1.

Explain Fixed Point Representation

Ans- Real numbers have a fractional component. This article explains the real number representation method using fixed
points. In digital signal processing (DSP) and gaming applications, where performance is usually more important than
precision, fixed point data encoding is extensively used.
The Binary Point: Fractional values such as 26.5 are represented using the binary point concept. The decimal point in a
decimal numeral system and a binary point are comparable. It serves as a divider between a number’s integer and fractional
parts.
For instance, the weight of the coefficient 6 in the number 26.5 is 100, or 1. The weight of the coefficient 5 is 10-1 or (5/10 =
1/2 = 0.5).
Signed 1’s Complement Representation
In this representation, a negative value is received by taking the 1’s complement of the equivalent positive
number. It can add a signed 1’s complement method creates end carry during arithmetic operation that cannot
be rejected.
Example − Consider 8-bit numbers for 1’s complement.
(29)10 = (00011101)2 = 0000111011’s complement for positive value
-(29)10 = -(00011101)2 = 111100010 1’s complement for negative value
Signed 2’s Complement Representation
In signed 2’s complement representation, the 2’s complement of a number is discovered by first creating the 1’s
complement of that number, then incrementing the result by 1.
Example − Consider 8-bit numbers for 2’s complement.
(29)10= (00011100)2 = (000011100)2’s1’s complement for positive value
-(29)10 = -(00011100)2 = (11110010)2’s1’s complement for negative value
2.How we can use Floating Point Notation in computer?

Ans- Representation

A floating-point number in IEEE 754 standard is represented by three components:

1. Sign bit : Indicates whether the number is positive or negative.

2. Exponent : Encodes the magnitude of the number. The exponent is stored in a biased format, which means a certain value
(the bias) is subtracted from the actual exponent to get the stored exponent, and this bias is added back to interpret the stored
exponent. This allows for both positive and negative exponents.

3. Mantissa (or significand) : Represents the significant digits of the number. The actual value represented is 1.mantissa for
normalized numbers, where the leading 1 (before the decimal point) is implicit and not stored.

Usage in Computing

1. Arithmetic operations : Floating-point arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are
performed using specialized hardware units in the CPU or GPU. These operations are more complex and slower than integer
operations due to the need to align exponents and normalize results.

2. Scientific computing : In fields like physics, engineering, and finance, where calculations involve very large or very small
numbers, floating point arithmetic is essential for maintaining precision over a wide range of values.

3. Graphics and gaming : Floating point calculations are crucial for rendering graphics, where precise calculations of light,
shadow, and textures require handling fractional values efficiently

4. Machine learning and AI : Floating point numbers, especially in formats like half-precision (16-bit) or mixed precision, are
used in neural network computations to balance between computational efficiency and the precision required for learning.
3.Write symbol, boolean equation and truth table for AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, X-OR and X-NOR Gate?

Ans-
4.Explain Sum of Product (SOP) and Product of Sum (POS).
Ans- The Sum of Product Form
In the sum of the product form of representation, The product num is logical and operation of the
different input variables where the variables could be in the true form or in the complemented
form.
Example:
A.B, A.B
̅.C (example of product term)

In SOP sum refers to logical OR Operation. Therefore, in this sum of product form of expression,
we perform logical or operations on different product terms. Therefore it is known as the Sum of
Product form.
Example:
A+ ̅.C
B + A.C

as we can see in above example the product terms(A , B̅.C , A.C) which are created by multiplying
input variables are are summed with each other .

