DATA STRUCTURES USING C

[Document subtitle]

MCMT
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Introduction to Data Structures

Data structures: organizations of data
Abstract Data Type (ADT)
Selecting a data structure to match the operation
Algorithm
Practical Algorithm design issues
Performance of a program
Classification of Algorithms
Complexity of Algorithms
Rate of Growth
Analyzing Algorithms

CHAPTER 2 RECURSION

Introduction to Recursion
Differences between recursion and iteration
Factorial of a given number
The Towers of Hanoi
Fibonacci Sequence Problem
Program using recursion to calculate the NCR of a given number
Program to calculate the least common multiple of a given number
Program to calculate the greatest common divisor

CHAPTER 3 LINKED LISTS

Linked List Concepts

Types of Linked Lists
Single Linked List
Source Code for the Implementation of Single Linked List
Using a header node
Array based linked lists
Double Linked List
A Complete Source Code for the Implementation of Double Linked List
Circular Single Linked List
Source Code for Circular Single Linked List
Circular Double Linked List
Source Code for Circular Double Linked List
Comparison of Linked List Variations
Polynomials
Source code for polynomial creation with help of linked list
Addition of Polynomials
Source code for polynomial addition with help of linked list:

I
CHAPTER 4 STACK AND QUEUE

Stack
Representation of Stack
Program to demonstrate a stack, using array
Program to demonstrate a stack, using linked list
Algebraic Expressions
Converting expressions using Stack
Conversion from infix to postfix
Program to convert an infix to postfix expression
Conversion from infix to prefix
Program to convert an infix to prefix expression
Conversion from postfix to infix
Program to convert postfix to infix expression
Conversion from postfix to prefix
Program to convert postfix to prefix expression
Conversion from prefix to infix
Program to convert prefix to infix expression
Conversion from prefix to postfix
Program to convert prefix to postfix expression
Evaluation of postfix expression
Applications of stacks
Queue
Representation of Queue
Program to demonstrate a Queue using array
Program to demonstrate a Queue using linked list
Applications of Queue
Circular Queue
Representation of Circular Queue
Deque
Priority Queue

CHAPTER 5 BINARY TREES

Trees
Binary Tree
Binary Tree Traversal Techniques
Recursive Traversal Algorithms
Building Binary Tree from Traversal Pairs
Binary Tree Creation and Traversal Using Arrays
Binary Tree Creation and Traversal Using Pointers
Non Recursive Traversal Algorithms
Expression Trees
Converting expressions with expression trees
Threaded Binary Tree
Binary Search Tree
General Trees (m-ary tree)
Converting a m-ary tree (general tree) to a binary tree
Search and Traversal Techniques for m-ary trees
Depth first search
Breadth first search
Sparse Matrices
Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions

II
CHAPTER 6 GRAPHS

Introduction to Graphs
Representation of Graphs
Minimum Spanning Tree
Kruskal’s Algorithm
Prim’s Algorithm
Reachability Matrix
Traversing a Graph
Breadth first search and traversal
Depth first search and traversal

CHAPTER 7 SEARCHING AND SORTING

Linear Search
A non-recursive program for Linear Search
A Recursive program for linear search
Binary Search
A non-recursive program for binary search
A recursive program for binary search
Bubble Sort
Program for Bubble Sort
Selection Sort
Non-recursive Program for selection sort
Recursive Program for selection sort
Quick Sort
Recursive program for Quick Sort
Priority Queue and Heap and Heap Sort
Max and Min Heap data structures
Representation of Heap Tree
Operations on heap tree
Merging two heap trees
Application of heap tree
Heap Sort
Program for Heap Sort
Priority queue implementation using heap tree

References and Selected Readings

Index

III
Chapter
1
Basic Concepts

The term data structure is used to describe the way data is stored, and the term
algorithm is used to describe the way data is processed. Data structures and
algorithms are interrelated. Choosing a data structure affects the kind of algorithm you
might use, and choosing an algorithm affects the data structures we use.

An Algorithm is a finite sequence of instructions, each of which has a clear meaning

and can be performed with a finite amount of effort in a finite length of time. No matter
what the input values may be, an algorithm terminates after executing a finite number
of instructions.

Introduction to Data Structures:

Data structure is a representation of logical relationship existing between individual elements of

data. In other words, a data structure defines a way of organizing all data items that considers
not only the elements stored but also their relationship to each other. The term data structure is
used to describe the way data is stored.

To develop a program of an algorithm we should select an appropriate data structure for that
algorithm. Therefore, data structure is represented as:

Algorithm + Data structure = Program

A data structure is said to be linear if its elements form a sequence or a linear list. The linear
data structures like an array, stacks, queues and linked lists organize data in linear order. A data
structure is said to be nonlinear if its elements form a hierarchical classification where, data items
appear at various levels.

Trees and Graphs are widely used non-linear data structures. Tree and graph structures
represents hierarchical relationship between individual data elements. Graphs are nothing but
trees with certain restrictions removed.

Data structures are divided into two types:

Primitive data structures.

Non-primitive data structures.

Primitive Data Structures are the basic data structures that directly operate upon the machine
instructions. They have different representations on different computers. Integers, floating point
numbers, character constants, string constants and pointers come under this category.

Non-primitive data structures are more complicated data structures and are derived from
primitive data structures. They emphasize on grouping same or different data items with
relationship between each data item. Arrays, lists and files come under this category. Figure 1.1
shows the classification of data structures.
 Data Structures

Primitive Data Structures Non- Primitive Data Structures

Integer Float Char Pointers Arrays Lists Files

Linear Lists Non- Linear Lists

Stacks Queues Graphs Trees

Figure 1. 1. Classification of Data Structures

Data structures: Organization of data

The collection of data you work with in a program have some kind of structure or organization.
No matte how complex your data structures are they can be broken down into two fundamental
types:
Contiguous
Non-Contiguous.

In contiguous structures, terms of data are kept together in memory (either RAM or in a file). An
array is an example of a contiguous structure. Since each element in the array is located next to
one or two other elements. In contrast, items in a non-contiguous structure and scattered in
memory, but we linked to each other in some way. A linked list is an example of a non-contiguous
data structure. Here, the nodes of the list are linked together using pointers stored in each node.
Figure 1.2 below illustrates the difference between contiguous and non-contiguous structures.

1 2 3 1 2 3

(a) Contiguous (b) non-contiguous

Figure 1.2 Contiguous and Non-contiguous structures compared

Contiguous structures:

Contiguous structures can be broken drawn further into two kinds: those that contain data items
of all the same size, and those where the size may differ. Figure 1.2 shows example of each kind.
The first kind is called the array. Figure 1.3(a) shows an example of an array of numbers. In an
array, each element is of the same type, and thus has the same size.

The second kind of contiguous structure is called structure, figure 1.3(b) shows a simple structure
consisting of a person’s name and age. In a struct, elements may be of different data types and
thus may have different sizes.
For example, a person’s age can be represented with a simple integer that occupies two bytes of
memory. But his or her name, represented as a string of characters, may require many bytes
and may even be of varying length.

Couples with the atomic types (that is, the single data-item built-in types such as integer, float
and pointers), arrays and structs provide all the “mortar” you need to built more exotic form of
data structure, including the non-contiguous forms.

int arr[3] = {1, 2, 3}; struct custdata

{
int age;
1 2 3 char name[20];
};

custdata bill= {21, “bill the student”};

(a) Array

21
(b) struct

“bill the student”

Figure 1.3 Examples of contiguous structures.

Non-contiguous structures:

Non-contiguous structures are implemented as a collection of data-items, called nodes, where

each node can point to one or more other nodes in the collection. The simplest kind of non-
contiguous structure is linked list.

A linked list represents a linear, one-dimension type of non-contiguous structure, where there is
only the notation of backwards and forwards. A tree such as shown in figure 1.4(b) is an example
of a two-dimensional non-contiguous structure. Here, there is the notion of up and down and left
and right.

In a tree each node has only one link that leads into the node and links can only go down the
tree. The most general type of non-contiguous structure, called a graph has no such restrictions.
Figure 1.4(c) is an example of a graph.

A B C A

B C
(a) Linked List

D
A
E G
B C
(b) Tree F (c) graph

D E F G

Figure 1.4. Examples of non-contiguous structures

Hybrid structures:

If two basic types of structures are mixed then it is a hybrid form. Then one part contiguous and
another part non-contiguous. For example, figure 1.5 shows how to implement a double– linked
list using three parallel arrays, possibly stored a past from each other in memory.

A B C (a) Conceptual Structure

D P N

1 A 3 4

2 B 4 0 (b) Hybrid Implementation

3 C 0 1

4 D 1 2
List Head

Figure 1.5. A double linked list via a hybrid data structure

The array D contains the data for the list, whereas the array P and N hold the previous and next
“pointers’’. The pointers are actually nothing more than indexes into the D array. For instance,
D[i] holds the data for node i and p[i] holds the index to the node previous to i, where may or
may not reside at position i–1. Likewise, N[i] holds the index to the next node in the list.

Abstract Data Type (ADT):

The design of a data structure involves more than just its organization. You also need to plan for
the way the data will be accessed and processed – that is, how the data will be interpreted
actually, non-contiguous structures – including lists, tree and graphs – can be implemented either
contiguously or non- contiguously likewise, the structures that are normally treated as
contiguously - arrays and structures – can also be implemented non-contiguously.

The notion of a data structure in the abstract needs to be treated differently from whatever is
used to implement the structure. The abstract notion of a data structure is defined in terms of
the operations we plan to perform on the data.

Considering both the organization of data and the expected operations on the data, leads to the
notion of an abstract data type. An abstract data type in a theoretical construct that consists of
data as well as the operations to be performed on the data while hiding implementation.

For example, a stack is a typical abstract data type. Items stored in a stack can only be added
and removed in certain order – the last item added is the first item removed. We call these
operations, pushing and popping. In this definition, we haven’t specified have items are stored
on the stack, or how the items are pushed and popped. We have only specified the valid
operations that can be performed.

For example, if we want to read a file, we wrote the code to read the physical file device. That
is, we may have to write the same code over and over again. So we created what is known
today as an ADT. We wrote the code to read a file and placed it in a library for a programmer to
use.

As another example, the code to read from a keyboard is an ADT. It has a data structure,
character and set of operations that can be used to read that data structure.

To be made useful, an abstract data type (such as stack) has to be implemented and this is where
data structure comes into ply. For instance, we might choose the simple data structure of an
array to represent the stack, and then define the appropriate indexing operations to perform
pushing and popping.

Selecting a data structure to match the operation:

The most important process in designing a problem involves choosing which data structure to
use. The choice depends greatly on the type of operations you wish to perform.

Suppose we have an application that uses a sequence of objects, where one of the main
operations is delete an object from the middle of the sequence. The code for this is as follows:

void delete (int *seg, int &n, int posn)

// delete the item at position from an array of n elements.
{
if (n)
{
int i=posn;
n--;
while (i < n)
{
seq[i] =
seg[i+1]; i++;
}
}
return;
}

This function shifts towards the front all elements that follow the element at position posn. This
shifting involves data movement that, for integer elements, which is too costly. However, suppose
the array stores larger objects, and lots of them. In this case, the overhead for moving data
becomes high. The problem is that, in a contiguous structure, such as an array the logical ordering
(the ordering that we wish to interpret our elements to have) is the same as the physical ordering
(the ordering that the elements actually have in memory).

If we choose non-contiguous representation, however we can separate the logical ordering from
the physical ordering and thus change one without affecting the other. For example, if we store
our collection of elements using a double–linked list (with previous and next pointers), we can
do the deletion without moving the elements, instead, we just modify the pointers in each node.
The code using double linked list is as follows:

void delete (node * beg, int posn)

//delete the item at posn from a list of elements.
{
int i = posn;
node *q = beg;
while (i && q)
{
 i--;
q = q  next;
}

if (q)
{/* not at end of list, so detach P by making previous and
next nodes point to each other
*/ node *p = q -> prev;
node *n = q ->
next; if (p)
p -> next = n;
if (n)
n -> prev = P;
}
return;
}

The process of detecting a node from a list is independent of the type of data stored in the node,
and can be accomplished with some pointer manipulation as illustrated in figure below:

A X C

100 200 300

Initial List

A X A

Figure 1.6 Detaching a node from a list

Since very little data is moved during this process, the deletion using linked lists will often be
faster than when arrays are used.

It may seem that linked lists are superior to arrays. But is that always true? There are trade offs.
Our linked lists yield faster deletions, but they take up more space because they require two
extra pointers per element.

Algorithm

An algorithm is a finite sequence of instructions, each of which has a clear meaning and can be
performed with a finite amount of effort in a finite length of time. No matter what the input values
may be, an algorithm terminates after executing a finite number of instructions. In addition every
algorithm must satisfy the following criteria:

Input: there are zero or more quantities, which are externally supplied;

Output: at least one quantity is produced;

Definiteness: each instruction must be clear and unambiguous;

Finiteness: if we trace out the instructions of an algorithm, then for all cases the algorithm will
terminate after a finite number of steps;

Effectiveness: every instruction must be sufficiently basic that it can in principle be carried out
by a person using only pencil and paper. It is not enough that each operation be definite, but it
must also be feasible.

In formal computer science, one distinguishes between an algorithm, and a program. A program
does not necessarily satisfy the fourth condition. One important example of such a program for
a computer is its operating system, which never terminates (except for system crashes) but
continues in a wait loop until more jobs are entered.

We represent an algorithm using pseudo language that is a combination of the constructs of a

programming language together with informal English statements.

Practical Algorithm design issues:

Choosing an efficient algorithm or data structure is just one part of the design process. Next, will
look at some design issues that are broader in scope. There are three basic design goals that we
should strive for in a program:

Try to save time (Time complexity).

Try to save space (Space complexity).
Try to have face.

A program that runs faster is a better program, so saving time is an obvious goal. Like wise, a
program that saves space over a competing program is considered desirable. We want to “save
face” by preventing the program from locking up or generating reams of garbled data.

Performance of a program:

The performance of a program is the amount of computer memory and time needed to run a
program. We use two approaches to determine the performance of a program. One is analytical,
and the other experimental. In performance analysis we use analytical methods, while in
performance measurement we conduct experiments.

Time Complexity:

The time needed by an algorithm expressed as a function of the size of a problem is called the
TIME COMPLEXITY of the algorithm. The time complexity of a program is the amount of
computer time it needs to run to completion.

The limiting behavior of the complexity as size increases is called the asymptotic time complexity.
It is the asymptotic complexity of an algorithm, which ultimately determines the size of problems
that can be solved by the algorithm.

Space Complexity:

The space complexity of a program is the amount of memory it needs to run to completion. The
space need by a program has the following components:
Instruction space: Instruction space is the space needed to store the compiled version of the
program instructions.

Data space: Data space is the space needed to store all constant and variable values. Data
space has two components:

Space needed by constants and simple variables in program.

Space needed by dynamically allocated objects such as arrays and class instances.

Environment stack space: The environment stack is used to save information needed to
resume execution of partially completed functions.

Instruction Space: The amount of instructions space that is needed depends on factors such
as:
The compiler used to complete the program into machine code.
The compiler options in effect at the time of compilation
The target computer.

Classification of Algorithms

If ‘n’ is the number of data items to be processed or degree of polynomial or the size of the file
to be sorted or searched or the number of nodes in a graph etc.

Next instructions of most programs are executed once or at most only a few times.
If all the instructions of a program have this property, we say that its running time
is a constant.

Log n When the running time of a program is logarithmic, the program gets slightly slower as n
grows. This running time commonly occurs in programs that solve a big problem by
transforming it into a smaller problem, cutting the size by some constant fraction.,
When n is a million, log n is a doubled whenever n doubles, log n increases by a
constant, but log n does not double until n increases to n2.

When the running time of a program is linear, it is generally the case that a small
amount of processing is done on each input element. This is the optimal situation for
an algorithm that must process n inputs.

n. log n This running time arises for algorithms but solve a problem by breaking it up into
smaller sub-problems, solving them independently, and then combining the
solutions. When n doubles, the running time more than doubles.

n2 When the running time of an algorithm is quadratic, it is practical for use only on
relatively small problems. Quadratic running times typically arise in algorithms that
process all pairs of data items (perhaps in a double nested loop) whenever n
doubles, the running time increases four fold.

n3 Similarly, an algorithm that process triples of data items (perhaps in a triple–

nested loop) has a cubic running time and is practical for use only on small
problems. Whenever n doubles, the running time increases eight fold.

2n Few algorithms with exponential running time are likely to be appropriate for
practical use, such algorithms arise naturally as “brute–force” solutions to
problems. Whenever n doubles, the running time squares.
 Complexity of Algorithms

The complexity of an algorithm M is the function f(n) which gives the running time and/or storage
space requirement of the algorithm in terms of the size ‘n’ of the input data. Mostly, the storage
space required by an algorithm is simply a multiple of the data size ‘n’. Complexity shall refer to
the running time of the algorithm.

The function f(n), gives the running time of an algorithm, depends not only on the size ‘n’ of the
input data but also on the particular data. The complexity function f(n) for certain cases are:

1. Best Case : The minimum possible value of f(n) is called the best case.
2. Average Case : The expected value of f(n).
3. Worst Case : The maximum value of f(n) for any key possible input.

The field of computer science, which studies efficiency of algorithms, is known as analysis of
algorithms.

Algorithms can be evaluated by a variety of criteria. Most often we shall be interested in the rate
of growth of the time or space required to solve larger and larger instances of a problem. We will
associate with the problem an integer, called the size of the problem, which is a measure of the
quantity of input data.

1.10. Rate of Growth

Big–Oh (O), Big–Omega (Ω), Big–Theta (Θ) and Little–Oh

T(n) = O(f(n)), (pronounced order of or big oh), says that the growth rate of T(n) is less
than or equal (<) that of f(n)

T(n) = Ω(g(n)) (pronounced omega), says that the growth rate of T(n) is greater than or
equal to (>) that of g(n)

T(n) = Θ(h(n)) (pronounced theta), says that the growth rate of T(n) equals (=) the
growth rate of h(n) [if T(n) = O(h(n)) and T(n) = Ω (h(n)]

T(n) = o(p(n)) (pronounced little oh), says that the growth rate of T(n) is less than the
growth rate of p(n) [if T(n) = O(p(n)) and T(n) ≠ Θ (p(n))].

Some Examples:

2n2 + 5n – 6 = O(2n) 2n2 + 5n – 6 ≠ Θ(2n)

2n2 + 5n – 6 = O(n3) 2n2 + 5n – 6 ≠ Θ(n3)
2n2 + 5n – 6 = O(n2) 2n2 + 5n – 6 = Θ(n2)
2n2 + 5n – 6 ≠ O(n) 2n2 + 5n – 6 ≠ Θ(n)
2n2 + 5n – 6 ≠ Ω(2n) 2n2 + 5n – 6 = o(2n)
2n2 + 5n – 6 ≠ Ω(n3) 2n2 + 5n – 6 = o(n3)
2n2 + 5n – 6 = Ω(n2) 2n2 + 5n – 6 ≠ o(n2)
2n2 + 5n – 6 = Ω(n) 2n2 + 5n – 6 ≠ o(n)
1.11. Analyzing Algorithms

Suppose ‘M’ is an algorithm, and suppose ‘n’ is the size of the input data. Clearly the complexity
f(n) of M increases as n increases. It is usually the rate of increase of f(n) we want to examine.
This is usually done by comparing f(n) with some standard functions. The most common
computing times are:

O(1), O(log2 n), O(n), O(n. log2 n), O(n2), O(n3), O(2n), n! and nn

Numerical Comparison of Different Algorithms

The execution time for six of the typical functions is given below:

S.No log n n n. log n n2 n3 2n

1 0 1 1 1 1 2
2 1 2 2 4 8 4
3 2 4 8 16 64 16
4 3 8 24 64 512 256
5 4 16 64 256 4096 65536

Graph of log n, n, n log n, n2, n3, 2n, n! and nn

O(log n) does not depend on the base of the logarithm. To simplify the analysis, the convention
will not have any particular units of time. Thus we throw away leading constants. We will also
throw away low–order terms while computing a Big–Oh running time. Since Big-Oh is an upper
bound, the answer provided is a guarantee that the program will terminate within a certain time
period. The program may stop earlier than this, but never later.
One way to compare the function f(n) with these standard function is to use the functional ‘O’
notation, suppose f(n) and g(n) are functions defined on the positive integers with the property
that f(n) is bounded by some multiple g(n) for almost all ‘n’. Then,

f(n) = O(g(n))

Which is read as “f(n) is of order g(n)”. For example, the order of complexity for:

Linear search is O(n)

Binary search is O(log n)
Bubble sort is O(n2)
Quick sort is O(n log n)

For example, if the first program takes 100n2 milliseconds. While the second taken 5n3
milliseconds. Then might not 5n3 program better than 100n2 program?

As the programs can be evaluated by comparing their running time functions, with constants by
proportionality neglected. So, 5n3 program be better than the 100n2 program.

5 n3/100 n2 = n/20

for inputs n < 20, the program with running time 5n3 will be faster those the one with running
time 100 n2.

Therefore, if the program is to be run mainly on inputs of small size, we would indeed prefer the
program whose running time was O(n3)
However, as ‘n’ gets large, the ratio of the running times, which is n/20, gets arbitrarily larger.
Thus, as the size of the input increases, the O(n3) program will take significantly more time than
the O(n2) program. So it is always better to prefer a program whose running time with the lower
growth rate. The low growth rate function’s such as O(n) or O(n log n) are always better.
Chapter
2
Recursion
Recursion is deceptively simple in statement but exceptionally complicated
in implementation. Recursive procedures work fine in many problems.
Many programmers prefer recursion through simpler alternatives are
available. It is because recursion is elegant to use through it is costly in
terms of time and space. But using it is one thing and getting involved with
it is another.

In this unit we will look at “recursion” as a programmer who not only loves
it but also wants to understand it! With a bit of involvement it is going to
be an interesting reading for you.

Introduction to Recursion:

A function is recursive if a statement in the body of the function calls itself. Recursion is
the process of defining something in terms of itself. For a computer language to be
recursive, a function must be able to call itself.

For example, let us consider the function factr() shown below, which computers the
factorial of an integer.

#include <stdio.h>
int factorial (int);
main()
{
int num, fact;
printf (“Enter a positive integer value: ");
scanf (“%d”, &num);
fact = factorial (num);
printf ("\n Factorial of %d =%5d\n", num, fact);
}

int factorial (int n)

{
int result;
if (n == 0)
return (1);
else
result = n * factorial (n-1);

return (result);
}

A non-recursive or iterative version for finding the factorial is as follows:

factorial (int n)
{
int i, result = 1;
if (n == 0)
 return (result);
else
{
for (i=1; i<=n; i++)
result = result * i;
}
return (result);
}

The operation of the non-recursive version is clear as it uses a loop starting at 1 and
ending at the target value and progressively multiplies each number by the moving
product.

When a function calls itself, new local variables and parameters are allocated storage on
the stack and the function code is executed with these new variables from the start. A
recursive call does not make a new copy of the function. Only the arguments and
variables are new. As each recursive call returns, the old local variables and parameters
are removed from the stack and execution resumes at the point of the function call inside
the function.

When writing recursive functions, you must have a exit condition somewhere to force the
function to return without the recursive call being executed. If you do not have an exit
condition, the recursive function will recurse forever until you run out of stack space and
indicate error about lack of memory, or stack overflow.

Differences between recursion and iteration:

Both involve repetition.

Both involve a termination test.
Both can occur infinitely.

Iteration Recursion
Iteration explicitly user a repetition Recursion achieves repetition through
structure. repeated function calls.
Iteration terminates when the loop Recursion terminates when a base case
continuation. is recognized.
Iteration keeps modifying the counter Recursion keeps producing simple
until the loop continuation condition versions of the original problem until
fails. the base case is reached.
Iteration normally occurs within a loop Recursion causes another copy of the
so the extra memory assigned is function and hence a considerable
omitted. memory space’s occupied.
It reduces the processor’s operating It increases the processor’s operating
time. time.

Factorial of a given number:

The operation of recursive factorial function is as follows:

Start out with some natural number N (in our example, 5). The recursive definition is:

n = 0, 0 ! = 1 Base Case
n > 0, n ! = n * (n - 1) ! Recursive Case
Recursion Factorials:

5! =5 * 4! = 5 *___ = ____ factr(5) = 5 * factr(4) = __

4! = 4 *3! = 4 *___ = ___ factr(4) = 4 * factr(3) = __
3! = 3 * 2! = 3 * ___ = ___ factr(3) = 3 * factr(2) = __
2! = 2 * 1! = 2 * ___ = ___ factr(2) = 2 * factr(1) = __
1! = 1 * 0! = 1 * __ = __ factr(1) = 1 * factr(0) = __
0! = 1 factr(0) = __

5! = 5*4! = 5*4*3! = 5*4*3*2! = 5*4*3*2*1! = 5*4*3*2*1*0! = 5*4*3*2*1*1

=120

We define 0! to equal 1, and we define factorial N (where N > 0), to be N * factorial (N-
1). All recursive functions must have an exit condition, that is a state when it does not
recurse upon itself. Our exit condition in this example is when N = 0.

Tracing of the flow of the factorial () function:

When the factorial function is first called with, say, N = 5, here is what happens:

FUNCTION:
Does N = 0? No
Function Return Value = 5 * factorial (4)

At this time, the function factorial is called again, with N = 4.

FUNCTION:
Does N = 0? No
Function Return Value = 4 * factorial (3)

At this time, the function factorial is called again, with N = 3.

FUNCTION:
Does N = 0? No
Function Return Value = 3 * factorial (2)

At this time, the function factorial is called again, with N = 2.

FUNCTION:
Does N = 0? No
Function Return Value = 2 * factorial (1)

At this time, the function factorial is called again, with N = 1.

FUNCTION:
Does N = 0? No
Function Return Value = 1 * factorial (0)

At this time, the function factorial is called again, with N = 0.

FUNCTION:
Does N = 0? Yes
Function Return Value = 1
Now, we have to trace our way back up! See, the factorial function was called six times.
At any function level call, all function level calls above still exist! So, when we have N =
2, the function instances where N = 3, 4, and 5 are still waiting for their return values.

So, the function call where N = 1 gets retraced first, once the final call returns 0. So, the
function call where N = 1 returns 1*1, or 1. The next higher function call, where N = 2,
returns 2 * 1 (1, because that's what the function call where N = 1 returned). You just
keep working up the chain.

When N = 2, 2 * 1, or 2 was returned.

When N = 3, 3 * 2, or 6 was returned.
When N = 4, 4 * 6, or 24 was returned.
When N = 5, 5 * 24, or 120 was returned.

And since N = 5 was the first function call (hence the last one to be recalled), the
value 120 is returned.

The Towers of Hanoi:

In the game of Towers of Hanoi, there are three towers labeled 1, 2, and 3. The game
starts with n disks on tower A. For simplicity, let n is 3. The disks are numbered from 1
to 3, and without loss of generality we may assume that the diameter of each disk is the
same as its number. That is, disk 1 has diameter 1 (in some unit of measure), disk 2 has
diameter 2, and disk 3 has diameter 3. All three disks start on tower A in the order 1, 2,
3. The objective of the game is to move all the disks in tower 1 to entire tower 3 using
tower 2. That is, at no time can a larger disk be placed on a smaller disk.

Figure 3.11.1, illustrates the initial setup of towers of Hanoi. The figure 3.11.2, illustrates
the final setup of towers of Hanoi.

The rules to be followed in moving the disks from tower 1 tower 3 using tower 2 are as
follows:

Only one disk can be moved at a time.

Only the top disc on any tower can be moved to any other tower.
A larger disk cannot be placed on a smaller disk.

T o w er 1 T o w er 2 T o w er 3

Fig. 3. 11. 1. Init ia l s et up of T o w ers of Ha no i

 T o w er 1 T o w er 2 T o w er 3

Fig 3. 11. 2. F ina l s et up of T o w ers of Ha no i

The towers of Hanoi problem can be easily implemented using recursion. To move the
largest disk to the bottom of tower 3, we move the remaining n – 1 disks to tower 2 and
then move the largest disk to tower 3. Now we have the remaining n – 1 disks to be
moved to tower 3. This can be achieved by using the remaining two towers. We can also
use tower 3 to place any disk on it, since the disk placed on tower 3 is the largest disk
and continue the same operation to place the entire disks in tower 3 in order.

The program that uses recursion to produce a list of moves that shows how to accomplish
the task of transferring the n disks from tower 1 to tower 3 is as follows:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>

void towers_of_hanoi (int n, char *a, char *b, char *c);

int cnt=0;

int main (void)

{
int n;
printf("Enter number of discs: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
towers_of_hanoi (n, "Tower 1", "Tower 2", "Tower 3");
getch();
}

void towers_of_hanoi (int n, char *a, char *b, char *c)

{
if (n == 1)
{
++cnt;
printf ("\n%5d: Move disk 1 from %s to %s", cnt, a, c);
return;
}
else
{
towers_of_hanoi (n-1, a, c, b);
++cnt;
printf ("\n%5d: Move disk %d from %s to %s", cnt, n, a, c);
towers_of_hanoi (n-1, b, a, c);
return;
}
}
Output of the program:

RUN 1:

Enter the number of discs: 3

1: Move disk 1 from tower 1 to tower 3.

2: Move disk 2 from tower 1 to tower 2.
3: Move disk 1 from tower 3 to tower 2.
4: Move disk 3 from tower 1 to tower 3.
5: Move disk 1 from tower 2 to tower 1.
6: Move disk 2 from tower 2 to tower 3.
Move disk 1 from tower 1 to tower 3.

RUN 2:

Enter the number of discs: 4

1: Move disk 1 from tower 1 to tower 2.

2: Move disk 2 from tower 1 to tower 3.
3: Move disk 1 from tower 2 to tower 3.
4: Move disk 3 from tower 1 to tower 2.
5: Move disk 1 from tower 3 to tower 1.
6: Move disk 2 from tower 3 to tower 2.
7: Move disk 1 from tower 1 to tower 2.
8: Move disk 4 from tower 1 to tower 3.
Move disk 1 from tower 2 to tower 3.
Move disk 2 from tower 2 to tower 1.
Move disk 1 from tower 3 to tower 1.
Move disk 3 from tower 2 to tower 3.
Move disk 1 from tower 1 to tower 2.
Move disk 2 from tower 1 to tower 3.
Move disk 1 from tower 2 to tower 3.

Fibonacci Sequence Problem:

A Fibonacci sequence starts with the integers 0 and 1. Successive elements in this
sequence are obtained by summing the preceding two elements in the sequence. For
example, third number in the sequence is 0 + 1 = 1, fourth number is 1 + 1= 2, fifth
number is 1 + 2 = 3 and so on. The sequence of Fibonacci integers is given below:

0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 . . . . . . . . .
A recursive definition for the Fibonacci sequence of integers may be defined as follows:

Fib (n) = n if n = 0 or n = 1
Fib (n) = fib (n-1) + fib (n-2) for n >=2

We will now use the definition to compute fib(5):

fib(5) = fib(4) + fib(3)

fib(3) + fib(2) + fib(3)

fib(2) + fib(1) + fib(2) + fib(3)

fib(1) + fib(0) + fib(1) + fib(2) + fib(3)

1 + 0 + 1 + fib(1) + fib(0) + fib(3)

1 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 0 + fib(2) + fib(1)

1 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 0 + fib(1) + fib(0) +

fib(1) 1 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 1 = 5

We see that fib(2) is computed 3 times, and fib(3), 2 times in the above calculations.
We save the values of fib(2) or fib(3) and reuse them whenever needed.

