9

AXIAL FLOW
COMPRESSORS

INTRODUCTION

The principal type of compressor being used nowadays, in majority

of the gas turbine power plants and especially in aircraft applications, is
the axial flow compressor. Although in olden days, the turboprop engines
incorporated the centrifugal compressors, the recent trend, particularly for
high-speed and long-range applications, is towards the axial flow type. This
dominance is mainly due to the ability of the axial flow compressor to satisfy
the basic requirements of the aircraft gas turbine.
The basic requirements of compressors for aircraft gas-turbine applica-
tion are well-known. In general, they include
(i) high air-flow capacity per unit frontal area,
(ii) high pressure ratio per stage,
(iii) high efficiency, and
(iv) discharge direction suitable for multistaging.
Because of the demand for rapid engine acceleration and for operation over
a wide range of flight conditions, a high level of aerodynamic performance
must be maintained over a wide range of mass flow rates and speeds. Phys-
ically, the compressor should be designed in such a way to have a minimum
length and also its weight must be as low as possible. The mechanical
design should be simple, so as to reduce manufacturing time and cost. Fur-
ther, the resulting structure should be mechanically rugged and must have
high reliability.

9.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The basic concepts of multistage axial flow compressor operation have been
known for approximately 100 years, being presented to the French Academic
334 Gas Turbines

des Sciences in 1853 by Tournaire. One of the earliest experimental axial

flow compressors (1884) was obtained by C. A. Parsons by running a mul-
tistage reaction-type turbine in reverse. Efficiencies for this type of unit
were quite low. It was mainly because the blading was not designed for
the condition of a pressure rise in the direction of flow. Beginning at the
turn of twentieth century, a number of axial flow compressors were built, in
some cases with the blade design based on propeller theory. However, the
efficiency of these units was still low (50 to 60 per cent). Further, devel-
opment of the axial flow compressor was retarded by the lack of sufficient
knowledge of fluid mechanics at that time.
The advances in aviation during the period of World War I and the
rapidly developing background in fluid mechanics and aerodynamics gave
new impetus to research on compressors. The performance of axial flow
compressors was considerably improved by the use of isolated-airfoil theory.
As long as moderate pressure ratios per stage were desired, isolated-airfoil
theory was quite capable of producing compressors with reasonably high
efficiency. Compressors of this class were used in machinery as ventilating
fans, air conditioning units, and steam generator fans.
Beginning in the middle of 1930’s, interest in the axial flow compressor
was greatly increased as the result of the quest for air superiority. Efficient
superchargers were necessary for reciprocating engines in order to increase
engine power output as well as improved high-altitude aircraft performance.
With the development of efficient compressor and turbine components, tur-
bojet engines for aircraft also began receiving attention.
In 1936 the Royal Aircraft Establishment in England began the de-
velopment of axial flow compressor for jet propulsion. A series of high
performance compressors was developed, culminating in the F.2 engine in
1941. In Germany, concentrated research work ultimately resulted in the
use of axial flow compressors in the Jumo 004 and the B.M.W. 003 turbojet
engines. In the United States, aerodynamic research results were applied
to obtain high-performance axial flow units.
In the development of all these units, increased stage pressure ratios
were sought by utilizing high blade cambers and closer blade spacings. Un-
der these conditions the flow patterns about the blades began to affect
each other, and it became apparent that the isolated-airfoil approach was
inadequate. Aerodynamic theory was therefore, developed specifically for
the case of a lattice or cascade of airfoils. In addition to theoretical stud-
ies, systematic experimental investigations of the performance of airfoils in
cascade were conducted to provide the required design information.
By 1945, compressors of high efficiency could be developed by incorpo-
rating aerodynamic principles in design and development. Since that time,
considerable research has been directed at extending aerodynamic limits in
an attempt to maximize compressor and gas-turbine performance. One of
the major developments in this direction has been the successful extension
of allowable relative inlet Mach numbers without sacrificing efficiency. The
subject of allowable blade loading, or blade surface diffusion, has also been
attacked with a degree of success. Accompanying improvements led to an
 Axial Flow Compressors 335

increase in the understanding of the physics of flow through axial flow com-
pressor blading. This resulted in corresponding improvements in techniques
of aerodynamic design and high efficiencies and axial flow machines became
a reality.

9.2 GEOMETRY AND WORKING PRINCIPLE

As already stated elsewhere, it may be noted that an axial compressor is a

pressure producing machine. The energy level of air or gas flowing through
it, is increased by the action of the rotor blades which exert a torque on
the fluid. This torque is supplied by an external source – an electric motor
or a gas-turbine. Besides its applications in the industrial gas turbine units
the multistage axial compressor is the principal element of all gas-turbine
power plants for land and aeronautical applications.
An axial flow compressor [Fig.9.1(a) and (b)] consists of an alternating
sequence of fixed and moving sets of blades. The sets of fixed blades are
spaced around an outer stationary casing, called the stator. The sets of
moving blades are fixed to a spindle called the rotor. The rotor and stator
banks must be as close as possible for smooth and efficient flow. The radius
of the rotor hub and the length of the blades are designed so that there is
only a very small tip clearance at the end of the stator and rotor blades.
One set of stator blades and one set of rotor blades constitute a stage.

(a) Drum type rotor (b) Disc type rotor

336 Gas Turbines

kinetic energy imparted to the working fluid. It also redirects the fluid at
an angle suitable for entry into the rotating blades of the following stage.
Usually at entry one more stator is provided to guide the air correctly into
the first rotor. These blades are sometimes referred to as the Inlet Guide
Vanes (IGV). The details are shown in Fig.9.2. In many compressors there
are one to three rows of diffuser or straightener blades installed after the
last stage to straighten and slow down the air before it enters into the
combustion chamber.

Inlet guide vanes (IGV)

Rotor blades Stage

Stator blades
(diffuser)

Fig. 9.2 An axial flow compressor stage

9.3 STAGE VELOCITY TRIANGLES

The flow geometry at the entry and exit of a compressor stage is described
by the velocity triangles at these stations. A minimum number of data on
velocity vectors and their directions are required to draw a complete set of
velocity triangles.
Compressors have a finite cross-section at the entry and exit. There-
fore, the magnitude of velocity vectors and their directions vary over these
sections. On account of this, an infinite number of velocity triangles are
required to fully describe the flow. This is obviously not possible. On
the other hand, a single pair of velocity triangles will only represent one-
dimensional flow through the stage.
In view of this, mean values of velocity vectors and their directions are
defined for blade rows of given geometries and flow conditions. These values
make it possible to draw the mean velocity triangles for the stage.
The velocity triangles for a compressor stage contain, besides the pe-
ripheral velocity (u) of the rotor blades both the absolute (c) and relative
(w) fluid velocity vectors. These velocities are related by the following
well-known vector equation:

c = u+w (9.1)

where c is absolute velocity vector, u is peripheral velocity vector and w is

 Axial Flow Compressors 337

relative velocity vector. This simple relation is frequently used and is very
useful in drawing the velocity triangles for turbomachines.
For instance the velocity triangles shown in Fig.9.3 are for a general
stage which receives air or gas with an absolute velocity c1 and angle α1
(from the axial direction) from the previous stage. In the case of the first
stage in a multistage machine the axial direction of the approaching flow is
changed to the desired direction (α1 ) by providing a row of blades upstream
of the rotor which are called inlet guide vanes (IGV) or upstream guide
vanes (UGV). Therefore, the first stage experiences additional losses arising
from flow through the guide vanes.

Upstream guide vanes

h1 , p1
Entry velocity triangle w1 h 01,p01
β1 α1
1 c1
ca1

Rotor blades wt1 ct1

u

Exit velocity triangle

β2 α2 c2
w2 2
ca2 h 2 , p2
wt2 c t2 h 02, p02
u Diffuser blades
h3 , p3
α
h 03,p03
ca3 3 c3
3

Fig. 9.3 Velocity triangles for a compressor stage

For a general stage, the entry to the rotor, exit from the rotor and the
diffuser blade row (stator) are designated as stations 1,2 and 3 respectively.
The air angles in the absolute and the relative systems are denoted by
α1 , α2 , α3 and β1 , β2 respectively as seen in Fig.9.3. If the flow is repeated
in another stage

c1 = c3 and α1 = α3

Subscripts a and t (Fig.9.3) denote axial and tangential directions respec-

tively. Thus the absolute swirl or whirl vectors ct1 and ct2 are the tangential
components of absolute velocities c1 and c2 respectively. Similarly, wt1 and
wt2 are the tangential components of the relative velocities w1 and w2 re-
spectively.
338 Gas Turbines

The following trigonometrical relations obtained from velocity triangles

(Fig.9.3) will be used throughout this chapter.
From velocity triangles at the entry:
ca1 = c1 cos α1 = w1 cos β1 (9.2)

ct1 = c1 sin α1 = ca1 tan α1 (9.3)

wt1 = w1 sin β1 = ca1 tan β1 (9.4)

u = ct1 + wt1 (9.5)

u = c1 sin α1 + w1 sin β1 (9.6)

u = ca1 (tan α1 + tan β1 ) (9.7)

From velocity triangles at the exit:

ca2 = c2 cos α2 = w2 cos β2 (9.8)

ct2 = c2 sin α2 = ca2 tan α2 (9.9)

wt2 = w2 sin β2 = ca2 tan β2 (9.10)

u = ct2 + wt2 (9.11)

u = c2 sin α2 + w2 sin β2 (9.12)

u = ca2 (tan α2 + tan β2 ) (9.13)

For constant axial velocity through the stage:

ca1 = ca2 = ca3 = ca (9.14)

ca = c1 cos α1 = w1 cos β1

= c2 cos α2 = w2 cos β2 (9.15)

Equations 9.7 and 9.13 give
u 1
= = tan α1 + tan β1 = tan α2 + tan β2 (9.16)
ca φ

This relation can also be presented in another form using Eqs. 9.5 and 9.11,
ct1 + wt1 = ct2 + wt2

ct2 − ct1 = wt1 − wt2 (9.17)

ca (tan α2 − tan α1 ) = ca (tan β1 − tan β2 ) (9.18)

Equations 9.17 and 9.18 give the change in the swirl components across the
rotor blade row. For steady flow in an axial machine, this is proportional
to the torque exerted on the fluid by the rotor.
 Axial Flow Compressors 339

Table 9.1 illustrates what happen to the flow velocity and pressure when
air passes through the stage of the compressor.