Product of Sum (POS) Form

The POS (Product Of Sum) form is a procedure by which we can simplify any Boolean Expressio.
From the name itself, we can understand that the POS form is the product of all the sums. Here,
the sum does not mean traditional addition, the sum here refers to the ‘OR’ operation, and the
product here refers to the ‘AND’ operation. Thus, in POS form, we perform the OR of multiple
variables and then perform the AND operation between them. This form is exactly opposite to
the SOP (Sum Of Product) form. POS form is also referred to as conjunctive normal form.
5.Write various steps to solve boolean equations using Karnaugh Map.
Ans- Step 1 – Create the K Map:
Create a two-dimensional grid of cells, with each cell representing a possible combination of inputs to the function.
List all possible combinations of inputs, and evaluate the function for each combination, marking the corresponding
cell on the K Map with the resulting value.
Step 2 – Group cells with the same value:
Group together adjacent cells that have the same value (either 0 or 1), forming groups of cells. The goal is to form the
largest possible groups, as each group can be reduced to a single term in the simplified expression.
Step 3 – Identify prime implicants:
Prime implicants are groups of cells that cannot be reduced further without changing their value. Identify all prime
implicants in the K Map.
Step 4 – Identify essential prime implicants:
Essential prime implicants are prime implicants that must be included in the minimized expression for the function.
Identify all essential prime implicants in the K Map.
Step 5 – Write the minimized expression:
Write an expression for each group, using the variable that corresponds to the row or column that the group covers.
The resulting expression is the minimized representation of the original Boolean function.
Step 6 – Check for don’t-care terms:
Don’t-care terms are terms in the minimized expression that do not affect the output and can be ignored. Check the
minimized expression for don’t-care terms and remove them if they are present.
6.Explain Adder Clecuit.

Ans- Half Adder

Half adder is a combinational logic circuit with two inputs and two outputs. The half adder circuit is designed to
add two single bit binary number A and B. It is the basic building block for addition of two single bit numbers. This
circuit has two
outputs carry and sum.

Block diagram

Circuit Diagram

Full Adder
Full adder is developed to overcome the drawback of Half Adder circuit. It can add two one-bit numbers A and B,
and carry c. The full adder is a three input and two output combinational circuit.

Block diagram

Circuit Diagram
7.Explain construction working and types of multiplaxer.
Ans-A multiplexer, often abbreviated as MUX, is a digital device that selects one of the several input signals and
forwards the selected input into a single line. The selection of the input signal is controlled by a set of selection lines
(also known as control lines). Multiplexers are widely used in communication systems, data routing, and various
digital circuits for efficient data management and signal routing.
Construction and Working Principle
A multiplexer's construction involves a set of inputs, a set of control or selection lines, and a single output.
Depending on the number of inputs, a multiplexer is described as 2^n-to-1, where \(n\) is the number of control lines
needed to select among the inputs. For example, a 4-to-1 MUX has 4 input lines and requires 2 control lines to
select among these 4 inputs.
The core of a multiplexer circuit is a set of AND gates, where each gate corresponds to one input line. The output of
these AND gates is then fed into an OR gate, whose output is the output of the multiplexer. Each AND gate is
controlled by the selection lines such that only one AND gate is enabled at a time, allowing only the selected input to
pass through to the output.
Types of Multiplexers

1. 2-to-1 Multiplexer : The simplest form, selecting between two inputs with a single control line.

2. 4-to-1 Multiplexer : Has four input lines and two control lines to select among the inputs.

3. 8-to-1 Multiplexer : Features eight inputs and requires three control lines for selection.

4. 16-to-1 Multiplexer : Comes with sixteen inputs and needs four control lines.
These types can be expanded further as needed, with the number of control lines increasing with the number of
inputs, following the formula \(2^n\), where \(n\) is the number of control lines.
Working
The operation of a multiplexer is governed by its selection lines. The binary value presented to the selection lines
determines which input line is connected to the output. For instance, in a 4-to-1 MUX with selection lines S1 and S0:

- If S1S0 = 00, Input 0 is connected to the output.

- If S1S0 = 01, Input 1 is connected to the output.
- If S1S0 = 10, Input 2 is connected to the output.
- If S1S0 = 11, Input 3 is connected to the output.
8.Explain different types of Flip Flop.
Ans-Flip-flop is a circuit that maintains a state until directed by input to change the state. A basic
flip-flop can be constructed using four-NAND or four-NOR gates. Flip flop is popularly known as
the basic digital memory circuit. It has its two states as logic 1(High) and logic 0(low) states. A
flip flop is a sequential circuit which consist of single binary state of information or data. The
digital circuit is a flip flop which has two outputs and are of opposite states. It is also known as a
Bistable Multivibrator.
Types of flip-flops:
1. SR Flip Flop
2. JK Flip Flop
3. D Flip Flop
4. T Flip Flop

