SQL cheat sheet

Comprehensive

Data Manipulation Language (DML) Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

SELECT The SELECT command retrieves SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
data from a database. table_name; FROM customers;

INSERT The INSERT command adds new INSERT INTO table_name INSERT INTO customers
records to a table. (column1, column2) VALUES (first_name, last_name)
(value1, value2); VALUES ('Mary', 'Doe');

UPDATE The UPDATE command is used UPDATE table_name SET column1 UPDATE employees SET
to modify existing records in a = value1, column2 = value2 employee_name = ‘John Doe’,
table. WHERE condition; department = ‘Marketing’;

DELETE The DELETE command removes DELETE FROM table_name WHERE DELETE FROM employees WHERE
records from a table. condition; employee_name = ‘John Doe’;

Data Definition Language (DDL) Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

CREATE The CREATE command creates a CREATE TABLE table_name CREATE TABLE employees (
new database and objects, such (column1 datatype1, employee_id INT
as a table, index, view, or stored column2 datatype2, ...); PRIMARY KEY,
procedure. first_name
VARCHAR(50),
last_name
VARCHAR(50),
age INT
);

ALTER The ALTER command adds, ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER TABLE customers ADD
deletes, or modifies columns in ADD column_name datatype; email VARCHAR(100);
an existing table.

DROP The DROP command is used to DROP TABLE table_name; DROP TABLE customers;
drop an existing table in a
database.

TRUNCATE The TRUNCATE command is TRUNCATE TABLE TRUNCATE TABLE customers;

used to delete the data inside a table_name;
table, but not the table itself.

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Data Control Language (DCL) Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

GRANT The GRANT command is used to GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON
give specific privileges to users table_name TO user_name; employees TO ‘John Doe’;
or roles.

REVOKE The REVOKE command is used REVOKE SELECT, INSERT ON REVOKE SELECT, INSERT ON
to take away privileges table_name FROM employees FROM ‘John
previously granted to users or user_name; Doe’;
roles.

Querying Data Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

SELECT Statement The SELECT statement is the SELECT column1, column2 SELECT first_name,
primary command used to FROM table_name; last_name FROM customers;
retrieve data from a database

WHERE Clause The WHERE clause is used to SELECT * FROM table_name SELECT * FROM customers
filter rows based on a specified WHERE condition; WHERE age > 30;
condition.

ORDER BY Clause The ORDER BY clause is used to SELECT * FROM table_name SELECT * FROM products
sort the result set in ascending ORDER BY column_name ORDER BY price DESC;
or descending order based on a ASC|DESC;
specified column.

GROUP BY Clause The GROUP BY clause groups SELECT column_name, SELECT category, COUNT(*)
rows based on the values in a COUNT(*) FROM table_name FROM products GROUP BY
specified column. It is often GROUP BY column_name; category;
used with aggregate functions
like COUNT, SUM, AVG, etc.

HAVING Clause The HAVING clause filters SELECT column_name, SELECT category, COUNT(*)
grouped results based on a COUNT(*) FROM table_name FROM products GROUP BY
specified condition. GROUP BY column_name category HAVING COUNT(*)
HAVING condition; > 5;

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Joining Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

INNER JOIN The INNER JOIN command SELECT * FROM table1 SELECT * FROM employees
returns rows with matching INNER JOIN table2 ON INNER JOIN departments ON
values in both tables. table1.column = employees.department_id =
table2.column; departments.id;

LEFT JOIN/LEFT OUTER JOIN The LEFT JOIN command SELECT * FROM table1 LEFT SELECT * FROM employees LEFT
returns all rows from the left JOIN table2 ON JOIN departments ON
table (first table) and the table1.column = employees.department_id =
matching rows from the right table2.column; departments.id;
table (second table).