Table 9.1 Variations occurring in an axial flow compressor

Absolute Relative Flow Static Total

velocity, c velocity, w width pressure, p pressure, p0

Rotor Increases Decreases Increases Increases Increases

Stator Decreases – Increases Increases About constant

9.3.1 Work Input to the Compressor

Now let us derive an expression for work input in terms of velocity and
blade angles. The derivation is based on the assumption that the axial
velocity, ca , remains constant throughout the machine. This assumption
simplifies the design calculations as well as expression for work input and
pressure rise. To maintain the axial velocity from the first stage to the last
stage (Fig. 9.1) constant throughout the machine, the area of flow is made
converging as pressure is increasing in every stage. Now, from Eq. 9.16
u = ca (tan α1 + tan β1 ) = ca (tan α2 + tan β2 ) (9.19)

also
W = u(ct2 − ct1 ) (9.20)

= u(ca tan α2 − ca tan α1 )

= uca (tan α2 − tan α1 ) (9.21)

In terms of angle, β, it can be written as

W = uca (tan β1 − tan β2 ) (9.22)

According the Euler’s⎡ energy equation (Eq. 3.13) ⎤

1⎢ 2 2 2 2 2 2 ⎥
E = ⎣ c1 − c2 + u1 − u2 + w2 − w1 ⎦
2
I II III

For axial flow compressors (u = u1 = u2 ), the above equation will reduce

to
1 2 1
W = c − c21 + w12 − w22 (9.23)
2 2 2
To obtain higher efficiencies the work input should be as minimum as possi-
ble. To achieve this, proper care in the design of blade and flow geometries
are essential.
340 Gas Turbines

9.4 WORK DONE FACTOR

Owing to secondary flows and the growth of boundary layers on the hub
and casing of the compressor annulus, the axial velocity along the blade
height is far from uniform. This effect is not so prominent in the first stage
of a multistage machine but is quite significant in the subsequent stages.
Figure 9.4 depicts the typical axial velocity distributions in the first and
last stages of a multistage axial compressor. The degree of distortion of the
axial velocity distributions in the last stage will depend on the number of
stages. On account of this, the axial velocity in the hub and tip regions is

Casing

Actual
Flow Annulus
height

Mean

First Last Hub

 Axial Flow Compressors 341

The air angles β2 and α1 are fixed by the cascade geometry of the rotor
blades and the upstream blade row. Therefore, assuming (tan α1 + tan β2 )
and u as constant, Eq. 9.28 relates work to the axial velocity at various
sections along the blade height.
The velocity triangles of Fig.9.3 are redrawn in Fig.9.5 for the design
value (mean value shown in Fig.9.4), and the reduced (ca − Δca ) and in-
creased (ca + Δca ) values of the axial velocity.

Increased incidence
w1
α1 c1
Reduced ca
u
Design ca
u
u Increased ca
Reduced incidence

w c2
c - Δca 2 β
ca a 2
Reduced c a
ca+Δca u
u Design ca
u Increased ca

Fig. 9.5 Effect of axial velocity on the stage velocity triangles and work

It is seen from the velocity triangles that the work absorbing capacity
decreases with an increase in the axial velocity and vice versa. Therefore,
the work absorbing capacity of the stage is reduced in the central region
of the annulus and increased in the hub and tip regions. However, the
expected increase in the work at the hub and tip is not obtained in actual
practice on account of higher losses. Therefore, the net result is that the
stage work absorbing capacity is less than that given by Euler’s equation
based on a constant value of the axial velocity along the blade height. This
reduction in the work absorbing capacity of the stage is taken into account
by a factor known as “workdone factor”. This varies from 0.98 to 0.85
depending on the number of stages. Thus, the work done factor accounts
for the effect of boundary layer and tip clearance. It is an empirical factor
which reduces the capacity of compressor. It is denoted by Ω. It takes
into account the axial velocity distribution also which is otherwise assumed
constant. Therefore, the workdone on air becomes
W = Ωuca (tan β1 − tan β2 ) (9.29)

In terms of temperature difference, we have

ΔTs = T02 − T01 (9.30)

Cp ΔTs = Ωuca (tan β1 − tan β2 )

Ωuca
ΔTs = (tan β1 − tan β2 ) (9.31)
Cp
342 Gas Turbines

In fact, the stage temperature rise will be less due to the three dimensional
effects in the compressor annulus. Experiments have shown that in order
to get the actual energy transfer the result obtained should be multiplied
by a factor Ω which is the work done factor (refer Eq. 9.29).
Work done factor is really a measure of the ratio of the actual work
absorbing capacity of the stage to its ideal value as calculated from the
equation. The explanation of this is based on the fact that the axial velocity
contribution is not constant across the annulus. The magnitude increases
as the flow velocity across the annulus has compensating effects in respect
of work capacity. Unfortunately, the influence of the boundary layer and
tip clearance has an adverse effect on this compensation and the net result
is a loss in total work capacity which is accounted for by the work done
factor, Ω.

9.5 ENTHALPY–ENTROPY DIAGRAM

Figure 9.6 shows the enthalpy–entropy diagram for a general axial flow
compressor stage. Static and stagnation values of pressures and enthalpies
at various stations are as shown in Fig.9.6. 1–2 –3 shows isentropic com-
pression whereas 1–2–3 shows actual compression. The stagnation point
03 corresponds to the final state at the end of isentropic compression.

1/2 c22 02 03 1/2 c32

p 3
02
p 03’ Stator
03
p 3’
3
2
h p 2’
2

p Rotor
01

01’ p
1
1/2 c12 01
1

Fig. 9.6 Enthalpy–entropy diagram of an axial compressor

From Fig.9.3 it can be seen that air enters the rotor blades with lower
absolute velocity (c1 ) but with large relative velocity (w1 ) whereas it leaves
the rotor with large c2 and lower w2 . However, when it comes out of the
 Axial Flow Compressors 343

diffuser blades c3 is reduced which will be close to (very slightly higher)

c1 . Hence the stagnation pressure p01 will be slightly higher than the static
pressure p1 by 12 c21 which is shown in Fig.9.6. However, the stagnation
pressure p02 will be much higher than the static pressure p2 as can be seen
from the Fig.9.6. However, the flow occurs at constant enthalpy as can
been seen in the figure. That is

h02 = h03
1 1
h2 + c22 = h3 + c23 (9.32)
2 2
Further, it should be noted that the actual energy transformation process
(1 − 2) and (2 − 3) in the rotor and diffuser blade rows occur with stagna-
tion pressure loss and increase in entropy. However, the relative stagnation
enthalpy remains constant.

h01 rel = h02 rel

1 1
h1 + w12 = h2 + w22 (9.33)
2 2

9.6 COMPRESSOR STAGE EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of the compression process can now be defined based on ideal
and actual process as shown in the h–s diagram (Fig.9.6).
The ideal work input to the stage

Wideal = h03 − h01 (9.34)

= Cp (T03 − T01 ) (9.35)

This is the minimum stage work input required to obtain a static pressure
rise of p3 − p1 . However, the actual process due to various losses and the
associated irreversibilities will require a higher magnitude of work input for
the same pressure rise. This is given by

Wactual = h03 − h01 (9.36)

= Cp (T03 − T01 ) (9.37)

The compressor stage efficiency pertaining to total (stagnation) conditions

at entry and exit can be written as
Wideal
ηpc = (9.38)
Wactual
T03 − T01
= (9.39)
T03 − T01

The magnitude of the stage work can now be written in terms of actual
velocities and air angles from the velocity triangles. Using Eq. 9.21, we can
344 Gas Turbines

write

Wactual = h03 − h01 = uca (tan α2 − tan α1 )

= uca (tan β1 − tan β2 )

1 2 1
= c − c21 + w12 − w22
2 2 2

Knowing the stage pressure ratio, the isentropic enthalpy drop, h03 −
h01 , can be calculated and thereby ηpc can be evaluated from the Eq. 9.38.

9.7 PERFORMANCE COEFFICIENTS

In order to evaluate the performance of the compressor same dimension-

less performance coefficients are found useful in various analyses. We will
discuss them briefly in the following section.

9.7.1 Flow Coefficient

It is defined as the ratio of axial velocity to peripheral speed of the blades
ca
φ =
u

Flow coefficient is sometimes called as compressor-velocity ratio. It may

be noted that φ is sensitive to changes in angle of incidence, and as such
it is a useful parameter for representing the stalling characteristics of the
compressor.

9.7.2 Rotor Pressure Loss Coefficient

It is defined as the ratio of the pressure loss in the rotor due to relative
motion of air to the pressure equivalent of relative inlet velocity

p01 rel − p02 rel

Yrel = 1 2
(9.40)
2 ρw1

9.7.3 Rotor Enthalpy Loss Coefficient

It is defined as the ratio of the difference between the actual and isentropic
enthalpy to the enthalpy equivalent of relative inlet velocity

h2 − h2 Cp (T2 − T2 )
ξrel = 1 2 = 1 2 (9.41)
2 w1 2 w1

Because of friction and churning, the enthalpy at the outlet will be more
and thereby more work input will become necessary.
 Axial Flow Compressors 345

9.7.4 Stator or Diffuser Pressure Loss Coefficient

It is defined as the ratio of the pressure loss in the diffuser due to flow
velocity to the pressure equivalent of actual inlet velocity of the diffuser.
p02 − p03
YD = 1 2
(9.42)
2 ρc2

9.7.5 Stator or Diffuser Enthalpy Loss Coefficient

It is defined as the ratio of the difference between the actual and isentropic
enthalpy the enthalpy equivalent of absolute velocity of flow at diffuser
inlet.
h3 − h3 Cp (T3 − T3 )
ξD = 1 2 = 1 2 (9.43)
2 c2 2 c2

9.7.6 Loading Coefficient

It is defined as the actual stagnation enthalpy rise in the stage to enthalpy
equivalent of peripheral speed of the rotor.
h03 − h01 W
Ψ = =
u2 u2
Substituting for W from Eq. 9.22,
uca (tan β1 − tan β2 )
Ψ =
u2
= φ(tan β1 − tan β2 ) = φ(tan α2 − tan α1 ) (9.44)

Cp (T03 − T01 )
= (9.45)
u2
Loading coefficient in terms of ηpc can be written as
Cp (T03 − T01 )
Ψ = (9.46)
u2 ηpc

Some designers define the loading coefficient as the ratio of stage work to
the blade kinetic energy
W
ψ = (9.47)
1 u2
2
But we will use ψ without the factor 2, i.e., Eq.9.46.

