi-groups 230 Isolated 448
Hypothetical syllogism 575 isolated vertex 450
Isomorphic 232
Isomorphic Boolean algebra 378
Ideal 341, 342 Isomorphic graphs 468
Idempotent 221 Isomorphism 266
Idempotent laws 6, 380, 565, 569 Iterative method 190
Identity 220 J
Identity element 240
Identity functions 98 Joint denial 562
Identity laws 6, 9, 365, 565
Identity matrix 604 K
Identity relation 51 Karnaugh map 395, 396, 400
Image 266 Kernal 324, 266
Improper fraction 705 Kinds of matrices 602
Improper ideals 342 Konigsberg's 497
Improper subset 3 Kruskal's algorithm 550, 553
Incidence matrix 481 Kuratowski's theorem 505
Incidence matrix representation 483
Incident 447 L
Inclusion-exclusion principle 167 Labeled graphs 478
In degree 450 Lagrange's theorem 254, 301
Independent variable 101 Lattice 361
Index of a subgroup 255 Laws of Boolean algebra 379
Infinite group 241 Leaf 528
Infinite region 315, 500 Left cancellation law 240
Infinite ring 315 Left child 528
Infinite sequence 649 Left coset 252
Infinite set 2 Left ideal 341
Initial vertex 448 Left subtree 528
Injective function 93, 95 Level of a node 528
Inorder traversal 537 Linear graph 449
Integers modulo m 241 Linear recurrence relation 181, 183
Integral domain 328 Linearly ordered set 353
Internal nodes 528 Literal 388
Intersection of sets 5 Logic circuit 418, 423
Into functions 96 Logic operations 558
Inverse 221, 566 Logical implication 568
Inverse function 115 Logically equivalence of propositions 569
Inverse image 91 Loop 448
Inverse of a bijection 116
722 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Looping 397 NOR or joint denial 562

Lower triangular matrix 604 Normal subgroup 255
NOT gate 418
M Null graph 449
Many one functions 97 Null matrix 603
Many one into functions 97 Null set 3
Many one onto functions 97 Number of bijections 96
Material equivalence 569 Number of one-one functions 95
Material implication 569 Number of onto functions 96
Mathematical induction 610 Number of relations 51, 63, 68
Matrix 602 Numeric functions 205
Matrix multiplication 606 o
Maxsets 43
Maxterms 43 Odd permutations 294
Message 304 Odd vertex 450
Method of substitution 190 One-one into functions 97
Method to find the inverse of a bijection 116 Operation on sets 4
Minimum distance 306 OR gate 418
Minimum distance decoding criterian 310 Orbit 289
Minimum spanning tree 550 Order 470
Minset normal form 43 Order of a recurrence relation 180
Minterm 43, 391 Order of an element 241
Mixed graph 449 Order of group 241
Modus ponens 575 Ordered pair 50
Modus tollens 575 Ordered trees 526
Monoid 234 Ordering diagram 354
Monomorphism 266 Orthogonal matrix 616
Morphism of rings 321 Out degree 450
Morphisms 266
Multi edges 449 p
Multigraph 449, 479 Parent 528
Multiple edges 479 Parity check code 305
Multiple quantifiers 586 Partial fractions 705
Multiplication of cycles 290 Partial order relation 54, 66, 352
N
Partial pivoting 644
Partially ordered set 352
NAND gate 562 Particular solution 194
Negation 561 Partitions 78
Negation of quantified propositions 585 Partitions of sets 28
Nodes 528 Path in a graph 452
Non planar graphs 504 Path length 517, 527
Non-comparable elements 353 Peano's axioms 128
Non-homogeneous linear recurrence relation 194 Pendent 448
Non-singular matrices 620 Pendent edge 450
Non-symmetric relation 52 Pendent vertex 450
NOR gate 562 Permutation 142, 145, 288
I NDEX 723