A recursive function to compute the Fibonacci number in the nth position is given below:

main()
{
clrscr ();
printf (“=nfib(5) is %d”, fib(5));
}

fib(n)
int n;
{
int x;
if (n==0 | | n==1)
return n;
x=fib(n-1) + fib(n-2);
return (x);
}

Output:

fib(5) is 5
 Program using recursion to calculate the NCR of a given number:

#include<stdio.h>
float ncr (int n, int r);

void main()
{
int n, r, result;
printf(“Enter the value of N and R :”);
scanf(“%d %d”, &n, &r);
result = ncr(n, r);
printf(“The NCR value is %.3f”, result);
}

float ncr (int n, int r)

{
if(r == 0)
return 1;
else
return(n * 1.0 / r * ncr (n-1, r-1));

Output:

Enter the value of N and R: 5 2

The NCR value is: 10.00

Program to calculate the least common multiple of a given number:

#include<stdio.h>

int alone(int a[], int n);

long int lcm(int a[], int n, int prime);

void main()
{
int a[20], status, i, n, prime;
printf (“Enter the limit: “);
scanf(“%d”, &n);
printf (“Enter the numbers : “);
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
scanf(“%d”, &a[i]);
printf (“The least common multiple is %ld”, lcm(a, n, 2));
}

int alone (int a[], int n);

{
int k;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
if (a[k] != 1)
return 0;
return 1;
}
long int lcm (int a[], int n, int prime)
{
int i, status;
status = 0;
if (allone(a, n))
return 1;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if ((a[i] % prime) == 0)
{
status = 1;
a[i] = a[i] / prime;
}
if (status == 1)
return (prime * lcm(a, n, prime));
else
return (lcm (a, n, prime = (prime == 2) ? prime+1 : prime+2));
}

Output:

Enter the limit: 6

Enter the numbers: 6 5 4 3 2 1
The least common multiple is 60

Program to calculate the greatest common divisor:

#include<stdio.h>

int check_limit (int a[], int n, int prime);

int check_all (int a[], int n, int prime);
long int gcd (int a[], int n, int prime);

void main()
{
int a[20], stat, i, n, prime;
printf (“Enter the limit: “);
scanf (“%d”, &n);
printf (“Enter the numbers: “);
for (i = 0; i < n; i ++)
scanf (“%d”, &a[i]);
printf (“The greatest common divisor is %ld”, gcd (a, n, 2));
}

int check_limit (int a[], int n, int prime)

{
int i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) if
(prime > a[i])
return 1;
return 0;
}
int check_all (int a[], int n, int prime)
{
int i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if ((a[i] % prime) != 0)
return 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) a[i] =
a[i] / prime;
return 1;
}

long int gcd (int a[], int n, int prime)

{
int i;
if (check_limit(a, n, prime))
return 1;
if (check_all (a, n, prime))
return (prime * gcd (a, n, prime));
else
return (gcd (a, n, prime = (prime == 2) ? prime+1 : prime+2));
}

Output:

Enter the limit: 5

Enter the numbers: 99 55 22 77 121
The greatest common divisor is 11
Chapter
3
LINKED LISTS
In this chapter, the list data structure is presented. This structure can be used
as the basis for the implementation of other data structures (stacks, queues
etc.). The basic linked list can be used without modification in many programs.
However, some applications require enhancements to the linked list design.
These enhancements fall into three broad categories and yield variations on
linked lists that can be used in any combination: circular linked lists, double
linked lists and lists with header nodes.

Linked lists and arrays are similar since they both store collections of data. Array is the
most common data structure used to store collections of elements. Arrays are convenient
to declare and provide the easy syntax to access any element by its index number. Once
the array is set up, access to any element is convenient and fast. The disadvantages of
arrays are:

The size of the array is fixed. Most often this size is specified at compile time.
This makes the programmers to allocate arrays, which seems "large enough"
than required.

Inserting new elements at the front is potentially expensive because existing

elements need to be shifted over to make room.

Deleting an element from an array is not possible.

Linked lists have their own strengths and weaknesses, but they happen to be strong
where arrays are weak. Generally array's allocates the memory for all its elements in one
block whereas linked lists use an entirely different strategy. Linked lists allocate memory
for each element separately and only when necessary.

Here is a quick review of the terminology and rules of pointers. The linked list code
will depend on the following functions:

malloc() is a system function which allocates a block of memory in the "heap" and
returns a pointer to the new block. The prototype of malloc() and other heap functions
are in stdlib.h. malloc() returns NULL if it cannot fulfill the request. It is defined by:

void *malloc (number_of_bytes)

Since a void * is returned the C standard states that this pointer can be converted to
any type. For example,
char *cp;
cp = (char *) malloc (100);

Attempts to get 100 bytes and assigns the starting address to cp. We can also use the
sizeof() function to specify the number of bytes. For example,

int *ip;
ip = (int *) malloc (100*sizeof(int));
free() is the opposite of malloc(), which de-allocates memory. The argument to free() is
a pointer to a block of memory in the heap — a pointer which was obtained by a malloc()
function. The syntax is:

free (ptr);

The advantage of free() is simply memory management when we no longer need a block.

Linked List Concepts:

A linked list is a non-sequential collection of data items. It is a dynamic data structure.

For every data item in a linked list, there is an associated pointer that would give the
memory location of the next data item in the linked list.

The data items in the linked list are not in consecutive memory locations. They may be
anywhere, but the accessing of these data items is easier as each data item contains the
address of the next data item.

Advantages of linked lists:

Linked lists have many advantages. Some of the very important advantages are:

Linked lists are dynamic data structures. i.e., they can grow or shrink during
the execution of a program.
Linked lists have efficient memory utilization. Here, memory is not pre-
allocated. Memory is allocated whenever it is required and it is de-allocated
(removed) when it is no longer needed.
Insertion and Deletions are easier and efficient. Linked lists provide flexibility
in inserting a data item at a specified position and deletion of the data item
from the given position.
Many complex applications can be easily carried out with linked lists.

Disadvantages of linked lists:

It consumes more space because every node requires a additional pointer to

store address of the next node.
Searching a particular element in list is difficult and also time consuming.

Types of Linked Lists:

Basically we can put linked lists into the following four items:

Single Linked List.

Double Linked List.
Circular Linked List.
Circular Double Linked List.

A single linked list is one in which all nodes are linked together in some sequential
manner. Hence, it is also called as linear linked list.
A double linked list is one in which all nodes are linked together by multiple links which
helps in accessing both the successor node (next node) and predecessor node (previous
node) from any arbitrary node within the list. Therefore each node in a double linked list
has two link fields (pointers) to point to the left node (previous) and the right node (next).
This helps to traverse in forward direction and backward direction.

A circular linked list is one, which has no beginning and no end. A single linked list can
be made a circular linked list by simply storing address of the very first node in the link
field of the last node.

A circular double linked list is one, which has both the successor pointer and predecessor
pointer in the circular manner.

Comparison between array and linked list:

ARRAY LINKED LIST

Size of an array is fixed Size of a list is not fixed

Memory is allocated from stack Memory is allocated from heap

It is necessary to specify the number of It is not necessary to specify the

elements during declaration (i.e., during number of elements during declaration
compile time). (i.e., memory is allocated during run
time).
It occupies less memory than a linked It occupies more memory.
list for the same number of elements.
Inserting new elements at the front is Inserting a new element at any position
potentially expensive because existing can be carried out easily.
elements need to be shifted over to
make room.
Deleting an element from an array is Deleting an element is possible.
not possible.

Trade offs between linked lists and arrays:

FEATURE ARRAYS LINKED LISTS

Sequential access efficient efficient

Random access efficient inefficient

Resigning inefficient efficient

Element rearranging inefficient efficient

Overhead per elements none 1 or 2 links

Applications of linked list:

Linked lists are used to represent and manipulate polynomial. Polynomials are
expression containing terms with non zero coefficient and exponents. For
example:

P(x) = a0 Xn + a1 Xn-1 + …… + an-1 X + an

Represent very large numbers and operations of the large number such as
addition, multiplication and division.

Linked lists are to implement stack, queue, trees and graphs.

Implement the symbol table in compiler construction

Single Linked List:

A linked list allocates space for each element separately in its own block of memory called
a "node". The list gets an overall structure by using pointers to connect all its nodes
together like the links in a chain. Each node contains two fields; a "data" field to store
whatever element, and a "next" field which is a pointer used to link to the next node.
Each node is allocated in the heap using malloc(), so the node memory continues to exist
until it is explicitly de-allocated using free(). The front of the list is a pointer to the “start”
node.

A single linked list is shown in figure 3.2.1.

STACK HEAP

100
start
10 200 20 300 30 400 40 X
100 200 300 400
The start
pointer holds
Each node stores Stores the next
the address the data. node address. The next field of the
of the first last node is NULL.
node of
the list.

Figure 3.2.1. Single Linked List

The beginning of the linked list is stored in a "start" pointer which points to the first
node. The first node contains a pointer to the second node. The second node contains a
pointer to the third node, ... and so on. The last node in the list has its next field set to
NULL to mark the end of the list. Code can access any node in the list by starting at the
start and following the next pointers.

The start pointer is an ordinary local pointer variable, so it is drawn separately on the
left top to show that it is in the stack. The list nodes are drawn on the right to show that
they are allocated in the heap.
Implementation of Single Linked List:

Before writing the code to build the above list, we need to create a start node, used to
create and access other nodes in the linked list. The following structure definition will do
(see figure 3.2.2):

Creating a structure with one data item and a next pointer, which will be
pointing to next node of the list. This is called as self-referential structure.

Initialise the start pointer to be NULL.

struct slinklist
{
int data; node: data next
struct slinklist* next;
};

typedef struct slinklist node; start

Empty list: NULL
node *start = NULL;

Figure 3.2.2. Structure definition, single link node and empty list

The basic operations in a single linked list are:

Creation.
Insertion.
Deletion.
Traversing.

Creating a node for Single Linked List:

Creating a singly linked list starts with creating a node. Sufficient memory has to be
allocated for creating a node. The information is stored in the memory, allocated by using
the malloc() function. The function getnode(), is used for creating a node, after allocating
memory for the structure of type node, the information for the item (i.e., data) has to be
read from the user, set next field to NULL and finally returns the address of the node.
Figure 3.2.3 illustrates the creation of a node for single linked list.

node* getnode()
{ newnode
node* newnode;
newnode = (node *) malloc(sizeof(node));
10 X
printf("\n Enter data: "); 100
scanf("%d", &newnode -> data);
newnode -> next = NULL; return
newnode;
}

Figure 3.2.3. new node with a value of 10

Creating a Singly Linked List with ‘n’ number of nodes:

The following steps are to be followed to create ‘n’ number of nodes:

Get the new node using getnode().

newnode = getnode();

If the list is empty, assign new node as start.

start = newnode;

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

The next field of the new node is made to point the first node (i.e. start
node) in the list by assigning the address of the first node.

The start pointer is made to point the new node by assigning the
address of the new node.

Repeat the above steps ‘n’ times.

Figure 3.2.4 shows 4 items in a single linked list stored at different locations in
memory.

start
100

10 200 20 300 30 400 40 X

100 200 300 400

Figure 3.2.4. Single Linked List with 4 nodes

The function createlist(), is used to create ‘n’ number of nodes:

vo id createlist(int n)
{
int i;
no de * new no
de; no de *tem p;
for(i = 0; i < n ; i+ +)
{
new no de = getno de();
if(start = = NULL)
{
start = new no de;
}
else
{
tem p = start;
w hile(tem p - > next != NULL)
tem p = tem p - > next;
tem p - > next = new no de;
}
}
}
Insertion of a Node:

One of the most primitive operations that can be done in a singly linked list is the insertion
of a node. Memory is to be allocated for the new node (in a similar way that is done while
creating a list) before reading the data. The new node will contain empty data field and
empty next field. The data field of the new node is then stored with the information read
from the user. The next field of the new node is assigned to NULL. The new node can
then be inserted at three different places namely:

Inserting a node at the beginning.

Inserting a node at the end.
Inserting a node at intermediate position.

Inserting a node at the beginning:

The following steps are to be followed to insert a new node at the beginning of the list:

Get the new node using getnode().

newnode = getnode();

If the list is empty then start = newnode.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

newnode -> next = start;
start = newnode;

Figure 3.2.5 shows inserting a node into the single linked list at the beginning.

start
500

10 200 20 300 30 400 40 X

100 200 300 400

5 100
500

Figure 3.2.5. Inserting a node at the beginning

The function insert_at_beg(), is used for inserting a node at the beginning

void insert_at_beg()
{
node *newnode;
newnode = getnode();
if(start == NULL)
{
start = newnode;
}
else
{
newnode -> next =
start; start = newnode;
}
}
Inserting a node at the end:

The following steps are followed to insert a new node at the end of the list:

Get the new node using getnode()

newnode = getnode();

If the list is empty then start = newnode.

If the list is not empty follow the steps given below:

temp = start;
while(temp -> next != NULL)
temp = temp -> next;
temp -> next = newnode;

Figure 3.2.6 shows inserting a node into the single linked list at the end.

start
100

10 200 20 300 30 400 40 500

100 200 300 400

50 X
500

Figure 3.2.6. Inserting a node at the end.

The function insert_at_end(), is used for inserting a node at the end.

void insert_at_end()
{
node *newnode, *temp;
newnode = getnode();
if(start == NULL)
{
start = newnode;
}
else
{
temp = start;
while(temp -> next != NULL)
temp = temp -> next;
temp -> next = newnode;
}
}

Inserting a node at intermediate position:

The following steps are followed, to insert a new node in an intermediate position in the
list:

• Get the new node using getnode().

newnode = getnode();
 Ensure that the specified position is in between first node and last node. If
not, specified position is invalid. This is done by countnode() function.

Store the starting address (which is in start pointer) in temp and prev pointers.
Then traverse the temp pointer upto the specified position followed by prev
pointer.

After reaching the specified position, follow the steps given below:
prev -> next = newnode;
newnode -> next = temp;

Let the intermediate position be 3.

Figure 3.2.7 shows inserting a node into the single linked list at a specified intermediate
position other than beginning and end.

start prev temp

100

10 200 20 500 30 400 40 X

100 200 300 400

50 300
500 new node

Figure 3.2.7. Inserting a node at an intermediate position.

The function insert_at_mid(), is used for inserting a node in the intermediate position.

void insert_at_mid()
{
node *newnode, *temp, *prev;
int pos, nodectr, ctr = 1;
newnode = getnode();
printf("\n Enter the position: ");
scanf("%d", &pos);
nodectr = countnode(start);
if(pos > 1 && pos < nodectr)
{
temp = prev = start;
while(ctr < pos)
{
prev = temp;
temp = temp ->
next; ctr++;
}
prev -> next = newnode;
newnode -> next = temp;
}
else
{
printf("position %d is not a middle position", pos);
}
}
Deletion of a node:

Another primitive operation that can be done in a singly linked list is the deletion of a
node. Memory is to be released for the node to be deleted. A node can be deleted from
the list from three different places namely.

Deleting a node at the beginning.

Deleting a node at the end.
Deleting a node at intermediate position.

Deleting a node at the beginning:

The following steps are followed, to delete a node at the beginning of the list:

If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

temp = start;
start = start -> next;
free(temp);

Figure 3.2.8 shows deleting a node at the beginning of a single linked list.

start
200

10 200 20 300 30 400 40

X
100 200 300 400
temp

Figure 3.2.8. Deleting a node at the beginning.

The function delete_at_beg(), is used for deleting the first node in the list.

void delete_at_beg()
{
node *temp;
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n No nodes are exist..");
return ;
}
else
{
temp = start;
start = temp -> next;
free(temp);
printf("\n Node deleted ");
}
}
Deleting a node at the end:

The following steps are followed to delete a node at the end of the list:

If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

temp = prev = start;

while(temp -> next != NULL)
{
prev = temp;
temp = temp -> next;
}
prev -> next = NULL;
free(temp);

Figure 3.2.9 shows deleting a node at the end of a single linked list.

start
100

10 200 20 300 30 X 40 X
100 200 300 400

Figure 3.2.9. Deleting a node at the end.

The function delete_at_last(), is used for deleting the last node in the list.

void delete_at_last()
{
node *temp, *prev;
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n Empty
List.."); return ;
}
else
{
temp = start;
prev = start;
while(temp -> next != NULL)
{
prev = temp;
temp = temp -> next;
}
prev -> next = NULL;
free(temp);
printf("\n Node deleted ");
}
}
Deleting a node at Intermediate position:

The following steps are followed, to delete a node from an intermediate position in the
list (List must contain more than two node).

If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below.

if(pos > 1 && pos < nodectr)
{
temp = prev = start;
ctr = 1;
while(ctr < pos)
{
prev = temp;
temp = temp -> next;
ctr++;
}
prev -> next = temp -> next;
free(temp);
printf("\n node deleted..");
}

Figure 3.2.10 shows deleting a node at a specified intermediate position other than
beginning and end from a single linked list.

start
100

10 300 20 300 30 400 40 X

100 200 300 400

Figure 3.2.10. Deleting a node at an intermediate position.

The function delete_at_mid(), is used for deleting the intermediate node in the list.

void delete_at_mid()
{
int ctr = 1, pos,
nodectr; node *temp,
*prev; if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n Empty
List.."); return ;
}
else
{
printf("\n Enter position of node to delete: ");
scanf("%d", &pos);
nodectr = countnode(start);
if(pos > nodectr)
{
printf("\nThis node doesnot exist");
}
 if(pos > 1 && pos < nodectr)
{
temp = prev = start;
while(ctr < pos)
{
prev = temp;
temp = temp ->
next; ctr ++;
}
prev -> next = temp -> next;
free(temp);
printf("\n Node deleted..");
}
else
{
printf("\n Invalid position..");
getch();
}

}
}

Traversal and displaying a list (Left to Right):

To display the information, you have to traverse (move) a linked list, node by node from
the first node, until the end of the list is reached. Traversing a list involves the following
steps:

Assign the address of start pointer to a temp pointer.

Display the information from the data field of each node.

The function traverse() is used for traversing and displaying the information stored in
the list from left to right.

void traverse()
{
node *temp;
temp = start;
printf("\n The contents of List (Left to Right):
\n"); if(start == NULL )
printf("\n Empty List");
else
{
while (temp != NULL)
{
printf("%d ->", temp ->
data); temp = temp -> next;
}
}
printf("X");
}

Alternatively there is another way to traverse and display the information. That is in
reverse order. The function rev_traverse(), is used for traversing and displaying the
information stored in the list from right to left.
 vo id rev_traverse(no de *st)
{
if(st = = NULL)
{
return;
}
else
{
rev_traverse(st - > next);
printf("%d - >", st - > data);
}
}

Counting the Number of Nodes:

The following code will count the number of nodes exist in the list using recursion.

int co untno de(no de *st)

{
if(st = = NULL)
return 0;
else
return(1 + co untno de(st - > next));
}

Source Code for the Implementation of Single Linked List:

include <stdio.h>
include <conio.h>
include <stdlib.h>

struct slinklist
{
int data;
struct slinklist *next;
};

typedef struct slinklist node;

node *start = NULL;

int menu()
{
int ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n 1.Create a list ");
printf("\n--------------------------");
printf("\n 2.Insert a node at beginning ");
printf("\n 3.Insert a node at end");
printf("\n 4.Insert a node at middle");
printf("\n--------------------------");
printf("\n 5.Delete a node from beginning");
printf("\n 6.Delete a node from Last");
printf("\n 7.Delete a node from Middle");
printf("\n--------------------------");
printf("\n 8.Traverse the list (Left to Right)");
printf("\n 9.Traverse the list (Right to Left)");
 printf("\n--------------------------");
printf("\n 10. Count nodes ");
printf("\n 11. Exit ");
printf("\n\n Enter your choice: ");
scanf("%d",&ch);
return ch;
}

node* getnode()
{
node * newnode;
newnode = (node *) malloc(sizeof(node));
printf("\n Enter data: ");
scanf("%d", &newnode -> data);
newnode -> next = NULL; return
newnode;
}

int countnode(node *ptr)

{
int count=0;
while(ptr != NULL)
{
count++;
ptr = ptr -> next;
}
return (count);
}

void createlist(int n)
{
int i;
node *newnode;
node *temp;
for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
newnode = getnode();
if(start == NULL)
{
start = newnode;
}
else
{
temp = start;
while(temp -> next != NULL)
temp = temp -> next;
temp -> next = newnode;
}
}
}

void traverse()
{
node *temp;
temp = start;
printf("\n The contents of List (Left to Right): \n");
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n Empty List");
return;
}
else
{
 while(temp != NULL)
{
printf("%d-->", temp ->
data); temp = temp -> next;
}
}
printf(" X ");
}

void rev_traverse(node *start)

{
if(start == NULL)
{
return;
}
else
{
rev_traverse(start -> next);
printf("%d -->", start -> data);
}
}

void insert_at_beg()
{
node *newnode;
newnode = getnode();
if(start == NULL)
{
start = newnode;
}
else
{
newnode -> next =
start; start = newnode;
}
}

void insert_at_end()
{
node *newnode, *temp;
newnode = getnode();
if(start == NULL)
{
start = newnode;
}
else
{
temp = start;
while(temp -> next != NULL)
temp = temp -> next;
temp -> next = newnode;
}
}

void insert_at_mid()
{
node *newnode, *temp, *prev;
int pos, nodectr, ctr = 1;
newnode = getnode();
printf("\n Enter the position: ");
scanf("%d", &pos);
nodectr = countnode(start);
 if(pos > 1 && pos < nodectr)
{
temp = prev = start;
while(ctr < pos)
{
prev = temp;
temp = temp ->
next; ctr++;
}
prev -> next = newnode;
newnode -> next = temp;
}
else
printf("position %d is not a middle position", pos);
}

void delete_at_beg()
{
node *temp;
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n No nodes are exist..");
return ;
}
else
{
temp = start;
start = temp -> next;
free(temp);
printf("\n Node deleted ");
}
}

void delete_at_last()
{
node *temp, *prev;
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n Empty
List.."); return ;
}
else
{
temp = start;
prev = start;
while(temp -> next != NULL)
{
prev = temp;
temp = temp -> next;
}
prev -> next = NULL;
free(temp);
printf("\n Node deleted ");
}
}

void delete_at_mid()
{
int ctr = 1, pos,
nodectr; node *temp,
*prev; if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n Empty List..");
 return ;
}
else
{
printf("\n Enter position of node to delete: ");
scanf("%d", &pos);
nodectr = countnode(start);
if(pos > nodectr)
{
printf("\nThis node doesnot exist");

}
if(pos > 1 && pos < nodectr)
{
temp = prev = start;
while(ctr < pos)
{
prev = temp;
temp = temp ->
next; ctr ++;
}
prev -> next = temp -> next;
free(temp);
printf("\n Node deleted..");
}
else
{
printf("\n Invalid position..");
getch();
}
}
}

void main(void)
{
int ch, n;
clrscr();
while(1)
{
ch = menu();
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n Number of nodes you want to create: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
createlist(n);
printf("\n List created..");
}
else
printf("\n List is already created..");
break;
case 2:
insert_at_beg();
break;
case 3:
insert_at_end();
break;
case 4:
insert_at_mid();
break;
 case 5:
delete_at_beg();
break;
case 6:
delete_at_last();
break;
case 7:
delete_at_mid();
break;
case 8:
traverse();
break;
case 9:
printf("\n The contents of List (Right to Left): \n");
rev_traverse(start);
printf(" X ");
break;
case 10:
printf("\n No of nodes : %d ", countnode(start));
break;
case 11 :
exit(0);
}
getch();
}
}

Using a header node:

A header node is a special dummy node found at the front of the list. The use of header
node is an alternative to remove the first node in a list. For example, the picture below
shows how the list with data 10, 20 and 30 would be represented using a linked list
without and with a header node:

sta rt
100

10 200 20 300 30 X
100 200 300

Single Linke d List w it ho ut a he a der no de

sta rt
400

100 10 200 20 300 30 X

400 100 200 300

Single Linke d List w it h he a der no de

Note that if your linked lists do include a header node, there is no need for the special
case code given above for the remove operation; node n can never be the first node in
the list, so there is no need to check for that case. Similarly, having a header node can
simplify the code that adds a node before a given node n.
Note that if you do decide to use a header node, you must remember to initialize an
empty list to contain one (dummy) node, you must remember not to include the header
node in the count of "real" nodes in the list.

It is also useful when information other than that found in each node of the list is needed.
For example, imagine an application in which the number of items in a list is often
calculated. In a standard linked list, the list function to count the number of nodes has
to traverse the entire list every time. However, if the current length is maintained in a
header node, that information can be obtained very quickly.

Array based linked lists:

Another alternative is to allocate the nodes in blocks. In fact, if you know the maximum
size of a list a head of time, you can pre-allocate the nodes in a single array. The result
is a hybrid structure – an array based linked list. Figure 3.5.1 shows an example of null
terminated single linked list where all the nodes are allocated contiguously in an array.

start
100 a
b
a 200 b 300 c X
100 200 300 c

Conceptual structure d

Implementation

Figure 3.5.1. An array based linked list

Double Linked List:

A double linked list is a two-way list in which all nodes will have two links. This helps in
accessing both successor node and predecessor node from the given node position. It
provides bi-directional traversing. Each node contains three fields:

Left link.
Data.
Right link.

The left link points to the predecessor node and the right link points to the successor
node. The data field stores the required data.

Many applications require searching forward and backward thru nodes of a list.
For example searching for a name in a telephone directory would need forward
and backward scanning thru a region of the whole list.

The basic operations in a double linked list are:

Creation.
Insertion.
Deletion.
Traversing.
A double linked list is shown in figure 3.3.1.

STACK HEAP
Stores the previous
node address.
100
start
X 10 200 100 20 300 200 30 X
100 200 300
The start
pointer holds
the address Stores the data. Stores the next The right field of the
of the first node address. last node is NULL.
node of the
list.

Figure 3.3.1. Double Linked List

The beginning of the double linked list is stored in a "start" pointer which points to the
first node. The first node’s left link and last node’s right link is set to NULL.

The following code gives the structure definition:

struct dlinklist
{ node: left data right
struct dlinklist *left;
int data;
struct dlinklist *right;

}; start

typedef struct dlinklist node; Empty list: NULL

node *start = NULL;

Figure 3.4.1. Structure definition, double link node and empty list

Creating a node for Double Linked List:

Creating a double linked list starts with creating a node. Sufficient memory has to be
allocated for creating a node. The information is stored in the memory, allocated by using
the malloc() function. The function getnode(), is used for creating a node, after allocating
memory for the structure of type node, the information for the item (i.e., data) has to be
read from the user and set left field to NULL and right field also set to NULL (see figure
3.2.2).

node* getnode()
{
node* newnode;
newnode = (node *) malloc(sizeof(node)); newnode
printf("\n Enter data: "); X 10 X
scanf("%d", &newnode -> data);
100
newnode -> left = NULL;
newnode -> right = NULL;
return newnode;
}
Figure 3.4.2. new node with a value of 10
Creating a Double Linked List with ‘n’ number of nodes:

The following steps are to be followed to create ‘n’ number of nodes:

Get the new node using getnode().

newnode =getnode();

If the list is empty then start = newnode.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

The left field of the new node is made to point the previous node.

The previous nodes right field must be assigned with address of the
new node.

Repeat the above steps ‘n’ times.

The function createlist(), is used to create ‘n’ number of nodes:

void createlist(int n)
{
int i;
node * newnode;
node *temp;
for(i = 0; i < n; i+ +)
{
newnode = getnode();
if(start = = NULL)
{
start = newnode;
}
else
{
temp = start;
while(temp - > right)
temp = temp - > right;
temp - > right = newnode; new
newnode - > left = temp;
}
}
}

Figure 3.4.3 shows 3 items in a double linked list stored at different locations.

Start
100

X 10 200 100 20 300 200 30 X

100 200 300

Figure 3.4.3. Double Linked List with 3 nodes

Inserting a node at the beginning:

The following steps are to be followed to insert a new node at the beginning of the list:

Get the new node using getnode().

newnode=getnode();

If the list is empty then start = newnode.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

newnode -> right = start;

start -> left = newnode;
start = newnode;

The function dbl_insert_beg(), is used for inserting a node at the beginning. Figure
3.4.4 shows inserting a node into the double linked list at the beginning.

start
400

400 10 200 100 20 300 200 30 X

100 200 300

X 40 100
400

Figure 3.4.4. Inserting a node at the beginning

Inserting a node at the end:

The following steps are followed to insert a new node at the end of the list:

Get the new node using getnode()

newnode=getnode();

If the list is empty then start = newnode.

If the list is not empty follow the steps given below:

temp = start;
while(temp -> right != NULL)
temp = temp -> right;
temp -> right = newnode;
newnode -> left = temp;

The function dbl_insert_end(), is used for inserting a node at the end. Figure 3.4.5
shows inserting a node into the double linked list at the end.
 Start
100

X 10 200 100 20 300 200 30 400

100 200 300

300 40 X
400

Figure 3.4.5. Inserting a node at the end

Inserting a node at an intermediate position:

The following steps are followed, to insert a new node in an intermediate position in the
list:

Get the new node using getnode().

newnode=getnode();

Ensure that the specified position is in between first node and last node. If
not, specified position is invalid. This is done by countnode() function.

Store the starting address (which is in start pointer) in temp and prev pointers.
Then traverse the temp pointer upto the specified position followed by prev
pointer.

After reaching the specified position, follow the steps given below:

newnode -> left = temp; newnode

-> right = temp -> right; temp ->
right -> left = newnode; temp ->
right = newnode;

The function dbl_insert_mid(), is used for inserting a node in the intermediate position.
Figure 3.4.6 shows inserting a node into the double linked list at a specified intermediate
position other than beginning and end.

Start
100 40 200
100
400
400 20 300
X 10 400
200
100

200 30 X
300
Figure 3.4.6. Inserting a node at an intermediate position
Deleting a node at the beginning:

The following steps are followed, to delete a node at the beginning of the list:

If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

temp = start;
start = start -> right;
start -> left = NULL;
free(temp);

The function dbl_delete_beg(), is used for deleting the first node in the list. Figure
3.4.6 shows deleting a node at the beginning of a double linked list.

Start
200

X 10 200 X 20 300 200 30 X

100 200 300

Figure 3.4.6. Deleting a node at beginning

Deleting a node at the end:

The following steps are followed to delete a node at the end of the list:
If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

temp = start;
while(temp -> right != NULL)
{
temp = temp -> right;
}
temp -> left -> right = NULL;
free(temp);

The function dbl_delete_last(), is used for deleting the last node in the list. Figure 3.4.7
shows deleting a node at the end of a double linked list.

start
100

X 10 200 100 20 X 20030 X

100 200 300

Figure 3.4.7. Deleting a node at the end

Deleting a node at Intermediate position:

The following steps are followed, to delete a node from an intermediate position in the
list (List must contain more than two nodes).

If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

Get the position of the node to delete.

Ensure that the specified position is in between first node and last node.
If not, specified position is invalid.

Then perform the following steps:

if(pos > 1 && pos < nodectr)
{
temp = start;
i = 1;
while(i < pos)
{
temp = temp -> right;
i++;
}
temp -> right -> left = temp -> left;
temp -> left -> right = temp -> right;
free(temp);
printf("\n node deleted..");
}

The function delete_at_mid(), is used for deleting the intermediate node in the list. Figure
3.4.8 shows deleting a node at a specified intermediate position other than beginning
and end from a double linked list.

Start
100

X 10 300 100 20 300 100 30 X

100 200 300

Figure 3.4.8 Deleting a node at an intermediate position

Traversal and displaying a list (Left to Right):

To display the information, you have to traverse the list, node by node from the first
node, until the end of the list is reached. The function traverse_left_right() is used for
traversing and displaying the information stored in the list from left to right.

