Interconnecting the LANs

• Bridges

• Switches

• Routers
• Linking LANs
• Network Interfaces and Autonegotiation
 Network Hardware
• In this chapter, we will be looking at three primary
pieces of networking hardware:
o Bridges

o Hubs/Switches

o Routers

• What each of these have in common is that they allow

us to form linkages between separate local area
networks (LANs)
 Network Hardware
• We are starting to move upwards in the conceptual
models.
we have been dealing mostly with the OSI Physical
o Earlier,
layer, along with some references to the Data Link layer.
o Now, we will be dealing more explicitly with the Data Link
and Network Layers, corresponding largely to the Internet
layer in the TCP/IP model
 Bridges (Layer 2)
• A bridge is a Layer 2 (Data Link) device that allows us to
forward data -- within and between two LANs -- based on MAC
addresses.
• Imagine you have two segments of a network:
o Segment A: Computers 1 through 4
o Segment B: Computers 5 through 8
• Between those two segments is a bridge, with two ports.
o Port I is connected to Segment A
o Port II is connected to Segment B
 Bridges (Layer 2)
• Each port will have certain MAC addresses associated with
it, so that it knows to send a data packet to the correct
segment.
o This
mapping of MAC addresses to port numbers is called a
bridging table -- see, for example, Table 5-2 in the textbook.
o TheMAC address is stored when a device first communicates on
the LAN -- i.e., by transmitting a data packet.
o Therecord of a MAC address paired to a port number is called
an association.
 Bridges (Layer 2)
• A bridge will only forward data packets when there is an
association, which reduces network traffic.
• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used
to associate IP addresses (Network Layer) with MAC
addresses (Data Link Layer) on a network.
an IP will be looked up in a host's ARP table or cache,
o First,
which contains a list of associations. If the IP is present, then
the packet will be forwarded to the associated MAC
 Bridges (Layer 2)
o Otherwise, a broadcast will be sent out to all connected
hosts, to see which machine has that IP.
 If it is found, then a pairing will be recorded in the host's ARP
table/cache.
 Only a matching machine will respond to the ARP request.