S-R Flip Flop :

In the flip flop, with the help of preset and clear when the power is switched ON, the states of the
circuit keeps on changing, that is it is uncertain. It may come to set(Q=1) or reset(Q’=0) state. In
many applications, it is desired to initially set or reset the flip flop that is the initial state of the flip
flop that needs to be assigned. This thing is accomplished by the preset(PR) and the clear(CLR).
J-K Flip Flop:
In JK flip flops, the diagram over here represents the basic structure of the flip flop which consists
of Clock (CLK), Clear (CLR), Preset (PR).

D Flip Flop: T Flip Flop:

9.What is register? Explain different register used in computer.

Ans- Computer Registers
Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions
that are being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the CPU are often termed as Processor
registers.

A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any data (such as bit sequence or
individual characters).

The computer needs processor registers for manipulating data and a register for holding a memory
address. The register holding the memory location is used to calculate the address of the next instruction
after the execution of the current instruction is completed.

Register Number of Register Name Function

Symbol Bits

OUTR 8 Output register OIt holds output character.

 INPR 8 Input register It holds input character.

PC 12 Program Counter It holds the address of the

instruction.

AR 12 Address Register It holds an address for

memory.

DR 16 Data Register It holds memory operand.

AC 16 Accumulator It’s a processor register.

IR 16 Instruction Register It holds an instruction code.

TR 16 Temporary Register It holds temporary data.

10.Explain the use and types of Counters.

Ans- A Counter is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of times a particular
event or process has occurred, often in relationship to a clock signal. Counters are used in digital
electronics for counting purpose, they can count specific event happening in the circuit. For
example, in UP counter a counter increases count for every rising edge of clock. Not only counting,
a counter can follow the certain sequence based on our design like any random sequence 0,1,3,2…
.They can also be designed with the help of flip flops. They are used as frequency dividers where
the frequency of given pulse waveform is divided. Counters are sequential circuit that count the
number of pulses can be either in binary code or BCD form. The main properties of a counter are
timing , sequencing , and counting. Counter works in two modes

Up counter
Down counter

Counters are broadly divided into two categories

1. Asynchronous Counter
In asynchronous counter we don’t use universal clock, only first flip flop is driven by main clock and
the clock input of rest of the following flip flop is driven by output of previous flip flops.
2. Synchronous Counter
Unlike the asynchronous counter, synchronous counter has one global clock which drives each flip
flop so output changes in parallel. The one advantage of synchronous counter over asynchronous
counter is, it can operate on higher frequency than asynchronous counter as it does not have
cumulative delay because of same clock is given to each flip flop. It is also called as parallel
counter.
11.Explain the function of Instruction Cycle.

Ans-Instruction Cycle

A program residing in the memory unit of a computer consists of a sequence of instructions. These
instructions are executed by the processor by going through a cycle for each instruction.

In a basic computer, each instruction cycle consists of the following phases:

1. Fetch instruction from memory.

2. Decode the instruction.
3. Read the effective address from memory.
4. Execute the instruction.

Input-Output Configuration
In computer architecture, input-output devices act as an interface between the machine and the user.

Instructions and data stored in the memory must come from some input device. The results are displayed to
the user through some output device.
12. Explain instruction Format in computer system.

Ans-Instruction includes a set of operation codes and operands that manage with the operation
codes. Instruction format supports the design of bits in an instruction. It contains fields including
opcode, operands, and addressing mode.

The instruction length is generally preserved in multiples of the character length, which is 8 bits.
When the instruction length is permanent, several bits are assigned to opcode, operands, and
addressing modes.

The function of allocating bits in the instruction can be interpreted by considering the following
elements −

​ Number of addressing modes

​ Number of operands
​ Number of CPU registers
​ Number of register sets
​ Number of address lines

The figure displayed the general IA-32 (Intel Architecture- 32 bits) instruction format. IA-32 is the
instruction format that can Intel’s most outstanding microprocessors. This instruction format
includes four fields, such as opcode field, addressing mode field, displacement field, and
immediate field.

