LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Sound - Overview
• What is Sound ?
• Audio and Power connectors
• Audio signal flow
• PA systems and basic set up
• Tips & tricks
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
What is Sound ?
sound / noise - noun
1- the sensation produced by stimulation of the organs of hearing by vibrations transmitted
through the air or other medium.
2- mechanical vibrations transmitted through an elastic medium, traveling in air at a speed
of 343 m/s at sea levels.
3 - In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as an acoustic wave, through a
transmission medium such as a gas, liquid or solid. In human physiology and psychology,
sound is the reception of such waves and their perception by the brain.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
What is Sound ?
Sound waves properties
Wavelength
The distance between any point on a wave and the equivalent point on the next phase.
Literally the length of the wave.
Amplitude
The strength or power of a wave signal. The “height” of a wave when viewed as a graph.
Higher amplitudes are interpreted as a higher volume, hence the name “amplifier” for a
device that increases amplitude.
Frequency
The number of times the wavelength occurs in one second. Measured in kilohertz (KHz),
or cycles per second. The faster the sound source vibrates, the higher the frequency.
Higher frequencies are interpreted as higher pitch, for example, when you sing in a high-
pitched voice you are forcing your vocal chords to vibrate quickly.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio connectors
Balanced VS unbalanced
One of the major differences between these cables
is that balanced audio has less risk for unwanted
noise, while unbalanced audio can pick up humming
or buzzing sound in certain environments.
In general, balanced audio will give you a better,
stronger audio signal without any extraneous noises.
Unbalanced audio, on the other hand, is susceptible
to picking up noise and interference over longer
distances.
The ground wire in an unbalanced audio cable can
pick up unwanted noise as the audio signal travels
through it. This susceptibility to interference is due
to how the cable is made.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio connectors
TS 3.5mm (mini-jack) and 1/4 inch (jack)
Tip/Sleeve Cable or more popularly known as TS Cable
is a common choice of instrument cable for guitars,
keyboards etc. This is an unbalanced cable as it has just
two conductors.
As a result, most TS cables are suitable only for short
distances to connect to mono instruments. Some popular
instruments that use TS cable are: guitars, drum machines,
effects pedals, mono headphones and other unbalanced
instruments.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio connectors
TRS 3.5mm (mini-jack) and 1/4 inch (jack)
The TRS Cable is very similar to the TS Cable except that it
has an additional Ring.
TRS is short for Tip, Ring, Sleeve Cable.
Depending on the application, we can use a TRS cable as a
balanced cable or an unbalanced cable.
For balanced signals, we can use the tip, ring and sleeve
to carry positive, negative and ground signals to use with a
mono instrument/device. In case of unbalanced connection,
we can configure it to carry 2-channel stereo audio for left
and right channels.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio connectors
XLR (3 pins)
Perhaps the most popular audio cable is the XLR Audio Cable.
It has a bulky three pin connectors that is almost always used
as a balanced cable. As a result, you can use XLR Cables for
long distances without fear of distortion, noise or interference.
In fact, most pro-grade microphones, speakers, instruments
and PA Systems and Stage use XLR Connectors and cables.
These cables are popular for stage shows, concerts and
professional studios, whether you want a short cable (less than
6-feet) or a relatively large cable (over 50-feet) to connect
to equipment.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio connectors
RCA (Phono)
The Radio Corporation of America manufactured a low-cost
consumer grade audio cable that is popularly by the initials of
the company as RCA Cable. They produced both the male and
female counterparts of the cable initially intended for
phonograph (gramophone or a vinyl player).
Due to its simple design and relatively low-cost construction, the
RCA Cable became the standard cable for home stereo
equipment and AV Systems. RCA Cables are essentially
unbalanced cables as they have only two conductors.
Hence, we often restrict them for a short distance. The red and
white stereo cables are very popular even today for connecting
analog audio devices and equipment.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio connectors
MIDI
Technically speaking, MIDI cables don’t send actual audio or
sound but rather they send event information between MIDI
compatible equipment and devices. They are one of the early
digital audio cables that have a special 5-pin connector (looks
similar to an XLR Connector).
They allow the sending and receiving of musical information in
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) format to allow
digital devices to communicate with each other.
As they essentially carry messages in digital format than the
actual audio signals, most modern MIDI communication has
been replaced with USB Cables and connectors.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio connectors
SpeakON (NL2 - NL4 - NL8)
Neutrik designed and developed a special type of connector
known as SpeakON Connector for using in professional audio
equipment, speakers, and amplifiers.
They are typically available as 2-conductors unbalanced cables
but some cables come with 4 and 8 conductors for bi-amping.
Due to its design, Speakon cables are more rugged and durable
and hence, they are often used as an alternative to standard
1/4-inch cables during stage shows, live performances
and concerts.