The following steps are followed, to traverse a list from left to right:

If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

 temp = start;
while(temp != NULL)
{
print temp -> data;
temp = temp -> right;
}

Traversal and displaying a list (Right to Left):

To display the information from right to left, you have to traverse the list, node by node
from the first node, until the end of the list is reached. The function traverse_right_left()
is used for traversing and displaying the information stored in the list from right to left.
The following steps are followed, to traverse a list from right to left:

If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

temp = start;
while(temp -> right != NULL)
temp = temp -> right;
while(temp != NULL)
{
print temp -> data;
temp = temp -> left;
}

Counting the Number of Nodes:

The following code will count the number of nodes exist in the list (using recursion).

int countnode(node *start)

{
if(start = = NULL)
return 0;
else
return(1 + countnode(start - >right ));
}

A Complete Source Code for the Implementation of Double Linked List:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <conio.h>

struct dlinklist
{
struct dlinklist *left;
int data;
struct dlinklist *right;
};

typedef struct dlinklist node;

node *start = NULL;
node* getnode()
{
node * newnode;
newnode = (node *) malloc(sizeof(node));
printf("\n Enter data: ");
scanf("%d", &newnode -> data);
newnode -> left = NULL;
newnode -> right = NULL;
return newnode;
}

int countnode(node *start)

{
if(start == NULL)
return 0;
else
return 1 + countnode(start -> right);
}

int menu()
{
int ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n 1.Create");
printf("\n------------------------------");
printf("\n 2. Insert a node at beginning ");
printf("\n 3. Insert a node at end");
printf("\n 4. Insert a node at middle");
printf("\n------------------------------");
printf("\n 5. Delete a node from beginning");
printf("\n 6. Delete a node from Last");
printf("\n 7. Delete a node from Middle");
printf("\n------------------------------");
printf("\n 8. Traverse the list from Left to Right ");
printf("\n 9. Traverse the list from Right to Left ");
printf("\n------------------------------");
printf("\n 10.Count the Number of nodes in the list");
printf("\n 11.Exit ");
printf("\n\n Enter your choice: ");
scanf("%d", &ch);
return ch;
}

void createlist(int n)
{
int i;
node *newnode;
node *temp;
for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
newnode = getnode();
if(start == NULL)
start = newnode;
else
{
temp = start;
while(temp -> right)
temp = temp -> right;
temp -> right = newnode;
newnode -> left = temp;
}
}
}
void traverse_left_to_right()
{
node *temp;
temp = start;
printf("\n The contents of List:
"); if(start == NULL )
printf("\n Empty List");
else
{
while(temp != NULL)
{
printf("\t %d ", temp -> data);
temp = temp -> right;
}
}
}
void traverse_right_to_left()
{
node *temp;
temp = start;
printf("\n The contents of List:
"); if(start == NULL)
printf("\n Empty List");
else
{
while(temp -> right != NULL)
temp = temp -> right;
}
while(temp != NULL)
{
printf("\t%d", temp ->
data); temp = temp -> left;
}
}
void dll_insert_beg()
{
node *newnode;
newnode = getnode();
if(start == NULL)
start = newnode;
else
{
newnode -> right = start;
start -> left = newnode;
start = newnode;
}
}

void dll_insert_end()
{
node *newnode, *temp;
newnode = getnode();
if(start == NULL)
start = newnode;
else
{
temp = start;
while(temp -> right != NULL)
temp = temp -> right;
temp -> right = newnode;
newnode -> left = temp;
}
}
void dll_insert_mid()
{
node *newnode,*temp;
int pos, nodectr, ctr = 1;
newnode = getnode();
printf("\n Enter the position: ");
scanf("%d", &pos);
nodectr = countnode(start);
if(pos - nodectr >= 2)
{
printf("\n Position is out of range..");
return;
}
if(pos > 1 && pos < nodectr)
{
temp = start;
while(ctr < pos - 1)
{
temp = temp -> right;
ctr++;
}
newnode -> left = temp; newnode
-> right = temp -> right; temp ->
right -> left = newnode; temp ->
right = newnode;
}
else
printf("position %d of list is not a middle position ", pos);
}

void dll_delete_beg()
{
node *temp;
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n Empty
list"); getch();
return ;
}
else
{
temp = start;
start = start -> right;
start -> left = NULL;
free(temp);
}
}

void dll_delete_last()
{
node *temp;
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n Empty
list"); getch();
return ;
}
else
{
temp = start;
while(temp -> right != NULL)
 temp = temp -> right;
temp -> left -> right = NULL;
free(temp);
temp = NULL;
}
}

void dll_delete_mid()
{
int i = 0, pos, nodectr;
node *temp;
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n Empty List");
getch();
return;
}
else
{
printf("\n Enter the position of the node to delete: ");
scanf("%d", &pos);
nodectr = countnode(start);
if(pos > nodectr)
{
printf("\nthis node does not
exist"); getch();
return;
}
if(pos > 1 && pos < nodectr)
{
temp =
start; i = 1;
while(i < pos)
{
temp = temp -> right;
i++;
}
temp -> right -> left = temp -> left;
temp -> left -> right = temp -> right;
free(temp);
printf("\n node deleted..");
}
else
{
printf("\n It is not a middle position..");
getch();
}
}
}

void main(void)
{
int ch, n;
clrscr();
while(1)
{
ch = menu();
switch( ch)
{
case 1 :
printf("\n Enter Number of nodes to create: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
createlist(n);
 printf("\n List
created.."); break;
case 2 :
dll_insert_beg();
break;
case 3 :
dll_insert_end();
break;
case 4 :
dll_insert_mid();
break;
case 5 :
dll_delete_beg();
break;
case 6 : dll_delete_last();
break;

case 7 :
dll_delete_mid();
break;
case 8 :
traverse_left_to_right();
break;
case 9 :
traverse_right_to_left();
break;

case 10 :
printf("\n Number of nodes: %d", countnode(start));
break;
case 11:
exit(0);
}
getch();
}
}

Circular Single Linked List:

It is just a single linked list in which the link field of the last node points back to the
address of the first node. A circular linked list has no beginning and no end. It is necessary
to establish a special pointer called start pointer always pointing to the first node of the
list. Circular linked lists are frequently used instead of ordinary linked list because many
operations are much easier to implement. In circular linked list no null pointers are used,
hence all pointers contain valid address.

A circular single linked list is shown in figure 3.6.1.

start
100

10 200 20 300 30 400 40 100

100 200 300 400

Figure 3.6.1. Circular Single Linked List

The basic operations in a circular single linked list are:

Creation.
Insertion.
Deletion.
Traversing.

Creating a circular single Linked List with ‘n’ number of nodes:

The following steps are to be followed to create ‘n’ number of nodes:

Get the new node using getnode().

newnode = getnode();

If the list is empty, assign new node as start.

start = newnode;

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

temp = start;
while(temp -> next != NULL)
temp = temp -> next;
temp -> next = newnode;

Repeat the above steps ‘n’ times.

newnode -> next = start;

The function createlist(), is used to create ‘n’ number of nodes:

Inserting a node at the beginning:

The following steps are to be followed to insert a new node at the beginning of the
circular list:

Get the new node using getnode().

newnode = getnode();

If the list is empty, assign new node as start.

start = newnode; newnode

-> next = start;

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

last = start;
while(last -> next != start)
last = last -> next;
newnode -> next =
start; start = newnode;
last -> next = start;
The function cll_insert_beg(), is used for inserting a node at the beginning. Figure 3.6.2
shows inserting a node into the circular single linked list at the beginning.

start
500

10 200 20 300 30 400 40 500

100 200 300 400

5 100
500

Figure 3.6.2. Inserting a node at the beginning

Inserting a node at the end:

The following steps are followed to insert a new node at the end of the list:

Get the new node using getnode().

newnode = getnode();

If the list is empty, assign new node as start.

start = newnode; newnode

-> next = start;

If the list is not empty follow the steps given below:

temp = start;
while(temp -> next != start)
temp = temp -> next;
temp -> next = newnode;
newnode -> next = start;

The function cll_insert_end(), is used for inserting a node at the end.

Figure 3.6.3 shows inserting a node into the circular single linked list at the end.

start
100

10 200 20 300 30 400 40 500

100 200 300 400

50 100
500

Figure 3.6.3 Inserting a node at the end.

Deleting a node at the beginning:

The following steps are followed, to delete a node at the beginning of the list:

If the list is empty, display a message ‘Empty List’.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

last = temp = start;

while(last -> next != start)
last = last -> next;
start = start -> next;
last -> next = start;

After deleting the node, if the list is empty then start = NULL.

The function cll_delete_beg(), is used for deleting the first node in the list. Figure 3.6.4
shows deleting a node at the beginning of a circular single linked list.

start
200

10 200 20 300 30 400 40 200

100 200 300 400
temp

Figure 3.6.4. Deleting a node at beginning.

Deleting a node at the end:

The following steps are followed to delete a node at the end of the list:

If the list is empty, display a message ‘Empty List’.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

temp = start;
prev = start;
while(temp -> next != start)
{
prev = temp;
temp = temp -> next;
}
prev -> next = start;

After deleting the node, if the list is empty then start = NULL.

The function cll_delete_last(), is used for deleting the last node in the list.
Figure 3.6.5 shows deleting a node at the end of a circular single linked list.

start
100

10 200 20 300 30 100 40 100

100 200 300 400

Figure 3.6.5. Deleting a node at the end.

Traversing a circular single linked list from left to right:

The following steps are followed, to traverse a list from left to right:

If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

temp = start;
do
{
printf("%d ", temp -> data);
temp = temp -> next;
} while(temp != start);

Source Code for Circular Single Linked List:

include <stdio.h>
include <conio.h>
include <stdlib.h>

struct cslinklist
{
int data;
struct cslinklist *next;
};

typedef struct cslinklist node;

node *start = NULL;

int nodectr;

node* getnode()
{
node * newnode;
newnode = (node *) malloc(sizeof(node));
printf("\n Enter data: ");
scanf("%d", &newnode -> data);
newnode -> next = NULL; return
newnode;
}
int menu()
{
int ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n 1. Create a list ");
printf("\n\n--------------------------");
printf("\n 2. Insert a node at beginning ");
printf("\n 3. Insert a node at end");
printf("\n 4. Insert a node at middle");
printf("\n\n--------------------------");
printf("\n 5. Delete a node from beginning");
printf("\n 6. Delete a node from Last");
printf("\n 7. Delete a node from Middle");
printf("\n\n--------------------------");
printf("\n 8. Display the list");
printf("\n 9. Exit");
printf("\n\n--------------------------");
printf("\n Enter your choice:
"); scanf("%d", &ch);
return ch;
}

void createlist(int n)
{
int i;
node *newnode;
node *temp;
nodectr = n;
for(i = 0; i < n ; i++)
{
newnode = getnode();
if(start == NULL)
{
start = newnode;
}
else
{
temp = start;
while(temp -> next != NULL)
temp = temp -> next;
temp -> next = newnode;
}
}
newnode ->next = start; /* last node is pointing to starting node */
}

void display()
{
node *temp;
temp = start;
printf("\n The contents of List (Left to Right): ");
if(start == NULL )
printf("\n Empty List");
else
{
do
{
printf("\t %d ", temp -> data);
temp = temp -> next;
} while(temp !=
start); printf(" X ");
}
}
void cll_insert_beg()
{
node *newnode, *last;
newnode = getnode();
if(start == NULL)
{
start = newnode; newnode
-> next = start;
}
else
{
last = start;
while(last -> next != start)
last = last -> next;
newnode -> next =
start; start = newnode;
last -> next = start;
}
printf("\n Node inserted at beginning..");
nodectr++;
}

void cll_insert_end()
{
node *newnode, *temp;
newnode = getnode();
if(start == NULL )
{
start = newnode; newnode
-> next = start;
}
else
{
temp = start;
while(temp -> next != start)
temp = temp -> next;
temp -> next = newnode;
newnode -> next = start;
}
printf("\n Node inserted at end..");
nodectr++;
}

void cll_insert_mid()
{
node *newnode, *temp, *prev;
int i, pos ;
newnode = getnode(); printf("\n
Enter the position: ");
scanf("%d", &pos);
if(pos > 1 && pos < nodectr)
{
temp = start;
prev = temp;
i = 1;
while(i < pos)
{
prev = temp;
temp = temp ->
next; i++;
}
prev -> next = newnode;
newnode -> next = temp;
 nodectr++;
printf("\n Node inserted at middle..");
}
else
{
printf("position %d of list is not a middle position ", pos);
}
}

void cll_delete_beg()
{
node *temp, *last;
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n No nodes
exist.."); getch();
return ;
}
else
{
last = temp = start;
while(last -> next != start)
last = last -> next;
start = start -> next;
last -> next = start;
free(temp);
nodectr--;
printf("\n Node deleted..");
if(nodectr == 0)
start = NULL;
}
}

void cll_delete_last()
{
node *temp,*prev;
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n No nodes
exist.."); getch();
return ;
}
else
{
temp = start;
prev = start;
while(temp -> next != start)
{
prev = temp;
temp = temp -> next;
}
prev -> next = start;
free(temp); nodectr-
-;
if(nodectr == 0) start
= NULL;
printf("\n Node deleted..");
}
}
void cll_delete_mid()
{
int i = 0, pos;
node *temp, *prev;

if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n No nodes
exist.."); getch();
return ;
}
else
{
printf("\n Which node to delete: ");
scanf("%d", &pos);
if(pos > nodectr)
{
printf("\nThis node does not
exist"); getch();
return;
}
if(pos > 1 && pos < nodectr)
{
temp=start;
prev = start;
i = 0;
while(i < pos - 1)
{
prev = temp;
temp = temp -> next ;
i++;
}
prev -> next = temp -> next;
free(temp);
nodectr--;
printf("\n Node Deleted..");
}
else
{
printf("\n It is not a middle position..");
getch();
}
}
}

void main(void)
{
int result;
int ch, n;
clrscr();
while(1)
{
ch = menu();
switch(ch)
{
case 1 :
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n Enter Number of nodes to create: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
createlist(n);
printf("\nList created..");
}
 else
printf("\n List is already Exist..");
break;
case 2 :
cll_insert_beg();
break;
case 3 :
cll_insert_end();
break;
case 4 :
cll_insert_mid();
break;
case 5 :
cll_delete_beg();
break;
case 6 : cll_delete_last();
break;

case 7 :
cll_delete_mid();
break;
case 8 :
display();
break;
case 9 :
exit(0);
}
getch();
}
}

Circular Double Linked List:

A circular double linked list has both successor pointer and predecessor pointer in circular
manner. The objective behind considering circular double linked list is to simplify the
insertion and deletion operations performed on double linked list. In circular double linked
list the right link of the right most node points back to the start node and left link of the
first node points to the last node. A circular double linked list is shown in figure 3.8.1.

100

start 300 10 200 100 20 300 200 30 100

100 200 300

Figure 3.8.1. Circular Double Linked List

The basic operations in a circular double linked list are:

Creation.
Insertion.
Deletion.
Traversing.
Creating a Circular Double Linked List with ‘n’ number of nodes:

The following steps are to be followed to create ‘n’ number of nodes:

Get the new node using getnode().

newnode = getnode();

If the list is empty, then do the following

start = newnode;
newnode -> left = start;
newnode ->right = start;

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

newnode -> left = start -> left;
newnode -> right = start; start
-> left->right = newnode; start
-> left = newnode;

Repeat the above steps ‘n’ times.

The function cdll_createlist(), is used to create ‘n’ number of nodes:

Inserting a node at the beginning:

The following steps are to be followed to insert a new node at the beginning of the list:

Get the new node using getnode().

newnode=getnode();

If the list is empty, then

start = newnode;
newnode -> left = start;
newnode -> right = start;

• If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

newnode -> left = start -> left;
newnode -> right = start;
start -> left -> right = newnode;
start -> left = newnode;
start = newnode;

The function cdll_insert_beg(), is used for inserting a node at the beginning. Figure
3.8.2 shows inserting a node into the circular double linked list at the beginning.

start

400

400 10 200 100 20 300 200 30 400

100 200 300

300 40 100

400

Figure 3.8.2. Inserting a node at the beginning

Inserting a node at the end:

The following steps are followed to insert a new node at the end of the list:

Get the new node using getnode()

newnode=getnode();

If the list is empty, then

start = newnode;
newnode -> left = start;
newnode -> right = start;

• If the list is not empty follow the steps given below:

newnode -> left = start -> left;
newnode -> right = start;
start -> left -> right = newnode;
start -> left = newnode;

The function cdll_insert_end(), is used for inserting a node at the end. Figure 3.8.3
shows inserting a node into the circular linked list at the end.

start

100

400 10 200 100 20 300 200 30 400

100 200 300

300 40 100

400

Figure 3.8.3. Inserting a node at the end

Inserting a node at an intermediate position:

The following steps are followed, to insert a new node in an intermediate position in the
list:

Get the new node using getnode().

newnode=getnode();

Ensure that the specified position is in between first node and last node. If
not, specified position is invalid. This is done by countnode() function.

Store the starting address (which is in start pointer) in temp. Then traverse
the temp pointer upto the specified position.

After reaching the specified position, follow the steps given below:
newnode -> left = temp; newnode
-> right = temp -> right; temp ->
right -> left = newnode; temp ->
right = newnode; nodectr++;
The function cdll_insert_mid(), is used for inserting a node in the intermediate position.
Figure 3.8.4 shows inserting a node into the circular double linked list at a specified
intermediate position other than beginning and end.

start
100 40 200
100
400
300 10 400 400 20 300

100 200

200 30 100

300

Figure 3.8.4. Inserting a node at an intermediate position

Deleting a node at the beginning:

The following steps are followed, to delete a node at the beginning of the list:

If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

temp = start;
start = start -> right;
temp -> left -> right = start;
start -> left = temp -> left;

The function cdll_delete_beg(), is used for deleting the first node in the list. Figure
3.8.5 shows deleting a node at the beginning of a circular double linked list.

start
200

300 10 200 300 20 300 200 30 200

100 200 300

Figure 3.8.5. Deleting a node at beginning

Deleting a node at the end:

The following steps are followed to delete a node at the end of the list:

If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

 temp = start;
while(temp -> right != start)
{
temp = temp -> right;
}
temp -> left -> right = temp -> right;
temp -> right -> left = temp -> left;

The function cdll_delete_last(), is used for deleting the last node in the list. Figure 3.8.6
shows deleting a node at the end of a circular double linked list.

start
100

200 10 200 100 20 100 200 30 100

100 200 300

Figure 3.8.6. Deleting a node at the end

Deleting a node at Intermediate position:

The following steps are followed, to delete a node from an intermediate position in the
list (List must contain more than two node).

If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

Get the position of the node to delete.

Ensure that the specified position is in between first node and last node.
If not, specified position is invalid.

Then perform the following steps:

if(pos > 1 && pos < nodectr)

{

temp = start;
i = 1;
while(i < pos)
{
temp = temp -> right ;
i++;
}
temp -> right -> left = temp -> left;
temp -> left -> right = temp -> right;
free(temp);
printf("\n node deleted..");
nodectr--;
}

The function cdll_delete_mid(), is used for deleting the intermediate node in the list.
Figure 3.8.7 shows deleting a node at a specified intermediate position other than
beginning and end from a circular double linked list.

start
100

300 10 300 100 20 300 100 30 100

100 200 300

Figure 3.8.7. Deleting a node at an intermediate position

Traversing a circular double linked list from left to right:

The following steps are followed, to traverse a list from left to right:

If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

temp = start;
Print temp -> data;
temp = temp -> right;
while(temp != start)
{
print temp -> data;
temp = temp -> right;
}

The function cdll_display_left _right(), is used for traversing from left to right.

Traversing a circular double linked list from right to left:

The following steps are followed, to traverse a list from right to left:

If list is empty then display ‘Empty List’ message.

If the list is not empty, follow the steps given below:

temp = start;
do
{
temp = temp -> left;
print temp -> data;
} while(temp != start);

The function cdll_display_right_left(), is used for traversing from right to left.

Source Code for Circular Double Linked List:

include <stdio.h>
include <stdlib.h>
include <conio.h>
struct cdlinklist
{
struct cdlinklist
*left; int data;
struct cdlinklist *right;
};

typedef struct cdlinklist

node; node *start = NULL;
int nodectr;

node* getnode()
{
node * newnode;
newnode = (node *) malloc(sizeof(node));
printf("\n Enter data: ");
scanf("%d", &newnode -> data);
newnode -> left = NULL;
newnode -> right = NULL;
return newnode;
}

int menu()
{
int ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n 1. Create ");
printf("\n\n--------------------------");
printf("\n 2. Insert a node at Beginning");
printf("\n 3. Insert a node at End");
printf("\n 4. Insert a node at Middle");
printf("\n\n--------------------------");
printf("\n 5. Delete a node from Beginning");
printf("\n 6. Delete a node from End");
printf("\n 7. Delete a node from Middle");
printf("\n\n--------------------------");
printf("\n 8. Display the list from Left to Right");
printf("\n 9. Display the list from Right to Left");
printf("\n 10.Exit");
printf("\n\n Enter your choice: ");
scanf("%d", &ch);
return ch;
}

void cdll_createlist(int n)
{
int i;
node *newnode, *temp;
if(start == NULL)
{
nodectr = n;
for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
newnode = getnode();
if(start == NULL)
{
start = newnode;
newnode -> left = start;
newnode ->right = start;
}
else
{
newnode -> left = start -> left;
 newnode -> right = start; start
-> left->right = newnode;
start -> left = newnode;
}
}
}
else
printf("\n List already exists..");
}

void cdll_display_left_right()
{
node *temp;
temp = start;
if(start == NULL)
printf("\n Empty List");
else
{
printf("\n The contents of List:
"); printf(" %d ", temp -> data);
temp = temp -> right;
while(temp != start)
{
printf(" %d ", temp -> data);
temp = temp -> right;
}
}
}

void cdll_display_right_left()
{
node *temp;
temp = start;
if(start == NULL)
printf("\n Empty List");
else
{
printf("\n The contents of List:
"); do
{
temp = temp -> left;
printf("\t%d", temp -> data);
} while(temp != start);
}
}

void cdll_insert_beg()
{
node *newnode;
newnode = getnode();
nodectr++;
if(start == NULL)
{
start = newnode;
newnode -> left = start;
newnode -> right = start;
}
else
{
newnode -> left = start -> left;
newnode -> right = start;
start -> left -> right = newnode;
start -> left = newnode;
 start = newnode;
}
}

void cdll_insert_end()
{
node *newnode,*temp;
newnode = getnode();
nodectr++;
if(start == NULL)
{
start = newnode;
newnode -> left = start;
newnode -> right = start;
}
else
{
newnode -> left = start -> left;
newnode -> right = start;
start -> left -> right = newnode;
start -> left = newnode;
}
printf("\n Node Inserted at End");
}

void cdll_insert_mid()
{
node *newnode, *temp, *prev;
int pos, ctr = 1;
newnode = getnode();
printf("\n Enter the position: ");
scanf("%d", &pos);
if(pos - nodectr >= 2)
{
printf("\n Position is out of range..");
return;
}
if(pos > 1 && pos <= nodectr)
{
temp = start;
while(ctr < pos - 1)
{
temp = temp -> right;
ctr++;
}
newnode -> left = temp; newnode
-> right = temp -> right; temp ->
right -> left = newnode; temp ->
right = newnode; nodectr++;

printf("\n Node Inserted at Middle.. ");

}
else
printf("position %d of list is not a middle position", pos);
}
}

void cdll_delete_beg()
{
node *temp;
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n No nodes exist..");
 getch();
return ;
}
else
{
nodectr--;
if(nodectr == 0)
{
free(start);
start = NULL;
}
else
{
temp = start;
start = start -> right;
temp -> left -> right = start;
start -> left = temp -> left;
free(temp);
}
printf("\n Node deleted at Beginning..");
}
}

void cdll_delete_last()
{
node *temp;
if(start == NULL)
{
printf("\n No nodes
exist.."); getch();
return;
}
else
{
nodectr--;
if(nodectr == 0)
{
free(start);
start = NULL;
}
else
{
temp = start;
while(temp -> right != start)
temp = temp -> right;
temp -> left -> right = temp -> right;
temp -> right -> left = temp -> left;
free(temp);
}
printf("\n Node deleted from end ");
}
}

void cdll_delete_mid()
{
int ctr = 1, pos;
node *temp;
if( start == NULL)
{
printf("\n No nodes
exist.."); getch();
return;
}
 else
{
printf("\n Which node to delete: ");
scanf("%d", &pos);
if(pos > nodectr)
{
printf("\nThis node does not
exist"); getch();
return;
}
if(pos > 1 && pos < nodectr)
{
temp = start;
while(ctr < pos)
{
temp = temp -> right ;
ctr++;
}
temp -> right -> left = temp -> left;
temp -> left -> right = temp -> right;
free(temp);
printf("\n node deleted..");
nodectr--;
}
else
{
printf("\n It is not a middle position..");
getch();
}
}
}

void main(void)
{
int ch,n;
clrscr();
while(1)
{
ch = menu();
switch( ch)
{
case 1 :
printf("\n Enter Number of nodes to create: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
cdll_createlist(n);
printf("\n List
created.."); break;
case 2 : cdll_insert_beg();
break;

case 3 : cdll_insert_end();
break;

case 4 :
cdll_insert_mid();
break;
case 5 : cdll_delete_beg();
break;

case 6 :
cdll_delete_last();
break;
 case 7 :
cdll_delete_mid();
break;
case 8 :
cdll_display_left_right();
break;
case 9 :
cdll_display_right_left();
break;
case 10:
exit(0);
}
getch();
}
}

Comparison of Linked List Variations:

The major disadvantage of doubly linked lists (over singly linked lists) is that they require
more space (every node has two pointer fields instead of one). Also, the code to
manipulate doubly linked lists needs to maintain the prev fields as well as the next fields;
the more fields that have to be maintained, the more chance there is for errors.

The major advantage of doubly linked lists is that they make some operations (like the
removal of a given node, or a right-to-left traversal of the list) more efficient.

The major advantage of circular lists (over non-circular lists) is that they eliminate some
extra-case code for some operations (like deleting last node). Also, some applications
lead naturally to circular list representations. For example, a computer network might
best be modeled using a circular list.

3.10. Polynomials:
n i
A polynomial is of the form: cx
∑ i
i=0

Where, ci is the coefficient of the ith term and

n is the degree of the polynomial

Some examples are:

5x2 + 3x + 1
12x3 – 4x
5x4 – 8x3 + 2x2 + 4x1 + 9x0

It is not necessary to write terms of the polynomials in decreasing order of degree. In

other words the two polynomials 1 + x and x + 1 are equivalent.

The computer implementation requires implementing polynomials as a list of pairs of

coefficient and exponent. Each of these pairs will constitute a structure, so a polynomial
will be represented as a list of structures. A linked list structure that represents
polynomials 5x4 – 8x3 + 2x2 + 4x1 + 9x0 illustrates in figure 3.10.1.
 start
Coefficient Exponent
500

5 4 100 -8 3 200 2 2 300 4 1 400 9 0 X

500 100 200 300 400

Figure 3.10.1. Single Linked List for the polynomial F(x) = 5x 4 – 8x3 + 2x2 + 4x1 + 9x0

Source code for polynomial creation with help of linked list:

#include <conio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <malloc.h>

struct link
{
float coef;
int expo;
struct link *next;
};

typedef struct link node;

node * getnode()
{
node *tmp;
tmp =(node *) malloc( sizeof(node) );
printf("\n Enter Coefficient : ");
fflush(stdin); scanf("%f",&tmp-
>coef);
printf("\n Enter Exponent : ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf("%d",&tmp->expo);
tmp->next = NULL;
return tmp;
}
node * create_poly (node *p )
{
char ch;
node *temp,*newnode;
while( 1 )
{
printf ("\n Do U Want polynomial node (y/n):");
ch = getche();
if(ch == 'n')
break;
newnode = getnode();
if( p == NULL )
p = newnode;
else
{
temp = p; while(temp->next != NULL )
temp = temp->next;
temp->next = newnode;
}

}
return p;
}
void display (node *p)
{
node *t = p;
while (t != NULL)
{
printf("+ %.2f", t -> coef);
printf("X^ %d", t -> expo);
t =t -> next;
}
}

void main()
{
node *poly1 = NULL ,*poly2 = NULL,*poly3=NULL;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter First Polynomial..(in ascending-order of exponent)");
poly1 = create_poly (poly1);
printf("\nEnter Second Polynomial..(in ascending-order of exponent)");
poly2 = create_poly (poly2);
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter Polynomial 1: ");
display (poly1);
printf("\n Enter Polynomial 2: ");
display (poly2);
getch();
}

Addition of Polynomials:

To add two polynomials we need to scan them once. If we find terms with the same
exponent in the two polynomials, then we add the coefficients; otherwise, we copy the
term of larger exponent into the sum and go on. When we reach at the end of one of the
polynomial, then remaining part of the other is copied into the sum.

To add two polynomials follow the following steps:

Read two polynomials.

Add them.
Display the resultant polynomial.

Source code for polynomial addition with help of linked list:

#include <conio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <malloc.h>

struct link
{
float coef;
int expo;
struct link *next;
};

typedef struct link node;

node * getnode()
{
node *tmp;
 tmp =(node *) malloc( sizeof(node) );
printf("\n Enter Coefficient : ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf("%f",&tmp->coef);
printf("\n Enter Exponent : ");
fflush(stdin);
scanf("%d",&tmp->expo);
tmp->next = NULL;
return tmp;
}

node * create_poly (node *p )

{
char ch;
node *temp,*newnode;
while( 1 )
{
printf ("\n Do U Want polynomial node (y/n):
"); ch = getche();
if(ch == 'n')
break;
newnode = getnode();
if( p == NULL )
p = newnode;
else
{
temp = p; while(temp-
>next != NULL )
temp = temp->next;
temp->next = newnode;
}

}
return p;
}

void display (node *p)

{
node *t = p;
while (t != NULL)
{
printf("+ %.2f", t -> coef);
printf("X^ %d", t -> expo);
t = t -> next;
}
}

void add_poly(node *p1,node *p2)

{

node *newnode;
while(1)
{
if( p1 == NULL || p2 == NULL
) break;
if(p1->expo == p2->expo )
{
printf("+ %.2f X ^%d",p1->coef+p2->coef,p1->expo);
p1 = p1->next; p2 = p2->next;
}
else
{
if(p1->expo < p2->expo)

{
 printf("+ %.2f X ^%d",p1->coef,p1->expo);
p1 = p1->next;
}
else
{
printf(" + %.2f X ^%d",p2->coef,p2->expo);
p2 = p2->next;
}
}
}
while(p1 != NULL )
{
printf("+ %.2f X ^%d",p1->coef,p1->expo);
p1 = p1->next;
}
while(p2 != NULL )
{

printf("+ %.2f X ^%d",p2->coef,p2->expo);

p2 = p2->next;
}
}

void main()
{
node *poly1 = NULL ,*poly2 = NULL,*poly3=NULL;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter First Polynomial..(in ascending-order of exponent)");
poly1 = create_poly (poly1);
printf("\nEnter Second Polynomial..(in ascending-order of exponent)");
poly2 = create_poly (poly2);
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter Polynomial 1: ");
display (poly1);
printf("\n Enter Polynomial 2: ");
display (poly2);
printf( "\n Resultant Polynomial : ");
add_poly(poly1, poly2);
display (poly3);
getch();
}
Chapter
4
Stack and Queue
There are certain situations in computer science that one wants to restrict
insertions and deletions so that they can take place only at the beginning
or the end of the list, not in the middle. Two of such data structures that
are useful are:

Stack.
Queue.
Linear lists and arrays allow one to insert and delete elements at any
place in the list i.e., at the beginning, at the end or in the middle.

STACK:

A stack is a list of elements in which an element may be inserted or deleted only at one
end, called the top of the stack. Stacks are sometimes known as LIFO (last in, first out)
lists.

As the items can be added or removed only from the top i.e. the last item to be added
to a stack is the first item to be removed.

The two basic operations associated with stacks are:

Push: is the term used to insert an element into a stack.

Pop: is the term used to delete an element from a stack.

“Push” is the term used to insert an element into a stack. “Pop” is the term used to delete
an element from the stack.

All insertions and deletions take place at the same end, so the last element added to the
stack will be the first element removed from the stack. When a stack is created, the stack
base remains fixed while the stack top changes as elements are added and removed. The
most accessible element is the top and the least accessible element is the bottom of the
stack.

Representation of Stack:

Let us consider a stack with 6 elements capacity. This is called as the size of the stack.
The number of elements to be added should not exceed the maximum size of the stack.
If we attempt to add new element beyond the maximum size, we will encounter a stack
overflow condition. Similarly, you cannot remove elements beyond the base of the stack.
If such is the case, we will reach a stack underflow condition.

When an element is added to a stack, the operation is performed by push(). Figure 4.1
shows the creation of a stack and addition of elements using push().
 4 4 4 4

3 3 3 3
TOP
2 2 TOP 2 33 2

1 TOP 1 22 1 22 1
11 11 11
TOP 0 0 0 0
Empty Insert Insert Insert
Stack 11 22 33

Figure 4.1. Push operations on stack

When an element is taken off from the stack, the operation is performed by pop(). Figure
4.2 shows a stack initially with three elements and shows the deletion of elements using
pop().