The opcode field has 1 or 2 bytes. The addressing mode field also includes 1 or 2 bytes. In the
addressing mode field, an instruction needs only one byte if it uses only one register to generate
the effective address of an operand.

13.Describe different types Adressing Modes used in Computer.

Ans-Types of Addressing Modes

There are various types of Addressing Modes which are as follows −

Implied Mode − In this mode, the operands are specified implicitly in the definition of the instruction. For
example, the instruction "complement accumulator" is an implied-mode instruction because the operand in
the accumulator register is implied in the definition of the instruction. All register reference instructions that
use an accumulator are implied-mode instructions.

Instruction format with mode field

Opcode Mode Address

Immediate Mode − In this mode, the operand is specified in the instruction itself. In other words, an
immediate-mode instruction has an operand field instead of an address field. The operand field includes the
actual operand to be used in conjunction with the operation determined in the instruction. Immediate-mode
instructions are beneficial for initializing registers to a constant value.
Register Mode − In this mode, the operands are in registers that reside within the CPU. The specific register
is selected from a register field in the instruction. A k-bit field can determine any one of the 2k registers.

Register Indirect Mode − In this mode, the instruction defines a register in the CPU whose contents provide
the address of the operand in memory. In other words, the selected register includes the address of the
operand rather than the operand itself.

Direct Address Mode − In this mode, the effective address is equal to the address part of the instruction.
The operand resides in memory and its address is given directly by the address field of the instruction. In a
branch-type instruction, the address field specifies the actual branch address.

Indirect Address Mode − In this mode, the address field of the instruction gives the address where the
effective address is stored in memory. Control fetches the instruction from memory and uses its address
part to access memory again to read the effective address.

Indexed Addressing Mode − In this mode, the content of an index register is added to the address part of
the instruction to obtain the effective address. The index register is a special CPU register that contains an
index value. The address field of the instruction defines the beginning address of a data array in memory.

14.Write about note on Machine Language.

Ans-Machine language is a low-level language made up of binary numbers or bits that a computer can
understand. It is also known as machine code or object code and is extremely tough to comprehend. The
only language that the computer understands is machine language. All programmes and programming
languages, such as Swift and C++, produce or run programmes in machine language before they are run on
a computer. When a specific task, even the smallest process executes, machine language is transported to
the system processor. Computers are only able to understand binary data as they are digital devices.

In the computer, all data like videos, programs, pictures are represented in binary. The CPU processes this
machine code or binary data as input. Then, an application or operating system gets the resulting output
from the CPU and displays it visually. For example, the ASCII code 01000001 represents the letter "A" in
machine language, yet it is shown on the screen as "A".

Different machine code is used by different processor architectures; however, machine code includes 1s
and 0s. For case, as compared to Intel x86 processor that contains a CISC architecture, a PowerPC
processor needs different code, which contains a RISC architecture. For the correct processor architecture,
in order to run a program correctly, a compiler must compile high-level source code.

15.Write short note on Assembly Isnguage.

Ans-Assembly language is a low-level language that helps to communicate directly with computer
hardware. It uses mnemonics to represent the operations that a processor has to do. Which is an
intermediate language between high-level languages like C++ and the binary language. It uses
hexadecimal and binary values, and it is readable by humans.

Assembly languages contain mnemonic codes that specify what the processor should do. The
mnemonic code that was written by the programmer was converted into machine language (binary
language) for execution. An assembler is used to convert assembly code into machine language.
That machine code is stored in an executable file for the sake of execution.
It enables the programmer to communicate directly with the hardware such as registers, memory
locations, input/output devices or any other hardware components. Which could help the
programmer to directly control hardware components and to manage the resources in an efficient
manner.
16.Explain Register Transfer Language.

Ans- Register Transfer Language

A digital computer system exhibits an interconnection of digital modules such as registers, decoders,
arithmetic elements, and Control logic.

These digital modules are interconnected with some common data and control paths to form a complete
digital system.

