GKM

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

CHENNAI – 600063
(An ISO 9001:2008 Certified & NBA Accredited Institution)

LABORATORY MANUAL

BM6712

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING LABORATORY

(VII SEMESTER – BME)

DEPARTMENT
OF
BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
Prepared by:

B.Reshma / Assistant Professor

 BM6712 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING LABORATORY

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Simulation using MATLAB

1. Image sampling and quantization

2. Analysis of spatial and intensity resolution of images.
3. Intensity transformation of images.
4. DFT analysis of images
5. Transforms (Walsh, Hadamard, DCT, Haar)
6. Histogram Processing
7. Image Enhancement-Spatial filtering
8. Image Enhancement- Filtering in frequency domain
9. Image segmentation – Edge detection, line detection and point detection
10. Basic Morphological operations.
11. Basic Thresholding functions
12. Analysis of images with different color models.

MINI PROJECTS:

1. Applications to Biometric and security

2. Applications to Medical Images
3. Texture analysis with statistical properties
4. Boundary detection
 INDEX

S.No Title of the Experiment

Introduction to MATLAB

1 Image sampling and quantization

2 Analysis of spatial and intensity resolution of images.

3 Intensity transformation of images.

4 DFT analysis of images

5a Walsh Transform

5b Hadamard Transform

5c DCT Transform

5d Haar Transform

6 Histogram Processing

7 Image Enhancement-Spatial filtering

8 Image Enhancement- Filtering in frequency domain

9a Edge detection

9b line detection

9c point detection
10 Basic Morphological operations

11 Basic Thresholding functions

12 Analysis of images with different color models

Introduction
MATLAB stands for MATrix LABoratory and the software is built up around vectors and
matrices. It is a technical computing environment for high performance numeric computation
and visualization. It integrates numerical analysis, matrix computation, signal processing and
graphics in an easy-to-use environment, where problems and solutions are expressed just as they
are written mathematically, without traditional programming. MATLAB is an interactive system
whose basic data element is a matrix that does not require dimensioning. It enables us to solve
many numerical problems in a fraction of the time that it would take to write a program and
execute in a language such as FORTRAN, BASIC, or C. It also features a family of application
specific solutions, called toolboxes. Areas in which toolboxes are available include signal
processing, image processing, control systems design, dynamic systems simulation, systems
identification, neural networks, wavelength communication and others. It can handle linear, non-
linear, continuous-time, discrete-time, multivariable and multirate systems.

How to start MATLAB

Choose the submenu "Programs" from the "Start" menu. From the "Programs" menu, open the
"MATLAB" submenu. From the "MATLAB" submenu, choose "MATLAB".

Procedure
1. Open Matlab.
2. File New Script.
3. Type the program in untitled window
4. File Save type filename.m in Matlab workspace path.
5. Debug Run.
6. Output will be displayed at Figure dialog box.

Library Functions
clc:
Clear command window
Clears the command window and homes the cursor.
clear all:
Removes all variables from the workspace.
close all:
Closes all the open figure windows.

exp:
Y = exp(X) returns the exponential ex for each element in array X.

linespace:
y = linspace(x1,x2) returns a row vector of 100 evenly spaced points between x1 and x2.
rand:
X = rand returns a single uniformly distributed random number in the interval (0,1).
ones:
X = ones(n) returns an n-by-n matrix of ones.

zeros:
X = zeros(n) returns an n-by-n matrix of zeros.
plot:
plot(X,Y) creates a 2-D line plot of the data in Y versus the corresponding values in X.

subplot:
subplot(m,n,p) divides the current figure into an m-by-n grid and creates an axes for a subplot in
the position specified by p.
stem:
stem(Y) plots the data sequence, Y, as stems that extend from a baseline along the x-axis. The
data values are indicated by circles terminating each stem.

title:
title(str) adds the title consisting of a string, str, at the top and in the center of the current axes.

xlabel:
xlabel(str) labels the x-axis of the current axes with the text specified by str.

ylabel:
ylabel(str) labels the y-axis of the current axes with the string, str.

A Summary of MATLAB Commands Used

imread Read image from graphics file

imwrite Write image to graphics file
imfinfo Information about graphics file
imshow Display image
implay Play movies, videos, or image sequences
gray2ind Convert grayscale or binary image to indexed image
ind2gray Convert indexed image to grayscale image
mat2gray Convert matrix to grayscale image
rgb2gray Convert RGB image or colormap to grayscale
imbinarize Binarize image by thresholding
adapthresh Adaptive image threshold using local first-order statistics
otsuthresh Global histogram threshold using Otsu's method
im2uint16 Convert image to 16-bit unsigned integers
im2uint8 Convert image to 8-bit unsigned integers
imcrop Crop image
imresize Resize image
imrotate Rotate image
imadjust Adjust image intensity values or colormap
imcontrast Adjust Contrast tool
imsharpen Sharpen image using unsharp masking
histeq Enhance contrast using histogram equalization
adapthisteq Contrast-limited adaptive histogram equalization (CLAHE)
imhistmatch Adjust histogram of image to match N-bin histogram of reference image
imnoise Add noise to image
imfilter N-D filtering of multidimensional images
fspecial Create predefined 2-D filter
weiner2 2-D adaptive noise-removal filtering
medfilt2 2-D median filtering
ordfilt2 2-D order-statistic filtering
imfill Fill image regions and holes
imclose Morphologically close image
imdilate Dilate image
imerode Erode image
imopen Morphologically open image
imreconstruct Morphological reconstruction
watershed Watershed transform
dct2 2-D discrete cosine transform
hough Hough transform
graydist Gray-weighted distance transform of grayscale image
fft2 2-D fast Fourier transform
ifftshift Inverse FFT shift
imcomplement Complement image
immultiply Multiply two images or multiply image by constant
imsubtract Subtract one image from another or subtract constant from image
imdivide Divide one image into another or divide image by constant
imadd Add two images or add constant to image
Ex. No.1 IMAGE SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION

AIM
To perform image sampling and quantization using Matlab.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY
In order to become suitable for digital processing, an image function f(x,y) must be digitized
both spatially and in amplitude. Typically, a frame grabber or digitizer is used to sample and
quantize the analogue video signal. Hence in order to create an image which is digital, we need
to covert continuous data into digital form. There are two steps in which it is done:
 Sampling
 Quantization
The sampling rate determines the spatial resolution of the digitized image, while the quantization
level determines the number of grey levels in the digitized image. A magnitude of the sampled
image is expressed as a digital value in image processing. The transition between continuous
values of the image function and its digital equivalent is called quantization.
The number of quantization levels should be high enough for human perception of fine shading
details in the image. The occurrence of false contours is the main problem in image which has
been quantized with insufficient brightness levels.