4 4 4 4

TOP 3 3 3 3
33
2 TOP 2 2 2
22 22
1 1 TOP 1 1
11 11 11 TOP
0 0 0 0
Initial POP POP POP
Stack
Empty
Stack
Figure 4.2. Pop operations on stack

Source code for stack operations, using array:

include <stdio.h>
include <conio.h>
include <stdlib.h>
define MAX 6
int stack[MAX];
int top = 0;
int menu()
{
int ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n … Stack operations using ARRAY... ");
printf("\n -----------**********-------------\n");
printf("\n 1. Push ");
printf("\n 2. Pop ");
printf("\n 3. Display");
printf("\n 4. Quit ");
printf("\n Enter your choice:
"); scanf("%d", &ch);
return ch;
}
void display()
{
int i;
if(top == 0)
{
printf("\n\nStack empty..");
 return;
}
else
{
printf("\n\nElements in stack:");
for(i = 0; i < top; i++)
printf("\t%d", stack[i]);
}
}

void pop()
{
if(top == 0)
{
printf("\n\nStack Underflow..");
return;
}
else
printf("\n\npopped element is: %d ", stack[--top]);
}

void push()
{
int data;
if(top == MAX)
{
printf("\n\nStack Overflow..");
return;
}
else
{
printf("\n\nEnter data: ");
scanf("%d", &data);
stack[top] = data;
top = top + 1;
printf("\n\nData Pushed into the stack");
}
}

void main()
{
int ch;
do
{
ch = menu();
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
push();
break;
case 2:
pop();
break;
case 3:
display();
break;

case 4:
exit(0);
}
getch();
} while(1);
}
 Linked List Implementation of Stack:

We can represent a stack as a linked list. In a stack push and pop operations are
performed at one end called top. We can perform similar operations at one end of list
using top pointer. The linked stack looks as shown in figure 4.3.

Top
400
data Next
40 X
400

30 400
300

20 300
200
Start
100 10 200
100

Figure 4.3. Linked stack

representation

Source code for stack operations, using linked list:

include <stdio.h>
include <conio.h>
include <stdlib.h>

struct stack
{
int data;
struct stack *next;
};

void push();
void pop();
void display();
typedef struct stack node;
node *start=NULL;
node *top = NULL;

node* getnode()
{
node *temp;
temp=(node *) malloc( sizeof(node)) ;
printf("\n Enter data ");
scanf("%d", &temp -> data);
temp -> next = NULL;
return temp;
}
void push(node *newnode)
{
node *temp;
if( newnode == NULL )
{
printf("\n Stack Overflow..");
return;
}
 if(start == NULL)
{
start = newnode;
top = newnode;
}
else
{
temp = start;
while( temp -> next != NULL)
temp = temp -> next;
temp -> next = newnode;
top = newnode;
}
printf("\n\n\t Data pushed into stack");
}
void pop()
{
node *temp;
if(top == NULL)
{
printf("\n\n\t Stack
underflow"); return;
}
temp = start;
if( start -> next == NULL)
{
printf("\n\n\t Popped element is %d ", top -> data);
start = NULL;
free(top);
top = NULL;
}
else
{
while(temp -> next != top)
{
temp = temp -> next;
}
temp -> next = NULL;
printf("\n\n\t Popped element is %d ", top -> data);
free(top);
top = temp;
}
}
void display()
{
node *temp;
if(top == NULL)
{
printf("\n\n\t\t Stack is empty ");
}
else
{
temp = start;
printf("\n\n\n\t\t Elements in the stack: \n");
printf("%5d ", temp -> data);
while(temp != top)
{
temp = temp -> next;
printf("%5d ", temp -> data);
}
}
}
 char menu()
{
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n \tStack operations using pointers.. ");
printf("\n -----------**********-------------\n");
printf("\n 1. Push ");
printf("\n 2. Pop ");
printf("\n 3. Display");
printf("\n 4. Quit ");
printf("\n Enter your choice:
"); ch = getche();
return ch;
}

void main()
{
char ch;
node *newnode;
do
{
ch = menu();
switch(ch)
{
case '1' :
newnode = getnode();
push(newnode); break;

case '2' :
pop();
break;
case '3' :
display();
break;
case '4':
return;
}
getch();
} while( ch != '4' );
}

Algebraic Expressions:

An algebraic expression is a legal combination of operators and operands. Operand is the

quantity on which a mathematical operation is performed. Operand may be a variable
like x, y, z or a constant like 5, 4, 6 etc. Operator is a symbol which signifies a
mathematical or logical operation between the operands. Examples of familiar operators
include +, -, *, /, ^ etc.

An algebraic expression can be represented using three different notations. They are
infix, postfix and prefix notations:

Infix: It is the form of an arithmetic expression in which we fix (place) the

arithmetic operator in between the two operands.

Example: (A + B) * (C - D)

Prefix: It is the form of an arithmetic notation in which we fix (place) the arithmetic
operator before (pre) its two operands. The prefix notation is called as
 polish notation (due to the polish mathematician Jan Lukasiewicz in the
year 1920).

Example: * + A B – C D

Postfix: It is the form of an arithmetic expression in which we fix (place) the arithmetic
operator after (post) its two operands. The postfix notation is called as suffix
notation and is also referred to reverse polish notation.

Example: A B + C D - *

The three important features of postfix expression are:

The operands maintain the same order as in the equivalent infix expression.

The parentheses are not needed to designate the expression un-ambiguously.

While evaluating the postfix expression the priority of the operators is no

longer relevant.

We consider five binary operations: +, -, *, / and $ or ↑ (exponentiation). For these

binary operations, the following in the order of precedence (highest to lowest):

OPERATOR PRECEDENCE VALUE

Exponentiation ($ or ↑ or ^) Highest 3

*, / Next highest 2

+, - Lowest 1

Converting expressions using Stack:

Let us convert the expressions from one type to another. These can be done as follows:

Infix to postfix
Infix to prefix
Postfix to infix
Postfix to prefix
Prefix to infix
Prefix to postfix

Conversion from infix to postfix:

Procedure to convert from infix expression to postfix expression is as follows:

Scan the infix expression from left to right.

a)If the scanned symbol is left parenthesis, push it onto the stack.

If the scanned symbol is an operand, then place directly in the postfix

expression (output).
 If the symbol scanned is a right parenthesis, then go on popping all
the items from the stack and place them in the postfix expression till
we get the matching left parenthesis.

If the scanned symbol is an operator, then go on removing all the

operators from the stack and place them in the postfix expression, if
and only if the precedence of the operator which is on the top of the
stack is greater than (or greater than or equal) to the precedence of
the scanned operator and push the scanned operator onto the stack
otherwise, push the scanned operator onto the stack.

Example 1:

Convert ((A – (B + C)) * D) ↑ (E + F) infix expression to postfix form:

SYMBOL POSTFIX STRING STACK REMARKS

( (
( ((
A A ((
- A ((-
( A ((-(
B AB ((-(
+ AB ((-(+
C ABC ((-(+
) ABC+ ((-
) ABC+- (
* ABC+- (*
D ABC+-D (*
) ABC+-D*
↑ ABC+-D* ↑
( ABC+-D* ↑(
E ABC+-D*E ↑(
+ ABC+-D*E ↑(+
F ABC+-D*EF ↑(+
) ABC+-D*EF+ ↑
End of The input is now empty. Pop the output symbols
string ABC+-D*EF+↑ from the stack until it is empty.

Example 2:

Convert a + b * c + (d * e + f) * g the infix expression into postfix form.

SYMBOL POSTFIX STRING STACK REMARKS

a A

+ A +

b ab +
 * ab +*

c abc +*

+ abc*+ +

( abc*+ +(

d abc*+d +(

* abc*+d +(*

e abc*+de +(*

+ abc*+de* +(+

f abc*+de*f +(+

) abc*+de*f+ +

* abc*+de*f+ +*

g abc*+de*f+g +*
End of The input is now empty. Pop the output symbols
string abc*+de*f+g*+ from the stack until it is empty.

Example 3:

Convert the following infix expression A + B * C – D / E * H into its equivalent postfix

expression.

SYMBOL POSTFIX STRING STACK REMARKS

A A
+ A +
B AB +
* AB +*
C ABC +*
- ABC*+ -
D ABC*+D -
/ ABC*+D -/
E ABC*+DE -/
* ABC*+DE/ -*
H ABC*+DE/H -*
End of The input is now empty. Pop the output symbols from
string ABC*+DE/H*- the stack until it is empty.

Example 4:
Convert the following infix expression A + (B * C – (D / E ↑ F) * G) * H into its
equivalent postfix expression.

( A +(
B AB +(
* AB +(*
C ABC +(*
- ABC* +(-
( ABC* +(-(
D ABC*D +(-(
/ ABC*D +(-(/
E ABC*DE +(-(/
↑ ABC*DE +(-(/↑
F ABC*DEF +(-(/↑
) ABC*DEF↑/ +(-
* ABC*DEF↑/ +(-*
G ABC*DEF↑/G +(-*
) ABC*DEF↑/G*- +
* ABC*DEF↑/G*- +*
H ABC*DEF↑/G*-H +*
End of ABC*DEF↑/G*-H*+ The input is now empty. Pop the output
string symbols from the stack until it is empty.

SYMBOL POSTFIX STRING STACK REMARKS

A A
+ A +
 Program to convert an infix to postfix expression:

# include <string.h>

char postfix[50];
char infix[50];
char opstack[50]; /* operator stack */ int i, j, top =
0;

int lesspriority(char op, char op_at_stack)

{
int k;
int pv1; /* priority value of op */
int pv2; /* priority value of op_at_stack */
char operators[] = {'+', '-', '*', '/', '%', '^', '(' };
int priority_value[] = {0,0,1,1,2,3,4};
if( op_at_stack == '(' )
return 0;
for(k = 0; k < 6; k ++)
{
if(op == operators[k])
pv1 = priority_value[k];
}
for(k = 0; k < 6; k ++)
{
if(op_at_stack == operators[k])
pv2 = priority_value[k];
}
if(pv1 < pv2)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}
void push(char op) /* op - operator */
{
if(top == 0) /* before pushing the operator
{ 'op' into the stack check priority
opstack[top] = op; of op with top of opstack if less
top++; then pop the operator from stack
} then push into postfix string else
else push op onto stack itself */
{
if(op != '(' )
{
while(lesspriority(op, opstack[top-1]) == 1 && top > 0)
{
postfix[j] = opstack[--
top]; j++;
}
}
opstack[top] = op; /* pushing onto stack */
top++;
}
}

pop()
{
while(opstack[--top] != '(' ) /* pop until '(' comes */
{
postfix[j] = opstack[top];
j++;
}
}

void main()
{
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter Infix Expression : ");
gets(infix);
while( (ch=infix[i++]) != ‘\0’)
{
switch(ch)
{
case ' ' : break;
case '(' :
case '+' :
case '-' :
case '*' :
case '/' :
case '^' :
case '%' :
push(ch); /* check priority and push */ break;

case ')' :
pop();
break;
default :
postfix[j] = ch;
j++;
}
}
while(top >= 0)
{
postfix[j] = opstack[--top];
j++;
 }
postfix[j] = '\0';
printf("\n Infix Expression : %s ", infix);
printf("\n Postfix Expression : %s ", postfix);
getch();
}

Conversion from infix to prefix:

The precedence rules for converting an expression from infix to prefix are identical. The
only change from postfix conversion is that traverse the expression from right to left and
the operator is placed before the operands rather than after them. The prefix form of a
complex expression is not the mirror image of the postfix form.

Example 1:

Convert the infix expression A + B - C into prefix expression.

PREFIX
SYMBOL STACK REMARKS
STRING
C C
- C -
B BC -
+ BC -+
A ABC -+
End of - + A B C The input is now empty. Pop the output symbols from the
string stack until it is empty.

Example 2:

Convert the infix expression (A + B) * (C - D) into prefix expression.

PREFIX
SYMBOL STACK REMARKS
STRING
) )
D D )
- D )-
C CD )-
( -CD
* -CD *
) -CD *)
B B-CD *)
+ B-CD *)+
A AB-CD *)+
( +AB–CD *
End of * + A B – C D The input is now empty. Pop the output symbols from the
string stack until it is empty.
Example 3:

Convert the infix expression A ↑ B * C – D + E / F / (G + H) into prefix expression.

SYMBOL PREFIX STRING STACK REMARKS

) )

H H )

+ H )+

G GH )+

( +GH

/ +GH /

F F+GH /

/ F+GH //

E EF+GH //

+ //EF+GH +

D D//EF+GH +

- D//EF+GH +-

C CD//EF+GH +-

* CD//EF+GH +-*

B BCD//EF+GH +-*

↑ BCD//EF+GH +-*↑

A ABCD//EF+GH +-*↑
End of + - * ↑ A B C D / / E F + G H The input is now empty. Pop the output
string symbols from the stack until it is empty.

Program to convert an infix to prefix expression:

include <conio.h>
include <string.h>

char prefix[50];
char infix[50];
char opstack[50]; /* operator stack */ int j, top = 0;

void insert_beg(char ch)

{
int k;
if(j == 0)
prefix[0] = ch;
else
{
for(k = j + 1; k > 0; k--)
prefix[k] = prefix[k - 1];
prefix[0] = ch;
}
j++;
}
int lesspriority(char op, char op_at_stack)
{
int k;
int pv1; /* priority value of op */
int pv2; /* priority value of op_at_stack */
char operators[] = {'+', '-', '*', '/', '%', '^', ')'};
int priority_value[] = {0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4};
if(op_at_stack == ')' )
return 0;
for(k = 0; k < 6; k ++)
{
if(op == operators[k])
pv1 = priority_value[k];
}
for(k = 0; k < 6; k ++)
{
if( op_at_stack == operators[k] )
pv2 = priority_value[k];
}
if(pv1 < pv2)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

void push(char op) /* op – operator */

{
if(top == 0)
{
opstack[top] = op;
top++;
}
else
{
if(op != ')')
{
/* before pushing the operator 'op' into the stack check priority of op with
top of operator stack if less pop the operator from stack then push into postfix
string else push op onto stack itself */

while(lesspriority(op, opstack[top-1]) == 1 && top > 0)

{
insert_beg(opstack[--top]);
}
}
opstack[top] = op; /* pushing onto stack */
top++;
}
}

void pop()
{
while(opstack[--top] != ')') /* pop until ')' comes; */
insert_beg(opstack[top]);
}

void main()
{
char ch;
int l, i = 0;
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter Infix Expression : ");
 gets(infix);
l = strlen(infix);
while(l > 0)
{
ch = infix[--
l]; switch(ch)
{
case ' ' : break;
case ')' :
case '+' :
case '-' :
case '*' :
case '/' :
case '^' :
case '%' :
push(ch); /* check priority and push */ break;

case '(' :
pop();
break;
default :
insert_beg(ch);
}
}
while( top > 0 )
{
insert_beg( opstack[--top]
); j++;
}
prefix[j] = '\0';
printf("\n Infix Expression : %s ", infix);
printf("\n Prefix Expression : %s ", prefix);
getch();
}

Conversion from postfix to infix:

Procedure to convert postfix expression to infix expression is as follows:

Scan the postfix expression from left to right.

If the scanned symbol is an operand, then push it onto the stack.

If the scanned symbol is an operator, pop two symbols from the stack and
create it as a string by placing the operator in between the operands and
push it onto the stack.

Repeat steps 2 and 3 till the end of the expression.

Example:

Convert the following postfix expression A B C * D E F ^ / G * - H * + into its

equivalent infix expression.
 Symbol Stack Remarks

A A Push A

B A B Push B

C A B C Push C

Pop two operands and place the

* A (B*C) operator in between the operands and
push the string.

D A (B*C) D Push D

E A (B*C) D E Push E

F A (B*C) D E F Push F

Pop two operands and place the

^ A (B*C) D (E^F) operator in between the operands and
push the string.
Pop two operands and place the
/ A (B*C) (D/(E^F)) operator in between the operands and
push the string.

G A (B*C) (D/(E^F)) G Push G

Pop two operands and place the

* A (B*C) ((D/(E^F))*G) operator in between the operands and
push the string.
Pop two operands and place the
- A ((B*C) – ((D/(E^F))*G)) operator in between the operands and
push the string.

H A ((B*C) – ((D/(E^F))*G)) H Push H

Pop two operands and place the
* A (((B*C) – ((D/(E^F))*G)) * H) operator in between the operands and
push the string.

+ (A + (((B*C) – ((D/(E^F))*G)) * H))

End of
The input is now empty. The string formed is infix.
string

Program to convert postfix to infix expression:

include <stdio.h>
include <conio.h>
include <string.h>
define MAX 100

void pop (char*);

void push(char*);

char stack[MAX] [MAX];

int top = -1;
void main()
{
char s[MAX], str1[MAX], str2[MAX], str[MAX];
char s1[2],temp[2];
int i=0;
clrscr( ) ;
printf("\Enter the postfix expression;
"); gets(s);
while (s[i]!='\0')
{
if(s[i] == ' ' ) /*skip whitespace, if any*/
i++;
if (s[i] == '^' || s[i] == '*'|| s[i] == '-' || s[i] == '+' || s[i] == '/')
{
pop(str1);
pop(str2);
temp[0] ='(';
temp[1] ='\0';
strcpy(str, temp);
strcat(str, str2);
temp[0] = s[i];
temp[1] = '\0';
strcat(str,temp);
strcat(str, str1);
temp[0] =')';
temp[1] ='\0';
strcat(str,temp);
push(str);
}
else
{
temp[0]=s[i];
temp[1]='\0';
strcpy(s1,
temp); push(s1);
}
i++;
}
printf("\nThe Infix expression is: %s", stack[0]);

void pop(char *a1)

{
strcpy(a1,stack[top]);
top--;
}

void push (char*str)

{
if(top == MAX - 1)
printf("\nstack is full");
else
{
top++;
strcpy(stack[top], str);
}
}
 Conversion from postfix to prefix:

Procedure to convert postfix expression to prefix expression is as follows:

Scan the postfix expression from left to right.

If the scanned symbol is an operand, then push it onto the stack.

If the scanned symbol is an operator, pop two symbols from the stack and
create it as a string by placing the operator in front of the operands and
push it onto the stack.

Repeat steps 2 and 3 till the end of the expression.

Example:

Convert the following postfix expression A B C * D E F ^ / G * - H * + into its

equivalent prefix expression.

Symbol Stack Remarks

A A Push A

B A B Push B

C A B C Push C

Pop two operands and place the operator

* A *BC
in front the operands and push the string.

D A *BC D Push D

E A *BC D E Push E

F A *BC D E F Push F

Pop two operands and place the operator

^ A *BC D ^EF
in front the operands and push the string.
Pop two operands and place the operator
/ A *BC /D^EF
in front the operands and push the string.

G A *BC /D^EF G Push G

Pop two operands and place the operator

* A *BC */D^EFG
in front the operands and push the string.
Pop two operands and place the operator
- A - *BC*/D^EFG
in front the operands and push the string.

H A - *BC*/D^EFG H Push H

Pop two operands and place the operator

* A *- *BC*/D^EFGH
in front the operands and push the string.

+ +A*-*BC*/D^EFGH

End of
The input is now empty. The string formed is prefix.
string
 Program to convert postfix to prefix expression:

include <conio.h>
include <string.h>

#define MAX 100 void

pop (char *a1); void
push(char *str); char
stack[MAX][MAX]; int
top =-1;

main()
{
char s[MAX], str1[MAX], str2[MAX], str[MAX];
char s1[2], temp[2];
int i = 0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the postfix expression;
"); gets (s);
while(s[i]!='\0')
{
/*skip whitespace, if any */
if (s[i] == ' ')
i++;
if(s[i] == '^' || s[i] == '*' || s[i] == '-' || s[i]== '+' || s[i] == '/')
{
pop (str1); pop
(str2); temp[0]
= s[i]; temp[1]
= '\0';
strcpy (str, temp);
strcat(str, str2);
strcat(str, str1);
push(str);
}
else
{
temp[0] = s[i];
temp[1] = '\0';
strcpy (s1,
temp); push (s1);
}
i++;
}
printf("\n The prefix expression is: %s", stack[0]);
}

void pop(char*a1)
{
if(top == -1)
{
printf("\nStack is empty");
return ;
}
else
{
strcpy (a1,
stack[top]); top--;
}
}
void push (char *str)
{
if(top == MAX - 1)
printf("\nstack is full");
else
{
top++;
strcpy(stack[top], str);
}
}

Conversion from prefix to infix:

Procedure to convert prefix expression to infix expression is as follows:

Scan the prefix expression from right to left (reverse order).

If the scanned symbol is an operand, then push it onto the stack.
If the scanned symbol is an operator, pop two symbols from the stack and
create it as a string by placing the operator in between the operands and
push it onto the stack.

Repeat steps 2 and 3 till the end of the expression.

Example:

Convert the following prefix expression + A * - * B C * / D ^ E F G H into its equivalent

infix expression.

Symbol Stack Remarks

H H Push H

G H G Push G

F H G F Push F

E H G F E Push E
Pop two operands and place the operator
^ H G (E^F) in between the operands and push the
string.
D H G (E^F) D Push D
Pop two operands and place the operator
/ H G (D/(E^F)) in between the operands and push the
string.
Pop two operands and place the operator
* H ((D/(E^F))*G) in between the operands and push the
string.

C H ((D/(E^F))*G) C Push C

B H ((D/(E^F))*G) C B Push B
Pop two operands and place the
* H ((D/(E^F))*G) (B*C) operator in front the operands and push
the string.
Pop two operands and place the operator
- H ((B*C)-((D/(E^F))*G))
in front the operands and push the
 string.

Pop two operands and place the

* (((B*C)-((D/(E^F))*G))*H) operator in front the operands and push
the string.
A (((B*C)-((D/(E^F))*G))*H) A Push A
Pop two operands and place the
+ (A+(((B*C)-((D/(E^F))*G))*H)) operator in front the operands and push
the string.

End of
The input is now empty. The string formed is infix.
string

Program to convert prefix to infix expression:

include <string.h>
define MAX 100

void pop (char*);

void push(char*);
char stack[MAX] [MAX];
int top = -1;

void main()
{
char s[MAX], str1[MAX], str2[MAX], str[MAX];
char s1[2],temp[2];
int i=0;
clrscr( ) ;
printf("\Enter the prefix expression; ");
gets(s);
strrev(s);
while (s[i]!='\0')
{
/*skip whitespace, if any*/
if(s[i] == ' ' )
i++;
if (s[i] == '^' || s[i] == '*'|| s[i] == '-' || s[i] == '+' || s[i] == '/')
{
pop(str1);
pop(str2);
temp[0] ='(';
temp[1] ='\0';
strcpy(str, temp);
strcat(str, str1);
temp[0] = s[i];
temp[1] = '\0';
strcat(str,temp);
strcat(str, str2);
temp[0] =')';
temp[1] ='\0';
strcat(str,temp);
push(str);
}
else
{
temp[0]=s[i];
temp[1]='\0';
strcpy(s1,
temp); push(s1);
 }
i++;
}
printf("\nThe infix expression is: %s", stack[0]);
}

void pop(char *a1)

{
strcpy(a1,stack[top]);
top--;
}

void push (char*str)

{
if(top == MAX - 1)
printf("\nstack is full");
else
{
top++;
strcpy(stack[top], str);
}
}

Conversion from prefix to postfix:

Procedure to convert prefix expression to postfix expression is as follows:

Scan the prefix expression from right to left (reverse order).

If the scanned symbol is an operand, then push it onto the stack.

If the scanned symbol is an operator, pop two symbols from the stack and
create it as a string by placing the operator after the operands and push it
onto the stack.

Repeat steps 2 and 3 till the end of the expression.

Example:

Convert the following prefix expression + A * - * B C * / D ^ E F G H into its equivalent

postfix expression.

Symbol Stack Remarks

H H Push H

G H G Push G

F H G F Push F

E H G F E Push E

Pop two operands and place the operator

^ H G EF^
after the operands and push the string.

D H G EF^ D Push D
 Pop two operands and place the operator
/ H G DEF^/
after the operands and push the string.
Pop two operands and place the operator
* H DEF^/G*
after the operands and push the string.

C H DEF^/G* C Push C

B H DEF^/G* C B Push B

Pop two operands and place the operator

* H DEF^/G* BC*
after the operands and push the string.
Pop two operands and place the operator
- H BC*DEF^/G*-
after the operands and push the string.
Pop two operands and place the operator
* BC*DEF^/G*-H*
after the operands and push the string.

A BC*DEF^/G*-H* A Push A

Pop two operands and place the operator

+ ABC*DEF^/G*-H*+
after the operands and push the string.
End of
The input is now empty. The string formed is postfix.
string

Program to convert prefix to postfix expression:

include <stdio.h>
include <conio.h>
include <string.h>

#define MAX 100

void pop (char *a1);

void push(char *str);
char stack[MAX][MAX];
int top =-1;

void main()
{
char s[MAX], str1[MAX], str2[MAX], str[MAX];
char s1[2], temp[2];
int i = 0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the prefix expression; ");
gets (s);
strrev(s);
while(s[i]!='\0')
{
if (s[i] == ' ') /*skip whitespace, if any */ i++;

if(s[i] == '^' || s[i] == '*' || s[i] == '-' || s[i]== '+' || s[i] == '/')
{
pop (str1); pop
(str2); temp[0]
= s[i]; temp[1]
= '\0';
strcat(str1,str2);
strcat (str1, temp);
strcpy(str, str1);
push(str);
}
 else
{
temp[0] = s[i];
temp[1] = '\0';
strcpy (s1,
temp); push (s1);
}
i++;
}
printf("\nThe postfix expression is: %s", stack[0]);
}
void pop(char*a1)
{
if(top == -1)
{
printf("\nStack is empty");
return ;
}
else
{
strcpy (a1,
stack[top]); top--;
}
}
void push (char *str)
{
if(top == MAX - 1)
printf("\nstack is full");
else
{
top++;
strcpy(stack[top], str);
}
}

Evaluation of postfix expression:

The postfix expression is evaluated easily by the use of a stack. When a number is seen,
it is pushed onto the stack; when an operator is seen, the operator is applied to the two
numbers that are popped from the stack and the result is pushed onto the stack. When
an expression is given in postfix notation, there is no need to know any precedence rules;
this is our obvious advantage.

Example 1:

Evaluate the postfix expression: 6 5 2 3 + 8 * + 3 + *

OPERAND
SYMBOL OPERAND 2 VALUE STACK REMARKS
1
6 6

5 6, 5

2 6, 5, 2
The first four symbols are placed on
3 6, 5, 2, 3
the stack.
Next a ‘+’ is read, so 3 and 2 are
+ 2 3 5 6, 5, 5 popped from the stack and their
sum 5, is pushed
 8 2 3 5 6, 5, 5, 8 Next 8 is pushed
Now a ‘*’ is seen, so 8 and 5 are
* 5 8 40 6, 5, 40
popped as 8 * 5 = 40 is pushed
Next, a ‘+’ is seen, so 40 and 5 are
+ 5 40 45 6, 45
popped and 40 + 5 = 45 is pushed
3 5 40 45 6, 45, 3 Now, 3 is pushed
Next, ‘+’ pops 3 and 45 and pushes
+ 45 3 48 6, 48
45 + 3 = 48 is pushed
Finally, a ‘*’ is seen and 48 and 6
* 6 48 288 288 are popped, the result 6 * 48 =
288 is pushed

Example 2:

Evaluate the following postfix expression: 6 2 3 + - 3 8 2 / + * 2 ↑ 3 +

SYMBOL OPERAND 1 OPERAND 2 VALUE STACK

6 6

2 6, 2

3 6, 2, 3

+ 2 3 5 6, 5

- 6 5 1 1

3 6 5 1 1, 3

8 6 5 1 1, 3, 8

2 6 5 1 1, 3, 8, 2

/ 8 2 4 1, 3, 4

+ 3 4 7 1, 7

* 1 7 7 7

2 1 7 7 7, 2

↑ 7 2 49 49

3 7 2 49 49, 3

+ 49 3 52 52

Program to evaluate a postfix expression:

include <conio.h>
include <math.h>
define MAX 20

int isoperator(char ch)

{
if(ch == '+' || ch == '-' || ch == '*' || ch == '/' || ch == '^')
return 1;
else
return 0;
}
void main(void)
{
char postfix[MAX];
int val;
char ch;
int i = 0, top = 0;
float val_stack[MAX], val1, val2,
res; clrscr();
printf("\n Enter a postfix expression: ");
scanf("%s", postfix);
while((ch = postfix[i]) != '\0')
{
if(isoperator(ch) == 1)
{
val2 = val_stack[--top];
val1 = val_stack[--top];
switch(ch)
{
case '+':
res = val1 +
val2; break;
case '-':
res = val1 - val2;
break;
case '*':
res = val1 * val2;
break;
case '/':
res = val1 / val2;
break;
case '^':
res = pow(val1, val2);
break;
}
val_stack[top] = res;
}
else
val_stack[top] = ch-48; /*convert character digit to integer digit */
top++;
i++;
}
printf("\n Values of %s is : %f ",postfix, val_stack[0] );
getch();
}

Applications of stacks:

Stack is used by compilers to check for balancing of parentheses, brackets and

braces.

Stack is used to evaluate a postfix expression.

Stack is used to convert an infix expression into postfix/prefix form.

In recursion, all intermediate arguments and return values are stored on the
processor’s stack.

During a function call the return address and arguments are pushed onto a
stack and on return they are popped off.
 Queue:

A queue is another special kind of list, where items are inserted at one end called the
rear and deleted at the other end called the front. Another name for a queue is a “FIFO”
or “First-in-first-out” list.

The operations for a queue are analogues to those for a stack, the difference is that the
insertions go at the end of the list, rather than the beginning. We shall use the following
operations on queues:

enqueue: which inserts an element at the end of the queue.

dequeue: which deletes an element at the start of the queue.

Representation of Queue:

Let us consider a queue, which can hold maximum of five elements. Initially the queue
is empty.

0 1 2 3 4
Que u e E mpt y
F RO NT = REA R = 0

FR

Now, insert 11 to the queue. Then queue status will be:

0 1 2 3 4
REA R = REA R + 1 = 1
11
F RO NT = 0

F R

Next, insert 22 to the queue. Then the queue status is:

0 1 2 3 4
REA R = REA R + 1 = 2
11 22
F RO NT = 0

F R

Again insert another element 33 to the queue. The status of the queue is:

0 1 2 3 4
REA R = REA R + 1 = 3
11 22 33
F RO NT = 0

F R
Now, delete an element. The element deleted is the element at the front of the queue.
So the status of the queue is:

0 1 2 3 4
REA R = 3
22 33
F RO NT = F R O NT + 1 = 1

F R

Again, delete an element. The element to be deleted is always pointed to by the FRONT
pointer. So, 22 is deleted. The queue status is as follows:

0 1 2 3 4
REA R = 3
33
F RO NT = F R O NT + 1 = 2

F R

Now, insert new elements 44 and 55 into the queue. The queue status is:

0 1 2 3 4
REA R = 5
33 44 55
F RO NT = 2

F R

Next insert another element, say 66 to the queue. We cannot insert 66 to the queue as
the rear crossed the maximum size of the queue (i.e., 5). There will be queue full signal.
The queue status is as follows:

0 1 2 3 4
REA R = 5
33 44 55
F RO NT = 2

F R

Now it is not possible to insert an element 66 even though there are two vacant positions
in the linear queue. To over come this problem the elements of the queue are to be
shifted towards the beginning of the queue so that it creates vacant position at the rear
end. Then the FRONT and REAR are to be adjusted properly. The element 66 can be
inserted at the rear end. After this operation, the queue status is as follows:

0 1 2 3 4
REA R = 4
33 44 55 66
F RO NT = 0

F R

This difficulty can overcome if we treat queue position with index 0 as a position that
comes after position with index 4 i.e., we treat the queue as a circular queue.
 Source code for Queue operations using array:

In order to create a queue we require a one dimensional array Q(1:n) and two variables
front and rear. The conventions we shall adopt for these two variables are that front is
always 1 less than the actual front of the queue and rear always points to the last element
in the queue. Thus, front = rear if and only if there are no elements in the queue. The
initial condition then is front = rear = 0. The various queue operations to perform
creation, deletion and display the elements in a queue are as follows:

insertQ(): inserts an element at the end of queue Q.

deleteQ(): deletes the first element of Q.
displayQ(): displays the elements in the queue.

include <conio.h>
define MAX 6
int Q[MAX];
int front, rear;

void insertQ()
{
int data;
if(rear == MAX)
{
printf("\n Linear Queue is full");
return;
}
else
{
printf("\n Enter data: ");
scanf("%d", &data);
Q[rear] = data; rear++;

printf("\n Data Inserted in the Queue ");

}
}
void deleteQ()
{
if(rear == front)
{
printf("\n\n Queue is Empty..");
return;
}
else
{
printf("\n Deleted element from Queue is %d",
Q[front]); front++;
}
}
void displayQ()
{
int i;
if(front == rear)
{
printf("\n\n\t Queue is Empty");
return;
}
else
{
printf("\n Elements in Queue are:
"); for(i = front; i < rear; i++)
 {
printf("%d\t", Q[i]);
}
}
}
int menu()
{
int ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n \tQueue operations using ARRAY..");
printf("\n -----------**********-------------\n");
printf("\n 1. Insert ");
printf("\n 2. Delete ");
printf("\n 3. Display");
printf("\n 4. Quit ");
printf("\n Enter your choice:
"); scanf("%d", &ch);
return ch;
}
void main()
{
int ch;
do
{
ch = menu();
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
insertQ();
break;
case 2:
deleteQ();
break;
case 3:
displayQ();
break;
case 4:
return;
}
getch();
} while(1);
}

Linked List Implementation of Queue:

We can represent a queue as a linked list. In a queue data is deleted from the front end
and inserted at the rear end. We can perform similar operations on the two ends of a list.
We use two pointers front and rear for our linked queue implementation.

