Dr.

Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture

CHAPTER 6: INTRODUCTION TO CONVECTION
Objectives:
1. To obtain an understanding of the physical mechanisms for convection heat transfer.
2. To develop the means to perform convection transfer calculations.

1- Introduction:
Convection is energy transfer that takes place between a surface and a fluid moving over it when they
are at different temperatures.
In our treatment of convection, we have the main object which is to determine the heat transfer
coefficient (h).

2- Classification of Convection Heat Transfer:

Heat Convection

Forced Convection Internal OR external Free Convection

flow

Two special convection heat transfer cases associated with phase change between liquid and vapour states
of fluid are boiling and condensation. Both processes may occur under free or forced convection
conditions.

3- Problem of Convection:
Problem of convection is seen as determination of local or/and average convection coefficients. Local and
total heat transfer rates are solved from rate equations, which are dependent on knowledge of local
convection coefficients hx or average convection coefficients hL.

Newton’s Law of Cooling

Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be proportional
to the temperature difference and is conveniently expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as:

Qconv = h As (Ts − T∞ )
Where:
h : Convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.°C (Average value)
As : Heat transfer surface area, m2
Ts : Temperature of the surface, °C; T∞ : Temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface, °C

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Dr.Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture
4- Variables effecting to Convection:
Convection heat transfer rate and convection heat transfer coefficient are affected by

1- The fluid properties viscosity, thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat.
2- Fluid velocity.
3- The geometry and roughness of the surface.
4- The type of fluid flow (such as being laminar or turbulent).
5- Mode of convection: free, forced, boiling or condensation

Generally, convection heat transfer coefficient is experimentally determined parameter and tables below
show typical ranges for convection heat transfer coefficient.

5-Review of fluid mechanics:

Convection heat transfer is closely tied with fluid mechanics, which is the science that deals with the
behavior of fluids at rest or in motion. There are many ways to classify the fluid flow problems, and
below we present some general categories:

5-1 Viscous versus inviscid flow:

When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction
force develops between them and the slower layer tries to slow
down the faster layer. This internal resistance to flow is called the
viscosity. Flows in which the effects of viscosity are significant
are called viscous flows. The effects of viscosity are very small in
some flows, and neglecting those effects greatly simplifies the
analysis without much loss in accuracy. Such idealized flows of
zero-viscosity fluids are called frictionless or inviscid flows.

5-2 Internal versus External Flow

The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate,
a wire, or a pipe is external flow. The flow in a pipe or duct is
internal flow if the fluid is completely bounded by solid surfaces.
The flow of liquids in a pipe is called open-channel flow if the
pipe is partially filled with the liquid and there is a free surface.
The flow of water in rivers and irrigation ditches are examples of
such flows.

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Dr.Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture
5-3 Compressible versus incompressible flow:
A fluid flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible, depending on the density variation
of the fluid during flow. The densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus the flow of liquids
is typically incompressible. Gases, on the other hand, are highly compressible. However, gas flows can
be treated as incompressible if the flow velocity is less than 30 percent of the velocity of sound in that gas
(i.e., the Mach number of flow is less than 0.3.
u u
Mach number = =
u sound γRT
Where:
γ : The ratio of specific heats Cp/Cv which is equal to 1.4 for air.
R : The gas constant which is equal to 287 kJ/kg.K.
T : Absolute temperature, K.
The velocity of sound in air at room temperature is 346 m/s. Therefore, the compressibility effects of air
can be neglected at speeds under 100 m/s. Note that the flow of a gas is not necessarily a compressible
flow.

5-4 Steady versus unsteady (transient) flow:

The term steady implies no change with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient. Many
devices such as turbines, compressors, boilers, condensers, and heat exchangers operate for long periods
of time under the same conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices. During steady flow, the
fluids properties can change from point to point within a device, but at any fixed point they remain
constant so:
∂φ
For steady flow: = 0 where φ is any property
∂t

5-5 Laminar versus turbulent flow:

The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by
smooth streamlines is called laminar. The highly
disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high
velocities characterized by velocity fluctuations is
called turbulent. The flow regime greatly influences
the heat transfer rates and the required power for
pumping.

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the surface geometry, surface roughness, free-
stream velocity, surface temperature, and type of fluid, among other things.

The Reynolds number (Re) is usually used to determine whether the fluid flow is laminar or turbulent.
For example, for external flow the flow is laminar if :

ρ U ∞ xc
Re x , c = ≤ 5 × 10 5
µ

Laminar flow is characterized with low heat transfer coefficient and low frictional force while
turbulent flow is characterized with high heat transfer coefficient and high frictional force.

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Dr.Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture
5-6 Natural (or unforced) versus forced flow:
A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on how the fluid motion is initiated. In forced
flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan. In
natural flows, any fluid motion is due to a natural means such as the buoyancy effect.