9.8 DEGREE OF REACTION

The degree of reaction prescribes the distribution of the stage pressure rise
between the rotor and the diffuser blade rows. This in turn determines the
346 Gas Turbines

cascade losses in each of these blade rows. The degree of reaction for axial
compressors can also be defined in a number of ways: it can be expressed
either in terms of enthalpies, pressures or flow geometry.
For an actual compressor stage the degree of reaction is defined as
actual change of enthalpy in the rotor
R =
actual change of enthalpy in the stage
h2 − h1 T2 − T1
= = (9.48)
h3 − h1 T3 − T1

For c1 = c3 ,
h3 − h1 = h03 − h01 = u(ct2 − ct1 )

From Eq. 9.33, we have

1 2
h2 − h1 = w − w22
2 1
Now, degree of reaction, R, can be written as
h2 − h 1
R = (9.49)
h03 − h01

w12 − w22
= (9.50)
2u(ct2 − ct1 )

Equation 9.50 can be further expressed in terms of air angles.

c2a tan2 β1 − tan2 β2
R =
2uca (tan β1 − tan β2 )
1 ca
R = (tan β1 + tan β2 ) (9.51)
2 u
ca
But = φ, and
u
1
(tan β1 + tan β2 ) = tan βm
2
Therefore,
R = φ tan βm (9.52)

Equation 9.51 can be rearranged to give

1 ca
R = [(tan β1 + tan α1 ) − (tan α1 − tan β2 )]
2 u
From Eq. 9.27
u
tan β1 + tan α1 =
ca

Therefore,
 Axial Flow Compressors 347

1 1 ca
R = − (tan α1 − tan β2 ) (9.53)
2 2 u
This is a useful relation in terms of the geometry of flow and can be used to
study the effect of air angles and the required cascade geometry (to provide
these air angles) on the degree of reaction of an axial compressor stage.

9.8.1 Low Reaction Stages

A low reaction stage has a lesser pressure rise in its rotor compared to
that in the diffuser, i.e., (Δp)rel < (Δp)D . In such a stage the quan-
tity (tan α1 − tan β2 ) is positive or in other words α1 > β2 (Fig.9.3 and
Eq. 9.53). The same effect can be explained in another manner. In Eq. 9.53

ca tan α1 = ct1 = u − wt1

ca tan β2 = wt2 = u − ct2

Therefore, after substituting these values in Eq. 9.53

1 1 ct1 wt2
R = − − (9.54)
2 2 u u
1 1
= − (ct2 − wt1 ) (9.55)
2 2u
This equation relates the degree of reaction to the magnitudes of swirl or
the whirl components approaching the rotor and the diffuser. Thus a low
degree of reaction is obtained when the rotor blade rows remove less swirl
compared to the diffuser blade rows, i.e.,

wt1 < ct2

Figure 9.7 shows the enthalpy–entropy diagram for such a stage. The
swirl removing ability of a blade row is reflected in the static pressure rise
across it. In a low-degree reaction stage the diffuser blade rows are burdened
by a comparatively larger static pressure rise which is not desirable for
obtaining higher efficiencies.

9.8.2 Fifty Per cent Reaction Stages

One of the ways to reduce the burden of a large pressure rise in a blade row
is to divide the stage pressure rise equally between the rotor and diffuser.
To approach this condition (Fig.9.8).

1
h 2 − h1 = h3 − h2 = (h3 − h1 ) (9.56)
2

This when substituted in Eq. 9.48 gives R = 12 .

1
Equation 9.50 for R = 2 gives
348 Gas Turbines

p
3
3

3’
Diffuser
h3- h 2

Enthalpy
p
2
2
2’

h2 - h 1
Rotor p
1

1
Entropy

1
Fig. 9.7 Enthalpy–entropy diagram for a low reaction stage R < 2

p
3 3

3’
Diffuser h3- h2 =1/2(h3 - h1)
Enthalpy

p2
2
2’
Rotor
h2- h1 =1/2(h3 - h1)
p1

Entropy

1
Fig. 9.8 Enthalpy–entropy diagram for a 50% reaction stage R = 2
 Axial Flow Compressors 349

1 w12 − w22
=
2 2u(ct2 − ct1 )

Substituting from Eq. 9.23

1 2 1
w12 − w22 = c2 − c21 + w12 − w22
2 2
w12 − w22 = c22 − c21 (9.57)

For R = 12 , Eq. 9.53 gives

α1 = β2 (9.58)

This when substituted along with Eq. 9.27 gives

α2 = β1 (9.59)

Equation 9.58 and 9.59 along with Eq. 9.57 yield

w1 = c2

w2 = c1 (9.60)

These relations show that the velocity triangles at the entry and exit
of the rotor of a fifty per cent reaction stage are symmetrical. The whirl
or swirl components at the entries of the rotor and diffuser blade rows are
also same.

ct1 = wt2

wt1 = ct2 (9.61)

9.8.3 High Reaction Stages

The static pressure rise in the rotor of a high reaction stage is larger com-
pared to that in the diffuser, i.e., (Δp)rel > (Δp)D . Figure 9.9 shows
the enthalpy diagram. For such a stage the quantity (tan α1 − tan β2 ) in
Eq. 9.53 is negative, giving R > 12 . Therefore, for such a stage

α1 < β2 and wt1 > ct2 (9.62)

Figure 9.10 shows the velocity triangles for such a stage. It can be
observed that the rotor blade row generates a higher static pressure on
account of the larger magnitude of the swirl component wt1 at its entry.
The swirl component ct2 passed on to the diffuser blade row is relatively
smaller, resulting in a lower static pressure rise therein.
Since the rotor blade rows have relatively higher efficiencies, it is ad-
vantageous to have a slightly greater pressure rise in them compared to the
diffuser.
350 Gas Turbines

p
3 3

3’
Diffuser h3 - h 2
p

Enthalpy
2 2
2’

h2- h 1
Rotor
p
1

1
Entropy

1
Fig. 9.9 Enthalpy–entropy diagram for a high reaction stage R > 2

w1 β1 α1
c1

Rotor blades wt1 ct1

u u

β2 α2 c2
w2

wt2 c t2
u Diffuser blades

α3
c3

Fig. 9.10 High reaction stage R > 12 , α1 < β2

 Axial Flow Compressors 351

9.9 FLOW THROUGH BLADE ROWS

After studying the geometry and thermodynamics of the flow through a

compressor stage, further insight can be obtained by looking at the flow in
the individual blade rows. Therefore, the two parts of the h–s diagram in
Fig.9.6 (for the stage) are redrawn in Figs.9.11 and 9.12. The similarity
between these diagrams must be noted.

p
01 rel p
01 rel 02 rel 02 rel

h 01 rel = h02 rel

1/2 w22
2
1/2 w2’ p
2
Enthalpy

2
2’
1/2 w12

p
1

Entropy

Fig. 9.11 Enthalpy–entropy diagram for flow through rotor blade row

The flow over a small pressure rise can be considered incompressible, i.e.,
density can be assumed to remain constant with little sacrifice in accuracy.

9.9.1 Rotor Blade Row

The flow process as observed by an observer sitting on the rotor is shown
in Fig.9.11. The initial and final pressures are p1 and p2 for both isentropic
and adiabatic processes.
In the isentropic process the flow will diffuse to a velocity w2 giving the
stagnation enthalpy and pressure as h01 rel and p01 rel respectively.
1 1
h2 − h1 = (p2 − p1 ) = (Δp)rel (9.63)
ρ ρ
The actual process gives the final velocity w2 and stagnation pressure
p02 rel . Here the same static pressure rise (Δp)rel occurs with a greater
change in the kinetic energy 12 w12 − w22 . In the ideal or isentropic process
this is
1 2 1
w − w22 < w12 − w22
2 1 2
352 Gas Turbines

p p
02 03
02 03
h02= h03
1/2 c 32
1/2 c23’ p
3

Enthalpy
3’
1/2 c 22

p
2

Entropy

Fig. 9.12 Enthalpy–entropy diagram for flow through diffuser (stator) blade
row

This difference is due to the losses and the increase in entropy.

The efficiency of the rotor blade row can now be defined by
h2 − h1 (h2 − h1 ) − (h2 − h2 )
ηrel = = (9.64)
h2 − h1 h2 − h1
h 2 − h2
= 1− (9.65)
h2 − h1

Assuming perfect gas and substituting from Eq. 9.41

w12
ηrel = 1− ξrel (9.66)
2Cp (T2 − T1 )

ξrel
= 1− w22
(9.67)
1− w12

The assumption of incompressible flow is not required in Eqs. 9.65, 9.66

and 9.67
h2 − h2 = (h2 − h1 ) − (h2 − h1 )

For incompressible flow, substituting from Eq. 9.63

1 2 1
h2 − h2 = w − w22 − (p2 − p1 )
2 1 ρ

1 1 1
= p1 + ρw12 − p2 + ρw22
ρ 2 2
 Axial Flow Compressors 353

1 (Δp0 )rel
= (p01 rel − p02 rel ) = (9.68)
ρ ρ

Substituting this in Eq. 9.65

(Δp0 )rel
ηrel = 1− (9.69)
ρ(h2 − h1 )

Substitution from Eq. 9.40 gives

Yrel
ηrel = 1− w22
(9.70)
1− w12

9.9.2 Stator Blade Row

The ideal and actual flow processes occurring in the diffuser blade row are
shown in Fig. 9.12. Its efficiency is again defined similar to that of rotor
blade row.
h3 − h2 (h3 − h2 ) − (h3 − h3 )
ηD = = (9.71)
h3 − h2 h3 − h2
h 3 − h3
= 1− (9.72)
h3 − h2

Substituting in terms of the enthalpy loss coefficient

c22 ξD
ηD = 1− ξD = 1− c23
(9.73)
2Cp (T3 − T2 ) 1− c22

For incompressible flow,

1 (Δp0 )D
h 3 − h3 = (p02 − p03 ) = (9.74)
ρ ρ

Therefore, the diffuser efficiency can be expressed in terms of the diffuser

stagnation pressure loss coefficient
(Δp0 )D
ηD = 1− (9.75)
ρ(h3 − h2 )

YD
ηD = 1− c23
(9.76)
1− c22

9.10 FLOW LOSSES

Principal aerodynamic losses occurring in most of the turbomachines arise

due to the growth of the boundary layer and its separation on the blade and
passage surfaces. Others occur due to wasteful circulatory flows and the
formation of shock waves. Non-uniform velocity profiles at the exit of the
354 Gas Turbines

cascade lead to another type of loss referred to as the mixing or equalization

loss.
Aerodynamic losses occurring in a turbomachine blade cascade can be
grouped in the following categories.

9.10.1 Profile Loss

As the term indicates, this loss is associated with the growth of the bound-
ary layer on the blade profile. Separation of the boundary layer occurs when
the adverse pressure gradient on the surface or surfaces becomes too steep;
this increases the profile loss. The pattern of the boundary layer growth
and its separation depend on the geometries of the blade and the flow.
Positive and negative stall losses occur on account of increased positive or
negative incidences respectively.
Generally, the suction surface of a blade is more prone to boundary
layer separation. The separation point depends besides the blade profile on
factors like the degree of turbulence, Reynolds number and the incidence.
If the flow is initially supersonic or becomes supersonic on the blade
surface additional losses occur due to the formation of shock waves resulting
from the local deceleration of supersonic flow to subsonic.

9.10.2 Annulus Loss

The majority of blade rows in turbomachines are housed in casings. The
axial compressor stage has a pair of fixed and moving blade rows.
In stationary blade rows a loss of energy occurs due to the growth of
the boundary layer on the end walls. This also occurs in the rotating row
of blades but the flow on the end walls in this case is subjected to effects
associated with the rotation of the cascade. The boundary layer on the
floor (hub) of the blade passages is subjected to centrifugal force, whereas
that on the ceiling (outer casing) is scrapped by the moving blades.