The linked queue looks as shown in figure 4.4:

front rear
100 400

10 200 20 300 30 400 40 X

100 200 300 400

Figure 4.4. Linked Queue representation

Source code for queue operations using linked list:

include <stdlib.h>
include <conio.h>

struct queue
{
int data;
struct queue *next;
};
typedef struct queue node;
node *front = NULL;
node *rear = NULL;

node* getnode()
{
node *temp;
temp = (node *) malloc(sizeof(node)) ;
printf("\n Enter data ");
scanf("%d", &temp -> data);
temp -> next = NULL; return
temp;
}
void insertQ()
{
node *newnode;
newnode = getnode();
if(newnode == NULL)
{
printf("\n Queue Full");
return;
}
if(front == NULL)
{
front = newnode;
rear = newnode;
}
else
{
rear -> next = newnode;
rear = newnode;
}
printf("\n\n\t Data Inserted into the Queue..");
}
void deleteQ()
{
node *temp;
if(front == NULL)
{
printf("\n\n\t Empty Queue..");
return;
}
temp = front;
front = front -> next;
printf("\n\n\t Deleted element from queue is %d ", temp ->
data); free(temp);
}
void displayQ()
{
node *temp;
if(front == NULL)
{
printf("\n\n\t\t Empty Queue ");
}
else
{
temp = front;
printf("\n\n\n\t\t Elements in the Queue are: ");
while(temp != NULL )
{
printf("%5d ", temp -> data);
temp = temp -> next;
}
}
}

char menu()
{
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n \t..Queue operations using pointers.. ");
printf("\n\t -----------**********-------------\n");
printf("\n 1. Insert ");
printf("\n 2. Delete ");
printf("\n 3. Display");
printf("\n 4. Quit ");
printf("\n Enter your choice: ");
ch = getche();
return ch;
}

void main()
{
char ch;
do
{
ch = menu();
switch(ch)
{
case '1' :
insertQ();
break;
case '2' :
deleteQ();
break;
case '3' :
displayQ();
break;
case '4':
return;
}
getch();
} while(ch != '4');
}
 Applications of Queue:

It is used to schedule the jobs to be processed by the CPU.

When multiple users send print jobs to a printer, each printing job is kept in
the printing queue. Then the printer prints those jobs according to first in first
out (FIFO) basis.

Breadth first search uses a queue data structure to find an element from a
graph.

Circular Queue:

A more efficient queue representation is obtained by regarding the array Q[MAX] as

circular. Any number of items could be placed on the queue. This implementation of a
queue is called a circular queue because it uses its storage array as if it were a circle
instead of a linear list.

There are two problems associated with linear queue. They are:

Time consuming: linear time to be spent in shifting the elements to the

beginning of the queue.

Signaling queue full: even if the queue is having vacant position.

For example, let us consider a linear queue status as follows:

0 1 2 3 4
REA R = 5
33 44 55
F RO NT = 2

F R

Next insert another element, say 66 to the queue. We cannot insert 66 to the queue as
the rear crossed the maximum size of the queue (i.e., 5). There will be queue full signal.
The queue status is as follows:

0 1 2 3 4
REA R = 5
33 44 55
F RO NT = 2

F R

This difficulty can be overcome if we treat queue position with index zero as a position
that comes after position with index four then we treat the queue as a circular queue.

In circular queue if we reach the end for inserting elements to it, it is possible to insert
new elements if the slots at the beginning of the circular queue are empty.
 Representation of Circular Queue:

Let us consider a circular queue, which can hold maximum (MAX) of six elements.
Initially the queue is empty.

F R

5 0

1 Que u e E mpt y
4 MAX=6
F RO NT = REA R = 0
CO U NT = 0

3 2

Circ ular Que ue

Now, insert 11 to the circular queue. Then circular queue status will be:

5 0
R
11

1 F RO NT = 0
4 REA R = ( REA R + 1) % 6 = 1
CO U NT = 1

3 2

Circ ular Que ue

Insert new elements 22, 33, 44 and 55 into the circular queue. The circular queue
status is:
F
R
0
5
11

22 1 FRONT = 0
4 55
REAR = (REAR + 1) % 6 = 5
COUNT = 5

44 33
2
3

Circular Queue
Now, delete an element. The element deleted is the element at the front of the circular
queue. So, 11 is deleted. The circular queue status is as follows:

R
0
5
F

22 1 F RO NT = (F R O NT + 1) % 6 = 1
4 55 REA R = 5
CO U NT = CO U NT - 1 = 4

44 33

3 2

Circ ular Que ue

Again, delete an element. The element to be deleted is always pointed to by the FRONT
pointer. So, 22 is deleted. The circular queue status is as follows:

0
5

1 F RO NT = (F R O NT + 1) % 6 = 2
4 55 REA R = 5
CO U NT = CO U NT - 1 = 3

44 33
F
3 2

Circ ular Que ue

Again, insert another element 66 to the circular queue. The status of the circular queue
is:
R

0
5
66

1
4 55 F RO NT = 2
REA R = ( REA R + 1) % 6 = 0
CO U NT = CO U NT + 1 = 4
44 33

3 2 F

Circ ular Que ue

Now, insert new elements 77 and 88 into the circular queue. The circular queue status
is:

0
5
66 77

88 1
4 55 F RO NT = 2, REA R = 2
REA R = REA R % 6 = 2
CO U NT = 6
44 33
2 R
3 F

Circ ular Que ue

Now, if we insert an element to the circular queue, as COUNT = MAX we cannot add the
element to circular queue. So, the circular queue is full.

Source code for Circular Queue operations, using array:

include <stdio.h>
include <conio.h>
define MAX 6

int CQ[MAX];
int front = 0;
int rear = 0;
int count = 0;

void insertCQ()
{
int data;
if(count == MAX)
{
printf("\n Circular Queue is Full");
}
else
{
printf("\n Enter data: ");
scanf("%d", &data);
CQ[rear] = data;
rear = (rear + 1) % MAX;
count ++;
printf("\n Data Inserted in the Circular Queue ");
}
}

void deleteCQ()
{
if(count == 0)
{
printf("\n\nCircular Queue is Empty..");
}
else
{
printf("\n Deleted element from Circular Queue is %d ", CQ[front]);
front = (front + 1) % MAX;
count --;
}
}
void displayCQ()
{
int i, j;
if(count == 0)
{
printf("\n\n\t Circular Queue is Empty ");
}
else
{
printf("\n Elements in Circular Queue are: ");
j = count;
for(i = front; j != 0; j--)
{
printf("%d\t", CQ[i]);
i = (i + 1) % MAX;
}
}
}

int menu()
{
int ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n \t Circular Queue Operations using ARRAY..");
printf("\n -----------**********-------------\n");
printf("\n 1. Insert ");
printf("\n 2. Delete ");
printf("\n 3. Display");
printf("\n 4. Quit ");
printf("\n Enter Your Choice:
"); scanf("%d", &ch);
return ch;
}

void main()
{
int ch;
do
{
ch = menu();
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
insertCQ();
break;
case 2:
deleteCQ();
break;
case 3:
displayCQ();
break;
case 4:
return;
default:
printf("\n Invalid Choice ");
}
getch();
} while(1);
}
 Deque:

In the preceding section we saw that a queue in which we insert items at one end and
from which we remove items at the other end. In this section we examine an extension
of the queue, which provides a means to insert and remove items at both ends of the
queue. This data structure is a deque. The word deque is an acronym derived from
double-ended queue. Figure 4.5 shows the representation of a deque.

Deletion Insertion
36 16 56 62 19

Insertion Deletion
front rear

Figure 4.5. Representation of a deque.

A deque provides four operations. Figure 4.6 shows the basic operations on a deque.

enqueue_front: insert an element at front.

dequeue_front: delete an element at front.
enqueue_rear: insert element at rear.
dequeue_rear: delete element at rear.

11 22 enqueue_front(33) 33 11 22 enqueue_rear(44) 33 11 22 44

dequeue_front(33)

55 11 22 enqueue_front(55) 11 22 dequeue_rear(44) 11 22 44

Figure 4.6. Basic operations on deque

There are two variations of deque. They are:

Input restricted deque (IRD)

Output restricted deque (ORD)

An Input restricted deque is a deque, which allows insertions at one end but allows
deletions at both ends of the list.

An output restricted deque is a deque, which allows deletions at one end but
allows insertions at both ends of the list.

4.10. Priority Queue:

A priority queue is a collection of elements such that each element has been assigned a
priority and such that the order in which elements are deleted and processed comes
from the following rules:

An element of higher priority is processed before any element of lower

priority.

two elements with same priority are processed according to the order in which
they were added to the queue.

A prototype of a priority queue is time sharing system: programs of high priority are
processed first, and programs with the same priority form a standard queue. An efficient
implementation for the Priority Queue is to use heap, which in turn can be used for
sorting purpose called heap sort.
Chapter
5
Binary Trees
A data structure is said to be linear if its elements form a sequence or a
linear list. Previous linear data structures that we have studied like an
array, stacks, queues and linked lists organize data in linear order. A data
structure is said to be non linear if its elements form a hierarchical
classification where, data items appear at various levels.

Trees and Graphs are widely used non-linear data structures. Tree and
graph structures represents hierarchial relationship between individual
data elements. Graphs are nothing but trees with certain restrictions
removed.

In this chapter in particular, we will explain special type of trees known as

binary trees, which are easy to maintain in the computer.

TREES:

A tree is hierarchical collection of nodes. One of the nodes, known as the root, is at the
top of the hierarchy. Each node can have at most one link coming into it. The node where
the link originates is called the parent node. The root node has no parent. The links
leaving a node (any number of links are allowed) point to child nodes. Trees are recursive
structures. Each child node is itself the root of a subtree. At the bottom of the tree are
leaf nodes, which have no children.

Trees represent a special case of more general structures known as graphs. In a graph,
there is no restrictions on the number of links that can enter or leave a node, and cycles
may be present in the graph. The figure 5.1.1 shows a tree and a non-tree.

a
a

b c b c

d e f d e

A Tree Not a Tree

Figure 5.1.1 A Tree and a not a tree

In a tree data structure, there is no distinction between the various children of a node
i.e., none is the "first child" or "last child". A tree in which such distinctions are made is
called an ordered tree, and data structures built on them are called ordered tree data
structures. Ordered trees are by far the commonest form of tree data structure.
 BINARY TREE:

In general, tree nodes can have any number of children. In a binary tree, each node can
have at most two children. A binary tree is either empty or consists of a node called the
root together with two binary trees called the left subtree and the right subtree.

A tree with no nodes is called as a null tree. A binary tree is shown in figure 5.2.1.

left child B C right child

right subtree
left subtree D E F G

H I

Figure 5.2.1. Binary Tree

Binary trees are easy to implement because they have a small, fixed number of child
links. Because of this characteristic, binary trees are the most common types of trees
and form the basis of many important data structures.

Tree Terminology:

Leaf node

A node with no children is called a leaf (or external node). A node which is not a
leaf is called an internal node.

Path
A sequence of nodes n1, n2, . . ., nk, such that ni is the parent of ni + 1 for i = 1,
2,. . ., k - 1. The length of a path is 1 less than the number of nodes on the path.
Thus there is a path of length zero from a node to itself.

For the tree shown in figure 5.2.1, the path between A and I is A, B, D, I.

Siblings

The children of the same parent are called siblings.

For the tree shown in figure 5.2.1, F and G are the siblings of the parent node C
and H and I are the siblings of the parent node D.

Ancestor and Descendent

If there is a path from node A to node B, then A is called an ancestor of B and

B is called a descendent of A.

Subtree

Any node of a tree, with all of its descendants is a subtree.

Level
The level of the node refers to its distance from the root. The root of the tree has
level O, and the level of any other node in the tree is one more than the level of
its parent. For example, in the binary tree of Figure 5.2.1 node F is at level 2 and
node H is at level 3. The maximum number of nodes at any level is
2n.

Height

The maximum level in a tree determines its height. The height of a node in a tree
is the length of a longest path from the node to a leaf. The term depth is also
used to denote height of the tree. The height of the tree of Figure 5.2.1 is 3.

Depth
The depth of a node is the number of nodes along the path from the root to that
node. For instance, node ‘C’ in figure 5.2.1 has a depth of 1.

Assigning level numbers and Numbering of nodes for a binary tree:

The nodes of a binary tree can be numbered in a natural way, level by level, left
to right. The nodes of a complete binary tree can be numbered so that the root is
assigned the number 1, a left child is assigned twice the number assigned its
parent, and a right child is assigned one more than twice the number assigned its
parent. For example, see Figure 5.2.2.

Level 0
1

Level 1
2 3

Level 2
4 5 6 7

Level 3
8 9

Figure 5.2.2. Level by level numbering of binary tree

Properties of binary trees:

Some of the important properties of a binary tree are as follows:

If h = height of a binary tree, then

Maximum number of leaves = 2h

Maximum number of nodes = 2h + 1 - 1

If a binary tree contains m nodes at level l, it contains at most 2m nodes at level

l + 1.

Since a binary tree can contain at most one node at level 0 (the root), it can
contain at most 2l node at level l.

The total number of edges in a full binary tree with n node is n - 1.

Strictly Binary tree:

If every non-leaf node in a binary tree has nonempty left and right subtrees, the
tree is termed as strictly binary tree. Thus the tree of figure 5.2.3(a) is strictly
binary. A strictly binary tree with n leaves always contains 2n - 1 nodes.

Full Binary tree:

A full binary tree of height h has all its leaves at level h. Alternatively; All non
leaf nodes of a full binary tree have two children, and the leaf nodes have no
children.

A full binary tree with height h has 2h + 1 - 1 nodes. A full binary tree of height h
is a strictly binary tree all of whose leaves are at level h. Figure 5.2.3(d) illustrates
the full binary tree containing 15 nodes and of height 3.
A full binary tree of height h contains 2h leaves and, 2h - 1 non-leaf nodes.
h
Thus by induction, total number of nodes ( tn) = ∑ 2 l = 2 h + 1 −1.
l=0

For example, a full binary tree of height 3 contains 2 3+1 – 1 = 15 nodes.

1
1 Strict Binary Tree
(a)
2 3
2 3

6 7 4 5 6 7

12 13 8 9 Strictly Complete (b)

binary tree

1
1

2 3
2 3

4 5 6 7
4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
8 9 10

Complete binary tree (c) Full binary tree (d)

Figure 5.2.3. Examples of binary trees

Complete Binary tree:

A binary tree with n nodes is said to be complete if it contains all the first n nodes
of the above numbering scheme. Figure 5.2.4 shows examples of complete and
incomplete binary trees.

A complete binary tree of height h looks like a full binary tree down to level h-1,
and the level h is filled from left to right.
 A complete binary tree with n leaves that is not strictly binary has 2n nodes. For
example, the tree of Figure 5.2.3(c) is a complete binary tree having 5 leaves and
10 nodes.

1 1 1

2 3 2 3 2

4 5 6 4 5 7 4

Complete Binary Tree Not Complete and not Not Complete and not
but not strict strict strict
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.2.4. Examples of complete and incomplete binary trees

Internal and external nodes:

We define two terms: Internal nodes and external nodes. An internal node is a tree node
having at least one–key and possibly some children. It is some times convenient to have
another types of nodes, called an external node, and pretend that all null child links point
to such a node. An external node doesn’t exist, but serves as a conceptual place holder
for nodes to be inserted.

We draw internal nodes using circles, with letters as labels. External nodes are denoted
by squares. The square node version is sometimes called an extended binary tree. A
binary tree with n internal nodes has n+1 external nodes. Figure 5.2.6 shows a sample
tree illustrating both internal and external nodes.

a d Internal Nodes: a, b, c, d
External Nodes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
1 b 4 5

2 3

Figure 5.2.6. Internal and external nodes

Data Structures for Binary Trees:

Arrays; especially suited for complete and full binary trees.

Pointer-based.

Array-based Implementation:

Binary trees can also be stored in arrays, and if the tree is a complete binary tree, this
method wastes no space. In this compact arrangement, if a node has an index i, its
children are found at indices 2i+1 and 2i+2, while its parent (if any) is found at index
floor((i-1)/2) (assuming the root of the tree stored in the array at an index zero).
This method benefits from more compact storage and better locality of reference,
particularly during a preorder traversal. However, it requires contiguous memory,
expensive to grow and wastes space proportional to 2 h - n for a tree of height h with n
nodes.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Linked Representation (Pointer based):

Array representation is good for complete binary tree, but it is wasteful for many other
binary trees. The representation suffers from insertion and deletion of node from the
middle of the tree, as it requires the moment of potentially many nodes to reflect the
change in level number of this node. To overcome this difficulty we represent the binary
tree in linked representation.
In linked representation each node in a binary has three fields, the left child field denoted
as LeftChild, data field denoted as data and the right child field denoted as RightChild. If
any sub-tree is empty then the corresponding pointer’s LeftChild and RightChild will store
a NULL value. If the tree itself is empty the root pointer will store a NULL value.

The advantage of using linked representation of binary tree is that:

Insertion and deletion involve no data movement and no movement of nodes

except the rearrangement of pointers.

The disadvantages of linked representation of binary tree includes:

Given a node structure, it is difficult to determine its parent node.

Memory spaces are wasted for storing NULL pointers for the nodes, which
have no subtrees.

The structure definition, node representation empty binary tree is shown in figure 5.2.6
and the linked representation of binary tree using this node structure is given in figure
5.2.7.

struct binarytree node:

{
struct binarytree *LeftChild;
LeftChild data RightChild
int data;
struct binarytree *RightChild;
};
Empty Tree: root
typedef struct binarytree node;
NULL
node *root = NULL;
Figure 5.2.6. Structure definition, node representation and empty tree
 A root

B C
A

D E F G
B C
H I

D X E X X F X X G X

X H X X I X

Figure 5.2.7. Linked representation for the binary tree

Binary Tree Traversal Techniques:

A tree traversal is a method of visiting every node in the tree. By visit, we mean that
some type of operation is performed. For example, you may wish to print the contents
of the nodes.

There are four common ways to traverse a binary tree:

Preorder
Inorder
Postorder
Level order

In the first three traversal methods, the left subtree of a node is traversed before the
right subtree. The difference among them comes from the difference in the time at which
a root node is visited.

5.3.1. Recursive Traversal Algorithms:

Inorder Traversal:

In the case of inorder traversal, the root of each subtree is visited after its left subtree
has been traversed but before the traversal of its right subtree begins. The steps for
traversing a binary tree in inorder traversal are:

Visit the left subtree, using inorder.

Visit the root.
Visit the right subtree, using inorder.

The algorithm for inorder traversal is as follows:

void inorder(node *root)

{
if(root != NULL)
{
inorder(root->lchild);
 print root -> data;
inorder(root->rchild);
}
}

Preorder Traversal:

In a preorder traversal, each root node is visited before its left and right subtrees are
traversed. Preorder search is also called backtracking. The steps for traversing a binary
tree in preorder traversal are:

Visit the root.

Visit the left subtree, using preorder.
Visit the right subtree, using preorder.

The algorithm for preorder traversal is as follows:

void preorder(node *root)

{
if( root != NULL )
{
print root -> data;
preorder (root -> lchild);
preorder (root -> rchild);
}
}

Postorder Traversal:

In a postorder traversal, each root is visited after its left and right subtrees have been
traversed. The steps for traversing a binary tree in postorder traversal are:

Visit the left subtree, using postorder.

Visit the right subtree, using postorder
Visit the root.

The algorithm for postorder traversal is as follows:

void postorder(node *root)

{
if( root != NULL )
{
postorder (root -> lchild);
postorder (root -> rchild);
print (root -> data);
}
}

Level order Traversal:

In a level order traversal, the nodes are visited level by level starting from the root, and
going from left to right. The level order traversal requires a queue data structure. So, it
is not possible to develop a recursive procedure to traverse the binary tree in level order.
This is nothing but a breadth first search technique.
The algorithm for level order traversal is as follows:

void levelorder()
{
int j;
for(j = 0; j < ctr; j++)
{
if(tree[j] != NULL)
print tree[j] -> data;
}
}

Example 1:

Traverse the following binary tree in pre, post, inorder and level order.

A Preo rder traversal yields: A, B,

D, C , E, G , F , H, I
B C
Posto rder traversal yields: D, B,
G , E, H, I, F , C , A
D E F

Ino rder traversal yields: D, B,

G H I A, E, G , C , H, F , I

Level o rder traversal yields: A, B, C

, D, E, F , G , H, I

Bina ry T re e Pre, P o st, Inorder a nd lev e l order T rav ers ing

Example 2:

Traverse the following binary tree in pre, post, inorder and level order.

Preo rder traversal yields:

P
P, F , B, H, G , S, R, Y, T, W, Z
F S
Posto rder traversal yields:
B H R Y B, G , H, F , R, W, T, Z, Y, S, P

Ino rder traversal yields:

G T Z B, F , G , H, P, R, S, T, W, Y, Z

W Level o rder traversal yields: P, F , S,

B, H, R, Y, G , T, Z, W

Bina ry T re e Pre, P o st, Inorder a nd lev e l order T rav ers ing

Example 3:

Traverse the following binary tree in pre, post, inorder and level order.

• Preo rder traversal yields:

2
2, 7 , 2 , 6 , 5 , 11 , 5 , 9 , 4
7 5
• Posto rder travarsal yields:
2, 5 , 11 , 6 , 7 , 4 , 9 , 5 , 2
2 6 9

• Ino rder travarsal yields:

5 11 4 2, 7 , 5 , 6 , 11 , 2 , 5 , 4 , 9

• Level o rder traversal yields:

2, 7 , 5 , 2 , 6 , 9 , 5 , 11 , 4

Bina ry T re e Pre, P o st, Inorder a nd lev e l order T rav ers ing

Example 4:

Traverse the following binary tree in pre, post, inorder and level order.

Preo rder traversal yields: A, B, D,

A G , K, H, L, M , C , E
B C
Posto rder travarsal yields: K, G ,
L, M , H, D, B, E, C , A
D E
Ino rder travarsal yields: K, G , D,
G H L, H, M , B, A, E, C

K L M Level o rder traversal yields: A, B, C

, D, E, G , H, K, L, M
Bina ry T re e Pre, P o st, Inorder a nd lev e l order T rav ers ing

Building Binary Tree from Traversal Pairs:

Sometimes it is required to construct a binary tree if its traversals are known. From a
single traversal it is not possible to construct unique binary tree. However any of the two
traversals are given then the corresponding tree can be drawn uniquely:

Inorder and preorder

Inorder and postorder
Inorder and level order

The basic principle for formulation is as follows:

If the preorder traversal is given, then the first node is the root node. If the postorder
traversal is given then the last node is the root node. Once the root node is identified, all
the nodes in the left sub-trees and right sub-trees of the root node can be identified using
inorder.

Same technique can be applied repeatedly to form sub-trees.

It can be noted that, for the purpose mentioned, two traversal are essential out of which
one should be inorder traversal and another preorder or postorder; alternatively, given
preorder and postorder traversals, binary tree cannot be obtained uniquely.

Example 1:

Construct a binary tree from a given preorder and inorder sequence:

Preorder: A B D G C E H I F
Inorder: D G B A H E I C F

Solution:

From Preorder sequence A B D G C E H I F, the root is: A

From Inorder sequence D G B A H E I C F, we get the left and right sub trees:

Left sub tree is: D G B

Right sub tree is: H E I C F

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

DGB HEICF

To find the root, left and right sub trees for D G B:

From the preorder sequence B D G, the root of tree is: B

From the inorder sequence D G B, we can find that D and G are to the left of B.

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

B HEICF

DG

To find the root, left and right sub trees for D G:

From the preorder sequence D G, the root of the tree is: D

From the inorder sequence D G, we can find that there is no left node to D and G is at
the right of D.
The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

B HEICF

To find the root, left and right sub trees for H E I C F:

From the preorder sequence C E H I F, the root of the left sub tree is: C

From the inorder sequence H E I C F, we can find that H E I are at the left of C and F is
at the right of C.

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

B C

D F
HEI

To find the root, left and right sub trees for H E I:

From the preorder sequence E H I, the root of the tree is: E

From the inorder sequence H E I, we can find that H is at the left of E and I is at the
right of E.

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

B C

D E F

G H I

Example 2:

Construct a binary tree from a given postorder and inorder sequence:

Inorder: D G B A H E I C F
Postorder: G D B H I E F C A
Solution:

From Postorder sequence G D B H I E F C A, the root is: A

From Inorder sequence D G B A H E I C F, we get the left and right sub trees:

Left sub tree is: D G B

Right sub tree is: H E I C F

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

DGB HEICF

To find the root, left and right sub trees for D G B:

From the postorder sequence G D B, the root of tree is: B

From the inorder sequence D G B, we can find that D G are to the left of B and there is
no right subtree for B.

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

B HEICF

DG

To find the root, left and right sub trees for D G:

From the postorder sequence G D, the root of the tree is: D

From the inorder sequence D G, we can find that is no left subtree for D and G is to the
right of D.

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

B HEICF

To find the root, left and right sub trees for H E I C F:

From the postorder sequence H I E F C, the root of the left sub tree is: C

From the inorder sequence H E I C F, we can find that H E I are to the left of C and F is
the right subtree for C.
The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

B C

D HEI F

To find the root, left and right sub trees for H E I:

From the postorder sequence H I E, the root of the tree is: E

From the inorder sequence H E I, we can find that H is left subtree for E and I is to the
right of E.

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

B C

D E F

G H I

Example 3:

Construct a binary tree from a given preorder and inorder sequence:

Inorder: n1 n2 n3 n4 n5 n6 n7 n8 n9
Preorder: n6 n2 n1 n4 n3 n5 n9 n7 n8

Solution:

From Preorder sequence n6 n2 n1 n4 n3 n5 n9 n7 n8, the root is: n6

From Inorder sequence n1 n2 n3 n4 n5 n6 n7 n8 n9, we get the left and right sub
trees:

Left sub tree is: n1 n2 n3 n4 n5

Right sub tree is: n7 n8 n9

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

n6

n1 n2 n3 n4 n5 n7 n8 n9
To find the root, left and right sub trees for n1 n2 n3 n4 n5:

From the preorder sequence n2 n1 n4 n3 n5, the root of tree is: n2

From the inorder sequence n1 n2 n3 n4 n5, we can find that n1 is to the left of n2 and
n3 n4 n5 are to the right of n2. The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

n6

n2 n7 n8 n9

n1 n3 n4 n5

To find the root, left and right sub trees for n3 n4 n5:

From the preorder sequence n4 n3 n5, the root of the tree is: n4

From the inorder sequence n3 n4 n5, we can find that n3 is to the left of n4 and n5 is
at the right of n4.

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

n6

n2 n7 n8 n9

n1 n4

n3 n5

To find the root, left and right sub trees for n7 n8 n9:

From the preorder sequence n9 n7 n8, the root of the left sub tree is: n9

From the inorder sequence n7 n8 n9, we can find that n7 and n8 are at the left of n9
and no right subtree of n9.

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

n6

n9
n2

n1 n4 n7 n8

n3 n5

To find the root, left and right sub trees for n7 n8:

From the preorder sequence n7 n8, the root of the tree is: n7
From the inorder sequence n7 n8, we can find that is no left subtree for n7 and n8 is at
the right of n7.

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

n6

n9
n2

n1 n4 n7

n3 n5 n8

Example 4:

Construct a binary tree from a given postorder and inorder sequence:

Inorder: n1 n2 n3 n4 n5 n6 n7 n8 n9
Postorder: n1 n3 n5 n4 n2 n8 n7 n9 n6

Solution:

From Postorder sequence n1 n3 n5 n4 n2 n8 n7 n9 n6, the root is: n6

From Inorder sequence n1 n2 n3 n4 n5 n6 n7 n8 n9, we get the left and right sub
trees:

Left sub tree is: n1 n2 n3 n4 n5

Right sub tree is: n7 n8 n9

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

n6

n1 n2 n3 n4 n5 n7 n8 n9

To find the root, left and right sub trees for n1 n2 n3 n4 n5:

From the postorder sequence n1 n3 n5 n4 n2, the root of tree is: n2

From the inorder sequence n1 n2 n3 n4 n5, we can find that n1 is to the left of n2 and
n3 n4 n5 are to the right of n2.

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

n6

n2 n7 n8 n9

n1 n3 n4 n5
To find the root, left and right sub trees for n3 n4 n5:

From the postorder sequence n3 n5 n4, the root of the tree is: n4

From the inorder sequence n3 n4 n5, we can find that n3 is to the left of n4 and n5 is
to the right of n4. The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

n6

n2 n7 n8 n9

n1 n4

n3 n5

To find the root, left and right sub trees for n7 n8 and n9:

From the postorder sequence n8 n7 n9, the root of the left sub tree is: n9

From the inorder sequence n7 n8 n9, we can find that n7 and n8 are to the left of n9
and no right subtree for n9.