5-7 One-, two-, and three-dimensional flows:

A flow field is best characterized by the velocity distribution, and thus a flow is said to be one, two, or
three-dimensional if the flow velocity varies in one, two, or three primary dimensions.
Certain direction can be small relative to the variation in other directions, and can be ignored with
negligible error. In such cases, the flow can be modeled conveniently as being one- or two-dimensional,
which is easier to analyze.

One dimensional flow between two plates two dimensional flow over plate

6- Theory of Boundary Layers:

The concept of boundary layers is central to the understanding of convection heat transfer between a
surface and a fluid flowing past it. For the engineer, the principal of the velocity and thermal boundary
layers are, respectively, are very useful for determining the surface friction and convection heat transfer

The Velocity Boundary Layer:

The velocity (or hydrodynamic) boundary layer is defined as the layer of fluid in which the velocity
gradients and shear stresses are significant
To introduce the concept of a boundary layer, consider flow over the flat plate as shown below:

When fluid makes contact with the surface, their velocity is reduced significantly relative to the fluid
main velocity upstream of the plate. It is valid to assume that the particle velocity is zero at the wall
which is called no slip condition. These particles then act to retard the motion of particles in the

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Dr.Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture
adjoining fluid layer, which act to retard the motion of particles in the next layer, and so on until, at a
distance y = δ from the surface, the effect becomes negligible.

∴u = 0 at y = 0
u = u∞ at y = δ
Where: δ is the boundary layer thickness (function of x)

Study of velocity Give the friction

boundary layer force

By determining the velocity distribution we can find the friction force.

How to determine the friction force?
Step-1-
The first step is to find the shear stress τ s which is a friction force between fluid layers per unit area.
For a Newtonian fluid, the surface shear stress may be evaluated from knowledge of the velocity
distribution by:

∂u
τ s ,x = µ
∂y y =0

Where μ = dynamic viscosity (kg/m.s). Another term is usually used which is the kinematic
viscosityυ :
µ
υ= (m 2 / s)
ρ
Step-2-
The second step is to determine the local friction coefficient:
τs
C f ,x =
ρu ∞2 / 2
Step-3-
Finally to evaluate the friction force, the average values of shear stress and friction coefficient must be
evaluated:

1L 1L
τ s = ∫ τ s , x dx , C f = ∫ C f , x dx
L0 L0
So the average friction force is given by:
1
F frict = τ s . As = C f .( ρu∞ 2 ). As
2
The Thermal Boundary Layer:
It can be defined as the region in which the fluid temperature varies from Ts to T∞ .
Just as a velocity boundary layer develops when there is fluid flow over a surface, thermal boundary
layer must develop if the fluid free stream and surface temperatures differ. Consider flow over an
isothermal flat plate (Figure below).
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Dr.Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture

At the leading edge the temperature profile is uniform, with T ( y ) = T∞ . However, fluid particles that
come into contact with the plate achieve thermal equilibrium at the plate’s surface temperature. In turn,
these particles exchange energy with those in the adjoining fluid layer, and temperature gradients develop
in the fluid.
The region of the fluid in which these temperature gradients exist is the thermal boundary layer, and
its thickness δ t .

∴ T = Ts at y=0
T = T∞ at y = δt
Where δ t is the thickness of the thermal boundary layer (function of x).

Study of Give the heat

temperature transfer
boundary layer coefficient (h)

By determining the temperature distribution we can find the rate of heat transfer.

How to determine the heat transfer rate?

Step-1-
First of all, we must find expression for the local heat transfer coefficient. At any location x on the plate
with value of y=0, there is no fluid motion and energy transfer occurs only by conduction. Therefore, the
local heat transfer rate is obtained from Fourier’s law as

∂T
qx = − k
∂y
f
y=0

Where kf = thermal conductivity of fluid.

But the local heat transfer rate is given by Newton’s law of cooling,
q x = hA (T s − T∞ )
So, an expression foe the local heat transfer coefficient:

−k f ∂T ∂ y
y=0
h x = h( x ) =
T s − T∞
Step-2-

The second step is to evaluate the average convection coefficient h for the entire surface given by:
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Dr.Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture
1 L
L ∫0
h = h dx

Step-3-
Finally, the total heat transfer rate may also be expressed as:

q = h A s (T s − T∞ )

7- Non- dimensional numbers:

In the analysis of heat transfer and fluid flow, several non-dimensional groups of parameters appears
frequently. Some of these dimensionless numbers are:

Reynolds number: It may be interpreted as the ratio of inertia to viscous forces in a region of
characteristic dimension L with characteristic velocity u. It is expressed as
ρU∞ x
Re x =
µ
Reynolds number is used to identify the flow type, which may be laminar or turbulent so:
low Re ⇒ flow is la min er
high Re ⇒ flow is turbulent

Nusselt number: It may be defined as the ratio of convection to pure conduction heat transfer. It provides
a measure of the convection heat transfer occurring at the surface. It is expressed as
hL
Nu =
kf
where L is the characteristic dimension and kf is the thermal conductivity of the fluid.
Note the difference between the Nusselt number and Biot number.