PROGRAM
% Uniform Quantization
a=imread('cameraman.tif');
subplot(2,2,1)
imshow(a);
title(‘Original image’);
subplot(2,2,2);
imhist(a);
title(‘Histogram of original image’);
[m n]=size(a);
for i=1:1:m
for j=1:1:n
if a(i,j)<16 a(i,j)=7;
elseif a(i,j)>=16 && a(i,j)<32 a(i,j)=23;
elseif a(i,j)>=32 && a(i,j)<48 a(i,j)=39;
elseif a(i,j)>=48 && a(i,j)<64 a(i,j)=55;
elseif a(i,j)>=64 && a(i,j)<80 a(i,j)=71;
elseif a(i,j)>=80 && a(i,j)<96 a(i,j)=87;
elseif a(i,j)>=96 && a(i,j)<96 a(i,j)=103;
elseif a(i,j)>=112 && a(i,j)<128 a(i,j)=119;
elseif a(i,j)>=128 && a(i,j)<144 a(i,j)=135;
elseif a(i,j)>=144 && a(i,j)<160 a(i,j)=151;
elseif a(i,j)>=160 && a(i,j)<176 a(i,j)=167;
elseif a(i,j)>=176 && a(i,j)<192 a(i,j)=183;
elseif a(i,j)>=192 && a(i,j)<208 a(i,j)=199;
elseif a(i,j)>=208 && a(i,j)<224 a(i,j)=215;
elseif a(i,j)>=224 && a(i,j)<240 a(i,j)=231;
elseif a(i,j)>=240 && a(i,j)<256 a(i,j)=247;
end
end
end
subplot(2,2,3)
imshow(a);
title(‘Quantised image’)
subplot(2,2,4)
imhist(a);
title(‘Histogram of quantized image’)

OUTPUT
Original image Histogram of original image
1000

500

0
0 100 200

Quantised image Histogram of quantized image

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200

RESULT
Thus quantization is performed on image using Matlab.
Ex. No.2 ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL AND INTENSITY RESOLUTION OF IMAGES

AIM
To analyze spatial and intensity resolution of images using Matlab.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY
Spatial resolution
Spatial resolution can be defined as the smallest discernible detail in an image. In other way
spatial resolution is defined as the number of independent pixels values per inch. Since the
spatial resolution refers to clarity, so for different devices, different measure has been made to
measure it.
For example
 Dots per inch
 Lines per inch
 Pixels per inch
They are discussed in more detail in the next tutorial but just a brief introduction has been given
below.
Dots per inch
Dots per inch or DPI is usually used in monitors.
Lines per inch
Lines per inch or LPI is usually used in laser printers.
Pixel per inch
Pixel per inch or PPI is measure for different devices such as tablets , Mobile phones e.t.c.

PROGRAM
SPATIAL RESOLUTION
z=imread('cameraman.tif');
z=imresize(z,[1024,1024]);
[r c]=size(z);
l=1;
for i=1:2:r
k=1;
for j=1:2:c
a(l,k)=z(i,j);
k=k+1;
end
l=l+1;
end
l=1;
for i=1:4:r
k=1;
for j=1:4:c
b(l,k)=z(i,j);
k=k+1;
end
l=l+1;
end
l=1;
for i=1:8:r
k=1;
for j=1:8:c
e(l,k)=z(i,j);
k=k+1;
end
l=l+1;
end
l=1;
for i=1:16:r
k=1;
for j=1:16:c
d(l,k)=z(i,j);
k=k+1;
end
l=l+1;
end
subplot(2,2,1),imshow(a)
subplot(2,2,2),imshow(b)
subplot(2,2,3),imshow(e)
subplot(2,2,4),imshow(d)

INTENSITY RESOLUTION
% Reading the image and converting it to a gray-level image.
I=imread('saturn.png');
I=rgb2gray(I);
% A 256 gray-level image:
[I256,map256]=gray2ind(I,256);
subplot(2,2,1);
imshow(I256,map256);
% A 128 gray-level image:
[I128,map128]=gray2ind(I,128);
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(I128,map128);
% A 64 gray-level image:
[I64,map64]=gray2ind(I,64)
subplot(2,2,3);
imshow(I64,map64);
% A 32 gray-level image:
[I32,map32]=gray2ind(I,32);
subplot(2,2,4);
imshow(I32,map32);
% A 16 gray-level image:
[I16,map16]=gray2ind(I,16);
figure,
subplot(2,2,1);
imshow(I16,map16);
% A 8 gray-level image:
[I8,map8]=gray2ind(I,8);
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(I8,map8);
% A 4 gray-level image:
[I4,map4]=gray2ind(I,4);
subplot(2,2,3);
imshow(I4,map4);
% A 2 gray-level image:
[I2,map2]=gray2ind(I,2);
subplot(2,2,4);
imshow(I2,map2);

OUTPUT
SPATIAL RESOLUTION
INTENSITY RESOLUTION

32 64
2 4

128 256 8 16

RESULT:
Thus analysis of spatial and intensity resolution is performed in image using Matlab.
Ex. No.3 INTENSITY TRANSFORMATION OF IMAGES.

AIM
To perform intensity transformation of images using Matlab.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY
Photographic Negative:
The negative of an image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is obtained by using the negative
transformation
s=L-1-r
Reversing the intensity levels of an image produces the equivalent of a photographic negative.
This type of processing is suited for enhancing white or gray detail embedded in dark regions of
an image, especially when the black areas are dominant in size.