9.10.3 Secondary Loss

This loss occurs in the regions of flow near the end walls owing to the pres-
ence of unwanted circulatory or cross flows. Such secondary flows develop
on account of turning of the flow through the blade channel in the presence
of annulus wall boundary layers. Figure 9.13 depicts the pressure gradi-
ents across a blade channel and the secondary and trailing vortices. Static
pressure gradients from the suction to the pressure side in the regions away
from the hub and tip are represented by the curve AB. In the vicinity of
the hub and tip or the end walls the pressure gradient curve CD is not so
steep on account of much lower velocities due to the wall boundary layers.
Thus the static pressures at the four corners of the section of flow under
considerations are
pB > pD > pC > pA
These pressure differentials across the flow near the end walls give rise
 Axial Flow Compressors 355

p B
D
C
A y

C D
A B
C D
Tip Over deflection
A B Under deflectio

Secondary Blade wakes

vortices
Trailing vortices
A B

Hub C D

Fig. 9.13 Secondary flow in a cascade of blades

to circulatory flows which are superimposed on the main flow through the
blade passage. As a result of this, secondary vortices in the streamwise di-
rection are generated in the blade passages. These vortices, besides waste-
ful expenditure of fluid’s energy, transport (DC) low energy fluid from the
pressure to the suction side of the blade passage, thus increasing the possi-
bility of an early separation of the boundary layer on the suction side. The
flow nearer the hub and tip is over-deflected while that slightly away from
the end walls is under-deflected as shown in Fig.9.13.
The secondary vortices in the adjacent blade channels induce vortices
in the wake regions (as shown in Fig.9.13). These trailing vortices lead to
additional losses. It is worth observing here that the secondary flows in the
cascade also affect the profile and annulus losses.
The magnitude of the loss due to secondary flow depend on the fraction
of the passage height that is affected by this flow. Blade passages of very low
height (aspect ratio) or high hub-tip ratio are likely to be fully occupied by
secondary vortices as shown in Fig.9.14(a), and experience higher secondary
losses. In contrast to this longer blades [Fig.9.14(b)] have a large proportion
of the flow free of secondary flows and therefore experience comparatively
lower secondary losses.
If the total losses in a blade passage are measured along its height, they
appear as peaks near the hub and tip on account of secondary losses. The
flow in the central region which is outside the influence of secondary flows
(particularly in longer blades) can be assumed to suffer only profile loss.
Figure 9.15 illustrates this pattern of losses along the blade height.

9.10.4 Tip Clearance Loss

This loss arises due to the clearance between a moving blade and the casing.
In a turbine rotor blade ring the suction sides lead and the pressure sides
356 Gas Turbines

Tip

Tip

Hub Hub
(a) High hub-tip ratio (b) Low hub-tip ratio

Fig. 9.14 Secondary vortices in short and long blades

Secondary loss
Δ p0
Y= 1 ρ c22
2

Profile loss
Hub Tip
Blade height

Fig. 9.15 Variation of losses along the blade height

trail. On account of the static pressure difference, the flow leaks from
the pressure side towards the suction side as shown in Fig.9.16. However,
due to the scrapping up of the casing boundary layer by the blade tips,
the scrapped up flow opposes the aforementioned tip leakage. The tip
clearance and secondary flows are closely related to each other and it is
often convenient to estimate them together.

9.11 STAGE LOSSES

Figure 9.17 shows the energy flow diagram for an axial flow compressor
stage. Figures in the brackets indicate the order of energy or loss corre-
sponding to 100 units of energy supplied at the shaft.
The stage work (h03 − h01 ) is less than the energy supplied to the shaft
by the prime mover on account of bearing and disc friction losses. All
the stage work does not appear as energy at the stator entry on account
of aerodynamic losses in the rotor blade row. After deducting the stator
(diffuser) blade row losses from the energy at its entry, the value of the ideal
or isentropic work required to obtain the stage pressure rise is obtained.
The cascade losses in the rotor and stator would depend on the degree
of reaction. The values shown in the energy flow diagram are only to give
 Axial Flow Compressors 357

Suction side

Pressure side Tip leakage

Scraped flow

Motion of blades (scraping)

Fig. 9.16 Flow through tip clearance

Energy from the prime mover or shaft work (100)

Stage work (98) Shaft loses (2)

Rotor aerodynamic Disc Bearing

losses (9) friction loss loss

Secondary Profile Annulus Tip

loss loss loss leakage
Energy at the stator entry (89)

Isentropic work (82) Stator aerodynamic losses(7)

Secondary loss Profile loss Annulus loss

Fig. 9.17 Energy flow diagram for an axial flow compressor stage

an example. The ratio of the isentropic work (82) and the actual stage
work (98) gives the stage efficiency, whereas the overall efficiency is directly
obtained as 82%.

9.12 PRESSURE RISE CALCULATION IN A BLADE RING

In case of aerofoil blading we already know that lift, L, is given by

CL ρw2 A
L = (9.77)
2
and the drag, D, is given by
CD ρw2 A
D = (9.78)
2
358 Gas Turbines

Now
R = F = L sin θ + D cos θ

where F = R is the resultant force in kg and θ is the angle as shown in

Fig.9.18. R is the force on each blade and if n is the number of blades in
each blade ring then,
(L sin θ + D cos θ) nd
Torque on shaft,τ = (9.79)
2

and so the power required (W τ )

(L sin θ + D cos θ)
P = 2πN nd (9.80)
2

where N is in rev/m and d is diameter of wheel

P = nπdN (L sin θ + D cos θ)

and if the isentropic efficiency is known then we can obtain the pressure
ratio as follows :
T01 γ−1
P = ṁ Cp r γ − 1 (9.81)
ηc

f=R

Fig. 9.18 Aerofoil blade pressure rise

whereT01 : inlet temperature of air

ηc : isentropic efficiency of compression
r : pressure ratio
From Eqs. 9.80 and 9.81
γ
ηc nπdN γ−1
r= (L sin θ + D cos θ) + 1 (9.82)
T01 ṁ
Thus, we will get the pressure ratio by substituting the values of other
terms. This will be pressure ratio that can be obtained in a stage or in a
blade ring.
 Axial Flow Compressors 359

9.13 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

The performance characteristics of axial compressors or their stages at var-

ious speeds can be presented in terms of the plots of the following param-
eters:

(i) Pressure rise vs flow rate,

Δp = f (Q) = f (m)

(ii) Pressure ratio vs non-dimensional flow rate (Fig.9.19),

√
p2 m T01
= f
p1 p01

(iii) Loading coefficient vs flow coefficient (Fig.9.20),

ψ = f (φ) (9.83)

The actual performance curve based on measured values is always below

the ideal curve obtained theoretically on account of losses. This is shown in
Fig.9.21. The surge point and stable and unstable flow regimes have been
explained in the following sections.

9.13.1 Off-design Operation

A compressor gives its best performance while operating at its design point,
i.e., at the pressure ratio and flow rate for which it has been designed.
However, like any other machine or system, it is also expected to operate
away from the design point. Therefore, a knowledge about its behaviour at
off-design operation is equally important. Off-design characteristic curves
can be obtained theoretically from Eq. 9.44.

ψ = φ(tan β1 − tan β2 ) = φ(tan α2 − tan α1 ) (9.84)

But,
1
tan α2 = − tan β2
φ

Therefore,
ψ = 1 − φ(tan β2 + tan α1 ) (9.85)

The quantity (tan β2 + tan α1 ) can be assumed constant in a wide range

of incidence up to the stalling value is. This is justified in view of small
variations in the air angles at the rotor and stator exits. Therefore, writing
α1 = α3 ,
A = tan β2 + tan α3 (9.86)

If the design values are identified by the superscript∗ , Eq. 9.85 along with
Eq. 9.86 can be written as
360 Gas Turbines

e
lin
rge
Su
p N
02 = constan
p T 01
01

m T 01
p
01

Fig. 9.19 Performance curves of a compressor

50% reaction stage

1
2
Δw/u 2= Δ p / ρ u

α = β = constant
1 2
0.5

0
0 0.5 1.0
φ = u/ca

Fig. 9.20 Variation of pressure coefficient with flow coefficient for an axial
flow compressor stage
 Axial Flow Compressors 361

Surge point

Pressure rise
Stage losses Ideal

Ac
tua
l
Unstable Stable

Flow rate

Fig. 9.21 Ideal and actual performance curves for an axialcompressor

ψ∗ = 1 − Aφ∗ (9.87)

1 − ψ∗
A =
φ∗

At off-design conditions
φ
ψ = 1 − Aφ = 1 − (1 − ψ ∗ ) (9.88)
φ∗
This equation also gives the off-design characteristic of an axial flow com-
pressor. Figure 9.22 shows theoretical values of A, the curves are falling
while for negative values rising characteristics are obtained. The actual
curves will be similarly modified but slightly on account of losses.

9.13.2 Surging
Unstable flow in axial compressors can be due to two reasons:
(i) separation of flow from the blade surfaces called stalling, and
(ii) complete breakdown of the steady through flow called surging.
Both these phenomena occur due to off-design conditions of operation and
are aerodynamically and mechanically undesirable.
Sometimes, it is difficult to differentiate between operating conditions
leading to stalling and surging. It may be noted that the flow in some re-
gions stalls without surging taking place. Surging affects the whole machine
while stalling is a local phenomenon.
Some typical performance characteristic curves at different speeds (N1 , N2 ,
etc.,) are shown in Fig.9.23. The surge phenomenon is explained with the
362 Gas Turbines

A = negative
1.0 A=0
A = positive

Loading coefficient
0.75

0.50 0.5

0.25

0.0 1.0
0.0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0
Flow coefficient

Fig. 9.22 Off-design characteristic curves for axial compressor stage

aid of one of the curves in this figure. Let the operation of the compres-
sor at a given instant of time be represented by point A(pA , ṁA ) on the
characteristic N3 curve. If the flow rate through the machine is reduced to
ṁB by closing a valve on the delivery pipe, the static pressure upstream of
valve is increased. This higher pressure, pB is matched with the increased
delivery pressure (at B) developed by the compressor. With further throt-
tling of the flow (to ṁC and ṁS ), the increased pressures in the delivery
pipe are matched by the compressor delivery pressures at C and S on the
characteristic curve.

