1.

Issues in Designing a Wireless Sensor Network:

 Energy Efficiency: Maximizing the network's operational lifetime with limited energy resources is
a primary concern.
 Scalability: Ensuring that the network can accommodate a large number of nodes while
maintaining performance.
 Reliability: Designing mechanisms to ensure reliable data transmission in the presence of
interference, node failures, and environmental factors.
 Security: Protecting sensitive data and preventing unauthorized access or tampering.
 Adaptability: Designing protocols and algorithms that can dynamically adjust to changes in
network topology, traffic patterns, and environmental conditions.
 Resource Constraints: Addressing the limitations of sensor nodes, such as processing power,
memory, and communication range.
 Data Aggregation and Fusion: Developing efficient techniques for aggregating and fusing data
from multiple sensors to reduce redundancy and conserve energy.
 Quality of Service: Meeting the specific requirements of different applications in terms of
latency, reliability, and throughput.
 Deployment and Maintenance: Considering practical issues related to network deployment,
maintenance, and management over time.
2. Characteristic Requirements of Wireless Sensor Networks:
 Low Power Consumption: Due to the limited energy resources of sensor nodes.
 Distributed Processing: Sensor nodes should be capable of processing data locally to reduce
communication overhead.
 Self-Organization: Nodes should be able to self-organize and adapt to changes in network
topology.
 Fault Tolerance: The network should be resilient to node failures and able to maintain operation
in the presence of faults.
 Low Cost: Sensor nodes should be inexpensive to manufacture and deploy in large numbers.
 Small Size: Sensor nodes should be compact and lightweight to facilitate deployment in various
environments.
 Wireless Communication: Nodes should be equipped with wireless communication capabilities
for data exchange.
 Sensing Capabilities: Nodes should be equipped with sensors to measure physical phenomena
such as temperature, humidity, and motion.
3. Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks:
 Environmental Monitoring: Monitoring environmental parameters such as air quality, water
quality, and soil moisture.
 Industrial Automation: Monitoring and controlling industrial processes and equipment in
manufacturing plants.
 Health Monitoring: Monitoring vital signs and activities of patients for healthcare applications.
 Smart Agriculture: Monitoring crop conditions, soil moisture levels, and weather conditions for
precision agriculture.
 Home Automation: Automating home appliances and monitoring home security using sensor
networks.
 Wildlife Tracking: Tracking the movement and behavior of wildlife for ecological research and
conservation efforts.
 Disaster Management: Providing early warning systems and monitoring infrastructure during
natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods.
4. Advantages of Wireless Sensor Networks:
 Remote Monitoring: Enables remote monitoring and control of physical environments and
processes.
 Cost-Effective: Sensor nodes are often inexpensive, allowing for deployment in large numbers
over a wide area.
 Real-Time Data Collection: Provides real-time data collection and analysis for various
applications.
 Flexibility: Wireless connectivity allows for flexible deployment and reconfiguration of sensor
nodes.
 Scalability: Can scale to accommodate a large number of nodes and cover large geographical
areas.
 Efficiency: Provides efficient use of resources such as energy and bandwidth through intelligent
protocols and algorithms.
 Versatility: Can be deployed in diverse environments and adapted to various applications.
5. Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET):
A MANET is a decentralized network composed of mobile nodes that communicate with each other
without the need for a fixed infrastructure or centralized control. Important characteristics of MANETs
include:
 Dynamic Topology: The network topology changes dynamically as nodes move, join, or leave
the network.
 Decentralization: No fixed infrastructure or centralized control; all nodes act as both hosts and
routers.
 Autonomous Operation: Nodes are self-configuring and capable of routing packets to other
nodes in the network.
 Limited Resources: Nodes have limited resources such as battery power, processing capabilities,
and communication range.
 Interference and Mobility: Mobility of nodes and wireless interference pose challenges for
routing and communication in MANETs.
6. Difference between MANETs and Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs):
 Topology: MANETs have a dynamic and self-configuring topology, whereas WSNs typically have
a static or partially static topology.
 Node Characteristics: Nodes in MANETs are usually mobile and have more computational
capabilities, while nodes in WSNs are often stationary and resource-constrained.
 Applications: MANETs are suitable for applications requiring mobile communication between
devices, while WSNs are used for monitoring and collecting data from the environment using
sensor nodes.