Gamma Transformation
With Gamma Transformations, it is possible to curve the grayscale components either to brighten
the intensity (when gamma is less than one) or darken the intensity (when gamma is greater than
one).

Logarithmic Transformation
The general form of the log transformation
s=c log (1+r)
Where c is a constant and it is assumed that r ≥ 0. The shape of the log curve shows that the
transformation maps a narrow range of low gray-level values in the input image into a wider
range of output levels. The opposite is true of higher values of input levels. This transformation
is used to expand the values of dark pixels in an image while compressing the higher-level
values. The opposite is true of the inverse log transformation.

Contrast stretching Transformation

Contrast-stretching transformations increase the contrast between the darks and the lights.
PROGRAM
1. Photographic Negative
I=imread('cameraman.tif');
imshow(I)
J=imcomplement(I);
figure, imshow(J)

2. Gamma Transformation
I=imread('tire.tif');
subplot(2,2,1);
imshow(I)
J=imadjust(I,[],[],1);
J2=imadjust(I,[],[],3);
J3=imadjust(I,[],[],0.4);
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(J);
subplot(2,2,3);
imshow(J2);
subplot(2,2,4);
imshow(J3);

3. Logarithmic Transformation
tire = imread('tire.tif');
d = im2double(tire);
figure, imshow(d);
%log on domain [0,1]
f = d;
c = 1/log(1+1);
j1 = c*log(1+f);
figure, imshow(j1);
%log on domain [0, 255]
f = d*255;
c = 1/log(1+255);
j2 = c*log(1+f);
figure, imshow(j2);
%log on domain [0, 2^16]
f = d*2^16;
c = 1/log(1+2^16);
j3 = c*log(1+f);
figure, imshow(j3);
4. Contrast Stretching with changing E
I=imread('tire.tif');
I2=im2double(I);
m=mean2(I2)
contrast1=1./(1+(m./(I2+eps)).^4);
contrast2=1./(1+(m./(I2+eps)).^5);
contrast3=1./(1+(m./(I2+eps)).^10);
imshow(I2)
figure,imshow(contrast1)
figure,imshow(contrast2)
figure,imshow(contrast3)

5. Contrast Stretching with changing m

I=imread('tire.tif');
I2=im2double(I);
contrast1=1./(1+(0.2./(I2+eps)).^4)
contrast2=1./(1+(0.5./(I2+eps)).^4);
contrast3=1./(1+(0.7./(I2+eps)).^4);
imshow(I2)
figure,imshow(contrast1)
figure,imshow(contrast2)
figure,imshow(contrast3)

OUTPUT
Photographic Negative
Original Image Photographic Negative
Gamma Transformation Logarithmic Transformation
Original Image Gamma=1

Original Image log on domain [0, 1]

Gamma=3 Gamma=0.4
log on domain [0, 255] log on domain [0, 65535]

Contrast Stretching
Changing E Changing m

Original image m=0.2

Original Image E=4

E=5 E=10 m=0.5 m=0.7

RESULT
Thus intensity transformation of images is performed using Matlab.
Ex. No.4 DFT ANALYSIS OF IMAGES

AIM
To apply Discrete Fourier Transform on image and study its properties using Matlab.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
PC with Matlab

THEORY
The Fourier Transform is an important image processing tool which is used to decompose
an image into its sine and cosine components. The output of the transformation represents the
image in the Fourier or frequency domain, while the input image is the spatial domain
equivalent. In the Fourier domain image, each point represents a particular frequency contained
in the spatial domain image.
The Fourier Transform is used in a wide range of applications, such as image analysis,
image filtering, image reconstruction and image compression.
The DFT is the sampled Fourier Transform and therefore does not contain all frequencies
forming an image, but only a set of samples which is large enough to fully describe the spatial
domain image. The number of frequencies corresponds to the number of pixels in the spatial
domain image, i.e. the image in the spatial and Fourier domains are of the same size.
For a square image of size N×N, the two-dimensional DFT is given by:

where f(a,b) is the image in the spatial domain and the exponential term is the basis function
corresponding to each point F(k,l) in the Fourier space.
The inverse Fourier transform is given by:

PROGRAM
a=imread('Coins.png');
subplot(2,3,1);
imshow(a);
title('Original');
b=im2double(a);
c=fft2(b);
subplot(2,3,2);
imshow(c);
title('FFT');
d=ifft2(c);
subplot(2,3,3);
imshow(d);
title('IFFT');
mag=abs(c);
subplot(2,3,4);
imshow(mag);
title('Magnitude Plot');
ang=angle(c);
subplot(2,3,5);
imshow(ang);
title('Phase Plot');
ROTATION PROPERTY:
a=imread('coins.png');
subplot(2,2,1);
imshow(a);
a1=im2double(a);
b=fft2(a1);
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(b);
c=imrotate(a1,90);
subplot(2,2,3);
imshow(c);
d=fft2(c);
subplot(2,2,4);
imshow(d);

OUTPUT
Original FFT IFFT

Magnitude Plot Phase Plot

RESULT
Thus Discrete Fourier Transform is applied on image and its properties is studied using Matlab.
Ex. No.5a WALSH TRANSFORM

AIM
To implement Walsh transform on image.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY

PROGRAM
% Getting the name and extension of the image file from the user.
a=imread(‘cameraman.tif’);
N=length(a);
% Computing Walsh Transform of the image file.
n=log2(N);
n=1+fix(n);
f=ones(N,N);
for x=1:N;
for u=1:N
p=dec2bin(x-1,n);
q=dec2bin(u-1,n);
for i=1:n;
f(x,u)=f(x,u)*((-1)^(p(n+1-i)*q(i)));
end;
end;
end;
F=(1/N)*f*double(a)*f;
% Shifting the Fourier spectrum to the center of the frequency square.
for i=1:N/2; for j=1:N/2
G(i+N/2,j+N/2)=F(i,j);
end;
end
for i=N/2+1:N;
for j=1:N/2
G(i-N/2,j+N/2)=F(i,j);
end;
end
for i=1:N/2;
for j=N/2+1:N
G(i+N/2,j-N/2)=F(i,j);
end;
end
for i=N/2+1:N;
for j=N/2+1:N;
G(i-N/2,j-N/2)=F(i,j);
end;
end;
% Computing and scaling the logarithmic Walsh spectrum.
H=log(1+abs(G));
for i=1:N
H(i,:)=H(i,:)*255/abs(max(H(i,:)));
end
% Changing the color map to gray scale (8 bits).
colormap(gray(255));
% Showing the main image and its Walsh spectrum.
subplot(2,2,1),image(a),title('Main image');
subplot(2,2,2),image(abs(G)),title('Walsh spectrum');
subplot(2,2,3),image(H),title('Logarithmic scaled Walsh spectrum');
OUTPUT
Main image Walsh spectrum

50 50

100 100

150 150

200 200

250 250
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250

Logarithmic scaled Walsh spectrum

50

100

150

200

250
50 100 150 200 250

RESULT
Thus Walsh transform is implemented in the image using Matlab.
Ex. No.5b HADAMARD TRANSFORM

AIM
To implement Hadamard transform on image.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY

PROGRAM
% Getting the name and extension of the image file from the user
a=imread('cameraman.tif');
N=length(a);
%Computing Hadamard Transform of the image file
n=log2(N);
n=1+fix(n);
f=ones(N,N);
for x=1:N;
for u=1:N
p=dec2bin(x-1,n);
q=dec2bin(u-1,n);
for i=1:n;
f(x,u)=f(x,u)*((-1)^(p(n+1-i)*q(n+1-i)));
end;
end;
end;
F=(1/N)*f*double(a)*f;
% Shifting the Fourier spectrum to the center of the frequency square.
for i=1:N/2;
for j=1:N/2
G(i+N/2,j+N/2)=F(i,j);
end;
end
for i=N/2+1:N;
for j=1:N/2
G(i-N/2,j+N/2)=F(i,j);
end;
end
for i=1:N/2;
for j=N/2+1:N
G(i+N/2,j-N/2)=F(i,j);
end;
end
for i=N/2+1:N;
for j=N/2+1:N;
G(i-N/2,j-N/2)=F(i,j);
end;
end;
% Computing and scaling the logarithmic Hadamard spectrum.
H=log(1+abs(G));
for i=1:N
H(i,:)=H(i,:)*255/abs(max(H(i,:)));
end
% Changing the color map to gray scale (8 bits).
colormap(gray(255));
% Showing the main image and its Hadamard spectrum.
subplot(2,2,1),image(a),title('Main image');
subplot(2,2,2),image(abs(G)),title('Hadamard spectrum');
subplot(2,2,3),image(H),title('Logarithmic scaled Hadamard spectrum');
OUTPUT
Main image Hadamard spectrum

50 50

100 100

150 150

200 200

250 250
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250

Logarithmic scaled Hadamard spectrum

50

100

150

200

250
50 100 150 200 250

RESULT
Thus Hadamard transform is implemented in the image using Matlab.
Ex. No.5c DISCRETE COSINE TRANSFORM

AIM
To apply Discrete Cosine Transform on image using Matlab.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY

PROGRAM
a=imread(‘cameraman.tif’);
N=length(a);
F=dct2(double(a));
% Shifting the Fourier spectrum to the center of the frequency square.
for i=1:N/2;
for j=1:N/2
G(i+N/2,j+N/2)=F(i,j);
end;
end
for i=N/2+1:N;
for j=1:N/2
G(i-N/2,j+N/2)=F(i,j);
end;
end
for i=1:N/2;
for j=N/2+1:N
G(i+N/2,j-N/2)=F(i,j);
end;
end
for i=N/2+1:N;
for j=N/2+1:N;
G(i-N/2,j-N/2)=F(i,j);
end;
end;
% Computing and scaling the logarithmic Cosine spectrum.
H=log(1+abs(G));
for i=1:N
H(i,:)=H(i,:)*255/abs(max(H(i,:)));
end
% Changing the color map to gray scale (8 bits).
colormap(gray(255));
% Showing the main image and its Cosine spectrum.
subplot(2,2,1),image(a),title('Main image');
subplot(2,2,2),image(abs(G)),title('Cosine spectrum');
subplot(2,2,3),image(H),title('Logarithmic scaled Cosine spectrum');

OUTPUT
Main image Cosine spectrum

50 50

100 100

150 150

200 200

250 250
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250

Logarithmic scaled Cosine spectrum

50

100

150

200

250
50 100 150 200 250

RESULT
Thus cosine transform is implemented in the image using Matlab.
Ex. No.5d HAAR TRANSFORM

AIM
To apply Harr Transform on image using Matlab.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY

PROGRAM
a=imread('cameraman.tif');
N=length(a);
for i=1:N;
p=fix(log2(i));
q=i-(2^p);
for j=1:N
z=(j-1)/N;
if(z>=(q-1)/(2^p))&&(z<(q-1/2)/2^p)
f(i,j)=(1/(sqrt(N)))*(2^(p/2));
elseif(z>=(q-1)/(2^p))&&(z<(q/2)/2^p)
f(i,j)=(1/(sqrt(N)))*(-2^(p/2));
else f(i,j)=0;
end;
end;
end;
F=f*double(a)*f;
% Changing the color map to gray scale (8 bits).
colormap(gray(255));
% Showing the main image and its Harr spectrum.
subplot(2,2,1),image(a),title('Main image');
subplot(2,2,2),image(abs(F)),title('Harr spectrum');

OUTPUT
Main image Harr spectrum

50 50

100 100

150 150

200 200

250 250
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250

RESULT
Thus Harr transform is applied on image using Matlab.
Ex. No.6 HISTOGRAM PROCESSING

AIM
To study the histogram and histogram equalization.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY
The histogram of a digital image with gray values r0, r1….rL-1 is the discrete function
P(rk)=nk/n
nk : Number of pixels with gray value rk .
n: Total number of pixels in the image
The function P(rk) represents the fraction of the total number of pixels with gray value rk.
Histogram provides a global description of the appearance of the image. The shape of the
histogram provides useful information for contrast enhancement. The histogram equalization is
an approach to enhance a given image. The approach is to design a transformation T(.) such that
the gray values in the output is uniformly distributed in [0,1].In terms of histograms, the output
image will have all gray values in equal proportion.