Moreover, digital modules are best defined by the registers and the operations that are performed on the
data stored in them.

The operations performed on the data stored in registers are called Micro-operations.

The Register Transfer Language is the symbolic representation of notations used to specify the sequence
of micro-operations.

17.Differentiate between Hardwared and Micro-programmed Control Unit.

Ans- The differences between hardwired and micro-programmed control units:

18.Describe the function of Stack based CPU Organization.

Ans-The computers which use Stack-based CPU Organization are based on a data structure called a stack. The stack is a
list of data words. It uses the Last In First Out (LIFO) access method which is the most popular access method in most of
the CPU. A register is used to store the address of the topmost element of the stack which is known as Stack pointer (SP).
In this organization, ALU operations are performed on stack data. It means both the operands are always required on the
stack. After manipulation, the result is placed in the stack. The main two operations that are performed on the operators of
the stack are Push and Pop. These two operations are performed from one end only. 1. Push –
This operation results in inserting one operand at the top of the stack and it increases the stack pointer register

2. Pop – This operation results in deleting one operand from the top of the stack and decreasing the stack pointer register
 19.Explain RISC Architecture in computer.

Ans- Reduced Instruction Set Architecture (RISC)

The main idea behind this is to simplify hardware by using an instruction set composed of a few basic steps for loading,
evaluating, and storing operations just like a load command will load data, a store command will store the data.

Characteristics of RISC

● Simpler instruction, hence simple instruction decoding.

● Instruction comes undersize of one word.
● Instruction takes a single clock cycle to get executed.
● More general-purpose registers.
● Simple Addressing Modes.
● Fewer Data types.
● A pipeline can be achieved.

Advantages of RISC

● Simpler instructions: RISC processors use a smaller set of simple instructions, which makes them easier to decode and
execute quickly. This results in faster processing times.
● Faster execution: Because RISC processors have a simpler instruction set, they can execute instructions faster than CISC
processors.
● Lower power consumption: RISC processors consume less power than CISC processors, making them ideal for portable
devices.

Disadvantages of RISC

● More instructions required: RISC processors require more instructions to perform complex tasks than CISC processors.
● Increased memory usage: RISC processors require more memory to store the additional instructions needed to perform
complex tasks.
● Higher cost: Developing and manufacturing RISC processors can be more expensive than CISC processors.

20.Explain CISC Architecture in computer.

Ans- Complex Instruction Set Architecture (CISC)

The main idea is that a single instruction will do all loading, evaluating, and storing operations just like a multiplication
command will do stuff like loading data, evaluating, and storing it, hence it’s complex.

Characteristics of CISC

● Complex instruction, hence complex instruction decoding.

● Instructions are larger than one-word size.

● Instruction may take more than a single clock cycle to get executed.

● Less number of general-purpose registers as operations get performed in memory itself.

● Complex Addressing Modes.

● More Data types.

Advantages of CISC

● Reduced code size: CISC processors use complex instructions that can perform multiple operations, reducing the amount of
code needed to perform a task.

● More memory efficient: Because CISC instructions are more complex, they require fewer instructions to perform complex
tasks, which can result in more memory-efficient code.

● Widely used: CISC processors have been in use for a longer time than RISC processors, so they have a larger user base and
more available software.

Disadvantages of CISC

● Slower execution: CISC processors take longer to execute instructions because they have more complex instructions and
need more time to decode them.

● More complex design: CISC processors have more complex instruction sets, which makes them more difficult to design and
manufacture.

● Higher power consumption: CISC processors consume more power than RISC processors because of their more complex
instruction sets.

21.What are the difference between CISC und RISC?

Ans-RISC vs CISC

RISC CISC

Focus on software Focus on hardware

Uses only Hardwired control unit Uses both hardwired and microprogrammed control unit

Transistors are used for more registers Transistors are used for storing complex
Instructions

Fixed sized instructions Variable sized instructions

Can perform only Register to Register Arithmetic operations Can perform REG to REG or REG to MEM or MEM to MEM

Requires more number of registers Requires less number of registers

Code size is large Code size is small

An instruction executed in a single clock cycle Instruction takes more than one clock cycle

An instruction fit in one word. Instructions are larger than the size of one word

Simple and limited addressing modes. Complex and more addressing modes.

