1 INTEGRATION

1.1 Inde…nite Integrals

De…nition 1 Given a function, f (x) , an anti-derivative of f (x) is any function F (x) such that
0
F (x) = f (x):

Example 2 Let f be a function such that f (x) = x2 + 4 cos x: Then

F1 (x) = 2x 4 sin x + 2
F2 (x) = 2x 4 sin x 3
F3 (x) = 2x 4 sin x + :
F1 ; F2 and F3 are anti-derivatives of f:

De…nition 3 If F (x) is any anti-derivative of f (x) then the most general anti-derivative of f (x) is called
an inde…nite integral and denoted,
Z
f (x)dx = F (x) + c; where c is any constant.
Z
In this de…nition the is called the integral symbol, f (x) is called the integrand, x is called the integration
variable and the c is called the constant of integration.
The process of …nding the inde…nite integral is called integration or integrating f (x) . If we need to be
speci…c about the integration variable we will say that we are integrating f (x) with respect to x.

1.2 Some Special Integral Formulas

Z
1
1. xn dx = xn+1 + c; for all n 6= 1
n+1
Z
1
2. dx = ln jxj + c
x
Z
3. ex dx = ex + c
Z
ax
4. ax dx = + c; a > 0
ln a
Z
5. sin x dx = cos x + c
Z
6. cos x dx = sin x + c
Z
7. tan x dx = ln jcos xj + c

1
 Z Z Z
1
8. dx = 1 + tan2 x dx = sec2 xdx = tan x + c
cos2 x
Z Z
1
9. dx = 1 + cot2 x dx = cot x + c
sin2 x
Z
1
10. dx = arctan x + c
1 + x2
Z
1
11. p dx = arcsin x + c
1 x2
Z
12. cosh xdx = sinh x + c
Z
13. sinh xdx = cosh x + c

Suppose we have two functions f (x) and g(x) with antiderivatives F (x) and G(x), respectively. Then we
know that
d
fF (x) G(x)g = F 0 (x) G0 (x) = f (x) g(x)
dx
in other words, F G is an antiderivative of f g, which we can write as
Z Z Z
ff (x) g(x)g dx = f (x)dx g(x)dx:

Similarly,
d
(cF (x)) = cF 0 (x) = cf (x)
dx
implies that Z Z
cf (x)dx = c f (x)dx

if c is a constant.

Example 4 Evaluate the following inde…nite integrals:

Z
1. (x2 + sin x)dx =?

Solution:
Z Z Z
(x2 + sin x)dx = x2 dx + sin xdx

x3
= cos x + c
3

2
 Z p4 7 1
2. (3 x3 + 5 + p )dx =?
x 6
x
Solution:
Z p Z
4 7 1 1
(3 x3 + 5 + p )dx = (3x3=4 + 7x 5
+ x 1=2 )dx
x 6
x 6
4 7 4 1 1=2
= 3 x7=4 x + 2x + c
7 4 6
12 7=4 7 4 1 1=2
= x x + x +c
7 4 3
Z
4x10 2x4 + 15x2
3. ( )dx =?
x3
Solution:
Z Z
4x10 2x4 + 15x2 4x10 2x4 15x2
( )dx = + 3 dx
x3 x3 x 3 x
Z
15
= 4x7 2x + dx
x
1 8
= x x2 + 15 ln jxj + c
2
Z
1
4. ex + dx =?
x
Solution:
Z Z Z
1 1
ex + dx = x
e dx + dx
x x
= ex + ln jxj + c
Z
5. 3ex + 5 cos x 10 sec2 x dx =?

Solution:
Z Z Z Z
3ex + 5 cos x 10 sec2 x dx = 3 ex dx + 5 cos xdx 10 sec2 xdx

= 3ex + 5 sin x 10 tan x + c

Z
3
6. p + 6 sin x + 10 sinh x dx =?
1 x2
Solution:
Z Z Z Z
3 1
p + 6 sin x + 10 sinh x dx = 3 p dx + 6 sin xdx + 10 sinh xdx
1 x2 1 x2
= 3 arcsin x 6 cos x + 10 cosh x + c