PROGRAM
% histogram without inbuilt function.
histo=zeros(1,256);
I=imread('cameraman.tif');
imshow(I);
si=size(I);
for i=1:si(1)
for j=1:si(2)
for g=1:256
if I(i,j)==g
histo(g)=histo(g)+1;
end
end
end
end
figure,stem(histo)

%histogram with inbuilt function

x=imread(‘cameraman.tif’);
imhist(x);
%histogram equalization
I=imread('cameraman.tif');
a=histeq(I);
imshow(a);
figure,imhist(a)

OUTPUT

Histogram

Input Image
Histogram
1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Histogram Equalization

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0 50 100 150 200 250

RESULT:
Thus the histogram and its equalization are performed using Matlab.
Ex. No.7 IMAGE ENHANCEMENT BY SPATIAL FILTERING

AIM:
To perform image enhancement by spatial filtering.

SOFTWARE
MATLAB

THEORY:

In Spatial filtering, the filtering operations are performed directly on the pixels of an
image. There are two types of spatial filters, linear and non linear filters. The mechanics of
spatial filtering is that it is the process which consists of simply moving the filter mask from
point to point in an image. At each point (x,y) the response of the filter at that point is calculated
using a predefined relationship. For linear spatial filtering, the response is given by a sum of
products of the filter coefficients and the corresponding image pixels in the area spanned by the
filter mask. Smoothing filters are used for blurring and for noise reduction. The output of a
smoothing linear spatial filter is simply the average of the pixels contained in the neighbourhood
of the filter mask. These filters are called averaging or lowpass filters.
Order statistics filters are non-linear spatial filters whose response is based on ordering
the pixels contained in the image area encompassed by the filter and then replacing the value of
the center pixel with the value determined by the ranking result. Median filter replaces the value
of a pixel with the median of the graylevels in the neighbourhood of the pixel.

PROGRAM
Average
i=imread('cameraman.tif');
imshow(i);
w=fspecial('average',[3 3]);
g=imfilter(i,w,'symmetric');
figure,imshow(g,[])

Gaussian
i=imread('cameraman.tif');
w=fspecial('gaussian',[3 3],0.5);
g=imfilter(i,w,'symmetric');
imshow(g,[])

Laplacian
i=imread('cameraman.tif');
w=fspecial('laplacian', 0.5);
g=imfilter(i,w,'symmetric');
imshow(g,[])

Sobel
i=imread('cameraman.tif');
w=fspecial('sobel');
g=imfilter(i,w,'symmetric');
imshow(g,[])

Non linear order statistic filter

i=imread('cameraman.tif');
h=ordfilt2(i,1,ones(3,3));
h1=ordfilt2(i,3*3,ones(3,3));
h2=ordfilt2(i,median(1:3*3),ones(3,3));
subplot(2,2,1)
imshow(i);
subplot(2,2,2)
imshow(h,[]);
subplot(2,2,3)
imshow(h1,[]);
subplot(2,2,4)
imshow(h2,[]);

Median Filter
g=imread('cameraman.tif');
m=medfilt2(g,[3 3]);
imshow(m,[]);
OUTPUT

Original Image Average

Gaussian Laplacian
 Sobel Median filter

Original Image Order statistic filter (1)

Order statistic filter (2) Order statistic filter (3)

RESULT
Thus spatial filtering is performed on image using Matlab.
Ex. No.8a FREQUENCY DOMAIN FILTERS FROM SPATIAL DOMAIN

AIM
To obtain frequency domain filters from spatial domain.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY
Filtering in the frequency domain consists of modifying the Fourier transform of an image and
then computing the inverse transform to obtain the processed result.
Thus a given image of digital f(x,y) of size M x N the basic filtering equation in which interested
is in the form
g(x,y)=F-1[H(u,v) F(u,v)]
F-1 – IDFT, F(u,v) is the DFT of input image f(x,y)
H(u,v) – Filter function
g(x,y) – Filtered (output) image

PROGRAM
Average
f=imread(‘cameraman.tif’);
h=fspecial(‘average’,[5 5]);
Fs=size(f);
F=fft2(f);
H=freqz2(h,Fs(1),Fs(2));
G=F.*H;
g=ifft2(G);
imshow(real(g),[]);
figure,imshow(abs(H));

Gaussian
f=imread(‘cameraman.tif’);
h=fspecial(‘gaussian’,[3 3],2);
Fs=size(f);
F=fft2(f);
H=freqz2(h,Fs(1),Fs(2));
G=F.*H;
g=ifft2(G);
imshow(real(g),[]);
figure,imshow(abs(H));
Sobel
f=imread(‘cameraman.tif’);
h=fspecial(‘sobel’);
Fs=size(f);
F=fft2(f);
H=freqz2(h,Fs(1),Fs(2));
G=F.*H;
g=ifft2(G);
imshow(real(g),[]);
figure,imshow(abs(H));

OUTPUT
Average

Gaussian
Sobel

RESULT
Thus frequency domain filters are obtained from spatial domain.
Ex. No.8b GENERATING FILTERS DIRECTLY IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN

AIM
To generate filters directly in the frequency domain using Matlab.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY
Frequency filtering is based on the Fourier Transform. There are basically three different
kinds of filters: lowpass, highpass and bandpass filters.
A low-pass filter attenuates high frequencies and retains low frequencies unchanged. The
result in the spatial domain is equivalent to that of a smoothing filter. A highpass filter, on the
other hand, yields edge enhancement or edge detection in the spatial domain, because edges
contain many high frequencies. Areas of rather constant graylevel consist of mainly low
frequencies and are therefore suppressed. A bandpass attenuates very low and very high
frequencies, but retains a middle range band of frequencies. Bandpass filtering can be used to
enhance edges (suppressing low frequencies) while reducing the noise at the same time
(attenuating high frequencies).