• Types of bridges:
oA transparent bridge connects two LANs running the
same protocol
oA translation bridge connects two LANs running
different protocols. See, for example, Figure 5-3
 Bridges (Layer 2)
Advantages: Disadvantages:
o Easy to install o Works best in low-traffic
o Excellent jobs in isolating areas
network segments o Forwards broadcasts
o Inexpensive o Susceptible to broadcast
o Can interconnect LANS with storms, leading to network
different protocols slowdowns
o Reduces collision domains
 Switches (Layer 2)
• In the previous section of the chapter, we examined the notion
of a bridge - a Layer 2 networking device that forwards data
based on MAC addresses
• As a reminder, there is also a Layer 1 device, called a repeater,
that forwards a (strengthened) raw signal.
• A hub, as you recall, receives a transmission and broadcasts (i.e.,
repeats) it to all other connected devices.
o For that reason, it is also called a multiport repeater. (Layer 1)
o It has basic capability for connecting multiple hosts together, but all
computers end up receiving all messages.
 Switches (Layer 2)
• However, a hub is a primitive device; for that reason, it is
no longer used much.
• A switch is a great improvement over a hub because it
provides more direct links between hosts on a LAN.
Like a bridge...
oA switch is (usually) a Layer 2 device, so it uses MAC
addresses to decide where to send data packets
o It maintains a table of MAC addresses mapped to ports
o It isolates data traffic to minimize congestion
 Switches (Layer 2)
• For these reasons, a Layer 2 switch is also called a
multiport bridge.
o Itcan form multiple, concurrent data connections
between hosts.
o Because packets are not always broadcast to every host...
 Less LAN bandwidth is used.
 Transmission collisions are minimized.
o There are the occasional cases of multicast and
broadcast messages, which are sent to either a group of
hosts or all hosts within the LAN
 Switches (Layer 2)
• Our previous examples have looked at simple switches; you just
plug them in, and they will do the rest.
• However, we also have a more complex variation in the form of
managed switches.
• With a managed switch, the network administrator may have
more oversight and control over who accesses -- or can access
-- the LAN.
• Consider textbook example: A Cisco Catalyst 2900 series switch,
along with the Cisco Network Assistant (CNA) software.
 Switches (Layer 2)
• This allows the administrator to see which devices (i.e., their
MAC addresses) are associated with which ports on the
managed switch.
• The associations can be made in three ways:
1. Dynamic assignment allows an association to be formed
between a MAC address and a port on the switch upon connection.
2. With static addressing, you can set the association manually.
3. Finally, a secure address is one where only the device with the
associated MAC address can successfully connect to the port.
Otherwise, the port will be disabled.
 Switches (Layer 2)
• If an association produces no data activity after a certain
length of time, then it will be removed.
o That time is called the aging time.
o Ifyou are administering the switch, you can adjust the aging
time or disable it entirely.
• A collision domain is a part of a network where data
packets can collide -- i.e. two or more devices try to
send over the same segment, simultaneously.
 Switches (Layer 2)
• Different kinds of devices handle this differently:
o Hubs,for example, present this problem because they repeat
data to all connected devices.
o However,switches are able to alleviate this problem by
providing direct data connections between networked devices.
o This is called isolating the collision domains.
o Depending on half- and full-duplex capabilities, using a switch
may drastically reduce – or even eliminate – collisions.
 Switches (Layer 2)
• Like bridges, a switch will maintain a table of associations
between MAC addresses and ports.
o As data packets come through, the switch will extract the MAC
address and map it to the appropriate port.
o This table is called Content Addressable Memory (CAM).
o When communication comes into the switch, the table will be
used to direct data to the appropriate destination.
o Again, an association that has no data traffic before its aging time
elapses will be deleted. This allows the table associations to
remain fresh.
 Switches (Layer 2)
• Flooding is when the switch does not have the
destination in CAM and, therefore, forwards the packet
to all other ports.
• While switches minimize collision domains, they do not
minimize broadcast domains.
• A broadcast sent over the network will still be forwarded
by the switch to all networked devices.
 Switches (Layer 2)
• A switch forwards data frames in two primary modes,
along with a third "hybrid" mode:
o Store-and-forward: Switch waits for entire data packet
before deciding where to forward it.
 This way, the switch can check for errors.
 However, this creates the problem of switch latency, the delay
between a packet entering the switch and then leaving.
 Video: https://youtu.be/ALrnFnPyY-A
 Switches (Layer 2)
o Cut-through: This will send the packet along as soon
as the switch reads the destination MAC address
 It is faster, but more errors can get through.
 Video: https://youtu.be/i_mLGmx1lVY
o Adaptive cut-through: Here, the switch starts off
using cut-through switching, but then changes to
store-and-forward once the error threshold -- a
number of errors in data packets -- has been reached.
 Switches (Layer 2)
• Although switches are normally Layer 2 devices, a
multilayer switch (MLS) can function in layers above
that -- 3 and even higher.
o It will forward packets based on IP addresses (Layer 3)
o The forwarding is hardware-based -- allowing for wire-
speed routing, where the data is processed as fast as it
arrives at the switch.
 Routers (Layer 3)
• In computer technology, we may speak of physical vs
logical components:
o Physicaltends to be concrete; often referring to the actual
material objects.
o Logical often refers to something more abstract or virtual.
o Example: A computer may have a physical hard drive, but...
 It could be partitioned into two or more logical volumes...
 Which the computer would treat like entirely separate drives
 Routers (Layer 3)
• For a host on a network:
o The
physical address is the MAC address of the network
adapter connecting that host to that network
logical address is its IP address -- a.k.a., network
o The
address -- which identifies the locations of the network
and of the host within it.
• This is where routers are distinguished from switches.
• Switches (working at Layer 2) forward data packets
within a LAN, based on MAC (physical) addresses.
 Routers (Layer 3)
• A router, however, functions at Layer 3, forwarding data
based on network (logical) addresses.
• Whereas switches (and hubs) establish LANs by
interconnecting host devices, routers interconnect LANs
into larger networks :
o Different parts of a campus network (e.g. it.cs.umb.edu
and cs.umb.edu)
o Enterprise networks -- networks of large companies
o Home networks to ISP
 Routers (Layer 3)
• As a physical object, the router interface is where the
router forms physical connections with a network.
o Itwill have many different types of ports, but we will focus here
on two types:
 Fast Ethernet (FA0/0, FA0/1 etc.): This is where you
could provide Ethernet connections between the router and other
network devices. We will use these in our lab exercises.
 Serial (S0/0, S0/1, etc.): These may be used in providing
WAN connectivity
 See Figures 5-15 and 5-16, but don't get overwhelmed by the detail.
 Routers (Layer 3)
• A router will essentially work in these steps:
1. Receive data packet from host on network.
2. Examine network address in packet.
3. Consult its routing table to determine a path (via a
particular port) to send it.
 A routing table is an ongoing record of paths for forwarding
data packets
 The device on the other end (of the port) may be one of several
types of devices: another router, a switch, a host, etc.
o See Figure 5-19 for an example
 Routers (Layer 3)
• An inter-networked LAN will have a gateway, a device that
allows them to communicate outside of the LAN.
o This is the destination for IP addresses not inside the LAN
o It will often be one of the router's network interfaces.
• The links between the LANs are called network segments.
o They are often defined by links between internetworking
devices, such as routers, hubs, switches.
o They will be defined by, associated with, a gateway address,
such as a router port.
 Auto-Negotiation
• Different networked devices may be capable of transmitting and
receiving at different speeds.
• For this reason, many internetworking devices -- hubs, switches,
routers, etc. -- will engage in auto-negotiation.
o Here, a data link speed is negotiated.
o Configuration information -- i.e., possible connection speeds -- are
communicated between devices over fast link pulses (FLP).
o They will agree upon the fastest speed that they are mutually capable of
supporting.
• The connected devices will also negotiate full-duplex vs. half-
duplex transmission modes.