RIGHT JOIN/RIGHT OUTER The RIGHT JOIN command SELECT * FROM table1 SELECT *
JOIN returns all rows from the right RIGHT JOIN table2 ON FROM employees
table (second table) and the table1.column = RIGHT JOIN departments
matching rows from the left table2.column; ON employees.department_id =
table (first table). departments.department_id;

FULL JOIN/FULL OUTER JOIN The FULL JOIN command SELECT * FROM table1 FULL SELECT *
returns all rows when there is a JOIN table2 ON FROM employees
match in either the left table or table1.column = LEFT JOIN departments ON
the right table. table2.column; employees.employee_id =
departments.employee_id
UNION
SELECT *
FROM employees
RIGHT JOIN departments ON
employees.employee_id =
departments.employee_id;

CROSS JOIN The CROSS JOIN command SELECT * FROM table1 SELECT * FROM employees
combines every row from the CROSS JOIN table2; CROSS JOIN departments;
first table with every row from
the second table, creating a
Cartesian product.

SELF JOIN The SELF JOIN command joins SELECT * FROM table1 t1, SELECT * FROM employees t1,
a table with itself. table1 t2 WHERE t1.column employees t2
= t2.column; WHERE t1.employee_id =
t2.employee_id;

NATURAL JOIN The NATURAL JOIN command SELECT * FROM table1 SELECT * FROM employees
matches columns with the NATURAL JOIN table2; NATURAL JOIN departments;
same name in both tables.

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Subqueries in SQL

Command Description Syntax Example

IN The IN command is used to SELECT column(s) FROM SELECT * FROM customers

determine whether a value table WHERE value IN WHERE city IN (SELECT
matches any value in a subquery (subquery); city FROM suppliers);
result. It is often used in the
WHERE clause.

ANY The ANY command is used to SELECT column(s) FROM SELECT * FROM products
compare a value to any value table WHERE value < ANY WHERE price < ANY (SELECT
returned by a subquery. It can (subquery); unit_price FROM
be used with comparison supplier_products);
operators like =, >, <, etc.

ALL The ALL command is used to SELECT column(s) FROM SELECT * FROM orders
compare a value to all values table WHERE value > ALL WHERE order_amount > ALL
returned by a subquery. It can (subquery); (SELECT total_amount FROM
be used with comparison previous_orders);
operators like =, >, <, etc.

Aggregate Functions Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

COUNT() The COUNT command counts SELECT COUNT(column_name) SELECT COUNT(age) FROM
the number of rows or non-null FROM table_name; employees;
values in a specified column.

SUM() The SUM command is used to SELECT SUM(column_name) SELECT SUM(revenue) FROM
calculate the sum of all values in FROM table_name; sales;
a specified column.

AVG() The AVG command is used to SELECT AVG(column_name) SELECT AVG(price) FROM
calculate the average (mean) of FROM table_name; products;
all values in a specified column.

MIN() The MIN command returns the SELECT MIN(column_name) SELECT MIN(price) FROM
minimum (lowest) value in a FROM table_name; products;
specified column.

MAX() The MAX command returns the SELECT MAX(column_name) SELECT MAX(price) FROM
maximum (highest) value in a FROM table_name; products;
specified column.

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String Functions in SQL

Command Description Syntax Example

CONCAT() The CONCAT command SELECT CONCAT(string1, SELECT CONCAT(first_name,

concatenates two or more string2, ...) AS ' ', last_name) AS
strings into a single string. concatenated_string FROM full_name FROM employees;
table_name;

SUBSTRING()/SUBSTR() The SUBSTRING command SELECT SUBSTRING(string SELECT

extracts a substring from a FROM start_position [FOR SUBSTRING(product_name
string. length]) AS substring FROM 1 FOR 5) AS
FROM table_name; substring FROM products;

CHAR_LENGTH()/LENGTH() The LENGTH command returns SELECT SELECT

the length (number of CHAR_LENGTH(string) AS CHAR_LENGTH(product_name)
characters) of a string. length FROM table_name; AS length FROM products;

UPPER() The UPPER command converts SELECT UPPER(string) AS SELECT UPPER(first_name)

all characters in a string to uppercase_string FROM AS uppercase_first_name
uppercase. table_name; FROM employees;