Ideal Lowpass Filter

It is a filter that cuts off all high frequency components of the Fourier Transform that are at a
distance greater than a specified distance D0 from the origin of the transform. The transfer
function is
1 ( , )≤ 0
( , )= 0 ( , )> 0

Where ( , ) = [( − /2) + ( − /2 )]1/2

Butterworth Lowpass Filter

The transfer function of a butterworth lowpass filter of order n, and with cutoff frequency at a
distance D0 from the origin is
1
( , )=
1 + [ ( , )/ ]

Gaussian Lowpass Filter

The form of Gaussian filters in two dimensions is given by
( , )/
( , )=

The transfer function of high pass filter is obtained by H hp(u,v)=1-Hlp(u,v)

PROGRAM
Butterworth Low Pass:
clear;
clc;
img=imread('Coins.png');
[X,Y]=size(img);
N=input('Order of Filter=');
x=ceil(X/2);
y=ceil(Y/2);
rad=26;
for i=1:X
for j=1:Y
d(i,j)=sqrt((i-x).^2+(j-y).^2);
h(i,j)=1/(1+((d(i,j))/rad).^(2*N));
end
end
fft1=fftshift(fft2(img));
fil=h.*fft1;
fin=ifft2(fil);
fin1=uint8(fin);
subplot(2,2,1);
imshow(img);
title('Original');
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(fin1);
title('After LPF');
subplot(2,2,3);
surf(h);
title('LPF in 3D');
subplot(2,2,4);
imshow(h);
title('LPF as Image');

Butterworth High Pass:

clear;
clc;
img=imread('Coins.png');
[X,Y]=size(img);
N=input('Order of Filter=');
x=ceil(X/2);
y=ceil(Y/2);
rad=26;
for i=1:X
for j=1:Y
d(i,j)=sqrt((i-x).^2+(j-y).^2);
h(i,j)=1/(1+(rad/d(i,j)).^(2*N));
end
end
fft1=fftshift(fft2(img));
fil=h.*fft1;
fin=ifft2(fil);
fin1=uint8(fin);
subplot(2,2,1);
imshow(img);
title('Original');
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(fin1);
title('After HPF');
subplot(2,2,3);
surf(h);
title('HPF in 3D');
subplot(2,2,4);
imshow(h);
title('HPF as Image');

Gaussian Low Pass Filter:

clear;
clc;
img=imread('Coins.png');
[X,Y]=size(img);
N=input('Order of Filter=');
x=ceil(X/2);
y=ceil(Y/2);
rad=26;
for i=1:X
for j=1:Y
d(i,j)=sqrt((i-x).^2+(j-y).^2);
h(i,j)=exp(-(d(i,j).^2)/(2*((rad).^2)));
end
end
fft1=fftshift(fft2(img));
fil=h.*fft1;
fin=ifft2(fil);
fin1=uint8(fin);
subplot(2,2,1);
imshow(img);
title('Original');
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(fin1);
title('After Gaussian LPF');
subplot(2,2,3);
surf(h);
title('Gaussian LPF in 3D');
subplot(2,2,4);
imshow(h);
title('Gaussian LPF as Image');

Gaussian High Pass Filter:

clear;
clc;
img=imread('Coins.png');
[X,Y]=size(img);
N=input('Order of Filter=');
x=ceil(X/2);
y=ceil(Y/2);
rad=26;
for i=1:X
for j=1:Y
d(i,j)=sqrt((i-x).^2+(j-y).^2);
h(i,j)=1-exp(-(d(i,j).^2)/(2*((rad).^2)));
end
end
fft1=fftshift(fft2(img));
fil=h.*fft1;
fin=ifft2(fil);
fin1=uint8(fin);
subplot(221);
imshow(img);
title('Original');
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(fin1);
title('After Gaussian HPF');
subplot(2,2,3);
surf(h);
title('Gaussian HPF in 3D');
subplot(2,2,4);
imshow(h);
title('Gaussian HPF as Image');

Ideal Low Pass Filter:

clear;
clc;
img=imread('Coins.png');
[X,Y]=size(img);
N=input('Order of Filter=');
x=ceil(X/2);
y=ceil(Y/2);
rad=26;
for i=1:X
for j=1:Y
d(i,j)=sqrt((i-x).^2+(j-y).^2);
h(i,j)=double(d(i,j)<=rad);
end
end
fft1=fftshift(fft2(img));
fil=h.*fft1;
fin=ifft2(fil);
fin1=uint8(fin);
subplot(2,2,1);
imshow(img);
title('Original');
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(fin1);
title('After LPF');
subplot(2,2,3);
surf(h);
title('LPF in 3D');
subplot(2,2,4);
imshow(h);
title('LPF as Image');
Ideal High Pass Filter:
clear;
clc;
img=imread('Coins.png');
[X,Y]=size(img);
N=input('Order of Filter=');
x=ceil(X/2);
y=ceil(Y/2);
rad=26;
for i=1:X
for j=1:Y
d(i,j)=sqrt((i-x).^2+(j-y).^2);
h(i,j)=double(d(i,j)>rad);
end
end
fft1=fftshift(fft2(img));
fil=h.*fft1;
fin=ifft2(fil);
fin1=uint8(fin);
subplot(2,2,1);
imshow(img);
title('Original');
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(fin1);
title('After HPF');
subplot(2,2,3);
surf(h);
title('HPF in 3D');
subplot(2,2,4);
imshow(h);
title('HPF as Image');

RESULT:
Thus filters are directly generated in the frequency domain.
Ex. No.9a EDGE DETECTION

AIM:
To detect edges in the image.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY
The Sobel and prewitt operators are used in image processing and computer vision,
particularly within edge detection algorithms where they create an image emphasizing edges.
They are a discrete differentiation operator, computing an approximation of the gradient of the
image intensity function. At each point in the image, the result of the Sobel and prewitt operators
is either the corresponding gradient vector or the norm of this vector. The Sobel and prewitt
operators are based on convolving the image with a small, separable, and integer-valued filter in
the horizontal and vertical directions.
The Canny edge detector is an edge detection operator that uses a multi-stage algorithm
to detect a wide range of edges in images. Canny edge detection is a technique to extract useful
structural information from different vision objects and dramatically reduce the amount of data
to be processed. Canny uses the calculus of variations – a technique which finds the function
which optimizes a given functional. The optimal function in Canny's detector is described by the
sum of four exponential terms, but it can be approximated by the first derivative of a Gaussian.
The Roberts cross operator is used in image processing and computer vision for edge
detection. It is a differential operator. The gradient of an image is approximated through discrete
differentiation which is achieved by computing the sum of the squares of the differences between
diagonally adjacent pixels.

