D.C.

Machine

ELECTRICAL MACHINES

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D.C. Machine

Introduction
 A D.C. Machine is an electromechanical energy conversion device

 There are two types of D.C. Machine.

(i) DC Generator

(ii) DC Motor

DC Generator
It converts mechanical power (input) into DC electrical power (output).

DC Motor
It converts DC electrical power (input) into mechanical power (output).

Working principle

 It works on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

 It states that when a conductor cuts the magnetic lines of force then an electromag-
netic force will be induced within the conductors.

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Construction of DC machines

Yoke
 Yoke is made with cast steel for large machines and cast iron for small machines.

Functions of Yoke

 It acts as protecting cover for the whole machine.

 It gives the mechanical support for field poles.

 It provides the return path for magnetic flux.

Pole core and pole shoe

 They are made up of cast steel.

 Pole core is not necessary to laminate but pole shoe is laminated.

Function of pole core

 To accommodate the field winding and behaves as a magnet when it’s winding is
excited.

Function of pole shoe

 It gives mechanical support for field coil and reduce the magnetic reluctance due
to enlarged area.

 Flux distribution in DC machine is flat topped wave (or) trapezoidal wave.

 In DC machine, salient pole is not chamfered.

 The flux distribution wave shape is flat topped wave, which is proffered because
the average value of flux is more compared to sinusoidal flux distribution.

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 Broad pole shoes are proffered such that more average value of flux.

 A pole shoe covers 70% of the pole pitch.

Armature core
 It is made with silicon steel, laminated to reduce the eddy current loss since
armature current is alternating.

Function of Armature core:

 To accommodate the armature winding and offers low reluctance path for
magnetic flux.

 In DC machines open slots are preferred because less leakage flux, less
inductance, less leakage reactance there by commutation will be improved.

 The armature slots are skewed to reduce the mechanical vibrations.

Commutator
 Commutator is made with hard drawn copper to reduce wear and tear

 A commutator converts alternating voltage to a direct voltage

 Number of commutator segments are equal to no. of armature coils

Brushes

 They are made with copper or carbon for small machine and electro-graphite for
normal and large rating machine.

 Copper-graphite brushes are used for large current and low voltage machines.

 Function of brush is to collect the current or give the current to armature conductors
through the commutator segments.

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Advantages of carbon brushes

1. More resistance will improve commutation

2. High thermal stability

3. Self-lubricating property to reduce friction torque

Disadvantage

voltage drop across brushes

For lap winding: No. of brushes = No. of poles

For wave winding: No. of brushes = 2 in simplex winding

Armature winding
 There are two types of winding i.e. lap winding and wave winding.

 They are made with copper or carbon for small machine and electro-graphite for
normal and large rating machine.

 Copper-graphite brushes are used for large current and low voltage machines.

 Function of brush is to collect the current or give the current to armature conductors
through the commutator segments.

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Comparison of lap and wave winding

Lap winding Wave winding

1) A coil which can be lap back forward the 1) The loop of the winding that can form
succeeding coil the signal shape

2) The no. of the parallel path is equal to the 2) The number of parallel path equal to two
total no. of poles

3) Another name of lap winding is multiple 3) Another name of wave winding is series
winding or parallel winding winding

4) The emf of lap winding is less 4) The emf of wave winding is more

5) The efficiency of lap winding is less 5) The efficiency of the wave winding is
high

6) It is used for low voltage high current 6) It is used for high voltage low current
applications applications

Points to Remember
If the number parallel paths is A.

In multiplex lap winding A = mp

In multiplex wave winding A = 2 m

Where m = multiplicity

If m = 1 → simplex winding

m = 2 → duplex winding

m = 3 → triplex winding

m = 4 → quadrant winding

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EMF equation of DC generator

Where,

Eg is EMF generated by generator

Z is the total no. of conductors

A is the no. of parallel paths

P is the no. of poles

∮ is the flux per pole

N is the speed of rotor in rpm

Where, Tem is the electromagnetic torque

Ia is the current through armature

Armature reaction
The effect of armature flux (∮a) on main field flux (∮m) is called Armature reaction.

The armature mmf produces two undesirable effects on the main field flux and these
are

1) Net distortion in the main field flux per pole

2) Distortion of the main field flux wave along the air-gap periphery.