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 Z
76 sin2
7. d =?
sin2
Solution:
Z Z Z
7 6 sin2 1
d = 7 d 6 d
sin2 sin2
= 7 cot 6 +c
Z
x2 + 1
8. p dx =?
x
Solution:
Z 2 Z Z
x +1
p dx = x dx + x 1=2 dx
3=2
x
2 5=2
= x + 2x1=2 + c
5
Z
z 4 16
9. dz =?
z+2
Solution:
Z 4 Z 4 Z
z 16 z 24 z2 22 z 2 + 22
dz = dz = dz
z+2 z+2 z+2
Z Z
(z 2) (z + 2) z 2 + 4
= dz = (z 2) z 2 + 4 dz
z+2
Z
1 4 2 3
= z 3 + 4z 2z 2 8 dz = z + 2z 2 z 8z + c
4 3
Z
1
10. 2t + dt =?
1 + t2
Solution:
Z Z Z
1 1
2t + dt = 2t dt + dt
1 + t2 1 + t2
2t
= + arctan t + c
ln 2

1.3 Substitution Method

Substitution method is the technique in integration that corresponds to the chain rule in di¤erentiation. Let
y = F (u) be a function of u and let u = g(x) be a function of x. Then y can be considered as a function of
x by taking the composition of F with g:

y = F (g(x))

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 Suppose that the function g is di¤erentiable on an open interval I and the function F is di¤erentiable
on an open interval containing the image of I under g. Then by the Chain Rule, the composition function
F g is di¤erentiable on I and we have
d dy
F (g(x)) =
dx dx
dy du
= :
du dx
= F 0 (u):g 0 (x):

So, we get
d
F (u) = F 0 (g(x)):g 0 (x):
dx
This is the chain rule expressed in an alternative way. Since integration is the reverse process of di¤er-
entiation, we have Z
F 0 (g(x)):g 0 (x)dx = F (g(x)) + c:

Denoting F 0 = f , the above integration formula becomes

Z
f (g(x)):g 0 (x)dx = F (g(x)) + c:

d 2
Example 5 Consider the function f (x) = 2xsin(x2 + 3). Notice that 2x = (x + 3): So let’s call
dx
g(x) = x2 + 3; and F (u) = cos u; then

F (g(x)) = cos x2 + 3

and
d
F (g(x)) = F 0 (g(x)):g 0 (x)
dx
= sin(x2 + 3):2x
so that Z
2xsin(x2 + 3)dx = cos x2 + 3 + c:

The most transparent way of computing an integral by substitution is by following Leibniz and introduce
new variables. Thus to do the integral
Z
f (g(x))g 0 (x)dx

where f (u) = F 0 (u), we introduce the substitution u = g(x), and agree to write

g 0 (x)dx = du:
Then we get

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 Z Z
0
f (g(x))g (x)dx = f (u)du = F (u) + c

At the end of the integration we must remember that u really stands for G(x), so that
Z
f (g(x))g 0 (x)dx = F (g(x)) + c

Let’s do the previous example again. We want to …nd

Z
2xsin(x2 + 3)dx:

Let u = x2 + 3:Then
du = 2xdx and sin(x2 + 3) = sin u
so that Z Z
2xsin(x2 + 3)dx = sin udu = cos u + c:

Finally we get rid of the subsitution variable u;and we get

Z
2xsin(x2 + 3)dx = cos(x2 + 3) + c:
Z
x
Example 6 Let’s compute dx:
1 + x2
By using the substitution u = 1 + x2 , we have du = 2xdx and
Z Z
x 1 1 1
dx = du = ln juj + c
1 + x2 2 u 2
Finally we get rid of the subsitution variable u;and we get
Z
x 1
dx = ln 1 + x2 + c:
1 + x2 2
Example 7 Evaluate the following inde…nite integrals by using substitution method:
Z
4
1. 2x 1 + x2 dx = 51 x10 + x8 + 2x6 + 2x4 + x2 =?

Solution: By using the substitution u = 1 + x2 , we have du = 2xdx and

Z Z 5
4 u5 1 + x2
2x 1 + x2 dx = u4 du = +c= + c:
5 5
Z
xdx
2. p =?
x+1
Solution: By using the substitution u = x + 1, we have du = dx and
Z Z Z
xdx u 1 p 1
p dx = p du = u+ p du
x+1 u u

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 Z Z
p 1 2
= udu + p du = u3=2 + 2u1=2 + c
u 3
2 3=2 1=2
= (x + 1) + 2 (x + 1) + c:
3
Z
sin 2x
3. dx =?
1 + cos2 x
Solution: By using the substitution u = 1 + cos2 x, we have du = 2 cos x sin xdx = sin 2xdx and
Z Z
sin 2x du
2
dx = = ln juj + c = ln 1 + cos2 x + c:
1 + cos x u
Z
2
4. (x + 1) ex +2x dx =?