LOWER() The LOWER command converts SELECT LOWER(string) AS SELECT LOWER(last_name)

all characters in a string to lowercase_string FROM AS lowercase_last_name
lowercase. table_name; FROM employees;

TRIM() The TRIM command removes SELECT TRIM([LEADING | SELECT TRIM(TRAILING ' '
specified prefixes or suffixes (or TRAILING | BOTH] FROM full_name) AS
whitespace by default) from a characters FROM string) trimmed_full_name FROM
string. AS trimmed_string FROM customers;
table_name;

LEFT() The LEFT command returns a SELECT LEFT(string, SELECT

specified number of characters num_characters) AS LEFT(product_name, 5)
from the left of a string. left_string FROM AS left_product_name
table_name;
FROM products;

RIGHT() The RIGHT command returns a SELECT RIGHT(string, SELECT

specified number of characters num_characters) AS RIGHT(order_number, 4) AS
from the right of a string. right_string FROM right_order_number FROM
table_name; orders;

REPLACE() The REPLACE command SELECT REPLACE(string, SELECT

replaces occurrences of a old_substring, REPLACE(description,
substring within a string. new_substring) AS 'old_string',
replaced_string FROM 'new_string') AS
table_name; replaced_description FROM
product_descriptions;

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Date and Time SQL Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

CURRENT_DATE() The CURRENT_DATE command SELECT CURRENT_DATE() AS <-

returns the current date. current_date;

CURRENT_TIME() The CURRENT_TIME command SELECT CURRENT_TIME() AS <-

returns the current time. current_time;

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP() The CURRENT_TIMESTAMP SELECT <-

command returns the current CURRENT_TIMESTAMP() AS
date and time. current_timestamp;

DATE_PART() The DATE_PART command SELECT DATE_PART('part', SELECT DATE_PART('year',

extracts a specific part (e.g., date_expression) AS '2024-04-11') AS
year, month, day) from a date or extracted_part; extracted_part;
time.

DATE_ADD()/DATE_SUB() The DATE_ADD command adds SELECT -- DATE_ADD Example

or subtracts a specified number DATE_ADD(date_expression, SELECT
of days, months, or years INTERVAL value unit) AS DATE_ADD('2024-04-11',
to/from a date. new_date; INTERVAL 1 DAY) AS
new_date;

-- DATE_SUB Example
SELECT
DATE_SUB('2024-04-11',
INTERVAL 1 DAY) AS
new_date;

EXTRACT() The EXTRACT command SELECT EXTRACT(part FROM SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM
extracts a specific part (e.g., date_expression) AS '2024-04-11') AS
year, month, day) from a date or extracted_part; extracted_part;
time.

TO_CHAR() The TO_CHAR command SELECT SELECT

converts a date or time to a TO_CHAR(date_expression, TO_CHAR('2024-04-11',
specified format. 'format') AS 'YYYY-MM-DD') AS
formatted_date; formatted_date;

TIMESTAMPDIFF() The TIMESTAMPDIFF command SELECT SELECT TIMESTAMPDIFF(DAY,

calculates the difference TIMESTAMPDIFF(unit, '2024-04-10',
between two timestamps in a timestamp1, timestamp2) '2024-04-11') AS
specified unit (e.g., days, hours, AS difference; difference;
minutes).

DATEDIFF() The DATEDIFF command SELECT DATEDIFF(date1, SELECT

calculates the difference in days date2) AS DATEDIFF('2024-04-11',
between two dates. difference_in_days; '2024-04-10') AS
difference_in_days;

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Conditional Expressions

Command Description Syntax Example

CASE Statement The CASE statement allows you SELECT SELECT

to perform conditional logic column1, order_id,
within a query. column2, total_amount,
CASE CASE
WHEN condition1 WHEN total_amount
THEN result1 > 1000 THEN 'High Value
WHEN condition2 Order'
THEN result2 WHEN total_amount
ELSE > 500 THEN 'Medium Value
default_result Order'
END AS alias ELSE 'Low Value
FROM table_name; Order'
END AS order_status
FROM orders;