Surge cycle
D S
C
E B
A N4
Pressure r se

S
Surge line N3

S N2

N1

mE mD mS mB mA
Flow rate

Fig. 9.23 Surging in compressors

The characteristic curve at flow rates below ṁS provides lower pressure
as at D and E. However, the pipe pressures due to further closure of the
valve (point D) will be higher than these. This mismatching between the
 Axial Flow Compressors 363

pipe pressure and compressor delivery pressure can only exist for a very
short time. This is because the higher pressure in the pipe will blow the
air towards the compressor, thus reversing the flow leading to a complete
breakdown of the normal steady flow from the compressor to the pipe. Dur-
ing this very short period the pressure in the pipe falls and the compressor
regains its normal stable operation (say at point B) delivering higher flow
rate (ṁB ). However, the valve position still corresponds to the flow rate
ṁD . Therefore, the compressor operating conditions return through points
C and S to D. Due to the breakdown of the flow through the compressor,
the pressure falls further to pE and the entire phenomenon, i.e., the surge
cycle EBCSDE is repeated again and again. The frequency and magni-
tude of this to-and-fro motion of the air (surging) depend on the relative
volumes of the compressor and delivery pipe, and the flow rate below ṁS .
Surging of the compressor leads to vibration of the entire machine which
can ultimately lead to mechanical failure. Therefore, the operation of com-
pressors on the left of the peak of the performance curve is injurious to the
machine and must be avoided.
Surge points (S) on each curve corresponding to different speeds can be
located and a surge line drawn as shown in Fig.9.23. The stable range of
operation of the compressor is on the right-hand side of this line. There is
also a limit of operation on the extreme right of the characteristics when
the mass-flow rate cannot be further increased due to choking. This is
obviously a function of the Mach number which itself depends on the fluid
velocity and its state.

9.13.3 Stalling

As stated earlier, stalling is the separation of flow from the blade surface.
At low flow rates (lower axial velocities), the incidence is increased as shown
in Fig.9.5. At large values of the incidence, flow separation occurs on the
suction side of the blades which is referred to as positive stalling. Negative
stall is due to the separation of flow occurring on the pressure side of the
blade due to large values of negative incidence. However, in a great majority
of cases this is not as significant as the positive stall which is the main
subject under consideration in this section.
In a high pressure ratio multistage compressor the axial velocity is al-
ready relatively small in the higher pressure stages on account of higher
densities. In such stages a small deviation from the design point causes the
incidence to exceed its stalling value and stall cells first appear near the hub
and tip regions. The size and number of these stall cells or patches increase
with the decreasing flow rates. At very low flow rates they grow larger and
affect the entire blade height. Large-scale stalling of the blades causes a
significant drop in the delivery pressure which can lead to the reversal of
flow or surge. The stage efficiency also drops considerably on account of
higher losses. The axisymmetric nature of the flow is also destroyed in the
compressor annulus.
364 Gas Turbines

9.13.4 Rotating Stall

Figure 9.24 shows four blades (1, 2, 3 and 4) in a compressor rotor. Owing to
some distortion or non-uniformity of flow one of the blades (say the third)
receives the flow at increased incidence. This causes this blade (number
three) to stall. On account of this the passage between the third and fourth
blades is blocked causing deflection of flow in the neighbouring blades. As
a result, the fourth blade again receives flow at increased incidence and
the second blade at decreased incidence. Therefore, stalling occurs on the
fourth blade also. This progressive deflection of the flow towards the left
clears the blade passages on the right on account of the decreasing incidence
and the resulting unstalling. Thus the stall cells or patches move towards
the left-hand side at a fraction of the blade speed. In the relative system
they appear to move in a direction opposite to that of the rotor blades.
However, on account of their (stall cell) lower speed as compared to that
of the rotor, they move at a certain speed in the direction of the rotation
in the absolute frame of coordinates. Rotating stall cells, develop in a
Increased incidence Reduced incidence

Air

4 3 2 1 u

Propagating Unstalling

Fig. 9.24 Stall propagation in a compressor blade row

variety of patterns at different off-design conditions as shown in Fig.9.25.

The blades are subjected to forced vibrations on account of their passage
through the stall cells at a certain frequency. The frequency and amplitude
of vibrations depend on the extent of loading and unloading of the blades,
and the number of stall cells. Under these conditions the blades can fail due
to resonance. This occurs when the frequency of the passage of stall cell
through a blade coincides with its natural frequency. Both the efficiency
and delivery pressure drop considerably on account of rotating stall.

Stall cells
 Axial Flow Compressors 365

9.14 COMPARISON OF AXIAL AND CENTRIFUGAL COMPRES-

SORS

In this section, we will compare the axial and centrifugal compressors under
twelve different headings, such as

(i) type of flow

(ii) pressure ratio per stage
(iii) isentropic efficiency
(iv) frontal area
(v) flexibility of operation
(vi) part load performance
(vii) effect of deposits
(viii) starting torque
(ix) suitability for multistaging
(x) delivery pressure
(xi) applications
(xii) efficiency with respect to speed

(i) Type of flow For the axial compressor the flow direction is parallel to
the axis of the machine whereas for the centrifugal compressor it is
radial. There is no difference in radius for the axial flow compressor
between inlet and exit whereas there is large radius difference in the
case of centrifugal compressors.
(ii) Pressure ratio In a single stage the centrifugal compressor is capable
of developing a pressure ratio close to 5, whereas in the case of axial
flow compressor it is only about 1.25.
The supersonic centrifugal compressors can go upto a pressure ratio
of 10.
In order to achieve the pressure ratio of a single stage of centrifugal
compressor, multistaging is required in axial flow machines.
(iii) Isentropic efficiency The isentropic efficiency of axial flow compressors
are higher (86 to 88%) compared to centrifugal compressor (80 to
82%). Higher isentropic efficiency of modern axial flow compressor is
due to the aerofoil blades.
(iv) Frontal area The frontal area of a centrifugal compressor is larger
due to flow entering at one radius and leaving at another larger ra-
dius. Since there is no radius difference at entry and exit for an axial
compressor the frontal area is smaller.
366 Gas Turbines

(v) Flexibility of operation Comparatively higher due to adjustable prewhirl

and diffuser vanes in the case of centrifugal compressors. Due to the
absence of above two factors, the flexibility of operation is quite lim-
ited in the case of axial flow compressors.

(vi) Part load performance Since variation in mass flow rate can be toler-
ated to some extent in centrifugal compressors, part load performance
is better whereas it is poor in axial flow compressors.

(vii) Effect of deposits Deposits on the surface of the rotor are a major
factor in the operation and performance of compressors. However,
deposits do not adversely affect the performance in the case of cen-
trifugal compressors whereas it adversely affects the operation and
performance of the axial flow machines.

(viii) Starting torque The starting torque required is low in the case of
centrifugal compressors whereas it is high in the case of axial flow
machines.

(ix) Multistaging Comparatively difficult in centrifugal compressors. Max-

imum of only two staging is possible. The axial flow machines are
more suitable for multistaging.

(x) Delivery pressure Higher delivery pressure (about 40 bar) is possible

in centrifugal machines whereas only 20 bar is possible in axial flow
compressors.

(xi) Applications Centrifugal compressors are used for blowing in steel

mills, low pressure refrigeration systems, big central air-conditioning
plants, fertilizer industry, supercharging of IC engines and gas pump-
ing over a long distance pipe lines. Axial flow machines are mainly
used in jet engines due to higher isentropic efficiency and lower frontal
area. It is also employed in stationary industrial gas turbine power
plants and steel mills.

(xii) Efficiency with respect to speed The characteristics are more flat in
centrifugal compressors whereas it is less flat in axial flow compressors.

To put it in a nutshell, the comparison of axial and centrifugal machines

are given in Table 9.2.

Worked out Examples

9.1 A 10 stage axial flow compressor provides an overall pressure ratio of

5:1 with an overall isentropic efficiency of 87%. When the temperature
of air at inlet is 15◦ C. The work is equally divided between the stages.
A 50% reaction is used with a blade speed of 210 m/s and a constant
axial velocity of 170 m/s. Estimate the blade angles. Assume a work
done factor of 1.
 Axial Flow Compressors 367

Table 9.2 Comparison of Axial Flow Compressors and Centrifugal Com-

pressors

Aspect of comparison Axial flow compressors Centrifugal compressors

Type of flow Parallel to the axis Radial

Pressure ratio/stage About 1.25 5

Isentropic efficiency Higher (86 to 88%) Lower (80 to 82%)

Frontal area Smaller Larger

Flexibility of operation Limited Higher

Part load performance Poor Better

Effect of deposits Adverse effect No adverse effect

Starting torque High Low

Suitability for More suitable Difficult

multistaging

Delivery pressure Lower (20 bar) Higher (about 40 bar)

Applications Jet engines, stationary Steel mills,

industrial gas turbine low pressure
power plants and refrigeration,
steel mills. big central
air-conditioning plants,
fertilizer industry,
IC engines, gas pumping

Efficiency with Less flat More flat

respect to speed

Solution

Temperature increase per stage

ΔToverall T1 γ−1
ΔTstage = = r γ −1
n nηc
288
= × 50.286 − 1 = 19.35 K
10 × 0.87

Increase in temperature per stage,

Ωuca
ΔTs = (tan β1 − tan β2 )
Cp
368 Gas Turbines

w1 β α1
1 c1
ca1
wt1 ct1
u

02 α2 c2
β
T 02’ w2 2
ca2
wt2 c t2
01 u
s
Fig. 9.26

ΔTs Cp 19.35 × 1005

tan β1 − tan β2 = = = 0.545
Ωuca 1 × 210 × 170

For a 50% reaction,

u 210
tan β1 + tan β2 = = = 1.235
ca 170
tan β1 = 0.89
Ans
β1 = 41.67◦ ⇐=
Ans
β2 = tan−1 (1.235 − 0.89) = 19◦ ⇐=

9.2 Air at 1.0132 bar and 288 K enters an axial flow compressor stage
with an axial velocity 150 m/s. There are no inlet guide vanes. The
rotor stage has a tip diameter of 60 cm and a hub diameter of 50 cm
and rotates at 100 rps. The air enters the rotor and leaves the stator
in the axial direction with no change in velocity or radius. The air
is turned through 30.2◦ as it passes through rotor. Assume a stage
pressure ratio of 1.2. Assuming the constant specific heats and that
the air enters and leaves the blade at the blade angles,
(i) construct the velocity diagram at mean dia for this stage,
(ii) mass flow rate,
(iii) power required, and
(iv) degree of reaction

Solution

To construct velocity diagram

 Axial Flow Compressors 369

w1 β1
c1=ca1
α1
u

β2 α 2 c2
w2
ca2

w t2 c t2
u

Fig. 9.27

π(dhub + dtip )
u = ×N
2
π × (0.50 + 0.60)
= × 100 = 172.76 m/s
2
u 172.78
β1 = tan−1 = tan−1 = 49◦ 2
ca 150

As air is deflected by 30◦ ,

β2 = 49◦ 2 − 30◦ = 19◦

In the figure let Wt2 = x

x = ca tan β2 = 150 × tan 19◦ = 51.65 m/s
u−x 172.78 − 51.65
tan α2 = = = 80.75
ca 150
α2 = 38.92◦
π 2
ṁ = d − d2hub ca ρ2
4 tip
C12 1502
T1 = T01 − = 288 − = 276.8 K
2Cp 2 × 1005
γ−1
p2 γ
T2 = T1 = 276.8 × 1.20.286 = 291.6 K
p1
370 Gas Turbines

p2 = 1.216 bar

1.216 × 105 3
ρ2 = = 1.453 kg/m
287 × 291.6
π Ans
ṁ = × 0.602 − 0.502 × 150 × 1.453 = 18.83 kg/s ⇐=
4
P = Ωuca ṁ(tan β1 − tan β2 )

1 × 172.76 × 150 × 18.83 × (tan 49.2 − tan 19)

=
1000
Ans
= 397.297 kW ⇐=

Degree of reaction
ca
R = (tan β1 + tan β2 )
2u
150 Ans
= × (tan 49◦ 2 + tan 19◦ ) = 0.65 ⇐=
2 × 172.76
9.3 An axial flow air compressor of 50% reaction design has blades with
inlet and outlet angles of 45◦ and 10◦ respectively. The compressor is
to produce a pressure ratio of 6:1 with an overall isentropic efficiency
of 0.85 when inlet static temperature is 37◦ C. The blade speed and
axial velocity are constant throughout the compressor. Assuming a
value of 200 m/s for blade speed find the number of stages required
if the work done factor is (i) unity and (ii) 0.87 for all stages.