RISC is Reduced Instruction Cycle. CISC is Complex Instruction Cycle.

 The number of instructions are less as compared to CISC. The number of instructions are more as compared to RISC.

It consumes the low power. It consumes more/high power.

RISC is highly pipelined. CISC is less pipelined.

RISC required more RAM. CISC required less RAM.

Here, Addressing modes are less. Here, Addressing modes are more.

22.write advantages and disadvantages of pipelining.

Ans-
Advantages of Pipelining Disadvantages of Pipelining

Allows multiple instructions to be processed at different

Can encounter data, control, and structural hazards, leading to
stages of execution simultaneously, increasing the
inefficiencies and requiring complex solutions.
overall throughput.

Efficient Utilization of Resources Increased Latency for Individual Instructions

Each part of the processor is kept busy most of the time, While throughput increases, the time to complete a single instruction

leading to more efficient use of the processor's from start to finish (latency) may also increase due to the added

resources. overhead of pipelining stages.

Higher Instruction Execution Rate Complexity in Design

Improves the rate at which instructions are executed, The design and implementation of a pipelined processor are more

potentially leading to performance improvements in complex than for a non-pipelined processor, requiring sophisticated

many applications. control logic.

Improves CPU Utilization Increased Power Consumption

By continuously feeding instructions into the pipeline, The simultaneous operation of multiple stages can lead to increased

the CPU can achieve near-maximum utilization. power consumption compared to non-pipelined architectures.

Difficulty in Handling Dependencies

Instructions that are dependent on the results of previous instructions

can cause delays, necessitating mechanisms like forwarding or stalling,

which add to the design complexity.

23.What are difference Peripheral devices used in computer?

Ans-Input Devices

​ Keyboard: Allows users to input text and commands.

​ Mouse: A pointing device that detects two-dimensional motion relative to a surface.
​ Scanner: Converts documents and images into digital data.
​ Microphone: Captures audio and converts it into digital signals for processing or transmission.
​ Webcam: Captures video and images to input into a computer.
​ Joystick/Gamepad: Used for gaming, allowing users to control game characters or objects.
​ Graphics Tablet: Enables artists to draw or write directly onto a computer.
​ Touchscreen: Allows users to interact directly with what is displayed on the screen.
​ Output Devices
​ Monitor: Displays video output and graphical interface to the user.
​ Printer: Produces hard copies of documents, images, or any digital file.
​ Speakers/Headphones: Outputs audio signals generated by the computer.
​ Projector: Projects computer screen content onto a larger surface for viewing by a wider audience.
​ Input/Output Devices
​ External Hard Drives: Used for expanded storage and backups, capable of both reading from and writing to.
​ Network Interface Cards (NIC): Enables a computer to connect to a network; can send (output) and receive (input)
data over a network.
​ Modems: Modulate and demodulate signals for sending and receiving data over telephone lines, cable systems, or
satellite.
​ USB Flash Drives: Portable storage devices for data transfer between computers.
​ Multifunction Printers (MFPs): Combine several functions into one device, such as printing, scanning, copying, and
faxing.
​ CD/DVD/Blu-ray Drives: Read and write data to CDs, DVDs, or Blu-ray discs.
24.Describe the function and use of virtual memory.
Ans-Virtual Memory is a storage scheme that provides user an illusion of having a very big main memory.
This is done by treating a part of secondary memory as the main memory.
​ In this scheme, User can load the bigger size processes than the available main memory by having the
illusion that the memory is available to load the process.
​ Instead of loading one big process in the main memory, the Operating System loads the different parts
of more than one process in the main memory.
​ By doing this, the degree of multiprogramming will be increased and therefore, the CPU utilization will
also be increased.

Advantages of Virtual Memory

1. The degree of Multiprogramming will be increased.

2. User can run large application with less real RAM.
3. There is no need to buy more memory RAMs.

Disadvantages of Virtual Memory

1. The system becomes slower since swapping takes time.

2. It takes more time in switching between applications.
3. The user will have the lesser hard disk space for its use.

25.What do you mean by Parallel Computing?