IF() Function The IF() function evaluates a SELECT IF(condition, SELECT

condition and returns a value true_value, false_value) name,
based on the evaluation. AS alias FROM table_name; age,
IF(age > 50,
'Senior', 'Junior') AS
employee_category
FROM employees;

COALESCE() Function The COALESCE() function SELECT COALESCE(value1, SELECT

returns the first non-null value value2, ...) AS alias COALESCE(first_name,
from a list of values. FROM table_name; middle_name) AS
preferred_name
FROM employees;

NULLIF() Function The NULLIF() function returns SELECT SELECT

null if two specified expressions NULLIF(expression1, NULLIF(total_amount,
are equal. expression2) AS alias discounted_amount) AS
FROM table_name; diff_amount FROM orders;

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Set Operations

Command Description Syntax Example

UNION The UNION operator SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
combines the result sets of table1 FROM customers
two or more SELECT UNION UNION
statements into a single SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
result set. table2; FROM employees;

INTERSECT The INTERSECT operator SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
returns the common rows table1 FROM customers
that appear in both result INTERSECT INTERSECT
sets. SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
table2; FROM employees;

EXCEPT The EXCEPT operator SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
returns the distinct rows table1 FROM customers
from the left result set that EXCEPT EXCEPT
are not present in the right SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
result set. table2; FROM employees;

Transaction Control Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

COMMIT The COMMIT command is COMMIT; BEGIN TRANSACTION;

used to save all the changes
made during the current -- SQL statements and changes within the transaction
transaction and make them
permanent. INSERT INTO employees (name, age) VALUES ('Alice',
30);
UPDATE products SET price = 25.00 WHERE category =
'Electronics';

COMMIT;

ROLLBACK The ROLLBACK command is ROLLBACK; BEGIN TRANSACTION;

used to undo all the
changes made during the -- SQL statements and changes within the transaction
current transaction and
discard them. INSERT INTO employees (name, age) VALUES ('Bob', 35);
UPDATE products SET price = 30.00 WHERE category =
'Electronics';

ROLLBACK;

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SAVEPOINT The SAVEPOINT command SAVEPOINT BEGIN TRANSACTION;
is used to set a point within savepoint_n
a transaction to which you ame; INSERT INTO employees (name, age) VALUES ('Carol',
can later roll back. 28);

SAVEPOINT before_update;

UPDATE products SET price = 40.00 WHERE category =

'Electronics';

SAVEPOINT after_update;

DELETE FROM customers WHERE age > 60;

ROLLBACK TO before_update;

-- At this point, the DELETE is rolled back, but the

UPDATE remains.

COMMIT;

ROLLBACK TO The ROLLBACK TO ROLLBACK TO BEGIN TRANSACTION;

SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT command is SAVEPOINT
used to roll back to a savepoint_n INSERT INTO employees (name, age) VALUES ('David',
specific savepoint within a ame; 42);
transaction.
SAVEPOINT before_update;

UPDATE products SET price = 50.00 WHERE category =

'Electronics';

SAVEPOINT after_update;

DELETE FROM customers WHERE age > 60;

-- Rollback to the savepoint before the update

ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT before_update;

-- At this point, the UPDATE is rolled back, but the

INSERT remains.

COMMIT;

SET TRANSACTION The SET TRANSACTION SET BEGIN TRANSACTION;

command is used to TRANSACTION
configure properties for the [ISOLATION -- Set the isolation level to READ COMMITTED
current transaction, such as LEVEL { SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ COMMITTED;
isolation level and READ
transaction mode.
COMMITTED | -- SQL statements and changes within the transaction
SERIALIZABL
E }] INSERT INTO employees (name, age) VALUES ('Emily',
35);
UPDATE products SET price = 60.00 WHERE category =
'Electronics';

COMMIT;

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