Solution

w1 β α1
1 c1
ca1
wt1 ct1
u

02 α2 c2
β
T 02’ w2 2
ca2
wt2 c t2
01 u
s
Fig. 9.28

Increase in temperature per stage,

 Axial Flow Compressors 371

Ωuca
ΔTs = (tan β1 − tan β2 )
Cp

u 200
ca = =
tan β1 + tan β2 tan 45 + tan 10

= 170.02 m/s

Number of stages when Ω = 1

1 × 200 × 170.02 × (tan 45 − tan 10)
ΔTs =
1005
= 27.86 K
T1 γ−1 310
ΔToverall = rp γ − 1 = × 60.286 − 1
ηc 0.85

= 244.12 K
ΔToverall 244.12 Ans
= = 8.76 ≈ 9 ⇐=
ΔTstage 27.86

Number of stages when Ω = 0.87

0.87 × 200 × 170.02 × (tan 45 − tan 10)
ΔTs =
1005
= 24.24 K
ΔToverall 244.12 Ans
= = 10.07 ⇐=
ΔTstage 24.24

9.4 Find the polytropic efficiency of an axial flow compressor from the
following data:
The total head pressure ratio : 4
Overall total head isentropic efficiency : 85%
Total head inlet temperature : 290 K
The inlet and outlet air angles from the rotor blades of the above
compressor are 10◦ and 45◦ respectively. The rotor and stator blades
are symmetrical. The mean blade speed and axial velocity remain
constant throughout the compressor. Assuming a value of 220 m/s
for blade speed and the work done factor as 0.86, find the number of
stages required. Also find the inlet Mach number relative to rotor at
the mean blade height of the first stage. Assume R = 284.6 kJ/kg K.

Solution
γ−1
r γ −1
ηc = γ−1 1
r γ ηpc
−1

where ηp is the polytropic efficiency.

372 Gas Turbines

β = α2 α =β
1 2
1
β α
w1 1 1
c1
ca1

wt1 ct1
u

β2 α2 c2
wt2
ca2

w2 ct2
u
Fig. 9.29

40.286 − 1
0.85 =
40.286 η1p − 1

log 4 Ans
ηp = 0.286 × × 100 = 87.65% ⇐=
log 1.572

Since, the stages are symmetrical, degree of reaction is 50% and also α1 = β2
and α2 = β1 .

From the figure,

u = ca (tan 10 + tan 45)

220
ca = = 187 m/s
0.17633 + 1

The stage temperature rise,

Ωuca
ΔTs = (tan α2 − tan α1 )
JCp

0.86 × 220 × 187

= × (tan 45 − tan 10) = 29 K
1005
γ−1
T02 p02 γηp
0.286
= = 4 0.8764 = 1.572
T01 p01

T02 = 1.572 × 290 = 455.9 K

 Axial Flow Compressors 373

Total temperature rise

T02 − T01 = 455.9 − 290 = 165.9 K ≈ 166 K

Total temperature rise

Total number of stages =
Temperature rise in one stage
166 Ans
= = 5.72 ≈ 6 ⇐=
29
w1
Mach number at inlet = √
γRT1
ca 187
w1 = = = 264.5 m/s
cos 45 0.7071
ca 187
c1 = = = 190 m/s
cos 10 cos 10
c21 1902
T1 = T01 − = 290 − = 272 K
2Cp 2 × 1005

264.5 Ans
M = √ = 0.8 ⇐=
1.4 × 284.6 × 272

9.5 An axial flow compressor takes in 1000 m3 /min of free air at 0.9 bar
and 15◦ C. The blades are of aerofoil type having projected area and
blade length as 19.25 cm2 and 6.75 cm respectively. The blade ring
mean diameter is 60 cm and speed is 6000 rpm. On each blade ring
there are 50 blades and the blades occupy 10% of the axial area of
flow. Values of CL and CD are 0.6 and 0.05 respectively at zero angle
of incidence. Assuming isentropic compression, calculate the pressure
rise per blade ring and the power input per stage. Assume axial inlet.

Solution

β
w 1
c = ca

u
Fig. 9.30

p1 0.9 × 105 3
ρ = = = 1.09 kg/m
RT1 287 × 288
374 Gas Turbines

Q = Aca and A = kπDm h

Q 1000 × 104
ca = =
60A 60 × (1 − 0.1) × π × 60 × 6.75

= 145.55 m/s

Blade velocity
πDm N π × 0.60 × 6000
u = = = 188.5 m/s
60 60
u 188.5
tan β1 = = = 1.295
ca 145.55
β1 = 52.33◦

w = 145.552 + 188.52 = 238.15 m/s

CL ρw2 Ac
L =
2
0.6 × 1.09 × 238.152 × 19.25 × 10−4
= = 35.7 N
2
CD ρw2 Ac
D =
2
0.05 × 1.09 × 238.152 × 19.25 × 10−4
= = 2.98 N
2

Power input/stage

P = (L cos β1 + D sin β1 )un

= (35.7 × cos 52.33 + 2.98 × sin 52.33) ×

188.5 × 50 × 10−3
Ans
= 227.85 kW ⇐=
1000 × 1.09
ṁ = = 18.167 kg/s
60
P Cp T1 γ−1
= r γ −1
ṁ ηc
γ−1 P ηc
r γ = × +1
ṁ Cp T1

227.85 × 1
r0.286 = +1
18.33 × 1.005 × 288
 Axial Flow Compressors 375

p2
r = 1.160 =
p1
Ans
p2 = 0.98 × 1.160 = 1.14 bar ⇐=

9.6 Air at a temperature of 290 K enters a ten stage axial flow compres-
sor at the rate of 3 kg/s. The pressure ratio is 6.5 and the isentropic
efficiency is 90%, the compression process being adiabatic. The com-
pressor has symmetrical blades. The axial velocity of 110 m/s is
uniform across the stage and the mean blade speed of each stage is
180 m/s.
Determine the direction of the air at entry to and exit from the rotor
and the stator blades and also the power given to the air. Assume
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K and γ = 1.4.

Solution

β α
w1 1 1
c1
ca1
wt1 c t1
u

β α2 c2
w2 2
ca2

w t2 c t2
u

Fig. 9.31

Assume that the temperature change is constant in each stage, then the
power may be obtained by considering the overall conditions.
γ−1
T2 p2 γ
=
T1 p1

T2 = 290 × 6.50.286 = 495.33 K

T2 − T1
ηc =
T2 − T1
376 Gas Turbines

495.33 − 290
0.90 =
T2 − 290
T2 = 518.14 K

Therefore, power given to the air,

= ṁCp ΔT = 3 × 1.005 × (518.14 − 290)

= 687.84 kW

Temperature change per stage

ΔT 518.14 − 290
ΔTs = = = 22.81 K
10 10

Work done/kg of air second

= uΔct = 180 × Δct

Also work done/per kg of air per second

= Cp ΔTs = 180Δct

1005 × 22.81
Δct = = 127.36 m/s
180

For symmetrical stages,

Δct = ca (tan β1 − tan β2 )

127.36 = 110 × (tan β1 − tan β2 )

ca
R = (tan β1 + tan β2 )
2u

and when R = 0.5

u = ca (tan β1 + tan β2 )
Ans
β1 = 54.41◦ ⇐=
Ans
β2 = 13.5◦ ⇐=

9.7 An axial flow compressor has an overall pressure ratio of 4.0 and mass
flow of 3 kg/s. If the polytropic efficiency is 88 per cent and the stag-
nation temperature rise per stage must not exceed 25 K, calculate the
number of stages required and the pressure ratio of the first and last
stages. Assume equal temperature rise in all stages. If the absolute
velocity approaching the last rotor is 165 m/s at an angle of 20◦ from
the axial direction, the work done factor is 0.83, the velocity diagram
is symmetrical, and the mean diameter of the last stage rotor is 18
cm, calculate the rotational speed and the length of the last stage
 Axial Flow Compressors 377

rotor blade at inlet to the stage. Ambient conditions are 1.01 bar and
288 K.