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Effect of armature reaction

Due to armature reaction, air gap flux gets distorted (non-uniform flux distribution),
which is said to be cross magnetization.

Demagnetization (Reduction of net flux)

1) In generator, generated voltage and terminal voltage will decrease

2) In motor, speed is increased and torque is decreased (Since speed

and T α flux)

Under loaded condition (i.e., due to armature reaction), MNA shifts in the direction of
rotation for a generator and against the direction of rotation for a motor.

Cross magnetization effect of armature

reaction
1) The magnetic neutral axis will shift in the direction of generator rotation or in oppo-
site direction to motor rotation.

2) Iron losses will increase and therefore efficiency will decrease.

3) It causes delayed commutation (slow commutation), which causes sparking at the

brushes.

4) It leads to flash over as the armature coil existing under the trailing pole tip cuts
the maximum value of flux and due to this induced emf will be maximum and the
mica insulation will fail.

Remedies for cross magnetization

effect of armature reaction

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1. By using high reluctance pole tips, this is done by creating rectangular holes in the
pole shoes.

2. By chamfering the salient poles.

3. The effect of cross magnetization effect under the polar region can be reduced by
using the compensating winding.

Compensating winding
 They are placed in the slots made under the pole shoe.

 Compensating winding consists of a series of coils embedded in slots in the pole

faces.

 These coils are connected in series with the armature.

 The series – connected compensating windings produce a magnetic field, which

varies directly with armature current.

 This neutralizes the effect of cross magnetization effect of armature reaction.

Inter poles
 Inter poles are placed along the inter polar axis (Q - axis)

 It is connected in series with the armature winding

 The inter poles causes demagnetization at the trailing pole tip, magnetization at the
leading pole tip there by the air gap flux distribution nearly becomes a flat-topped
wave.

 Inter poles nullities cross magnetization effect of armature reaction and thereby
commutation is improved.

 The method of improving commutation with the help of inter poles is called as volt-
age commutation.

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Commutation
Commutation is the process of reversal of current in an armature coil through commu-
tation segments and brushes.

Linear commutation

 Current reversal takes place exactly within the commutation period then it is
said to be ideal or linear commutation or straight line commutation.

Over commutation

 When current reversal takes place before the commutation period then it is
said to be over commutation.

Under commutation

 When current reversal takes place after the commutation period then it is
said to be under commutation or delayed commutation or slow commutation.

Causes of under commutation

1) Reactance voltage

2) Cross magnetization effect (CME) of armature reaction

Commutation methods
Resistance commutation
(By using high carbon brush resistance)

 The brush resistance is in series with the coil under the commutation
process.

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 The voltage drop across the brush is equal to reactance voltage due to cross mag-
netizing effect, then the effects are said to be neutralized, commutation will im-
prove.

 This method will be suitable in small fractional kw machines.

Voltage (or) EMF commutation

 It is also known as interpoles, commutating poles.

Characteristics of DC generators
 There are total five (5) types of characteristics-

1) Open circuit (or) magnetization (or) no load characteristics

2) Load saturation characteristics

3) Internal characteristics

4) External characteristics

5) Compounding (or) armature (or) regulation curve characteristics

Separately excited DC generator

Where,

Vt is the terminal voltage

Eg is the generated voltage

Ra is the armature resistance

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No load characteristic

This characteristic gives the variation of armature generated EMF, E g with field
current If for zero armature current and constant speed.

Load characteristic

This characteristic gives the relation between terminal voltage Vt and field cur-
rent If for constant armature current and speed.

External characteristics

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Armature characteristics

This curve gives the variation of field current If with load current IL for constant terminal
voltage and speed.

Series field turns

Where,

Nf is field winding turns.

Characteristics of DC shunt generator

These generators are most frequently employed because of no separate source for
excitation is required.

No load characteristic
No load characteristic of shunt generator is similar to separately excited
generator

Internal and external characteristic

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Armature characteristics

The graph gives the variation of If with armature (or) load current.

Applications of shunt generator

1. It can be used as voltage source

2. Auxiliary power supplies

3. Battery charging

4. As an exciter to excite the field of synchronous machine

Characteristic of DC series generator

Where Rse is the series field resistance

Under no load condition induced emf is zero and DC generator has rising
characteristics

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 The shape of the external characteristics shows that the series generator is
a variable voltage generator. It is therefore never used as a voltage source.