 Routing: Routing in MANETs focuses on efficient routing of data between mobile nodes, while in
WSNs, routing is optimized for energy efficiency and data aggregation.
 Deployment: MANETs are deployed in scenarios where infrastructure is unavailable or
impractical, while WSNs are deployed for specific monitoring and sensing applications.
7. Components of Basic Sensor Node:
 Sensor: Detects physical phenomena such as temperature, humidity, light, or motion.
 Processor: Processes sensor data, executes algorithms, and controls node operation.
 Transceiver: Facilitates wireless communication with other nodes in the network.
 Power Source: Provides energy to the node, typically in the form of batteries or energy
harvesting systems.
 Memory: Stores data, program instructions, and configuration settings.
 Antenna: Transmits and receives wireless signals.
 Clock: Synchronizes node operation and communication with other nodes.
8. Different Types of Controllers:
 Centralized Controller: A single controller manages the entire network, making decisions and
coordinating node activities.
 Distributed Controller: Each node has its own controller, and decisions are made independently
or collectively by nodes.
 Hierarchical Controller: Nodes are organized into hierarchical levels, with controllers at each
level responsible for managing nodes within their domain.
 Adaptive Controller: Controllers adapt their behavior based on network conditions, application
requirements, or user inputs.
9. Characteristics of Transceiver:
 Frequency Range: Specifies the range of frequencies over which the transceiver can operate.
 Data Rate: Indicates the maximum data transmission rate supported by the transceiver.
 Modulation Technique: Describes the method used to encode data onto the carrier signal.
 Transmit Power: Specifies the power level at which the transceiver can transmit signals.
 Receiver Sensitivity: Indicates the minimum signal strength required for the receiver to detect
and demodulate incoming signals.
 Antenna Type: Determines the characteristics of the antenna used for transmitting and receiving
signals.
10. Transceiver Operational States:
 Sleep Mode: The transceiver is in a low-power state, consuming minimal energy but not actively
transmitting or receiving data.
 Idle Mode: The transceiver is powered on and ready to transmit or receive data, but no data
transmission or reception is currently taking place.
 Transmit Mode: The transceiver is actively transmitting data to another node in the network.
 Receive Mode: The transceiver is actively receiving data from another node in the network.
11. Three Types of Mobility in Wireless Sensor Networks:
 Node Mobility: Sensor nodes can be mobile, moving within the network area.
 Sink Mobility: The base station or sink node can be mobile, changing its location within the
network.
 Event Mobility: Events or phenomena being monitored can be mobile, requiring the sensor
network to adapt to their movement.
12. Aspects of Optimization Goals:
 Energy Efficiency: Minimizing energy consumption to prolong network lifetime.
 Throughput: Maximizing the rate of successful data delivery in the network.
 Reliability: Ensuring reliable data transmission with minimal errors.
 Scalability: Accommodating a large number of nodes while maintaining performance.
 Latency: Minimizing the delay in transmitting and receiving data packets.
13. Basic Principles for Designing Network Protocols:
 Modularity: Breaking down protocols into modular components for easier design,
implementation, and maintenance.
 Layering: Organizing protocols into layers to achieve abstraction, separation of concerns, and
interoperability.
 Compatibility: Ensuring compatibility and interoperability with existing standards and protocols.
 Robustness: Designing protocols to be robust and resilient to failures, errors, and adverse
conditions.
 Efficiency: Optimizing protocols for efficient use of resources such as energy, bandwidth, and
processing power.
14. Requirements for WSN Service Interfaces:
 Sensing Interface: Provides access to sensor data collected by sensor nodes.
 Communication Interface: Facilitates communication between sensor nodes and other network
entities.
 Management Interface: Enables configuration, monitoring, and management of sensor nodes
and the network.
 Application Interface: Provides APIs and protocols for integrating sensor data with higher-level
applications.
15. Reasons for the Need of Gateways in WSN:
 Interoperability: Gateway devices bridge communication between sensor networks and other
networks or systems, facilitating interoperability.
 Data Aggregation: Gateways aggregate data from multiple sensor nodes before forwarding it to
external systems, reducing the amount of data transmitted.
 Protocol Conversion: Gateways perform protocol translation between different network
protocols, enabling communication between heterogeneous networks.
 Scalability: Gateways help scale the network by connecting multiple sensor networks or
extending the network coverage.
 Security: Gateways can implement security measures such as firewalls and encryption to protect
the sensor network from unauthorized access and attacks.