Solution

β = α2 α =β
1 2
1
β α
w1 1 1
c1
ca1

wt1 ct1
u

β2 α2 c2
wt2
ca2

w2 ct2
u
Fig. 9.32

ΔTstage = 25 K

γ−1 n
ηpc =
γ n−1

n−1 γ−1 1
=
n γ ηpc
n−1
p02 n
0.286
T02 = T01 = 288 × 4 0.88
p01

= 451.92 K

ΔToverall = T02 − T01 = 451.92 − 288

= 163.92 K
Temperature rise across
Number of stages =
Total temperature rise per stage
163.92 Ans
Ns = = 6.56 ≈ 7 ⇐=
25
378 Gas Turbines

Pressure ratio across first stage

γ
ηc ΔTs γ−1
r1 = 1+
T01
γ−1
r γ −1 40.286 − 1
ηc = =
γ−1 1
40.325 − 1
r γ ηpc
−1
= 0.855
3.5
0.855 × 25 Ans
r1 = 1+ = 1.285 ⇐=
288

ΔToverall 163.92
ΔTs = = = 23.42 K
7 7

Pressure ratio across last stage:

Temperature at inlet to last stage,

ΔTs = T02 − T0 s

T0 s = T02 − ΔTs

= 451.92 − 23.42 = 428.5 K

γ
ηc ΔT0 s
γ−1
r s = 1+
T01
3.5
0.855 × 23.42 Ans
r s = 1+ = 1.173 ⇐=
428.5

For symmetrical blade, R = 0.5

α1 = β2 = 20◦

α2 = β1

u = ca (tan β1 + tan β2 )

ca = C1 cos α1 = 165 × cos 20 = 155.05 m/s

u = 155.05 × (tan β1 + tan β2 )

ωuca
ΔT0s = (tan β1 − tan β2 )
Cp

1005 × 23.42
u(tan β1 − tan β2 ) = = 182.9
0.83 × 155.05
182.90
tan2 β1 − tan2 β2 = = 1.1796
155.05
 Axial Flow Compressors 379

tan2 β1 = 1.1796 + tan2 β2

tan1 β1 = 1.1796 + tan2 20 = 1.3121

tan β1 = 1.1455
Ans
β1 = 48.88◦ ⇐=

u = ca (tan β1 + tan β2 )

= 155.05 × (tan 48.88 + tan 20)

= 234.04 m/s

πDN
u =
60
60 × u 60 × 234.04 1
N = = ×
πD π × 0.18 60
Ans
= 413.87 rps ⇐=

Pressure ratio across the last stage = 1.173

Total pressure at inlet to the last stage,

4
= = 3.41 bar
1.173

Total temperature at inlet to the last stage,

= 428.5 K

Static temperature,
c21
Tst = T0 −
2Cp

1652
= 428.5 −
2 × 1.005 × 1000
= 414.96 K
p0 3.41
pst = =
(γ−1)/γ 428.5 3.5
T0
414.96
Tst

= 3.048 bar
3.048 × 105 3
ρ = = 2.56 kg/m
287 × 414.96
ṁ = Aca ρ = ca ρπDm h
380 Gas Turbines

Length of last stage,

ṁ
h =
ca ρπDm
3 × 100
=
2.56 × π × 0.18 × 155.05
Ans
= 1.336 cm ⇐=

9.8 The first stage of an axial compressor is designed on free vortex princi-
ples, with no inlet guide vanes. The rotational speed is 6000 rev/min
and the stagnation temperature rise is 20 K. The hub-tip ratio is 0.60,
the work done factor is 0.93 and the isentropic efficiency of the stage
is 0.89. Assuming an inlet velocity of 140 m/s and ambient conditions
of 1.01 bar and 288 K, calculate

(i) the tip radius and corresponding rotor air angles β1 and β2 , if
the Mach number relative to the tip is limited to 0.95,
(ii) the mass flow entering the stage,
(iii) the stage stagnation pressure ratio and power input, and
(iv) the rotor air angles at the root section.

Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg K, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K and γ = 1.4.

Solution

β
w1 1

02 ca1= c
1
T 02’
u

01
s

β α2 c2
w2 2
ca2

w t2 c t2
u

Fig. 9.33
 Axial Flow Compressors 381

C12 1402
T1 = T01 − = 288 −
2Cp 2 × 1005

= 278.25 K

w1 = M1 γRT1
√
= 0.95 × 1.4 × 287 × 278.25 = 317.65 m/s

Assuming axial inlet, the velocity triangle at inlet can be drawn as shown
in Fig.
c1 140
cos β1 = = = 0.4407
w1 317.65

Tip radius corresponding rotor angles

Ans
β1 = 63.85◦ ⇐=

u = w1 sin β1 = 317.65 × sin 63.85

u = 285.13 m/s
uca
ΔTs = Ω (tan β1 − tan β2 )
Cp

Cp ΔTs
tan β1 − tan β2 =
uΩca
1005 × 20
=
285.13 × 0.93 × 140
= 0.5414

tan β2 = tan 63.85 − 0.5414 = 1.4954

Ans
β2 = 56.23◦ ⇐=

T1 = 278.25 K
p01 1.01
p1 = 3.5 = 3.5 = 0.8953 bar
T01 288
T1 278.25

p1 0.8953 × 105
ρ1 = =
RT1 0.287 × 103 × 278.25
3
= 1.12 kg/m
60u 60 × 285.13 Ans
Rtip = = = 0.454 m ⇐=
2πN 2 × π × 6000
Rroot = 0.6 × Rtip = 0.6 × 0.454 = 0.2724 m
382 Gas Turbines

1
Rm = (0.454 + 0.2724) = 0.3632 m
2
h = Rtip − Rroot

= 0.454 − 0.2724 = 0.1816 m

m = ρ2πrm hca

= 1.12 × 2 × π × 0.3632 × 0.1816 × 140

Ans
= 64.98 kg/s ⇐=

Stagnation pressure ratio,

3.5
ηs ΔT03
r = 1+
T01
3.5
0.89 × 20 Ans
= 1+ = 1.234 ⇐=
288

Input power = ṁCp ΔT0 = 64.98 × 1.005 × 20

Ans
= 1306 kW ⇐=

Rotor air angle at root section,

2πRroot N
uroot =
60
2 × π × 0.2724 × 6000
= = 171.15 m/s
60
171.15
tan β1 = = 1.2225
140
Ans
β1 = 50◦ 71 ⇐=
Cp ΔT03
tan β2 = tan β1 −
Ωuroot ca
1005 × 20
= 1.2225 − = 0.32
0.93 × 171.15 × 140
Ans
β2 = 17.74◦ ⇐=

9.9 Determine the stage efficiency, ηs and work done factor Ω of an axial
flow compressor, if the actual pressure ratio developed was 1.35 and
actual temperature rise was 30 K. The blade inlet and outlet angles
are 47◦ and 15◦ respectively. The peripheral and axial velocities are
225 m/s and 180 m/s respectively.
 Axial Flow Compressors 383

Solution
γ
ΔT0s ηs γ−1
rs = 1+
T01
γ−1

rs γ − 1 T01
ηs =
ΔT0s

1.350.286 − 1 × 300
= × 100
30
Ans
= 89.6% ⇐=
Ω
ΔT0s = uca (tan β1 − tan β2 )
Cp

ΔT0s Cp
Ω =
uca (tan β1 − tan β2 )
30 × 1005 Ans
= = 0.925 ⇐=
225 × 180 × (tan 47 − tan 15)

9.10 A 50% reaction, axial flow compressor runs at a mean blade speed
of 250 m/s. The pressure ratio developed by the machine is 1.3.
Determine the blade and air angle if the mean flow velocity was 200
m/s. Condition at inlet are 1 bar and 300 K.

Solution

w1 β α1
1 c1
ca1
wt1 ct1
u
Fig. 9.34

γ−1
ΔT = r γ − 1 T1 = 1.30.286 − 1 × 300

Ans
= 23.38K ⇐=

Degree of reaction
ca
R = (tan β1 + tan β2 )
2u
200
0.5 = (tan β1 + tan β2 )
2 × 250
384 Gas Turbines

tan β1 + tan β2 = 1.25

uca
ΔT = (tan β1 − tan β2 )
Cp

23.38 × 1005
tan β1 − tan β2 = = 0.47
250 × 200
Ans
β1 = 40.7◦ ⇐=
Ans
β2 = 21.3◦ ⇐=

For 50% reaction,

α1 = β2 and α2 = β1
Ans
α1 = 21.3◦ ⇐=
Ans
α2 = 40.7◦ ⇐=

9.11 A helicopter gas turbine requires an overall compressor pressure ratio

of 10:1. This is to be obtained using a two-spool layout consisting
of a four-stage axial compressor followed by a single-stage centrifugal
compressor. The polytropic efficiency of the axial compressor is 92
per cent and that of the centrifugal is 83 per cent.
The axial compressor has a stage temperature rise of 30 K, using a
50 per cent reaction design with a stator outlet angle of 20◦ . If the
mean diameter of each stage is 25.0 cm and each stage is identical,
calculate the required rotational speed. Assume a work done factor
of 0.86 and a constant axial velocity of 150 m/s.
Assuming an axial velocity at the eye of the impeller, an impeller tip
diameter of 33.0 cm, a slip factor of 0.90 and a power input factor
of 1.04, calculate the rotational speed required for the centrifugal
compressor. Ambient conditions are 1.01 bar and 288 K.

Solution

w1 β α1
1 c1
ca1
wt1 ct1
u
Fig. 9.35

For symmetrical stages (R = 0.5)

 Axial Flow Compressors 385

u = ca (tan β1 + tan β2 ) (1)

Temperature rise across the stage is

uca
ΔT0s = Ω (tan β1 − tan β2 )
Cp

ΔT0s Cp
u = (2)
Ωca (tan β1 − tan β2 )

Equating (1) and (2)

Cp ΔT0s = Ωc2a tan2 β1 − tan2 β2

Cp ΔT0s
tan2 β1 = + tan2 β2
Ωc2a
1005 × 30
= + tan2 20 = 1.6906
0.86 × 1502
β1 = 52.44

u = 150 × (tan 52.44 + tan 20)

= 249.66 m/s = πDNac

249.66 Ans
Nac = = 317.88 rps ⇐=
π × 0.25

Total pressure ratio across the axial compressor is

γ
nΔT0s ( pc γ−1 )
η
r1 = 1+
T1

4 × 30 ( 0.4 )
0.92× 1.4
= 1+ = 3.07
288

Centrifugal compressor : It is installed after the axial compressor.

Outlet of axial = Inlet to centrifugal

Pressure ratio across centrifugal compressor

10
r2 = = 3.2573
3.07

T02 is outlet temperature of axial compressor

1 γ−1
T02 = T01 [r1 ] ηpc γ

288 × [3.07]( 1.4×0.92 )

0.4
= = 408.02 K

Temperature at the outlet of centrifugal compressor,

386 Gas Turbines

1 γ−1
T03 = T02 [r2 ] ηpc γ

408.02 × [3.2573]( 1.4 0.83 )

0.4
× 1
=

= 612.67 K

ΔTsc = T03 − T02

= 612.67 − 408.02 = 204.65 K

Cp ΔTsc = pif μu2

204.65 × 1005
u =
1.04 × 0.9
= 468.76 m/s = πDNcc
468.76 Ans
Ncc = = 452.15 rps ⇐=
π × 0.33

Review Questions

9.1 What are the basic requirements of compressors for aircraft applica-
tions? Do axial flow compressors meet them? Explain.
9.2 With a suitable sketch explain the working principle of an axial flow
compressor.
9.3 What is meant by a stage and explain in detail the stage velocity
triangles.
9.4 Derive an expression for work input to the compressor and explain.
What is meant by work done factor?
9.5 Explain the following performance coefficients:
(i) flow coefficient
(ii) rotor pressure flow coefficient
(iii) rotor enthalpy loss coefficient
(iv) diffuser pressure loss coefficient
(v) diffuser enthalpy loss coefficient
(vi) loading coefficient
9.6 Define degree of reaction and derive an expression for the same.
9.7 What is meant by low degree of reaction and high degree of reaction?
How do you differentiate these two?
9.8 Show that when the degree of reaction is 50% the blades are symmet-
rical.
 Axial Flow Compressors 387

9.9 Briefly explain the flow through a compressor and bring out the details
of various losses in an axial flow compressor.