Permutation functions 99 Quotient ring 345

Permutation with restrictions 145 Quotient set 78, 226
Permutations 146, 147 Quotient structures 226
Permutations with repeated objects 147
Pigeonhole principle 155 R
Pivoting 644 Range 51
Planar graph 500, 502, 505 Range of a function 92
Postorder traversal 537 Real matrix 602
Power set 3 Rectangular matrix 602
Pre-image 91 Recurrence relations 180
Premises 574 Reflexive closure 55
Preorder traversal 537 Reflexive relation 51
Prime implicants 395, 400 Region of graph 500
Principal diagonal 603 Regular Graph 499
Principal ideal 347 Relation 50
Principal ideal domain (P,LD,) 347 Representation of directed graph 482
Principle of abstraction 3 Representation of graphs 480
Principle of duality 10, 384, 567 Representation of multigraph 484
Representation of undirected graph 480
Principle of extension 2 Representation theorem 378
Principle of mathematical induction 128 Right cancellation law 240
Product of sets 54 Right child 528
Product rule 138 Right coset 252
Products of sums 393 Right ideal 341
Proof of validity 578 Right subtree 528
Proper colouring 511 Ring 314
Proper fraction 705 Ring homomorphism 321
Proper ideals 342 Ring isomorphism 321
Proper subset 2 Ring of integers modulo 317
Properties of binary operations 218 Ring with unity 314
Ring with zero divisors 315
Properties of distance function 306 Ring without zero divisors 315
Properties of matrix addition 605 Root 528
Properties of matrix multiplication 609 Rooted tree 534
Properties of minimum spanning 554 Rooted tree 527, 532
Properties of non planar graphs 505 Row matrix 603
Properties of permutations 293 Row-by-column method 607
Properties of planar graphs 502 s
Properties of relations 51, 60
Property method 1 Scalar matrix 604
Proposition 558 Self-loop 448
Propositional variables 559 Semi-group 221
Propositions with multiple quantifiers 586 Semi-group homomorphism 230
Sequence 649
Q Sequence of natural numbers 698
Quantified propositions 585 Set 1
Quantifier 583 Shortest path 517
Quotient group 261 Shortest path in weighted graphs 517
724 DISCRETE STRUCTURES

Shortest paths from single source 517 Transpose of a matrix 614

Siblings 528 Transposition 569
Simple circuit path 452 Traversable 497
Simple graph 449 Traversable multigraphs 480
Simple path 452 Traversing binary trees 537
Simplification 575 Tree diagram 58
Singular matrices 620 Trees 525
Sink 450 Triangular matrix 605
Size of graph 470 Truth table 559, 411, 567, 595
Skew-symmetric 615 Types of functions 95
SOP form 388
Source 450, 517 u
Source and sink 450 Unary operation 364
Spanning subgraph 460 Uncountable set 42
Spanning tree 549 Uncountably infinite set 42
Square matrix 602 Undirected complete Graph 455
Star graph 488 Undirected graphs 448
Strongly connected digraph 471 Unilaterally connected digraph 471
Sub-algebra 373 Union of sets 4
Sub-matrix 603 Unique binary tree 538
Subgraph 457 Unit matrix 604
Subgroup 242 Units 326
Submonoid 234 Universal quantifier 583
Subring 324 Universal relation 51
Subsemi-group 225 Universal set 3
Subset 2 Upper triangular matrix 604
Substitution method 190
Sum of ideals 344 v
Sum rule 138
Sum-of-products form 393, 388 Valid Argument 575
Surjective 95 Variations in conditional statement 566
Switching circuit 410 Venn diagram 28, 172, 173, 432
Symmetric closure 55 Vertex connectivity 462, 469
Symmetric difference 36 Vertex covering number 469
Symmetric group 297 Vertices 447
Symmetric matrix 615 Void relation 51
Symmetric relation 52
w
T
Warshall's algorithm 81
Tables of operation 218 Weakly connected 471
Tabular form of a set 1 Weight 305
Tautologies 570 Weighted graphs 479
Terminal vertex 448 Word 304
Ternary relation 55 Working rule 128
Total number of relations 51
Totally ordered set 353 z
Transitive closure 56, 81 Zero divisor 328
Transitive relation 52
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I S B N 978-93-80386- 3 5 - 5

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