 DC series generators are generally used as voltage boosters in DC trans-

mission line.

Characteristics of compound generator

i) Cumulative compound

a) Over compound (V > E)

b) Under compound (V < E)

c) Flat / level compound (V = E)

ii) Differential compound

1) No-load characteristics:

The no-load characteristics of a long shunt (or) short shunt compound

generator is the same as if it were a shunt generator.

2) External characteristic:

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3) Application of differential compound:

These generators used for welding purpose

4) Application of cumulative compound:

The voltage is more or less constant, this generator can be used as voltage source.

Auxiliary power supplies

Battery charging

External characteristics of various

types of DC generators

Testbook point
 Order of voltage regulation in descending order:

 Series > differential compound > over compound > shunt > separately > under
compound > flat compound

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Types of drives in DC motors

1) Constant speed drive

2) Constant power drive

3) Adjustable speed drive

a) Constant torque – Variable power drive

b) Constant power – Variable torque drive

Constant speed drive

Electromagnetic torque (Tem)

= TI (Inertial torque) + TB (Friction torque) + TL (Load torque)

Application:

- Fans, Air circulators (Forced air), centrifugal pumps and hydraulic pumps

- Water pumps, lathe machine, Iron industry

Constant Power drive

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Power = constant

Tw = constant

Characteristic is rectangular hyperbola

Applications:
1) Electric traction

2) Locomotives

3) Lifts

4) Hoists

5) Cranes

Adjustable speed drive

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Applications:

1) Steel mills

2) Rolling mills

3) Cement mill

4) Paper mills

5) Colliery winders

Speed (N) Vs Torque (T) characteristics

Applications:
 The speed of the DC shunt motor is constant, therefore it is used in lathes, drills,
boring mills, shapers, spinning and weaving machines etc.

Testbook Point
 The direction of rotation of DC shunt motor can be reversed by changing field ter-
minals or supply terminals.

 If both field terminals and supply terminals are reversal then the direction of rota-
tion will be same.

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DC series motor

Where,

Rse - series field resistance

Ia – Armature current

Vt – terminal voltage

Eb – back EMF

Ra – Armature resistance

Speed (N) v/s Armature current (Ia) characteristics:

In DC series motor

upto magnetic as (Ia ∝ ∮) saturation.

- Series motor is a variable flux machine.

- At over load condition field poles saturate and field flux becomes constant.

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Torque (T) v/s Armature current (Ia) characteristics

Torque of DC series motor T = Ka ∮ Ia

As ∮ ∝ Ia in DC series motor.

T ∝ I2a

As after saturation flux is constant

∴ T ∝ Ia

It will have straight line characteristics.

Speed (N) v/s Torque (T) characteristics

In series motor

T ∝ I2a ⇒ √T ∝ Ia

Also

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Applications:

Series motor is variable speed motor and has high starting torque. Therefore, they
are used in elevators, air compressors, electric tractions cranes, vacuum cleaners,
saving machine etc.

Testbook point
 Series motor never be started at no-load condition.

 Motor should be started with some load to keep the speed within limits.

DC compound motor

Where,

Rse is the series field resistance

Rsh is the shunt field resistance

Speed (N) v/s Armature current (Ia) characteristics

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Where,

∮sh is the shunt field flux

∮se is the series field flux

For differential compound motor resultant flux is

For cumulative compound motor resultant flux is

Torque (T) v/s Armature current (Ia) characteristics

Torque

“+” ve for cumulative compound motor.

“-” ve for differential compound motor.

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Speed (N) v/s torque (T) characteristics

Applications:

 A cumulative compound motor develops high starting torque and its no-load
speed is limited.

 Therefore, they are used for intermediate loads such as punching machine,
sealing machine, and printing machine.

 Differential compound motors are rarely used because of their poor torque
characteristics.

Comparison of all the motor

characteristics

If all the DC motors are designed with same rated torque at rated armature current.

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If all the motors are having same rated speed at rated current

Speed control of DC motors

 Speed of the DC motor depends on flux, armature resistance and applied voltage.

 Types of speed control

Flux (or) field control

DC shunt motor

 In shunt motor an additional resistance is added in series with the shunt field.

 This method is used for speed control above rated speed.