Solution: By using the substitution u = x2 + 2x, we have du = (2x + 2) dx and

Z Z
x2 +2x 1 u 1 1 2
(x + 1) e dx = e du = eu + c = ex +2x + c:
2 2 2
Z
x3 + x 1
5. 11 dx = 10 =?
4 2
(x + 2x + 3) 40 (x + 2x2 + 3)
4

Solution: By using the substitution u = x4 + 2x2 + 3, we have du = 4x3 + 4x dx and

Z Z
x3 + x 1 du 1 1 1
4 2 11 dx = 4u 11
=
4 10u 10
+c= 10 + c:
(x + 2x + 3) 40 (x + 2x2 + 3)
4

Z
xdx
6. p =?
3x 1
1
Solution: By using the substitution u = 3x 1, we have du = 3dx and x = (u + 1) ;so
3
Z Z 1 Z
xdx (u + 1) 1 1 u+1
p = 3 p du = p du
3x 1 u 3 9 u
Z 3=2
1 1 u u1=2
= u1=2 + u 1=2 du = + +c
9 9 3=2 1=2
q
2 3 2p
= (3x 1) + (3x 1) + c:
27 9
Z
dx
7. 2 =?
x (ln x)
dx
Solution: By using the substitution u = ln x, we have du = and
x
Z Z
dx du 1 1
2 = u 2
=
u
+c=
ln x
+ c:
x (ln x)

7
 Z
8. tan x: ln(cos x)dx =?

Solution: By using the substitution u = cos x, we have du = sin xdx and

Z Z Z
sin x ln u
tan x: ln(cos x)dx = : ln(cos x)dx = du
cos x u
1
Again by using the substitution v = ln u, we have dv = du and
Z Z u
ln u 1 2 1 2 1 2
du = vdv = v +c= (ln u) + c = (cos x) + c:
u 2 2 2

1.3.1 Some Special Substitutions

1. If an inde…nite integral has the integrand which contains an expression of the form
p
a2 x2
then we introduce the substitution x = a sin t: So we have

dx = a cos tdt

and p p
a2 x2 = a2 a2 sin2 t = jaj cos t:
2. If an inde…nite integral has the integrand which contains an expression of the form
p
x2 a 2
then we introduce the substitution x = a sec t: So we have

dx = a sec t tan tdt

and p p
x2 a2 = a2 sec2 t a2 = jaj tan t:
3. If an inde…nite integral has the integrand which contains an expression of the form
p
x2 + a 2
then we introduce the substitution x = a tan t: So we have
a
dx = dt
cos2 t
and
p p jaj
x2 + a2 = a2 tan2 t + a2 = :
cos t
4. If an inde…nite integral has the integrand which contains an expression of the form

ax2 + bx + c
then by using completing square method, expression can be written as

8
 2
p b b2
ax + p +c :
2 a 4a
p b
Then, the integral can be computed easier by making u = ax + p substitution.
2 a
Example 8 Evaluate the following inde…nite integrals by using substitution method:
Z
xdx
1. p =?
4 x4
Solution: By using the substitution u = x2 :Then du = 2xdx and
Z Z du Z
xdx 2 1 du
p = p = p
4 x 4 4 u 2 2 2 2 u2
Again by using the substitution u = 2 sin t; we have du = 2 cos tdt and
p p
22 u2 = 22 22 sin2 t = 2 cos t: So
Z Z Z
1 du 1 2 cos tdt 1 t
p = = dt = + c
2 22 u2 2 2 cos t 2 2
u
Since u = 2 sin t; we have t = arcsin( ):Then
2
t 1 u 1 x2
+ c = arcsin( ) + c = arcsin( ) + c:
2 2 2 2 2
Z
dx
2. p =?
x x2 + 4
2

2
Solution: By using the substitution x = 2 tan t; we have dx = dt and
cos2 t
p p 2
x2 + 4 = 4 tan2 t + 4 = . So
cos t
Z Z 2 Z Z
dx 2t
dt 1 1 1 cos t
p = cos = dt = dt
x2 x2 + 1 2 4 1 4 sin2 t
4 tan2 t sin2 t
cos t cos t
Again by using the substitution u = sin t; we have du = cos tdt:So
Z Z
1 cos t 1 du 1 1
dt = = +c= +c
4 sin2 t 4 u2 4u 4 sin t
x
Since x = 2 tan t; by using t angled right triangle we have sin t = p
2
x +4
p
1 1 x2 + 4
+c= + c:
4 sin t 4 x
Z
dx
3. p =?
x x2 9
Solution: By using the substitution x = 3 sec t: So we have dx = 3 sec t tan tdt and