Ans-Parallel computing is a type of computation in which many calculations or processes are carried out simultaneously. It
leverages the principle that large problems can often be divided into smaller ones, which can then be solved concurrently ("in
parallel"). This approach can significantly reduce computation time for tasks that can be broken down and processed
simultaneously, as opposed to serial computing, where tasks are executed sequentially.
Advantages of Parallel Computing
- Speed : Parallel computing can significantly reduce the time to solve complex or large computational problems by dividing the
workload across multiple processors.
- Efficiency : It can make more efficient use of computing resources, especially for tasks that are inherently parallelizable.
- Scalability : Systems can be scaled to increase computational capacity by adding more processors or computers to the
network.
Challenges of Parallel Computing
- Complexity : Writing software that efficiently utilizes parallel hardware requires careful planning and can introduce complexity
in terms of data distribution, synchronization, and communication between processes.
- Overhead : Coordinating between multiple processes or threads can introduce overhead, which can reduce the net gain from
parallelization.
- Amdahl's Law : This principle states that the maximum speed-up of a program using parallel computing is limited by the time
needed for the sequential fraction of the task.
26.Explain different types of Parallelism.
Ans-
Data Parallelism
Data Parallelism means concurrent execution of the same task on each multiple computing core.

Let’s take an example, summing the contents of an array of size N. For a single-core system, one
thread would simply sum the elements [0] . . . [N − 1]. For a dual-core system, however, thread
A, running on core 0, could sum the elements [0] . . . [N/2 − 1] and while thread B, running on
core 1, could sum the elements [N/2] . . . [N − 1]. So the Two threads would be running in
parallel on separate computing cores.

Task Parallelism
Task Parallelism means concurrent execution of the different task on multiple computing cores.

Consider again our example above, an example of task parallelism might involve two threads,
each performing a unique statistical operation on the array of elements. Again The threads are
operating in parallel on separate computing cores, but each is performing a unique operation.

Bit-level parallelism
Bit-level parallelism is a form of parallel computing which is based on increasing processor word
size. In this type of parallelism, with increasing the word size reduces the number of instructions
the processor must execute in order to perform an operation on variables whose sizes are greater
than the length of the word.

E.g., consider a case where an 8-bit processor must add two 16-bit integers. First the 8
lower-order bits from each integer were must added by processor, then add the 8 higher-order
bits, and then two instructions to complete a single operation. A processor with 16- bit would be
able to complete the operation with single instruction.

Instruction-level parallelism
Instruction-level parallelism means the simultaneous execution of multiple instructions from a
program. While pipelining is a form of ILP, we must exploit it to achieve parallel execution of the
instructions in the instruction stream.

27.Describe Flynn's classification of computer in detail.

Ans- M.J. Flynn proposed a classification for the organization of a computer system by the number of
instructions and data items that are manipulated simultaneously.

The sequence of instructions read from memory constitutes an instruction stream.

The operations performed on the data in the processor constitute a data stream.

Parallel processing may occur in the instruction stream, in the data stream, or both.

Flynn's classification divides computers into four major groups that are:

1. Single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD)

2. Single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD)
3. Multiple instruction stream, single data stream (MISD)
4. Multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD)
28.Write advantages and disadvantages of multi threading system.

Ans-

Advantages of Multi-threading Disadvantages of Multi-threading

Improved Performance on Multi-core Processors Complexity in Design and Debugging

Takes advantage of multi-core processors by executing multiple Writing multi-threaded applications is inherently more complex
threads simultaneously, leading to better utilization of CPU than single-threaded ones. Debugging and ensuring thread
resources. safety can be challenging.

Efficient Use of System Resources Concurrency Issues

Allows an application to perform multiple operations at the same

Issues such as deadlocks and race conditions can arise, leading
time without waiting for other tasks to complete, making efficient
to unpredictable results or crashes if not properly managed.
use of system resources like CPU and memory.