Speakon cables also have higher current carrying capability than
other cables and as a result we can use them for large loud speakers.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio connectors
S/PDIF (optical cable)
Strictly speaking, S/PDIF (Sony/Philips Digital Audio Interface)
is a standard to carry digital audio from one device to other.
We can use two types of cables for S/PDIF data.
One is the regular RCA Cables while the other is an optical
fiber-based cable with a TOSLINK Connector (Toshiba Link).
The TOSLINK fiber-optic cable are very popular in home-audio
setup to connect TV to surround sound system or a soundbar.
HDMI Cables largely replaced S/PDIF Cables in the
consumer market.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio connectors
USB
One of the simplest and extremely popular digital audio
interfaces is the USB. First, USB replaced the MIDI Connector
to transmit the event messages. Since USB can also carry
power and data (digital), we are also using USB to transmit
audio signals.
The latest USB Type-C has largely replaced the 3.5mm
headphone jack in modern mobile phones. Apart from USB-C,
USB cables are also available with other connectors with
USB Type-A, Micro-USB and USB Type-B being the other
popular options.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio connectors
HDMI
With HDMI Revision 1.4, the HDMI Forum introduced ARC,
which is short for Audio Return Channel. This feature enabled
to reduce the number of wires between a TV and the other
equipment such as Soundbar (or surround sound system) and
an AV Receiver (or any other input device).
As a result, in the battle of HDMI ARC vs Optical Audio, HDMI
came on top due to its significantly high bandwidth support to
carry lossless audio and almost all modern audio formats.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio connectors
EtherCON (RJ45 / Data cables)
The EtherCON is a ruggedized and lockable connector for
Ethernet over twisted pair wiring. It is manufactured by Neutrik
and is designed for professional audio and stage lighting
network applications. The design is modelled after the XLR
connector with a circular hard metal shell and a locking latch.
The cable connector is always male and is designed to fit over
a standard 8P8C modular connector. The chassis connector is
always female and has the standard form factor of an XLR
panel connector. The chassis connectors are rated for either
Cat5, Cat6 or compatibles.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio connectors
TS 3.5mm & 1/4 TRS 3.5mm & 1/4 XLR RCA MIDI
S
SpeakON(NL2/4/8) S/PDIF USB HDMI EtherCON
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Power connectors
C5 C7 IEC 13A 16A 1p 16A 3p 32A 1p
32A 3p PowerCon PowerCon PowerCon Socapex Powerlock
True1 16A 20A
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio signal flow
Audio signal flow is the path of the audio signal from its source to its output. Sound comes
in (input) one end, and is transformed into an electrical voltage, which travels through a
cable and out (output) somewhere else, as sound.
In mixing, it's how the sound gets from an instrument or input to the audio console and
what path the signal takes through the console before finally coming out of the speakers.
Though there’s nothing inherently all that complicated about signal flow, there are a whole
lot of interesting twists and turns we can send that audio signal through on its path, and
the choices we make around signal flow can have a huge impact on the sort of options we
have for shaping sounds.
The most important skill you can have as a live sound engineer is a solid understanding of
signal flow. Without it, there’s no music, and you’re not much of an engineer at all, actually.
You need to know where the signal is coming from, where it needs to go and how to get it
there at all times. In order to do that, you need to know how all the pieces of the PA
system work together.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio signal flow
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
Audio signal flow
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
What is a PA?
PA stands for public address ,i.e projecting sound to a large group of people louder than
you could by talking or playing an acoustic instrument. Your first thought of PA speakers
could be of those used at concerts or sports stadiums.
Here’s a brief rundown of what a PA system is:
- A public address system used to project sounds from instruments, voices and other
acoustic sources.
- Comprises of microphones, mixers, amplifiers and loudspeakers.
- Front of house (FOH) speakers point towards the audience, while monitors are directed
to the performers.
- A mixer adjusts EQ and effects. Either on stage or controlled by an audio engineer at a
mixing desk.
- Used everywhere from clubs and leisure centres to arenas and airports.
2.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Microphones
At their most basic, microphones are transducers.
A transducer is an electrical device that converts energy from one form to another. In this case, the
transducer is turning sound — acoustical energy — into an audio signal — electrical energy.
Most of you would know that sound is essentially fluctuations in air pressure. The component all
microphones have in common is called the diaphragm. When sound waves hit the diaphragm, it vibrates,
and the vibrations (which represent the fluctuations in air pressure) are turned into electrical energy
(current). At the other end of the mic lead, that current is turned into the audio signal.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Microphones - The two main types of microphones
DYNAMIC MICS
Dynamic mics are the kind you see on stage most often, where the sound is aimed down the front of the
mic. These can handle louder sounds since they're less sensitive, not only to volume but to damage in
general.