The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

n6

n2 n9

n1 n4 n7 n8

n3 n5

To find the root, left and right sub trees for n7 and n8:

From the postorder sequence n8 n7, the root of the tree is: n7

From the inorder sequence n7 n8, we can find that there is no left subtree for n7 and
n8 is to the right of n7. The Binary tree upto this point looks like:

n6

n2 n9

n1 n4 n7

n3 n5 n8
 Binary Tree Creation and Traversal Using Arrays:

This program performs the following operations:

1. Creates a complete Binary Tree

2. Inorder traversal
3. Preorder traversal
4. Postorder traversal
5. Level order traversal
6. Prints leaf nodes
7. Finds height of the tree created

# include <stdio.h>
# include <stdlib.h>

struct tree
{
struct tree* lchild;
char data[10];
struct tree* rchild;
};

typedef struct tree node;

int ctr;
node *tree[100];

node* getnode()
{
node *temp ;
temp = (node*) malloc(sizeof(node));
printf("\n Enter Data: ");
scanf("%s",temp->data); temp-
>lchild = NULL;
temp->rchild = NULL;
return temp;
}

void create_fbinarytree()
{
int j, i=0;
printf("\n How many nodes you want: ");
scanf("%d",&ctr);
tree[0] = getnode();
j = ctr;
j--;
do
{
if( j > 0 ) /* left child */
{
tree[ i * 2 + 1 ] = getnode();
tree[i]->lchild = tree[i * 2 + 1];
j--;
}
if( j > 0 ) /* right child */
{
tree[i * 2 + 2] = getnode();
j--;
tree[i]->rchild = tree[i * 2 + 2];
}
i++;
} while( j > 0);
}
void inorder(node *root)
{
if( root != NULL )
{
inorder(root->lchild);
printf("%3s",root->data);
inorder(root->rchild);
}
}

void preorder(node *root)

{
if( root != NULL )
{
printf("%3s",root->data);
preorder(root->lchild);
preorder(root->rchild);
}
}

void postorder(node *root)

{
if( root != NULL )
{
postorder(root->lchild);
postorder(root->rchild);
printf("%3s",root->data);
}
}

void levelorder()
{
int j;
for(j = 0; j < ctr; j++)
{
if(tree[j] != NULL)
printf("%3s",tree[j]->data);
}
}

void print_leaf(node *root)

{
if(root != NULL)
{
if(root->lchild == NULL && root->rchild ==
NULL) printf("%3s ",root->data);
print_leaf(root->lchild); print_leaf(root->rchild);

}
}

int height(node *root)

{
if(root == NULL)
{
return 0;
}
 if(root->lchild == NULL && root->rchild == NULL)
return 0;
else
return (1 + max(height(root->lchild), height(root->rchild)));
}

void main()
{
int i;
create_fbinarytree();
printf("\n Inorder Traversal: ");
inorder(tree[0]);
printf("\n Preorder Traversal: ");
preorder(tree[0]);
printf("\n Postorder Traversal: ");
postorder(tree[0]);
printf("\n Level Order Traversal: ");
levelorder();
printf("\n Leaf Nodes:
"); print_leaf(tree[0]);
printf("\n Height of Tree: %d ", height(tree[0]));
}

Binary Tree Creation and Traversal Using Pointers:

This program performs the following operations:

Creates a complete Binary Tree

Inorder traversal
Preorder traversal
Postorder traversal
Level order traversal
Prints leaf nodes
Finds height of the tree created
Deletes last node
Finds height of the tree created

include <stdio.h>
include <stdlib.h>

struct tree
{
struct tree* lchild;
char data[10];
struct tree* rchild;
};

typedef struct tree node;

node *Q[50];
int node_ctr;

node* getnode()
{
node *temp ;
temp = (node*) malloc(sizeof(node));
printf("\n Enter Data: ");
fflush(stdin); scanf("%s",temp-
>data); temp->lchild = NULL;

temp->rchild = NULL;
return temp;
}
void create_binarytree(node *root)
{
char option;
node_ctr = 1;
if( root != NULL )
{
printf("\n Node %s has Left SubTree(Y/N)",root->data);
fflush(stdin);
scanf("%c",&option);
if( option=='Y' || option == 'y')
{
root->lchild = getnode();
node_ctr++;
create_binarytree(root->lchild);
}
else
{
root->lchild = NULL;
create_binarytree(root->lchild);
}

printf("\n Node %s has Right SubTree(Y/N) ",root->data);

fflush(stdin);
scanf("%c",&option);
if( option=='Y' || option == 'y')
{
root->rchild = getnode();
node_ctr++;
create_binarytree(root->rchild);
}
else
{
root->rchild = NULL;
create_binarytree(root->rchild);
}
}
}

void make_Queue(node *root,int parent)

{
if(root != NULL)
{
node_ctr++;
Q[parent] = root;
make_Queue(root->lchild,parent*2+1);
make_Queue(root->rchild,parent*2+2);
}
}

delete_node(node *root, int parent)

{
int index = 0;
if(root == NULL)
printf("\n Empty TREE ");
else
{
node_ctr = 0;
make_Queue(root,0);
index = node_ctr-1;
Q[index] = NULL;
parent = (index-1) /2;
if( 2* parent + 1 == index )
Q[parent]->lchild = NULL;
 else
Q[parent]->rchild = NULL;
}
printf("\n Node Deleted ..");
}

void inorder(node *root)

{
if(root != NULL)
{
inorder(root->lchild);
printf("%3s",root->data);
inorder(root->rchild);
}
}

void preorder(node *root)

{
if( root != NULL )
{
printf("%3s",root->data);
preorder(root->lchild);
preorder(root->rchild);
}
}

void postorder(node *root)

{
if( root != NULL )
{
postorder(root->lchild);
postorder(root->rchild);
printf("%3s", root->data);
}
}

void print_leaf(node *root)

{
if(root != NULL)
{
if(root->lchild == NULL && root->rchild ==
NULL) printf("%3s ",root->data);
print_leaf(root->lchild); print_leaf(root->rchild);

}
}

int height(node *root)

{
if(root == NULL)
return -1;
else
return (1 + max(height(root->lchild), height(root->rchild)));
}

void print_tree(node *root, int line)

{
int i;
if(root != NULL)
{
print_tree(root-
>rchild,line+1); printf("\n");
for(i=0;i<line;i++)
 printf(" "); printf("%s",
root->data); print_tree(root-
>lchild,line+1);
}
}

void level_order(node *Q[],int ctr)

{
int i;
for( i = 0; i < ctr ; i++)
{
if( Q[i] != NULL )
printf("%5s",Q[i]->data);
}
}

int menu()
{
int ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n 1. Create Binary Tree ");
printf("\n 2. Inorder Traversal ");
printf("\n 3. Preorder Traversal ");
printf("\n 4. Postorder Traversal ");
printf("\n 5. Level Order Traversal");
printf("\n 6. Leaf Node ");
printf("\n 7. Print Height of Tree ");
printf("\n 8. Print Binary Tree ");
printf("\n 9. Delete a node ");
printf("\n 10. Quit ");
printf("\n Enter Your choice: ");
scanf("%d", &ch);
return ch;
}

void main()
{
int i,ch;
node *root = NULL;
do
{
ch = menu();
switch( ch)
{
case 1 :
if( root == NULL )
{
root = getnode();
create_binarytree(root);
}
else
{
printf("\n Tree is already Created ..");
}
break;
case 2 :
printf("\n Inorder Traversal: ");
inorder(root);
break;
case 3 :
printf("\n Preorder Traversal: ");
preorder(root);
break;
 case 4 :
printf("\n Postorder Traversal: ");
postorder(root);
break;
case 5:
printf("\n Level Order Traversal ..");
make_Queue(root,0);
level_order(Q,node_ctr);
break;
case 6 :
printf("\n Leaf Nodes:
"); print_leaf(root);
break;
case 7 :
printf("\n Height of Tree: %d ", height(root));
break;
case 8 :
printf("\n Print Tree \n");
print_tree(root, 0);
break;
case 9 :
delete_node(root,0);
break;
case 10 :
exit(0);
}
getch();
}while(1);
}

Non Recursive Traversal Algorithms:

At first glance, it appears that we would always want to use the flat traversal functions
since they use less stack space. But the flat versions are not necessarily better. For
instance, some overhead is associated with the use of an explicit stack, which may negate
the savings we gain from storing only node pointers. Use of the implicit function call stack
may actually be faster due to special machine instructions that can be used.

Inorder Traversal:

Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following steps
until the stack is empty:

Proceed down the left most path rooted at vertex, pushing each vertex onto the
stack and stop when there is no left son of vertex.

Pop and process the nodes on stack if zero is popped then exit. If a vertex with
right son exists, then set right son of vertex as current vertex and return to
step one.

Algorithm inorder()
{
stack[1] = 0
vertex = root
top: while(vertex ≠ 0)
{
push the vertex into the stack
vertex = leftson(vertex)
 }

pop the element from the stack and make it as vertex

while(vertex ≠ 0)
{
print the vertex node
if(rightson(vertex) ≠ 0)
{
vertex = rightson(vertex)
goto top
}
pop the element from the stack and made it as vertex
}
}

Preorder Traversal:

Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following
steps until the stack is empty:

Proceed down the left most path by pushing the right son of vertex onto stack, if
any and process each vertex. The traversing ends after a vertex with no left child
exists.

Pop the vertex from stack, if vertex ≠ 0 then return to step one otherwise exit.

Algorithm preorder( )
{
stack[1] = 0
vertex = root.
while(vertex ≠ 0)
{
print vertex node
if(rightson(vertex) ≠ 0)
push the right son of vertex into the stack.
if(leftson(vertex) ≠ 0)
vertex = leftson(vertex)
else
pop the element from the stack and made it as vertex
}
}

Postorder Traversal:

Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following
steps until the stack is empty:

Proceed down the left most path rooted at vertex. At each vertex of path push
vertex on to stack and if vertex has a right son push –(right son of vertex) onto
stack.

Pop and process the positive nodes (left nodes). If zero is popped then exit. If a
negative node is popped, then ignore the sign and return to step one.
Algorithm postorder( )
{
stack[1] = 0
vertex = root

top: while(vertex ≠ 0)
{
push vertex onto stack
if(rightson(vertex) ≠ 0)
push – (vertex) onto stack
vertex = leftson(vertex)
}
pop from stack and make it as
vertex while(vertex > 0)
{
print the vertex node
pop from stack and make it as vertex
}
if(vertex < 0)
{
vertex = - (vertex)
goto top
}
}

Example 1:

Traverse the following binary tree in pre, post and inorder using non-recursive
traversing algorithm.

A
Preo rder traversal yields: A, B,
B C D, G , K, H, L, M , C , E

D E Posto rder travarsal yields: K, G

, L, M , H, D, B, E, C , A
G H
Ino rder travarsal yields: K, G ,
D, L, H, M , B, A, E, C
K L M

Bina ry T re e Pre, P o st a nd Inorder T rav ers ing

Inorder Traversal:

Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following
steps until the stack is empty:

Proceed down the left most path rooted at vertex, pushing each vertex onto the
stack and stop when there is no left son of vertex.

Pop and process the nodes on stack if zero is popped then exit. If a vertex with
right son exists, then set right son of vertex as current vertex and return to step
one.
 CURRENT
STACK PROCESSED NODES REMARKS
VERTEX
A 0 PUSH 0

0ABDGK PUSH the left most path of A

K 0ABDG K POP K

G 0ABD KG POP G since K has no right son

D 0AB KGD POP D since G has no right son

H 0AB KGD Make the right son of D as vertex

0ABHL KGD PUSH the leftmost path of H

L 0ABH KGDL POP L

H 0AB KGDLH POP H since L has no right son

M 0AB KGDLH Make the right son of H as vertex

0ABM KGDLH PUSH the left most path of M

M 0AB KGDLHM POP M

B 0A KGDLHMB POP B since M has no right son

A 0 KGDLHMBA Make the right son of A as vertex

C 0CE KGDLHMBA PUSH the left most path of C

E 0C KGDLHMBAE POP E

C 0 KGDLHMBAEC Stop since stack is empty

Postorder Traversal:

Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following
steps until the stack is empty:

Proceed down the left most path rooted at vertex. At each vertex of path push
vertex on to stack and if vertex has a right son push –(right son of vertex) onto
stack.

Pop and process the positive nodes (left nodes). If zero is popped then exit. If a
negative node is popped, then ignore the sign and return to step one.

CURRENT
STACK PROCESSED NODES REMARKS
VERTEX
A 0 PUSH 0
PUSH the left most path of A with a
0 A –C B D –H G K
-ve for right sons
0 A –C B D –H KG POP all +ve nodes K and G

H 0 A –C B D KG Pop H
 PUSH the left most path of H with a
0 A –C B D H –M L KG
-ve for right sons
L 0 A –C B D H –M KGL POP all +ve nodes L

M 0 A –C B D H KGL Pop M
PUSH the left most path of M with a
0 A –C B D H M KGL
-ve for right sons
0 A –C KGLMHDB POP all +ve nodes M, H, D and B

C 0A KGLMHDB Pop C
PUSH the left most path of C with a
0ACE KGLMHDB
-ve for right sons
0 KGLMHDBECA POP all +ve nodes E, C and A

0 KGLMHDBECA Stop since stack is empty

Preorder Traversal:

Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following steps
until the stack is empty:

Proceed down the left most path by pushing the right son of vertex onto stack, if
any and process each vertex. The traversing ends after a vertex with no left child
exists.

Pop the vertex from stack, if vertex ≠ 0 then return to step one otherwise exit.

CURRENT
STACK PROCESSED NODES REMARKS
VERTEX
A 0 PUSH 0
PUSH the right son of each vertex onto stack and
0CH ABDGK
process each vertex in the left most path
H 0C ABDGK POP H
PUSH the right son of each vertex onto stack and
0CM ABDGKHL
process each vertex in the left most path
M 0C ABDGKHL POP M
PUSH the right son of each vertex onto stack and
0C ABDGKHLM process each vertex in the left most path; M has
no left path
C 0 ABDGKHLM Pop C
PUSH the right son of each vertex onto stack and
0 ABDGKHLMCE process each vertex in the left most path; C has
no right son on the left most path
0 ABDGKHLMCE Stop since stack is empty
Example 2:

Traverse the following binary tree in pre, post and inorder using non-recursive
traversing algorithm.

2 • Preo rder traversal yields:

2, 7 , 2 , 6 , 5 , 11 , 5 , 9 , 4
7 5
• Posto rder travarsal yields:
2 6 9 2, 5 , 11 , 6 , 7 , 4 , 9 , 5 , 2

• Ino rder travarsal yields:

5 11 4
2, 7 , 5 , 6 , 11 , 2 , 5 , 4 , 9

Bina ry T re e Pre, P o st a nd In order T rav ers ing

Inorder Traversal:

Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following steps
until the stack is empty:

Proceed down the left most path rooted at vertex, pushing each vertex onto the
stack and stop when there is no left son of vertex.

Pop and process the nodes on stack if zero is popped then exit. If a vertex with
right son exists, then set right son of vertex as current vertex and return to step
one.

CURRENT VERTEX STACK PROCESSED NODES REMARKS

2 0

0272

2 027 2

7 02 27

6 0265 27

5 026 275

6 02 2756

11 0 2 11 2756

11 02 2 7 5 6 11

2 0 2 7 5 6 11 2

5 05 2 7 5 6 11 2

5 0 2 7 5 6 11 2 5

9 094 2 7 5 6 11 2 5

4 09 2 7 5 6 11 2 5 4

9 0 2 7 5 6 11 2 5 4 9 Stop since stack is empty

Postorder Traversal:

Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following
steps until the stack is empty:

Proceed down the left most path rooted at vertex. At each vertex of path push
vertex on to stack and if vertex has a right son push –(right son of vertex) onto
stack.

Pop and process the positive nodes (left nodes). If zero is popped then exit. If a
negative node is popped, then ignore the sign and return to step one.

CURRENT VERTEX STACK PROCESSED NODES REMARKS

2 0
0 2 –5 7 –6 2
2 0 2 –5 7 –6 2
6 0 2 –5 7 2
0 2 –5 7 6 –11 5 2
5 0 2 –5 7 6 –11 25
11 0 2 –5 7 6 11 25
0 2 –5 2 5 11 6 7
5 0 2 5 –9 2 5 11 6 7
9 02594 2 5 11 6 7
0 2 5 11 6 7 4 9 5 2 Stop since stack is empty

Preorder Traversal:

Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following
steps until the stack is empty:

Proceed down the left most path by pushing the right son of vertex onto stack, if
any and process each vertex. The traversing ends after a vertex with no left child
exists.

Pop the vertex from stack, if vertex ≠ 0 then return to step one otherwise exit.

CURRENT VERTEX STACK PROCESSED NODES REMARKS

2 0
056 272
6 0 5 11 27265

11 05 2 7 2 6 5 11
05 2 7 2 6 5 11
5 09 2 7 2 6 5 11 5
9 0 2 7 2 6 5 11 5 9 4
0 2 7 2 6 5 11 5 9 4 Stop since stack is empty
 Expression Trees:

Expression tree is a binary tree, because all of the operations are binary. It is also
possible for a node to have only one child, as is the case with the unary minus operator.
The leaves of an expression tree are operands, such as constants or variable names, and
the other (non leaf) nodes contain operators.

Once an expression tree is constructed we can traverse it in three ways:

Inorder Traversal
Preorder Traversal
Postorder Traversal

Figure 5.4.1 shows some more expression trees that represent arithmetic expressions
given in infix form.

+ +

+ / + d

a bc d + c

(a) (a + b) + (c / d) (b) ((a + b) + c) + d

a b

+ *

- + + *

a x y bc a

(c) ((-a) + (x + y)) / ((+b) * (c * a))

Figure 5.4.1 Expression Trees

An expression tree can be generated for the infix and postfix expressions.

An algorithm to convert a postfix expression into an expression tree is as follows:

Read the expression one symbol at a time.

If the symbol is an operand, we create a one-node tree and push a pointer to

it onto a stack.

If the symbol is an operator, we pop pointers to two trees T1 and T2 from the
stack (T1 is popped first) and form a new tree whose root is the operator and
whose left and right children point to T2 and T1 respectively. A pointer to this
new tree is then pushed onto the stack.
Example 1:

Construct an expression tree for the postfix expression: a b + c d e + * *

Solution:

The first two symbols are operands, so we create one-node trees and push pointers to
them onto a stack.

a b

Next, a ‘+’ is read, so two pointers to trees are popped, a new tree is formed, and a
pointer to it is pushed onto the stack.

a b

Next, c, d, and e are read, and for each one–node tree is created and a pointer to the
corresponding tree is pushed onto the stack.

a b c d e

Now a ‘+’ is read, so two trees are merged.

+
+ c +

a bb d e
Continuing, a ‘*’ is read, so we pop two tree pointers and form a new tree with a ‘*’ as
root.

a b c +

d ee

Finally, the last symbol is read, two trees are merged, and a pointer to the final tree is
left on the stack.

+
*

a b c +

e
e

For the above tree:

Inorder form of the expression: a + b * c * d + e
Preorder form of the expression: * + a b * c + d e
Postorder form of the expression: a b + c d e + * *

Example 2:

Construct an expression tree for the arithmetic expression:

(A + B * C) – ((D * E + F) / G)

Solution:

First convert the infix expression into postfix notation. Postfix notation of the arithmetic
expression is: A B C * + D E * F + G / -

The first three symbols are operands, so we create one-node trees and pointers to
three nodes pushed onto the stack.
 A B C

Next, a ‘*’ is read, so two pointers to trees are popped, a new tree is formed, and a
pointer to it is pushed onto the stack.

A *

B C

Next, a ‘+’ is read, so two pointers to trees are popped, a new tree is formed, and a
pointer to it is pushed onto the stack.

A *

B C

Next, D and E are read, and for each one–node tree is created and a pointer to the
corresponding tree is pushed onto the stack.

+ D E

A *

B C

Continuing, a ‘*’ is read, so we pop two tree pointers and form a new tree with a ‘*’ as
root.

A * D E

B C
Proceeding similar to the previous steps, finally, when the last symbol is read, the
expression tree is as follows:

+
-

+ /

A * + G

B C * F

Converting expressions with expression trees:

Let us convert the following expressions from one type to another. These can be as
follows:

Postfix to infix
Postfix to prefix
Prefix to infix
Prefix to postfix

Postfix to Infix:

The following algorithm works for the expressions whose infix form does not require
parenthesis to override conventional precedence of operators.

Create the expression tree from the postfix expression

Run inorder traversal on the tree.

Postfix to Prefix:

The following algorithm works for the expressions to convert postfix to prefix:

Create the expression tree from the postfix expression

Run preorder traversal on the tree.

Prefix to Infix:

The following algorithm works for the expressions whose infix form does not require
parenthesis to override conventional precedence of operators.

Create the expression tree from the prefix expression

Run inorder traversal on the tree.
 Prefix to postfix:

The following algorithm works for the expressions to convert postfix to prefix:

Create the expression tree from the prefix expression

Run postorder traversal on the tree.

Threaded Binary Tree:

The linked representation of any binary tree has more null links than actual pointers. If
there are 2n total links, there are n+1 null links. A clever way to make use of these null
links has been devised by A.J. Perlis and C. Thornton.

Their idea is to replace the null links by pointers called Threads to other nodes in the
tree.

If the RCHILD(p) is normally equal to zero, we will replace it by a pointer to the node
which would be printed after P when traversing the tree in inorder.

A null LCHILD link at node P is replaced by a pointer to the node which immediately
precedes node P in inorder. For example, Let us consider the tree:

B C

D E F G

H I

The Threaded Tree corresponding to the above tree is:

B C

D E F G

H I

The tree has 9 nodes and 10 null links which have been replaced by Threads. If we
traverse T in inorder the nodes will be visited in the order H D I B E A F C G.

For example, node ‘E’ has a predecessor Thread which points to ‘B’ and a successor
Thread which points to ‘A’. In memory representation Threads and normal pointers are
distinguished between as by adding two extra one bit fields LBIT and RBIT.

LBIT(P) = 1 if LCHILD(P) is a normal pointer

LBIT(P) = 0 if LCHILD(P) is a Thread

RBIT(P) = 1 if RCHILD(P) is a normal pointer

RBIT(P) = 0 if RCHILD(P) is a Thread
In the above figure two threads have been left dangling in LCHILD(H) and RCHILD(G).
In order to have no loose Threads we will assume a head node for all threaded binary
trees. The Complete memory representation for the tree is as follows. The tree T is the
left sub-tree of the head node.

LBIT LCHILD DATA RCHILD RBIT

1 - 1

1 A 1

1 B 1 1 C 1

1 D 1 0 E 0 0 F 0 0 G 0

0 H 0 0 I 0

Binary Search Tree:

A binary search tree is a binary tree. It may be empty. If it is not empty then it
satisfies the following properties:

Every element has a key and no two elements have the same key.

The keys in the left subtree are smaller than the key in the root.

The keys in the right subtree are larger than the key in the root.

The left and right subtrees are also binary search trees.

Figure 5.2.5(a) is a binary search tree, whereas figure 5.2.5(b) is not a binary search
tree.

16 16

12 20 12 20

11 14 19 11 14 197

13 13 17

Binary Search Tree Not a Binary Search Tree

(a) (b)

Figure 5.2.5. Examples of binary search trees

Lecture Notes 169

 General Trees (m-ary tree):

If in a tree, the outdegree of every node is less than or equal to m, the tree is called
general tree. The general tree is also called as an m-ary tree. If the outdegree of every
node is exactly equal to m or zero then the tree is called a full or complete m-ary tree.
For m = 2, the trees are called binary and full binary trees.

Differences between trees and binary trees:

TREE BINARY TREE

Each element in a tree can have any Each element in a binary tree has at most
number of subtrees. two subtrees.

The subtrees in a tree are unordered. The subtrees of each element in a binary
tree are ordered (i.e. we distinguish
between left and right subtrees).

Converting a m-ary tree (general tree) to a binary tree:

There is a one-to-one mapping between general ordered trees and binary trees. So, every
tree can be uniquely represented by a binary tree. Furthermore, a forest can also be
represented by a binary tree.

Conversion from general tree to binary can be done in two stages.

Stage 1:

As a first step, we delete all the branches originating in every node except the
left most branch.

We draw edges from a node to the node on the right, if any, which is situated
at the same level.

Stage 2:

Once this is done then for any particular node, we choose its left and right
sons in the following manner:

The left son is the node, which is immediately below the given node, and
the right son is the node to the immediate right of the given node on the
same horizontal line. Such a binary tree will not have a right subtree.
Example 1:

Convert the following ordered tree into a binary tree:

2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11

Solution:

Stage 1 tree by using the above mentioned procedure is as follows:

2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11

Stage 2 tree by using the above mentioned procedure is as follows:

1

6 3

7 8 4

10

11

Example 2:

Construct a unique binary tree from the given forest.

1 7

2 3 8 9 10

4 5 6 11 12 130
Solution:

Stage 1 tree by using the above mentioned procedure is as follows:

1 7

2 3 8 9 10

4 5 6 11 12 13

Stage 2 tree by using the above mentioned procedure is as follows (binary tree
representation of forest):

2 7

4 3 8

5 6 11 9
9

10

12

13

Example 3:

For the general tree shown below:

Find the corresponding binary tree T’.

Find the preorder traversal and the postorder traversal of T.
Find the preorder, inorder and postorder traversals of T’.
Compare them with the preorder and postorder traversals obtained for T’ with
the general tree T.

B F J

C D E G H K L M N

P Q
Ge ne ra l tre e T
Solution:

Stage 1:

The tree by using the above-mentioned procedure is as follows:

B F J

C D E G B5H K L M N

P Q

Stage 2:

The binary tree by using the above-mentioned procedure is as follows:

C F

D G J

10E H K

L
Bina rt tre e T ’

P N

Suppose T is a general tree with root R and subtrees T1, T2, ………., TM. The preorder
traversal and the postorder traversal of T are:

Preorder: 1) Process the root R.

2) Traverse the subtree T 1, T2, ……., TM in preorder.
Postorder: 1) Traverse the subtree T 1, T2, ……., TM in postorder.
2) Process the root R.

The tree T has the root A and subtrees T1, T2 and T3 such that:
T1 consists of nodes B, C, D and E.
T2 consists of nodes F, G and H.
T3 consists of nodes J, K, L, M, N, P and Q.
 The preorder traversal of T consists of the following steps:
Process root A.
Traverse T1 in preorder: Process nodes B, C, D, E.
Traverse T2 in preorder: Process nodes F, G, H.
Traverse T3 in preorder: Process nodes J, K, L, M, P, Q, N.

The preorder traversal of T is as follows:

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, P, Q, N

The postorder traversal of T consists of the following steps:

Traverse T1 in postorder: Process nodes C, D, E, B.
Traverse T2 in postorder: Process nodes G, H, F.
Traverse T3 in postorder: Process nodes K, L, P, Q, M, N, J.

Process root A.

The postorder traversal of T is as follows:

C, D, E, B, G, H, F, K, L, P, Q, M, N, J, A

The preorder, inorder and postorder traversals of the binary tree T’ are as follows:

Preorder: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J, K, M, P, Q, N
Inorder: C, D, E, B, G, H, F, K, L, P, Q, M, N, J, A
Postorder: E, D, C, H, G, Q, P, N, M, L, K, J, F, B, A

Comparing the preorder and postorder traversals of T’ with the general tree T:

We can observer that the preorder of the binary tree T’ is identical to the preorder
of the general T.

The inorder traversal of the binary tree T’ is identical to the postorder traversal of
the general tree T.

There is no natural traversal of the general tree T which corresponds to the

postorder traversal of its corresponding binary tree T’.

Search and Traversal Techniques for m-ary trees:

Search involves visiting nodes in a tree in a systematic manner, and may or may not
result into a visit to all nodes. When the search necessarily involved the examination of
every vertex in the tree, it is called the traversal. Traversing of a tree can be done in two
ways.

Depth first search or traversal.

Breadth first search or traversal.
 Depth first search:

In Depth first search, we begin with root as a start state, then some successor of the
start state, then some successor of that state, then some successor of that and so on,
trying to reach a goal state. One simple way to implement depth first search is to use a
stack data structure consisting of root node as a start state.

If depth first search reaches a state S without successors, or if all the successors of a
state S have been chosen (visited) and a goal state has not get been found, then it “backs
up” that means it goes to the immediately previous state or predecessor formally, the
state whose successor was ‘S’ originally.

To illustrate this let us consider the tree shown below.

A
E

ST A RT J
S B

H GGOA L

C F
K
I

Suppose S is the start and G is the only goal state. Depth first search will first visit S,
then A, then D. But D has no successors, so we must back up to A and try its second
successor, E. But this doesn’t have any successors either, so we back up to A again. But
now we have tried all the successors of A and haven’t found the goal state G so we must
back to ‘S’. Now ‘S’ has a second successor, B. But B has no successors, so we back up
to S again and choose its third successor, C. C has one successor, F. The first successor
of F is H, and the first of H is J. J doesn’t have any successors, so we back up to H and
try its second successor. And that’s G, the only goal state.

So the solution path to the goal is S, C, F, H and G and the states considered were in
order S, A, D, E, B, C, F, H, J, G.

Disadvantages:

It works very fine when search graphs are trees or lattices, but can get struck
in an infinite loop on graphs. This is because depth first search can travel
around a cycle in the graph forever.

To eliminate this keep a list of states previously visited, and never permit
search to return to any of them.

We cannot come up with shortest solution to the problem.

Breadth first search:

Breadth-first search starts at root node S and “discovers" which vertices are reachable
from S. Breadth-first search discovers vertices in increasing order of distance. Breadth-
first search is named because it visits vertices across the entire breadth.
To illustrate this let us consider the following tree:

A
E

ST A RT J
S B

H GGOA L

C F
K
I

Breadth first search finds states level by level. Here we first check all the immediate
successors of the start state. Then all the immediate successors of these, then all the
immediate successors of these, and so on until we find a goal node. Suppose S is the
start state and G is the goal state. In the figure, start state S is at level 0; A, B and C
are at level 1; D, e and F at level 2; H and I at level 3; and J, G and K at level 4.

So breadth first search, will consider in order S, A, B, C, D, E, F, H, I, J and G and then

stop because it has reached the goal node.

Breadth first search does not have the danger of infinite loops as we consider states in
order of increasing number of branches (level) from the start state.

One simple way to implement breadth first search is to use a queue data structure
consisting of just a start state.

Sparse Matrices:

A sparse matrix is a two–dimensional array having the value of majority elements as null.
The density of the matrix is the number of non-zero elements divided by the total number
of matrix elements. The matrices with very low density are often good for use of the
sparse format. For example,

0 0 0 5
0 2 0 0
A=
1 3 0 0

0 0 4 0

As far as the storage of a sparse matrix is concerned, storing of null elements is nothing
but wastage of memory. So we should devise technique such that only non-null elements
will be stored. The matrix A produces:

(3, 1) 1
(2, 2) 2 S =
(3, 2) 3 (4, 3)
4 (1, 4) 5

The printed output lists the non-zero elements of S, together with their row and column
indices. The elements are sorted by columns, reflecting the internal data structure.
In large number of applications, sparse matrices are involved. One approach is to use
the linked list.
The program to represent sparse matrix:

/* Check whether the given matrix is sparse matrix or not, if so then print in
alternative form for storage. */

include <stdio.h>
include <conio.h>

main()
{
int matrix[20][20], m, n, total_elements, total_zeros = 0, i, j;
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter Number of rows and columns: ");
scanf("%d %d",&m, &n);
total_elements = m * n;
printf("\n Enter data for sparse matrix: ");
for(i = 0; i < m ; i++)
{
for( j = 0; j < n ; j++)
{
scanf("%d", &matrix[i][j]);
if( matrix[i][j] == 0)
{
total_zeros++;
}
}
}
if(total_zeros > total_elements/2 )
{
printf("\n Given Matrix is Sparse Matrix..");
printf("\n The Representaion of Sparse Matrix is: \n");
printf("\n Row \t Col \t Value ");
for(i = 0; i < m ; i++)
{
for( j = 0; j < n ; j++)
{
if( matrix[i][j] != 0)
{
printf("\n %d \t %d \t %d",i,j,matrix[i][j]);
}
}
}
}
else
printf("\n Given Matrix is Not a Sparse Matrix..");
}
Chapter
6
Graphs
Introduction to Graphs:

Graph G is a pair (V, E), where V is a finite set of vertices and E is a finite set of edges.
We will often denote n = |V|, e = |E|.

A graph is generally displayed as figure 6.5.1, in which the vertices are represented by
circles and the edges by lines.

An edge with an orientation (i.e., arrow head) is a directed edge, while an edge with no
orientation is our undirected edge.

If all the edges in a graph are undirected, then the graph is an undirected graph. The
graph in figure 6.5.1(a) is an undirected graph. If all the edges are directed; then the
graph is a directed graph. The graph of figure 6.5.1(b) is a directed graph. A directed
graph is also called as digraph. A graph G is connected if and only if there is a simple
path between any two nodes in G.

A graph G is said to be complete if every node a in G is adjacent to every other node v

in G. A complete graph with n nodes will have n(n-1)/2 edges. For example, Figure
6.5.1.(a) and figure 6.5.1.(d) are complete graphs.

A directed graph G is said to be connected, or strongly connected, if for each pair (u, v)
for nodes in G there is a path from u to v and also a path from v to u. On the other hand,
G is said to be unilaterally connected if for any pair (u, v) of nodes in G there is a path
from u to v or a path from v to u. For example, the digraph shown in figure 6.5.1
(e) is strongly connected.