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 p p
x2 32 = 9 sec2 t 9 = 3 tan t: Then
Z Z Z
dx 3 sec t tan tdt 1 1
p = = dt = t+c
x x2 9 3 sec t:3 tan t 3 3
x
Since x = 3 sec t; we have t = arcsec
3
Therefore
Z
dx 1 1 x
p = t + c = arcsec + c:
x x 2 9 3 3 3
Z
dx
4. p =?
2x x2
Solution: Firstly, let’s complete 2x x2 to a square.
2x x2 = x2 2x = (x 1)2 1 =1 (x 1)2 :
Then
Z Z
dx dx
p = p
2x x 2 1 (x 1)2
By using the substitution u = x 1; we have du = dx: So
Z Z Z
dx dx du
p = p = p = arcsin u + c = arcsin(x 1) + c:
2x x 2 1 (x 1) 2 1 u2
Z
dx
5. =?
4x2 + 4x + 2
Solution: Firstly, let’s complete 4x2 + 4x + 2 to a square.
4x2 + 4x + 2 = (2x + 1)2 + 1:
Then
Z Z
dx dx
=
4x2 + 4x + 2 (2x + 1)2 + 1
By using the substitution u = 2x + 1; we have du = 2dx: So
Z Z Z
dx dx 1 du 1 1
2
= 2
= 2
= arctan u + c = arctan (2x + 1) + c:
4x + 4x + 2 (2x + 1) + 1 2 u +1 2 2
Z
2x + 5
6. 2
dx =?
x + 4x + 13
Solution: Firstly, let’s complete x2 + 4x + 13 to a square.
x2 + 4x + 13 = (x + 2)2 + 9:
Then
Z Z Z
2x + 5 2x + 4 1
dx = dx + dx
x2 + 4x + 13 x2 + 4x + 13 (x + 2)2 + 9
Z Z
2x + 4 1 1
= dx + dx
x2 + 4x + 13 9 x+2 2
| {z } | 3 + 1
{z }
I1
I2

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 To compute I1 ; using the substitution u = x2 + 4x + 13; we have du = (2x + 4) dx: So
Z Z
2x + 4 du
I1 = dx = = ln juj + c1 = ln x2 + 4x + 13 + c1
x2 + 4x + 13 u
x+2 dx
To compute I2 ; using the substitution u = ; we have du = : So
3 3
Z Z
1 1 1 1 1 1 x+2
I2 = 2 dx = 2
du = arctan u + c2 = arctan + c2
9 x+2
+1 9 u +1 9 9 3
3
Therefore
Z
2x + 5 1 x+2
2
dx = I1 + I2 = ln x2 + 4x + 13 + arctan + c:
x + 4x + 13 9 3

1.4 Integration of Rational Functions

P (x)
Recall that rational functions are functions that can be written in the form , where P (x) and Q(x) are
Q(x)
polynomials. Let deg(P (x)) = n and deg(Q(x)) = m

i) If n m, then by long division, we can …nd a polynomial m(x) and a polynomial r(x) with degree less
than deg(Q(x)) such that

P (x) r(x)
= m(x) + ; for all x with g(x) 6= 0:
Q(x) Q(x)
P (x)
Since polynomial functions can be integrated easily, to integrate , it su¢ ces to know how to integrate
Q(x)
r(x)
:
Q(x)

P (x)
ii) If n < m;then by the help of partial fractions can be integrated easily.
Q(x)

a) If Q(x) = (x x1 )(x x2 ):::(x xm );then

P (x) A1 A2 Am
= + + ::: + :
Q(x) x x1 x x2 x xm

b) If Q(x) = (x x1 )k (x x2 ):::(x xm k );then

P (x) A1 A2 Ak Ak+1 Am
= + 2 + ::: + k
+ + ::: + :
Q(x) x x1 (x x1 ) (x x1 ) x x2 x xm k

c) If Q(x) = (ax2 + bx + c)(x x1 ):::(x xm 2 );then

P (x) A1 x + A2 A3 Am
= 2 + + ::: + :
Q(x) ax + bx + c x x1 x xm 2

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