PROGRAM
a=imread('house.jpg');
imshow(a);
f=rgb2gray(a);
figure,imshow(f);
[g,t]=edge(f,'sobel','vertical');
figure,subplot(3,1,1);
imshow(g);
[g,t]=edge(f,'sobel','horizontal');
subplot(3,1,2);
imshow(g);
[g,t]=edge(f,'sobel','both');
subplot(3,1,3);
imshow(g);
[g,t]=edge(f,'prewitt','vertical');
figure,subplot(3,1,1);
imshow(g);
[g,t]=edge(f,'prewitt','horizontal');
subplot(3,1,2);
imshow(g);
[g,t]=edge(f,'prewitt','both');
subplot(3,1,3);
imshow(g);
[g,t]=edge(f,'roberts','vertical');
figure,subplot(3,1,1);
imshow(g);
[g,t]=edge(f,'roberts','horizontal');
subplot(3,1,2);
imshow(g);
[g,t]=edge(f,'roberts','both');
subplot(3,1,3);
imshow(g);
[g,t]=edge(f,'canny','vertical');
figure,subplot(3,1,1);
imshow(g);
[g,t]=edge(f,'canny','horizontal');
subplot(3,1,2);
imshow(g);
[g,t]=edge(f,'canny','both');
subplot(3,1,3);
imshow(g);
OUTPUT
Original Image

Original Image

Sobel- Vertical
Prewitt- Vertical

Sobel-Horizontal
Prewitt- Horizontal

Sobel- Horizontal and Vertical

Prewitt-Horizontal and Vertical
 Roberts- Vertical Canny- Vertical

Roberts- Horizontal Canny - Horizontal

Roberts- Horizontal and Vertical Canny- Horizontal and Vertical

RESULT
Thus the edges are detected using Matlab.
Ex. No.9b LINE DETECTION

AIM
To detect lines in the images using Matlab.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY
Horizontal mask will result with maximum response when a line is passed through the middle
row of the mask with a constant background. Let R1, R2, R3, R4 denote the response of the
horizontal, +45 degree, vertical and +45 degree masks respectively.
|Ri|>|Rj|
For detecting all lines in an image in the direction defined by a given mask, we simply run the
mask through the image and threshold the absolute value of the result.

PROGRAM
Horizontal lines
a=imread(‘line.jpg’);
f=rgb2gray(a);
imshow(f);
w=[-1,-1,-1;2,2,2;-1,-1,-1]
g=abs(imfilter(double(f),w));
T=300;
g=g>=T;
figure,imshow(g);
Vertical lines
a=imread(‘line.jpg’);
f=rgb2gray(a);
imshow(f);
w=[-1,2,-1;-1,2,-1;-1,2,-1]
g=abs(imfilter(double(f),w));
T=300;
g=g>=T;
figure,imshow(g);

45 degree lines
a=imread(‘line.jpg’);
f=rgb2gray(a);
imshow(f);
w=[-1,-1,2;-1,2,-1;2,-1,-1]
g=abs(imfilter(double(f),w));
T=300;
g=g>=T;
figure,imshow(g);

135 degree lines

a=imread(‘line.jpg’);
f=rgb2gray(a);
imshow(f);
w=[2,-1,-1;-1,2,-1;-1,-1,2]
g=abs(imfilter(double(f),w));
T=300;
g=g>=T;
figure,imshow(g);
OUTPUT
Original Image Horizontal Vertical

45 degree 135 degree

RESULT
Thus lines are detected in images using Matlab.
Ex. No.9c POINT DETECTION

AIM
To detect points in an image.

SOTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY
Points are detected at those pixels in the subsequent filtered image that are above a set threshold.
Point detection can be achieved simply using the mask below: R ≥ T

PROGRAM
a=imread('point.jpg');
f=rgb2gray(a);
imshow(f);
w=[-1,-1,-1;-1,8,-1;-1,-1,-1];
g=abs(imfilter(double(f),w));
imshow(g);

OUTPUT
Input image Point detection

RESULT
Thus the points are detected in the image.
Ex. No.10 MORPHOLOGICAL OPERATIONS

AIM
To perform morphological operations on image using Matlab.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY
Morphological image processing is a collection of non-linear operations related to the
shape or morphology of features in an image. Morphological operations apply a structuring
element to an input image, creating an output image of the same size. In a morphological
operation, the value of each pixel in the output image is based on a comparison of the
corresponding pixel in the input image with its neighbors. By choosing the size and shape of the
neighborhood, you can construct a morphological operation that is sensitive to specific shapes in
the input image. The most basic morphological operations are dilation and erosion.
Dilation adds pixels to the boundaries of objects in an image, while erosion removes
pixels on object boundaries. The number of pixels added or removed from the objects in an
image depends on the size and shape of the structuring element used to process the image.
Opening and closing are derived from the fundamental operations of erosion and dilation.
The basic effect of an opening is somewhat like erosion in that it tends to remove some of the
foreground (bright) pixels from the edges of regions of foreground pixels. Closing is similar to
dilation in that it tends to enlarge the boundaries of foreground (bright) regions in an image.