B D v1
A B

E
A C E G v4 v2
C D

(a) F (b) v3 (c)

v1 v1 v1 v1

v2 v3
v4 v2 v4 v2 v4 v2

(d) (e) (f) (g)

v3 v3 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7

Figure 6.5.1 Various Graphs

We can assign weight function to the edges: wG(e) is a weight of edge e ∈ E. The
graph which has such function assigned is called weighted graph.
The number of incoming edges to a vertex v is called in–degree of the vertex (denote
indeg(v)). The number of outgoing edges from a vertex is called out-degree (denote
outdeg(v)). For example, let us consider the digraph shown in figure 6.5.1(f),

indegree(v1) = 2 outdegree(v1) = 1
indegree(v2) = 2 outdegree(v2) = 0

A path is a sequence of vertices (v1, v2, . . . . . , vk), where for all i, (vi, vi+1) ε E. A path is
simple if all vertices in the path are distinct. If there is a path containing one or more
edges which starts from a vertex Vi and terminates into the same vertex then the path
is known as a cycle. For example, there is a cycle in figure 6.5.1(a), figure 6.5.1(c) and
figure 6.5.1(d).

If a graph (digraph) does not have any cycle then it is called acyclic graph. For example,
the graphs of figure 6.5.1 (f) and figure 6.5.1 (g) are acyclic graphs.

A graph G’ = (V’, E’) is a sub-graph of graph G = (V, E) iff V’ ⊆ V and E’ ⊆ E.

A Forest is a set of disjoint trees. If we remove the root node of a given tree then it
becomes forest. The following figure shows a forest F that consists of three trees T1, T2
and T3.

A P X

B D Y
Q R

Z
T1 C E F T2 T3

A Forest F

A graph that has either self loop or parallel edges or both is called multi-graph.

Tree is a connected acyclic graph (there aren’t any sequences of edges that go around in
a loop). A spanning tree of a graph G = (V, E) is a tree that contains all vertices of V and
is a subgraph of G. A single graph can have multiple spanning trees.

Let T be a spanning tree of a graph G. Then

Any two vertices in T are connected by a unique simple path.

If any edge is removed from T, then T becomes disconnected.

If we add any edge into T, then the new graph will contain a cycle.

Number of edges in T is n-1.

 Representation of Graphs:

There are two ways of representing digraphs. They are:

Adjacency matrix.
Adjacency List.
Incidence matrix.

Adjacency matrix:

In this representation, the adjacency matrix of a graph G is a two dimensional n x n

matrix, say A = (ai,j), where

a 1 if there is an edge from vi to v j

i, j =
0 otherwise
The matrix is symmetric in case of undirected graph, while it may be asymmetric if the
graph is directed. This matrix is also called as Boolean matrix or bit matrix.

1 1 2 3 4 5
1 0 1 1 0 1
2 3
G1: 2 0 0 1 1 1
3 0 0 0 1 0
4 0 0 0 0 0
(a) 4 5 (b)
5 0 0 1 1 0

Figure 6.5.2. A graph and its Adjacency matrix

Figure 6.5.2(b) shows the adjacency matrix representation of the graph G1 shown in
figure 6.5.2(a). The adjacency matrix is also useful to store multigraph as well as
weighted graph. In case of multigraph representation, instead of entry 0 or 1, the entry
will be between number of edges between two vertices.

In case of weighted graph, the entries are weights of the edges between the vertices.
The adjacency matrix for a weighted graph is called as cost adjacency matrix. Figure
6.5.3(b) shows the cost adjacency matrix representation of the graph G2 shown in figure
6.5.3(a).

G2: 4
B D A B C D E F G
3 1 4 A 0 3 6 ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝
2 2
B 3 0 2 4 ∝ ∝ ∝
4 1
A C E G C 6 2 0 1 4 2 ∝
6
2 D ∝ 4 1 0 2 ∝ 4
2 1
(a) (b)
E ∝ ∝ 4 2 0 2 1
F F ∝ ∝ 2 ∝ 2 0 1
G ∝ ∝ ∝ 4 1 1 0

Figure 6.5.3 Weighted graph and its Cost adjacency matrix

Adjacency List:

In this representation, the n rows of the adjacency matrix are represented as n linked
lists. An array Adj[1, 2, . . . . . n] of pointers where for 1 < v < n, Adj[v] points to a
linked list containing the vertices which are adjacent to v (i.e. the vertices that can be
reached from v by a single edge). If the edges have weights then these weights may also
be stored in the linked list elements. For the graph G in figure 6.5.4(a), the adjacency
list in shown in figure 6.5.4 (b).

1 2 3
1
1 1 1 1 1 2 3

2 0 0 1 2 3

3 0 1 0 3 2

(a) Adjacency Matrix (b) Adjacency List

Figure 6.5.4 Adjacency matrix and adjacency list

Incidence Matrix:

In this representation, if G is a graph with n vertices, e edges and no self loops, then
incidence matrix A is defined as an n by e matrix, say A = (ai,j), where

a 1 if there is an edge j incident to vi

i, j =
0 otherwise

Here, n rows correspond to n vertices and e columns correspond to e edges. Such a

matrix is called as vertex-edge incidence matrix or simply incidence matrix.

B c D a b c d e f g h i j k l
a d f
A 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
b e B 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
h i C 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
A C E G
g D 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
j
k l E 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
(a)
F (b) F 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
G 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

Figure 6.5.4 Graph and its incidence matrix

Figure 6.5.4(b) shows the incidence matrix representation of the graph G1 shown in
figure 6.5.4(a).
 Minimum Spanning Tree (MST):

A spanning tree for a connected graph is a tree whose vertex set is the same as the
vertex set of the given graph, and whose edge set is a subset of the edge set of the given
graph. i.e., any connected graph will have a spanning tree.

Weight of a spanning tree w(T) is the sum of weights of all edges in T. Minimum spanning
tree (MST) is a spanning tree with the smallest possible weight.

Example:

G:

A gra ph G:
T hre e ( of ma ny po s s ible) s pa nning tre e s fro m gra ph G:

2 2
4
G: 3 5 3
6

1 1

A w e ight e d gra ph G: T he mini ma l s pa nning tre e fro m w e ight e d gra ph G:

Let's consider a couple of real-world examples on minimum spanning tree:

One practical application of a MST would be in the design of a network. For

instance, a group of individuals, who are separated by varying distances, wish
to be connected together in a telephone network. Although MST cannot do
anything about the distance from one connection to another, it can be used to
determine the least cost paths with no cycles in this network, thereby
connecting everyone at a minimum cost.

Another useful application of MST would be finding airline routes. The vertices
of the graph would represent cities, and the edges would represent routes
between the cities. MST can be applied to optimize airline routes by finding
the least costly paths with no cycles.

Minimum spanning tree, can be constructed using any of the following two algorithms:

Kruskal’s algorithm and

Prim’s algorithm.

Both algorithms differ in their methodology, but both eventually end up with the MST.
Kruskal's algorithm uses edges, and Prim’s algorithm uses vertex connections in
determining the MST. In Prim’s algorithm at any instance of output it represents tree
whereas in Kruskal’s algorithm at any instance of output it may represent tree or not.
 Kruskal’s Algorithm

This is a greedy algorithm. A greedy algorithm chooses some local optimum (i.e. picking
an edge with the least weight in a MST).

Kruskal's algorithm works as follows: Take a graph with 'n' vertices, keep on adding the
shortest (least cost) edge, while avoiding the creation of cycles, until (n - 1) edges have
been added. Sometimes two or more edges may have the same cost.

The order in which the edges are chosen, in this case, does not matter. Different MST’s
may result, but they will all have the same total cost, which will always be the minimum
cost.

Kruskal’s Algorithm for minimal spanning tree is as follows:

Make the tree T empty.

Repeat the steps 3, 4 and 5 as long as T contains less than n - 1 edges and E is
not empty otherwise, proceed to step 6.

Choose an edge (v, w) from E of lowest cost.

Delete (v, w) from E.

If (v, w) does not create a cycle in T

then Add (v, w) to T

else discard (v, w)

6. If T contains fewer than n - 1 edges then print no spanning tree.

Example 1:

Construct the minimal spanning tree for the graph shown below:

10
1 2 50
45 40 3
30 35

4 25 5
55
20 15
6

Arrange all the edges in the increasing order of their costs:

Cost 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Edge (1, 2) (3, 6) (4, 6) (2, 6) (1, 4) (3, 5) (2, 5) (1, 5) (2, 3) (5, 6)
The stages in Kruskal’s algorithm for minimal spanning tree is as follows:

STAGES IN KRUSKAL’S
EDGE COST REMARKS
ALGORITHM

(1, 2) 10 The edge between vertices 1 and 2 is

the first edge selected. It is included in
1 2
the spanning tree.
3

4
5
6

(3, 6) 15 Next, the edge between vertices 3 and 6

is selected and included in the tree.
1 2
3

4
5
6

(4, 6) 20 The edge between vertices 4 and 6 is

1 2
next included in the tree.
3

4
5
6

(2, 6) 25 The edge between vertices 2 and 6 is

1 2
considered next and included in the
3
tree.
4
5
6

(1, 4) 30 Reject The edge between the vertices 1 and 4

is discarded as its inclusion creates a
cycle.

(3, 5) 35 Finally, the edge between vertices 3 and

1 2
3 5 is considered and included in the tree
built. This completes the tree.
4 5
The cost of the minimal spanning tree is
6 105.
Example 2:

Construct the minimal spanning tree for the graph shown below:

1 28
10
2
14
6 16
7
24 3
25
5 18
12
22 4

Solution:

Arrange all the edges in the increasing order of their costs:

Cost 10 12 14 16 18 22 24 25 28
Edge (1, 6) (3, 4) (2, 7) (2, 3) (4, 7) (4, 5) (5, 7) (5, 6) (1, 2)

The stages in Kruskal’s algorithm for minimal spanning tree is as follows:

STAGES IN KRUSKAL’S
EDGE COST REMARKS
ALGORITHM

(1, 6) 10 1 The edge between vertices 1 and 6 is

2 the first edge selected. It is included in
the spanning tree.
6
3
7

5
4

(3, 4) 12 1 Next, the edge between vertices 3 and 4

2 is selected and included in the tree.

6
3
7

5
4

(2, 7) 14 1 The edge between vertices 2 and 7 is

2 next included in the tree.
6
3
7

5
4
 (2, 3) 16 1 The edge between vertices 2 and 3 is
2 next included in the tree.
6
3
7

5
4

The edge between the vertices 4 and 7

(4, 7) 18 Reject is discarded as its inclusion creates a
cycle.

(4, 5) 22 1 The edge between vertices 4 and 7 is

2 considered next and included in the
tree.
6
3
7

5
4

(5, 7) 24 Reject The edge between the vertices 5 and 7

is discarded as its inclusion creates a
cycle.

(5, 6) 25 1 Finally, the edge between vertices 5 and

2 6 is considered and included in the tree
built. This completes the tree.
6
3
7 The cost of the minimal spanning tree is
5
99.
4

MINIMUM-COST SPANNING TREES: PRIM'S ALGORITHM

A given graph can have many spanning trees. From these many spanning trees, we have
to select a cheapest one. This tree is called as minimal cost spanning tree.

Minimal cost spanning tree is a connected undirected graph G in which each edge is
labeled with a number (edge labels may signify lengths, weights other than costs).
Minimal cost spanning tree is a spanning tree for which the sum of the edge labels is as
small as possible

The slight modification of the spanning tree algorithm yields a very simple algorithm for
finding an MST. In the spanning tree algorithm, any vertex not in the tree but connected
to it by an edge can be added. To find a Minimal cost spanning tree, we must be selective
- we must always add a new vertex for which the cost of the new edge is as small as
possible.

This simple modified algorithm of spanning tree is called prim's algorithm for finding an
Minimal cost spanning tree. Prim's algorithm is an example of a greedy algorithm.
Prim’s Algorithm:

E is the set of edges in G. cost [1:n, 1:n] is the cost adjacency matrix of an n vertex
graph such that cost [i, j] is either a positive real number or ∝ if no edge (i, j) exists. A
minimum spanning tree is computed and stored as a set of edges in the array t [1:n-1,
1:2]. (t [i, 1], t [i, 2]) is an edge in the minimum-cost spanning tree. The final cost is
returned.

Algorithm Prim (E, cost, n, t)

{
Let (k, l) be an edge of minimum cost in E;
mincost := cost [k, l];
t [1, 1] := k; t [1, 2] := l;
for i :=1 to n do // Initialize near
if (cost [i, l] < cost [i, k]) then near [i] := l;
else near [i] := k;
near [k] :=near [l] := 0;
for i:=2 to n - 1 do // Find n - 2 additional edges for t.
{
Let j be an index such that near [j] ≠ 0
and cost [j, near [j]] is minimum;
t [i, 1] := j; t [i, 2] := near [j];
mincost := mincost + cost [j, near
[j]]; near [j] := 0
for k:= 1 to n do // Update near[].
if ((near [k] ≠ 0) and (cost [k, near [k]] > cost [k,
j])) then near [k] := j;
}
return mincost;
}

EXAMPLE:

Use Prim’s Algorithm to find a minimal spanning tree for the graph shown below
starting with the vertex A.

4
B D

4
3 2 1 2
4 E 1

A C 2 G
6
2 F 1

Solution:
0 3 6 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
3 0 2 4 ∞ ∞ ∞
6 2 0 1 4 2 ∞
The cost adjacency matrix is ∞ 4 1 0 2 ∞ 4
∞ ∞ 4 2 0 2 1
∞ ∞ 2 ∞ 2 0 1

∞ ∞ ∞ 4 1 1 0

Lecture Notes 194

The stepwise progress of the prim’s algorithm is as follows:

Step 1:
B 3
D Vertex A B C D E F G
Status 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
E Dist. 0 3 6 ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝
6 ∝ G Next * A A A A A A
A 0
F
C

Step 2:

44 D Vertex A B C D E F G
B 3
Status 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
E Dist. 0 3 2 4 ∝ ∝ ∝
Next * A B B A A A
A 0 2 ∝ G
F
C

Step 3:
1 D
B 3

4 E Vertex A B C D E F G
Status 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
A 0 2 ∝ G
Dist. 0 3 2 1 4 2 ∝
C Next * A B C C C A
2 F

Step 4:

1 D Vertex A B C D E F G
Status 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
Dist. 0 3 2 1 2 2 4
A 0 2 2 E Next * A B C D C D
4 G
C
2 F

Step 5:

B 3 1 D Vertex A B C D E F G
Status 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Dist. 0 3 2 1 2 2 1
A 0 2 2 E Next * A B C D C E
1
C
G

2 F
Step 6:

Vertex A B C D E F G
B 3 1 D
Status 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Dist. 0 3 2 1 2 1 1
Next * A B C D G E
A 0 2 2 1 G
E
C
1 F

Step 7:

B 3 1 D Vertex A B C D E F G
Status 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 E Dist. 0 3 2 1 2 1 1
A 0 2 1 G Next * A B C D G E

1 F

Reachability Matrix (Warshall’s Algorithm):

Warshall’s algorithm requires knowing which edges exist and which does not. It doesn’t
need to know the lengths of the edges in the given directed graph. This information is
conveniently displayed by adjacency matrix for the graph, in which a ‘1’ indicates the
existence of an edge and ‘0’ indicates non-existence.

A ll P a irs Rec ha bility

A djac e nc y M atrix W a rs ha ll’s A lgorit h m
M atrix

It begins with the adjacency matrix for the given graph, which is called A 0, and then
updates the matrix ‘n’ times, producing matrices called A 1, A2, . . . . . , An and then
stops.

In warshall’s algorithm the matrix Ai contains information about the existence of i–paths.
A one entry in the matrix Ai will correspond to the existence of i–paths and zero entry
will correspond to non-existence. Thus when the algorithm stops, the final matrix A n,
contains the desired connectivity information.

A one entry indicates a pair of vertices, which are connected and zero entry indicates a
pair, which are not. This matrix is called a reachability matrix or path matrix for the
graph. It is also called the transitive closure of the original adjacency matrix.

The update rule for computing Ai from Ai-1 in warshall’s algorithm is:

Ai [x, y] = Ai-1 [x, y] ۷ (Ai-1 [x, i] ٨ Ai-1 [i, y]) ---- (1)
Example 1:

Use warshall’s algorithm to calculate the reachability matrix for the graph:
4
1 4
5 6
7 11

1
2 3
7
We begin with the adjacency matrix of the graph ‘A0’

10 1 1 0
2 0 0 1 1
A0 = 3 0 0 0 0

1
4 1 1 0
The first step is to compute ‘A1’ matrix. To do so we will use the updating rule – (1).

Before doing so, we notice that only one entry in A0 must remain one in A1, since in
Boolean algebra 1 + (anything) = 1. Since these are only nine zero entries in A 0, there
are only nine entries in A0 that need to be updated.

A1[1, 1] = A0[1, 1] ۷ (A0[1, 1] ٨ A0[1, 1]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 0) = 0

A1[1, 4] = A0[1, 4] ۷ (A0[1, 1] ٨ A0[1, 4]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 0) = 0
A1[2, 1] = A0[2, 1] ۷ (A0[2, 1] ٨ A0[1, 1]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 0) = 0
A1[2, 2] = A0[2, 2] ۷ (A0[2, 1] ٨ A0[1, 2]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 1) = 0
A1[3, 1] = A0[3, 1] ۷ (A0[3, 1] ٨ A0[1, 1]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 0) = 0
A1[3, 2] = A0[3, 2] ۷ (A0[3, 1] ٨ A0[1, 2]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 1) = 0
A1[3, 3] = A0[3, 3] ۷ (A0[3, 1] ٨ A0[1, 3]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 1) = 0
A1[3, 4] = A0[3, 4] ۷ (A0[3, 1] ٨ A0[1, 4]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 0) = 0
A1[4, 4] = A0[4, 4] ۷ (A0[4, 1] ٨ A0[1, 4]) = 0 ۷ (1 ٨ 0) = 0

10 1 1 0

A 2 0 0 1 1
1 = 3 0 0 0 0

1
4 1 1 0
Next, A2 must be calculated from A1; but again we need to update the 0 entries,

A2[1, 1] = A1[1, 1] ۷ (A1[1, 2] ٨ A1[2, 1]) = 0 ۷ (1 ٨ 0) = 0

A2[1, 4] = A1[1, 4] ۷ (A1[1, 2] ٨ A1[2, 4]) = 0 ۷ (1 ٨ 1) = 1
A2[2, 1] = A1[2, 1] ۷ (A1[2, 2] ٨ A1[2, 1]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 0) = 0
A2[2, 2] = A1[2, 2] ۷ (A1[2, 2] ٨ A1[2, 2]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 0) = 0
A2[3, 1] = A1[3, 1] ۷ (A1[3, 2] ٨ A1[2, 1]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 0) = 0
A2[3, 2] = A1[3, 2] ۷ (A1[3, 2] ٨ A1[2, 2]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 0) = 0
A2[3, 3] = A1[3, 3] ۷ (A1[3, 2] ٨ A1[2, 3]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 1) = 0
A2[3, 4] = A1[3, 4] ۷ (A1[3, 2] ٨ A1[2, 4]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 1) = 0
A2[4, 4] = A1[4, 4] ۷ (A1[4, 2] ٨ A1[2, 4]) = 0 ۷ (1 ٨ 1) = 1

10 1 1 1
2 0 0 1 1
A2 = 3 0 0 0 0

1
4 1 1 1
This matrix has only seven 0 entries, and so to compute A 3, we need to do only seven
computations.

A3[1, 1] = A2[1, 1] ۷ (A2[1, 3] ٨ A2[3, 1]) = 0 ۷ (1 ٨ 0) = 0

A3[2, 1] = A2[2, 1] ۷ (A2[2, 3] ٨ A2[3, 1]) = 0 ۷ (1 ٨ 0) = 0
A3[2, 2] = A2[2, 2] ۷ (A2[2, 3] ٨ A2[3, 2]) = 0 ۷ (1 ٨ 0) = 0
A3[3, 1] = A2[3, 1] ۷ (A2[3, 3] ٨ A2[3, 1]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 0) = 0
A3[3, 2] = A2[3, 2] ۷ (A2[3, 3] ٨ A2[3, 2]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 0) = 0
A3[3, 3] = A2[3, 3] ۷ (A2[3, 3] ٨ A2[3, 3]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 0) = 0
A3[3, 4] = A2[3, 4] ۷ (A2[3, 3] ٨ A2[3, 4]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 0) = 0

10 1 1 1
2 0 0 1 1
A3 = 3 0 0 0 0

1
4 1 1 1
Once A3 is calculated, we use the update rule to calculate A 4 and stop. This matrix is
the reachability matrix for the graph.

A4[1, 1] = A3 [1, 1] ۷ (A3 [1, 4] ٨ A3 [4, 1]) = 0 ۷ (1 ٨ 1) = 0 ۷ 1 = 1

A4[2, 1] = A3 [2, 1] ۷ (A3 [2, 4] ٨ A3 [4, 1]) = 0 ۷ (1 ٨ 1) = 0 ۷ 1 = 1
A4[2, 2] = A3 [2, 2] ۷ (A3 [2, 4] ٨ A3 [4, 2]) = 0 ۷ (1 ٨ 1) = 0 ۷ 1 = 1
A4[3, 1] = A3 [3, 1] ۷ (A3 [3, 4] ٨ A3 [4, 1]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 1) = 0 ۷ 0 = 0
A4[3, 2] = A3 [3, 2] ۷ (A3 [3, 4] ٨ A3 [4, 2]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 1) = 0 ۷ 0 = 0
A4[3, 3] = A3 [3, 3] ۷ (A3 [3, 4] ٨ A3 [4, 3]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 1) = 0 ۷ 0 = 0
A4[3, 4] = A3 [3, 4] ۷ (A3 [3, 4] ٨ A3 [4, 4]) = 0 ۷ (0 ٨ 1) = 0 ۷ 0 = 0

11 1 1 1

A 21 1 1 1
4 = 30 0 0 0

1
4 1 1 1
Note that according to the algorithm vertex 3 is not reachable from itself 1. This is
because as can be seen in the graph, there is no path from vertex 3 back to itself.
 Traversing a Graph

Many graph algorithms require one to systematically examine the nodes and edges of a
graph G. There are two standard ways to do this. They are:

Breadth first traversal (BFT)

Depth first traversal (DFT)
The BFT will use a queue as an auxiliary structure to hold nodes for future processing
and the DFT will use a STACK.

During the execution of these algorithms, each node N of G will be in one of three
states, called the status of N, as follows:

STATUS = 1 (Ready state): The initial state of the node N.

STATUS = 2 (Waiting state): The node N is on the QUEUE or STACK, waiting to

be processed.

STATUS = 3 (Processed state): The node N has been processed.

Both BFS and DFS impose a tree (the BFS/DFS tree) on the structure of graph. So, we
can compute a spanning tree in a graph. The computed spanning tree is not a minimum
spanning tree. The spanning trees obtained using depth first search are called depth first
spanning trees. The spanning trees obtained using breadth first search are called Breadth
first spanning trees.

Breadth first search and traversal:

The general idea behind a breadth first traversal beginning at a starting node A is as
follows. First we examine the starting node A. Then we examine all the neighbors of A.
Then we examine all the neighbors of neighbors of A. And so on. We need to keep track
of the neighbors of a node, and we need to guarantee that no node is processed more
than once. This is accomplished by using a QUEUE to hold nodes that are waiting to be
processed, and by using a field STATUS that tells us the current status of any node. The
spanning trees obtained using BFS are called Breadth first spanning trees.

Breadth first traversal algorithm on graph G is as follows:

This algorithm executes a BFT on graph G beginning at a starting node A.

Initialize all nodes to the ready state (STATUS = 1).

Put the starting node A in QUEUE and change its status to the waiting state
(STATUS = 2).

Repeat the following steps until QUEUE is empty:

Remove the front node N of QUEUE. Process N and change the

status of N to the processed state (STATUS = 3).

Add to the rear of QUEUE all the neighbors of N that are in the
ready state (STATUS = 1), and change their status to the waiting
state (STATUS = 2).

Exit.
 Depth first search and traversal:

Depth first search of undirected graph proceeds as follows: First we examine the starting
node V. Next an unvisited vertex 'W' adjacent to 'V' is selected and a depth first search
from 'W' is initiated. When a vertex 'U' is reached such that all its adjacent vertices have
been visited, we back up to the last vertex visited, which has an unvisited vertex 'W'
adjacent to it and initiate a depth first search from W. The search terminates when no
unvisited vertex can be reached from any of the visited ones.

This algorithm is similar to the inorder traversal of binary tree. DFT algorithm is similar
to BFT except now use a STACK instead of the QUEUE. Again field STATUS is used to tell
us the current status of a node.

The algorithm for depth first traversal on a graph G is as follows.

This algorithm executes a DFT on graph G beginning at a starting node A.

Initialize all nodes to the ready state (STATUS = 1).

Push the starting node A into STACK and change its status to the waiting state
(STATUS = 2).

Repeat the following steps until STACK is empty:

Pop the top node N from STACK. Process N and change the status of N to
the processed state (STATUS = 3).

Push all the neighbors of N that are in the ready state (STATUS = 1), and
change their status to the waiting state (STATUS = 2).
Exit.

Example 1:

Consider the graph shown below. Traverse the graph shown below in breadth first
order and depth first order.

A Node Adjacency List

A F, C, B
B A, C, G
F C B
C A, B, D, E, F, G
D C, F, E, J
D E G E C, D, G, J, K
F A, C, D
J K G B, C, E, K
J D, E, K
A Gra ph G
K E, G, J
Adjacency list for graph G
Breadth-first search and traversal:

The steps involved in breadth first traversal are as follows:

Current Status
QUEUE Processed Nodes
Node
A B C D E F G J K
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
A 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
A FCB A 3 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1
F CBD AF 3 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 1
C BDEG AFC 3 2 3 2 2 3 2 1 1
B DEG AFCB 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 1
D EGJ AFCBD 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 1
E GJK AFCBDE 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2
G JK AFCBDEG 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2
J K AFCBDEGJ 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2
K EMPTY AFCBDEGJK 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

For the above graph the breadth first traversal sequence is: A F C B D E G J K.

Depth-first search and traversal:

The steps involved in depth first traversal are as follows:

Current Status
Stack Processed Nodes
Node
A B C D E F G J K
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
A 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
A BCF A 3 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1
F BCD AF 3 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 1
D BCEJ AFD 3 2 2 3 2 3 1 2 1
J BCEK AFDJ 3 2 2 3 2 3 1 3 2
K BCEG AFDJK 3 2 2 3 2 3 2 3 3
G BCE AFDJKG 3 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 3
E BC AFDJKGE 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3
C B AFDJKGEC 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
B EMPTY AFDJKGECB 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

For the above graph the depth first traversal sequence is: A F D J K G E C B.
Example 2:

Traverse the graph shown below in breadth first order, depth first order and construct
the breadth first and depth first spanning trees.

A H I Node Adjacency List

A F, B, C, G
B C G B A
C A, G
D E, F
J K E G, D, F
D
F A, E, D
E G A, L, E, H, J, C
H G, I
F L M
The Graph G I H
J G, L, K, M
K J
L G, J, M
The Madjac encyL, listJ for the graph G

If the depth first traversal is initiated from vertex A, then the vertices of graph G are
visited in the order: A F E G L J K M H I C D B. The depth first spanning tree is shown
in the figure given below:

F B

G D

L H C

J I

K M

Depth first Traversal

If the breadth first traversal is initiated from vertex A, then the vertices of graph G are
visited in the order: A F B C G E D L H J M I K. The breadth first spanning tree is shown
in the figure given below:

F B C G

E D L H J

M I K

Breadth first traversal

Example 3:

Traverse the graph shown below in breadth first order, depth first order and construct
the breadth first and depth first spanning trees.

2 3

4 5 6 7

Graph G
Head Nodes

1 2 3

1 4 5

1 6 7

4 2 8

5 2 8

6 3 8

7 3 8

8 4 5 6 7

A dj a c e nc y lis t fo r g r a p h G

Depth first search and traversal:

If the depth first is initiated from vertex 1, then the vertices of graph G are visited in
the order: 1, 2, 4, 8, 5, 6, 3, 7. The depth first spanning tree is as follows:

2 3

4 5 6 7

Depth First Spanning Tree

Breadth first search and traversal:

If the breadth first search is initiated from vertex 1, then the vertices of G are visited in
the order: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. The breadth first spanning tree is as follows:

2 3

4 5 6 7

Breadth First Spanning Tree

Chapter
7
Searching and Sorting
There are basically two aspects of computer programming. One is data
organization also commonly called as data structures. Till now we have seen
about data structures and the techniques and algorithms used to access them.
The other part of computer programming involves choosing the appropriate
algorithm to solve the problem. Data structures and algorithms are linked each
other. After developing programming techniques to represent information, it
is logical to proceed to manipulate it. This chapter introduces this important
aspect of problem solving.

Searching is used to find the location where an element is available. There are two
types of search techniques. They are:

Linear or sequential search

Binary search

Sorting allows an efficient arrangement of elements within a given data structure. It is a

way in which the elements are organized systematically for some purpose. For example,
a dictionary in which words is arranged in alphabetical order and telephone director in
which the subscriber names are listed in alphabetical order. There are many sorting
techniques out of which we study the following.

Bubble sort
Quick sort
Selection sort and
Heap sort

There are two types of sorting techniques:

Internal sorting
External sorting

If all the elements to be sorted are present in the main memory then such sorting is
called internal sorting on the other hand, if some of the elements to be sorted are kept
on the secondary storage, it is called external sorting. Here we study only internal
sorting techniques.

Linear Search:

This is the simplest of all searching techniques. In this technique, an ordered or

unordered list will be searched one by one from the beginning until the desired element
is found. If the desired element is found in the list then the search is successful otherwise
unsuccessful.
Suppose there are ‘n’ elements organized sequentially on a List. The number of
comparisons required to retrieve an element from the list, purely depends on where the
element is stored in the list. If it is the first element, one comparison will do; if it is
second element two comparisons are necessary and so on. On an average you need
[(n+1)/2] comparison’s to search an element. If search is not successful, you would need
’n’ comparisons.

The time complexity of linear search is O(n).

Algorithm:

Let array a[n] stores n elements. Determine whether element ‘x’ is present or not.

linsrch(a[n], x)
{
index = 0;
flag = 0;
while (index < n) do
{
if (x == a[index])
{
flag = 1;
break;
}
index ++;
}
if(flag == 1)
printf(“Data found at %d position“, index);
else
printf(“data not found”);

Example 1:

Suppose we have the following unsorted list: 45, 39, 8, 54, 77, 38, 24, 16, 4, 7, 9, 20

If we are searching for: 45, we’ll look at 1 element before success 39,
we’ll look at 2 elements before success 8,
we’ll look at 3 elements before success 54,
we’ll look at 4 elements before success 77,
we’ll look at 5 elements before success 38
we’ll look at 6 elements before success 24,
we’ll look at 7 elements before success 16,
we’ll look at 8 elements before success 4,
we’ll look at 9 elements before success 7,
we’ll look at 10 elements before success 9,
we’ll look at 11 elements before success 20,
we’ll look at 12 elements before success

For any element not in the list, we’ll look at 12 elements before failure.
Example 2:

Let us illustrate linear search on the following 9 elements:

Index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Elements -15 -6 0 7 9 23 54 82 101

Searching different elements is as follows:

Searching for x = 7Search successful, data found at 3rd position.

Searching for x = 82Search successful, data found at 7th position.

Searching for x = 42Search un-successful, data not found.

A non-recursive program for Linear Search:

include <stdio.h>
include <conio.h>

main()
{
int number[25], n, data, i, flag = 0;
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter the number of elements: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("\n Enter the elements:
"); for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
scanf("%d", &number[i]);
printf("\n Enter the element to be Searched: ");
scanf("%d", &data);
for( i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
if(number[i] == data)
{
flag = 1;
break;
}
}
if(flag == 1)
printf("\n Data found at location: %d", i+1);
else
printf("\n Data not found ");
}

A Recursive program for linear search:

include <stdio.h>
include <conio.h>

void linear_search(int a[], int data, int position, int n)

{
if(position < n)
 {
if(a[position] == data)
printf("\n Data Found at %d ", position);
else
linear_search(a, data, position + 1, n);
}
else
printf("\n Data not found");
}

void main()
{
int a[25], i, n, data;
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter the number of elements: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("\n Enter the elements:
"); for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
scanf("%d", &a[i]);
}
printf("\n Enter the element to be seached: ");
scanf("%d", &data);
linear_search(a, data, 0, n);
getch();
}

BINARY SEARCH

If we have ‘n’ records which have been ordered by keys so that x1 < x2 < … < xn . When we
are given a element ‘x’, binary search is used to find the corresponding element from the list.
In case ‘x’ is present, we have to determine a value ‘j’ such that a[j] = x (successful search).
If ‘x’ is not in the list then j is to set to zero (un successful search).