Responsiveness Increased Resource Consumption

In user interface applications, multi-threading can allow the Each thread consumes system resources, such as memory for
program to remain responsive to user input while performing stack space, which can lead to increased overall resource
other tasks in the background. consumption.

Improved Application Structure Difficulty in Synchronization

Can lead to a cleaner separation of concerns, where different Sharing data between threads requires careful synchronization
threads handle different aspects of the application logic, to avoid inconsistencies, which can complicate the code and
potentially simplifying the design. affect performance.

Scalability Overhead

Managing multiple threads introduces overhead, including

Applications can scale to take advantage of increased CPU cores
context switching and synchronization mechanisms, which can
without significant changes to the architecture.
offset performance gains under certain conditions.

29.Explain different types of multithreading.

Ans-

1. Cooperative Multithreading

In cooperative multithreading, the thread currently controlling the CPU maintains possession of it until it voluntarily yields control
through an explicit action, such as making an I/O request or explicitly yielding control. This model simplifies the design and
implementation of the thread scheduler but can lead to problems if a thread does not yield control, potentially starving other
threads and affecting the responsiveness of the application.
2. Preemptive Multithreading

Preemptive multithreading allows the operating system to determine when a context switch should occur. This is based on
priorities or time slicing, where the scheduler forcibly suspends the currently running thread after it has run for a predetermined
slice of time and switches the CPU to another thread. This model is more complex but ensures that all threads receive some
amount of CPU time, improving responsiveness and reliability of the system.

3. Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT)

Simultaneous Multithreading, also known as Hyper-Threading in Intel processors, allows multiple threads to be executed
simultaneously on a single physical CPU core. This is achieved by duplicating certain sections of the processor—those that store
the architectural state—but not duplicating the main execution resources. This allows the CPU to process parts of multiple
threads at the same time, improving utilization of the CPU execution resources.

4. Hardware Multithreading
Hardware multithreading involves the CPU itself being designed to support execution of multiple threads in parallel. This can be
seen in designs that include multiple execution cores (multi-core processors) where each core can execute a separate thread in
parallel, or in designs like SMT, where even within a single core, multiple threads can be advanced simultaneously.

30.Write brief introduction about Dr. Vinod Dham.

Ans-Vinod Dham – “Father Of The Pentium Chip”

Vinod Dham is an inventor, entrepreneur and venture capitalist. He is popularly known as the Father of the Pentium chip, for his
contribution to the development of highly successful Pentium processors from Intel. He is a mentor, advisor and investor; and sits
on the boards of many companies including promising startups funded through his India based fund – Indo US Venture
Partners,where he is the founding Managing Director.

Vinod Dham’s accomplishment as the “Father of Pentium” and as an Indian-American technology pioneer from Silicon Valley, is
being celebrated at a first-ever exhibition on South Asians in the National Museum of Natural History at the storied Smithsonian in
Washington DC, highlighting Indian-Americans who have helped shape America.

Vinod Dham was born in 1950. His father was a member of the army civilian department who had moved from Rawalpindi to
India during thePartition of India. Dham did B.E. degree in Electrical Engineering from the prestigious Delhi College of
Engineering in 1971 at the age of 21.

After completing his B.E. degree in Electrical Engineering (with an emphasis on Electronics Engg) from Delhi College of
Engineering (now known as Delhi Technological University) in 1971, he joined a Delhi-based semiconductor company called
Continental Devices as Engineer. In 1975, he left this job and went to US University of Cincinnati in Cincinnati, Ohio – USA, to
pursue a MS degree in Electrical Engineering, where he specialised in Solid State Electronics. After completing his MSEE degree
in 1977, he joined NCR Corporation at Dayton, Ohio,as Engineer where he did cutting edge work in developing advanced
Non-Volatile Memories. He then joined Intel,as Engineer where he led the development of the world famous Pentium processor.
He is called the “Father of Pentium” for his role in the development of the Pentium processor. He is also one of the co-inventors of
Intel’s first Flash memory technology (ETOX).He rose to the position of vice-president of Micro processor Group at Intel.

​
​