The diaphragm is a part that vibrates due to sound pressures and in dynamic mics it moves a magnet
through a wire coil's magnetic field. This makes electricity flow. This whole system is called a transducer,
and it works differently in a condenser mic, which is what sets them apart.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Microphones - The two main types of microphones
CONDENSER MICS
Condenser mics are the kind you usually see in recording studios.
The sound is aimed into the side of these mics, which is why you
see some of them pointing to the ceiling and some hanging
upside down, because it doesn't matter as long as the correct
side is aimed at the sound source.
They are more sensitive to smaller changes in volume and can
pick up tiny nuances, which is why they're preferred in the studio
when the acoustic environment is tightly controlled.
But you can damage the larger diaphragm or tube (if it has one),
by recording a source that's too loud or dropping it.
The transducer works by allowing the diaphragm to vibrate closer
and further from a charged metal plate, and this plate is why
condenser mics need Phantom power or some other power source
like a battery or its own power supply.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Microphones - Pick up Patterns
A lot of mics are pretty simple to use. You point it at the sound you want to record or
broadcast and that's it. But many also offer ways to change the sounds it picks up without
changing the direction you point them. These 'ways' are settings called pickup patterns.
You'll often see these pickup patterns referred to as polar patterns, polarity, and
directionality. They all mean the same thing. Most mics that don't let you change the
pickup pattern are set to cardioid.
This is the most common pattern, because it picks up a wide field in front of the
microphone while blocking out noise coming in from behind.
Think about a singer on stage. You don't want the sound of the crowd cheering and
singing along, coming from behind the mic, being played back out of the speakers.
You only want the singer's voice being captured from in front. Most of the other pickup
patterns are variants on the cardioid pattern, although there are other useful ones that
you'll still rarely use.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Microphones - Pick up Pattern
All of these patterns come in three basic flavours:
• Unidirectional
• Bidirectional
• Omnidirectional
In order, these mean that the mic will record sounds from only
one direction (front), two directions (front & back), or a full 360
degrees.
You'll typically only ever use the cardioid pattern, which is
unidirectional.
It largely only picks up sound from the front, but will still
capture some sound from the sides (at a lesser volume).
That's because these patterns have a sensitivity to them as
well, as seen in the image where the dark black lines extend
further out in the circle, which corresponds to higher
volumes (measured in decibels).
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Mixing Desk
A mixing console is the most critical equipment in
live sound setups because it controls all the audio
sources before they are sent to the loudspeakers.
Knowing the ins and outs of a mixing board and how
to use them will make the difference between a
perfect mix and a mediocre one.
An audio mixer is a device used to combine multiple
sound sources by manipulating the volume,
frequency, and dynamics of the audio source.
Audio Mixers are also called mixing console,
mixing board, mixing desk, or soundboard.
1.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Mixing Desk - Part of a Mixing Desk
Depending on the size of
the mixing console, it
could have hundreds of
knobs that are designed to
do a specific task. All of the
knobs on the surface of a
mixing console make it
look complicated, but the
truth is that each channel
strip has a few controls
that repeat for the rest of
the channels.
If you understand one
channel, you would know
how a mixer works.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
1.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
1.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Mixing Desk - The Channel Stripe
A single channel on a mixing board is also known as a channel strip, and it’s configured
from top to bottom. All channels are arranged in columns that go across the board. Each
channel strip has inputs, inserts, gain, equalization, auxiliary sends, and volume faders.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
DI BOX (Direct Box)
A DI box, also called a direct box, converts the
unbalanced, high impedance signal output of an
instrument to a balanced low impedance
mic-level signal.
This enables the signal to travel distances of 100
meters (300 feet) without adding appreciable noise.
The output of a DI box is mic level – thus the balanced
output signal is treated just like a microphone.
When playing live, the mixing console is usually
positioned in the house (front of house or FOH
position) which is often 50 to 100 meters away.
Most instruments such as bass guitar, acoustic guitar
and keyboards are connected to a DI box and mixed at FOH.
For the sound engineer, capturing the direct sound of the
instrument separately from being processed by the artist on
stage usually makes it easier to amplify the signal as it can
be optimized for the room.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
LSM processor (speaker management)
LMS stands for Loudspeaker Management System (LMS) and is essentially a active digital crossover.
An active crossover is needed when using different cabinets. For instance, a system using a mid/top
cabinet with a bass cabinets.
The active crossover splits the frequency and assures that each loudspeaker is just playing in its optimum
frequency range.
The LMS also gives you digital control over the equalisation, delay and peak limiting.
The equaliser or EQ allows the sound system to have a flat frequency response in any venue.
The delays ensure that all the loudspeakers are working in time and phase with each other even if they
are in different positions.