PROGRAM
imread('coins.png');
b=strel('disk',10);
c=imdilate(a,b);
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
imshow(c);
title('dilation using disk stereo element');
b=strel('square',10);
c=imdilate(a,b);
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(c);
title('dilation using square stereo element');
%Image erosion
%a=imread('coins.png');
b=strel('disk',10);
c=imerode(a,b);
subplot(2,2,3);
imshow(c);
title('erosion using disk stereo element');
b=strel('square',10);
c=imerode(a,b);
subplot(2,2,4);
imshow(c);
title('erosion using square stereo element');
%opening
bw=im2bw(a);
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
imshow(bw);
title('original image');
b=strel('disk',5);
c=imopen(a,b);
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(c);
title('image after opening');
%closing
b=strel('disk',5);
c=imclose(a,b);
subplot(2,2,3);
imshow(c);
title('image after closing');
%morphological operations
a=imread('rice.png');
b=im2bw(a);
c=bwmorph(b,'remove');
figure;
subplot(2,3,1);
imshow(c);
title('image remove');
c=bwmorph(b,'clean');
subplot(2,3,2);
imshow(c);
title('image clean');
c=bwmorph(b,'shrink');
subplot(2,3,3);
imshow(c);
title('image shrink');
c=bwmorph(b,'fill');
subplot(2,3,4);
imshow(c);
title('image fill');
c=bwmorph(b,'thin');
subplot(2,3,5);
imshow(c);
title('image thin');
c=bwmorph(b,'thick');
subplot(2,3,6);
imshow(c);
title('image thick');

OUTPUT

dilation using disk stereo element dilation using square stereo element original image image after opening

erosion using disk stereo element erosion using square stereo element image after closing

image remove image clean

dilation using disk stereo element dilation using square stereo element

erosion using disk stereo element erosion using square stereo element

original image image after opening

image after closing

image remove image clean

RESULT:
Thus morphological operations are performed in images using Matlab.
Ex. No.11 THRESHOLDING FUNCTIONS

AIM
To perform thresholding of image using Matlab.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY
Thresholding is the simplest method of image segmentation. From a grayscale image,
thresholding can be used to create binary images. Thresholding is used to extract an object from
its background by assigning an intensity value T (threshold) for each pixel such that each pixel is
either classified as an object point or a background point.
In general T = T[x, y, p(x, y), f (x, y)]
If T is a function of f(x, y) only – Global thresholding
If T is a function of both f(x, y) and local properties p(x, y) – Local thresholding
If T depends on the coordinates (x, y) – Dynamic/adaptive thresholding
Image thresholding classifies pixels into two categories. Those to which some property
measured from the image falls below a threshold and those at which the property equals or
exceeds a threshold.
In fixed (or global) thresholding, the threshold value is held constant throughout the
image. Determine a single threshold value by treating each pixel independently of its
neighborhood.
Global Thresholding is done when the modes of histogram can be clearly distinguished.
Each mode represents either the background or an object

PROGRAM
a=imread('coins.png');
subplot(2,2,1);
imshow(a);
level=graythresh(a);
b=im2bw(a,level);
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(b);
subplot(2,2,3);
imhist(a);

Code2:
a=imread('coins.png');
a1=a>180;
subplot(2,2,1);
imshow(a);
title('original image');
subplot(2,2,2);
imshow(a1);
title('thresholded image');

OUTPUT
Original Image Thresholded image

Histogram

1500

1000

500

0
0 100 200

original image thresholded image

RESULT
Thus thresholding of image is done using Matlab.
Ex. No.12 ANALYSIS OF IMAGES WITH DIFFERENT COLOR MODELS

AIM
To perform analysis of images with different color models.

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

THEORY
An RGB colour image is an M x N x3 array of colour pixels, where each colour pixel is a
triplet corresponding to the red, green and blue components of an RGB image at a specific
spatial location. An RGB image is viewed as a ‘stack’ of three gray scale images that when fed
into the red, green and blue inputs of a colour monitor, produce a colour image on the screen.
The three images forming an RGB colour image are referred to as the red, green and blue
component images.
A color map is an m-by-3 matrix of real numbers between 0.0 and 1.0. Each row is an
RGB vector that defines one color. The kth row of the color map defines the kth color,
where map (k,:) = [r(k) g(k) b(k)]) specifies the intensity of red, green, and blue.
ycbcrmap is an M-by-3 matrix that contains the YCbCr luminance (Y) and chrominance
(Cb and Cr) color values as columns. In the NTSC color space, the luminance is the grayscale
signal used to display pictures on monochrome (black and white) televisions. The other
components carry the hue and saturation information. In HSV, H represents the hue component,
S the saturation component, V the brightness component of an image.

PROGRAM
a=imread('peppers.png');
a(:,:,2)=0;
a(:,:,3)=0;
imshow(a);
b=imread('peppers.png');
b(:,:,1)=0;
b(:,:,3)=0;
figure,imshow(b);
c=imread('peppers.png');
c(:,:,1)=0;
c(:,:,2)=0;
figure,imshow(c);
a=imread('peppers.png');
R=a(:,:,1);
G=a(:,:,2);
B=a(:,:,3);
new=cat(3,R,G,B);
figure,imshow(new);

Colormap
a=imread('cameraman.tif');
subplot(2,2,1)
imshow(a,copper);
subplot(2,2,2)
rgbplot(copper);
figure,subplot(2,2,1)
imshow(a,jet(150));
subplot(2,2,2)
rgbplot(jet(150));
figure,subplot(2,2,1)
imshow(a,summer);
subplot(2,2,2)
rgbplot(summer);

Conversion between color spaces

a=imread('peppers.png');
b=rgb2ntsc(a);
subplot(2,2,1)
imshow(b);
c=rgb2ycbcr(a);
subplot(2,2,2)
imshow(c);
d=rgb2hsv(a);
subplot(2,2,3)
imshow(d);
e=imcomplement(a);
subplot(2,2,4)
imshow(e);
OUTPUT

Red component Green component

Blue Component Concatenation

copper rgbplot
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80
 jet 150 rgbplot
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 50 100 150

summer rgbplot
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80

ntsc ycbcr

hsv complement

RESULT
Thus the analysis of images with different color models is done using Matlab.