In Binary search we jump into the middle of the file, where we find key a[mid], and
compare ‘x’ with a[mid]. If x = a[mid] then the desired record has been found. If x <
a[mid] then ‘x’ must be in that portion of the file that precedes a[mid]. Similarly, if a[mid]
> x, then further search is only necessary in that part of the file which follows a[mid].

If we use recursive procedure of finding the middle key a[mid] of the un-searched portion
of a file, then every un-successful comparison of ‘x’ with a[mid] will eliminate roughly
half the un-searched portion from consideration.

Since the array size is roughly halved after each comparison between ‘x’ and a[mid], and
since an array of length ‘n’ can be halved only about log2n times before reaching a trivial
length, the worst case complexity of Binary search is about log 2n.

Algorithm:

Let array a[n] of elements in increasing order, n ≥ 0, determine whether ‘x’ is present,
and if so, set j such that x = a[j] else return 0.
binsrch(a[], n, x)
{
low = 1; high = n;
while (low < high) do
{
mid = (low + high)/2 if
(x < a[mid])
high = mid – 1;
else if (x > a[mid])
low = mid +
1; else return mid;
}
return 0;
}

low and high are integer variables such that each time through the loop either ‘x’ is found
or low is increased by at least one or high is decreased by at least one. Thus we have
two sequences of integers approaching each other and eventually low will become greater
than high causing termination in a finite number of steps if ‘x’ is not present.

Example 1:

Let us illustrate binary search on the following 12 elements:

Index 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Elements 4 7 8 9 16 20 24 38 39 45 54 77

If we are searching for x = 4: (This needs 3 comparisons)

low = 1, high = 12, mid = 13/2 = 6, check 20
low = 1, high = 5, mid = 6/2 = 3, check 8
low = 1, high = 2, mid = 3/2 = 1, check 4, found

If we are searching for x = 7: (This needs 4 comparisons)

low = 1, high = 12, mid = 13/2 = 6, check 20
low = 1, high = 5, mid = 6/2 = 3, check 8
low = 1, high = 2, mid = 3/2 = 1, check 4
low = 2, high = 2, mid = 4/2 = 2, check 7, found

If we are searching for x = 8: (This needs 2 comparisons)

low = 1, high = 12, mid = 13/2 = 6, check 20
low = 1, high = 5, mid = 6/2 = 3, check 8, found

If we are searching for x = 9: (This needs 3 comparisons)

low = 1, high = 12, mid = 13/2 = 6, check 20
low = 1, high = 5, mid = 6/2 = 3, check 8
low = 4, high = 5, mid = 9/2 = 4, check 9, found

If we are searching for x = 16: (This needs 4 comparisons)

low = 1, high = 12, mid = 13/2 = 6, check 20
low = 1, high = 5, mid = 6/2 = 3, check 8
low = 4, high = 5, mid = 9/2 = 4, check 9
low = 5, high = 5, mid = 10/2 = 5, check 16, found

If we are searching for x = 20: (This needs 1 comparison)

low = 1, high = 12, mid = 13/2 = 6, check 20, found
If we are searching for x = 24: (This needs 3 comparisons)
low = 1, high = 12, mid = 13/2 = 6, check 20
low = 7, high = 12, mid = 19/2 = 9, check 39
low = 7, high = 8, mid = 15/2 = 7, check 24, found

If we are searching for x = 38: (This needs 4 comparisons)

low = 1, high = 12, mid = 13/2 = 6, check 20
low = 7, high = 12, mid = 19/2 = 9, check 39
low = 7, high = 8, mid = 15/2 = 7, check 24
low = 8, high = 8, mid = 16/2 = 8, check 38, found

If we are searching for x = 39: (This needs 2 comparisons)

low = 1, high = 12, mid = 13/2 = 6, check 20
low = 7, high = 12, mid = 19/2 = 9, check 39, found

If we are searching for x = 45: (This needs 4 comparisons)

low = 1, high = 12, mid = 13/2 = 6, check 20
low = 7, high = 12, mid = 19/2 = 9, check 39
low = 10, high = 12, mid = 22/2 = 11, check 54
low = 10, high = 10, mid = 20/2 = 10, check 45, found

If we are searching for x = 54: (This needs 3 comparisons)

low = 1, high = 12, mid = 13/2 = 6, check 20
low = 7, high = 12, mid = 19/2 = 9, check 39
low = 10, high = 12, mid = 22/2 = 11, check 54, found

If we are searching for x = 77: (This needs 4 comparisons)

low = 1, high = 12, mid = 13/2 = 6, check 20
low = 7, high = 12, mid = 19/2 = 9, check 39
low = 10, high = 12, mid = 22/2 = 11, check 54
low = 12, high = 12, mid = 24/2 = 12, check 77, found

The number of comparisons necessary by search element:

20 – requires 1 comparison;
8 and 39 – requires 2 comparisons;
4, 9, 24, 54 – requires 3 comparisons and
7, 16, 38, 45, 77 – requires 4 comparisons

Summing the comparisons, needed to find all twelve items and dividing by 12, yielding
37/12 or approximately 3.08 comparisons per successful search on the average.

Example 2:

Let us illustrate binary search on the following 9 elements:

Index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Elements -15 -6 0 7 9 23 54 82 101

Solution:

The number of comparisons required for searching different elements is as follows:

1. If we are searching for x = 101: (Number of comparisons = 4)
low high mid
1 9 5
6 9 7
8 9 8
9 9 9
found

2. Searching for x = 82: (Number of comparisons = 3)

low high mid
1 9 5
6 9 7
8 9 8
found

3. Searching for x = 42: (Number of comparisons = 4)

low high mid
1 9 5
6 9 7
6 6 6
6 not found

Searching for x = -14: (Number of comparisons = 3)

low high mid
1 9 5
1 4 2
1 1 1
2 1 not found

Continuing in this manner the number of element comparisons needed to find each of
nine elements is:

Index 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Elements -15 -6 0 7 9 23 54 82 101
Comparisons 3 2 3 4 1 3 2 3 4

No element requires more than 4 comparisons to be found. Summing the comparisons

needed to find all nine items and dividing by 9, yielding 25/9 or approximately 2.77
comparisons per successful search on the average.

There are ten possible ways that an un-successful search may terminate depending upon
the value of x.

If x < a(1), a(1) < x < a(2), a(2) < x < a(3), a(5) < x < a(6), a(6) < x < a(7) or a(7)
< x < a(8) the algorithm requires 3 element comparisons to determine that ‘x’ is not
present. For all of the remaining possibilities BINSRCH requires 4 element comparisons.

Thus the average number of element comparisons for an unsuccessful search is:

(3 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 4 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 4) / 10 = 34/10 = 3.4

Time Complexity:

The time complexity of binary search in a successful search is O(log n) and for an
unsuccessful search is O(log n).
 A non-recursive program for binary search:

include <stdio.h>
include <conio.h>

main()
{
int number[25], n, data, i, flag = 0, low, high, mid;
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter the number of elements: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("\n Enter the elements in ascending order: ");
for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
scanf("%d", &number[i]);
printf("\n Enter the element to be searched: ");
scanf("%d", &data);
low = 0; high = n-1;
while(low <= high)
{
mid = (low + high)/2;
if(number[mid] == data)
{
flag = 1;
break;
}
else
{
if(data < number[mid])
high = mid - 1;
else
low = mid + 1;
}
}
if(flag == 1)
printf("\n Data found at location: %d", mid + 1);
else
printf("\n Data Not Found ");
}

A recursive program for binary search:

include <stdio.h>
include <conio.h>

void bin_search(int a[], int data, int low, int high)

{
int mid ;
if( low <= high)
{
mid = (low + high)/2;
if(a[mid] == data)
printf("\n Element found at location: %d ", mid + 1);
else
{
if(data < a[mid])
bin_search(a, data, low, mid-1);
else
 bin_search(a, data, mid+1, high);
}
}
else
printf("\n Element not found");
}
void main()
{
int a[25], i, n, data;
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter the number of elements: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("\n Enter the elements in ascending order: ");
for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
scanf("%d", &a[i]);
printf("\n Enter the element to be searched: ");
scanf("%d", &data);
bin_search(a, data, 0, n-1);
getch();
}

Bubble Sort:

The bubble sort is easy to understand and program. The basic idea of bubble sort is to
pass through the file sequentially several times. In each pass, we compare each element
in the file with its successor i.e., X[i] with X[i+1] and interchange two element when
they are not in proper order. We will illustrate this sorting technique by taking a specific
example. Bubble sort is also called as exchange sort.

Example:

Consider the array x[n] which is stored in memory as shown below:

X[0] X[1] X[2] X[3] X[4] X[5]

33 44 22 11 66 55

Suppose we want our array to be stored in ascending order. Then we pass through the
array 5 times as described below:

Pass 1: (first element is compared with all other elements).

We compare X[i] and X[i+1] for i = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4, and interchange X[i] and X[i+1]
if X[i] > X[i+1]. The process is shown below:

X[0] X[1] X[2] X[3] X[4] X[5] Remarks

33 44 22 11 66 55
22 44
11 44
44 66
55 66
33 22 11 44 55 66

The biggest number 66 is moved to (bubbled up) the right most position in the array.
Pass 2: (second element is compared).

We repeat the same process, but this time we don’t include X[5] into our comparisons.
i.e., we compare X[i] with X[i+1] for i=0, 1, 2, and 3 and interchange X[i] and X[i+1] if
X[i] > X[i+1]. The process is shown below:

X[0] X[1] X[2] X[3] X[4] Remarks

33 22 11 44 55
22 33
11 33
33 44
44 55
22 11 33 44 55

The second biggest number 55 is moved now to X[4].

Pass 3: (third element is compared).

We repeat the same process, but this time we leave both X[4] and X[5]. By doing this,
we move the third biggest number 44 to X[3].

X[0] X[1] X[2] X[3] Remarks

22 11 33 44
11 22
22 33
33 44
11 22 33 44

Pass 4: (fourth element is compared).

We repeat the process leaving X[3], X[4], and X[5]. By doing this, we move the fourth
biggest number 33 to X[2].

X[0] X[1] X[2] Remarks

11 22 33
11 22
22 33

Pass 5: (fifth element is compared).

We repeat the process leaving X[2], X[3], X[4], and X[5]. By doing this, we move the
fifth biggest number 22 to X[1]. At this time, we will have the smallest number 11 in
X[0]. Thus, we see that we can sort the array of size 6 in 5 passes.

For an array of size n, we required (n-1) passes.

 Program for Bubble Sort:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void bubblesort(int x[], int n)
{
int i, j, temp;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
for (j = 0; j < n–i-1 ; j++)
{
if (x[j] > x[j+1])
{
temp = x[j];
x[j] = x[j+1];
x[j+1] = temp;
}
}
}
}

main()
{
int i, n, x[25];
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter the number of elements: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("\n Enter Data:");
for(i = 0; i < n ; i++)
scanf("%d", &x[i]);
bubblesort(x, n);
printf ("\n Array Elements after sorting: ");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf ("%5d", x[i]);
}

Time Complexity:

The bubble sort method of sorting an array of size n requires (n-1) passes and (n-1)
comparisons on each pass. Thus the total number of comparisons is (n-1) * (n-1) = n2
– 2n + 1, which is O(n2). Therefore bubble sort is very inefficient when there are more
elements to sorting.

Selection Sort:

Selection sort will not require no more than n-1 interchanges. Suppose x is an array of
size n stored in memory. The selection sort algorithm first selects the smallest element
in the array x and place it at array position 0; then it selects the next smallest element
in the array x and place it at array position 1. It simply continues this procedure until it
places the biggest element in the last position of the array.

The array is passed through (n-1) times and the smallest element is placed in its
respective position in the array as detailed below:
Pass 1: Find the location j of the smallest element in the array x [0], x[1], . . . . x[n-1],
and then interchange x[j] with x[0]. Then x[0] is sorted.

Pass 2: Leave the first element and find the location j of the smallest element in the sub-
array x[1], x[2], . . . . x[n-1], and then interchange x[1] with x[j]. Then x[0],
x[1] are sorted.

Pass 3: Leave the first two elements and find the location j of the smallest element in
the sub-array x[2], x[3], . . . . x[n-1], and then interchange x[2] with x[j]. Then
x[0], x[1], x[2] are sorted.

Pass (n-1): Find the location j of the smaller of the elements x[n-2] and x[n-1], and then
interchange x[j] and x[n-2]. Then x[0], x[1], . . . . x[n-2] are sorted. Of course,
during this pass x[n-1] will be the biggest element and so the entire array is
sorted.

Time Complexity:

In general we prefer selection sort in case where the insertion sort or the bubble sort
requires exclusive swapping. In spite of superiority of the selection sort over bubble sort
and the insertion sort (there is significant decrease in run time), its efficiency is also
O(n2) for n data items.

Example:

Let us consider the following example with 9 elements to analyze selection Sort:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Remarks

65 70 75 80 50 60 55 85 45 find the first smallest element

i j swap a[i] & a[j]

45 70 75 80 50 60 55 85 65 find the second smallest element

i j swap a[i] and a[j]

45 50 75 80 70 60 55 85 65 Find the third smallest element

i j swap a[i] and a[j]

45 50 55 80 70 60 75 85 65 Find the fourth smallest element

i j swap a[i] and a[j]

45 50 55 60 70 80 75 85 65 Find the fifth smallest element

i j swap a[i] and a[j]

45 50 55 60 65 80 75 85 70 Find the sixth smallest element

i j swap a[i] and a[j]

45 50 55 60 65 70 75 85 80 Find the seventh smallest element

i j swap a[i] and a[j]

45 50 55 60 65 70 75 85 80 Find the eighth smallest element

i J swap a[i] and a[j]

45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 The outer loop ends.

 Non-recursive Program for selection sort:

include<stdio.h>
include<conio.h>

void selectionSort( int low, int high );

int a[25];

int main()
{
int num, i= 0;
clrscr();
printf( "Enter the number of elements: " );
scanf("%d", &num);
printf( "\nEnter the elements:\n" );
for(i=0; i < num; i++)
scanf( "%d", &a[i] );
selectionSort( 0, num - 1 );
printf( "\nThe elements after sorting are: " );
for( i=0; i< num; i++ )
printf( "%d ", a[i] );
return 0;
}

void selectionSort( int low, int high )

{
int i=0, j=0, temp=0, minindex;
for( i=low; i <= high; i++ )
{
minindex = i;
for( j=i+1; j <= high; j++ )
{
if( a[j] < a[minindex] )
minindex = j;
}
temp = a[i];
a[i] = a[minindex];
a[minindex] = temp;
}
}

Recursive Program for selection sort:

#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

int x[6] = {77, 33, 44, 11, 66};

selectionSort(int);

main()
{
int i, n = 0;
clrscr();
printf (" Array Elements before sorting: ");
for (i=0; i<5; i++)
 printf ("%d ", x[i]);
selectionSort(n); /* call selection sort */
printf ("\n Array Elements after sorting: ");
for (i=0; i<5; i++)
printf ("%d ", x[i]);
}

selectionSort( int n)
{
int k, p, temp, min;
if (n== 4)
return (-
1); min = x[n];
p = n;
for (k = n+1; k<5; k++)
{
if (x[k] <min)
{
min = x[k];
p = k;
}
}
temp = x[n]; /* interchange x[n] and x[p] */ x[n] =
x[p];
x[p] = temp;
n++ ;
selectionSort(n);
}

Quick Sort:

The quick sort was invented by Prof. C. A. R. Hoare in the early 1960’s. It was one of the
first most efficient sorting algorithms. It is an example of a class of algorithms that work
by “divide and conquer” technique.

The quick sort algorithm partitions the original array by rearranging it into two groups.
The first group contains those elements less than some arbitrary chosen value taken
from the set, and the second group contains those elements greater than or equal to the
chosen value. The chosen value is known as the pivot element. Once the array has been
rearranged in this way with respect to the pivot, the same partitioning procedure is
recursively applied to each of the two subsets. When all the subsets have been
partitioned and rearranged, the original array is sorted.

The function partition() makes use of two pointers up and down which are moved toward
each other in the following fashion:

Repeatedly increase the pointer ‘up’ until a[up] >= pivot.

Repeatedly decrease the pointer ‘down’ until a[down] <= pivot.
If down > up, interchange a[down] with a[up]
Repeat the steps 1, 2 and 3 till the ‘up’ pointer crosses the ‘down’ pointer. If
‘up’ pointer crosses ‘down’ pointer, the position for pivot is found and place
pivot element in ‘down’ pointer position.
The program uses a recursive function quicksort(). The algorithm of quick sort function
sorts all elements in an array ‘a’ between positions ‘low’ and ‘high’.

It terminates when the condition low >= high is satisfied. This condition will
be satisfied only when the array is completely sorted.

Here we choose the first element as the ‘pivot’. So, pivot = x[low]. Now it
calls the partition function to find the proper position j of the element x[low]
i.e. pivot. Then we will have two sub-arrays x[low], x[low+1], . . . . . . x[j-1]
and x[j+1], x[j+2], . . . x[high].

It calls itself recursively to sort the left sub-array x[low], x[low+1], . . . . . . .

x[j-1] between positions low and j-1 (where j is returned by the partition
function).

It calls itself recursively to sort the right sub-array x[j+1], x[j+2], . . x[high]
between positions j+1 and high.

The time complexity of quick sort algorithm is of O(n log n).

Algorithm

Sorts the elements a[p], . . . . . ,a[q] which reside in the global array a[n] into ascending
order. The a[n + 1] is considered to be defined and must be greater than all elements in
a[n]; a[n + 1] = + ∝

quicksort (p, q)
{
if ( p < q ) then
{
call j = PARTITION(a, p, q+1); // j is the position of the partitioning element
call quicksort(p, j – 1);
call quicksort(j + 1 , q);
}
}

partition(a, m, p)
{
v = a[m]; up = m; down = p; // a[m] is the partition element
do
{
repeat
up = up + 1;
until (a[up] > v);

repeat
down = down –
1; until (a[down] < v);
if (up < down) then call interchange(a, up,
down); } while (up > down);

a[m] = a[down];
a[down] = v;
return (down);
}
interchange(a, up, down)
{
p = a[up];
a[up] = a[down];
a[down] = p;
}

Example:

Select first element as the pivot element. Move ‘up’ pointer from left to right in search of
an element larger than pivot. Move the ‘down’ pointer from right to left in search of an
element smaller than pivot. If such elements are found, the elements are swapped.

This process continues till the ‘up’ pointer crosses the ‘down’ pointer. If ‘up’ pointer
crosses ‘down’ pointer, the position for pivot is found and interchange pivot and element
at ‘down’ position.

Let us consider the following example with 13 elements to analyze quick sort:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Remarks

38 08 16 06 79 57 24 56 02 58 04 70 45
swap up &
pivot up down
down
pivot 04 79
swap up &
pivot up down
down
pivot 02 57
swap pivot
pivot down up
& down
(24 08 16 06 04 02) 38 (56 57 58 79 70 45)
swap pivot
pivot down up
& down
(02 08 16 06 04) 24
pivot, swap pivot
up
down & down
02 (08 16 06 04)
swap up &
pivot up down
down
pivot 04 16
pivot down Up
swap pivot
(06 04) 08 (16)
& down
pivot down up
swap pivot
(04) 06
& down
04
pivot,
down,
up
16
pivot,
down,
up
(02 04 06 08 16 24) 38
 (56 57 58 79 70 45)

pivot up down swap up &

down
pivot 45 57
swap pivot
pivot down up
& down
(45) 56 (58 79 70 57)
45
pivot, swap pivot
down, & down
up
(58 79 57) swap up &
70
pivot up down down
57 79
down up
(57) 58 (70 79) swap pivot
& down
57
pivot,
down,
up
(70 79)
pivot, up swap pivot
down & down
70
79
pivot,
down,
up
(45 56 57 58 70 79)

02 04 06 08 16 24 38 45 56 57 58 70 79

Recursive program for Quick Sort:

include<stdio.h>
include<conio.h>

void quicksort(int, int);

int partition(int, int); void
interchange(int, int); int
array[25];

int main()
{
int num, i = 0;
clrscr();
printf( "Enter the number of elements: " );
scanf( "%d", &num);
printf( "Enter the elements: " );
for(i=0; i < num; i++)
scanf( "%d", &array[i] );
quicksort(0, num -1);
printf( "\nThe elements after sorting are: " );
 for(i=0; i < num; i++)
printf("%d ", array[i]);
return 0;
}

void quicksort(int low, int high)

{
int pivotpos;
if( low < high )
{
pivotpos = partition(low, high + 1);
quicksort(low, pivotpos - 1);
quicksort(pivotpos + 1, high);
}
}

int partition(int low, int high)

{
int pivot = array[low];
int up = low, down = high;

do
{
do
up = up + 1;
while(array[up] < pivot );

do
down = down - 1;
while(array[down] > pivot);

if(up < down) interchange(up,

down);

} while(up < down);

array[low] = array[down];
array[down] = pivot;
return down;
}

void interchange(int i, int j)

{
int temp;
temp = array[i];
array[i] = array[j];
array[j] = temp;
}
 Priority Queue, Heap and Heap Sort:

Heap is a data structure, which permits one to insert elements into a set and also to find
the largest element efficiently. A data structure, which provides these two operations, is
called a priority queue.

Max and Min Heap data structures:

A max heap is an almost complete binary tree such that the value of each node is
greater than or equal to those in its children.

95 15

85 45 45 25

75 25 35 15 55 65 35 75

55 65 Max heap 85 95 Min heap

A min heap is an almost complete binary tree such that the value of each node is less
than or equal to those in its children.

Representation of Heap Tree:

Since heap is a complete binary tree, a heap tree can be efficiently represented using
one dimensional array. This provides a very convenient way of figuring out where children
belong to.

The root of the tree is in location 1.

The left child of an element stored at location i can be found in location 2*i.
The right child of an element stored at location i can be found in location 2*i+1.
The parent of an element stored at location i can be found at location floor(i/2).

The elements of the array can be thought of as lying in a tree structure. A heap tree
represented using a single array looks as follows:

X[1] X[2] X[3] X[4] X[5] X[6] X[7] X[8]

65 45 60 40 25 50 55 30

x[ 1]
65 x[ 3]
x[ 2]
45 60

x[ 6] x[ 7]
x[ 4] 40 x[ 5] 25 50 55

x[ 8] 30 He a p T re e
 Operations on heap tree:

The major operations required to be performed on a heap tree:

Insertion,
Deletion and
Merging.

Insertion into a heap tree:

This operation is used to insert a node into an existing heap tree satisfying the properties
of heap tree. Using repeated insertions of data, starting from an empty heap tree, one
can build up a heap tree.

Let us consider the heap (max) tree. The principle of insertion is that, first we have to
adjoin the data in the complete binary tree. Next, we have to compare it with the data
in its parent; if the value is greater than that at parent then interchange the values. This
will continue between two nodes on path from the newly inserted node to the root node
till we get a parent whose value is greater than its child or we reached the root.

For illustration, 35 is added as the right child of 80. Its value is compared with its parent’s
value, and to be a max heap, parent’s value greater than child’s value is satisfied, hence
interchange as well as further comparisons are no more required.

As another illustration, let us consider the case of insertion 90 into the resultant heap
tree. First, 90 will be added as left child of 40, when 90 is compared with 40 it requires
interchange. Next, 90 is compared with 80, another interchange takes place. Now, our
process stops here, as 90 is now in root node. The path on which these comparisons and
interchanges have taken places are shown by dashed line.

The algorithm Max_heap_insert to insert a data into a max heap tree is as follows:

Max_heap_insert (a, n)
{
//inserts the value in a[n] into the heap which is stored at a[1] to a[n-1]
int i, n;
i = n;
item = a[n];
while ( (i > 1) and (a[ i/2 ] < item ) do
{
a[i] = a[ i/2 ] ; // move the parent down
i = i/2 ;
}
a[i] = item ;
return true ;
}

Example:

Form a heap using the above algorithm for the data: 40, 80, 35, 90, 45, 50, 70.

Insert 40:

40
 Insert 80:
80 40
80

80 40

Insert 35:

80

35

Insert 90:
90
80 90
80
90
40 35 80 35
40
90 40

Insert 45:

90

80 35

45

Insert 50:

90 90
50

80 35 80 50

35
40 45 50 40 45 35

Insert 70:

90 90
70
80 50 80 70

50
40 45 35 70 40 45 35 50
Deletion of a node from heap tree:

Any node can be deleted from a heap tree. But from the application point of view, deleting
the root node has some special importance. The principle of deletion is as follows:

Read the root node into a temporary storage say, ITEM.

Replace the root node by the last node in the heap tree. Then re-heap the tree
as stated below:

Let newly modified root node be the current node. Compare its value
with the value of its two child. Let X be the child whose value is the
largest. Interchange the value of X with the value of the current node.

Make X as the current node.

Continue re-heap, if the current node is not an empty node.

The algorithm for the above is as follows:

delmax (a, n, x)
// delete the maximum from the heap a[n] and store it in x
{
if (n = 0) then
{
write (“heap is empty”);
return false;
}
x = a[1]; a[1] = a[n];
adjust (a, 1, n-1);
return true;
}

adjust (a, i, n)
// The complete binary trees with roots a(2*i) and a(2*i + 1) are combined with a(i) to
form a single heap, 1 < i < n. No node has an address greater than n or less than 1. //
{
j = 2 *i ; item
= a[i] ; while (j
< n) do
{
if ((j < n) and (a (j) < a (j + 1)) then j  j + 1;
// compare left and right child and let j be the larger
child if (item > a (j)) then break;
// a position for item is found else
a[ j / 2 ] = a[j] // move the larger child up a level j = 2 * j;

}
a[ j/2 ] = item;
}

Here the root node is 99. The last node is 26, it is in the level 3. So, 99 is replaced by
26 and this node with data 26 is removed from the tree. Next 26 at root node is compared
with its two child 45 and 63. As 63 is greater, they are interchanged. Now,
26 is compared with its children, namely, 57 and 42, as 57 is greater, so they are
interchanged. Now, 26 appears as the leave node, hence re-heap is completed.
26 63
99
26 57 63
45 63
45 57
26
35 29 57 42
35 29 26 42

27 12 24 26
27 12 24

De le t ing t he no de w it h dat a 99 Aft er De le t io n of no de w it h dat a 99

Merging two heap trees:

Consider, two heap trees H1 and H2. Merging the tree H2 with H1 means to include all
the node from H2 to H1. H2 may be min heap or max heap and the resultant tree will be
min heap if H1 is min heap else it will be max heap. Merging operation consists of two
steps: Continue steps 1 and 2 while H2 is not empty:

Delete the root node, say x, from H2. Re-heap H2.

Insert the node x into H1 satisfying the property of H1.

92 13

59 67 19 80

38 45 92 93 96

H1: max heap H2: min heap

+

96

93 67

80 92 13 19

Resultant max heap after merging H1 and H2

38 59 45 92

Application of heap tree:

They are two main applications of heap trees known are:

Sorting (Heap sort) and

Priority queue implementation.
 HEAP SORT:

A heap sort algorithm works by first organizing the data to be sorted into a special type
of binary tree called a heap. Any kind of data can be sorted either in ascending order or
in descending order using heap tree. It does this with the following steps:

Build a heap tree with the given set of data.

a. Remove the top most item (the largest) and replace it with the last element
in the heap.
Re-heapify the complete binary tree.
Place the deleted node in the output.
Continue step 2 until the heap tree is empty.

Algorithm:

This algorithm sorts the elements a[n]. Heap sort rearranges them in-place in non-
decreasing order. First transform the elements into a heap.

heapsort(a, n)
{
heapify(a, n);
for i = n to 2 by – 1 do
{
temp = a[i];
a[i] = a[1];
a[1] = temp;
adjust (a, 1, i – 1);
}
}

heapify (a, n)
//Readjust the elements in a[n] to form a heap.
{
for i  n/2 to 1 by – 1 do adjust (a, i, n);
}

adjust (a, i, n)
// The complete binary trees with roots a(2*i) and a(2*i + 1) are combined with a(i) to
form a single heap, 1 < i < n. No node has an address greater than n or less than 1. //
{
j = 2 *i ; item
= a[i] ; while (j
< n) do
{
if ((j < n) and (a (j) < a (j + 1)) then j  j + 1;
// compare left and right child and let j be the larger
child if (item > a (j)) then break;
// a position for item is found else
a[ j / 2 ] = a[j] // move the larger child up a level j = 2 * j;

}
a[ j/2 ] = item;
}
Time Complexity:

Each ‘n’ insertion operations takes O(log k), where ‘k’ is the number of elements in the
heap at the time. Likewise, each of the ‘n’ remove operations also runs in time O(log k),
where ‘k’ is the number of elements in the heap at the time.

Since we always have k ≤ n, each such operation runs in O(log n) time in the worst case.

Thus, for ‘n’ elements it takes O(n log n) time, so the priority queue sorting algorithm
runs in O(n log n) time when we use a heap to implement the priority queue.

Example 1:

Form a heap from the set of elements (40, 80, 35, 90, 45, 50, 70) and sort the data
using heap sort.

Solution:

First form a heap tree from the given set of data and then sort by repeated deletion
operation:
40 40

80 35 80 70

90 45 50 70 90 45 50 35

90
40

40 70
90 70

80 45 50 35
80 45 50 35

90

80 70

40 45 50 35
Exchange root 90 with the last element 35 of the array and re-heapify

80 35 80
45 35
80 70 45 70

40 45 50 90 40 35 50 90

35

Exchange root 80 with the last element 50 of the array and re-heapify
70
50 70

45 70 50 45 50

40 35 80 90 40 35 80 90

Exchange root 70 with the last element 35 of the array and re-heapify
50
35 50
35
45 50 45 35

40 70 80 90 40 70 80 90

Exchange root 50 with the last element 40 of the array and re-heapify

45 40 45
40
45 35 40 35

50 70 80 90 50 70 80 90

Exchange root 45 with the last element 35 of the array and re-heapify
40
35 40
35
40 45 35 45

50 70 80 90 50 70 80 90

Exchange root 40 with the last element 35 of the array and re-heapify

35

40 45

50 70 80 90

The sorted tree

 Program for Heap Sort:

void adjust(int i, int n, int a[])

{
int j, item; j
= 2 * i; item
= a[i]; while(j
<= n)
{
if((j < n) && (a[j] < a[j+1]))
j++;
if(item >= a[j])
break;
else
{
a[j/2] = a[j];
j = 2*j;
}
}
a[j/2] = item;
}

void heapify(int n, int a[])

{
int i;
for(i = n/2; i > 0; i--)
adjust(i, n, a);
}

void heapsort(int n,int a[])

{
int temp, i;
heapify(n, a);
for(i = n; i > 0; i--)
{
temp = a[i]; a[i]
= a[1]; a[1] =
temp; adjust(1, i
- 1, a);
}
}

void main()
{
int i, n, a[20];
clrscr();
printf("\n How many element you want: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("Enter %d elements: ",
n); for (i=1; i<=n; i++)
scanf("%d", &a[i]);
heapsort(n, a);
printf("\n The sorted elements are: \n");
for (i=1; i<=n; i++)
printf("%5d",
a[i]); getch();
}
 Priority queue implementation using heap tree:

Priority queue can be implemented using circular array, linked list etc. Another simplified
implementation is possible using heap tree; the heap, however, can be represented using
an array. This implementation is therefore free from the complexities of circular array
and linked list but getting the advantages of simplicities of array.

As heap trees allow the duplicity of data in it. Elements associated with their priority
values are to be stored in from of heap tree, which can be formed based on their priority
values. The top priority element that has to be processed first is at the root; so it can be
deleted and heap can be rebuilt to get the next element to be processed, and so on. As
an illustration, consider the following processes with their priorities:

Process P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Priority 5 4 3 4 5 5 3 2 1 5

These processes enter the system in the order as listed above at time 0, say. Assume
that a process having higher priority value will be serviced first. The heap tree can be
formed considering the process priority values. The order of servicing the process is
successive deletion of roots from the heap.