9.10 Derive an expression to calculate the pressure ratio in a stage.

9.11 Explain briefly the design and off-design characteristics of an axial

flow compressor.

9.12 Explain the phenomena of surging and stalling in an axial flow com-
pressor. Explain also the rotating stall.

Exercise

9.1 Air enters an axial flow compressor at 1 bar and 20◦ C at low veloc-
ity. It is compresses through a pressure ratio of 11. Find the final
temperature and pressure at outlet from the compressor. Take the
compressor efficiency as 85%.
Ans: (i) 632.65 K (ii) 11 bar

9.2 An axial flow compressor stage has blade root, mean and tip velocities
of 150, 200 and 250 m/s. The stage is to be designed for a stagnation
temperature rise of 20 K and an axial velocity of 150 m/s, both con-
stant from root to tip. The work done factor is 0.93. Assuming 50%
reaction at mean radius calculate the stage air angles. Also calculate
stage air angles and the degree of reaction at root and tip for a free
vortex design.
Ans: Mid : 45.76◦; 17.04◦;
Root : 45◦ ; 2.256◦ ; 0.52
Tip : 59.04◦; 47.47◦; 0.83
9.3 Recalculate the stage air angles for the same data as in the pre-
vious question for a stage with 50 per cent reaction at all radii.
Ans: Root : 44.42◦ ; 1.14◦
Mean : 45.76◦; 17.04◦;
Tip : 48.24◦; 28.59◦
9.4 An axial flow compressor has an overall pressure ratio of 4.0 and mass
flow of 160 kg/min. If the polytropic efficiency is 0.88 and the stagna-
tion temperature rise per stage must not exceed 25◦ C, calculate the
number of stages required and the pressure ratio of the first and last
stages. Assume equal temperature rise in all stages. If the absolute
velocity approaching the last rotor is 155 m/s at an angle of 20◦ from
the axial direction, the work done factor is 0.83, the velocity diagram
is symmetrical, and the mean diameter of the last stage rotor is 180
mm, compute the rotational speed and the length of the last stage
rotor blade at inlet to the stage. Ambient conditions are 1.01 bar and
288 K. Also calculate air angles.
Ans: (i) 7 (ii) 1.265 (iii) 1.173 (iv) 24355 rpm (v) 1.255 cm
(vi) 50.5◦ ; 20◦
388 Gas Turbines

9.5 An axial flow compressor was tested and found that it gave a pressure
ratio of 3 atmospheres and a temperature rise of 125◦ C. A 2000 kW
motor was used to drive the compressor. Determine the compressor
efficiency and the mass flow of air delivered, if the mechanical effi-
ciency to be 95% and pressure and temperature at inlet were 1 atm
and 300 K respectively.
Ans: (i) 88.6% (ii) 15.124 kg/s
9.6 A pressure ratio of 1.5 is to be achieved in a single-stage of an axial
flow compressor. The air approaches the rotor at an absolute velocity
of 200 m/s and an angle of 12◦ . The speed of the compressor is 8000
rpm and has a mean radius 30 cm. Determine the blade angles and
the blade height if the mass flow is 10 kg/s. Conditions at inlet are
stagnation pressure = 1 bar and stagnation temperature = 300 K.
Compressor stage efficiency is 95%.
Ans: (i) 47◦ (ii) 15.5◦ (iii) 28 mm
9.7 A multistage axial flow compressor, with symmetrical blading is to
deliver 10 kg/s with a pressure ratio of 4. The working fluid air enters
the stage with a speed of 200 m/s and at an angle of 12◦ . The mean
blade speed of the rotor is 250 m/s and rotational speed is 5000 rpm.
Determine the blade angles, number of stages required for compressor
and blade height, if the stage efficiency is 90% and inlet stagnation
temperature and pressure are 300 K and 1 bar.
Ans: (i) 46.81◦ (ii) 12◦ (iii) 4 stages (iv) 17.57 mm
9.8 A 50% reaction, axial flow compressor has inlet and exit blade angles
of 45◦ and 15◦ respectively. The axial flow velocity is to be maintained
at 200 m/s. Determine the mass flow, blade height, tangential force,
axial force and the resultant force acting on the blade to produce a
power of 300 kW at a speed of 5000 rpm and a blade spacing of 9 mm.
Take p01 = 1 bar and T01 = 300 K.
Ans: (i) 8.08 kg/s (ii) 13.77 mm (iii) 1183 N
(iv) 4.44 N (v) 1183 N
9.9 From the cascade test of a 50% reaction axial flow compressor, the
loading coefficient ψ was found to be 0.43 with the velocity of air
flow in the axial direction being 200 m/s and the rotor speed 250
m/s. Determine the blades angles and pressure ratio if the maximum
compressor blade efficiency were to be 95%. Assume solidity ratio
(the ratio of chord length to blade spacing) = 1, p01 = 1 bar and
T01 = 300 K.
Ans: (i) 41.8◦ (ii) 19.61◦ (iii) 1.32
9.10 For an axial flow cascade, with usual notation derive the drag and lift
coefficients as
Δp0 s cos3 αm
CD = 1 2 l
2 ρc1
cos2 α1
 Axial Flow Compressors 389

s
CL = 2 (tan α1 − tan α2 ) cos αm − CD tan αm

From the above show that the maximum diffuser (blade) efficiency
can be written as
D
ηDmax = 1 − 2
L
State the assumption made. Also show that for a 50% reaction axial
compressor, the pressure rise in a rotor blade in a cascade can be
derived as

1 2
Δprotor = ρc (CL sin αm − CD cos αm )
2 m s

A 50% reaction, aspect ratio (the ratio of blade height to chord length)
3 and blade height 10 cm, axial compressor cascade was tested and
found to have a blade efficiency of 90% and a lift coefficient of 0.8.
The mean axial velocity was 200 m/s and the inlet and exit blade
angle were 45◦ and 15◦ respectively. Determine the lift and drag
forces exerted on the blade, and pressure rise achieved in the stage
with the flow coefficient of 0.5. Density of air at inlet is 0.9 kg/m3 .
Take solidity ratio as 1.
Ans: (i) 67.3 N (ii) 3.4 N (iii) 0.2 bar

9.11 An axial flow compressor stage was found to have a drag coefficient
of 0.04. The blades are symmetric, the inlet and exit blade angles
were 50◦ and 15◦ respectively. The mean axial velocity is 200 m/s.
Determine the blade efficiency and the actual pressure ratio. Take
solidity ratio as 1 and inlet static temperature as 275 K.
Ans: (i) 96.86% (ii) 1.833

9.12 A three-stage axial flow compressor developing a pressure ratio of

3 delivers 10 kg/s of air. The fluid (air) enters the rotor with a
velocity of 220 m/s and at an angle of 15◦ . The velocity diagram
is symmetrical. Determine the speed of the compressor if the blade
height is restricted to 25 mm at the inlet. Take inlet conditions,
p01 = 1 bar, T01 = 300 K, degree of reaction = 0.5 and polytropic
efficiency = 0.9. Take inlet conditions as stagnation state.
Ans: 8091 rpm

9.13 An axial compressor is fitted with 50% reaction blading, the blade
inlet and outlet angles being 50◦ and 15◦ when measured from the
axial direction. The mean diameter of a certain blade pair is 85
cm and the speed is 5500 rpm. Calculate the axial velocity and the
isentropic efficiency of the stage if the pressure ratio of compression
is to be 1.4 when the air inlet temperature is 25◦ C.
Ans: (i) 167.69 m/s (ii) 79.8%
390 Gas Turbines

9.14 An axial flow compressor has a flow coefficient of 0.8 and the loading
coefficient is 0.88. If the blades are symmetrical, calculate the blade
angles and the speed of the compressor. Take axial velocity as 200 m/s
and mean blade diameter as 47.75 cm.
Ans: (i) 49.6◦ (ii) 4.289◦ (iii) 10000 rpm
9.15 An axial flow compressor runs at 9000 rpm and the mean blade diam-
eter for the fourth stage rotor is 55 cm. The rotor blades are 90 mm
high and the mass flow rate is 45 kg/s. At entry to the pressure are
345 K and 1.7 bar. While the air leaves the previous row of stator
blades at an angle of an angle of 28◦ to the axial direction. Calculate
the stage temperature rise, work input and the pressure ratio for the
compressor stage, given that the rotor blades deflect the air through
18◦ , that the work done factor is 0.88 and isentropic efficiency is 85%.
Ans: (i) 18.8 K (ii) 850.23 kW (iii) 1.163
9.16 From the cascade test of a 50% reaction axial flow compressor, the
lift CL was found to be 0.8 with the velocity of air flow in the axial
direction being 200 m/s and the rotor speed 250 m/s. Determine the
temperature rise and blades angles if the maximum compressor blade
efficiency were to be 95%. Assume solidity ratio (the ratio of chord
length to blade spacing) as 1, p01 = 1 bar and T01 = 300 K.
◦ ◦
Ans: (i) 23.83 k (ii) 40.84 (iii) 21.08

Multiple Choice Questions (choose the most appropriate answer)

1. For aircraft application a compressor must have

(a) low air flow capacity

(b) high frontal area
(c) high pressure ratio per stage
(d) low efficiency

2. Modern multistage axial flow compressors have a pressure ratio

(a) 2
(b) 6
(c) 12
(d) 18

3. The three velocities of a compressor c, u and w is related by

(a) u = w − c
(b) c = u + w
(c) w = c − u
(d) c/u = w
 Axial Flow Compressors 391

4. In the axial flow compressor the absolute velocity in the stator

(a) increases
(b) decreases
(c) initially increases and then decreases
(d) remains constant

5. In the axial flow compressor the absolute velocity in the rotor

(a) increases
(b) decreases
(c) initially increases and then decreases
(d) remains constant

6. The work absorbing capacity of an axial flow compressor

(a) increases with increase in the axial velocity

(b) decreases with increase in the axial velocity
(c) remain the same with increase in the axial velocity
(d) has no relation between them

7. For a axial flow compressor the loading coefficient for the given stage
work is

(a) directly proportional to u

(b) inversely proportional to u
(c) inversely proportional to u2
(d) directly proportional to u2

8. The flow coefficient is defined as

(a) φ = ca − u
(b) φ = ca + u
(c) φ = ca /u
(d) φ = ca × u

9. The degree of reaction is defined as

actual enthalpy change in rotor
(a)
actual enthalpy change in stage
actual enthalpy change in stage
(b)
actual enthalpy change in rotor
actual enthalpy change in rotor
(c)
actual enthalpy change in stator
actual enthalpy change in stator
(d) actual enthalpy change in rotor
392 Gas Turbines

10. In a multistage axial flow compressor, the axial velocity at higher

stage is

(a) small
(b) high
(c) remains same
(d) none of the above

Ans: 1. – (c) 2. – (d) 3. – (b) 4. – (b) 5. – (a)

6. – (b) 7. – (c) 8. – (c) 9. – (a) 10. – (a)