 In this flux control method, the machine behaves as constant power variable torque
drive.

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Series motor
Flux in series motor can be controlled by

i) Field diverter method:

An external resistance is added in parallel to the series field of DC series mo-

tor.

ii) Tapped field control:

Series field winding is tapped and according to the tapping speed of the motor
is varied.

Armature resistance control

 An external resistance is added in series with the armature of the DC shunt

motor.

 By varying the resistance speed of the motor is controlled.

 This method is useful for controlling the speed below rated speed.

 The machine behaves as constant torque variable power drive.

 Wide range of speed control is not possible in this method.

Armature voltage control

 This method is used for large size DC motors

 Voltage across the armature is controlled and the speed can be controlled only be-
low rated speed because the voltage can’t be controlled to above rated value due
to the insulation failure of winding.

 This method is generally used for separately excited motor and not suitable for
shunt motor.

Ward – Leonard speed control

 In this method the motor is operating as separately excited motor

 Both above and below speed controls are possible in this method

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Advantages

 The speed of the motor can be controlled in wide range.

 Simplicity, speed can be controlled in any direction and good efficiency.

Disadvantages

 High initial cost

Electric braking

Dynamic braking

 In this method the armature of the DC shunt motor is disconnected from the
supply and connected to an external resistance

 The total kinetic energy present in the motor is dissipated by resistor.

Plugging

 In this method of braking the armature terminals are reversed so that motor
tends to run in opposite direction.

 Due to reversal of armature connections, applied voltage V and Eb start act-

ing in the same direction

Regenerative braking
When Eb < V → the machine will be in motoring mode

Eb > V → Regenerative braking operation

 In motoring operation, it consumes the power from bus bar.

 If Eb > V, then power flow is reversed i.e. direction of armature current Ia is re-
versed, therefore torque is reversed and braking takes place

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Losses in DC machine

Constant losses

 The losses which remains constant at all loads

 Iron loss

 Mechanical losses

 Shunt field losses

Variable losses

 The losses which vary with load

 Copper loss in armature winding

 Copper loss in series field winding

Testing of DC machine

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Brake Test

It is used to determine the efficiency of comparatively small motors,

The motor is loaded directly by means of mechanical brake and is called direct meth-
od.

T = 9.81 (S1 – S2) × r

N–m

Where,

S1, S2 are reading of spring balances in kg.

r is the radius of brake drum.

Output power:

Where,

N is the speed in rpm

T is the torque

Efficiency:

The entire power is waited in the form of frictional loss.

Swinburne’s test

This method is used for calculating losses and efficiency and it is called indirect test.

It is suitable for shunt and compound motor and not for series motor.

For generators:

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Where,

Vt is the terminal voltage,

Ia is the armature current,

For motor:

Ra is the armature resistance,

Wc is copper loss,

IL is load current

Actual performance of the machine is not verified

Hopkinson’s test
 Two identical DC machines are used, one acts as generator and other acts as mo-
tor.

 Power drawn from the supply is only used to mat the losses.

 Large rating of machine can also be tested.

 Temperature rise is verified, commutation is verified, stray load losses are consid-
ered

For generator:

For motor:

Where,

ηg is the efficiency of the generator

Vt is the terminal voltage

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Iag is the armature current of the generator

Rag is the armature resistance of the generator

Ishg is the shunt field current of the generator

Ws is the stray load losses

ηm is the efficiency of the motor

Iam is the armature current of the motor

Ishm is the shunt field current of the motor

Ram is the armature resistance of the motor

Retardation test
 This test is best suitable for shunt and compound machines but not for series ma-
chine since this is no load test

 Stray load loss of the machine is calculated

 It is a predetermine test

Field Test

 This test is suitable for series machine. Two identical series motors are required,
one acting as generator and other as motor.

 Stray losses are measured and equally divided for both the machine

In generator

Where,

V2 is the voltage applied across the generator

I2 is the current supplied to the generator

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Rseg is the series field resistance of generator

In motor:

Where,

V is the voltage across motor.

I1 is the armature current supplied to motor.

Rsem is the resistance of series field of motor.

DC motor starters
Starters are used to protect DC motors from damage that can be caused by very high
current and torque during startup.

There are two types of DC motor starters.

1. 3-point starter

2. 4-point starter

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