Prandtl number: It is the ratio of the momentum diffusivity to the thermal diffusivity, i.e.

ν cp µ
Pr = =
α k
Other useful dimensionless numbers can be found in Table 6.2 of the textbook.

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Dr.Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture

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Dr.Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture
Solved Problems
Example-1-:
Air at 20°C flows over both sides of a surface measuring 0.2 m × 0.2 m. The drag force was 0.075 N.
Determine the velocity gradient at the surface. The kinematic viscosity has a value of 15.06 × 10–6 m2/s.
Density = 1.205 kg/m3. Also determine the friction coefficient if the free stream velocity has a value of 40
m/s.

Example -2- :
Air at 20°C flows over plate at 60°C. The temperature at a location 0.5 mm from the surface is
measured as 40°C. Determine the value of local convective heat transfer coefficient. The thermal
conductivity may be taken as 0.02656 W/mK.

Air at 20°C flows over a surface at 80°C. The local heat flow was measured at a point as 1000 W/m2.
Esimate the value of local convective heat transfer coefficient, temperature gradient at the surface and the
temperature at a distance of 0.5 mm from the surface. Thermal conductivity of air can be taken as 0.02826
W/mK.

Example -4-:
U

For flow over a flat plate, the temperature distribution inside the boundary layer is given by:
[(Ts – T)/(Ts – T∞)] = y/0.0075
If k = 0.03 W/m.K, determine the value of convective heat transfer coefficient.

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Dr.Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture
Solution:

Example-5-:

Example
Solution: -3- :

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Dr.Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture

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Dr.Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture
Example-6-:

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Dr.Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture
Example -7-:
Air at a free stream temperature of T∞ = 20 °C is in parallel flow over a flat plate of length L = 5 m and
temperature Ts = 90 °C. However, obstacles placed in the flow intensify mixing with increasing distance
x from the leading edge, and the spatial variation of temperatures measured in the boundary layer is
correlated by an expression of the form T(°C) = 20 + 70⋅e(- 600 x y), where x and y are in meters. Determine
and plot the manner in which the local convection h varies with x. Evaluate the average convection
coefficient h for the plate. Take kf = 0.02837 W/m⋅K

T∞ = 20°C
T ( x, y ) = 20 + 70 ⋅ e (−600 xy )

Ts = 90°C

L=5m
x

Local Convection Coefficient, h

q ′s′ = h(Ts − T∞ ) … Newton's law of cooling

∂T
q ′s′ = −k f … One-dimensional Fourier's law on the plate surface
∂y y =0

∂T
Thus, q ′s′ = h(Ts − T∞ ) = −k f
∂y y =0

Therefore,
∂T
⋅ (− k f )⋅
1
h=
Ts − T∞ ∂y y =0
42000 ⋅ k f ⋅ x
∴ h( x ) =
Ts − T∞
Taking the average of the free stream and surface temperatures:

After plugging numbers into the expression obtained above, it becomes:

h( x ) = 17.02 ⋅ x W/m2⋅K
Average Convection Coefficient, h
The average coefficient over the range 0 ≤ x ≤ 5 m is
1 L
L ∫0
h= h ⋅ dx = 8.51 ⋅ L

∴ h = 42.6 W/m2⋅K

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Dr.Safaa Hameed Faisal Heat Transfer Lecture
Example -8-
In flow over a surface, velocity and temperature profiles are of the forms
u(y) = Ay + By2 - Cy3 and
T(y) = D + Ey + Fy2 - Gy3
where the coefficients A through G are constants. Obtain expressions for the friction coefficient Cf and the
convection coefficient h in terms of U∞ , T∞ , and appropriate profile coefficients and fluid properties.

System Diagram
Velocity Profile, u(y)
U∞ , T∞
Temperature Profile, T(y)

Velocity B.L.
Thermal B.L.

Friction Coefficient, Cf

τs = µ
∂u
∂y y =0
[
= µ ⋅ A + 2 B(0 ) − 3C (0 )2 = µ ⋅ A ]
Therefore,
τs µ⋅A
Cf = =
1 1
ρU ∞2 ρU ∞2
2 2

Convection Coefficient, h
∂T
q ′s′ = h(Ts − T∞ ) = −k f
∂y y =0

Thus,
∂T
⋅ (− k f )⋅
1
h=
Ts − T∞ ∂y y =0

Here, Ts = T(y = 0) = D + E (0) + F (0)2 - G (0)3 = D

∴h =
1
D − T∞
⋅ (− k f ) ⋅
∂
∂y
[
D + Ey + Fy 2 − Gy 3 ]
y =0

=
−kf
D − T∞
[
⋅ 0 + E + 2 F (0 ) − 3G (0 )2 ]
−kf ⋅E
Finally, h=
D − T∞

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