Finally the peak limiters help protect your sound system by stopping the amplifiers from clipping.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Audio Power Amplifier
An audio power amplifier is an electronic amplifier that amplifies low-power audio signals
to a level suitable for driving loudspeakers and is the final stage in a typical audio playback
chain.
The preceding stages in such a chain are low power audio amplifiers which perform tasks
like pre-amplification, equalization, tone control, mixing/effects, or audio sources like
record players, CD players, and cassette players.
While the input signal to an audio power amplifier may measure only a few hundred
microwatts, its output may be tens, hundreds, or thousands of watts.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Loudspeakers
Loudspeakers produce sound waves by causing a thin diaphragm to
vibrate and disrupt the air pressure around it in the form of the
intended sound wave. An amplified audio signal (alternating current)
that has the same waveform as the sound wave is responsible for
vibrating the speaker diaphragm.
Active vs Passive
An active speaker has a built-in amplifier and gets its power from a
power outlet. A passive speaker gets power from an external
amplifier.
Active and passive speakers also vary in sound, flexibility,
and signal path.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Type of loudspeakers
Full range PA speakers
A full-range loudspeaker drive unit is defined as a driver which
reproduces as much of the audible frequency range as possible,
within the limitations imposed by the physical constraints of a
specific design. The frequency range of these drivers is
maximised through the use of a whizzer cone and other means.
Most single driver systems, such as those in radios, or small
computer speaker designs, cannot reproduce all of the audible
frequencies or the entire audible audio range (i.e., sound within
the range of human hearing 20Hz - 20 KHz).
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Type of loudspeakers
Column PA systems
Column speakers are designed for a much more focussed beam of
sound than a standard wall speaker, being similar in design to the
large line-array systems used at large concert venues and festivals.
Rather than the usual larger woofer and small tweeter configuration
found in most wall-mount speakers, a column speaker uses an
inline row of smaller, identical sized drivers, working together to
produce a full range output.
This feature makes a column speakers pa system especially
effective for high ceiling environments, as the sound can be directed across an area in a
torchlight type beam, helping greatly to limit the loss of a standard speaker output. This
also helps with avoiding unwanted room echo and keeping the overall volume of the
system lower.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Type of loudspeakers
Stage monitors
A stage monitor system is a set of performer-facing
loudspeakers called monitor speakers, stage monitors,
floor monitors, wedges, or foldbacks on stage during
live music performances in which a sound reinforcement
system is used to amplify a performance for the audience.
The monitor system allows musicians to hear themselves
and fellow band members clearly.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Type of loudspeakers
Subwoofers
A subwoofer (or sub) is a loudspeaker designed to reproduce
low-pitched audio frequencies known as bass and sub-bass,
lower in frequency than those which can be (optimally)
generated by a woofer. The typical frequency range for a
subwoofer is about 20–200 Hz for consumer products, below
100 Hz for professional live sound. Subwoofers are never used
alone, as they are intended to augment the low-frequency
range of loudspeakers that cover the higher frequency bands.
While the term "subwoofer" technically only refers to the
speaker driver, in common parlance, the term often refers to a
subwoofer driver mounted in a speaker enclosure (cabinet).
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Type of loudspeakers
Line Arrays
Line Array Speakers focus the sound into a very narrow
pattern to avoid the wasted sound energy that comes from
using standard speakers. Array speakers are constructed
of identical loudspeaker units mounted in a line and fed
in-phase to create a singular source. Used vertically,
Line Array Modules give a narrow and defined vertical
output with a wide horizontal spread, which is perfect for
arenas as it gets the sound across the audience rather
than up into the ceiling or the open air.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Point source VS Line source
Point source
Sound waves propagate in the shape of a sphere,
spreading out horizontally and vertically. With every
doubling of distance, the surface area of the propagation
front increases by a factor of four. In other words, the
sound intensity per unit area drops by a factor of four, and
the sound pressure level attenuates by 6 dB.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Point source VS Line source
Line source
Sound waves propagate in the shape of a cylinder,
spreading out horizontally but not vertically. With every
doubling of distance, the surface area of the propagation
front increases by a factor of two. In other words, the
sound intensity per unit area drops by a factor of two, and
the sound pressure level attenuates by 3 dB.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Point source VS Line source
Because the sound also disperses widely in the vertical plane, a significant amount of
reflection occurs at the roof and floor surfaces. These reflections are heard as
reverberation and make the reinforced sound less clear.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
Point source VS Line source
Sound waves disperse very little in the vertical plane, significantly reducing the amount of
reflection at the roof and floor surfaces. Traveling directly from array to audience and free
of reflections, the reinforced sound is clearer overall.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
POINT SOURCE VS LINE SOURCE
2.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
BASIC PA SET UP
2.
LEVEL 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING
PA systems and basic set up
BASIC PA SET UP
2.
